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33,742,208	Models of communication	1,173,199,322	Simplified representations of communication	[ "Communication theory", "Conceptual modelling", "Human communication", "Linguistics" ]	Models of communication are simplified representations of the process of communication. Most models try to describe both verbal and non-verbal communication and often understand it as an exchange of messages. Their function is to give a compact overview of the complex process of communication. This helps researchers formulate hypotheses, apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test predictions. Despite their usefulness, many models are criticized based on the claim that they are too simple because they leave out essential aspects. The components and their interactions are usually presented in the form of a diagram. Some basic components and interactions reappear in many of the models. They include the idea that a sender encodes information in the form of a message and sends it to a receiver through a channel. The receiver needs to decode the message to understand the initial idea and provides some form of feedback. In both cases, noise may interfere and distort the message. Models of communication are classified depending on their intended applications and on how they conceptualize the process. General models apply to all forms of communication while specialized models restrict themselves to specific forms, like mass communication. Linear transmission models understand communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits an idea to a receiver. Interaction models include a feedback loop through which the receiver responds after getting the message. Transaction models see sending and responding as simultaneous activities. They hold that meaning is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and constructionist models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and experience reality. Interpersonal models describe communicative exchanges with other people. They contrast with intrapersonal models, which discuss communication with oneself. Models of non-human communication describe communication among other species. Further types include encoding-decoding models, hypodermic models, and relational models. The problem of communication was already discussed in Ancient Greece but the field of communication studies only developed into a separate research discipline in the middle of the 20th century. All early models were linear transmission models, like Lasswell's model, the Shannon–Weaver model, Gerbner's model, and Berlo's model. For many purposes, they were later replaced by interaction models, like Schramm's model. Beginning in the 1970s, transactional models of communication, like Barnlund's model, were proposed to overcome the limitations of interaction models. They constitute the origin of further developments in the form of constitutive models. ## Definition and function Models of communication are representations of the process of communication. They try to provide a simple explanation of the process by highlighting its most basic characteristics and components. Communication can be defined as the transmission of ideas. General models of communication try to describe all of its forms, including verbal and non-verbal communication as well as visual, auditory, and olfactory forms. In the widest sense, communication is not restricted to humans but happens also among animals and between species. However, models of communication normally focus on human communication as the paradigmatic form. They usually involve some type of interaction between two or more parties in which messages are exchanged. The process as a whole is very complex, which is why models of communication only present the most salient features by showing how the main components operate and interact. They usually do so in the form of a simplified visualization and ignore some aspects for the sake of simplicity. Some theorists, like Paul Cobley and Peter J. Schulz, distinguish models of communication from theories of communication. This is based on the idea that theories of communication try to provide a more abstract conceptual framework that is strong enough to accurately represent the underlying reality despite its complexity. According to Frank Dance, there is no one fully comprehensive model of communication since each one highlights only certain aspects and distorts others. For this reason, he suggests that a family of different models should be adopted. Models of communication serve various functions. Their simplified presentation helps students and researchers identify the main steps of communication and apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases. The unified picture they provide makes it easier to describe and explain the observed phenomena. Models of communication can guide the formulation of hypotheses and predictions about how communicative processes will unfold and show how these processes can be measured. One of their goals is to show how to improve communication, for example, by avoiding distortions through noise or by discovering how societal and economic factors affect the quality of communication. ## Basic concepts Many basic concepts reappear in the different models, like "sender", "receiver", "message", "channel", "signal", "encoding", "decoding", "noise", "feedback", and "context". Their exact meanings vary slightly from model to model and sometimes different terms are used for the same ideas. Simple models only rely on a few of these concepts while more complex models include many of them. The sender is responsible for creating the message and sending it to the receiver. Some theorists use the terms source and destination instead. The message itself can be verbal or non-verbal and contains some form of information. The process of encoding translates the message into a signal that can be conveyed using a channel. The channel is the sensory route on which the signal travels. For example, expressing one's thoughts in a speech encodes them as sounds, which are transmitted using air as a channel. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding: it happens when the signal is translated back into a message. Noise is any influence that interferes with the message reaching its destination. Some theorists distinguish between environmental noise and semantic noise. Environmental noise distorts the signal on its way to the receiver. Semantic noise occurs during encoding or decoding, for example, when an ambiguous word in the message is not interpreted by the receiver as it was meant by the sender. Feedback means that the receiver responds to the message by conveying some information back to the original sender. Context consists in the circumstances of the communication. It is a very wide term that can apply to the physical environment and the mental state of the communicators as well as the general social situation. ## Classifications Models of communication are classified in many ways and the proposed classifications often overlap. Some models are general in the sense that they aim to describe all forms of communication. Others are specialized: they only apply to specific fields or areas. For example, models of mass communication are specialized models that do not aim to give a universal account of communication. Another contrast is between linear and non-linear models. Most early models of communication are linear models. They present communication as a unidirectional process in which messages flow from the communicator to the audience. Non-linear models, on the other hand, are multi-directional: messages are sent back and forth between participants. According to Uma Narula, linear models describe single acts of communication while non-linear models describe the whole process. ### Linear transmission model Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation. By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving listening skills and interpretation. However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of computer-mediated communication. This applies, for example, to text messaging, sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media. Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender. Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, Lasswell's, Shannon-Weaver's and Berlo's model. ### Interaction model For interaction models, the participants in communication alternate the positions of sender and receiver. So upon receiving a message, a new message is generated and returned to the original sender as a form of feedback. In this regard, communication is a two-way process. This adds more complexity to the model since the participants are both senders and receivers and they alternate between these two positions. For interaction models, these steps happen one after the other: first, one message is sent and received, later another message is returned as feedback, etc. Such feedback loops make it possible for the sender to assess whether their message was received and had the intended effect or whether it was distorted by noise. For example, interaction models can be used to describe a conversation through instant messaging: the sender sends a message and then has to wait for the receiver to react. Another example is a question/answer session where one person asks a question and then waits for another person to answer. Interaction models usually put more emphasis on the interactive process and less on the technical problem of how the message is conveyed at each step. For this reason, more prominence is given to the context that shapes the exchange of messages. This includes the physical context, like the distance between the speakers, and the psychological context, which includes mental and emotional factors like stress and anxiety. Schramm's model is one of the earliest interaction models. ### Transaction model Transaction models depart from interaction models in two ways. On the one hand, they understand sending and responding as simultaneous processes. This can be used to describe how listeners use non-verbal communication, like body posture and facial expressions, to give some form of feedback. This way, they can signal whether they agree with the message while the speaker is talking. This feedback may in turn influence the speaker's message while it is being produced. On the other hand, transactional models stress that meaning is created in the process of communication and does not exist prior to it. This is often combined with the claim that communication creates social realities like relationships, personal identities, and communities. This also affects the communicators themselves on various levels, such as their thoughts and feelings as well as their social identities. Transaction models usually put more emphasis on contexts and how they shape the exchange of information. They are sometimes divided into social, relational, and cultural contexts. Social contexts include explicit and implicit rules about what form of message and feedback is acceptable. An example is that one should not interrupt people or that greetings should be returned. Relational contexts are more specific in that they concern the previous relationship and shared history of the communicators. This includes factors like whether the participants are friends, neighbors, co-workers, or rivals. The cultural context encompasses the social identities of the communicators, such as race, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, and social class. Barnlund's model is an influential early transaction model. ### Constitutive and constructionist Constitutive models hold that meaning is "reflexively constructed, maintained, or negotiated in the act of communicating". This means that communication is not just the exchange of pre-established bundles of information but a creative process, unlike the outlook found in many transmission models. According to Robert Craig, this implies that communication is a basic social phenomenon that cannot be explained through psychological, cultural, economic, or other factors. Instead, communication is to be seen as the cause of other social processes and not as their result. Constitutive models are closely related to constructionist models, which see communication as the basic process responsible for how people understand, represent, and experience reality. According to social constructionists, like George Herbert Mead, reality is not something wholly external but depends on how it is conceptualized, which happens through communication. ### Interpersonal and intrapersonal Interpersonal communication is communication between two distinct persons, like when greeting someone on the street or making a phone call. Intrapersonal communication, in contrast, is communication with oneself. An example is a person thinking to themself that they should bring in the laundry from outside because it is about to rain. Most models of communication focus on interpersonal communication by assuming that sender and receiver are distinct persons. They often explore how the sender encodes a message, how this message is transmitted and possibly distorted, and how the receiver decodes and interprets the message. However, some models are specifically formulated for intrapersonal communication. Many of them focus on the idea that intrapersonal communication starts with the perception of internal and external stimuli carrying information. These stimuli are processed and interpreted in various ways, for example, by classifying them and by ascribing symbolic meaning to them. Later steps include thinking about them, organizing information, and then encoding the ideas conceived this way in a behavioral response. This response can itself produce new stimuli and act as a form of feedback loop for continued intrapersonal communication. Some models of communication try to provide a perspective that includes both interpersonal and intrapersonal communication in order to show how these two phenomena influence each other. ### Non-human The discipline of communication studies and the models of communication proposed in it are not restricted to human communication. They include discussions of communication among other species, like non-human animals and plants. Models of non-human communication usually stress the practical aspects of communication, ie., what effects it has on behavior. An example is that communication provides an evolutionary advantage to the communicators. Some models of animal communication are similar to models of human communication in that they understand the process as an exchange of information. This exchange helps the communicators to reduce uncertainty and to act in a way that is beneficial to them. A further approach is discussed in the manipulative model of animal communication. It argues that the central aspect of communication does not consist in the exchange of information but in causing changes to the behavior of other organisms. This influence provides primarily a benefit to the sender and does not need to involve the transmission of messages. In this way, the sender "exploits another animal's ... muscle power". A slightly different approach focuses more on the cooperative aspect of communication and holds that both sender and receiver benefit from the exchange. Models of plant communication usually understand communication in terms of biochemical changes and responses. According to Richard Karban, this process starts with a cue that is emitted by a sender and then perceived by a receiver. The receiver processes this information to translate it into some kind of response. ### Others Additional classifications of communication models have been suggested. The term encoding-decoding model is used for any model that includes the phases of encoding and decoding in its description of communication. Such models stress that to send information, a code is necessary. A code is a sign system used to express ideas and interpret messages. Encoding-decoding models are sometimes contrasted with inferential models. For the latter, the receiver is not only interested in the information sent but tries to infer the sender's intention behind formulating the message. Hypodermic models, also referred to as magic bullet theories, hold that communication can be reduced to the transfer of ideas, information, or feelings from a sender to a receiver. In them, the message is like a magic bullet that is shot by active senders at passive and defenseless receivers. They are closely related to linear transmission models and contrast with reception models, which ascribe an active role to the receiver in the process of communication and meaning-making. Relational models stress the importance of the relationship between communicators. For example, Wilbur Schramm holds that this relationship informs the expectations the participants bring to the exchange and the roles they play in it. These roles influence how the communicators try to contribute to the communicative goal. In the context of instruction, for example, the teacher's role includes sharing and explaining information while the student's role involves learning and asking clarifying questions. Relational models also describe how communication affects the relationship between the communicators. For example, the communication between patient and hospital staff affects whether the patient feels cared for or dehumanized. Relational models are closely related to convergence models. For convergence models, the goal of communication is convergence: to reach a mutual understanding. Feedback plays a central role in this regard: effective feedback helps achieve this goal while ineffective feedback leads to divergence. Difference models emphasize the role of gender and racial differences in the process of communication. Some posit, for example, that men and women have different communication styles and aim to achieve different goals through communication. ## History Communication was studied as early as Ancient Greece and one of the first models of communication is due to Aristotle. However, the field of communication studies only developed in the 20th century into a separate research discipline. In its early stages, it often borrowed models and concepts from other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science. But as it developed as a science, it started to rely more and more on its own models and concepts. Beginning in the 1940s and the following decades, many new models of communication were developed. Most of the early models were linear transmission models. For many purposes, they were replaced by non-linear models such as interaction, transaction, and convergence models. ### Aristotle One of the earliest models of communication was given by Aristotle. He speaks of communication in his treatise Rhetoric and characterizes it as a techne or an art. His model is primarily concerned with public speaking and is made up of five elements: the speaker, the message, the audience, the occasion, and the effect. According to Aristotle's communication model, the speaker wishes to have an effect on the audience, such as persuading them of an opinion or a course of action. The same message may have very different effects depending on the audience and the occasion. For this reason, the speaker should take these factors into account and compose their message accordingly. Many of the basic elements of the Aristotelian model of communication are still found in contemporary models. ### Lasswell Lasswell's model is an early and influential model of communication. It was proposed by Harold Lasswell in 1948 and uses five questions to identify and describe the main aspects of communication: "Who?", "Says What?", "In What Channel?", "To Whom?", and "With What Effect?". They correspond to five basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect. For a newspaper headline, those five components are the reporter, the content of the headline, the newspaper itself, the reader, and the reader's response to the headline. Lasswell assigns a field of inquiry to each component, corresponding to control analysis, content analysis, media analysis, audience analysis, and effect analysis. The model is usually seen as a linear transmission model and was initially formulated specifically for mass communication, like radio, television, and newspapers. Nonetheless, it has been used in other fields, like new media. Many theorists treat it as a universal model applying to any form of communication. It is widely cited as a model of communication but some theorists, like Zachary S. Sapienza et al, have raised doubts about this characterization and see it instead as a questioning device, a formula, or a construct. Lasswell's model is often criticized due to its simplicity. An example is that it does not include an explicit discussion of vital factors such as noise and feedback loops. It also does not talk about the influence of physical, emotional, social, and cultural contexts. These shortcomings have prompted some theorists to expand Lasswell's model. For example, Richard Braddock published an extension in 1958 including two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?". ### Shannon and Weaver The Shannon–Weaver model is another early and influential model of communication. It is a linear transmission model that was published in 1948 and describes communication as the interaction of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a destination. The source is responsible for generating the message. This message is translated by the transmitter into a signal, which is then sent using a channel. The receiver has the opposite function of the transmitter: it translates the signal back into a message, which is made available to the destination. The Shannon–Weaver model was initially formulated in analogy to how telephone calls work but is intended as a general model of all forms of communication. In the case of a landline phone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter translating the message into an electric signal. The wire acts as the channel. The person taking the call is the destination, and their telephone is the receiver. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver categorize and address problems relevant to models of communication at three basic levels: technical, semantic, and effectiveness problems. They correspond to the issues of how to transmit the symbols in the message to the receiver, how these symbols carry meaning, and how to ensure that the message has the intended effect on the receiver. Shannon and Weaver focus their attention on the technical level by discussing how noise can interfere with the signal. This makes it difficult for the receiver to reconstruct the source's intention found in the original message. They try to solve this problem by making the message redundant so that it is easier to detect distortions. The Shannon–Weaver model has been influential in the fields of communication theory and information theory. However, it has been criticized because it simplifies some parts of the communicative process. For example, it presents communication as a one-way process and not as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants. ### Newcomb Newcomb's model was first published by Theodore H. Newcomb in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts". It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person. The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the social relation between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic. The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X. Newcomb understands communication as a "learned response to strain" caused by discrepancies between orientations. The social function of communication is to maintain equilibrium in the social system by keeping the different orientations in balance. In Newcomb's words, communication enables "two or more individuals to maintain simultaneous orientation to each other and towards objects of the external environment". The orientations of A and B are subject to change and influence each other. Significant discrepancies between them, such as divergent opinions on X, cause a strain in the relation. In such cases, communication aims to reduce the strain and restore balance through the exchange of information about the object. For example, if A and B are friends and X is someone both know, then equilibrium means that they have the same attitude towards X. However, there is a disequilibrium or strain if A likes X but B doesn't. This creates a tendency for A and B to exchange information about X until they arrive at a shared attitude. The more important X is to A and B, the more urgent this tendency is. An influential expansion of Newcomb's model is due to Westley and MacLean. They introduce the idea of asymmetry of information: the sender (A) is aware of several topics (X<sub>1</sub> to X<sub>3</sub>) and has to compose the message (X') to communicate to the receiver (B). B's direct perception is limited to only a few of these topics (X<sub>1</sub>B). Another addition is the inclusion of feedback (fBA) from the receiver to the sender. Westley and MacLean also propose a further expansion to account for mass communication. For this purpose, they include an additional component, C, that has the role of a gatekeeper filtering the original message for the mass audience. ### Schramm Schramm's model of communication is one of the earliest interaction models of communication. It was published by Wilbur Schramm in 1954 as a response to and an improvement over linear transmission models of communication, such as Lasswell's model and the Shannon–Weaver model. The main difference in this regard is that Schramm does not see the audience as passive recipients. Instead, he understands them as active participants that respond by sending their own message as a form of feedback. Feedback forms part of many types of communication and makes it easier for the participants to identify and resolve possible misunderstandings. For Schramm, communication is based on the relation between a source and a destination and consists in sharing ideas or information. For this to happen, the source has to encode their idea in symbolic form as a message. This message is sent to the destination using a channel, such as sound waves or ink on paper. The destination has to decode and interpret the message in order to reconstruct the original idea. The processes of encoding and decoding correspond to the roles of transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model. According to Schramm, these processes are influenced by the fields of experience of each participant. A field of experience includes past life experiences and affects what the participant understands and is familiar with. Communication fails if the message is outside the receiver's field of experience. In this case, the receiver is unable to decode it and connect it to the sender's idea. Other sources of error are external noise or mistakes in the phases of decoding and encoding. Schramm holds that successful communication is about realizing an intended effect. He discusses the conditions for this to be possible. They include making sure that one has the receiver's attention, that the message is understandable, and that the audience is able and motivated to react to the message in the intended way. In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in communication studies in the preceding decades. His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants. ### Gerbner George Gerbner first published his model in his 1956 paper Toward a General Model of Communication. It is a linear transmission model. It is based on the Shannon–Weaver model and Lasswell's model but expands them in various ways. It aims to provide a general account of all forms of communication. One of its innovations is that it starts not with a message or an idea but with an event. The communicating agent perceives it and composes a message about it. For Gerbner, messages are not packages that exist prior to communication. Instead, the message is created in the process of encoding and is affected by the code and the channel. Gerbner assumes that the goal of communication is to inform another person about something they are unaware of. He includes a total of ten essential components: (1) someone (2) perceives an event (3) and reacts (4) in a situation (5) through some means. This is done with the goal of (6) making available materials (7) in some form (8) and context (9) conveying content (10) of some consequence. Each of these components corresponds to a different area of study. For example, communicator and audience research studies the first component while perception research is concerned with the second component. In Gerbner's example, "a man notices a house burning across the street and shouts 'Fire!'". In this case, "someone" corresponds to the man and the perceived event is the burning house. Other components include his voice (means) and the fire (conveyed content). The relation between message and reality is of central importance to Gerbner. For this reason, his model includes two dimensions. The horizontal dimension corresponds to the relation between communicator and event. The vertical dimension corresponds to the relation between communicator and message. Communication starts in the horizontal dimension with an event perceived by the sender. The next step happens in the vertical dimension, where the percept is translated into a signal containing the message. The message has two key aspects: content and form. The content is the information about the event. The last step belongs again to the horizontal dimension: the audience perceives and interprets the message about the event. All these steps are creative processes that select some features to be included. For example, the event is never perceived in its entirety. Instead, the communicator has to select and interpret its most salient features. The same happens when encoding the message: the percept is usually too complex to be fully communicated and only its most significant aspects are expressed. Selection also concerns the choice of the code and channel to be used. The availability of a channel differs from person to person and from situation to situation. For example, many people do not have access to mass media, like television, to send their message to a wide audience. Gerbner's emphasis on the relation between message and reality has been influential for subsequent models of communication. However, Gerbner's model still suffers from many of the limitations of the earlier models it is based on. An example is the focus on the linear transmission of information without an in-depth discussion of the role of feedback loops. Another issue concerns the question of how meaning is created. ### Berlo Berlo's model is a linear transmission model of communication. It was published by David Berlo in 1960 and was influenced by earlier models, such as the Shannon–Weaver model and Schramm's model. It is usually referred to as the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model because of its four main components (source, message, channel, and receiver). Each of these components is characterized by various aspects and the main focus of the model is a detailed discussion of each of them. For Berlo, all forms of communication are attempts to influence the behavior of the receiver. To do so, the source has to express their purpose by encoding it into a message. This message is sent through a channel to the receiver, who has to decode it in order to understand it and react to it. Communication is successful if the reaction of the receiver matches the purpose of the source. Berlo's main interest in discussing the components and their aspects is to analyze their impact on successful communication. Source and receiver are usually persons but can also be groups or institutions. On this level, Berlo identifies four features: communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social-cultural system. Communication skills are primarily the ability of the source to encode messages and the ability of the receiver to decode them. The attitude is the positive or negative stance that source and receiver have toward themselves, each other, and the discussed topic. Knowledge stands for the understanding of the topic and the social-cultural system includes background beliefs and social norms common in the culture and social context of the communicators. Generally speaking, the more source and receiver are alike in regard to these factors, the more likely successful communication is. Communication may fail, for example, if the receiver lacks the decoding skills necessary to understand the message or if the source has a demeaning attitude toward the receiver. For the message, the main factors are code, content, and treatment, each of which can be analyzed in terms of its structure and its elements. The code is the sign system used to express the message, like a language. The content is the idea or information expressed in the message. Choosing an appropriate content and the right code to express it matters for successful communication. Berlo uses the term treatment to refer to this selection. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. The channel is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted. Berlo analyzes it mainly based on the five senses used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. The SMCR model has inspired subsequent theorists. However, it is often criticized based on its simplicity because it does not discuss feedback loops and because it does not give enough emphasis on noise and other barriers to communication. ### Dance Frank Dance's helical model of communication was initially published in his 1967 book Human Communication Theory. It is intended as a response to and an improvement over linear and circular models by stressing the dynamic nature of communication and how it changes the participants. Dance sees the fault of linear models as their attempt to understand communication as a linear flow of messages from a sender to a receiver. According to him, this fault is avoided by circular models, which include a feedback loop through which messages are exchanged back and forth. Dance criticizes the circular approach by holding that it "suggests that communication comes back, full circle, to exactly the same point from which it started". Dance holds that a helix is a more adequate representation of the process of communication since it implies that there is always a forward movement. It shows how the content and structure of earlier communicative acts influence the content and structure of later communicative acts. In this regard, communication has a lasting effect on the communicators and evolves continuously as a process. The upward widening movement of the helix represents a form of optimism by seeing communication as a means of growth, learning, and improvement. The basic idea behind Dance's helical model of communication is also found in education theory in the spiral approach proposed by Jerome Bruner. Dance's model has been criticized based on the claim that it focuses only on some aspects of communication but does not provide a tool for detailed analysis. ### Barnlund Barnlund's model is an influential transactional model of communication first published in 1970. Its goal is to avoid the inaccuracies of earlier models and account for communication in all its complexity. This includes dismissing the idea that communication is defined as the transmission of ideas from a sender to a receiver. For Barnlund, communication "is the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages". He holds that the world and its objects lack meaning on their own. They are only meaningful to the extent that people interpret them and assign meaning to them by engaging in the processes of decoding and encoding. In doing so, people try to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding. Barnlund's model rests on a set of basic assumptions. For Barnlund, any activity that creates meaning is a form of communication. He sees communication as dynamic because meaning is not fixed but depends on the human practice of interpretation, which is itself subject to change. Communication is continuous in the sense that it does not have a beginning or an end: people decode cues and encode responses all the time, even when no one else is present. For Barnlund, communication is also circular because there is no clear division between sender and receiver as found in linear transmission models. It is irreversible due to the diverse effects it has on the communicators that cannot be undone. It is also complex since many components are involved and many factors influence how it unfolds. Because of its complexity, communication is unrepeatable: it is not possible to control all these factors to exactly repeat a previous exchange. This is not even the case when the same communicators exchange the same messages. Barnlund's model is based on the idea that communication consists of decoding cues by ascribing meaning to them and encoding appropriate responses to them. Barnlund distinguishes between public, private, and behavioral cues. Public cues are accessible to anyone in the situation, such as a tree in a park or a table in a room. Private cues are only available to one person, like a coin in one's pocket or an itch on one's wrist. Behavioral cues are under the control of the communicators and constitute the main vehicles of communication. They include verbal behavior, like discussing a business proposal, and non-verbal behavior, like raising one's eyebrows or sitting down in a chair. Barnlund's model has been influential, both for its innovations and for its criticisms of earlier models. Some objections to it include that it is not equally useful for all forms of communication and that it does not explain how exactly meaning is produced.
63,031,421	Sports manga	1,173,048,772	Japanese comics genre	[ "Anime and manga genres", "Anime and manga terminology", "Sports anime and manga" ]	Sports manga (Japanese: スポーツ漫画) is a genre of Japanese manga and anime that focuses on stories involving sports and other athletic and competitive pursuits. Though Japanese animated works depicting sports were released as early as the 1920s, sports manga did not emerge as a discrete category until the early 1950s. The genre achieved prominence in the context of the post-war occupation of Japan, and gained significant visibility during and subsequent to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Noted as among the most popular genres of manga and anime, sports manga is credited with introducing new sports to Japan, and popularizing existing sports. ## Characteristics ### Narrative The core element of a sports manga series is a depiction of a specific sport. The genre is inclusive of a breadth of sports that are both Japanese and non-Japanese in origin, including sports with mainstream popularity (e.g. baseball, association football, boxing, cycling), comparably niche and esoteric sports (e.g. street racing, rhythmic gymnastics, table tennis, wheelchair basketball), and other broadly competitive activities and pursuits (e.g. billiards, shogi, mahjong, go). A popular formula for sports manga stories is spo-kon (:ja:スポ根), a portmanteau of sports and konjō (根性, lit. 'guts' or 'determination'). In these stories, a hero from an often tragic background resolves as a child to become the "best in the world" at a sport, and trains themselves to increase their aptitude. The hero often seeks to emulate his or her father, or achieve a goal that his or her father was unable to accomplish. Often, the hero trains under the tutelage of a coach or father figure who is harsh and unforgiving in his training methods; the "oni coach" or "devil coach" is a common stock character in such stories. Other common story formulas include underdog characters who achieve success in the face of staggering odds, and amateurs who unexpectedly discover that they are naturally gifted at a sport. Sports manga is a popular genre among young readers, particularly readers of shōnen manga (boys' comics). The typical structure of a sports manga story is one that is readily understood by younger audiences: conflict is sublimated into a sporting event, a climax is generated through the action of the sport, and the conflict ends with a literal or metaphorical finish line. Writer Paul Gravett notes that "in the end, a sports manga hero is bound to win, or lose well, so the thrill comes from reading how he overcomes all challenges with determination and honesty". ### Themes and style In Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics, author Frederik L. Schodt argues that sports manga are distinguished from American and European sports comics in their focus on bushido-inspired themes and subject material that use sports as "a metaphor for human endeavor and testing of the spirit". Common themes in sports manga include friendship and camaraderie, teamwork and selflessness, steadfastness and determination, prevailing over hardships, and supokon-kei (a contraction of supōtsu-konjō-kei, which translates literally to 'willpower in-sports-genre'). The genre is additionally noted for its highly stylized depictions of the action of sports, such as jarring layouts, speed lines, sound effects, blurred and foreshortened figures, and cinematic-style framing. The 1968 television anime adaptation of Star of the Giants is credited with pioneering many "special effects" now common in anime, such as time stops, slowdowns, extreme closeups, and the narrowing of the screen in moments of heightened drama. Decompression is a common storytelling technique used in sports manga to heighten drama and suspense, with individual games or events frequently lasting hundreds of pages or multiple episodes. The manga series Slam Dunk, for example, is noted for presenting a four-month high-school basketball season over the course of six years' worth of weekly serialized stories. ## History Animal Olympic Games, a 1928 animated short film directed by Yasuji Murata, is regarded by critics as the first sports anime. The film was inspired by the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and was indicative of a western influence on sports that would come to shape the genre, as in the subsequent short animated films Our Baseball Game (1930) also directed by Murata and Baseball in the Forest (1934) directed by Siichi Harada. Though western sports have been played in Japan since the Meiji era, American forces during the occupation of Japan took an active role in encouraging the adoption of sports such as baseball, boxing, and wrestling. Traditional Japanese sports such as judo, karate, and kendo were banned from Japanese school curriculums as part of a broader effort to suppress activities that were seen as promoting belligerence or aggression. The ban was lifted in 1950 by General Douglas MacArthur, leading to a boom in popularity for both sports in general and sports manga. The judo manga series Igaguri-kun [jp] by Eiichi Fukui, first published in the manga magazine Bōken'ō in 1952, is noted by Frederik L. Schodt as the first sports manga series. Baseball became the most popular sport in the genre through titles such as Dokaben and Star of the Giants, the former of which has sold over 48 million copies. Real-life sporting events that could be filmed by a single unmoving camera (such as pro wrestling or sumo) became popular televised sports, which discouraged anime and manga creators from attempting to adapt them; Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy note that creators realized the genre's "true potential lay in showing audiences [...] things they would not get so easily from live action". The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo prompted a boom in the popularity of sports manga and anime. Japan's gold medal in women's volleyball at these games saw an increase in the popularity of women's sports in Japan, and a corresponding increase in the popularity of sports manga in the shōjo (girls' manga) and josei (women's manga) demographics. The popularity of shōjo sports manga series such as Attack No. 1 – the first sports anime for a female audience – are credited with introducing a greater diversity of sports into the genre, including ballet and tennis. The 1960s also saw the melodrama of spo-kon stories decline in favor of comedic stories and four-panel comics, as well as the first anime adaptation of a sports manga with Star of the Giants in 1968. In the 1970s, merchandising became a major sales driver for anime, leading to a proliferation of series such as Speed Racer that had potential as toys; baseball would also re-emerge as a popular subject for the genre. The 1980s saw a decline in the popularity of sports manga, as sci-fi and fantasy emerged as the medium's dominant genres. The majority of sports manga released during the 1980s were one-shots or only broadly gestured at sports; manga series such as Mitsuru Adachi's Touch, first published in 1981, foregrounded romance and a suburban setting that reflected Japan's growing middle class. Conversely, some 1980s sports manga such as Captain Tsubasa gained popularity on the basis of foreign sales potential; the series has been translated for international audiences in Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian. The 1990s saw the genre expand into esoteric sports such as fishing and boat racing, while the 2000s saw increasing popularity of sports manga with fantasy elements (Eyeshield 21) or that focus on sedentary activities such as go or gin rummy. Spo-kon stories with stylized action and scrappy protagonists enjoyed a resurgence of popularity in the 2010s, as typified by series such as Ping Pong the Animation and Kuroko's Basketball. Sports manga has remained popular into the 2020s, even as romantic comedy, isekai, and battle manga have ascended to become the dominant genres of shōnen manga. Moe Tsuchiya, editor-in-chief of the sports manga magazine Comic Bull, hypothesized that this shift can be attributed to changing readership tastes, citing the generally slower pace of sports manga relative to these other genres. ## Impact Sports manga is among the most popular genres of manga and anime. It has been noted as "a vital part of the medium since its earliest days" and helped pioneer manga narratives where protagonists "struggle to succeed", a common trope in contemporary shōnen manga. Patrick Drazen notes in Anime Explosion! that sports manga is the best example of a manga genre where heroes "strive for perfection" in an attempt to "do one's best". Outside of the small specialty golf manga magazines Golf Comic and Golf Comic Athlete, there are no manga magazines dedicated exclusively to sports manga, as the genre is ubiquitous in mainstream publications. In 2010, sports manga composed 33.3% of manga series in Weekly Shōnen Magazine, and 10.5% of manga series in Weekly Shōnen Jump. Sports manga is credited with introducing new sports to Japan, and popularizing existing sports. Association football became popular in Japan through Captain Tsubasa, with members of the Japan national football team at the 2002 FIFA World Cup citing the series as among their influences. In 2017, NHK broadcast Bokura wa Manga de Tsuyokunatta (We Became Strong Through Manga), a documentary series about athletes who overcame hardships after being inspired by sports manga. The Olympic Museum scheduled an exhibition on sports manga for 2020 in advance of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, calling the genre "a perfect tool to understand the evolution of sport in post-War Japan". Titles in the sports genre are frequently influenced by major sporting events, or are timed to release concurrently with major sporting events. Notable examples include Attack on Tomorrow, which launched in 1977 to capitalize on Japan's victory in the 1977 FIVB Volleyball Women's World Cup; the anime film adaptation of Yawara!, which was timed to release with the 1996 Summer Olympics; and the anime remake of Attacker You!, which was timed to release with the 2008 Summer Olympics. ## See also - List of sports anime and manga
5,789,270	Vertebral artery dissection	1,171,529,946	Tear of the inner lining of the vertebral artery	[ "Neurological disorders", "Vascular diseases" ]	Vertebral artery dissection (VAD) is a flap-like tear of the inner lining of the vertebral artery, which is located in the neck and supplies blood to the brain. After the tear, blood enters the arterial wall and forms a blood clot, thickening the artery wall and often impeding blood flow. The symptoms of vertebral artery dissection include head and neck pain and intermittent or permanent stroke symptoms such as difficulty speaking, impaired coordination and visual loss. It is usually diagnosed with a contrast-enhanced CT or MRI scan. Vertebral dissection may occur after physical trauma to the neck, such as a blunt injury (e.g. traffic collision), or strangulation, or after sudden neck movements, i.e. coughing, but may also happen spontaneously. 1–4% of spontaneous cases have a clear underlying connective tissue disorder affecting the blood vessels. Treatment is usually with either antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin or with anticoagulants such as heparin or warfarin. Vertebral artery dissection is less common than carotid artery dissection (dissection of the large arteries in the front of the neck). The two conditions together account for 10–25% of non-hemorrhagic strokes in young and middle-aged people. Over 75% recover completely or with minimal impact on functioning, with the remainder having more severe disability and a very small proportion (about 2%) dying from complications. It was first described in the 1970s by the Canadian neurologist C. Miller Fisher. ## Classification Vertebral artery dissection is one of the two types of cervical artery dissection. The other type, carotid artery dissection, involves the carotid arteries. Vertebral artery dissection is further classified as being either traumatic (caused by mechanical trauma to the neck) or spontaneous, and it may also be classified by the part of the artery involved: extracranial (the part outside the skull) and intracranial (the part inside the skull). ## Signs and symptoms Head pain occurs in 50–75% of all cases of vertebral artery dissection. It tends to be located at the back of the head, either on the affected side or in the middle, and develops gradually. It is either dull or pressure-like in character or throbbing. About half of those with VAD consider the headache distinct, while the remainder have had a similar headache before. It is suspected that VAD with headache as the only symptom is fairly common; 8% of all cases of vertebral and carotid dissection are diagnosed on the basis of pain alone. Obstruction of blood flow through the affected vessel may lead to dysfunction of part of the brain supplied by the artery. This happens in 77–96% of cases. This may be temporary ("transient ischemic attack") in 10–16% of cases, but many (67–85% of cases) end up with a permanent deficit or a stroke. The vertebral artery supplies the part of the brain that lies in the posterior fossa of the skull, and this type of stroke is therefore called a posterior circulation infarct. Problems may include difficulty speaking or swallowing (lateral medullary syndrome); this occurs in less than a fifth of cases and occurs due to dysfunction of the brainstem. Others may experience unsteadiness or lack of coordination due to involvement of the cerebellum, and still others may develop visual loss (on one side of the visual field) due to involvement of the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. In the event of involvement of the sympathetic tracts in the brainstem, a partial Horner's syndrome may develop; this is the combination of a drooping eyelid, constricted pupil, and an apparently sunken eye on one side of the face. If the dissection of the artery extends to the part of the artery that lies inside the skull, subarachnoid hemorrhage may occur (1% of cases). This arises due to rupture of the artery and accumulation of blood in the subarachnoid space. It may be characterized by a different, usually severe headache; it may also cause a range of additional neurological symptoms. 13–16% of all people with vertebral or carotid dissection have dissection in another cervical artery. It is therefore possible for the symptoms to occur on both sides, or for symptoms of carotid artery dissection to occur at the same time as those of vertebral artery dissection. Some give a figure of multiple vessel dissection as high as 30%. ## Causes The causes of vertebral artery dissection can be grouped under two main categories, spontaneous and traumatic. ### Spontaneous Spontaneous cases are considered to be caused by intrinsic factors that weaken the arterial wall. Only a very small proportion (1–4%) have a clear underlying connective tissue disorder, such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome type 4 and, more rarely, Marfan syndrome. However, ultrastructural abnormalities of the dermal connective tissue components are discernible in two out of three patients with spontaneous dissection. Ehlers–Danlos syndrome type 4, caused by mutations of the COL3A gene, leads to defective production of the collagen, type III, alpha 1 protein and causes skin fragility as well as weakness of the walls of arteries and internal organs. Marfan syndrome results from mutations in the FBN1 gene, defective production of the protein fibrillin-1, and a number of physical abnormalities including aneurysm of the aortic root. There have also been reports in other genetic conditions, such as osteogenesis imperfecta type 1, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and pseudoxanthoma elasticum, α<sub>1</sub> antitrypsin deficiency and hereditary hemochromatosis, but evidence for these associations is weaker. Genetic studies in other connective tissue-related genes have mostly yielded negative results. Other abnormalities to the blood vessels, such as fibromuscular dysplasia, have been reported in a proportion of cases. Atherosclerosis does not appear to increase the risk. There have been numerous reports of associated risk factors for vertebral artery dissection; many of these reports suffer from methodological weaknesses, such as selection bias. Elevated homocysteine levels, often due to mutations in the MTHFR gene, appear to increase the risk of vertebral artery dissection. People with an aneurysm of the aortic root and people with a history of migraine may be predisposed to vertebral artery dissection. Vascular tortuosity or redundancy in young patients is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous dissection. ### Traumatic Traumatic vertebral dissection may follow blunt trauma to the neck, such as in a traffic collision, direct blow to the neck, strangulation, or whiplash injury. 1–2% of those with major trauma may have an injury to the carotid or vertebral arteries. In many cases of vertebral dissection, people report recent very mild trauma to the neck or sudden neck movements, e.g. in the context of playing sports. Others report a recent infection, particularly respiratory tract infections associated with coughing. Trauma has been reported to have occurred within a month of dissection in 40% with nearly 90% of the traumas being minor. It has been difficult to prove the association of vertebral artery dissection with mild trauma and infections statistically. It is likely that many "spontaneous" cases may in fact have been caused by such relatively minor insults in someone predisposed by other structural problems to the vessels. A more likely theory, also as yet unproven, is that the low-energy traumatic dissections are actually spontaneous dissections brought to medical attention by the onset of neurological symptoms. These neurological events represent embolic phenomena due to loosening or breakdown of the clot at the site of the dissection, which can be triggered by low energy trauma or even occur spontaneously. The fragments travel within the arterial system downstream to the brain to cause stroke or stroke-like symptoms. Vertebral artery dissection has also been reported in association with some forms of neck manipulation. There is significant controversy about the level of risk of stroke from neck manipulation. It may be that manipulation can cause dissection, or it may be that the dissection is already present in some people who seek manipulative treatment. At this time, conclusive evidence does not exist to support either a strong association between neck manipulation and stroke, or no association. However, the two most authoritative articles on the subject, recent literature reviews and analyses, conclude that although there exists an association between stroke from vertebral artery dissection and chiropractic adjustment, there is insufficient evidence to indicate that the adjustment caused the dissection. A recent meta-analysis of the published data on the topic also looked to apply Hill's criteria for assigning causation in biological systems to the relationship between chiropractic adjustment and cervical artery dissection, finding that the relationship did not fulfill the required criteria for causality. ## Mechanism The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian artery, and run through the transverse foramen of the upper six vertebrae of the neck. After exiting at the level of the first cervical vertebra, its course changes from vertical to horizontal, and then enters the skull through the foramen magnum. Inside the skull, the arteries merge to form the basilar artery, which joins the circle of Willis. In total, three quarters of the artery are outside the skull; it has a high mobility in this area due to rotational movement in the neck and is therefore vulnerable to trauma. Most dissections happen at the level of the first and second vertebrae. The vertebral artery supplies a number of vital structures in the posterior cranial fossa, such as the brainstem, the cerebellum and the occipital lobes. The brainstem harbors a number of vital functions (such as respiration) and controls the nerves of the face and neck. The cerebellum is part of the diffuse system that coordinates movement. Finally, the occipital lobes participate in the sense of vision. Dissection occurs when blood accumulates in the wall of the blood vessel. This is most likely due to a tear in the tunica intima (the inner layer), allowing blood to enter the tunica media, although other lines of evidence have suggested that the blood may instead arise from the vasa vasorum, the small blood vessels that supply the outer layer of larger blood vessels. Various theories exist as to whether people who sustain carotid and vertebral artery dissection, even if they do not have a connective tissue disorder, have an underlying vulnerability. Biopsy samples of skin and other arteries has indicated that this might be a possibility, but no genetic defect in collagen or elastin genes has been convincingly proven. Other studies have indicated inflammation of the blood vessels, as measured by highly sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP, a marker of inflammation) in the blood. Once dissection has occurred, two mechanisms contribute to the development of stroke symptoms. Firstly, the flow through the blood vessel may be disrupted due to the accumulation of blood under the vessel wall, leading to ischemia (insufficient blood supply). Secondly, irregularities in the vessel wall and turbulence increase the risk of thrombosis (the formation of blood clots) and embolism (migration) of these clots of the brain. From various lines of evidence, it appears that thrombosis and embolism is the predominant problem. Subarachnoid hemorrhage due to arterial rupture typically occurs if the dissection extends into the V4 section of the artery. This may be explained by the fact that the arterial wall is thinner and lacks a number of structural supports in this section. ## Diagnosis Various diagnostic modalities exist to demonstrate blood flow or absence thereof in the vertebral arteries. The gold standard is cerebral angiography (with or without digital subtraction angiography). This involves puncture of a large artery (usually the femoral artery) and advancing an intravascular catheter through the aorta towards the vertebral arteries. At that point, radiocontrast is injected and its downstream flow captured on fluoroscopy (continuous X-ray imaging). The vessel may appear stenotic (narrowed, 41–75%), occluded (blocked, 18–49%), or as an aneurysm (area of dilation, 5–13%). The narrowing may be described as "rat's tail" or "string sign". Cerebral angiography is an invasive procedure, and it requires large volumes of radiocontrast that can cause complications such as kidney damage. Angiography also does not directly demonstrate the blood in the vessel wall, as opposed to more modern modalities. The only remaining use of angiography is when endovascular treatment is contemplated (see below). More modern methods involve computed tomography (CT angiography) and magnetic resonance imaging (MR angiography). They use smaller amounts of contrast and are not invasive. CT angiography and MR angiography are more or less equivalent when used to diagnose or exclude vertebral artery dissection. CTA has the advantage of showing certain abnormalities earlier, tends to be available outside office hours, and can be performed rapidly. When MR angiography is used, the best results are achieved in the T<sub>1</sub> setting using a protocol known as "fat suppression". Doppler ultrasound is less useful as it provides little information about the part of the artery close to the skull base and in the vertebral foramina, and any abnormality detected on ultrasound would still require confirmation with CT or MRI. ## Treatment Treatment is focused on reducing stroke episodes and damage from a distending artery. Four treatment modalities have been reported in the treatment of vertebral artery dissection. The two main treatments involve medication: anticoagulation (using heparin and warfarin) and antiplatelet drugs (usually aspirin). More rarely, thrombolysis (medication that dissolves blood clots) may be administered, and occasionally obstruction may be treated with angioplasty and stenting. No randomized controlled trials have been performed to compare the different treatment modalities. Surgery is only used in exceptional cases. ### Anticoagulation and aspirin From analysis of the existing small treatment trials of cervical artery dissection (carotid and vertebral) it appears that aspirin and anticoagulation (heparin followed by warfarin) are equally effective in reducing the risk of further stroke or death. Anticoagulation is regarded as more powerful than antiplatelet therapy, but anticoagulants may increase the size of the hematoma and worsen obstruction of the affected artery. Anticoagulation may be relatively unsafe if a large stroke has already occurred, as hemorrhagic transformation is relatively common, and if the dissection extends into V4 (carrying a risk of subarachnoid hemorrhage). Anticoagulation may be appropriate if there is rapid blood flow (through a severely narrowed vessel) on transcranial doppler despite the use of aspirin, if there is a completely occluded vessel, if there are recurrent stroke-like episodes, or if free-floating blood clot is visible on scans. Warfarin is typically continued for 3–6 months, as during this time the flow through the artery usually improves, and most strokes happen within the first 6 months after the development of the dissection. Some regard 3 months as sufficient. Professional guidelines in the UK recommend that patients with VA dissection should be enrolled in a clinical trial comparing aspirin and anticoagulation if possible. American guidelines state that the benefit of anticoagulation is not currently established. ### Thrombolysis, stenting and surgery Thrombolysis, stenting and surgery are not used as widely as anticoagulation or antiplatelet drugs. These treatments are invasive, and are typically reserved for situations where symptoms worsen despite medical treatment, or where medical treatment may be unsafe (e.g. an unacceptable bleeding tendency). Thrombolysis is enzymatic destruction of blood clots. This is achieved by the administration of a drug (such as urokinase or alteplase) that activates plasmin, an enzyme that occurs naturally in the body and digests clots when activated. Thrombolysis is an accepted treatment for heart attacks and stroke unrelated to dissection. In cervical artery dissection, only small case series are available. The thrombolytic drug is administered either intravenously or during cerebral angiography through a catheter directly into the affected artery. The data indicates that thrombolysis is safe, but its place in the treatment of VAD is uncertain. Stenting involves the catheterization of the affected artery during angiography, and the insertion of a mesh-like tube; this is known as "endovascular therapy" (inside the blood vessel). This may be performed to allow the blood to flow through a severely narrowed vessel, or to seal off an aneurysm. However, it is unclear whether the technical success of the procedure translates into improved outcomes, as in both cases the problem often resolves spontaneously over time. Stenting, as well as the insertion of coils by means of angiography, may be performed if there is an aneurysm and/or extension of the dissection into the V4 section of the artery. Surgery carries a high risk of complications, and is typically only offered in case of inexorable deterioration or contraindications to any of the other treatments. Various arterial repair procedures have been described. ## Prognosis Prognosis of spontaneous cervical arterial dissection involves neurological and arterial results. The overall functional prognosis of individuals with stroke due to cervical artery dissection does not appear to vary from that of young people with stroke due to other causes. The rate of survival with good outcome (a modified Rankin score of 0–2) is generally about 75%, or possibly slightly better (85.7%) if antiplatelet drugs are used. In studies of anticoagulants and aspirin, the combined mortality with either treatment is 1.8–2.1%. After the initial episode, 2% may experience a further episode within the first month. After this, there is a 1% annual risk of recurrence. Those with high blood pressure and dissections in multiple arteries may have a higher risk of recurrence. Further episodes of cervical artery dissection are more common in those who are younger, have a family history of cervical artery dissection, or have a diagnosis of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome or fibromuscular dysplasia. ## Epidemiology The annual incidence is about 1.1 per 100,000 annually in population studies from the United States and France. From 1994 to 2003, the incidence increased threefold; this has been attributed to the more widespread use of modern imaging modalities rather than a true increase. Similarly, those living in urban areas are more likely to receive appropriate investigations, accounting for increased rates of diagnosis in those dwelling in cities. It is suspected that a proportion of cases in people with mild symptoms remains undiagnosed. There is controversy as to whether VAD is more common in men or in women; an aggregate of all studies shows that it is slightly higher incidence in men (56% versus 44%). Men are on average 37–44 years old at diagnosis, and women 34–44. While dissection of the carotid and vertebral arteries accounts for only 2% of strokes (which are usually caused by high blood pressure and other risk factors, and tend to occur in the elderly), they cause 10–25% of strokes in young and middle-aged people. Dissecting aneurysms of the vertebral artery constitute 4% of all cerebral aneurysms, and are hence a relatively rare but important cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage. ## History Spontaneous vertebral artery dissection was described in the 1970s. Prior to this, there had been isolated case reports about carotid dissection. In 1971, C. Miller Fisher, a Canadian neurologist and stroke physician working at Massachusetts General Hospital, first noted the "string sign" abnormality in carotid arteries on cerebral angiograms of stroke patients, and subsequently discovered that the same abnormality could occur in the vertebral arteries. He reported the discovery in a paper in 1978. ## Notable cases Australian cricketer Phillip Hughes died on 27 November 2014 after developing a vertebral artery dissection as a result of being struck on the side of the neck by a cricket ball, while representing South Australia in a Sheffield Shield match on 25 November 2014 at the S.C.G. The short-pitched delivery bowled by N.S.W. player Sean Abbott struck Hughes on the base of the skull, just behind his left ear which caused a vertebral artery dissection complicated by subarachnoid hemorrhage. ## See also - Aortic dissection - Carotid artery dissection [Vascular diseases](Category:Vascular_diseases "wikilink") [Neurological disorders](Category:Neurological_disorders "wikilink")
844,110	Lockheed YF-22	1,170,461,130	Prototype fighter aircraft for the US Air Force Advanced Tactical Fighter program	[ "1990s United States experimental aircraft", "1990s United States fighter aircraft", "Aircraft first flown in 1990", "Lockheed aircraft", "Mid-wing aircraft", "Stealth aircraft", "Twinjets" ]	The Lockheed/Boeing/General Dynamics YF-22 is an American single-seat, twin-engine fighter aircraft technology demonstrator designed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The design was a finalist in the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter competition, and two prototypes were built for the demonstration/validation phase of the competition. The YF-22 won the contest against the Northrop YF-23, and was developed into the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. The YF-22 has a similar aerodynamic layout and configuration as the F-22, but with differences in the position and design of the cockpit, tail fins and wings, and in internal structural layout. In the 1980s, the USAF began looking for a replacement for its fighter aircraft, especially to counter the advanced Su-27 and MiG-29. A number of companies, divided into two teams, submitted their proposals. Northrop and McDonnell Douglas submitted the YF-23. Lockheed, Boeing and General Dynamics proposed and built the YF-22, which, although marginally slower and having a larger radar cross-section, was more agile than the YF-23. Primarily, for this reason, it was picked by the Air Force as the winner of the ATF in April 1991. Following the selection, the first YF-22 was retired to a museum, while the second prototype continued flying until an accident relegated it to the role of an antenna test vehicle. ## Design and development In 1981, the U.S. Air Force developed a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) as a new air superiority fighter to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. This was made more crucial by the emerging worldwide threats, including development and proliferation of Soviet MiG-29 and Su-27 "Flanker"-class fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight-control systems, more powerful propulsion systems and stealth technology. In September 1985, the Air Force sent out technical request for proposals (RFP) to a number of aircraft manufacturing teams. The seven bids were submitted in July 1986, and two companies, Lockheed and Northrop, were selected on 31 October 1986. The two teams, Lockheed/Boeing/General Dynamics and Northrop/McDonnell Douglas, undertook a 50-month demonstration phase, culminating in the flight test of the two teams' prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23. The YF-22 was designed to meet USAF requirements for survivability, supercruise, stealth, and ease of maintenance. Because Lockheed's submission was selected as one of the winners, the company, through its Skunk Works division, assumed leadership of the program partners. It would be responsible for the forward cockpit and fuselage, as well as final assembly at Palmdale, California. Meanwhile, the wings and aft fuselage would be built by Boeing, with the center fuselage, weapons bays, tail and landing gear built by General Dynamics. Compared with its Northrop/McDonnell Douglas counterpart, the YF-22 has a more conventional design – its wings have larger control surfaces, such as full-span trailing edge, and, whereas the YF-23 had two tail surfaces, the YF-22 had four, which made it more maneuverable than its counterpart. Two examples of each prototype air vehicle (PAV) were built for the Demonstration-Validation phase: one with General Electric YF120 engines, the other with Pratt & Whitney YF119 engines. The YF-22 was given the unofficial name "Lightning II" after Lockheed's World War II-era fighter, the P-38 Lightning, which persisted until the mid-1990s when the USAF officially named the aircraft "Raptor". The F-35 later received the "Lightning II" name in 2006. The first YF-22 (PAV-1, serial number 87-0700, N22YF), with the GE YF120, was rolled out on 29 August 1990 and first flew on 29 September 1990, taking off from Palmdale piloted by David L. Ferguson. During the 18-minute flight, PAV-1 reached a maximum speed of 250 knots (460 km/h; 290 mph) and a height of 12,500 feet (3,800 m), before landing at Edwards AFB. Following the flight, Ferguson said that the remainder of the YF-22 test program would be concentrated on "the manoeuvrability of the aeroplane, both supersonic and subsonic". The second YF-22 (PAV-2, s/n 87-0701, N22YX) with the P&W YF119 made its maiden flight on 30 October at the hands of Tom Morgenfeld. ## Operational history ### Evaluation During the flight test program, unlike the YF-23, weapon firings and high (60°) angle of attack (AoA, or high-alpha) flights were carried out on the YF-22. Though not a requirement, the aircraft fired AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles from internal weapon bays. Flight testing also demonstrated that the YF-22 with its thrust vectoring nozzles achieved pitch rates more than double that of the F-16 at low-speed maneuvering. The first prototype, PAV-1, achieved Mach 1.58 in supercruise, while PAV-2 reached a maximum supercruise speed of Mach 1.43; maximum speed was in excess of Mach 2.0. Flight testing continued until 28 December 1990, by which time 74 flights were completed and 91.6 airborne hours were accumulated. Following flight testing, the contractor teams submitted proposals for ATF production. On 23 April 1991, the YF-22 was announced by Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was stealthier and faster, but the YF-22 was more agile. It was speculated in the aviation press that the YF-22 was also seen as more adaptable to the Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but the US Navy abandoned NATF by 1992. Instead of being retired, as with the case of PAV-1, PAV-2 subsequently flew sorties following the competition – it amassed another 61.6 flying hours during 39 flights. On 25 April 1992, the aircraft sustained serious damage during a landing attempt as a result of pilot-induced oscillations. It was repaired but never flew again, and instead served as a static test vehicle thereafter. In 1991, it was anticipated that 650 production F-22s would be procured. ### F-22 production As the Lockheed team won the ATF competition, it was awarded the engineering, manufacturing and development (EMD) contract, which would ultimately allow it to proceed with production of operational aircraft. The EMD called for seven single-seat F-22A and two twin-seat F-22Bs. On 9 April 1997, the first of these, Spirit of America, was rolled out. During the ceremony, the F-22 was officially named "Raptor". Due to limited funding, the first flight, which had previously been scheduled for mid-1996, occurred on 7 September 1997. Flight testing for the F-22 continued until 2005, and on 15 December 2005 the USAF announced that the Raptor had reached its initial operational capability (IOC). In many respects, the YF-22s were different from production F-22s. Contrary to the F-117 Nighthawk, which was initially difficult to control because of small vertical stabilizers, Lockheed over-specified the fin area on its YF-22. Therefore, the company reduced the size of those on F-22s by 20–30 percent. Lockheed recontoured the shape of the wing and stabilator trailing edges to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics; the wing and stabilitor sweep was reduced by 6° from 48°. Finally, to improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (178 mm), and the engine intakes were moved rearward 14 inches (356 mm). ## Accidents In April 1992, the second YF-22 crashed while landing at Edwards AFB. The test pilot, Tom Morgenfeld, escaped without injury. The cause of the crash was found to be a flight control software error that failed to prevent a pilot-induced oscillation. ## Surviving aircraft - 87-0700 – Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards Air Force Base, California - 87-0701 – Rome Laboratory, Rome, New York. ## Specifications (YF-22) ## See also
15,412,888	1965 San Diego Chargers season	1,170,058,226	NFL team season	[ "1965 American Football League season by team", "1965 in sports in California", "San Diego Chargers seasons" ]	The 1965 San Diego Chargers season was their sixth as a professional AFL franchise; the team improved on their 8–5–1 record in 1964. Head Coach Sid Gillman led the Chargers to their fifth AFL West title with a 9–2–3 record, before losing the AFL Championship Game to the Buffalo Bills for the second consecutive season. It would prove to be the Chargers' last post-season appearance until 1979. San Diego took the lead in the AFL Western division early in the season, as they won five of their first seven games and tied the other two. They maintained first place despite two midseason defeats and finished with three wins in a row, clinching their division with a game to spare. During the regular season, they led the league in several key statistical categories, ranking first for rushing and passing yardage on both offense and defense. They entered the AFL Championship game as point favorites on their own home field, but were shut out by the Bills 23–0. Several individual Chargers had strong seasons, with the offense featuring the top passer, runner and receiver, ranked by yardage. Quarterback John Hadl, in his first season as the full time starter, threw for 2,798 yards, running back Paul Lowe set both team and league records with 1,121 yards while leading the league with 5 yards per carry, and flanker Lance Alworth's 1,602 receiving yards and 14 touchdowns are yet to be surpassed as Charger records. The defense featured strong performances by safety Bud Whitehead, cornerback Speedy Duncan (also the AFL's leading punt returner), and defensive linemen Earl Faison and Ernie Ladd. The latter two players fell out with Gillman, and declared their intention to leave at the end of the season. ## Offseason ### AFL draft #### Regular draft The 1965 AFL draft took place on November 28, 1964, late in the previous season. The rival National Football League (NFL) conducted its draft on the same day. Where the same player was drafted by both AFL and NFL franchises, the two would compete to sign him. The Chargers were able to sign their 1st-round pick, defensive lineman Steve DeLong, who had also been drafted by the Chicago Bears. DeLong stated that he preferred the city of San Diego, and that the Chargers had made him a better offer. While DeLong was used as a backup during his rookie season, he went on to start in 75 games during seven seasons in San Diego, making one AFL All-Star game. Other successful signings included linebacker Rick Redman, who started 81 games over nine years in San Diego and made one All-Star game, and running back Gene Foster, who scored twice in 1965 and gained over 2,500 yards during a six-year career with the Chargers. Other Charger draftees opted to sign with NFL clubs, including 2nd-round pick Roy Jefferson, who joined the Pittsburgh Steelers. In total, five of the Chargers' selections chose the NFL, including four of their top eight picks, while five signed with San Diego. #### Redshirt draft As well as their regular collegiate draft, the AFL also held a separate redshirt draft. This covered players whose graduation had been delayed by taking a redshirt year, meaning that they still had a further year of college football eligibility. With their first pick in this draft, the Chargers chose San Diego State Aztecs wide receiver Gary Garrison. They eventually signed him on December 5, 1965, after outbidding the NFL's San Francisco 49ers. Garrison went on to spend eleven seasons with the Chargers, accumulating over 7,500 receiving yards while being nominated to one AFL All-Star game and three Pro Bowls. He was also inducted into the Chargers Hall of Fame in 1985. Unless noted otherwise, these players began their professional careers in 1966. ### Departures and arrivals Quarterback Tobin Rote, who had started for the Chargers in the past two AFL championship games, retired after the 1964 season. John Hadl took over as the starter, having split time with Rote the previous year. There was also a change on the offensive line. Don Rogers had started every game at center over the past two seasons, and featured in all but two Charger games over the first five years of the franchise. He lost his starting job to Sam Gruneisen during the offseason, and did not play professionally again. Defensive lineman Hank Schmidt, who had featured in every game for San Diego over the previous four seasons, switched to the Buffalo Bills midseason and beat the Chargers with his new team in the AFL title game at season's end. New players included Dick Degen, an undrafted rookie who missed time through injury but still started seven games, specialist kicker Herb Travenio, who had briefly featured for the Chargers in 1964 before being dropped and working for the postal service, and safety Bob Zeman, back for a second stint with the team after starting 23 games from 1960-1961; he would start 7 more from 1965-1966. ### San Diego stadium vote The future of the Chargers franchise was uncertain entering the 1965 season, with owner Barron Hilton indicating that he would choose to move his team to another venue unless the city of San Diego approved a new stadium. Press speculation named Anaheim as a possible alternative for the team, as well as Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles. On November 2, over 130,000 citizens of San Diego voted by a majority of roughly 72% to 28% to allocated \$27 million for the construction of a 50,000-seat stadium in Mission Valley. Hilton signed a 10-year lease, beginning in 1967. Jack Murphy, sports editor of the San Diego Union, was credited with getting the stadium project approved. Initially known as San Diego Stadium, this would be the Chargers' home until their return to Los Angeles in 2017. ## Personnel ### Staff ### Roster ## Preseason San Diego lost their exhibition opener despite outgaining the Raiders by 293 yards to 116. An interception thrown by Hadl was run back 42 yards for a touchdown, and rookie kicker Les Murdock made only one of three field goal attempts. Hadl improved in the second game, running for one touchdown against the Chiefs and throwing another to Jacque MacKinnon. Rookies Foster (with a run) and DeLong (on a fumble return) also scored. Three 3rd-quarter touchdowns were enough to beat Denver in the next game: running back Keith Lincoln threw a 62-yard touchdown pass to Lance Alworth on a trick play, and Hadl and Dave Kocourek combined for two more. The last two Chargers exhibition games were played in neutral venues. They faced the Raiders again in Portland, Oregon, scoring 37 unanswered points after facing a 10–3 deficit in the first half. MacKinnon, Hadl and Alworth all scored again, and the defense contributed with a safety from Earl Faison and a fumble return touchdown for Jimmy Warren. Finally, they lost in Little Rock, Arkansas to a George Blanda field goal with 8 seconds to play. Rookie Jim Allison scored the lone San Diego touchdown on a 12-yard reception from Hadl. ## Regular season ### Summary San Diego were unbeaten over the first half of the season, with five wins and two ties. This included an easy victory at Buffalo, who had beaten them in the previous season's AFL Championship Game. They lost two of their next three games, but maintained first place in the AFL West. After tying the return match with Buffalo, they won their final three games, clinching their division with a game to spare and setting up a rematch with the Bills. The Chargers' offense led the league in points scored, total yards gained, passing yards, rushing yards and first downs gained. Hadl started every game, completing exactly half of his passes while accumulating 2,798 yards, with 20 touchdowns and 21 interceptions. His passer rating of 71.3 was down on the previous season, but still the second best in the AFL, behind only Len Dawson of the Kansas City Chiefs. He led the league in passing yardage, yards per attempt (8.0) and yards per completion (16.1); the latter two statistics would stand as career highs. His most prolific receiver was Alworth, who accounted for nearly half the team's receiving yards and over half the receiving touchdowns. He ranked second in the league with 69 receptions, joint first with 14 touchdown catches, and top with 1,602 receiving yards, 384 clear of any other player. As of 2023, Alworth still holds the franchise record for receiving yards in a season, despite playing in only a 14-game season; his touchdown tally was tied by Tony Martin in 1995, but has yet to be surpassed by any Charger. San Diego's second-ranked receiver Don Norton added 485 yards. With his fellow running back Lincoln struggling with injuries throughout the season, Paul Lowe had a career-high 222 carries. He gained a new AFL record 1,121 yards at 5.0 yards per carry, a league-high average; six of his eight touchdowns were runs, tied for most in the AFL. Like Alworth, Lowe set a franchise single-season yardage record, surpassing his own tally from 1963; this record was broken by Don Woods in 1974. He was supported by the rookie Foster, with 469 yards. Lincoln only played in ten games, but added 302 yards and 3 touchdowns rushing, plus 376 yards and 4 touchdowns receiving. San Diego were also statistically dominant on defense, topping the league with the fewest total yards, passing yards, rushing yards and first downs conceded. They were also second in points against, a single points behind the Bills. Defensive end Bob Petrich unofficially led the team with sacks, third most in the AFL. Faison and Ernie Ladd added and 6 respectively, despite both men expressing dissatisfaction with head coach/general manager Sid Gillman's contract negotiations in August, and stating their intentions to leave at the end of the season. Safety Bud Whitehead led the team in interceptions with 7, tied for second most in the league. Cornerback Speedy Duncan had 4 interceptions, and also served as the team's kickoff and punt returner. His average of 15.5 yards per punt return led the AFL, and included a league-high two touchdowns. Travenio converted 18 of his 30 field goal attempts, his 60% success rate ranking joint-third in the league. He also converted every one of his 40 extra point attempts, but missed every field goal try of over 40 yards. Four players attempted at least one punt during the season; Hadl and Redman split the bulk of the duties between them, but both posted a worse average than any of the seven regular punters in the league. ### Schedule ### Game summaries #### Week 1: vs. Denver Broncos San Diego overcame an early 11-point deficit to win their opener. Hadl's second pass of the game was intercepted and run back to the Chargers 4-yard line, setting up a Denver touchdown. Alworth's 48-yard catch on 3rd and 25 led to a Travenio field goal on the next drive, before the Broncos drove for a second touchdown and a 14–3 lead. San Diego responded with a run of 24 unanswered points, beginning with an 8-play, 78-yard touchdown drive – Foster converted a 3rd and 7 with a 23-yard catch, and eventually scored on a 2-yard run. Ladd recovered a Cookie Gilchrist fumble three plays later, setting up another Travenio field goal. The Broncos went three-and-out on their next possession, and a 22-yard punt started the Chargers at the Denver 41-yard line. Lowe followed a Walt Sweeney block to the right on the next play and broke clear for the go-ahead touchdown. Following a Trevenio miss and a Denver punt, Lowe took a pitch to the right before throwing downfield for Alworth, who was double covered but nonetheless made the catch for a 42-yard gain; Foster scored with a 17-yard run two plays later. Denver managed a field goal with a second to play in the half, but still trailed 27–17 at the break. Denver missed two field goals in the 3rd quarter, but Lowe fumbled near midfield to set up a Gilchrist touchdown early in the final period. The Chargers responded quickly, with Foster's 36-yard kickoff return soon followed by Alworth's first scoring catch of the season; Hadl found him in stride in the end zone for a 38-yard touchdown. The Broncos needed only five plays to score again, pulling within 34–31 with ten minutes to play. After forcing a three-and-out, Denver reached a 2nd and 10 at the Charger 40, but Ladd forced another Gilchrist fumble, with Faison recovering. San Diego were soon faced with a 3rd and 19, which Hadl converted with a 45-yard pass to Alworth. Lowe converted another 3rd down, and the Chargers ran the clock out. Alworth and Lowe accounted for 347 of the Chargers' 459 total yards between them. #### Week 2: at Oakland Raiders A strong defensive performance propelled San Diego to their second win. The Chargers took the opening kickoff and drove 72 yards in 10 plays without facing a 3rd down, going ahead to stay on Lowe's 4-yard run. Oakland missed a field goal on their next drive, but were soon given another scoring chance after Hadl's 25-yard punt, this time converting a field goal. The Raiders fumbled a punt return soon afterwards, setting up a 29-yard field goal by Travenio. Further field goal attempts followed, with a success for Oakland and a 22-yard try by Travenio blocked. Degen stopped a Raiders drive with an interception shortly before halftime, leaving San Diego 10–6 up. There were few scoring threats for either team in the second half, with Oakland failing to cross midfield in six possessions, and San Diego punting on six out of seven possessions. Former Charger Dick Wood replaced Tom Flores as the Raiders' quarterback, but was intercepted by Duncan and Kenny Graham, with the latter running the ball back 29 yards to the Oakland 18-yard line. The offense moved back to a 3rd and 16 from the 24, from where Hadl found Alworth over the middle for a decisive touchdown with five minutes to play. Wood completed 4 of 14 passes for 31 yards, with 2 interceptions. This gave him a passer rating of 0.0, the first such rating posted against the Chargers. #### Week 3: vs. Kansas City Chiefs Two punt returns were key in a defensive tie. A missed 41-yard field goal attempt by Travenio was the closest either side came to scoring in the opening period. Hadl was intercepted on the first play of the 2nd quarter, but Whitehead intercepted Len Dawson on the ensuing drive. A 22-yard pass from Lowe to Foster then helped the Chargers move into field goal range, and Travenio opened the scoring from 19 yards out. The score remained 3–0 at halftime. Hadl's first two passes of the second half were both intercepted, though neither turnover led to any points. Later in the quarter, though, a Hadl punt was run back 28 yards to the Chargers 25-yard line, and a penalty moved the ball to the 12-yard line. Dawson immediately threw a go-ahead touchdown pass. The next six drives ended in punts – Duncan fielded the last of these at his own 34 and angled diagonally left through blockers before breaking free for a 66-yard touchdown return. Duncan added an interception two plays later, but the Chargers were forced to punt. The Chiefs then faced a 4th and 7 from the San Diego 48-yard line, which they converted when Dawson scrambled for 40 yards. A penalty pushed Kansas City backwards, and they settled for a game-tying field goal with 49 seconds to play. San Diego reached the Chiefs 38 as time expired. The Chargers' offense produced a season-low 186 yards. Hadl completed 11 of 27 pass attempts, for 82 yards and 3 interceptions. #### Week 4: vs. Houston Oilers San Diego dominated the bulk of the game, then held off a late Houston rally to win. The Chargers drove 79 yards in 13 plays to take the lead early in the 2nd quarter – Foster carried 6 times for 38 yards, Lowe carried 4 times for 32 yards, and Travenio kicked a 14-yard field goal. On their next possession, Hadl found Alworth in stride for a 69-yard touchdown pass, and San Diego led 10–0 at halftime. On the first possession of the second half, Lowe carried 3 times for 10 yards, and Hadl threw a 15-yard touchdown to Kocourek on 3rd and 11. Late in the 3rd quarter backup quarterback Don Trull entered the game for Blanda. His first attempt was a swing pass intercepted by Faison and returned 24 yards for a touchdown. At this point Houston had failed to cross midfield in any of their nine possessions. They improved on their next two possessions with a pair of 5-play touchdown drives, Trull passing for one score and running for the other. With their lead cut to 24–14 midway through the final quarter, San Diego soon reached a 3rd and 11 at their own 43-yard line, whereupon Hadl and Alworth combined again, this time for a decisive 57-yard touchdown. Hadl completed 14 of 26 passes for 242 yards, 3 touchdowns and no interceptions. Alworth caught 4 passes for 145 yards and 2 touchdowns. San Diego outrushed Houston by 271 yards to 47, with Lowe carrying 20 times for 157 yards and Foster carrying 10 times for 73 yards. #### Week 5: at Buffalo Bills San Diego dealt the defending AFL champions their first defeat of the season with a one-sided win in Buffalo. The Bills scored their only points of the day with a field goal from the game's first drive. Travenio had a 22-yard field goal attempt blocked soon afterwards, but San Diego took the lead early in the 2nd quarter after a 5-play, 67-yard drive, with Lincoln's 31-yard pass to Norton the longest play. They finished the drive with Lowe improvising a lateral to Hadl on a planned running play, allowing the quarterback to find Alworth for a 14-yard touchdown. The Bills went three-and-out, and Duncan's 26-yard punt return started his offense off at the Buffalo 44-yard line. They needed only four plays to score from there, with Hadl completing a 35-yard pass to Alworth and an 8-yard touchdown to Lincoln. Buffalo later reached a 2nd and 10 at the Charger 15-yard line, but Duncan intercepted Jack Kemp in the end zone, leaving the score at 14–3 going into the interval. The Chargers quickly pulled away in the second half, scoring a field goal on their first drive and a touchdown on their second (a 52-yard pass from Hadl to Alworth). On the next play from scrimmage, Whitehead intercepted Kemp and returned the ball 35 yards for a touchdown. Later, George Gross recovered a fumble and Travenio added another field goal to complete the scoring. Whitehead also intercepted a pair of passes by Buffalo backup Daryle Lamonica as the game wore on. San Diego had two 100-yard receivers, as Alworth caught 8 passes for 168 yards and 2 touchdowns and Norton caught 6 for 107 yards. San Diego outgained Buffalo by over 300 yards (458–150). #### Week 6: at Boston Patriots San Diego were unable to score in the second half as they tied the winless Patriots. In the 1st quarter, Warren stopped a Boston drive with an interception. Later, Lowe's 23-yard run set up a Travenio field goal. Babe Parilli responded with a 73-yard touchdown pass early in the 2nd quarter. The Patriots threatened to go further in front on their next drive, but Warren intercepted Parilli in the end zone. Later in the quarter, San Diego faced a 2nd and 15 from their own 15-yard line after Hadl was sacked. Hadl found Alworth in stride at the Boston 40 en route to an 85-yard touchdown. Travenio was short on a field goal attempt late in the half, but the Patriots went three-and-out, Whitehead blocked a punt and DeLong recovered at the Boston 2-yard line. Travenio came straight back in to convert a 10-yard kick with 5 seconds left in the half. Trailing 13–7 entering the second half, Boston soon halved the deficit with a Gino Cappelletti field goal after Duncan fumbled on a punt return. The Patriots had a chance to score again later in the quarter after another special teams error, the long snap on a punt going over Redman's head and setting Boston up at the 6-yard line. A Patriots touchdown was negated by a penalty, and Duncan blocked another Cappelletti field goal attempt. Hadl was intercepted on the next play, but Boston again came away with no points after the Charger defense stuffed a run for no gain on 4th and goal from the 1. San Diego went three-and-out, Boston drove from the Charger 42-yard line to the 15 and Cappelletti tied the score with a 22-yard kick midway through the final quarter. San Diego then reached a 4th and 4 at the Boston 34-yard line, but another bad snap prevented Travenio from attempting a go-ahead field goal. From there, both sides punted once, and the game ended with the Patriots at their own 39. Lowe rushed 21 times for 91 yards, and added 4 catches for 31 yards. San Diego outgained Boston by 284 yards to 178, with over a third of the game's total offensive yards coming on the two long touchdown passes. #### Week 7: at New York Jets San Diego pulled away in the second half to reach the midway point of the season unbeaten. In the opening quarter, New York made one field goal and had another scoring chance after Duncan fumbled the ensuing kickoff. However, Ladd blocked a second field goal attempt, and the Chargers drove 64 yards in 8 plays to take the lead on Lowe's 8-yard run around right end. A threatening Jets drive was halted when Zeman forced a fumble that Buncom recovered at his own 31-yard line, but Redman shanked a punt for only 11 yards soon afterwards, setting up another New York field goal. Alworth's 39-yard catch helped set up a 20-yard Travenio field goal, and the Chargers led 10–6 at halftime. Gross recovered a fumble at the New York 11-yard line three plays into the second half, setting up a Hadl-to-Kocourek touchdown on 3rd and goal from the 2. Duncan's 51-yard punt return gave them another scoring chance soon afterwards, but Travenio missed a 41-yard kick. On the following Chargers drive, they moved from their own 19-yard line to their own 41-yard line, from where Lowe again went around right end, following blocks from Sweeney and Ron Mix en route to a 59-yard touchdown. The teams exchanged field goals in the final quarter, and Chargers backup quarterback Don Breaux completed the scoring with a 57-yard touchdown to Alworth. Lowe and Alworth again accounted for the majority of San Diego's yards, with a combined 252 of 342. New York fumbled six times, with the Chargers recovering four of them. #### Week 8: vs. Boston Patriots San Diego again struggled with the Patriots, sustaining their first defeat of the season while Boston got their first win. Gross (with a fumble recovery) and Whitehead (with an interception) both stopped drives in Chargers territory, but Hadl was intercepted on the ensuing possession both times. Boston took the lead when Duncan fielded a punt at his own 2-yard line and circling back into the end zone, where he was tackled for a safety. After a Chargers free kick, the Patriots drove 49 yards for a touchdown pass from Parilli to Cappelletti. Boston had further scoring chances in the first half, but Dick Harris intercepted a Parilli pass, and Cappelletti missed a field goal, leaving the score at 9–0. The Chargers got into field goal range on their first drive of the 3rd quarter, but Travenio was short from 49 yards out. Three further errors (a Hadl interception, a blocked Travenio field goal and a Breaux interception) set up a further 13 points for Boston. Finally, Norton's 61-yard catch and run set up Lincoln's 1-yard touchdown run, preventing a shutout with seven minutes to play, but San Diego failed to cross midfield on their lone possession after that. Hadl and Breaux threw no touchdowns and four interceptions between them. Norton caught 5 passes for 106 yards. #### Week 9: at Denver Broncos Lincoln scored three touchdowns and passed for another, and San Diego pulled away from a tied game in the final quarter. Graham intercepted a pass late in a scoreless 1st quarter, and the Chargers reached a 3rd and 3 at the Denver 39-yard line. Then, on the first play of the 2nd quarter, Alworth bobbled a Hadl pass, which was intercepted and returned 65 yards for a touchdown. San Diego came back with an 8-play, 74-yard drive; Lowe broke off a 33-yard run and Hadl combined with Lincoln for a game-tying 7-yard touchdown. After three punts, the Chargers took over on their own 34 and scored on the next play, Hadl finding Lincoln wide open over the middle for a 66-yard score. Denver came back with a touchdown 22 seconds before halftime, tying the score at 14–14. San Diego restored their lead early in the second half with a trick play, Lincoln passing to Alworth for a 34-yard touchdown, but Gilchrist tied the game later in the quarter. Early in the final period, Travenio had a 38-yard field goal blocked, and Denver missed one from 10 yards out. San Diego then moved from their own 20-yard line to the Denver 45, from where Lowe took a screen pass in for a touchdown. Redman intercepted a pass on the next play from scrimmage and returned the ball 11 yards to the Denver 15-yard line; four plays later, Lincoln ran it in from the 1. A late Graham interception clinched the win. Lowe rushed 17 times for 112 yards and caught 4 passes for 57 yards and a touchdown. As well as his 34-yard touchdown pass, Lincoln rushed 8 times for 24 yards and a touchdown, and caught 2 passes for 73 yards and 2 touchdowns. He was the first Charger to score three touchdowns in a game. He also became the fifth player and first Charger to have at least one touchdown passing, running and receiving in the same game (LaDainian Tomlinson repeated the feat in 2005). #### Week 10: at Kansas City Chiefs San Diego turned the ball over seven times in their second defeat of the season. The Chiefs led through an early field goal before they recovered a Hadl fumble at the Charger 7-yard line, setting up a quick touchdown. The Chargers had to start their following drive at their own 1 after Foster had trouble fielding the kickoff. A 52-yard catch by Alworth moved the ball away from their own goal line, and they reached the Kansas City 4-yard line before Hadl was intercepted, ending a 95-yard drive with no points. Another Hadl interception set the Chiefs up in San Diego territory; they reached a 1st and 10 at the 14-yard line before being driven back by penalties and negative plays, eventually punting on 4th and 60. The Chargers then drove from their own 20 to a 4th and 1 from their own 49-yard line. They went for the first down, and Alworth took a pass in the flat before outrunning the defense up the right sideline for a touchdown. Graham intercepted Dawson two plays later, but Hadl was intercepted again on the next play, setting up a Dawson touchdown pass and a 17–7 Kansas City halftime lead. Breaux came in at quarterback for the second half, but was intercepted on his first drive. Lowe's 33-yard run on the next Charger drive moved them into Kansas City territory, and they reached a 1st and 10 at the 15-yard line. Like the Chiefs in the first half, they were then knocked back out of scoring range by penalties and negative plays, and punted on 4th and 52. Dawson then had touchdown passes on consecutive possessions to put the game away. Hadl completed 7 of 18 passes for 152 yards, with a touchdown and 4 interceptions; Breaux was intercepted twice. San Diego outgained the Chiefs 330–280, with Alworth's 181 yards accounting for more than half his team's total. #### Week 12: vs. Buffalo Bills San Diego and Buffalo traded leads as a battle of division leaders ended in a tie. Foster lost a fumble on the fourth play of the game, and Kemp threw a touchdown five plays later. The next three Chargers drives ended with a missed 37-yard field goal attempt by Travenio and two Hadl interceptions, while Buffalo punted three times. San Diego then drove 80 yards in 10 plays without facing a 3rd down, tying the score on a 6-yard run by Lowe. On their next possession, they drove 79 yards to the Buffalo 1-yard line before Foster dropped a pass in the end zone; they settled for a 9-yard Travenio field goal, and a 10–7 half time lead. Buffalo took the second half kickoff and drove 79 yards in 9 plays to take the lead; Lamonica scored from a yard out while Kemp was temporarily out injured. Three plays later, Alworth broke away for a 65-yard reception, but fumbled while being tackled at the 3-yard line, and Buffalo recovered. On their next possession, San Diego were set to punt from their own 48-yard line, but a wild snap sailed over Hadl's head, setting the Bills up at the San Diego 6-yard line. The Charger defense kept Buffalo out of the end zone, and Pete Gogolak kicked a field goal for a seven-point lead. Gogolak missed a further field goal in the final quarter, and Lincoln took a swing pass 66 yards to the Bills 10-yard line, setting up a successful Travenio kick. Three plays later, Westmoreland intercepted Kemp at the Buffalo 43-yard line and returned the ball 28 yards. On 3rd and 6, Hadl ran the ball as far as the 2 before fumbling into the end zone. This time Lowe recovered the loose ball for a 20–17 lead. The next two Bills drives ended with a fumble and a punt, but they had one more chance, starting at their own 25-yard line. Kemp had completions of 35 and 16 yards, as well as a 9-yard run that positioned Gogolak for a game-tying 22-yard field goal with 6 seconds to play. The teams combined to fumble eight times, with five of those recovered by the opposition. San Diego committed five of the game's eight total turnovers. #### Week 13: vs. New York Jets San Diego forced four turnovers by Jets quarterback Joe Namath in an easy victory. The Chargers' first two drives ended with interceptions thrown by Hadl and Lincoln, but the Jets could only answer with two field goal tries, one missed and one blocked. After the latter of these, San Diego drove 61 yards in 10 plays to take the lead on Lincoln's 1-yard run. Graham intercepted Namath on the Chargers 42-yard line on the following possession, and San Diego drove to another Lincoln touchdown, this time a tackle-breaking 25-yard catch and run on 3rd and 7. Petrich and Gross sacked Namath on the next play from scrimmage, forcing a sack that Faison recovered at the New York 15-yard line. That led to a Travenio field goal and, after a Degen interception, a 17–0 halftime lead. On the first play of the second half, Graham intercepted a Namath pass near the right sideline, and returned it 51 yards for a touchdown. Namath was able to get the Jets on the scoreboard with a touchdown pass on their next drive, but San Diego restored their 24-point advantage only four plays later, with Hadl finding Alworth open at the 5 for a 46-yard touchdown. After stopping the Jets on downs, the Chargers ended the scoring early in the final quarter with another long Hadl-to-Alworth connection, this time of 36 yards. Lincoln rushed 13 times for 57 yards and a touchdown, while catching 2 passes for 46 yards and another touchdown. Alworth caught 7 passes for 147 yards and two touchdowns. The result left San Diego at 7–2–3, leading the Raiders (7–4–1) and Chiefs (6–4–2), and able to clinch the AFL West title with a win the following week. #### Week 14: at Houston Oilers The Chargers clinched their division after scoring the game's final 17 points. Duncan opened the scoring in the 1st quarter, taking a punt and eluding several tacklers on a 63-yard touchdown return. On their next possession, the Chargers faced a 3rd and 22 from their own 8-yard line, and Hadl was brought down by three Oilers in the end zone for a safety. After forcing a punt, San Diego extended their lead with an 11-play, 85-yard drive: Lowe had a 23-yard run, Norton converted a 3rd and 10 with a 27-yard catch, and Alworth scored on a 5-yard touchdown reception. The Chargers soon had another scoring chance, but Hadl was intercepted in Houston territory, and the Oilers fought back with a field goal and a Blanda touchdown pass, trainling only 14–12 at halftime. Houston's momentum continued into the second half as they recovered a Norton fumble and drove to another Blanda touchdown pass. The Chargers responded with field goals on consecutive drives, the first set up by a 41-yard Lincoln catch and the second by three consecutive runs that covered 16, 14 and 17 yards (the first by Lincoln, the next two by Lowe). Blanda threw his third touchdown only three plays later, putting Houston up 26–20 with 11 minutes to play. Hadl made several key plays on an answering touchdown drive, converting a 3rd and 10 with a 22-yard pass to Lincoln and having runs of 9, 23 and 14 yards. Finally, he scored on 4th and goal with a 1-yard quarterback sneak. Warren intercepted Blanda three plays later, leading to a third Travenio field goal. The Oilers then turned the ball over on downs at their own 15-yard line, and Lowe went around right end for a touchdown on the next play. Duncan added a late interception near his own goal line. Both Charger running backs gained over 100 yards of offense. Lowe rushed 19 times for 99 yards and a touchdown, while adding a single catch for 6 yards; Lincoln rushed 11 times for 62 yards and caught 5 passes for 87 yards. #### Week 15: vs. Oakland Raiders San Diego recovered from a 14–0 deficit to close out their regular season with a win. The Chargers had an early scoring chance, but Hadl was intercepted in the end zone. Oakland then drove 65 yards in 11 plays for a touchdown, maintaining possession with a fake field goal. San Diego were soon threatening to score again, reaching a 4th and goal from the 1-yard line, but MacKinnon came down with Hadl's pass narrowly out of bounds; the Raiders then drove 80 yards in 11 plays to double their lead. Hadl responded with a 37-yard completion to Allison, soon followed by a 22-yard touchdown to Norton, pulling the score back to 14–7 at halftime. Travenio was short on a 50-yard kick in the 3rd quarter, before Petrich blocked a Raiders field goal try. The Chargers then tied the game with a 5-play, 71-yard drive; Alworth had a 44-yard reception and Norton caught a 10-yard touchdown pass despite being in tight coverage. Breaux came in to replace Hadl and soon lost a fumble, but Allen intercepted Flores two plays later. San Diego then reached a 3rd and 15 at their own 34-yard line, from where Breaux found Alworth on a slant route at the Oakland 45-yard line, and he outran the Raider defense for the go-ahead touchdown. Whitehead intercepted Flores twice in the final ten minutes; Hadl was himself intercepted at the goal line after the first of these, but the second led to a Travenio field goal with a minute to play. As well as Hadl, Lowe also left the game early – he carried 3 times for 32 yards, enough to break the AFL's single-season rushing yardage record. ## Standings ## Playoffs ### Game summary #### AFL championship game: vs. Buffalo Bills San Diego faced the Eastern division champion Bills (10–3–1) in a rematch of the previous AFL championship game. Having achieved a win and tie against Buffalo during the regular season, having Alworth fit for the game (he had been injured the previous year), and having dominated the league in several major statistical categories, the Chargers were expected to improve on their 20–7 defeat in 1964. Oddsmakers had them as -point favorites before the game. In the event, Buffalo won the 1965 game more easily, though San Diego had early chances to take the lead. Warren intercepted Kemp at the Chargers 33-yard line early in the game, and Alworth's 20-yard catch moved the ball across midfield, but San Diego were forced to punt. After a Bills punt pinned the Chargers at their own 9-yard line, Lowe went around right end for 47 yards on the next play, but they were pushed back when Hadl was sacked and had to punt again. After another Bills punt, Norton's 35-yard catch helped the Chargers drive from their own 11-yard line to the Buffalo 28 early in the 2nd quarter, but Travenio's 35-yard field goal attempt was short after being partially blocked. The Bills scored two touchdowns in quick succession later in the quarter, via a Kemp touchdown pass and a 74-yard punt return from Butch Byrd. Hadl was intercepted on the next play, but Duncan partially blocked a Gogolak field goal attempt. The Chargers then drove from their own 20-yard line to the Buffalo 24, with Hadl completing a 22-yard pass to Alworth and scrambling for 13 yards on consecutive plays. It was their best field position of the entire game, but led to no points as Travenio missed a 31-yard kick, leaving the halftime score at 14–0. San Diego went three-and-out on the first possession of the second half, and Buffalo soon added a Gogolak field goal. Duncan returned the ensuing kickoff 49 yards, and the Chargers reached a 4th and 1 at the Buffalo 29-yard line. Hadl was then stopped for a loss of 5 yards. Further Gogolak field goals were set up by a Hadl interception and another failed 4th down conversion attempt. Hadl completed 11 of 23 passes for 140 yards, while throwing 2 interceptions and being sacked 3 times for losses of 30 yards. Lowe carried 12 times for 57 yards, although 47 of those came on a single carry. Buffalo narrowly outgained the Chargers (260 yards to 223), but had a larger advantage in first downs (23 to 12). ## Awards Twelve Chargers were in the squad who faced the Bills in the AFL All-Star game, including five who were named to the Associated Press All-AFL 1st team; there were also six Chargers in the 2nd team. In addition, Alworth received eight votes as the AP AFL player of the year, while Lowe received four; for the equivalent UPI award, they received four votes each. Gillman received two votes for coach of the year from both AP and UPI.
12,096,643	Chinese cruiser Zhiyuan	1,158,209,090	Imperial Chinese Navy's Zhiyuan-class protected cruiser	[ "1886 ships", "Cruisers of the Beiyang Fleet", "First Sino-Japanese War cruisers of China", "Maritime incidents in 1894", "Naval ships of China", "Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth", "Ships built on the River Tyne", "Shipwrecks in the Yellow Sea" ]	Zhiyuan (Chinese: 致遠; pinyin: Zhiyuan; Wade–Giles: Chih Yuen) was a protected cruiser built for the Imperial Chinese Navy. She was built by Armstrong Whitworth in Elswick, England. She was one of two Zhiyuan-class protected cruisers built, alongside her sister ship Jingyuen. Zhiyuan was armed with a smaller number of large sized naval guns, as opposed to later ships of this type (such as the British Pearl-class) which carried a larger number of smaller guns. This was because the medium-calibre quick-firing gun had yet to be introduced, thus a warship's firepower at the time was largely a function of individual shell weight rather than volume of fire. Both ships were assigned to the Beiyang Fleet, and she was captained by Deng Shichang throughout her life. She was part of a flotilla which toured ports during the summer of 1889. Zhiyuan's sole action was at the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894 during the First Sino-Japanese War. During the battle, she came under heavy fire from the Japanese forces. Having been holed, Deng ordered for the ship to ram an opposing vessel. She was destroyed as she closed, either by a hit on one of her torpedo tubes, or from a Japanese torpedo. This attack, and the subsequent story of her captain and his dog have become embedded in popular culture in the People's Republic of China. A replica of the Zhiyuan was constructed in 2014 at the Port of Dandong, while the wreck was discovered in 2013 after a 16-year search. ## Design and description At the time that Zhiyuan was ordered in October 1885, there was a debate in naval circles over the differences between armored cruisers and protected cruisers. Viceroy of Zhili province, Li Hongzhang, was in Europe to order ships from builders in Western nations. He was unable to decide between the two types, so in an experiment, he placed orders for two vessels of each type. The order for the two Zhiyuen-class cruiser protected cruisers was given to Armstrong Whitworth in Elswick, England, known as the leading builder of this type of vessels during this period. Zhiyuen was 268 feet (82 metres) long overall. She had a beam of 38 ft (12 m) and a draught of 15 ft (4.6 m). Zhiyuen displaced 2,300 long tons (2,300 tonnes), and carried a crew of 204–260 officers and enlisted men. She was equipped with an internal protective armoured deck, which was 4 inches (10 centimetres) thick on the slopes and 3 in (7.6 cm) on the flat. The superstructure was divided into watertight compartments, and had a raised forecastle and poop, a single funnel, and two masts. She was powered by a compound-expansion steam engine with four boilers, driving two screws. This provided 6,850 indicated horsepower (5,110 kW) for a top speed of 18.5 knots (34.3 km/h; 21.3 mph). The ship was equipped with electrics and hydraulics throughout, which included the movement of the shot from the ammunition lockers to the guns. Earlier protected cruisers, such as the Chinese cruiser Chaoyong had been equipped with a small number of 10 in (25 cm) main guns but, although larger than this ship, Zhiyuen was built with a higher freeboard to improve her seaworthiness over the smaller vessel. The resultant topweight considerations resulting from the desire to mount the main armament atop the forecastle and poop necessitated that she be armed with slightly smaller (and thus lighter) main guns than the Chaoyong. The main armament consisting of three breech-loading 8 in (20 cm) Krupp guns, two paired on a hydraulics powered rotating platform in front of the ship and a single gun mounted on a manual rotating platform in the stern, was still a powerful armament for a cruiser of her size. Both mounts were protected by 2 inches (5.1 cm) thick gun shields. The secondary armament consisted of two 6 in (15 cm) Armstrong guns mounted on sponsons on either side of the deck, compared to the four limited-traverse 4.7-inch breech-loading guns carried by the Chaoyong. The ship also had eight QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns on Vavasseur mountings, two QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight 1-pounder guns to supplement her main guns in attack or for close-range torpedo defence. Zhiyuen was also equipped with weapons other than naval artillery, which included six gatling guns as well as four above water mounted torpedo tubes. One pair of the torpedo tubes was mounted forward, and another pair mounted aft where they were activated using electricity from the captain's cabin. ## Service history Following the orders for the two protected cruisers by Li Hongzhang in October 1885, Zhiyuan was laid down later that month on 20 October. Construction continued throughout 1886, with the ship launched on 29 September. She was officially completed on 23 July 1887. Both Zhiyuan and her sister ship was Jingyuan were laid down at the same time, but despite Zhiyuen being launched six weeks earlier than Jingyuan, she was completed two weeks later than her sister. Following completion, both ships, along with the two armored cruisers Jingyuan and Laiyuan, as well as a newly built Chinese torpedo boat, converged in the solent near Portsmouth in August 1887. Imperial Chinese Admiral William M. Lang, formerly of the Royal Navy, was sent back to Europe to take command of the squadron as they travelled to China. With the exception of a handful of Western advisors, the ships were manned by Chinese crews. Zhiyuen was under the command of Captain Deng Shichang. While in the Solent, they were inspected by Hongzhang. It had been anticipated that they would immediately be underway for the passage to China, but following the loss of an anchor and some urgent repairs, they left on 12 September. They arrived in Amoy (now Xiamen) in November, where they remained during the winter before joining up with the Beiyang Fleet in Shanghai in the spring. During 1888, Zhiyuen was repainted along with the rest of the Chinese Navy, changing from the all grey scheme she had sailed from England with, to a combination of a black hull, white above the waterline and buff coloured funnels, typical of the Victorian era. In May 1889, Zhiyuen and the Beiyang Fleet were moved to fortify Weihaiwei (now Weihai). During the summer of that year, she was part of the flotilla led by Admiral Ding Ruchang, which travelled to Chefoo (now Yantai), Chemlupo (now Incheon, South Korea), and the Imperial Russian Navy base of Vladivostok. On the return leg of the journey, they stopped at Fusan (now Busan, South Korea). ### Battle of the Yalu River Zhiyuen first saw action during one of the opening engagements of the First Sino-Japanese War, in the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894. Each Chinese ship was paired with another in a supporting role in case of a signalling failure, with Zhiyuen and her sister ship grouped together. Shortly after the start of the battle, Admiral Ruchang's signalling mast aboard Dingyuan was disabled by its own weapons. This meant that the entire Chinese fleet operated in these pairs throughout the battle without any central organisation. By 2:00 pm, Zhiyuen was engaged with the corvette Hiei, it having been left behind by the faster vessels of the main Japanese formation. Hiei broke from the engagement to pass directly between the two Dingyuan-class ironclads Dingyuan and Zhenyuan in an attempt to catch up with the other members of the formation, being greatly damaged in the process. A squadron of Japanese vessels consisting of the cruisers Yoshino, Takachiho, Akitsushima, and Naniwa operated together throughout the battle. As mid afternoon approached, the squadron turned their attention to Zhiyuan and her sister ship; the faster Japanese vessels circled the Chinese pair, raking them with fire. She began listing to starboard, having started taking on water from a hole in the hull. Captain Deng gave the order for the ship to ram a Japanese cruiser, but as she closed, a hit by a 10 in (25 cm) shell on one of Zhiyuan's torpedo tubes caused an explosion; she sank at around 3:30 pm. Alternative reports have suggested that Zhiyuan was actually torpedoed. Of the 246 officers and men on board, only seven survived. American Philo McGiffin, who was on board Zhenyuan, reported after the battle that there had been a variety of stories about the fate of the ship, but one that the survivors agreed on was the tale of the interaction between Captain Deng and his dog. As the ship went down, the captain ended up clinging to a piece of debris. However, his dog swam to him. Deng released the debris, and unable to swim, he drowned along with the dog. Chinese sources have subsequently stated Captain Deng made the decision to go down with Zhiyuan. In this retelling, the dog attempted to drag him to safety, but he refused to be moved and both died. ## Legacy ### Popular culture The story of Deng's order to ram the Yoshino and his subsequent refusal to leave his ship as it sank has resulted in him being placed in popular culture as a national hero, particularly following the formation of the People's Republic of China. Deng, and the events on the Zhuyuan are repeated in school textbooks in China, where they praise his actions while also criticising Li Hongzhang. The People's Liberation Army Navy training ship Shichang, was named after Deng. As a result, Zhiyuan has received many mentions and appearances in historical reenactments, such as the 1962 Changchun Film Studio movie Naval Battle of 1894 which concentrated on Deng's actions in the Battle of the Yalu River. This particular film ends in a sequence wherein Zhiyuan attempts to ram the Yoshino, before cutting to waves hitting rocks on a shoreline with Deng's face superimposed. Deng and the Zhiyuan appeared in the 2003 Chinese television series Towards the Republic, in which he was described as a strict but honourable captain whose ship's company respects him and his authority. ### Reconstruction To commemorate this period of history, in 2014, China invested 37 million yuan to construct a replica Zhiyuan under construction at the Port of Dandong, near to the mouth of the Yalu River. The construction of the replica was undertaken by Dandong Shipbuilding Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. at the same scale as the original. The new Zhiyuan will be a floating museum. Inside will be artifacts and records of Zhiyuan, the Beiyang Fleet, the First Sino-Japanese War and life-at-sea exhibits. ### Excavation of the wreck From 1997 onwards, there have been attempts to locate the wreckage of the Zhiyuan. During a dredging process near the mouth of the Yalu discovered hull fragments from the Chinese vessels. In 2013, a shipwreck was discovered near Dandong Port and subsequently code-named "Dandong No 1". After an almost two year long investigation, it was officially confirmed as the wreck of Zhiyuan. Further excavation work then ensued 59 kilometres (37 mi) south of the Yalu. Over 100 items have since been salvaged from Zhiyuan, including weapons, parts of the ship, and items related to the daily life of the crew. A broken china plate bearing the name of Zhiyuan was found, which helped to identify the vessel. Naval historian Chen Yue stressed the importance of finding common living items to those researching the Sino-Japanese War and expressed a high hope of discovering the official seal of the vessel. He said, "The ship seal was invariably made of good materials and stored in a sturdy box. It is highly possible that we can find it." During the excavation, the bodies of seven of the crew were recovered. The idea of floating the wreck was initially discontinued due to the risk of structural collapse, but plans to raise the vessel have not yet been finalized. It is intended for the artifacts to be displayed at a new museum, located in nearby Dandong.
52,726	Green Day	1,173,903,696	American rock band	[ "1987 establishments in California", "Adeline Records artists", "Alternative rock groups from California", "American musical trios", "American power pop groups", "American punk rock groups", "Brit Award winners", "Grammy Award winners", "Green Day", "Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners", "Kerrang! Awards winners", "MTV Video Music Award winners", "Musical groups established in 1987", "Musical groups from Berkeley, California", "Musical quartets", "Pop punk groups from California", "Punk rock groups from California", "Reprise Records artists", "Skate punk groups", "Warner Music Group artists" ]	Green Day is an American rock band formed in the East Bay of California in 1987 by lead vocalist and guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong, together with bassist and backing vocalist Mike Dirnt. For most of the band's career, they have been a power trio with drummer Tré Cool, who replaced John Kiffmeyer in 1990 before the recording of the band's second studio album, Kerplunk (1991). Touring guitarist Jason White became a full-time member from 2012 to 2016. Before taking its current name in 1989, Green Day was called Sweet Children, and they were part of the late 1980s/early 1990s Bay Area punk scene that emerged from the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California. The band's early releases were with the independent record label Lookout! Records. In 1994, their major-label debut Dookie, released through Reprise Records, became a breakout success and eventually shipped over 10 million copies in the U.S. Alongside fellow California punk bands Bad Religion, the Offspring, Rancid, NOFX, Pennywise and Social Distortion, Green Day is credited with popularizing mainstream interest in punk rock in the U.S. Though the albums Insomniac (1995), Nimrod (1997), and Warning (2000) did not match the success of Dookie, they were still successful, with the first two reaching double platinum status, while the last achieved gold. Green Day's seventh album, a rock opera called American Idiot (2004), found popularity with a younger generation, selling six million copies in the U.S. Their next album, 21st Century Breakdown, was released in 2009 and achieved the band's best chart performance. It was followed by a trilogy of albums, ¡Uno!, ¡Dos!, and ¡Tré!, released in September, November, and December 2012, respectively. The trilogy did not perform as well as expected commercially, in comparison to their previous albums, largely due to a lack of promotion and Armstrong entering rehab. Their twelfth studio album, Revolution Radio, was released in October 2016 and became their third to debut at No. 1 on the Billboard 200. The band's thirteenth studio album, Father of All Motherfuckers, was released on February 7, 2020, and was their final album released by Reprise. The band's fourteenth studio album is planned to come out early 2024. In 2010, a stage adaptation of American Idiot debuted on Broadway. The musical was nominated for three Tony Awards: Best Musical, Best Scenic Design, and Best Lighting Design, winning the latter two. The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015, their first year of eligibility. Members of the band have collaborated on the side projects Pinhead Gunpowder, the Network, Foxboro Hot Tubs, the Longshot, and the Coverups. They have also worked on solo careers. Green Day has sold more than 75 million records worldwide, making them one of the world's bestselling artists. The group has been nominated for 20 Grammy awards and has won five of them with Best Alternative Album for Dookie, Best Rock Album for American Idiot and 21st Century Breakdown, Record of the Year for "Boulevard of Broken Dreams", and Best Musical Show Album for American Idiot: The Original Broadway Cast Recording. ## History ### Formation and Lookout! years (1987–1993) In 1987, friends and guitarists Billie Joe Armstrong and Mike Dirnt, 15 years old at the time, along with bassist Sean Hughes and drummer Raj Punjabi, formed a band under the name Sweet Children. One of their first songs written together was "Best Thing in Town". The group's first live performance took place on October 17, 1987, at Rod's Hickory Pit in Vallejo, California. In 1988, Armstrong and Dirnt began working with former Isocracy drummer John Kiffmeyer, also known as "Al Sobrante", who replaced original drummer Raj Punjabi. It was also around this time that bassist Sean Hughes left the band, causing Dirnt to switch from guitar to bass. Armstrong cites the band Operation Ivy (which featured Tim Armstrong and Matt Freeman, who would later contact Armstrong to fill in as a possible second guitarist for their band Rancid) as a major influence, and a group that inspired him to form a band. In 1988, Larry Livermore, owner of Lookout! Records, saw the band play an early show and signed the group to his label. In April 1989, the band released its debut extended play, 1,000 Hours. Shortly before the EP's release, the group dropped the Sweet Children name; according to Livermore, this was done to avoid confusion with another local band Sweet Baby. The band adopted the name Green Day, due to the members' fondness for cannabis. The phrase, "Green day", was slang in the Bay Area, where the band originated, for spending a day doing nothing but smoking marijuana. Armstrong once admitted in 2001 that he considered it to be "the worst band name in the world". Lookout! released Green Day's debut studio album, 39/Smooth in early 1990. Green Day recorded two extended plays later that year, Slappy and Sweet Children, the latter of which included older songs that the band had recorded for the Minneapolis independent record label Skene! Records. In 1991, Lookout! Records re-released 39/Smooth under the name 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours, and added the songs from the band's first two EPs, Slappy, and 1,000 Hours. In late 1990, shortly after the band's first nationwide tour, Kiffmeyer left the East Bay area to attend Humboldt State University in Arcata, California. The Lookouts' drummer Tré Cool began filling in as a temporary replacement and later Cool's position as Green Day's drummer became permanent, which Kiffmeyer "graciously accepted". The band went on tour for most of 1992 and 1993, and played a number of shows overseas in Europe. The band's second studio album Kerplunk sold 50,000 copies in the U.S. Green Day supported another California punk band, Bad Religion, as an opening act for their Recipe for Hate Tour for most of 1993. ### Signing with Reprise Records and breakthrough success (1993–1995) Kerplunks underground success led to interest from some major record labels and a bidding war to sign Green Day. The band eventually left Lookout! and signed with Reprise Records after attracting the attention of producer Rob Cavallo. The group was impressed by his work with the fellow Californian band the Muffs and later remarked that Cavallo "was the only person we could talk to and connect with". Reflecting on the period, Armstrong told Spin magazine in 1999, "I couldn't go back to the punk scene, whether we were the biggest success in the world or the biggest failure ... The only thing I could do was get on my bike and go forward." After signing with Reprise, the band went to work on recording its major-label debut, Dookie. On September 3, 1993, Green Day played their last show at 924 Gilman under the pseudonym Blair Hess before being banned permanently for their major label signing. Recorded in three weeks, and released in February 1994, Dookie became a commercial success, helped by extensive MTV airplay for the videos of the songs "Longview", "Basket Case", and "When I Come Around", all of which reached the number one position on the Modern Rock Tracks charts. The album went on to sell over 10 million copies in the US. At a performance on September 9, 1994, at Hatch Memorial Shell in Boston, mayhem broke out during the band's set (cut short to seven songs) and by the end of the rampage, 100 people were injured and 45 arrested. The band also joined the lineups of both the Lollapalooza festival and Woodstock '94, where the group started an infamous mud fight. During the concert, a security guard mistook bassist Mike Dirnt for a stage-invading fan and punched out some of his teeth. Viewed by millions by pay-per-view television, the Woodstock 1994 performance further aided Green Day's growing publicity and recognition. In 1995, Dookie won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album and the band was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards including Video of the Year. In the band's homestead of the East Bay following Dookie'''s success, the band felt a sense of unwelcoming. Billie Joe Armstrong recalled aggressive glares and furtive whispers. The band's success would trickle content onto other East Bay bands such as Jawbreaker, a local favorite of Armstrong's, which garnered accusations of selling out during a concert attended by Armstrong. ### Middle years and decline in popularity (1995–2002) In 1995, a single for the Angus soundtrack was released, entitled "J.A.R.". The single debuted at number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The song was followed by the band's fourth studio album, Insomniac, which was released in fall 1995. Insomniac was a much darker and heavier response to the band's newfound popularity, compared to the more melodic Dookie. The album opened to a warm critical reception, earning 4 out of 5 stars from Rolling Stone, which said "In punk, the good stuff unfolds and gains meaning as you listen without sacrificing any of its electric, haywire immediacy. And Green Day are as good as this stuff gets." The singles released from Insomniac were "Geek Stink Breath", "Stuck with Me", "Brain Stew/Jaded", and "Walking Contradiction". Though the album did not approach the success of Dookie, it sold three million copies in the United States. The album earned the band award nominations for Favorite Artist, Favorite Hard Rock Artist, and Favorite Alternative Artist at the 1996 American Music Awards, and the video for "Walking Contradiction" got the band a Grammy nomination for Best Video, Short Form, in addition to a Best Special Effects nomination at the MTV Video Music Awards. After that, the band abruptly canceled a European tour, citing exhaustion. After a brief hiatus in 1996, Green Day began work on its next album in 1997. From the outset, both the band and Cavallo agreed that the album had to be different from its previous albums. The result was Nimrod, an experimental deviation from the band's standard melodic punk rock. The album was released in October 1997. It provided a variety of music, from punk, pop, hardcore, folk, surf rock, ska, and the acoustic ballad, "Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)". Nimrod entered the charts at number 10. The mainstream success of "Good Riddance" won the band an MTV Video Award for Best Alternative Video. The song was also used in the second "clip show" episode of Seinfeld and on two episodes of ER. The other singles released from Nimrod were "Nice Guys Finish Last", "Hitchin' a Ride" and "Redundant". The band made a guest appearance in an episode of King of the Hill, which aired in 1997. In late 1997 and most of 1998, Green Day embarked on a tour in support of Nimrod. In 1999, guitarist Jason White began supporting the band during concerts as a rhythm guitarist. In 2000, Green Day released their folk punk-inspired sixth studio album Warning. In support of the album, the band participated in the Warped Tour in 2000. In November 2000, the band performed for free on the steps on San Francisco's City Hall to protest the eviction of artists from the city in a show produced by Ian Brennan. The band also had an independent tour to support the album in 2001. Critics' reviews of the album were varied. AllMusic gave it 4.5/5 saying "Warning may not be an innovative record per se, but it's tremendously satisfying." Rolling Stone was more critical, giving it 3/5, and saying "Warning... invites the question: Who wants to listen to songs of faith, hope and social commentary from what used to be snot-core's biggest-selling band?" Though it produced the hit "Minority" and a smaller hit with "Warning", some observers were coming to the conclusion that the band was losing relevance, and a decline in popularity followed. While all of Green Day's previous albums had reached a status of at least triple platinum, Warning was only certified gold. At the 2001 California Music Awards, Green Day won all eight of the awards for which the group was nominated. The group won the awards for Outstanding Album (Warning), Outstanding Punk Rock/Ska Album (Warning), Outstanding Group, Outstanding Male Vocalist, Outstanding Bassist, Outstanding Drummer, Outstanding Songwriter, and Outstanding Artist. The release of two compilation albums, International Superhits! and Shenanigans, followed Warning. International Superhits! and its companion collection of music videos, International Supervideos!. Shenanigans contained some of the band's B-sides, including "Espionage", which was featured in the film Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance. In spring 2002, Green Day co-headlined the Pop Disaster Tour with Blink-182, which was documented on the DVD Riding in Vans with Boys. ### American Idiot and renewed success (2003–2006) In summer 2003, the band went into a studio to write and record material for an album, tentatively titled Cigarettes and Valentines. After completing 20 tracks, the master recordings were stolen from the studio. Instead of re-recording the stolen tracks, the band decided to abandon the entire project and start over, considering the taken material to be unrepresentative of the band's best work. It was then revealed that a band called the Network was signed to Armstrong's record label Adeline Records with little fanfare and information. After the band, who concealed their identities with masks and costumes, released an album called Money Money 2020, it was rumored that the Network was a Green Day side project, due to the similarities in the bands' sounds. However, these rumors were never addressed by the band or Adeline Records, except for a statement on the Adeline website discussing an ongoing dispute between the two bands. The bands "feuded" via press releases and statements from Armstrong. Several journalists openly referred to the group as a Green Day side project, although it was not confirmed as such until 2013. Green Day collaborated with Iggy Pop on two tracks for his album Skull Ring in November 2003. On February 1, 2004, a cover of "I Fought the Law" made its debut on a commercial for iTunes during NFL Super Bowl XXXVIII. Finally, American Idiot was released in September 2004 and debuted at number one on the Billboard charts, the band's first album to reach number one, backed by the success of the album's first single, "American Idiot". The album was labeled as a punk rock opera which follows the journey of the fictitious "Jesus of Suburbia". The album depicts modern American life under the control of an idiot ruler who lets people be misinformed by the media and a "redneck agenda". It gives different angles on an everyman, modern icons, and leaders. Released two months before U.S. President George W. Bush was reelected, the album became protest art. The album went on to sell 6 million copies in the US. American Idiot won the 2005 Grammy for Best Rock Album and was nominated in six other categories including Album of the Year. The album helped Green Day win seven of the eight awards it was nominated for at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards; the "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" video won six of those awards. A year later, "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year. In 2009, Kerrang! named American Idiot the best album of the decade, NME ranked it number 60 in a similar list, and Rolling Stone ranked it 22nd. Rolling Stone also listed "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" and "American Idiot" among the 100 best songs of the 2000s, at number 65 and 47, respectively. In 2005, the album was ranked number 420 in Rock Hard magazine's book The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. In 2012, the album was ranked number 225 on Rolling Stones list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. While touring for American Idiot, the group filmed and recorded the two concerts at the Milton Keynes National Bowl in England. These recordings were released as a live CD and DVD called Bullet in a Bible on November 15, 2005. The DVD featured behind-the-scenes footage of the band, and showed how the band prepared to put on the show. The final shows of its 2005 world tour were in Sydney and Melbourne in Australia, on December 14 and 17, respectively. On August 1, 2005, Green Day announced that it had rescinded the master rights to its pre-Dookie material from Lookout! Records, citing a continuing breach of contract regarding unpaid royalties, a complaint shared with other Lookout! bands. On January 10, 2006, the band was awarded a People's Choice Award as favorite musical group or band. ### 21st Century Breakdown and American Idiot's stage adaptation (2007–2010) Green Day engaged in many other smaller projects in the time following the success of American Idiot. In 2008, the group released a garage rock–inspired album under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs entitled Stop Drop and Roll!!! The Foxboro Hot Tubs went on a mini-tour during the same year to promote the record, hitting tiny Bay Area venues including the Stork Club in Oakland and Toot's Tavern in Crockett, California. In an interview with Carson Daly, Garbage lead singer Shirley Manson revealed that Butch Vig would be producing Green Day's forthcoming album. The span of nearly five years between American Idiot and 21st Century Breakdown was the longest gap between studio albums in Green Day's career. The band had been working on new material since January 2006. By October 2007, Armstrong had 45 songs written, but the band showed no further signs of progress until October 2008, when two videos showing the band recording in the studio with producer Butch Vig were posted on YouTube. The writing and recording process, spanning three years and four recording studios, was finally finished in April 2009. 21st Century Breakdown, was released on May 15, 2009. The album received a mainly positive reception from critics, getting an average rating between 3 and 4 stars. After the release, the album reached number one in fourteen countries, being certified gold or platinum in each. 21st Century Breakdown achieved Green Day's best chart performance to date. The band started playing shows in California in April and early May. These were the group's first live shows in about three years. Green Day went on a world tour that started in North America in July 2009 and continuing around the world throughout the rest of 2009 and early 2010. The album won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards on January 31, 2010. As of December 2010, 21st Century Breakdown has sold 1,005,000 copies in the US. Wal-Mart refused to carry the album as it contains a Parental Advisory sticker and requested that Green Day release a censored edition. The band members did not wish to change any lyrics on the album and responded by stating, "There's nothing dirty about our record... They want artists to censor their records in order to be carried in there. We just said no. We've never done it before. You feel like you're in 1953 or something." In 2009, the band met with award-winning director Michael Mayer and many cast and crew members of the Tony Award-winning musical Spring Awakening to create a stage version of the album American Idiot. American Idiot opened in the Berkeley Repertory Theatre during the end of 2009. The show features an expanded story of the original album, with new characters such as Will, Extraordinary Girl, and Favorite Son. On April 20, 2010, American Idiot opened on Broadway, and Green Day released the soundtrack to the musical, featuring a new song by Green Day entitled "When It's Time". In June 2010 iTunes released "When It's Time" as a single. During the Spike TV Video Game Awards 2009, it was announced that Green Day was set to have its own Rock Band video game titled Green Day: Rock Band, as a follow-up to the last band specific Rock Band game, The Beatles: Rock Band. The game features the full albums of Dookie, American Idiot, and 21st Century Breakdown as well as select songs from the rest of Green Day's discography. During the second leg of the 21st Century Breakdown World Tour the band members stated that they were writing new material. In an interview with Kerrang! magazine, Armstrong spoke about the possible new album: "We did some demos in Berlin, some in Stockholm, some just outside of Glasgow and some in Amsterdam. We wanted get [the songs] down in some early form." The band members also stated that the group was recording a live album of the tour, featuring the previously unreleased song "Cigarettes and Valentines". In October 2010, Dirnt was interviewed by Radio W, mentioning that the group had completed the writing process of the ninth studio album. In the interview, Dirnt also mentioned that a new live album would "most likely" be released. The live CD/DVD and CD/Blu-ray entitled Awesome as Fuck was released on March 22, 2011. ### ¡Uno! ¡Dos! ¡Tré! (2011–2014) During the end of 2011, the band played several secret shows (under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs) whose setlists consisted almost entirely of previously unheard songs. Green Day entered the studio and began recording new material in February 2012, later announcing a trilogy of albums titled ¡Uno!, ¡Dos!, and ¡Tré! which would be released in fall 2012. The trilogy marked longtime touring guitarist Jason White's induction as the fourth member of the band. That summer Green Day played several festivals and promotional shows including the Rock en Seine festival in France, the Rock am See festival in Germany, and the Reading Festival in the United Kingdom. ¡Uno!, ¡Dos!, and ¡Tré! were released on September 21, November 9, and December 7, 2012, respectively, and were met with generally positive reviews from critics, though fans were more lukewarm towards the albums. On January 22, 2013, the band announced that ¡Cuatro!, a documentary about the making of ¡Uno!, ¡Dos! and ¡Tré!, would premiere on January 26 in Aspen, Colorado as part of the X Games FILM showcase, and would be released on DVD April 9, 2013. Another documentary was announced called Broadway Idiot which focuses on the creation on the American Idiot musical and Armstrong's run as playing the character of St. Jimmy. On March 10, 2013, Green Day began its 99 Revolutions Tour to support the trilogy. In June, Green Day broke Emirates Stadium attendance record with 60,000 tickets sold. The band played Dookie from start to finish on several dates on the tour's European leg, including during the Reading Festival 2013 headline show. Demolicious, a compilation album that contains alternate versions and demos of songs from ¡Uno!, ¡Dos! and ¡Tré! recorded during the studio sessions of these albums, was released on April 19, 2014, for Record Store Day. It also contains a previously unreleased song called "State of Shock" and an acoustic version of "Stay the Night", from ¡Uno!. ### Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Revolution Radio (2014–2018) Green Day performed its first concert in a year on April 16, 2015. The group first played a set as Sweet Children with John Kiffmeyer, followed by a set as Green Day. On April 18, 2015, Green Day were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Fall Out Boy. On April 24, 2015, Rob Cavallo revealed Green Day were recording a twelfth studio album. Cavallo claimed to have heard "five new songs that Billie has written and demoed", and that the fans should be "sure that when they do return, the music will be amazing". On December 24, 2015, Green Day released a Christmas song, "Xmas Time of the Year". On August 11, 2016, Green Day released the first single, "Bang Bang", from the group's album Revolution Radio, which was released on October 7, 2016. Jason White did not participate in the album's recording sessions and he returned to his role as a touring member. The band went on a world tour supporting the album. In November 2016, the band performed at the American Music Awards in Los Angeles and made a political statement about the then-recent US election of Donald Trump by chanting "No Trump, No KKK, No Fascist USA" during their rendition of "Bang Bang". Aaron Burgess at Alternative Press observed, "It's the first time in years Green Day haven't had all the answers. But as a statement on how it feels to fight, it's the closest to the truth they've ever gotten." Gwilym Mumford of The Guardian stated "[after their last few albums] the band have decided to get back to basics: Revolution Radio is their most focused work in years. Lead single "Bang Bang" sets the tone, with a caustic consideration of the fame-hungry psychosis of a mass shooter. The band released their second greatest hits compilation, God's Favorite Band, on November 17, 2017. It contains 20 of their hits, along with two new tracks: a different version of the Revolution Radio track "Ordinary World", featuring country singer Miranda Lambert, and a previously unreleased song titled "Back in the USA". ### Father of All Motherfuckers and upcoming fourteenth album (2019–present) On April 13, 2019, for Record Store Day, the band released their Woodstock 1994 performance on vinyl for the first time. It contains all 9 songs they played live, as well as audio of the ensuing mud fight. On September 10, 2019, the band announced the Hella Mega Tour with Fall Out Boy and Weezer as headliners alongside themselves, with the Interrupters as the opening act. They also released the single, "Father of All..." off their thirteenth album, Father of All Motherfuckers. The same day, in an interview with KROQ, Armstrong announced the band would be parting ways with Reprise after the album's release, as they were off their contract with Warner. On September 30, 2019, Green Day signed a two-year agreement with the National Hockey League (NHL). The album's second single, "Fire, Ready, Aim", was released on October 9, 2019. The album's third single, "Oh Yeah!", was released on January 16, 2020. The album was released on February 7, 2020. The album's fourth single, "Meet Me on the Roof", was released on the same day as the album. On April 6, 2020, Armstrong revealed that he had written six songs intending to record new music with the band once the COVID-19 pandemic had passed. On May 21, 2020, the band released a cover of Blondie's "Dreaming". On October 30, 2020, the band's secret side project, the Network, teased upcoming activity with a video entitled "The Prophecy" and mentioned their upcoming sequel album. Then on November 2, 2020, the Network released a music video for their first song in 17 years, named "Ivankkka Is a Nazi". After a couple of weeks of small hints on social media, as well as Green Day claiming they were not the Network, the band released an EP on November 20, 2020, titled Trans Am. On December 4, 2020, the Network released their second album Money Money 2020 Part II: We Told Ya So!. In February 2021, Green Day announced a single, titled "Here Comes the Shock", which was later released on February 21, 2021. The band would release a remastered version of Insomniac in March for the belated 25th anniversary of the album's release, with bonus live tracks. On May 17, 2021, Green Day released the single "Pollyanna". The reshuffled Hella Mega Tour would take place in the United States from July to September 2021, and the United Kingdom in June and July 2022. Between legs, on November 5, 2021, the band released the single "Holy Toledo!". BBC Sessions, the fourth live album by Green Day, was released on December 10, 2021. Eight days later, they put out a teaser video with the captions "RAK Studios. London, England. Green Day. 1972". In 2022, Green Day played a handful of major festivals in the United States, including Lollapalooza and Outside Lands. The band also played a surprise Lollapalooza aftershow set at Metro Chicago on July 29, a set that was mostly improvised. The set included their first performances of "Church on Sunday" and "Warning" since 2001, and also included fan favorite deep tracks "Whatsername", "Letterbomb", and "Murder City". On October 26, 2022, Green Day was announced as a headliner for the fifth annual Innings Festival in Arizona. In November 2022, the band stated they were recording for a new studio album. The album is to release in early 2024. The band played a new song titled "1981" from their upcoming album during their live performance in the Festival d'été de Québec on July 16, 2023. ## Musical style and influences Green Day's sound is often compared to first wave American and British punk rock bands such as the Ramones, Sex Pistols, the Clash, the Dickies, and Buzzcocks. Stylistically, several publications have characterized as punk rock, pop-punk, skate punk, melodic punk, alternative rock, and power pop. Critics have disputed the qualification of the band as power pop. The band has casually explored other musical styles including post-punk and pop-rock with 21st Century Breakdown, and garage rock on ¡Dos! and Father of All... Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described Green Day as "punk revivalists who recharged the energy of speedy, catchy three-chord punk-pop songs." Among the labels of the band by critics, members Billie Joe Armstrong and Tre Cool have stated in interviews with Livewire and Kerrang! self-describing Green Day as just a punk rock band. While Armstrong is the band's primary songwriter, he looks to the other band members for organizational help. Billie Joe Armstrong has mentioned that some of his biggest influences are seminal hardcore punk bands Hüsker Dü and the Replacements, and that their influence is particularly noted in the band's chord changes in songs. Green Day has covered Hüsker Dü's "Don't Want to Know If You Are Lonely" as a B-side to the "Warning" single, and the character "Mr. Whirly" in the group's song "Misery" is a reference to the Replacements song of the same name. Southern California-based hardcore bands Social Distortion and Bad Religion have also been cited as influences. Green Day would cover the former's song "Another State of Mind" from their 1983 debut release, Mommy's Little Monster as a bonus track for 21st Century Breakdown. Outside of their punk influences, Green Day have also cited hard rock bands the Kinks, the Who, and Cheap Trick. In August 1996, Billie Joe Armstrong told Guitar World he "can remember a few different instances" of when he first discovered punk rock: "There were these two guys who introduced me to things like D.O.A. and the Dead Kennedys. Then, in the seventh grade, there was a girl at school who would bring in records like T.S.O.L. and say, 'Here, listen to this.'" Armstrong said he thinks he "really started getting into" punk rock "in 1987 with Turn It Around!, a double seven-inch compilation record put out by [punk fanzine] Maximumrocknroll." Armstrong cited Turn It Around! as an influence, calling it "a pretty big record" for him. Armstrong would also cite fellow East Bay punk bands Operation Ivy, Jawbreaker, and Crimpshrine as influences. Tré Cool has stated that the band is influenced by music that they did not like, naming artists like Hall & Oates, Cyndi Lauper and other 1980s music. Although Green Day has been compared to the Buzzcocks, the Ramones and the Clash, Mike Dirnt said he had never heard the Buzzcocks when Green Day began. Dirnt said: "First off, you can't sound like any of those bands. And secondly, those are probably the last ones in my record collection." Armstrong responded to Dirnt, saying: "Mine too. Those are all bands I got into later." The Dickies is another band Green Day has been compared to. Dirnt said he "never owned a Dickies album, although" he "did see" the Dickies live "around the time of" Kerplunk!. Dirnt said "by that time, we'd played so many shows it had no bearing." Armstrong referred to the Dickies as "just another Ramones rip-off". Although in August 1996, Armstrong said bands like the Ramones are bands he listened to later, in June 2010, Armstrong cited the Ramones as an influence. He also said his "range of favorite songwriters goes anywhere from the Sex Pistols to Lennon–McCartney." During the American Idiot and 21st Century Breakdown era of Green Day, the band was influenced by the Who, U2, Motown albums, and musicals such as Grease. Billie Joe Armstrong regularly invites musicians at Green Day concerts onstage to substitute for the band members on guitar, bass and drums, often letting the guest musicians keep the instruments they used during their guest spots. Armstrong explains, "I remember being a kid and seeing Van Halen play. I was, like, 12, and Eddie would come out, and I'd go, 'God, it would be so cool to be up there and do what he's doing So I was always keeping that in mind, subconsciously that's basically what ended up happening, breaking down the barrier between the band and the audience." ## Legacy The band's 1991 album Kerplunk is one of the bestselling independent albums of all time, selling over 4.5 million copies worldwide. It was also listed in 100 greatest indie albums by Blender in 2007. Green Day is credited (alongside Bad Religion, the Offspring, NOFX, Social Distortion, and Rancid) with popularizing mainstream interest in punk rock in the United States, particularly with the album Dookie, which was cited by Fuse as the most important pop-punk album of all time, the best alternative album of 1994 by Rolling Stone, and as one of the best punk rock albums of all time by Rolling Stone, Kerrang!, Revolver, and LA Weekly. It was also placed on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "Definitive 200" list of 200 classic albums. Both Dookie and American Idiot appeared on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2011, they were voted best punk rock band of all time by Rolling Stone. Diffuser.fm listed Dookie as the greatest album of the 90s. Green Day has sold more than 90 million records worldwide making them one of the highest-selling artists of all time. The group has been nominated for 20 Grammy awards and has won five of them with Best Alternative Album for Dookie, Best Rock Album for American Idiot and 21st Century Breakdown, Record of the Year for "Boulevard of Broken Dreams", and Best Musical Show Album for American Idiot: The Original Broadway Cast Recording. In 2010, a stage adaptation of American Idiot debuted on Broadway. The musical was nominated for three Tony Awards: The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2015, their first year of eligibility. The band has been cited as an influence by a variety of artists, including Alkaline Trio, Avril Lavigne, AFI, Fall Out Boy, Blink-182, Joyce Manor, Lady Gaga, Wavves, Fidlar, Tegan and Sara, the Menzingers, New Found Glory, Prince Daddy & the Hyena, Bowling for Soup and Sum 41. ## Related projects Since 1991, members of the band have branched out past Green Day, starting other projects with various musicians. Notable projects related to Green Day include Billie Joe Armstrong's Pinhead Gunpowder with Jason White and the Longshot with Jeff Matika, the Frustrators with Mike Dirnt, and the Network, a collaboration between Green Day and friends in which all members play under fake stage names. Green Day has also released an album titled Stop Drop and Roll!!! on May 20, 2008, under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs, which the band uses to book secret shows. In late December 2011, Armstrong formed a family band called the Boo which recorded a one-off Christmas record for their friends and family making a few copies available in a local store. Since January 2018, Armstrong, Dirnt and White have played in the band the Coverups along with Green Day audio engineer Chris Dugan and tour manager Bill Schneider. The band sporadically performs one-off shows, usually in small clubs, and cover the songs of classic rock and alternative rock bands such as Cheap Trick, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, the Clash, and Nirvana. In September 2006, Green Day collaborated with U2 and producer Rick Rubin to record a cover of the song "The Saints Are Coming", originally recorded by the Skids, with an accompanying video. The song was recorded to benefit Music Rising, an organization to help raise money for musicians' instruments lost during Hurricane Katrina, and to bring awareness on the eve of the one-year anniversary of the disaster. In December 2006, Green Day and NRDC opened a web site in partnership to raise awareness on America's dependency on oil. Green Day released a cover of the John Lennon song "Working Class Hero", which was featured on the album Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur. The band performed the song on the season finale of American Idol. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2008 but lost to the White Stripes' "Icky Thump". That summer, the band appeared in a cameo role in The Simpsons Movie, where the band performed a rock version of the show's theme song. Their version of it was released as a single on July 23, 2007. In 2009, the band collaborated with theater director Michael Mayer to adapt the group's rock opera American Idiot into a one-act stage musical that premiered at the Berkeley Rep on September 15, 2009. The show then moved to Broadway on April 20, 2010. The reviews of American Idiot: The Musical have been positive to mixed. Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote an enthusiastic review for the Broadway production. He called the show "a pulsating portrait of wasted youth that invokes all the standard genre conventions ... only to transcend them through the power of its music and the artistry of its execution, the show is as invigorating and ultimately as moving as anything I've seen on Broadway this season. Or maybe for a few seasons past." Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald enjoyed the premise of the show but found that "the music and message suffer in a setting where the audience is politely, soberly seated". Michael Kuchiwara of the Associated Press found the show to be "visually striking [and] musically adventurous", but noted that "the show has the barest wisp of a story and minimal character development". Paul Kolnik in USA Today enjoyed the contradiction that Green Day's "massively popular, starkly disenchanted album ... would be the feel-good musical of the season". Time magazine's Richard Zoglin opined that the score "is as pure a specimen of contemporary punk rock as Broadway has yet encountered, [yet] there's enough variety. ... Where the show falls short is as a fully developed narrative." He concluded that "American Idiot, despite its earnest huffing and puffing, remains little more than an annotated rock concert. ... Still, [it] deserves at least two cheers—for its irresistible musical energy and for opening fresh vistas for that odd couple, rock and Broadway." Peter Travers from Rolling Stone, in his review of American Idiot, wrote "Though American Idiot carries echoes of such rock musicals as Tommy, Hair, Rent and Spring Awakening, it cuts its own path to the heart. You won't know what hit you. American Idiot knows no limits—it's a global knockout." The musical has been nominated for three Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Scenic Design. It was also nominated for several Drama Desk Awards and Outer Critics Circle Awards. In October 2009, a Green Day art project was exhibited at StolenSpace Gallery in London. The exhibition showed artworks created for each of the songs on 21st Century Breakdown, was supported by the band, and led by the group's manager Pat Magnarella. He explained in an interview that "[Artists are] basically like rock bands. Most are creating their art, but don't know how to promote it." For Billie Joe Armstrong, "Many of the artists... show their work on the street, and we feel a strong connection to that type of creative expression." On April 13, 2011, a film version of American Idiot was confirmed. Michael Mayer, director of the Broadway musical, will be directing the film. It will be produced by Green Day, Pat Magnarella (Green Day's manager who also produced Bullet in a Bible, Awesome as Fuck, and Heart Like a Hand Grenade), Playtone (Tom Hanks and Gary Goetzman) and Tom Hulce. However, in February 2020, Billie Joe Armstrong revealed to NME that plans for a film adaptation of the stage musical had been "pretty much scrapped", without providing anymore details as to the reason. On January 23, 2013, it was announced that a documentary showing Armstrong's journey from punk rock to Broadway was to be released. Called Broadway Idiot and showing a lot of behind-the-scenes of the American Idiot musical production, the movie was directed by Doug Hamilton, veteran television journalist for CBS News' 60 Minutes and PBS documentaries such as Nova, Frontline and American Masters. A trailer was released on January 30, 2013. The documentary premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival on March 15, 2013. Green Day served as executive producers of Turn It Around: The Story of East Bay Punk (2017), an extensive documentary film about the San Francisco Bay area punk scene from the late 1970s to the 1990s. ## Controversies Green Day has generated controversy over whether their musical style and major-label status constitutes "true punk". In reaction to both the style of music and the background of the band, John Lydon, former frontman of the 1970s punk band the Sex Pistols commented, "So there we are fending off all that and it pisses me off that years later a wank outfit like Green Day hop in and nick all that and attach it to themselves. They didn't earn their wings to do that and if they were true punk they wouldn't look anything like they do." However, others in the punk rock scene would come to the defense of the band on their punk status. Bad Religion lead guitarist Brett Gurewitz and founder of the independent punk label Epitaph Records would state, "They [Green Day] are a punk band, but you know, punk is the legacy of rock and roll, and Green Day are the biggest band in the genre." Armstrong has discussed the group's status of being a punk band on a major record label, saying, "Sometimes I think we've become redundant because we're this big band now; we've made a lot of money—we're not punk rock anymore. But then I think about it and just say, 'You can take us out of a punk rock environment, but you can't take the punk rock out of us.'" In 2021, Armstrong condemned the band's labeling as "pop-punk" by critics in a Vulture magazine interview, stating, "I never really liked that term (pop punk), it turned into sort of a genre. I never thought of myself as a pop artist. I’ve always been left of center. To say you're a pop-punker ... it never sat well with me." Armstrong acknowledged the band's more melodic punk style compared to other bands from the Bay Area scene it emerged from, but also brought up the band's performance alongside East Bay hardcore bands like Neurosis, Engage, Spitboy, Blatz, and Filth. In 2006, English rock musician Noel Gallagher of the Britpop band Oasis complained about the band semi-jokingly, claiming that the band had ripped off his song "Wonderwall" with "Boulevard of Broken Dreams". On September 21, 2012, while Green Day was performing at the iHeartRadio music festival, Armstrong stopped while performing "Basket Case", because he believed the group's time was being shortened, possibly to extend R&B artist Usher's performance. Angered, Armstrong began ranting while a screen in the rear of the audience was labeled "1 Minutes Left", saying "You're gonna give me one fucking minute? You've gotta be fucking kidding me!" He also told the crowd he "was not Justin Bieber" and labeled the festival as a "joke". When the screen went blank, Armstrong smashed his guitar, while bassist Mike Dirnt smashed his bass. Armstrong then gave the finger, and declared that Green Day would be back before throwing his microphone down and walking off the stage. Two days later, the band's representative apologized for the incident on the group's behalf stating that "Green Day would like everyone to know that their set was not cut short by Clear Channel and to apologize to those they offended at the iHeartRadio Festival in Las Vegas" also adding that Armstrong would be headed to rehab, for abuse of alcohol and prescription pills. However, Dirnt would later say in an interview with Rolling Stone that he agreed with what Armstrong meant by his rant. The band later made amends with the company and played an album release party for their 2016 release, Revolution Radio. They also returned to the festival in 2019 supporting the album Father of All Motherfuckers. On July 7, 2017, about 20 minutes before Green Day headlined Mad Cool, a festival in Madrid, an acrobat fell about 30 metres (98 ft) from a cage above the stage and died. Some fans were upset at the band and festival organizers for continuing the show, which was attended by about 35,000 people. On their website, Armstrong said the band did not know about the accident before their set, and likely would not have played if they had. ## Members Current members - Billie Joe Armstrong – lead vocals, guitars (1987–present); piano, harmonica (2000–present) - Mike Dirnt – bass (1988–present); backing and occasional lead vocals (1987–present); guitars (1987–1988) - Tré Cool – drums, percussion, backing and occasional lead vocals (1990–present) Current touring musicians - Jason White – guitars, backing vocals (1999–2012, 2016–present; official member 2012–2016) - Jason Freese – keyboards, piano, accordion, saxophone, trombone, backing vocals, occasional acoustic guitar (2004–present) - Kevin Preston – guitars, backing vocals (2019–present) Former members - Raj Punjabi – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1987) - Sean Hughes – bass (1987–1988) - John Kiffmeyer – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1987–1990; one-off guest appearance in 2015) Former touring musicians - Dave "E.C." Henwood – drums, backing vocals (1990) - Garth Schultz – trombone, trumpet (1997–1999) - Gabrial McNair – trombone, saxophone (1999–2001) - Kurt Lohmiller – trumpet, backing vocals percussion (1999–2004) - Mike Pelino – guitars, backing vocals (2004–2005) - Ronnie Blake – trumpet, backing vocals, percussion (2004–2005) - Bobby Schneck – guitars, backing vocals (2004–2005) - Jeff Matika – guitars, backing vocals (2009–2019) ### Timeline ## Awards and nominations Green Day has earned 214 award nominations and 92 wins. ## Discography Studio albums - 39/Smooth (1990) - Kerplunk (1991) - Dookie (1994) - Insomniac (1995) - Nimrod (1997) - Warning (2000) - American Idiot (2004) - 21st Century Breakdown (2009) - ¡Uno! (2012) - ¡Dos! (2012) - ¡Tré! (2012) - Revolution Radio (2016) - Father of All Motherfuckers (2020) ## See also - Green Day: Rock Band'' - List of best-selling albums in the United States
31,765,022	Awake (TV series)	1,173,609,690	American police procedural fantasy drama television series	[ "2010s American crime drama television series", "2010s American mystery television series", "2010s American police procedural television series", "2012 American television series debuts", "2012 American television series endings", "American fantasy television series", "Awake (TV series)", "English-language television shows", "Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department", "NBC original programming", "Teenage pregnancy in television", "Television series about parallel universes", "Television series by 20th Century Fox Television", "Television shows about dreams", "Television shows set in Los Angeles" ]	Awake is an American police procedural fantasy drama television series that originally aired on NBC for one season from March 1 to May 24, 2012. The pilot episode had an early release on Hulu on February 16, 2012, two weeks before the series' premiere on television. Kyle Killen, the series' creator, was primarily responsible for the program's concept. Killen and David Slade served as executive producers of the pilot episode, and Killen continued producing the series along with Jeffrey Reiner and Howard Gordon. The show's central character is Michael Britten (Jason Isaacs), a detective who works for the Los Angeles Police Department. In the first episode, Michael, his wife Hannah (Laura Allen), and their son Rex (Dylan Minnette) get into a serious car accident. After the accident, he finds himself switching between two "realities" whenever he goes to bed—one in which Hannah was killed in the accident and one in which Rex died instead—and is unable to determine which reality is true. He uses details from each reality to solve cases in the other. Awake garnered critical praise, particularly for Isaacs' performance. However, its ratings were low, averaging 4.8 million viewers per episode and sitting in 125th place in viewership for the 2011–12 season. The series was canceled after one season. ## Series overview Michael Britten, a detective with the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), and his family are involved in a car accident. After the crash, Michael is confronted with two separate realities. His wife Hannah has (apparently) survived the accident; however, in a second "reality", his son Rex survives instead. To distinguish the two realities for the viewer, Michael wears a red wristband in the first reality and a green one in the second. Michael does not know which "reality" is real; he has therapy sessions with Dr. Jonathan Lee in the "red reality" and Dr. Judith Evans in the "green", both of whom attempt to diagnose what is happening to Michael. Each therapist sees it as a coping mechanism, insisting that the other reality is a dream. Dr. Lee is confrontational about the accident, while Dr. Evans is more nurturing. In the "red reality" Hannah plans to move to Portland, Oregon, but later decides against it (partly due to Michael's objections). Before the crash Michael worked with his long-time partner, Detective Isaiah Freeman (known to his LAPD team as "Bird)". After the accident, Michael is assigned to Detective Efrem Vega in the "red reality." Vega was previously an officer, when Bird was transferred to the western division to work with Detective Ed Hawkins. In the "green reality," Michael stays with Bird and Efrem remains an officer. While working on cases in both realities, Michael begins to realize that the details of one case can help him with another case in the other reality. Due to this, he often clashes with his partners, who are unaware of his situation. Rex and Hannah grieve each other's death after the accident, coping in different ways: In the "red reality" Hannah begins to redecorate the house, while in the "green reality" Rex begins to play tennis with Hannah's former partner Tara. In "Turtles All the Way Down", in a dream Michael sees Hannah at a restaurant. He was "dreaming while he was dreaming", and Hannah told Michael to give her "one last kiss goodbye". This causes Dr. Evans to note that Michael realizes the "green reality" is life. However, soon afterwards Michael sees Rex and Hannah together and is happy. Details surrounding the accident are slowly revealed as the series progresses. Shortly after the crash, Michael's commanding officers (Tricia Harper and Carl Kessel) meet to talk about the accident and how they set up a "short" guy. Later a microphone at Ricky's Tacos speaks to Michael, claiming that if he moved to Portland he would "never know the truth". Michael slowly begins to remember what happened in the accident; after realizing that Ed caused it, he speaks with Dr. Evans and Dr. Lee. His therapists insist that he is imagining it all to help cope with the pain. However, when Michael later breaks into Ed's house Ed admits that he and an accomplice were hiding heroin at the Westfield Distribution Center; "they decided he had to go", after Michael began to uncover it. Michael does not know who "they" are, demanding that Ed tell him. Ed asks for protection before telling him, and attacks Michael when he is distracted. During the struggle Michael kills Ed, and Bird comes into the house after speaking to Dr. Evans. Michael later discovers that Carl and Tricia are involved in the setup. Tricia shoots Carl in the "green reality" (in an attempt to hide her involvement in the accident), but is later imprisoned. At the end of the series finale ("Turtles All the Way Down"), Michael sees Hannah and Rex together. Concerned about his odd behavior, they ask if he is all right. Michael replies, "I'm perfect," and closes his eyes. ## Characters ### Main characters Michael Britten (the lead character) is an LAPD detective who lives in both realities. Since he does not know which reality is "real", he has routines to help him maintain the illusion of control; however, he is also disorganized and sometimes behaves oddly. Michael is often confused, suffers from a sleep disorder and dislikes heights. He refuses treatment because he does not want closure for his family. Hannah Britten is Michael's wife, who is grieving her son's death. Rex Britten is Michael's son, a teenage student who had previously been kidnapped. After school Rex often works on a motorbike with his best friend, Cole, at Cole's house. He is emotional and angry over his mother's death, keeping a tennis racket to deal with his grief. When Cole accidentally breaks it, Rex is enraged; later, he apologizes. Efrem Vega (a detective in the "red reality") and Michael often argue about their cases, and is concerned about Michael's erratic behavior. In "The Little Guy", Vega and Michael are arguing about a case involving a short person when Captain Tricia Harper calls Michael into her office. Shortly afterwards, Michael puts Vega on the lead of a new case and the two become friends. Michael had previously worked with Bird in the "red reality," but Bird is reassigned to a new division. Vega remains an officer in the "green reality" Bird and Michael now only work with each other as partners in the "green reality." Michael sees two therapists: Dr. Jonathan Lee and Dr. Judith Evans. Dr. Lee claims that Michael's two realities are problematic, and Dr. Evans states that they are "remarkable". ### Recurring characters There are five recurring characters, all appearing in both realities. Captain Tricia Harper, Michael's commanding officer at the precinct, was a co-conspirator in Michael's car accident; however, it is hinted that her involvement was reluctant. Captain Carl Kessel (commanding officer at Hawkins' precinct) hid heroin in a storage unit for himself and Harper, and was behind Michael's car accident. For the crash the two used Ed Hawkins, on orders from Kessel. Other recurring characters include Emma (Daniela Bobadilla), Rex's girlfriend. Pregnant with Rex's baby, she was originally told to give it up for adoption; however, after a talk with her father Joaquin (Carlos Lacámara) she is allowed to keep it. Cole, Rex's best friend, is another recurring character. The two work on a motorbike together; Cole lets Hannah ride it in the "red reality", after she convinces him to finish it. ## Episodes ## Production ### Development Killen devised the concept of the program, drawing inspiration from the dreaming process: "The concept of the way your dreams feel real, the way you seem to experience them as something that you don't blink at until something crazy happens that sort of bursts that balloon. I think I became interested in the question of what if nothing ever popped that balloon? What if you couldn't tell the difference between when you were awake and when you were asleep? And then I started looking for a way to marry those two ideas up, and a few months later we had Awake." After being turned down by Fox, the pilot (then titled REM) was picked up by NBC in 2011, and the series was green-lit shortly thereafter. ### Production team Awake was a co-production of Letter Eleven and Howard Gordon's Teakwood Lane Productions, in association with 20th Century Fox Television. Gordon served as showrunner for the series, while Killen wrote several episodes of the show. Jason Isaacs, Keith Redmon, Ed Milkovich and Michael Klick produced the show. Editors of the show were Paul Trejo and Nikc Berrisford. Feliks Parnell was the show's primary cinematographer; principal photography for the pilot was completed at Fox Studios in Los Angeles, California. ### Casting Isaacs was the first actor to be cast in the series, playing the role of the central character Michael Britten. "[The main character] was somebody that you couldn't decide if you liked or hated, and I think that [Michael]'s dilemma is something that we're not only sympathetic for, but somehow we want him to win." Producers of the show initially approached Michaela McManus to play Hannah Britten. However, Laura Allen was cast instead; McManus obtained the role of Tara (for which Allen originally auditioned). Dylan Minnette was cast as Rex Britten, Michael's son. He stated, "The process of getting the job actually went by really fast because the first audition Kyle Killen[...]was in the room, Jason [Isaacs] was in the room, the cast director was in the room and the director was in the room. David Slade. And they were all there, for the first audition and I was like 'Wow! Okay.'" Minnette received the role two weeks after his audition. Other cast members included Wilmer Valderrama and Steve Harris as Michael's partner in each reality, while Cherry Jones and BD Wong's characters were cast as Michael's therapists in separate realities. Wong left his role on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit to join the cast of Awake. Laura Innes and Kevin Weismand had recurring roles as members of LAPD. ### Writing Killen said that writing the pilot episode's script was one of the more-difficult components of creating the show. He and his writing team would often get confused with exchanging and executing ideas for the script; as a result they created outlines, distinguishing the separate realities with green or red ink. Slade edited the language to better separate the ideas. Stating that things are "initially confusing to us when we are just trying to break story," he hoped that when viewers watched the pilot episode, they would be immediately oriented in the reality on screen at the time. ## Reception ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, season 1 holds an approval rating of 81% based on 31 reviews, with an average rating of 7.59/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Intelligent and thought-provoking, Awake tempts audiences with an original and complex concept that keeps them guessing." Awake drew strong reviews for its pilot. Rachel Ray of The Daily Telegraph called the premiere episode "impressive", while NPR's Linda Holmes said that it laid the foundation for several emotional storylines, evaluating it among the strongest shows in recent memory. James Poniewozik of Time noted that while its concept seemed melodramatic, the episode "focuses unflinchingly on the subject of loss, yet manages to be not a downer or painful to watch, but moving, absorbing and even hopeful." Isaacs' performance garnered praise throughout the run of the series. Curt Wagner of RedEye said: "his touching, solid work grounds everything. He shows viewers what lengths one man in pain might go to hold onto those he loves. And it's heartbreaking." Matt Fowler of IGN said Isaacs "delivers a graceful and subdued performance as a man who, on a daily basis, must taste both heaven and hell. A man full of guilt, but also gratitude." Some critics called for Isaacs to receive an Emmy Award. In contrast, some viewers were unimpressed with Awake. Writing for The Washington Post, Hank Stuever felt that despite high ambitions the pilot episode was slow and drowsy. Certain episodes were singled out for particularly poor quality: "Game Day" was called "childishly simple", "Ricky's Tacos" was criticized for too closely resembling Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and "Nightswimming" was described as uneven and boring. ### U.S. television ratings Awake had low viewership and ratings throughout its original run. The premiere episode started strong, becoming the most-viewed program in its time slot for NBC in almost two years,. but its second episode fell by two million viewers, and overall the show averaged 4.81 million viewers per episode, ranking 125th in viewership for the 2011–12 season. ### Awards and accolades In June 2011 Awake was honored, along with seven others, with the Critics' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series, chosen by journalists who had seen the pilots. ET Online chose Isaacs as its first actor in their annual Emmy Preview, which predicts winners of particular Emmy Awards. ET Online reviewer Jarett Wieselman noted that Isaacs could receive an Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series nomination; however, Isaacs was not on the list of nominees announced July 19, 2012. ## Distribution Awake was originally broadcast on NBC in the United States. It aired on the Global Television Network in Canada, on W in Australia, and on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Fox Channel Asia picked up the rights to air the series in Asia. ## Broadcast history Awake consists of thirteen one-hour episodes. The series originally aired in the United States on Thursdays at 10:00pm from March 1 to May 24, 2012 on NBC. The series was a mid-season replacement for The Firm, which moved to Saturday nights. The series' final episode, "Turtles All the Way Down", aired outside the television season on May 24, 2012. Low ratings resulted in NBC's cancelling the show on May 11, 2012 (after eleven of the thirteen produced episodes were aired), although the network finished airing the remaining episodes in the series' original time slot. ## See also - Ordinary Joe, a television series with a similar alternative timeline premise
396,631	Brian Josephson	1,171,147,240	British Nobel Laureate in Physics	[ "1940 births", "Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge", "British Jews", "British Nobel laureates", "British parapsychologists", "British theoretical physicists", "Cold fusion", "Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge", "Fellows of the Institute of Physics", "Fellows of the Royal Society", "Jewish physicists", "Living people", "Missouri University of Science and Technology faculty", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Psychonautics researchers", "Quantum mind", "Quantum mysticism advocates", "Scientists from Cardiff", "Welsh Jews", "Welsh Nobel laureates", "Welsh physicists" ]	Brian David Josephson FRS (born 4 January 1940) is a Welsh theoretical physicist and professor emeritus of physics at the University of Cambridge. Best known for his pioneering work on superconductivity and quantum tunnelling, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 for his prediction of the Josephson effect, made in 1962 when he was a 22-year-old PhD student at Cambridge University. Josephson is the first Welshman to have won a Nobel Prize in Physics. He shared the prize with physicists Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever, who jointly received half the award for their own work on quantum tunnelling. Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group at Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. He has been a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge since 1962, and served as professor of physics from 1974 until 2007. In the early 1970s, Josephson took up Transcendental Meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the boundaries of mainstream science. He set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature, the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness, and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism, broadly known as quantum mysticism. He has expressed support for topics such as parapsychology, water memory and cold fusion, which has made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists. ## Early life and career ### Education Josephson was born in Cardiff, Wales, to Jewish parents, Mimi (née Weisbard, 1911–1998) and Abraham Josephson. He attended Cardiff High School, where he credits some of the school masters for having helped him, particularly the physics master, Emrys Jones, who introduced him to theoretical physics. In 1957, he went up to Cambridge, where he initially read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. After completing Maths Part II in two years, and finding it somewhat sterile, he decided to switch to physics. Josephson was known at Cambridge as a brilliant, but shy, student. Physicist John Waldram recalled overhearing Nicholas Kurti, an examiner from Oxford, discuss Josephson's exam results with David Shoenberg, reader in physics at Cambridge, and asking: "Who is this chap Josephson? He seems to be going through the theory like a knife through butter." While still an undergraduate, he published a paper on the Mössbauer effect, pointing out a crucial issue other researchers had overlooked. According to one eminent physicist speaking to Physics World, Josephson wrote several papers important enough to assure him a place in the history of physics even without his discovery of the Josephson effect. He graduated in 1960 and became a research student in the university's Mond Laboratory on the old Cavendish site, where he was supervised by Brian Pippard. American physicist Philip Anderson, also a future Nobel Prize laureate, spent a year in Cambridge in 1961–1962, and recalled that having Josephson in a class was "a disconcerting experience for a lecturer, I can assure you, because everything had to be right or he would come up and explain it to me after class." It was during this period, as a PhD student in 1962, that he carried out the research that led to his discovery of the Josephson effect; the Cavendish Laboratory unveiled a plaque on the Mond Building dedicated to the discovery in November 2012. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College in 1962, and obtained his PhD in 1964 for a thesis entitled Non-linear conduction in superconductors. ### Discovery of the Josephson effect Josephson was 22 years old when he did the work on quantum tunnelling that won him the Nobel Prize. He discovered that a supercurrent could tunnel through a thin barrier, predicting, according to physicist Andrew Whitaker, that "at a junction of two superconductors, a current will flow even if there is no drop in voltage; that when there is a voltage drop, the current should oscillate at a frequency related to the drop in voltage; and that there is a dependence on any magnetic field." This became known as the Josephson effect and the junction as a Josephson junction. His calculations were published in Physics Letters (chosen by Pippard because it was a new journal) in a paper entitled "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling," received on 8 June 1962 and published on 1 July. They were confirmed experimentally by Philip Anderson and John Rowell of Bell Labs in Princeton; this appeared in their paper, "Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect," submitted to Physical Review Letters in January 1963. Before Anderson and Rowell confirmed the calculations, the American physicist John Bardeen, who had shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics (and who shared it again in 1972), objected to Josephson's work. He submitted an article to Physical Review Letters on 25 July 1962, arguing that "there can be no such superfluid flow." The disagreement led to a confrontation in September that year at Queen Mary College, London, at the Eighth International Conference on Low Temperature Physics. When Bardeen (then one of the most eminent physicists in the world) began speaking, Josephson (still a student) stood up and interrupted him. The men exchanged views, reportedly in a civil and soft-spoken manner. Whitaker writes that the discovery of the Josephson effect led to "much important physics," including the invention of SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices), which are used in geology to make highly sensitive measurements, as well as in medicine and computing. IBM used Josephson's work in 1980 to build a prototype of a computer that would be up to 100 times faster than the IBM 3033 mainframe. ### Nobel Prize Josephson was awarded several important prizes for his discovery, including the 1969 Research Corporation Award for outstanding contributions to science, and the Hughes Medal and Holweck Prize in 1972. In 1973 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics, sharing the \$122,000 award with two other scientists who had also worked on quantum tunnelling. Josephson was awarded half the prize "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects". The other half of the award was shared equally by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki of the Thomas Watson Research Center in Yorktown, New York, and Norwegian-American physicist Ivar Giaever of General Electric in Schenectady, New York, "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively". Unusually, none of the winners had held professorships before being awarded the prize. ### Positions held Josephson spent a postdoctoral year in the United States (1965–1966) as research assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. After returning to Cambridge, he was made assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1967, where he remained a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group, a theoretical physics group, for the rest of his career. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1970, and the same year was awarded a National Science Foundation fellowship by Cornell University, where he spent one year. In 1972 he became a reader in physics at Cambridge and in 1974 a full professor, a position he held until he retired in 2007. A practitioner of Transcendental Meditation (TM) since the early seventies, Josephson became a visiting faculty member in 1975 of the Maharishi European Research University in the Netherlands, part of the TM movement. He also held visiting professorships at Wayne State University in 1983, the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1984, and the University of Missouri-Rolla in 1987. ## Parapsychology ### Early interest and Transcendental Meditation Josephson became interested in philosophy of mind in the late sixties and, in particular, in the mind–body problem, and is one of the few scientists to argue that parapsychological phenomena (telepathy, psychokinesis and other paranormal themes) may be real. In 1971, he began practising Transcendental Meditation (TM), which had been taken up by several celebrities, including the Beatles. Winning the Nobel Prize in 1973 gave him the freedom to work in less orthodox areas, and he became increasingly involved – including during science conferences, to the irritation of fellow scientists – in talking about meditation, telepathy and higher states of consciousness. In 1974, he angered scientists during a colloquium of molecular and cellular biologists in Versailles by inviting them to read the Bhagavad Gita (5th – 2nd century BCE) and the work of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the TM movement, and by arguing about special states of consciousness achieved through meditation. "Nothing forces us," one scientist shouted at him, "to listen to your wild speculations." Biophysicist Henri Atlan wrote that the session ended in uproar. In May that year, Josephson addressed a symposium held to welcome the Maharishi to Cambridge. The following month, at the first Canadian conference on psychokinesis, he was one of 21 scientists who tested claims by Matthew Manning, a Cambridgeshire teenager who said he had psychokinetic abilities; Josephson apparently told a reporter that he believed Manning's powers were a new kind of energy. He later withdrew or corrected the statement. Josephson said that Trinity College's tradition of interest in the paranormal meant that he did not dismiss these ideas out of hand. Several presidents of the Society for Psychical Research had been fellows of Trinity, and the Perrott-Warrick Fund, set up in Trinity in 1937 to fund parapsychology research, is still administered by the college. He continued to explore the idea that there is intelligence in nature, particularly after reading Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics (1975), and in 1979 took up a more advanced form of TM, known as the TM-Sidhi program. According to Anderson, the TM movement produced a poster showing Josephson levitating several inches above the floor. Josephson argued that meditation could lead to mystical and scientific insights, and that, as a result of it, he had come to believe in a creator. ### Fundamental Fysiks Group Josephson became involved in the mid-1970s with a group of physicists associated with the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, who were investigating paranormal claims. They had organized themselves loosely into the Fundamental Fysiks Group, and had effectively become the Stanford Research Institute's (SRI) "house theorists," according to historian of science David Kaiser. Core members in the group were Elizabeth Rauscher, George Weissmann, John Clauser, Jack Sarfatti, Saul-Paul Sirag, Nick Herbert, Fred Alan Wolf, Fritjof Capra, Henry Stapp, Philippe Eberhard and Gary Zukav. There was significant government interest at the time in quantum mechanics – the American government was financing research at SRI into telepathy – and physicists able to understand it found themselves in demand. The Fundamental Fysiks Group used ideas from quantum physics, particularly Bell's theorem and quantum entanglement, to explore issues such as action at a distance, clairvoyance, precognition, remote viewing and psychokinesis. In 1976, Josephson travelled to California at the invitation of one of the Fundamental Fysiks Group members, Jack Sarfatti, who introduced him to others including laser physicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, and quantum physicist Henry Stapp. The San Francisco Chronicle covered Josephson's visit. Josephson co-organized a symposium on consciousness at Cambridge in 1978, publishing the proceedings as Consciousness and the Physical World (1980), with neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran. A conference on "Science and Consciousness" followed a year later in Cordoba, Spain, attended by physicists and Jungian psychoanalysts, and addressed by Josephson, Fritjof Capra and David Bohm (1917–1992). By 1996, he had set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish Laboratory to explore intelligent processes in nature. In 2002, he told Physics World: "Future science will consider quantum mechanics as the phenomenology of particular kinds of organised complex system. Quantum entanglement would be one manifestation of such organisation, paranormal phenomena another." ### Reception and views on the scientific community Josephson delivered the Pollock Memorial Lecture in 2006, the Hermann Staudinger Lecture in 2009 and the Sir Nevill Mott Lecture in 2010. Matthew Reisz wrote in Times Higher Education in 2010 that Josephson has long been one of physics' "more colourful figures." His support for unorthodox causes has attracted criticism from fellow scientists since the 1970s, including from Philip Anderson. Josephson regards the criticism as prejudice, and believes that it has served to deprive him of an academic support network. He has repeatedly criticized "science by consensus," arguing that the scientific community is too quick to reject certain kinds of ideas. "Anything goes among the physics community – cosmic wormholes, time travel," he argues, "just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age-ish." Referring to this position as "pathological disbelief," he holds it responsible for the rejection by academic journals of papers on the paranormal. He has compared parapsychology to the theory of continental drift, proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) to explain observations that were otherwise inexplicable, which was resisted and ridiculed until evidence led to its acceptance after Wegener's death. Science writer Martin Gardner criticized Josephson in 1980 for complaining to The New York Review of Books, along with three other physicists, about an article by J. A. Wheeler that ridiculed parapsychology. Several physicists complained in 2001 when, in a Royal Mail booklet celebrating the Nobel Prize's centenary, Josephson wrote that Britain was at the forefront of research into telepathy. Physicist David Deutsch said the Royal Mail had "let itself be hoodwinked" into supporting nonsense, although another physicist, Robert Matthews, suggested that Deutsch was skating on thin ice given the latter's own work on parallel universes and time travel. In 2004, Josephson criticized an experiment by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry to test claims by Russian schoolgirl Natasha Demkina that she could see inside people's bodies using a special kind of vision. The experiment involved her being asked to match six people to their confirmed medical conditions (plus one with none); to pass the test she had to make five correct matches, but made only four. Josephson argued that this was statistically significant, and that the experiment had set her up to fail. One of the researchers, Richard Wiseman, professor of psychology at the University of Hertfordshire, responded by highlighting that the conditions of the experiment had been agreed to before it started, and the potential significance of her claims warranted a higher than normal bar. Keith Rennolis, professor of applied statistics at the University of Greenwich, supported Josephson's position, asserting that the experiment was "woefully inadequate" to determine any effect. Josephson's reputation for promoting unorthodox causes was cemented by his support for the ideas of water memory and cold fusion, both of which are rejected by mainstream scientists. Water memory is purported to provide a possible explanation for homeopathy; it is dismissed by scientists as pseudoscience, although Josephson has expressed support for it since attending a conference at which French immunologist Jacques Benveniste first proposed it. Cold fusion is the hypothesis that nuclear reactions can occur at room temperature. When Martin Fleischmann, the British chemist who pioneered research into it, died in 2012, Josephson wrote a supportive obituary in the Guardian, and had published in Nature a letter complaining that its obituary had failed to give Fleischmann due credit. Antony Valentini of Imperial College London withdrew Josephson's invitation to a 2010 conference on the de Broglie-Bohm theory because of his work on the paranormal, although it was reinstated after complaints. Josephson's defense of paranormal claims and of cold fusion have led him to being described as an exemplar of a sufferer of the hypothetical Nobel disease. ## Awards - £1,000 New Scientist prize, 1969 - Research Corporation Award for outstanding contributions to science, 1969 - Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1970 - Fritz London Memorial Prize, 1970 - Guthrie Medal (Institute of Physics), 1972 - Van der Pol medal, International Union of Radio Science, 1972 - Elliott Cresson Medal (Franklin Institute), 1972 - Hughes Medal, 1972 - Holweck Prize (Institute of Physics and French Institute of Physics), 1972 - Nobel Prize in Physics, 1973 - Honorary doctorate, University of Wales, 1974 - Faraday Medal (Institution of Electrical Engineers), 1982 - Honorary doctorate, University of Exeter, 1983 - Sir George Thomson (Institute of Measurement and Control), 1984 ## Selected works ## See also - Josephson voltage standard - Josephson vortex - Long Josephson junction - Pi Josephson junction - Phi Josephson junction - List of Jewish Nobel laureates - List of Nobel laureates in Physics - List of physicists - Scientific phenomena named after people
5,236,016	Cibolo Creek	1,163,633,288	Stream in South Central Texas	[ "Articles containing video clips", "Rivers of Bexar County, Texas", "Rivers of Comal County, Texas", "Rivers of Guadalupe County, Texas", "Rivers of Karnes County, Texas", "Rivers of Kendall County, Texas", "Rivers of Texas", "Rivers of Wilson County, Texas" ]	Cibolo Creek is a stream in South Central Texas that runs approximately 96 miles (154 km) from its source at Turkey Knob (in the Texas Hill Country) near Boerne, Texas, to its confluence with the San Antonio River in Karnes County. The creek is a tributary of the San Antonio River, at the easternmost part of its watershed. The stream is used for both recreational and cartographic purposes, serving as the eastern boundary of Bexar County, Texas. A wide variety of fish and other wildlife are known to occupy the waters, and several parks have been established along its banks, including Cibolo Nature Center, Boerne City Park and Jackson Nature Center. Additionally, numerous human settlements have been founded on the creek, such as Boerne, Fair Oaks Ranch, San Antonio, Bulverde, Bracken, Selma, Schertz, Universal City, Cibolo, Zuehl, New Berlin, La Vernia, Cestohowa, Kosciusko, Sutherland Springs and Panna Maria. ## Course Cibolo Creek rises in the Texas Hill Country northwest of Boerne in Kendall County, Texas. Every second, approximately 30 cubic feet (850 L) of water pass through on its southeastern journey to the San Antonio River. It has been judged as a "scenic" and "picturesque" stream, especially in the upper reaches, as steady flows travel through deep canyons and rocky flats to form falls. Just ahead of its entry into Boerne, the stream is dammed to form Boerne City Lake, which provides drinking water for the town's residents. In Boerne, the creek flows through the center of town before reaching the Cibolo Nature Center, noted for its shores lined with bald cypress trees. East of the nature center, the Cibolo Canyonlands begin, which features even deeper canyons and direct groundwater recharge. Part of this area is protected by the University of Texas at San Antonio for environmental research purposes. Further downstream, the creek passes through Fair Oaks Ranch and Bulverde. The steady flow begins to dissipate in certain areas as it approaches Camp Bullis in northern San Antonio, leaving dry patches that reveal a rocky bottom. Such dry patches continue as it heads east, forming the boundary between Bexar and Comal Counties. Steady flows pick up on the boundary between Bexar and Guadalupe Counties, passing through Randolph Air Force Base. At its lower reaches, the terrain grows flatter and less rocky, supporting oak, mesquite and juniper. As it meanders through Wilson and Karnes Counties, passing Zuehl, New Berlin, La Vernia, Sutherland Springs, and Cestohowa, Cibolo Creek meets with the San Antonio River near the ghost town of Helena. ## Watershed The drainage basin of Cibolo Creek is located in the lower reaches of the Cretaceous Glen Rose Formation along the southeastern edge of the Edwards Plateau. Many springs located in the upper and middle reaches of the watershed engage in karst activity in the limestone prevalent below the surface, forming such caves as Cascade Caverns and Natural Bridge Caverns. An exchange occurs between the stream and these numerous underground springs that serve as a recharge for the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system. This system provides drinking water for millions of people in the surrounding area. Near the recharge zone, distributaries of the creek have carved deep canyons in the landscape of the Texas Hill Country, forming what is known as the Cibolo Canyonlands. The Cibolo Nature Center claims 1,300 acres (5.3 km<sup>2</sup>; 2.0 sq mi) of the watershed, to protect the water quality from the hazards of rapid development and population growth. Several streams serve as distributaries and tributaries of Cibolo Creek, and are included in the watershed. Balcones Creek, a 13 miles (21 km) long stream that rises in Bandera County and acts as the boundary between Bexar and Kendall Counties, is a main tributary of Cibolo Creek that converges at the meeting of Bexar, Kendall and Bandera Counties. Tributaries in the lower watershed include Martinez Creek, a 16 miles (26 km) long stream with a Mesquite tree-supporting bed of clay and sandy loam, located near Windcrest in eastern Bexar County; and Santa Clara Creek, 19.5 miles (31.4 km) long and Elm Creek, 14 miles (23 km) long, both streams in Guadalupe County near New Berlin that supports conifers along their shores. Additional tributaries include Alum Creek, and Elm Creek. ## History Prior to European settlement, Cibolo Creek was referred to as Xoloton by the Coahuiltecan Indians. The Tonkawa called it Bata Coniquiyoqui, as noted by Father Damian Massanet, who referred to the creek as Santa Crecencia in 1691. It is thought that Coahuila Governor Alonso de Leon had one of the earliest encounters with the creek in 1689 while on the first Spanish entrada to explore the French-claimed lands believed to lie beyond the Nueces River. Records suggest a camp was set up on the creek, identified as Arroyo del Leon, coined from the discovery of a dead mountain lion along the banks. Explorer Domingo Terán de los Ríos named the creek San Ygnacio de Loyola in 1691 during an expedition and Domingo Ramón referred to it as San Xavier in 1716. The first known use of the term Cibolo came from Marqués de San Miguel de Aguayo who identified the stream as Río Cibolo, or Cibolo River, in 1721. Cibolo is a Spanish and Native American term for American bison (buffalo), which used to inhabit the area. The Native Americans are believed to have used the steeply banked bluffs along the creek as hunting grounds, chasing herds of buffalo into the bed where the creatures would fall to their deaths. Marqués de Rubí included Cibolo Creek in his 1768 list of potential sites for posts to solidify the Spanish hold on Texas, and a fort called El Fuerte de Santa Cruz del Cíbolo, built along the banks of Cibolo Creek in 1734 to protect livestock from Apache Indian attacks, was resurrected in 1771. However, the fort near Cestohowa was destroyed without a trace in 1782. and eventually the Spanish lost the creek and Texas following the Mexican Revolution. During the Texas Revolution, the creek was the site of two separate skirmishes. First, in October 1835, at the beginning of the war, Captain Ben Milam was dispatched by Stephen F. Austin to survey the unfamiliar territory toward Cibolo Creek. Milam set up camp and soon discovered the tracks of a Mexican force of about a hundred cavalrymen. Austin sent additional scouts, and one group was confronted by about ten advancing Mexican patrols. The group's lieutenant led an offensive against the patrols, and forced the Mexicans to retreat to San Antonio, allowing the Texans to march to Salado Creek. One Austin aide remarked: "this little skirmish...had a happy effect in the army...[and] was regarded as a favorable omen." The second skirmish occurred in April 1836, outside Camp Houston, a post established by Juan Seguín on the creek banks near present-day Stockdale. Seguín set the post after being ordered to withdraw from San Antonio, with a regiment that severely lacked resources, including clothing and horses. During an exploration of the creek to find wild horses, Seguín and six men met some hostile Tonkawas. In a brief skirmish, two of the Native Americans were killed, allowing Seguín and his men to return to camp with two additional horses. Also in 1836 at the time of the Battle of the Alamo, during the Texas Revolution, the creek was the site of the temporary camps of the Alamo relief forces. On February 28, Juan Seguin and his reorganized relief forces, waiting on the Cibolo Creek, encountered Fannin's advance from Goliad led by Francis L. DeSauque and John Chenoweth, while near the Cibolo. On February 29, the relief forces from Gonzales traveling with the Gonzales Company of Mounted Volunteers arrived at the Cibolo and entered the Alamo the next day. On March 7, Gonzales relief force and former Alamo commander, James C. Neill with Edward Burleson gathered 50 men and headed for the Alamo. They reached the Cibolo and were heading for the Alamo but were repulsed by Mexican cavalry. In the late 1840s and early 1850s, the communities of Selma, Sutherland Springs, Boerne, La Vernia, and Bulverde were established along the creek. Later on, Cibolo Schertz, and Universal City were founded. These settlements dealt with torrential floods that cost many their homes and lives in later years. The destruction was prominently witnessed during the October 1998 Central Texas floods, and four years later during the flood of July 2002. The San Antonio River Authority authorized \$114,599 to help clean debris from the creek in 2003, hoping to improve water quality. Above-average levels of bacteria have been found in certain areas of the creek, leading to such initiatives as the Upper Cibolo Watershed Protection plan, which began in 2010. Another plan to create a Cibolo Reservoir near Stockdale aimed to control flooding and provide fresh water met fierce opposition from local citizens concerned about the destruction of historic sites along the creek, and the loss of taxable land. ## Recreation Several areas along the creek have been established for recreational use. Boerne City Park provides trails for hiking, nature walks and horseback riding, and is a part of the larger Cibolo Nature Center. Camp Bullis, a military training ground found along the stream in north Bexar County, allows hunting for deer and other game, as well as separate locations for archery and fishing. An 18-mile (29 km) section of the creek, between Oak Village North and Luxello, is classified as a class two whitewater flow. The area is a popular camping destination, and is ideal for whitewater rafting and kayaking. Additional locations include Universal City Cibolo Creek Preserve area, where a frisbee golf course has been established for play. Between Stockdale and Floresville, Cibolo Creek forms the eastern boundary of Jackson Nature Park, a 50-acre (200,000 m<sup>2</sup>) public park owned by Wilson County and operated by the San Antonio River Authority. The park offers a looped trail network showcasing south-central Texas plants, animals, and geology. Several locations are available for fishing. According to Texas Parks and Wildlife, the following fish have been caught in the stream: largemouth bass, bluegill, channel catfish, Rio Grande cichlid, longnose gar, green sunfish, sunfish hybrid, redbreast sunfish, and redear sunfish. ## Climate The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Cibolo Creek has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. ## See also - List of rivers of Texas
149,721	Glastonbury Tor	1,161,623,696	Hill in Glastonbury, Somerset, England	[ "Church ruins in England", "Footpaths in Somerset", "Former churches in Somerset", "Glastonbury", "Grade I listed buildings in Mendip District", "Hills of Somerset", "Locations associated with Arthurian legend", "Locations in Celtic mythology", "National Trust properties in Somerset", "Peaks dedicated to Michael (archangel)", "Ruins in Somerset", "Scheduled monuments in Mendip District", "Tourist attractions in Somerset" ]	Glastonbury Tor is a tor near Glastonbury in the English county of Somerset, topped by the roofless St Michael's Tower, a Grade I listed building. The site is managed by the National Trust and has been designated a scheduled monument. The Tor is mentioned in Celtic mythology, particularly in myths linked to King Arthur, and has several other enduring mythological and spiritual associations. The conical hill of clay and Blue Lias rises from the Somerset Levels. It was formed when surrounding softer deposits were eroded, leaving a hard cap of sandstone exposed. The slopes of the hill are terraced, but the method by which they were formed remains unexplained. Archaeological excavations during the 20th century sought to clarify the background of the monument and church, but some aspects of their history remain unexplained. Artefacts from human visitation have been found, dating from the Iron Age to Roman eras. Several buildings were constructed on the summit during Saxon and early medieval periods; they have been interpreted as an early church and monks' hermitage. The head of a wheel cross dating from the 10th or 11th century has been recovered. The original wooden church was destroyed by an earthquake in 1275, and the stone Church of St Michael was built on the site in the 14th century. Its tower remains, although it has been restored and partially rebuilt several times. ## Etymology The origin of the name Glastonbury is unclear, but when the settlement was first recorded in the late 7th and early 8th centuries it was called Glestingaburg. Of the latter name, Glestinga is obscure and may derive from an Old English word or Celtic personal name. It may derive from a person or kinship group named Glast. The second half of the name, -burg, is Anglo-Saxon in origin and could refer to either a fortified place such as a burh or, more likely, a monastic enclosure. Tor is an English word referring to "a bare rock mass surmounted and surrounded by blocks and boulders", deriving from the Old English torr. The Celtic name of the Tor was Ynys Wydryn, or sometimes Ynys Gutrin, meaning 'Isle of Glass'. At this time the plain was flooded, the isle becoming a peninsula at low tide. ## Location and landscape The Tor is in the middle of the Summerland Meadows, part of the Somerset Levels, rising to an elevation of 518 feet (158 m). The plain is reclaimed fen above which the Tor is clearly visible for miles around. It has been described as an island, but actually sits at the western end of a peninsula washed on three sides by the River Brue. The Tor is formed from rocks dating from the early Jurassic Period, namely varied layers of Lias Group strata. The uppermost of these, forming the Tor itself, are a succession of rocks assigned to the Bridport Sand Formation. These rocks sit upon strata forming the broader hill on which the Tor stands; the various layers of the Beacon Limestone Formation and the Dyrham Formation. The Bridport Sands have acted as a caprock, protecting the lower layers from erosion. The iron-rich waters of Chalice Well, a spring at the base of the Tor, flow out as an artesian well impregnating the sandstone around it with iron oxides that have reinforced it to produce the caprock. Iron-rich but oxygen-poor water in the aquifer carries dissolved iron (II) "ferrous" iron, but as the water surfaces and its oxygen content rises, the oxidised iron (III) "ferric" iron drops out as insoluble "rusty" oxides that bind to the surrounding stone, hardening it. The low-lying damp ground can produce a visual effect known as a Fata Morgana when the Tor appears to rise out of the mist. This optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. The Italian term Fata Morgana is derived from the name of Morgan le Fay, a powerful sorceress in Arthurian legend. ### Terraces The sides of the Tor have seven deep, roughly symmetrical terraces, or lynchets. Their formation remains a mystery with many possible explanations. They may have been formed as a result of natural differentiation of the layers of Lias stone and clay or used by farmers during the Middle Ages as terraced hills to make ploughing for crops easier. Author Nicholas Mann questions this theory. If agriculture had been the reason for the creation of the terraces, it would be expected that the effort would be concentrated on the south side, where the sunny conditions would provide a good yield, but the terraces are equally deep on the northern side, which would provide little benefit. Additionally, none of the other slopes of the island has been terraced, even though the more sheltered locations would provide a greater return on the labour involved. Other explanations have been suggested for the terraces, including the construction of defensive ramparts. Iron Age hill forts including the nearby Cadbury Castle in Somerset show evidence of extensive fortification of their slopes. The normal form of ramparts is a bank and ditch, but there is no evidence of this arrangement on the Tor. South Cadbury, one of the most extensively fortified places in early Britain, had three concentric rings of banks and ditches supporting an 44-acre (18 ha) enclosure. By contrast, the Tor has seven rings and very little space on top for the safekeeping of a community. It has been suggested, that a defensive function may have been linked with Ponter's Ball Dyke, a linear earthwork about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the Tor. It consists of an embankment with a ditch on the east side. The purpose and provenance of the dyke are unclear. It is possible that it was part of a longer defensive barrier associated with New Ditch, three miles to the south-west, which is built in a similar manner. It has been suggested by Ralegh Radford that it is part of a great Celtic sanctuary, probably 3rd century BC, while others, including Philip Rahtz, date it to the post-Roman period and link it to the Dark Age occupation on Glastonbury Tor. The 1970 excavation suggests the 12th century or later. The historian Ronald Hutton also mentions the alternative possibility that the terraces are the remains of a medieval "spiral walkway" created for pilgrims to reach the church on the summit, similar to that at Whitby Abbey. Another suggestion is that the terraces are the remains of a three-dimensional labyrinth, first proposed by Geoffrey Russell in 1968. He states that the classical labyrinth (Caerdroia), a design found all over the Neolithic world, can be easily transposed onto the Tor so that by walking around the terraces a person eventually reaches the top in the same pattern. Evaluating this hypothesis is not easy. A labyrinth would very likely place the terraces in the Neolithic era, but given the amount of occupation since then, there may have been substantial modifications by farmers or monks, and conclusive excavations have not been carried out. In a more recent book, Hutton writes that "the labyrinth does not seem to be an ancient sacred structure". ## History ### Pre-Christian Some Neolithic flint tools recovered from the top of the Tor show that the site has been visited, perhaps with a lasting occupation, since prehistory. The nearby remains of Glastonbury Lake Village were identified at the site in 1892, which confirmed that there was an Iron Age settlement in about 300–200 BC on what was an easily defended island in the fens. There is no evidence of permanent occupation of the Tor, but finds, including Roman pottery, do suggest that it was visited on a regular basis. Excavations on Glastonbury Tor, undertaken by a team led by Philip Rahtz between 1964 and 1966, revealed evidence of Dark Age occupation during the 5th to 7th centuries around the later medieval church of St. Michael. Finds included postholes, two hearths including a metalworker's forge, two burials oriented north–south (thus unlikely to be Christian), fragments of 6th-century Mediterranean amphorae (vases for wine or cooking oil), and a worn hollow bronze head which may have topped a Saxon staff. ### Christian settlement During the late Saxon and early medieval period, there were at least four buildings on the summit. The base of a stone cross demonstrates Christian use of the site during this period, and it may have been a hermitage. The broken head of a wheel cross dated to the 10th or 11th century was found partway down the hill and may have been the head of the cross that stood on the summit. The head of the cross is now in the Museum of Somerset in Taunton. The earliest timber church, dedicated to St Michael, is believed to have been constructed in the 11th or 12th century; from which post holes have since been identified. Associated monk cells have also been identified. In 1243 Henry III granted a charter for a six-day fair at the site. St Michael's Church was destroyed by an earthquake on 11 September 1275. According to the British Geological Survey, the earthquake was felt in London, Canterbury and Wales, and was reported to have destroyed many houses and churches in England. The intensity of shaking was greater than 7 MSK, with its epicentre in the area around Portsmouth or Chichester, South England. A second church, also dedicated to St Michael, was built of local sandstone in the 14th century by the Abbot Adam of Sodbury, incorporating the foundations of the previous building. It included stained glass and decorated floor tiles. There was also a portable altar of Purbeck Marble; it is likely that the Monastery of St Michael on the Tor was a daughter house of Glastonbury Abbey. St Michael's Church survived until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539 when, except for the tower, it was demolished. The Tor was the place of execution where Richard Whiting, the last Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey, was hanged, drawn and quartered along with two of his monks, John Thorne and Roger James. The three-storey tower of St Michael's Church survives. It has corner buttresses and perpendicular bell openings. There is a sculptured tablet with an image of an eagle below the parapet. ### Post-dissolution In 1786, Richard Colt Hoare of Stourhead bought the Tor and funded the repair of the tower in 1804, including the rebuilding of the north-east corner. It was then sold to the Very Rev. Hon. George Neville-Grenville and included in the Butleigh Manor until the 20th century. The last owner of the Tor was Robert Neville-Grenville who wished to give the Tor to the National Trust along with the Glastonbury Tribunal. After his death in 1936 it was sold to The National Trust who raised money by Public Subscription for its upkeep. The National Trust took control of the Tor in 1937, but repairs were delayed until after the Second World War. During the 1960s, excavations identified cracks in the rock, suggesting the ground had moved in the past. This, combined with wind erosion, started to expose the footings of the tower, which were repaired with concrete. Erosion caused by the feet of the increasing number of visitors was also a problem and paths were laid to enable them to reach the summit without damaging the terraces. After 2000, enhancements to the access and repairs to the tower, including rebuilding of the parapet, were carried out. These included the replacement of some of the masonry damaged by earlier repairs with new stone from the Hadspen Quarry. A model vaguely based on Glastonbury Tor (albeit with a tree instead of the tower) was incorporated into the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. As the athletes entered the stadium, their flags were displayed on the terraces of the model. ## Mythology and spirituality The Tor seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (meaning "The Isle of Avalon") by the Britons and is believed by some, including the 12th and 13th century writer Gerald of Wales, to be the Avalon of Arthurian legend. The Tor has been associated with the name Avalon, and identified with King Arthur, since the alleged discovery of his and Queen Guinevere's neatly labelled coffins in 1191, recounted by Gerald of Wales. Author Christopher L. Hodapp asserts in his book The Templar Code for Dummies that Glastonbury Tor is one of the possible locations of the Holy Grail, because it is close to the monastery that housed the Nanteos Cup. With the 19th century resurgence of interest in Celtic mythology, the Tor became associated with Gwyn ap Nudd, the first Lord of the Otherworld (Annwn) and later King of the Fairies. The Tor came to be represented as an entrance to Annwn or to Avalon, the land of the fairies. The Tor is supposedly a gateway into "The Land of the Dead (Avalon)". A persistent myth of more recent origin is that of the Glastonbury Zodiac, a purported astrological zodiac of gargantuan proportions said to have been carved into the land along ancient hedgerows and trackways, in which the Tor forms part of the figure representing Aquarius. The theory was first put forward in 1927 by Katherine Maltwood, an artist with interest in the occult, who thought the zodiac was constructed approximately 5,000 years ago. But the vast majority of the land said by Maltwood to be covered by the zodiac was under several feet of water at the proposed time of its construction, and many of the features such as field boundaries and roads are recent. The Tor and other sites in Glastonbury have also been significant in the modern-day Goddess movement, with the flow from the Chalice Well seen as representing menstrual flow and the Tor being seen as either a breast or the whole figure of the Goddess. This has been celebrated with an effigy of the Goddess leading an annual procession up the Tor. It is said that Brigid of Kildare is depicted milking a cow as a stone carving above one of the entrances to the tower. ## See also - List of hillforts and ancient settlements in Somerset - List of National Trust properties in Somerset - 1275 British earthquake
1,322,936	Mark Bavaro	1,166,176,095	American football player (born 1963)	[ "1963 births", "American football tight ends", "Catholics from Massachusetts", "Cleveland Browns players", "Living people", "National Conference Pro Bowl players", "New York Giants players", "Notre Dame Fighting Irish football players", "People from Winthrop, Massachusetts", "Philadelphia Eagles players", "Players of American football from Suffolk County, Massachusetts" ]	Mark Anthony Bavaro (born April 28, 1963) is an American former professional football player who was a tight end for the New York Giants (1985–1990), Cleveland Browns (1992), and Philadelphia Eagles (1993–1994) in the National Football League (NFL). Bavaro was selected to the Pro Bowl for his performances in the 1986 and 1987 seasons and was a member of the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV. After an All-American career at the University of Notre Dame, Bavaro was drafted by the Giants in the fourth round (#100 overall) in the 1985 NFL Draft. He quickly emerged as a starter in his rookie season and became renowned during his Giants career for his blocking, toughness, and receiving skills. After a degenerative knee condition forced him to sit out the 1991 season, he returned to play three seasons for the Browns and Eagles before retiring in 1995. Since retiring Bavaro has done work as an anti-abortion activist. His brother David also played in the NFL for four seasons. ## Early life and college Bavaro was born in Winthrop, Massachusetts. He attended Danvers High School in Danvers, Massachusetts, where he was a high school football All-American. He was a well-rounded athlete who also excelled in track and field at Danvers. After being intensively recruited by several colleges, he chose to play collegiately for the University of Notre Dame. He was recruited by head coach Dan Devine but played his four years under coach Gerry Faust. He played behind star tight end Tony Hunter as a freshman, then missed all but three minutes of his sophomore season due to a hand injury. He established himself as a starter as a junior, but grew home-sick and briefly contemplated quitting the team to move back home following the season. After Faust talked him into staying, he won All-America honors his senior season, when he totalled 32 receptions for 395 yards. Bavaro developed a reputation for playing through injuries while at Notre Dame. "He plays with pain better than any player I've seen in my 37 years of coaching" Faust later stated. He left Notre Dame after graduating in 1985 despite having one season of eligibility remaining (due to the redshirt status of his sophomore season) and was selected in the fourth round (#100 overall) of the 1985 NFL Draft by the New York Giants. ## Professional career Coming out of college, Bavaro was known mostly for his blocking ability and was expected to play the role of a run blocking tight end as a professional. He earned the nickname "Rambo" early in his rookie season due to his intense playing style, quiet personality, and physical resemblance to Sylvester Stallone. After starting tight end Zeke Mowatt suffered a season-ending injury before the start of the 1985 season, coach Bill Parcells, who had called Bavaro the most impressive rookie during training camp, installed Bavaro as the starter. Bavaro finished his rookie season with 37 receptions, 511 yards, and 4 touchdowns. He also set a team record with 12 receptions in one game during quarterback Phil Simms' 513 yard passing effort against the Cincinnati Bengals on October 13, 1985. After the game, which the Giants lost 35–30, Bavaro responded in the low-key manner that would typify his career, "[i]t was nothing special, the plays were the same stuff. I don't know what they did. I just caught a lot of balls. I'd rather win, that's all." Bavaro was named to the PFWA All-Rookie Team for his performance during the season. Bavaro continued his emergence in the 1986 season. He remained the starter after Mowatt's recovery from injury and emerged as a favorite target of Simms. He finished the season with 66 receptions, 1,001 yards, and 4 touchdowns and was selected to his first Pro Bowl. His 66 receptions broke the Giants record for receptions by a tight end previously held by Bob Tucker (59). Perhaps the most well-known play of Bavaro's career occurred in a Monday Night Football game in 1986. Here is a description of the play taken from a Monday Night Football broadcast in 2005: "On Dec. 1 1986, New York Giants tight end Mark Bavaro cements his reputation as one of the toughest men in the NFL. With the Giants trailing, Bavaro catches an innocent pass from Phil Simms over the middle. It takes nearly seven 49ers defenders to finally drag him down, some of which are carried for almost 20 yards, including future Hall of Famer Ronnie Lott. Bavaro's inspiring play jump starts the Giants, who win the game and eventually the Super Bowl." This reputation as a tough player was further cemented later in the season when he played for six weeks with a broken jaw that forced him to sip food through a straw. He continued to establish his reputation as an excellent blocker during the season, and was described as "the premier tight end" in the league by 49ers' coach Bill Walsh before the team's playoff matchup. The Giants finished the regular season 14–2 and defeated the Denver Broncos 39–20 in Super Bowl XXI. After the season Bavaro was chosen to appear on the cover or Sports Illustrated's NFL preview issue for the 1987 season. Bavaro was pictured on the cover in a cutoff shirt holding his shoulder pads over his shoulder, the caption reads "The Living End: Mark Bavaro of the New York Giants". The cover also featured Bavaro celebrating a touchdown in the trademark manner of his career. Bavaro, a Roman Catholic, would genuflect in the end zone and motion the sign of the cross after each touchdown. Bavaro performed well during the 1987 season and was again selected to the Pro Bowl. He finished the season with 55 receptions, 867 yards, and 8 touchdowns. In the offseason he underwent surgery to correct turf toe on his right big toe. He followed that season with 53 receptions, 672 yards, and 4 touchdowns in 1988 despite being late to training camp that season due to a contract dispute and his left big toe now being affected by turf toe. After failing to miss a game due to injury in his first four seasons, Bavaro struggled with knee injuries in 1989 and was limited to seven games. He came back to play in 15 games in 1990. The Giants started the season 10–0 and finished 13–3. They advanced to Super Bowl XXV where they played the Buffalo Bills. During the game Bavaro made two key third down receptions to keep scoring drives alive as the Giants won 20–19. Bavaro struggled with a degenerative knee condition throughout the 1990 season and was rarely able to practice. The Giants cut him in July 1991 because of the injury. After some initial dispute, the Giants signed him to a one-year US\$310,000 contract and placed him on the physically unable to perform list. He spent the season as a tight end coach at Saint Dominic Savio High School in East Boston, Massachusetts. He took the position after the team's coach took a chance and wrote Bavaro a letter to ask him if he would consider coaching. Despite being advised to retire several times by the doctor who worked on his knee, Bavaro managed to secure a contract in 1992 with the Cleveland Browns, who were coached by former Giants assistant coach Bill Belichick. He played one season for the Browns and managed to appear in all 16 games. After the season, he signed with the Philadelphia Eagles. He played in all 16 games again and had 43 receptions, 481 yards, and 6 touchdowns in 1993. After playing one more season for the Eagles he retired in 1995 at the age of 31. Bavaro finished his nine NFL seasons with 351 receptions for 4,733 yards and 39 touchdowns. In 2011, he was inducted into the New York Giants Ring of Honor. His career was so influential that ESPN's Mark Bavaro Fantasy Football league is named after him. In 2022, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Bavaro to the PFRA Hall of Very Good Class of 2022. ## Personal life Bavaro married Susan Downes in 1987. The couple have three children. His wife attended Seton Hall Law School for one year, but later transferred to Harvard Law School, where she achieved a degree in Law, and is currently a teacher of European History and constitutional law at St. John's Preparatory School. After his retirement they lived in Naples, Florida for three years. They currently reside in Boxford, Massachusetts, near Bavaro's hometown of Danvers. After his playing career, Bavaro worked as a sales trader for an equity block-trading firm, where he traded large blocks of stocks for institutions and hedge funds. He pursued a career in this field at the suggestion of his former Giants teammate Phil McConkey, who worked for the same company as Bavaro. In 2007, Bavaro was appointed Vice President of DesignCentrix, a premiere Chicago exhibit house. Bavaro is also an avid golfer who considers the sport his favorite pastime. Throughout his life Bavaro has displayed a humble, low-key, blue collar personality. During the 1986 season, when he emerged as a Pro Bowler, The New York Times columnist Frank Litsky described him by saying, "[h]e is a man of few words, even with teammates. Although he earned \$90,000 plus an \$85,000 signing bonus last year and will make \$125,000 plus incentives this year, he lives a Spartan life. He drives a Chevrolet. His everyday wardrobe features jeans and sneakers. He is humble to a fault." Bavaro is also an anti-abortion activist and was one of 503 people arrested during an anti-abortion rally in 1988. During his NFL career and since his retirement Bavaro has done work as a member of the LifeAthletes organization which promotes abstinence; Bavaro was vice chairman of the group during his playing career. He has also recently befriended and followed the career of Denver Broncos tight end Daniel Graham who idolized Bavaro as a child. Mark's younger brother David also played football professionally as a linebacker for four NFL teams over the course of four seasons. In 2008, Bavaro published his first novel, Rough & Tumble (), a novel describing the fictional life of Dominic Fucillo in the NFL and the trials and tribulations he faced while playing football. ## See also - History of the New York Giants (1979-1993)
142,022	WWT Slimbridge	1,166,153,648	Wetland nature reserve in Gloucestershire	[ "Birdwatching sites in England", "Environment of Gloucestershire", "Nature centres in England", "Nature reserves in Gloucestershire", "Protected areas established in 1946", "Stroud District", "Tourist attractions in Gloucestershire", "Wetlands of England", "Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust centres" ]	WWT Slimbridge is a wetland wildlife reserve near Slimbridge in Gloucestershire, England. It is midway between Bristol and Gloucester on the eastern side of the estuary of the River Severn. The reserve, set up by the artist and naturalist Sir Peter Scott, opened in November 1946. Scott subsequently founded the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust, which has since opened nine other reserves around the country. Slimbridge comprises some 800 hectares (2,000 acres) of pasture, reed bed, lagoon and salt marsh. Many water birds live there all year round, and others are migrants on their ways to and from their summer breeding grounds. Other birds overwinter, including large numbers of white-fronted geese and increasing numbers of Bewick's swans. Besides having the world's largest collection of captive wildfowl, Slimbridge takes part in research and is involved in projects and internationally run captive breeding programmes. It was there that Peter Scott developed a method of recognising individual birds through their characteristics, after realising that the coloured patterns on the beaks of Bewick's swans were unique. The public can visit the reserve throughout the year. Besides examining the collections, they can view birds from hides and observatories and take part in educational activities. ## History The Wildlife and Wetland Trust at Slimbridge was set up by Peter Scott and opened on 10 November 1946, as a centre for research and conservation. In a move unusual at the time, he opened the site to the public so that everyone could enjoy access to nature. This modest beginning developed in time into the formation of the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust, the only United Kingdom charity to promote the protection of wetland birds and their habitats, both in Britain and internationally. Although starting out at Slimbridge, the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust now owns or manages nine other reserves in Britain, and advocates for wetlands and conservation issues world-wide. WWT Consulting is an offshoot of the Wildlife & Wetland Trust and is based at Slimbridge. It provides ecological surveys and assessments, and offers consultancy services in wetland habitat design, wetland management, biological waste-water treatment systems and the management of reserves and their visitor centres. The Queen in later years became Patron to the WWT, and Prince Charles became the President. A bust of founder Sir Peter Scott by Jacqueline Shackleton was completed in 1986 and is on display in the grounds. His wife Philippa, Lady Scott, sat for Jon Edgar as part of his Environmental Series of heads, and a bronze was unveiled in the visitor centre in December 2011. A sculpture by Peter Scott's mother, Kathleen Scott, entitled: Here Am I, Send Me, originally commissioned for West Downs Preparatory School, is also on display in the grounds. ## Site The site consists of 800 hectares (2,000 acres) of reserve, of which part is landscaped and can be visited by the public. At Slimbridge is the largest collection of wildfowl species in the world, and wild birds mingle with these in the enclosures. Some of the captive birds form part of international breeding programmes. The reserve includes a mixture of pastureland, much of which gets flooded in winter, lagoons, reed beds and salt marshes besides the Severn Estuary. Many wildfowl visit the site including greater white-fronted geese, Eurasian spoonbills, pied avocets and even common cranes, the latter being birds that were originally bred here and later released on the Somerset Levels. There are also some rare species of plant on the reserve including the grass-poly (Lythrum hyssopifolia) and the wasp orchid, a variant of the bee orchid (Ophrys apifera). The number of ducks, geese and swans is greatest in winter, with large flocks of greater white-fronted geese, sometimes with a rare lesser white-fronted goose amongst them. Bewick's swans are a feature of Slimbridge in winter, arriving from northern Russia to enjoy the milder climate of southern England. Their behaviour has been studied intensively at Slimbridge. Birds of prey such as peregrine and merlin also visit the centre in the winter, as well as wading birds and some woodland birds, and it is a good place to see the elusive water rail. Species present all year round include little and great crested grebes, lapwing, redshank, tufted duck, gadwall, kingfisher, reed bunting, great spotted woodpecker, sparrowhawk and little owl. In the spring, passage waders visit the pools alongside the estuary; these include Eurasian whimbrel, common, wood and green sandpipers, spotted redshank, common greenshank, avocet, little gull and black tern, and other migrants arriving at the reserve include northern wheatear, whinchat, common redstart and black redstart. Swans and geese usually start to arrive in late October. Passage waders in the autumn include red knot, black-tailed godwit, dunlin, ringed and grey plovers, ruff, common greenshank, spotted redshank, curlew sandpiper and common, wood and green sandpipers. Besides Bewick's swan and flocks of white-fronted geese, large waterfowl regularly present in the reserve in winter include the brent goose, pink-footed goose, barnacle goose and taiga bean goose. The swans tend to fly off in the day and return to feed in the late afternoon, and another spectacular sight at the end of winter afternoons is the arrival of large flocks of starlings. Smaller wildfowl present in winter include wigeon, Eurasian teal, common pochard, northern pintail, water rail, dunlin, redshank, curlew, golden plover, common snipe and ruff. ## Projects Before the establishment of the WWT reserve at Slimbridge, no Bewick's swans were regularly wintering on the Severn Estuary. In 1948, one arrived at Slimbridge, perhaps attracted by a captive whistling swan. A mate for this bird was acquired from the Netherlands and the pair eventually successfully bred. More wild Bewick's swans joined the group so that by 1964, more than thirty wild swans were present. So that the birds could be better studied, the tame resident swans were relocated to an easily observable lake. Peter Scott realised that every bird had a unique patterning of black and yellow on its beak by which individual birds could be recognised. These were recorded in small paintings with front and side views (rather like "mug shots") to aid recognition. By 1989, over six thousand swans had been recorded visiting the site, and by this means, much research was made possible on the birds. An early success story in the 1950s was the saving of the nene (or Hawaiian goose) from extinction. Birds were brought to the site and breeding at Slimbridge was successful. Initial releases into the wild in Hawaii were a failure however, because the nene's natural habitat was not protected from the predators that had been introduced to the islands by man. Once that problem was alleviated, successful reintroduction became possible. During Princess Elizabeth's 1951 tour of Canada, she was promised a Dominion gift of trumpeter swans, the arrangements to be made by Peter Scott. Canadian officials discovered the only swans tame enough to capture were at Lonesome Lake in British Columbia as they had been fed for decades by conservationist Ralph Edwards. In 1952, with the help of Ralph and his daughter Trudy, five were captured and flown to England, the first time trumpeter swans had ever flown across the Atlantic (although in the 19th century swans had been brought by ship to European zoos). One unfortunately died, but the remaining four thrived at WWT Slimbridge for many years. Slimbridge has also been involved in trying to increase population levels of common cranes, which had bred spasmodically in Britain since the late 1970s. A specially built "Crane School" is used where the young birds are taught to forage and avoid danger. This project has led to 23 birds being released onto the Somerset Moors and Levels in September 2013, and 93 being released by the end of 2015. In September 2016, a researcher from Slimbridge is planning to become a "human swan" and follow migrating Bewick's swans using a powered paraglider. She plans to try to find out the hazards they face during migration and why their numbers have halved in the last twenty years. The 4,500 mi (7,200 km) mission from the Arctic tundra of Russia to Slimbridge is expected to last for ten weeks. ## Facilities The Sloane Observation Tower gives far-reaching views to the Cotswold escarpment in the east and the River Severn and Forest of Dean in the West. The £6.2m visitor centre has a shop, waterside restaurant, cinema, art gallery and tropical house, and exhibitions are held in the "Hanson Discovery Centre". There are sixteen hides that visitors can use for bird watching, as well as several comfortable observatories. Educational visits are available for schools and there is a programme of guided walks, events, talks and workshops. Visitors are allowed to feed the captive birds with approved food mixes bought on site, and during the winter, feeding of wild birds near one of the hides takes place at certain scheduled times, including on some floodlit occasions in the evening for visiting groups.
3,955,059	The High Llamas	1,158,541,507	Anglo-Irish avant-pop band	[ "Avant-pop musicians", "Chamber pop musicians", "Drag City (record label) artists", "Musical groups established in 1991", "Musical groups from London", "Stereolab", "V2 Records artists" ]	The High Llamas are an Anglo-Irish avant-pop band formed in London circa 1991. They were founded by singer-songwriter Sean O'Hagan, formerly of Microdisney, with drummer Rob Allum and ex-Microdisney bassist Jon Fell. O'Hagan has led the group since its formation. Their music is often compared to the Beach Boys, a band he acknowledges as an influence, although more prominent influences were drawn from bossa nova and European film soundtracks. O'Hagan formed the High Llamas after the breakup of his group Microdisney. The band initially played in a more conventional acoustic pop style, but after he joined Stereolab as a keyboardist, he was inspired to revamp the group's music closer to the electronic and orchestral sound he preferred. Their second album, Gideon Gaye (1994), anticipated the mid 1990s easy-listening revivalist movement, and its follow-up Hawaii (1996) nearly led to a collaboration with the Beach Boys. Since then, the High Llamas' albums have been more electronic and stripped-down. ## History ### Formation In 1988, the Irish band Microdisney, led by Sean O'Hagan and Cathal Coughlan, broke up. To support himself, O'Hagan briefly worked as a rock music journalist, and in 1990, released a solo album titled High Llamas. The name came from a picture of a Victorian era hot-air balloon that he saw in a magazine. Around 1991 or 1992, the name was recycled for a new band formed by Sean O'Hagan, Marcus Holdaway, Jon Fell and Rob Allum. They could not afford to record a full album, and instead released an EP, titled Apricots. Under a French label, the EP was reissued with two additional tracks, which became the LP Santa Barbara. At this point, the band's style was conventional guitar pop, O'Hagan said, "I was quite happy with what we were doing, [but] there wasn't really anything remarkable about it, and it wasn't really the kind of music that I enjoyed listening to ... [which was] the Beach Boys ... the Left Banke, Van Dyke Parks ... a lot of soundtrack music like John Barry, and electronic experimental music like Kraftwerk and Neu!." He also mentioned his frustration with the state of modern rock music, calling it "the most conformist, corporate thing out there." For "years", he said, he "was bored shitless by guitar rock ... From looking at the Beach Boys, I saw the Martin Denny thing [and] the early Yellow Magic Orchestra thing. These people were investigating harmonies in really interesting, nearly orchestral ways, but they were using subversive sounds to do it." The A.V. Club writer Noel Murray remarked that without the Beach Boys' 1968 album Friends, "the High Llamas probably wouldn't exist." After attending a Stereolab concert in the early 1990s, O'Hagan met the band's founders Tim Gane and Lætitia Sadier. He became their keyboardist, initially as a temporary replacement, but O'Hagan was "allowed to make suggestions and the fun started." His first record appearance was on the EP Space Age Bachelor Pad Music (1993), and he remained a full-time member of the band until Mars Audiac Quintet (1994). Influenced by his time with Gane, O'Hagan decided to revamp his creative aspirations for the High Llamas. In a 1997 article, O'Hagan spoke of the Beach Boys' 1966 album Pet Sounds as "the beginning of the great pop experiment, [before] rock and roll got hold of the whole thing and stopped it," and intended his new band to carry on in a similar tradition. He continued to make guest appearances on later Stereolab releases. Visser departed the group and was replaced by guitarist John Bennett. ### Gideon Gaye–Snowbug In 1994, the High Llamas released Gideon Gaye, an album that reached 94 on the UK Albums Chart for a one-week stay. It was recorded with a £4000 budget in the span of a few months, and anticipated the mid 1990s easy-listening fad. The album received press coverage from magazines such as Q, Mojo and NME, but only received substantial sales and acclaim after being rereleased a year later. It was first reissued on the band's Alpaca Parks imprint, then by Delmore Recordings in the United States, and once more by the major label Epic Records. British music journalists praised Gideon Gaye, but AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger stated that the album was released "almost as an afterthought [in the US], with virtually no fanfare." Also in 1994, the High Llamas accompanied Arthur Lee, co-founder of the 1960s band Love, as his backing band for a brief concert tour. Gideon Gaye was well-received from within the record industry, and it became a commonly recommended album among British A&R label representatives. The band were soon tagged as part of the nascent "ork-pop" movement, described in a 1996 Billboard piece as "a new breed of popsmiths going back to such inspirations as Brian Wilson, Burt Bacharach, and Phil Spector in the quest for building the perfect orchestrated pop masterpiece." O'Hagan responded to the Beach Boys comparisons that the album had drawn: "[Wilson] has been the biggest influence in my career to date. I was always shy [about] how much I liked him, but this time I decided to be blatant about it." He was also hesitant to be associated with the ork-pop movement, saying that the group's "music is a hybrid of stuff from the last 50, 20 or 30 years ... It's definitely about making music for tomorrow." O'Hagan recalled that "we had everybody knocking the door down saying, 'here take the money and make the [next] record.'" The follow-up to Gideon Gaye, Hawaii (1996), was released on Alpaca Park, and reached number 62 in the UK, again for a one-week stay. He described the work as a fusion between the music of the "post mid-European Stockhausen era" and the "really screwed up West Coast American sort of music, of the Wrecking Crew variety". It incorporated more electronic sounds than Gideon Gaye, while its lyrics loosely address themes of "nomadism, nostalgia, film and musical theatre, and the effects of colonialism". In the US, the album was issued with a 40-minute bonus CD containing material that was previously unreleased in that region. Dominic Murcott then joined the group on vibraphone and marimba. The High Llamas' American and British fanbase continued to grow. Cold and Bouncy (1998) pushed the band further into electronics. According to O'Hagan, it was named for electronica's "paradoxical" combination of "chill" or digital sounds and "boisterous" rhythms. It was accompanied by Lollo Rosso (1998), an album consisting of seven remixed Cold and Bouncy tracks created by Mouse on Mars, Cornelius, Schneider TM, Jim O'Rourke, Kid Loco, Stock, Hausen & Walkman, and the High Llamas. Snowbug (1999) featured Stereolab vocalists Lætitia Sadier and Mary Hansen. The album was met with poor sales, and was their last before departing V2 Records. A two-disc compilation, Retrospective, Rarities & Instrumentals (2003), collected tracks from their main discography up to this point. Additionally, it included rarities that had been released as B-sides or bonus tracks on Japanese and American editions of their albums, while one song, "Vampo Brazil", was a previously unreleased outtake from the Cold and Bouncy sessions. ### 2000s–present The High Llamas started recording for the Duophonic and Drag City record labels with Buzzle Bee (2000), which saw the band experimenting more with their sound, while Beet, Maize & Corn (2003) eschewed electric guitars and synthesizers in favor of string and brass arrangements. The latter marked the arrival of an additional member, Pete Aves, on guitars and banjo. Unterberger referred to Beet, Maize & Corn as "a high achievement for the Llamas with both critics and fans." In The Rough Guide to Rock (2003), music critic Nig Hodgkins commented that despite "adventurous breakthroughs by previously obscure American bands such as Mercury Rev and the Flaming Lips," the High Llamas failed to attract a comparative following and were seen as "a little too esoteric and experimental to threaten a mainstream that had once warmed to the strong melodies of Gideon Gaye." Can Cladders (2007) received generally favourable reviews. Pitchfork reviewer Eric Harvey wrote that the album "emerge[d] as the most enjoyable High Llamas record in over a decade. ... with a bounce and sway nearly absent from its largely rhythmless predecessor." Another four years went by until their next release, Talahomi Way (2011), described by O'Hagan as a "spring album". He said that the band's slowed output was due to low finances, and that he could only sustain a career in music through arrangement commissions. He could not afford commercial studios and recorded in improvised spaces "as much as possible, which allowed the budget to go on strings and brass. But I also wanted to create more space on the records. I was tired of density." In 2013, the group contributed a song, "Living on a Farm", to an episode of the children's television programme Yo! Gabba Gabba. In 2014, the High Llamas premiered a theatrical play, Here Come the Rattling Trees, at the Tristan Bates Theatre in London's Covent Garden. Pitchfork critic Robert Ham summarized the plot as "extended anecdotes [used] to comment on the rapid changes happening in London, particularly in Peckham, a region in the southeastern part of the city where O'Hagan has lived for over 20 years." The play originally featured a cast of actors and actresses, but when a studio album adaptation was released in 2016, the record only featured instrumental performances. O'Hagan explained that this was because the label felt that its promotion "would be difficult as the record would appear to be from a different medium." In 2019, Drag City released O'Hagan's second solo album, Radum Calls, Radum Calls. During an interview to promote the record, he commented that the High Llamas were not defunct and that he was attempting to secure the rights to the band's work from Universal Music Group, "who are extremely reluctant to do anything with our catalog, and I’ve really been wanting to get them remastered and pressed on vinyl, and maybe do an expanded series like Stereolab have done. If we can get that to happen, we’ll tour. ... Then we might use that as an opportunity to officially retire—it would be a great way to close that book, don’t you think?" ## Members Current - Sean O'Hagan – lead vocals, keyboards, guitar - John Fell – bass - Rob Allum – drums - Marcus Holdaway – keyboards, vibraphone - Dominic Murcott – vibraphone, marimba - Pete Aves – guitar Former - Anita Visser – vocals, guitar - John Bennett – guitar ## Discography Studio albums Compilation Remix EP
40,664,571	2013 American League Wild Card tie-breaker game	1,173,141,324	2013 Major League Baseball tie-breaker game	[ "2013 Major League Baseball season", "2013 in sports in Texas", "21st century in Arlington, Texas", "Baseball competitions in Arlington, Texas", "Major League Baseball tie-breaker games", "September 2013 sports events in the United States", "Tampa Bay Rays postseason", "Texas Rangers postseason" ]	The 2013 American League Wild Card tie-breaker game was a one-game extension to Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2013 regular season, played between the Texas Rangers and Tampa Bay Rays to determine the second participant in the 2013 American League (AL) Wild Card Game. It was played at the Globe Life Park in Arlington on September 30, 2013. The Rays defeated the Rangers, 5–2, and advanced to the AL Wild Card Game against the Cleveland Indians at Progressive Field, which they won 4–0; the Rangers failed to qualify for the postseason. The tie-breaker game was necessary after both teams finished the season with win–loss records of 91–71 and thus tied for the second Wild Card position in the AL. The Rangers were awarded home field for the game, as they won the regular season series against the Rays, 4–3. The game was televised on TBS. It was the fourth tie-breaker in MLB history for a Wild Card spot, although it was the first when MLB used the format of two Wild Card teams playing in a Wild Card Game from 2012 to 2021. The tie-breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams, with all events in the game added to regular season statistics. ## Background In Major League Baseball from 2012 to 2021, the two teams with the best record in each league who do not win a division played in the Wild Card Game. A number of teams were in competition for these Wild Card spots, along with their divisional competition. The Rangers spent over 80 days leading the American League West and shared the lead as late as September 4. The Rays spent only a few days leading the American League East, but held a share of the lead as late as August 24. The Cleveland Indians did not lead the American League Central after July 2 but remained close throughout the season and ultimately finished just a single game back of the Central champion Detroit Tigers. Although other teams including the Kansas City Royals, Baltimore Orioles, and New York Yankees had vied for a Wild Card spot, the Indians, Rangers, and Rays all remained in contention until the end of the season. Entering the final day of the scheduled regular season, on which all three teams played, the Indians had a 91–70 record while both the Rangers and Rays had 90–71 records. These were the best non-division-leading records in the American League. Thus, the possibility existed (had the Indians lost and the Rays and Rangers won) for a three-way tie for the two Wild Card spots, which would have required several tie-breaker games to settle. However, all three teams won, leaving the Indians definitively in the Wild Card Game at 92–70 and the Rays and Rangers tied at 91–71 for the second spot. The Indians finished the season strong, winning their last 10 games to clinch their Wild Card berth. The Rays were 16–12 in September, winning 8 of their last 10. The Rangers were just 12–15 in September, although they also won eight of their final 10 games. Home field advantage for the tie-breaker game was awarded to the Rangers, as they had won the season series against the Rays 4–3. ## Game summary Desmond Jennings opened the first inning with a single, but was thrown out at second base trying to stretch the hit into a double. Wil Myers then walked, advanced to third base on singles by Ben Zobrist and Evan Longoria, and finally scored on a sacrifice fly by Delmon Young. Rays starter David Price struck out leadoff batter Ian Kinsler, then allowed a walk to Elvis Andrus but picked him off and finished the inning by retiring Alex Ríos. The score remained 1–0 until the top of the third inning, when Jennings drew a walk and scored on a home run by Longoria to give the Rays a 3–0 lead. The Rangers struck right back in the bottom half, as Craig Gentry led off the inning with a single. After advancing to second on a Leonys Martín groundout, he scored on a single to right field by Kinsler. The Rays scored again in the sixth, as Longoria doubled to lead off the inning, and advanced to third base on a groundout by Young. The next batter, David DeJesus, hit a double to right field that scored Longoria and put the Rays ahead, 4–1. Rangers reliever Alexi Ogando entered the game with one out and recorded the final two outs to end the inning. After a single and a stolen base from Andrus, Ríos doubled in the bottom half of the sixth to cut the score to 4–2. A small controversy arose in the top of the seventh inning. Longoria and Myers were on first and second base respectively with two outs when Young hit a line drive to center field. Replays showed that the ball bounced into Leonys Martín's (the Rangers' center fielder) glove after hitting the ground, making it a trap and therefore should have been a hit. However, the umpires ruled the play an out, ending the inning without a run scoring. Ultimately, the issue did not affect the outcome. The Rays added onto their lead in the ninth inning when Sam Fuld stole third and a scored on a throwing error from Rangers reliever Tanner Scheppers, extending their lead to 5–2. Price closed the game in the ninth, recording three straight outs and finishing off a complete game. ## Aftermath The Rays' win clinched the team's fourth post-season berth in franchise history. The Rays advanced to the AL Wild Card Game, in which they defeated the Cleveland Indians. They would then lose the ALDS to the eventual World Series champion Boston Red Sox, 3 games to 1. The game counted as a regular season game in baseball statistics. For example, Evan Longoria's third-inning home run broke Stan Musial's record for the most home runs in the last game of the season, setting the mark at seven. He went 3-for-4 with a double, a home run, and two RBI in the game overall. This left him 11-for-19 with seven home runs and ten RBIs in season finales from 2009 to 2013.
61,811,553	Making a New World	1,164,050,644	null	[ "2020 albums", "Concept albums", "Field Music albums", "Memphis Industries albums" ]	Making a New World is the seventh studio album by English rock band Field Music. It was released through Memphis Industries on 10 January 2020. The songs were originally composed by David and Peter Brewis for a project commissioned by the Imperial War Museum. The album is about the after-effects of World War I and how they impacted the 100 years after the war's end. It is considered the band's first concept album. The starting point for the museum project was an image called "The End of the War", a visualisation of the vibrations from when gunfire ceased at the exact moment that the war ended. After conducting research, the Brewis brothers decided against writing songs broadly about World War I. They instead focused on individual stories inspired by technological, political, sociological, and cultural advancements over the course of the next century that directly or indirectly stemmed from the war. A variety of topics are addressed in the songs on Making a New World, including war reparations, social housing reforms, women's suffrage, the Dada movement, the Tiananmen Square protests, sanitary napkins, gender realignment operations, and the development of technologies such as ultrasound, synthesisers, and air-to-ground radio communication. The primary recordings for the album came from two real-time band run-throughs by Field Music, recorded in a single day shortly after the original museum performances. The band's guitarist Kevin Dosdale designed visuals used for the former's tour dates and the museum shows. Making a New World features a diverse mix of styles, genres, and instruments, as well as multiple shifts in mood and tone, sophisticated vocal harmony, and brief instrumental vignettes. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics and was praised for the ambition and originality, with Field Music being complimented for making such lofty subject matter enjoyable. Some critics were more negative, saying it was the wrong platform for the concept, or that too many ideas were contained to form a cohesive album. ## Background and development Released through Field Music's label Memphis Industries, Making a New World is about the after-effects of World War I, and is considered the band's first concept album. The songs were originally composed from a project that Field Music prepared for the Imperial War Museum (IWM), which commissioned music as part of its Making a New World season commemorating the centenary of the end of the war and its effects on society afterwards. The program ultimately inspired the name of the album, as did the painting "We Are Making a New World" by war artist Paul Nash. The latter depicts the consequences of war without explicitly showing the conflict itself, which David said was consistent with the band's approach to the album's music. He said the title Making a New World also refers to the many ways in which the world was changed by World War I. The IWM originally planned to commission the Fall for the project, but when the group's founder Mark E. Smith died, they were forced to seek another band. Andy Martin, who had made music videos for Field Music in the past, was acquainted with officials from the museum and introduced them to the band. The Brewis brothers were not previously familiar with the IWM, and they were initially skeptical about the proposed commission, but became more comfortable with the project after visiting the IWM North branch and discussing it. Although David said Field Music wrote the songs "to order", he said "it didn't feel like hack work". The latter had previously produced works based upon World War I, including a collaboration with the band Warm Digits, and the Royal Northern Sinfonia on a score for Asunder (2016), a film directed by Esther Johnson about the war's effects on a small English town. However, David said his knowledge about World War I was limited to his high school studies and explained this by claiming that "the way you see things at high school: you pay a bit of attention, you find it interesting, but you don't think too deeply about it". In the spring of 2018, the IWM formally commissioned Field Music to create a commemorative sound and light show based upon a picture about munitions from a 1919 publication by the United States Department of War. The image, entitled "The End of the War", showed a visualisation of the vibrations caused by gunfire during the exact moment of 11 a.m. on 11 November 1918, the moment at which the armistice that ended the war went into effect. The image was created using a technique called sound ranging that used transducers to detect the vibrations, then displayed the distances between peaks with lines on a graph to show the location of enemy armaments. It illustrated one minute of harsh and intense noise, followed by near silence for the same amount of time. David described the image as "this tiny, incomplete fragment, not much more than a moment, but one which could be both the beginning and the ending of a huge story". The band also said this image was both the starting point for their songs and "the start of a new world". David stated that they imagined the lines from the image "continuing across the next hundred years, and we looked for stories which tied back to specific events from the war or the immediate aftermath". The Brewis brothers began conducting research in September 2018, a process David described as "amateurish", which mostly entailed searching the Internet for stories about the after-effects of World War I. Field Music originally considered creating a primarily instrumental piece; Peter said his initial vision was "something slightly improvised" that drew upon music from the time period of World War I, such as jazz and orchestral works during the Belle Époque, including Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913). However, the brothers' research ultimately inspired them to write songs with lyrics telling specific stories. David said their research led them to subjects that they "couldn't help but write songs about". The music was researched, composed, and prepared in a three-month span between September and December 2018, a faster process than usual for Field Music, but one David described as "liberating" because they had less time to dwell on it. The lyrics were fact-checked by the museum for historical accuracy and fixed some errors, for which David expressed gratitude. The arrangements were not finalised before the Brewis brothers presented them to other members of Field Music, another deviation from the former's usual procedure due to time restraints; the brothers first discussed the songs and visual elements of the performances with the band aboard a ferry while returning from a festival in Ireland. The visuals were finalised after Christmas of 2018, and revolved around a backdrop animated by Field Music's guitarist Kevin Dosdale, with collaboration from Andy Martin. Visualisations of vibrations similar to those used in "The End of the War" image were projected onto the walls as the band performed, as well as explanatory text about the stories behind individuals songs that they played. Minor changes were made to the music during rehearsals. The songs were first performed at the IWM sites in Salford and London on 24 January and 31 January 2019, respectively. Field Music did not originally plan to compile the songs into an album, but decided to do so because they felt the music was equally as strong as their previous works. David voiced the belief that Christmas of 2018 was when he first considered the idea of an album, though Peter said the idea did not occur to him until the band actually recorded the songs shortly after the IWM performances. It marked the first time Field Music had made an album from the music that they had been commissioned by an outside party to write. David called it a surprise, and the band has jokingly referred to Making a New World as feeling like an "accidental record" as a result. ## Lyrics and themes ### Individual stories After accepting the commission from the IWM, David and Peter Brewis decided against making music entirely and specifically focused on World War I itself because they felt pop music was not the right vehicle for telling a broad story about such a large topic. Instead, the Brewis brothers decided to approach the project similarly to how they write their usual songs, which is by focusing upon smaller stories. David said of this: "We can't tell the story of the First World War, we certainly can't tell the story of a century after the first World War and everything that came from it, but we can pick little stories, and find ways that maybe they can express something much bigger." This approach, which Peter acknowledged was "fairly esoteric" and "niche", was partially inspired by the brothers visiting the IWM in person and seeing the many stories told there. In writing the songs, the brothers researched stories, events, and advances that occurred during and after World War I, and picked moments over the course of the next 100 years that they could tie back as a direct or indirect effect of the war. David described the songs as an attempt to "capture the echoes of the First World War in all the time since". The songs identify technological, political, sociological, and cultural advancements over the course of the century and link them back to the World War I, demonstrating the long-standing consequences of that conflict. David said of Making a New World: "The whole album is really about consequences, and how the consequences of that war are still with us." He also said that he and Peter were surprised at the extent to which World War I influenced so much of the 20th century: "In some ways, things have changed a lot. But in some ways, we are still very much living in the world shaped by that conflict in that time." The album largely presents these stories in chronological order, starting with those immediately after the war ended, and concluding with the present day. David and Peter each picked their own subjects to focus upon and develop into songs, and at no point did either brother object to the other's selections, which Peter attributed to a mutual trust between the two. David was the primary composer of songs such as "Best Kept Garden", "Coffee or Wine", "Do You Read Me?", "Money Is a Memory", and "Only in a Man's World", while Peter was the main composer of other songs, including "A Change of Heir", "A Shot in the Arm", "I Thought You Were Someone Else", "Nikon, Pt. 1", and "Nikon, Pt. 2". Finding and choosing the stories they liked was one of the biggest challenges of the process for the brothers. Writing songs based upon the researching of topics was a different approach than usual for Field Music, but the Brewis brothers claimed they enjoyed the change of pace. David said working on Making a New World "might be the first time we've thought of ourselves as songwriters or lyricists, rather than people who make records". David's and Peter's mother had died in March 2018, and after that, the brothers did not feel capable of writing songs inspired by their normal lives as they usually did, so David said the IWM commission was well-timed because "looking at different subjects from a different angle was ideal". Since the songs for the album were not about the Brewis brothers or their own lives like many Field Music works, they realized they needed to identify a different storyteller and perspective for each of their songs. This approach helped ensure the songs were personal instead of overly academic. Despite the album of Making a New World, Field Music tried to avoid placing too much historical detail into the songs or writing lyrics that would require a great deal of context to understand. David said he hoped that the album would be a work listeners could enjoy on multiple levels, feeling as though they had watched "a good historical documentary" while simultaneously enjoying the music. The brothers also tried to avoid placing their personal perspectives about political or historical issues into the songs, though Peter acknowledged they may have been indirectly communicated through the lyrics. ### End of the war Although the concept behind Making a New World is inspired by World War I, very few of the songs are explicitly about the conflict itself. None of the lyrics describe any battles or fighting, and the word "gun" is never used in the album. David said of this: "Directly, it's hardly about World War I at all." Peter said the band wanted to prevent Making a New World from seeming trite or like a "bad musical", and they did not want the songs to seem overly happy or sad, not wanting to write songs that presented certain ideas about war and peace. The Brewis brothers felt they could not write authentic songs from the perspective of a soldier, which was another reason they chose not to address the war directly. They also did not want Making a New World to be about remembrance of World War I. Peter claimed that he and David "wrote it at a time when there was a lot of remembrance going on around the First World War and we didn’t want to encroach onto that territory". Instead, David said the band wanted to "find a way to make the war and what it meant immediate". In the pamphlet for the IWM performances, he wrote: "In writing these songs, we felt we were pulling the war towards us — out of remembrance and into the everyday — into the now." World War I is only directly addressed within the first three songs on Making a New World. The opening two songs, "Sound Ranging" and "Silence", are brief instrumental pieces that were directly inspired by the "End of the War" sound ranging image. The first song represents the sounds of artillery guns firing, while the latter depicts a sudden silence that follows the abrupt ceasing of fire. The album's third song, "Coffee or Wine", is about both a British soldier's return home after the war, and the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 aboard a train near Compiègne in France. David described it as a song that addresses the end of the war "from a position of confusion, which he called "a feeling I can get a hold of and make something authentic out of". The song is largely from the perspective of the soldier, who experiences conflicting emotions, including shock and uncertainty about returning to a post-war world. The soldier ponders whether or not there will be a place for him in society again, and if he can readjust to his family life, as reflected in the lyrics showing him wondering about his family: "Will I recognise you all? / Or have you grown away from me since I've been away so long?" The song also imagines the generals and high-ranking officers from both sides of the war gathering around a table to sign the armistice. The title "Coffee or Wine", which is also a lyric in the song, reflects the meeting's attendees asking which refreshments they should enjoy, which Field Music used to illustrate the former's detachment from the devastation caused by the war. This was partially inspired by a discovery David made in his research that Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch acted informally around his soldiers, but strongly insisted on having his meals at regular intervals, which David found to be "a very funny little detail". ### Technological and medical advances Several of the songs on Making a New World focus on technological advances that stemmed from World War I. The technologies highlighted by the album's songs are varied. "From a Dream, Into My Arms" was inspired the usage of underwater microphones to detect and sink submarines, the precursor for sonar technology which ultimately led to the development of ultrasound technology to monitor prenatal development. The lyrics are from the perspective of a mother seeing her unborn child on a monitor. David, the father of two young children at the time of Making A New World's, said the ultrasound technology and the story behind it "feels very immediate to me". The song "Do You Read Me?" was based upon the origins of air-to-ground radio communication, from the perspective of a pilot flying over battlefields in 1917 during World War I and receiving the first transmission of a human voice during a flight. David portrayed the pilot as feeling a sense of freedom in the air, and yet being "tied down by these radio transmissions from the ground". He said the fact he chose that perspective for the time reflects how much he values having time alone. The song "A Change of Heir" was inspired by Harold Gillies, a New Zealand-born surgeon who pioneered facial cosmetic surgery and skin grafts for injured soldiers, and later conducted one of the first gender realignment operations. The song is written from the point of view of Michael Dillon, one of Gillies' first patients, who was born Laura Dillon before becoming the first trans man to undergo phalloplasty in the 1940s. Dillon's father was a baron, and, as a woman, Dillon was not entitled to inherit the family fortune and baronetcy, but was entitled to do so after becoming. This change inspired the title "A Change of Heir", which was a phrase used in an old newspaper headline in a story about Dillon. The title is also a pun referring to the phrase "a change of air", because Dillon eventually moved away from Great Britain to escape the attention his surgery brought him. Peter deliberately wrote the song so that it did not explicitly tell Dillon's entire story, but rather only hinted at it, to entice the listener to research it further. Several lyrics in the song refer to Dillon's surgery, including the phrase: "If the mind won't fit the body, let the body fit the mind". The song "Only in a Man's World" is about the development of sanitary napkins and the fact that advertising for the products, created by men, often treats the concept of menstruation like something shameful that should be kept secret. The song was inspired by a Wisconsin-based company known as Kimberly-Clark that developed a material for dressing war wounds and was later adapted for the first modern sanitary product, which was called Kotex. Arunachalam Muruganantham, the Indian investor who designed machines to develop sanitary pads as a way to combat unhygienic practices around menstruation in rural India, was another inspiration for "Only in a Man's World". The song is written from a man's perspective, and reflects what David felt was a lack of understanding about the topic from men in general. He felt the discussion and advertising of sanitary pads had not changed much since the early development of the product, and David believed that would not be the case if men also experienced menstruation, as is reflected in the lyric: "Things would be different if the boys bled". David further said of the song: > I found myself researching the development of sanitary pads – not a statement I've ever imagined myself making – and was surprised at how little the advertising material has changed in a hundred years. It's still, 'Hey Ladies! Let's not mention it too loudly but here is the perfect product to keep you feeling normal WHILE THE DISGUSTING, DIRTY THING HAPPENS.' And you realise that it's a kind of madness that a monthly occurrence for billions of women – something absolutely necessary for the survival of humanity – is seen as shameful or dirty – and is taxed MORE than razor blades?! David said somewhat embarrassed writing a song about the topic, particularly when first sharing it with his wife, but David believed "confronting my own embarrassment is a pretty fundamental part of what the song is about". He also felt embarrassed the first time he shared the song with Liz Corney from Field Music, but both David's wife and Corney approved of the song and encouraged him to release it. Several staff members of the IWM also thanked him for addressing the subject after he first performed the song there, which made David feel further validated in writing it. David described "Only in a Man's World" as a song that approaches the topic in a "light-hearted way", but his exasperation about the double standard is also reflected within some of the lyrics, including the repeated declaration "I don't know what to say". Some of the instrumental pieces on Making a New World were also influenced by technological advances, even though they do not include vocals that reflect this. "A Common Language, Pt. 1" was inspired by French cellist Maurice Martenot, whose work as a radio telegrapher during World War I directly led to his creation of the ondes Martenot, an early electronic musical instrument. The device was a precursor for the synthesiser and was a major influence on modern electronic music. Another instrumental track, "I Thought You Were Someone Else", was inspired by a breakthrough in epidemiology following the 1918 flu pandemic. Peter felt the war's impact on the pandemic was an interesting story, but not one that was appropriate to convey in lyrics, so he limited the topic to instrumental music. ### Social and cultural movements Several of the songs on Making a New World are also based upon social and cultural movements that followed the conclusion of World War I. "Between Nations" addresses the futility of war and the fragility of the peace that resulted from the conflict, as well as how the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 helped lead to the formation of the United Nations. "Beyond That of Courtesy" is about the women's suffrage movement in France, with references to the Inter-Allied Women's Conference that followed World War I, the leaders of whom eventually made a presentation to the League of Nations, in the first instance of women formally participating in international negotiations. The song's repeated chorus warning against a situation in which "the recommendations have no force beyond that of courtesy" reflects an intention for suffragettes to be taken seriously as civil activists. Although not explicitly addressed in the song, Field Music used written material from their IWM performances to link the suffrage movement highlighted in the former to the elections decades later of female leaders like Sirimavo Bandaranaike and Margaret Thatcher. "Beyond That of Courtesy" also eludes to the failures of cooperation that ultimately led to the downfall of the League of Nations. "Best Kept Garden" is a song about urban planning, and the social housing reforms made by Christopher Addison, the British Minister of Reconstruction after World War I. The subject resonated with David because his parents grew up in a housing estate established after World War II. During writing the song, he consulted a social geographer acquaintance about housing estates built as a result of the Addison Act, such as Becontree in London, and Wythenshawe in south Manchester. The lyrics of the song are from the perspective of a Becontree resident, and it was inspired by "best-kept garden competitions" organised after the war for encouraging working-class families to keep their gardens in good shape. These competitions stemmed from the government's lack of trust in residents to properly maintain the gardens, and David considered them "a slightly patronising mix of attrition good intentions". The judges in the competitions were often rent collectors, which sometimes resulted in a family in one estate hiding from a rent collector while another showed off their garden, a juxtaposition he considered illustrative of the British class system. "Nikon, Pt. 1" and "Nikon, Pt. 2" were both inspired by the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests in China and particularly the lone protestor known as "Tank Man", who famously stood in front of and blocked a column of tanks attempting to leave Tiananmen Square after suppressing the protests by force. Peter was inspired to write the songs after watching a documentary on BBC Radio 4 about one of the photographers who took pictures of the student protestors. "A Shot in the Arm" was inspired by the Dada movement, which began after artists in neutral Switzerland began to create art in response to World War I, and later inspired extreme examples of performance art in the 1960s. The song particularly took inspiration from Peter's reading about Chris Burden, the artist who willingly allowed himself to be shot by a friend as part of a 1971 performance piece protesting the Vietnam War. The former includes lyrics about children in a playground playing a game that sees them punch each other, which Field Music tied back to the Burden protest piece; David said the idea fighting as a game reflected a desensitisation of violence. Peter also included lyrics from a Hugo Ball poem in "A Shot in the Arm", and described them as "hidden" within the song. The track "Money Is a Memory" concerns the final payment by Germany in 2010 of the economically ruinous reparations it owed under the Treaty of Versailles, and is written from the perspective of a functionary in the German Treasury. The Brewis brothers were surprised at how recently the final reparations payment was made and felt it would make a good song, though Peter asked David to write the track because the former did not believe he could write it himself. David described "Money Is a Memory" as "probably the most explicit example" of Making a New World's theme of World War I's consequences continuing into the present day. He wrote the lyrics from the perspective of a bureaucrat whose job was to process the paperwork for the final payment, reducing a momentous occasion like the conclusion of World War I to a routine and boring administrative task. David called this approach to the song "a bit comical", but it also reflects how such financial transactions have lasting repercussions that affect people, and serves as a commentary on how the monetary system works. David said in reference to the bureaucratic duties being portrayed in the song: "buried away inside those papers you can imagine the echoes of millions of lives being turned upside down". In a news release about the album, Field Music said of the song: "A defining, blood-spattered element of 20th century history becomes a humdrum administrative task in a 21st century bureaucracy." ### Present day Although the songs of Making a New World tell stories from various points of the 20th century following World War I, the album also presents commentary about how the consequences of the war are still relevant to present day. David said the band sought "to explain how the First World War is still with us". Stephen Thompson of NPR Music said the album "uses the past as a prism into which to view the present", and NME writer Mark Beaumont described it as "a collection of interlocking stories spanning decades, probing at the roots of the modern malaise". CJ Thorpe-Tracey of The Quietus said Making a New World "attempts to unbox and contextualise the 'now' within the history of twentieth century Britain after the end of the First World War". Exclaim! writer Kaelen Bell wrote of the album: "Perhaps it's time for a record that looks back at the past hundred years and tries to trace where it all went south." Field Music attempted to not be judgmental or moralise with Making a New World, but also acknowledged the album has an inherently political perspective, and that their own ideological views come through in the songs. In particular, the band expresses displeasure with what they view as the world's turn towards right-wing parties and policies, as well as a prevalence of xenophobia, misogyny, and racism. When asked what the modern world can learn from World War I, David responded: > I think the main thing we learned from doing the project was that consequences are long and complicated, and that ill-thought-out solutions lead to tragedy down the line. I don't think the modern world has learned that lesson, certainly not in foreign policy. That feels even bleaker now that the UK has given up on the consensus of European peace after the Second World War. That was a hard-won peace, and here we are throwing it away in a xenophobic temper tantrum. "An Independent State", the final track of Making a New World, most directly addresses the effects of World War I on the modern world, although it is an instrumental piece without vocals. According to Field Music and materials the band provided during its performance for the IWM, the track was inspired by how treaties and agreements after the war influenced the Middle East and other parts of the world for 100 years after the end of the conflict. Similarly to "I Thought You Were Someone Else", Field Music felt this was too large a story to adequately portray in lyrics, so they made it an instrumental song instead. Among the historical events that inspired the track was the Sykes–Picot Agreement, the Balfour Declaration, British support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland within Palestine, and the relocation of the U.S. Embassy in Israel to Jerusalem under the orders of U.S. President Donald Trump. Beaumont also suggested that the track "paints an ominous sonic portray" of the United Kingdom as isolated after a withdrawal from the European Union through Brexit. Several other songs about specific historical events in Making a New World also touch upon how the events still resonate in the present day. David said "Only in a Man's World" has a "very direct echo" of ongoing modern-day debates about transgender rights. Likewise, he said "Beyond That of Courtesy" has a "very direct mirror image in what's happening with the European Union", and that "Best Kept Garden" has "very direct parallels" with housing crises, and opposition to social housing in the present day UK. Beaumont also argued "Money Is a Memory" uses Germany's final reparations payment to "highlight the inhuman greed of the 21st century". ## Musical style ### Suite style Due to the fact that the music was first written for a live performance, Making a New World is presented like one continuous suite, with songs and vignettes seguing into each other. Peter said this was done in part so audiences would not worry about whether it was appropriate to applaud between songs during the live shows. Making a New World marked Field Music's first extended suite on an album since Plumb (2012). Thorpe-Tracey said because of the way the songs are intertwined, he did not immediately realize while listening to "Coffee or Wine" that he had already reached the third track; Thorpe-Tracey praised the album's "inventive overlaying of bits and bobs". Steven Johnson of musicOMH said of Making a New World's suite arrangement: "It all forms interlocking musical blocks which when placed together still somehow seem to outline jagged, modernist architectural landscapes." ### Mix of genres and moods Making a New World features a diverse mixture of styles, genres, and instruments. The album has been described as a work of multiple genres, including indie rock, art pop, rock, pop, art rock, indie pop, progressive pop, art-prog, britpop, and alt-pop. Timothy Monger of AllMusic said it also includes elements of guitar rock, synth pop, soul, disco, and chamber pop, as well as "some light prog-rock sophistication". Several individual songs were cited by reviewers as examples of progressive music: The Scotsman's Fiona Shepherd commented on the "prog funk elasticity" of "Do You Read Me?", and "Beyond That of Courtesy" was noted as "a very catchy bit of prog pop" in a BrooklynVegan article. "Nikon, Pt. 2" has been called electronic rock, and "Best Kept Garden" has been described as "new wave", with some of reviewers comparing the latter to the work of Vampire Weekend. Hot Press writer Stephen Porzio called Making a New World an "experimental album" due to its diversity of genres and styles. Meg Berridge of Gigwise claimed the album "metamorphoses [from] ambient piano-centric ballads to high-octane, funk floor-fillers", and Stereogum writer Ryan Leas said it ranges "from tangled, nervy art-rock with some old-school new wave funk elements to jangly indie". In addition to the variety of genres on Making a New World, there are multiple shifts in mood and tone, sometimes within individual songs themselves. Citing an example, James Anderson of NARC Magazine wrote that "Best Kept Garden" offset a buoyant guitar riff against "ethereal vocal harmonies", which was said to exemplify a "shifting mood (that) reflects the ironies of its subject matter". "Coffee or Wine" is at times breezy and bouncy in tone, and has a solemn and pastoral quality at other times. Berridge called the song both "delightfully buoyant and painfully bittersweet", writing: "If you scratch below the surface of the ebullient piano, you’ll find abandon and hopelessness in the lyrics." "Do You Read Me?" starts out fast-paced and propulsive, but slows down near the end, with a series of steady percussive beats, becoming one of the sadder and more contemplative songs of the four singles released from the album. David said the song "floats off into a reverie" at the end as it transitions into "From a Dream, Into My Arms", and David felt the segue from contemplating mortality to dreaming about birth was appropriate. Rob Mesure of musicOMH wrote that a number of the songs from Making a New World feature "melodies reflecting the optimistic as well as the darker subjects of focus". Several of the songs include funk elements, particularly "Only in a Man's World", and "Money Is a Memory", both of which were primarily composed by David. Peter jokingly said of his brother: "You can't stop Dave getting his funk chops out. I've tried before and it's just impossible." Both songs have been compared to similar funk work by American musician Prince. David himself described "Money Is a Memory" as "a kind of slow funk stomper", and The Skinny writer Alan O'Hare viewed "Only in a Man's World" as "twitchy new wave funk", while Kieron Tyler of The Arts Desk called the latter a "snappy pop-funk nugget with an Eighties feel". Sound of Violence writer Yann Guillo said Making a New World has "a certain taste for a white funk" that Field Music previously explored on their album Open Here (2018). "Only in a Man's World" also has many disco aspects, and has been repeatedly compared to the work of Talking Heads; David said of the song, "I'd basically written a disco song about sanitary towels." "Best Kept Garden" has been noted for its mix of styles, having been described as "dramatic pop", "industrial splendour", and "rock-classicism", while received comparisons to the works of Roxy Music, Talking Heads, and the Kinks. Both "Between Nations" and "A Change of Heir" have been called psychedelic music by reviewers, with the former being compared to the musical style of the Beach Boys, Van Dyke Parks, and Pete Townshend, and the latter to the style of "imperial-era Pink Floyd", as well as the acoustic music of the Beatles. Critics compared "Money Is a Memory" to the works of various other artists, including Godley & Creme, Peter Gabriel, and David Bowie, in his "Fame" era. Robert Ham of Paste also commented on the song's "Hot Chocolate-like R&B groove". ### Instrumental pieces Similarly to Field Music's live performance of the material at the IWM, Making a New World features several brief instrumental pieces and vignettes among the songs with vocals. NARC Magazine's Lee Hammond said the album is "peppered with short instrumentals that provide segues between poignant moments", and Matt Churchill of God is in the TV claimed the pieces "humbly majestic flow to proceedings, with each part given space to breathe and own its segment of the whole". David stated the band chose to write instrumental-only pieces because they felt some of the stories they researched were topics that felt "too big" to address with lyrics. Among the pieces were "I Thought You Were Someone Else", which is about the 1918 flu pandemic, and "An Independent State", which is about how treaties after World War I divided the Middle East. Guillo described the instrumental tracks as "short but evocative and almost cinematographic musical interludes", and noted that several of them include jazz accents. The first two tracks of Making a New World, "Sound Ranging" and "Silence", are short instrumental songs with the intention of representing the exact moment World War I ended. The first track is a discordant piece with percussion sounds that deliberately resemble the sound of artillery fire. The song includes a combination of various musical elements and different time signatures, portraying a sense of chaos and irregularity associated with the war. Pitchfork writer Brian Howe called the song "an interesting blend of beauty and terror", and Ross Horton of The Line of Best Fit said it evokes the "contemplative, humming soundscapes" popularised by the English band Japan on Tin Drum (1981). "Silence" is a 40-second track with sparse, single piano notes, which represent the cease of artillery fire with the conclusion of the war. Reviewers described the track as surreal, gloomy, and ominious, and David said Field Music intended for the song to simultaneously convey a sense of calm and uncertainty. PopMatters writer Jordan Blum said the two opening tracks "use chaotic earthy spaciness and isolated piano contemplation, respectively, to great effect". Other instrumental tracks on Making a New World include "I Thought You Were Something Else", "A Common Language, Pt. 1", "A Common Language, Pt. 2", and the album's closer, "An Independent State". Each of the tracks differ in style from one another. "I Thought You Were Someone Else" includes elements of jazz, and psychedelic rock, utilising piano and guitars in a minimalist style. The two "A Common Language" tracks are electronic music pieces, which Blum said incorporate "robotic digital experimentation". Churchill said the keyboard tones of "Pt. 1" are "antithetical" to the compositions around them, and that the song sounds "practically space age to the rest of the record". "An Independent State" is a dreamy and contemplative closing track, which begins with simple piano tones, but builds in intensity while adding cymbals, synthesisers, and lead guitar lines. Hammond called the song "a bleak closing track, capturing the mood of the current political climate almost too perfectly". ### Vocals and instrumentation As with many other albums by Field Music, Making a New World makes regular uses of bouncy and sophisticated vocal harmonies, which are included on songs such as "Best Kept Garden", "Beyond That of Courtesy", "Coffee or Wine", and "Do You Read Me?". Some songs on the album are semi-spoken, while others include near-falsetto vocal parts sung by David Brewis. BrooklynVegan writer Bill Pearis described the album's harmonies as "lush and lovely", and Jesse Locke of Slant Magazine wrote that Field Music's vocals "sound as effortless as always, delivered with a laidback breeziness belying the songs' sophisticated melodies". Many reviewers compared David's singing on "Only in a Man's World" to that of Talking Heads member David Byrne, particularly when the former repeatedly sings the line "Why should a woman feel ashamed?" Uncut writer Sharon O'Connell said Making a New World has a "dominant, switchback guitar style" that is typical of other Field Music works. Several songs feature prominent guitar riffs, including "Best Kept Garden", which Horton wrote "opens with a delightfully screwball guitar lead" that he compared to the work of Captain Beefheart. "Money Is a Memory" includes what Louder Than War writer Abigail Ward called "great sizzling guitar stabs" reminiscent of guitarist Carlos Alomar's performances on Bowie's Station to Station (1976), while O'Hare compared it to the music of David A. Stewart. Several reviewers noted the dynamic guitar parts of "Only in a Man's World", and Paste writer Hayden Goodridge said the sustained guitar strums of "Beyond That of Courtesy" create a sense of "ambient tension". Bass guitar is featured prominently on several songs, including "Between Nations", and "Beyond That of Courtesy"; Pearis described the bass parts throughout the album as "rubbery". The piano is featured prominently too in several of Making the New World's songs, including "A Shot to the Arm", "Only in a Man's World", and "Coffee or Wine". Several critics described "Coffee or Wine" in particular as a "piano pop" song, and Blum noted the song as including "jubilant piano chords". Multiple songs on the album also include powerful and pronounced usage of drums, such as "Do You Read Me?", which Leas said has "a drumbeat that feels like a militaristic march pushing forward". "Beyond That of Courtesy" in particular includes an unusual drum rhythm, utilising claps and dings as well as traditional percussion instruments. Synthesisers are also utilised throughout Making a New World. ## Recording and production Making a New World's main tracks were recorded on 1 February 2019, one day after Field Music's performance at the IWM site in London. In addition to David and Peter Brewis on drums and guitar, respectively, the recording included the full Field Music live band, including Dosdale on guitar, Andrew Lowther on bass guitar, and Corney on keyboards as well as backing vocals. The band played two real-time run-throughs over the course of a single day, without stopping, and the Brewis brothers then picked the best tracks from each of the two performances. David said the two run-throughs accounted for about "80% of what's on the record", though the brothers and Corney later did some overdubbing at Field Music's studio in Sunderland. Making a New World was the first Field Music album completed at their new studio in Sunderland; their previous studio, located elsewhere in Sunderland, where they had recorded five consecutive albums over a course of seven years, was demolished following the completion of Open Here. The former's production was a departure for Field Music because most of the band's previous records were largely constructed in studio by David and Peter, who would then work with the other members of the band to determine how the sounds could be played live. By contrast, Field Music first learned how to play the songs from Making a New World through the live IWM performances, then recorded them as the full band later. As a result, the album was considered Field Music's first full-band release since Tones of Town (2007). David said Making a New World was built from scratch more than the band's previous works, and he said it was a strange process for Field Music to hold rehearsals in which band members did not already know in advance what they were supposed to be playing. Though David and Peter were the primary composers of the album's songs, every track is formally credited as having been written by all five members of the band. ## Release and promotion The release of Making a New World for 10 January 2020 was announced on 18 September 2019, the announcement coming the same day as the release of the album's lead single, "Only in a Man's World". The second single, "Money is a Memory", was released on 20 November 2019, and a music video illustrated and animated by Heather Chambers was later released online. The third single from Making a New World, "Beyond That of Courtesy", was released 11 December of that year, and the fourth and final single, "Do You Read Me?", was released 3 January 2020. That same day, Field Music announced on Twitter they were releasing the song "in case we don't make it through the next seven days", with the 2019–20 Persian Gulf crisis ongoing at the time. Making a New World was released on 10 January 2020 in compact disc, vinyl, and digital download formats, by the Memphis Industries label. The album marked Field Music's first in two years since the release of Open Here, although the Brewis brothers had issued other solo projects since that time. David's solo project School of Language released the album 45 in 2019, the same year that Peter released You Tell Me, a collaborative album with Sarah Hayes. A special vinyl record of Making a New World with a red pressing was also released on 10 January 2020, and Field Music also performed two live tracks from the album for Soho Radio, including "Money is a Memory", which were recorded directly to a vinyl record. Field Music embarked on a tour throughout the UK following the release of Making a New World. Most of the performances for the tour utilised similar visuals created by Dosdale and used during the original shows of the IWM, including seismograph-like images inspired by "The End of the War" sound ranging document, as well as narrative text describing the stories that inspired the songs. Although Field Music planned to perform a few of their most popular older songs during the tour dates, the suite-like nature of Making a New World meant they would largely be playing the entire album in its entirety, a concept Peter described as "terrifying". Field Music did not plan to undertake many tour dates for this reason, as well as the fact that David said they would "be sick of playing" the new songs after a while because of their limited ability to mix in other songs. The band was initially concerned about whether they would be able to transfer the IWM visuals to tour at all, and tried to pick venues that could accommodate the visuals. Before embarking on its regular tour, Field Music gave several performances in small record stores, which created challenges in terms of regarding presenting the visuals in smaller spaces. The shows ran from 9 January to 19 January 2020, and included performances in Brighton, Bristol, Edinburgh, Liverpool, London, Manchester, and Newcastle, including the stores of Piccadilly Records and Rough Trade. The regular tour dates began on 31 January 2020 with a performance at the Brewery Arts Centre in Kendal, and extended through 29 February with stops in Leeds, London, Glasgow, Manchester, Nottingham, and Whitley Bay, at such venues as the Brudenell Social Club, and Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. Separately from the tour, Field Music played songs from Making a New World at the North East of North (NEoN) Digital Arts Festival in Dundee on 9 November 2019. ## Sales Making a New World reached number 35 during a mid-week update of the UK Albums Chart from the first week of its release. However, the album ultimately finished the week reaching position number 84, and remained on the chart for one week. This marked the lowest chart position for a Field Music album over the band's five studio albums in a ten-year period, dating back to Field Music (Measure) in 2010. Making a New World further opened at number 12 on the Scottish Albums Chart, where it also remained for one week. ## Critical reception Making a New World was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, the album received an average score of 73, based on 18 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.2 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. Blum said the album "tackles some heavy ideas via Field Music's commonly charming, luminous, and multifaceted aesthetic", and called described it as "undoubtedly one of their best efforts". Hammon called it Field Music's most musically diverse album and "without doubt an exceptional record". O'Connell said the album was delivered with "Field Music's customary artful intelligence and funk-pop verve", and wrote that "the pair's writing/arranging smarts and the dominant, switchback guitar style are on peak form". Victoria Segal from Q described the album as "a fascinating response to war's seismic impact", adding: "By opening up these surprising echoes, Making a New World resonates with hidden meaning and lost connections." Berridge wrote: "It's safe to say that Making a New World will be a hallmark on Field Music's repertoire – an retrospective think-piece that is also enthralling to listen to." Many reviewers described Making a New World as an ambitious album, with several of them calling it Field Music's most ambitious work to date. Multiple critics praised the originality of the album, and others described it as a particularly niche and idiosyncratic work. Steven Johnson wrote: "Field Music are on a seemingly never-ending run of form, generating fresh ideas at will and delivering them in accomplished fashion." Several of the favourable reviews complimented Field Music's ability to make an enjoyable and engaging album based upon such a lofty and complicated concept; Evening Standard writer Harry Fletcher claimed that the band's "songcraft is strong enough to support weighty themes", adding: "They've taken the unsexiest subject matter and made it sing." Some reviewers said the album might be intimidating for listeners at first due to the unusual concept and subject matter, but that those who approached it with patience and an open mind would be rewarded. Thorpe-Tracey said he was turned off by the album's concept at first, but found that Making a New World "reveals itself at a gradual pace", and proved to be rewarding after having delved into it and explored the positive qualities. He claimed that "suddenly a record that I worried would feel too long has gone by too fast". Other critics said the album would reward multiple listens; Roy Wilkinson of Mojo wrote of the album: "These enigmatic narratives work well – the themes can be unearthed at one's leisure, immersed in music that's both poignant and delightful." Some writers said Making a New World is enjoyable even for listeners who are unfamiliar with or uninterested in the album's historical context, though others felt having an understanding of the concept and the stories behind the songs was helpful. Multiple reviewers called Making a New World a well-constructed album from a musical and stylistic standpoint; Monger labelled it an "exquisitely crafted work, full of rich details and compelling songs that translate the past into modern new shapes", and Caleb Campbell of Under the Radar, who was otherwise critical of the album, described it as "a thoughtfully crafted album with an unconventional art-rock style". The continuous, suite-like nature of the songs also drew praise from some reviewers. A handful of writers who reviewed the album positively nevertheless believed it was unlikely to bring Field Music a great deal of commercial success or widespread recognition: The Sydney Morning Herald writer Barnaby Smith said "such esoteric subject matter is unlikely to change their fortunes", and Will Hodgkinson of The Times wrote that the album "was unlikely to give Ed Sheeran sleepless nights, but it is rewarding and involving nonetheless". Not all reviews were positive. Some critics felt an album was not the right platform for Making a New World's concept, and that the concept did not translate well from its roots in a live performance. Ham said the album had a studious approach which resulted in a stiffness to it, and he felt more sentiment would have helped it feel less like a research project. Howe felt the album had good ideas, but the medium did not lend itself to such complex topics as women's suffrage, skin grafts for injured soldiers, and menstruation; he wrote: "Who listens to pop music and thinks about stuff like this? How do they do it?" Some critics disliked the album's concept altogether. Bell said the album "buckles under its conceptual framework almost immediately" and "the idea is too wide-ranging and unruly to be conceptually cohesive", while Howe wrote: "There's a familiar, overriding sense of a couple of guys reading something about history and having a lot to report." Some reviewers felt Making a New World had too many ideas and narrative elements to form a cohesive album, while others felt that the concept was strong but the songs themselves were lacking. Beaumont said the album had a "jumbled, ADHD approach" and that the "ideas are far more interesting than their execution", while Phil Mongredien from The Observer wrote: "Such is the ambitious scope of the concept [that] the individual songs can seem like an afterthought, eclipsed by the weight of all that they're trying to say." Some writers, even those who reviewed the album positively overall, felt the concept was pretentious or self-indulgent. Making a New World drew several comparisons to PJ Harvey's Let England Shake, another war-inspired concept album, though Sharon O'Connell said Making a New World is "more tightly bound to its content" than Harvey's album. ### Accolades Making a New World was Under the Radar's first "Album of the Week" of 2020, and the magazine also included "Only in a Man's World" and "Money is a Memory" among its "Best Songs of the Week" when they were released in September and November 2019, respectively. The NPR program All Songs Considered included the album in its list of the top seven albums out the week of its release, and Making a New World also made Paste's list of "10 New Albums to Stream Today" that same week. ## Track listing Although the songs on Making a New World were primarily composed by Peter and David Brewis, all tracks were credited as having been written by all five members of Field Music. ## Personnel Credits adapted from AllMusic. Musicians - David Brewis – vocals, drums, programming - Peter Brewis – vocals, guitar, programming - Liz Corney – vocals, organ, piano - Kevin Dosdale – guitar - Andrew Lowther – bass guitar Technical personnel - Kevin Dosdale – animation, layout - Andy Martin – photography ## Charts
32,709,366	Sphecius grandis	1,163,428,544	Species of wasp	[ "Biological pest control wasps", "Crabronidae", "Hymenoptera of North America", "Insects described in 1823" ]	Sphecius grandis, also called the western cicada killer, is a species of cicada killer wasp (Sphecius). The western species shares the same nesting biology as its fellow species, the eastern cicada killer (S. speciosus). S. grandis, like all other species of the genus Sphecius, mainly provides cicadas for its offspring. It forms nest aggregations and mates and broods once in a year, in July and early August. The wasp is on average 3 cm (1 in) to 5 cm (2 in) in length and is amber-yellow with yellow rings on its abdomen. Wasps in the genus Sphecius are not habitually aggressive and use their venom mainly to paralyse cicadas which they take back to their nests to feed their young. The females catch around four or more cicadas for provisioning, place them in brood cells and lay eggs in the cells. S. grandis is endemic to Central America, Mexico and the Western United States, and is found at a higher mean altitude than other species of Sphecius. The western cicada killer males emerge earlier than females, but generally die after only a couple of days. Sphecius grandis can be distinguished from S. convallis (the Pacific cicada killer wasp) by the coloration pattern of the gastral tergites. Formerly, the two species were distinguished on the basis of the number of tergites with yellow markings (five in S. grandis and three in S. convallis), but a more recent study showed that this character was insufficient to distinguish the two species. However, they can be distinguished by the density of the punctation on the first and second tergites. ## Taxonomy The western cicada killer was first described by American naturalist Thomas Say in 1824 in Madera Canyon, Arizona, as Stizus grandis. Its species name is the Latin adjective grandis meaning "large". It is one of five species of the genus Sphecius in North America. More recently, it has been suspected that the western cicada killer represents more than one species. It co-occurs with the eastern cicada killer (S. speciosus) and Pacific cicada killer (S. convallis) at Big Bend National Park in Texas. There the three wasps hunt and nest in the same locales, and the eastern and western cicada killers hunt the same cicada species. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that the western cicada killer contains two divergent clades, which may represent distinct species. The two clades appeared to be split by the Rocky Mountains, with one occurring mainly to the south and east, the other to the west. ## Description Ranging in size from 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) in length, the western cicada killer is very similar to its eastern cousin, Sphecius speciosus, with a rufous black hue to the body, amber stripes and a yellow abdomen. The western cicada killer has rufous spots on its first to second tergites and yellow markings can generally be found from first to fifth, although there is some variation. On average, female forewing length lies between 2.5 and 3 cm (0.98 and 1.18 in). Females are larger than males and live for a year, a time just long enough to produce a brood, whereas the males die in only a few days, just enough time to impregnate a female. In Steven J. Phillips' book A Natural History of the Sonoran Desert, he referred to them as superficially resembling "huge yellowjackets or hornets" and stated that they are "powerful fliers with compound eyes". On average, males weigh 95 mg and females are far heavier, at 256 mg, probably because of the additional weight of the ovaries, developing eggs and nutritional reserves. Nevertheless, the ratio between flight muscle mass and body mass is the same for both sexes. ### Identification Distinguishing S. grandis from the other four New World species of Sphecius (S. convallis, S. hogardii, S. speciosus, S. spectabilis) is difficult. The female S. convallis was originally distinguished from the female S. grandis by the yellow marks from the first to third gastral tergites on S. convallis and yellow marks on all tergites for S. grandis. However, this was found to be insufficient for correct identification because the positions of the markings can vary among different wasps of the same species. Charles W. Holliday and Joseph R. Coelho devised a new key in 2004 to identify the Sphecius species, examining 4,451 wasps among the five New World species, and noting that 98% of the female S. convallis wasps examined had yellow markings on gastral tergites one to four (or fewer) and S. grandis had 98% yellow markings from tergites one to five (or more). The 2% percent of S. grandis that overlapped with S. convallis were determined by density of the punctation in colour of the first tergum against the second. The markings on S. grandis males were found to be the same as on females. ### Thermoregulation It has been found that the western cicada killer wasp is capable of thermoregulation which enables them to maintain territories during the day. A study by Joseph R. Coelho showed that during territorial patrolling the species had a high and regulated thorax temperature. Experiments found that the wasp has the ability to shift heat from its thorax to its abdomen and that the abdomen is generally kept colder than the thorax. Dead wasps that were placed in the sun reached abnormally high temperatures when compared to those on nearby plants. ## Life cycle ### Emergence and mating After hatching, the offspring feed on the tissue of the cicadas provided by their mother. Males emerge before females and both genders are sexually receptive from emergence in July to early August, when they mate and brood. English naturalist Charles Darwin postulated that the pattern of male emergence before females evolved by natural selection to improve the chances of the male mating. The timing of the emergence of females has evolved to correspond with the similar emergence of the cicada species of the area, Tibicen duryi and T. parallela, which they hunt for the provisioning of their nests. Many have yellow markings located on their tergites (dorsal portion), although some have been found only from the first to fifth tergites. Because males emerge earlier than females, the males compete for mating territories surrounding the nests in which the females are located. During a fight, the males risk damaging their wings or appendages by butting and grappling. Another defense technique is to grab another male and carry it high into the air, which is thought to be a demonstration of strength. As a general rule, the larger the male the more predominant he is in battles. Age influences the success in the defense and security of territory; the younger the wasp the greater the chance of a successful takeover of territory. Some small males even engage in non-territorial mating tactics, and delay their emergence so as to have a fairer chance of survival. On emergence from the nest, the female is sexually receptive but does not choose her mate, but instead copulates with the first male of her species that finds her. Once the female has mated, she rebuffs all advances by other wasps. ### Nesting and perching Males perch after emerging from their nest. They pick out an area close to a nest with females inside and guard the territory around it so as to have a better chance of mating. They tend to perch on many different substrates such as stumps, pebbles, wood, weeds, grass blades and low tree branches. Males assume an alert posture, ready for a challenge from another male, or from a predator. One study by a behavioral ecologist, John Alcock, showed that a large majority of the marked wasps returned to the same perch day after day, and two males swapped between two different sites. The species rarely perches on the ground. It shares the same nesting biology as S. speciosus. All cicada killers are ground-nesting insects and nest aggregations can contain up to hundreds of nests, each with a single provisioning female. Their tunnel is mainly made in well-drained, bare sandy soil, frequently under sidewalks, but is generally in full sunlight. Approximately 90% of its life is spent underground as a larva. It rarely infests grounds that are rich in vegetation in order for them to get more sun. Mounds are easily recognizable by their distinctive U-shaped digging entrance. ### Feeding and hunting habits Sphecius grandis has very similar nesting and feeding habits to other members of its genus, most notably Sphecius speciosus. As with S. speciosus, the female hunts for cicadas in low tree trunks, helped by the calls of the cicada males, and paralyses the insect by piercing the central nervous system with her stinger. She drags the cicadas back to her nest to place them in brood cells in which she eventually lays one egg per cell. Females carry cicadas that are on average 88% heavier than their own body mass. It has been hypothesised that cicada killers may also have the ability to capture cicadas mid-flight. There are approximately two or more cicadas to each brood cell. When the larvae hatch, the cicada provides nutrition for the offspring to feed on. The wasps preferentially hunt for female cicadas because they have more consumable tissue, but male cicadas are easier to locate, which explains the systemic bias towards male kills. They chiefly hunt for Tibicen duryi, Tibicen dealbata and Tibicen parallela. Cicada killers are capable of thermoregulation, which allows them to hunt for cicadas during the day, when the cicadas are most prominent. The species is mostly harmless to humans. Some males when emerging early fly into the trees to feed on sap, and the species has been known to feed on nectar. Stings of this species received a lethality rating of 46 LC measured by LC=μg⁄LD<sub>50</sub> (LC="lethal capacity", μg="venom in the insect", LD<sub>50</sub>="μg⁄g of the venom", g="size of mammal receiving the dose" and LD="lethal dose"). ## Geographical distribution Western cicada killers are found at a higher altitude than most other Sphecius species and are sympatric with the species S. convallis and S. speciosus, even though S. grandis are on average found at higher altitudes than S. convallis. A study showed that the mean elevation for S. grandis was 755 m ± 23.3 m, compared with the lower results of S. speciosus (219 m ± 4.7 m), S. convallis (582 m ± 30.9 m) and S. hogardii (18 m ± 5 m). The species is Nearctic and Neotropical, found from Central America to the Western United States, in New Mexico, California and every state west of the Rocky Mountains, except Wyoming, as well as Kansas, Oklahoma and Nebraska. S. grandis is most commonly found in riparian zones. It has been observed in such places in Mexico as Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas and Yucatán and also in Granada (Nicaragua), Guanacaste (Costa Rica) and Honduras. ## Interaction with humans Sphecius grandis wasps frequently interact with humans because of their tendency to make their nests in backyards, gardens and sidewalks. Pest control is mostly unneeded as they nest in areas with little to no vegetation, usually ignore people, and females are not aggressive, tending to save their venom for their cicada prey, but will sting if they are grabbed or stepped on. Despite their large size, being the largest wasp to inhabit California, their sting has been reported as being between merely numbing and sharp to moderate. Males, while smaller, are more aggressive and less tolerant of disturbance.
205,895	USS Vermont (BB-20)	1,147,903,729	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy	[ "1905 ships", "Connecticut-class battleships", "Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts", "World War I battleships of the United States" ]	USS Vermont (BB-20), a Connecticut-class battleship, was the second ship of the United States Navy named after the 14th state. She was the third member of the class, which included five other ships. The Connecticut-class ships were armed with a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and had a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Vermont was laid down in May 1904 at the Fore River shipyard and launched in August 1905. The ship entered service with the Atlantic Fleet in March 1907. Shortly after she entered service, Vermont joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe in 1908–1909. She took part in the international Hudson–Fulton Celebration in New York in 1909 and made trips to Europe in 1910 and 1913. Thereafter, the ship became involved in interventions in several Central American countries, including the United States occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution, where two of her crew earned the Medal of Honor. During the United States' participation in World War I from April 1917 to November 1918, Vermont served as a training ship for engine room personnel. From November 1918 to June 1919, she made a series of trips to return American soldiers from Europe before being decommissioned in June 1920. She was sold for scrap in November 1923 according to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. ## Design The Connecticut class followed the Virginia-class battleships, but corrected some of the most significant deficiencies in the earlier design, most notably the superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns. A heavier tertiary battery of 7 in (178 mm) guns replaced the 6 in (152 mm) guns that had been used on all previous US designs. Despite the improvements, the ships were rendered obsolescent by the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought, completed before most of the members of the Connecticut class. Vermont was 456.3 ft (139.1 m) long overall and had a beam of 76.9 ft (23.4 m) and a draft of 24.5 ft (7.5 m). She displaced 16,000 long tons (16,000 t) as designed and up to 17,666 long tons (17,949 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,500 indicated horsepower (12,300 kW), with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers ducted into three funnels. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909. She had a crew of 827 officers and men, though this increased to 881 and later to 896. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch /45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8-inch (203 mm) /45 guns and twelve 7-inch (178 mm) /45 guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twenty 3-inch (76 mm) /50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried four 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Vermont carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. Vermont's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 6 in (152 mm) elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 12-inch (305 mm) thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in (254 mm) of armor plating. The secondary turrets had 7 in (178 mm) of frontal armor. The conning tower had 9 in (229 mm) thick sides. ## Service history ### Construction and the Great White Fleet The keel for Vermont was laid down on 21 May 1904 at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts. The completed hull was launched on 31 August 1905, with the christening performed by Jennie Bell, the daughter of Charles J. Bell, the governor of the ship's namesake state. On 4 March 1907, Vermont was commissioned into the US Navy at the Boston Navy Yard, with Captain William P. Potter as her first commanding officer. The ship then embarked on a shakedown cruise from Boston to Hampton Roads, Virginia. She then joined the 1st Division of the Atlantic Fleet for training exercises. Vermont left Hampton Roads on 30 August, bound for Provincetown. She stayed there until 5 September before returning to the Boston Navy Yard two days later for repairs that lasted until November. On 30 November, the ship left Boston to begin preparations to join the world cruise of the Great White Fleet. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. Her first two stops were in Rhode Island; she took on coal in Bradford before moving to Newport, where she loaded stores. She then steamed to Tompkinsville, New York, to receive her full stock of ammunition. The ship arrived in Hampton Roads on 8 December, where she joined the rest of the Great White Fleet, which was commanded by Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans. Vermont and fifteen other battleships began their voyage on 16 December. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland. After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46,729 nautical miles (86,542 km; 53,775 mi). There, they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt. During the cruise, Captain Potter was promoted to rear admiral and advanced to the 1st Division commander; his place as Vermont's commander was taken by Captain Frank Friday Fletcher. ### Peacetime service, 1909–1913 Vermont returned to the Boston Navy Yard for repairs after the ceremonies at Hampton Roads concluded; the work lasted from 9 March to 23 June. She then rejoined the fleet off Provincetown; the 1st Division made a trip to Boston for the 4th of July celebration there. Starting on 7 July, the Atlantic Fleet conducted extensive maneuvers until 4 August. Vermont then took part in gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. Additional training exercises followed through the end of the year, interrupted only by visits to New York City and to Stamford, Connecticut, for the Hudson–Fulton Celebration and Columbus Day, respectively. In late December, she was back in New York City. Vermont then steamed south to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, which she reached on 12 January 1910. Two months of exercises there followed before gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. The ship was back in Boston on 29 April for repairs that lasted until mid-July. After returning to service, she took on a contingent of Naval Militia at Boston for a cruise to Provincetown from 22 to 31 July. Vermont then steamed to Newport before proceeding to Hampton Roads no 22 August where more target practice followed from 25 to 27 September. She and several other ships from the Atlantic Fleet then visited New York before some minor repairs were effected at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. By this time, the ship had been transferred to the 3rd Division. On 1 November, Vermont and several other ships of the Atlantic Fleet crossed the Atlantic for a visit of several western European ports, including Gravesend from 16 November to 7 December and Brest. The ships left Brest on 30 December to recross the Atlantic, bound for Cuban waters. From 13 January 1911 to 13 March, Vermont and the rest of the ships conducted maneuvers off Cuba. Further exercises followed off the Virginia Capes and in the Chesapeake Bay. A brief stop at Hampton Roads, where she carried target materials, followed on 8 April, though she left later that day for another period in the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs. In mid-1911, Vermont cruised south the Gulf of Mexico, stopping first in Pensacola, Florida. She then continued to Galveston, Texas, stopping there from 7 to 12 June, before returning to Pensacola the following day. The ship returned to the Atlantic and steamed north to Bar Harbor, Maine; she was present there for the 4th of July celebrations, after which the typical routine of training with the Atlantic Fleet off Provincetown and in Cape Cod Bay followed. She remained off New England through mid-August. During this period, she visited Salem, Massachusetts, and underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard. Later in the year, she moved south to Tangier Sound and the Virginia Capes for gunnery experiments and target practice. From 12 September to 9 October, Vermont was in the Norfolk Navy Yard for repairs, after which she steamed to Hampton Roads before proceeding with the fleet to New York City for a Naval Review that lasted from 24 October to 2 November. After the conclusion of the review, she joined the 1st Squadron for maneuvers and then returned to Hampton Roads. Vermont stopped in Tompkinsville on 7–8 December before continuing to the New York Navy Yard later on the 8th for periodic maintenance. On 2 January 1912, she steamed south to the Caribbean for the annual maneuvers off Cuba. She remained in Cuban waters until 9 March, when she returned to the Norfolk Navy Yard. She underwent a major overhaul there that lasted until October. On the 8th, she steamed to New York City, arriving two days later. A Naval Review followed there from 10 to 15 October, followed by maneuvers and gunnery training off the Virginia Capes through December. On 2 November, she joined the search effort for the stranded steamer Noruega, and on 13–15 December she assisted the submarine B-2. Vermont was back in the Norfolk Navy Yard on 25 December, after which she departed for the normal winter training period in Cuban waters. While on the way, she stopped in Colón, Panama, at the entrance to the Panama Canal, which was nearing completion. She arrived in Guantanamo Bay on 19 January 1913 and remained in the area for nearly a month. ### Interventions in Central America and World War I On 12 February, the ship departed for Mexico, as the country was in the midst of the Mexican Revolution; Vermont was tasked with protecting American interests in Veracruz. She arrived in the port on 17 February and remained there until 29 April, when she returned to the United States. She rejoined the fleet in Hampton Roads before beginning a training cruise for midshipmen at the US Naval Academy at Annapolis on 6 June. Following the conclusion of the cruise, she operated in Block Island Sound and stopped in Newport. Starting in July, the ship's normal overhaul at Norfolk began, with the work lasting until October. She then took part in gunnery training off the Virginia Capes. Vermont made a second trip to Europe on 25 October, this time to French Mediterranean waters. She stopped in Marseille from 8 November to 1 December and then recrossed the Atlantic. While on the voyage back, a severe storm damaged one of her propellers, which necessitated a tow back to Norfolk, where she arrived on 20 December. Repairs were effected there, which were followed by a short period of sea trials to test the propulsion system. After their ship returned to service, Vermont's crew began preparations to perform the normal spring target practice off the Virginia Capes, but the exercises were cancelled when the situation in Mexico worsened. Vermont steamed out of Hampton Roads on 15 April, bound for Veracruz. There, she joined her sister New Hampshire, the pre-dreadnought New Jersey, and the dreadnoughts South Carolina and Arkansas. Vermont contributed twelve officers and 308 men to a landing force that occupied the city to prevent an arms shipment—aboard the steamship Ypiranga—from reaching the dictator Victoriano Huerta. One man from Vermont was killed and two earned the Medal of Honor: Lieutenant Julius C. Townsend, the commander of Vermont's contingent, and Surgeon Cary DeVall Langhorne, the regimental surgeon of the Second Seaman Regiment. The ship remained in Veracruz through October, apart from a visit to Tampico from 21 September to 10 October. After returning to the east coast of the United States in late 1914, Vermont resumed her normal routine of training cruises and exercises. The ship was temporarily placed in reserve from 1 October to 21 November 1916, though after returning to service she supported a Marine expeditionary force sent to Haiti. This duty lasted from 29 November to 5 February 1917, after which she took part in battle training in Cuban waters. Vermont arrived back in Norfolk on 29 March before proceeding to Philadelphia for maintenance on 4 April. While she was in dry dock, the United States entered World War I by declaring war on Germany. Vermont's overhaul was completed on 26 August, and she was assigned as a training ship for engine room personnel, based at Hampton Roads. On 28 May 1918, the remains of the Chilean ambassador to the United States were brought aboard the ship. The US ambassador to Chile, Joseph Hooker Shea, came aboard the ship on 3 June, and Vermont departed Norfolk that day. She transited the Panama Canal on 10 June, stopped briefly in Tongoy, Chile, on the 24th, and arrived in Valparaiso three days later. Admiral William B. Caperton and Ambassador Shea escorted the Chilean ambassadors remains ashore. Vermont left Valparaiso on 2 July, stopping in Callao, Peru, on the way back to the Panama Canal. After returning to the United States, she resumed her training ship duties, which lasted almost to the end of the war. On 5 November, less than a week before the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in Europe, Vermont was sent to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for conversion into a troop transport. She began her first transport mission on 9 January 1919; she made another three trips to return American soldiers from France, with the last concluding on 20 June 1919. In the course of these voyages, she carried some 5,000 men back to the United States. On 18 July, she steamed out of Norfolk for the last time, bound for the west coast of the United States. She visited San Diego, San Pedro, Monterey, San Francisco, and Long Beach in California, and Astoria, Oregon. Her final destination was the Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, California, where she arrived on 18 September. She was decommissioned there on 30 June 1920 and reclassified as BB-20 on 17 July. She remained there until 10 November 1923, when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Registry. On 30 November, she was sold for scrap and broken up under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty.
13,651,538	Louvre Abu Dhabi	1,165,432,524	Art museum in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates	[ "2017 establishments in the United Arab Emirates", "Arab art scene", "Art museums and galleries in the United Arab Emirates", "Art museums established in 2017", "Expressionist architecture", "France–United Arab Emirates relations", "Jean Nouvel buildings", "Louvre Abu Dhabi", "Museums established in 2017", "Saadiyat Island" ]	The Louvre Abu Dhabi (Arabic: اللوفر أبوظبي, romanized: al-lūfr ʔabū ẓaby; French: Louvre Abou Dabi) is an art museum located on Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. It runs under an agreement between the UAE and France, signed in March 2007, that allows it to use the Louvre's name until 2037, and has been described by the Louvre as "France’s largest cultural project abroad." It is approximately 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) in size, with 8,000 square metres (86,000 sq ft) of galleries, making it the largest art museum in the Arabian peninsula. Artworks from around the world are showcased at the museum, with stated intent to bridge the gap between Eastern and Western art. By 2019, the Louvre Abu Dhabi had already attracted 2 million visitors, making it the most visited museum in the Arab world. ## Location The museum is part of a US\$27 billion tourist and cultural development for Saadiyat Island, planned to house a cluster of world-class cultural assets. In addition to the Louvre Abu Dhabi, these are to include: the Zayed National Museum, on a design by Foster and Partners; the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi contemporary arts museum, expected to be the world's largest Guggenheim; a performing arts centre designed by Dame Zaha Hadid; a maritime museum with concept design by Tadao Ando; and a number of arts pavilions. The Abrahamic Family House was later added to the cluster, with completion expected in 2022. ## History ### Project development In 2005 the United Arab Emirates put forward to the French government the idea of creating a museum in the Emirates bearing the name of the Louvre. Discussions were initiated in June 2005, when an Abu Dhabi delegation led by Sultan bin Tahnoon al-Nahyan, chairman of the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture & Heritage visited Paris and met counterparts at the Louvre. A month later, another delegation including Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, then Minister of Information and Culture of the United Arab Emirates, discussed the project with interlocutors in the French government, including Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy and Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres. Also in the summer of 2005, Abu Dhabi Crown Prince Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan sent a letter about the project to France's president Jacques Chirac. Formal negotiations on the project between the two countries started in the summer of 2006. Meanwhile, the Abu Dhabi authorities in 2006 selected Jean Nouvel, known among other projects for having designed the Arab World Institute in Paris, as the building's architect. They initially commissioned his firm to design a generic museum of classical art or civilisation, without specific reference to the Louvre while discussions with the French authorities were still ongoing. The choice of Nouvel had been first suggested by Thomas Krens, then the director of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation and adviser to Abu Dhabi on the development of Saadiyat Island. The negotiations and the project itself were publicly revealed by French daily Le Monde in September 2006. The project initially generated controversy, including an op-ed and petition against it by curators Françoise Cachin, Jean Clair and Roland Recht [fr]. Louvre director Henri Loyrette was also reported to have initially opposed the project, which in the early phase he did not defend or promote publicly. But the Louvre's position became more favorable in the course of the contract negotiation, as it managed to secure significant benefits for itself. The agreement detailing the partnership and licensing arrangements was signed on 6 March 2007 by respective representatives of the French and UAE governments. That agreement was ratified by the French Parliament on 9 October 2007, after Jacques Chirac had been replaced as French President by Nicolas Sarkozy. Even after leaving the presidency, Chirac remained a major supporter of the project. When announced in 2007, the museum was expected to open in 2012. On 29 October 2011, the project managing agency, Tourism Development & Investment Company (TDIC), announced that the museum's opening would be delayed but gave no new date. According to the UAE newspapers Gulf News and The National, the delay came from a review of the emirate's economic strategy. In January 2012 it was announced that the Louvre Abu Dhabi's opening date would be 2015. ### Construction Construction works at Louvre Abu Dhabi officially started on 26 May 2009. The piling and enabling works package was awarded to the German specialized company Bauer International FZE; the total of 4536 piles in steel and reinforced concrete were completed on 3 August 2010. Construction on the main phase of the museum began in early 2013 by a consortium headed by Arabtec, Constructora San José and Oger Abu Dhabi, under a \$653 million contract. This stage included waterproofing and the two basement levels, along with four concrete pillars that will support the 7,000-tonne dome. Work on the construction of the gallery spaces and initial preparation for the dome began in the fourth quarter of 2013. On 5 December 2013, the first element of the museum's canopy was lifted into place. On 17 March 2014 TDIC announced the completion of the first permanent gallery structure to mark the first anniversary of the start of construction. At this time, it was claimed that a total of ten million man hours had been worked and 120,538 cubic meters of concrete used. On 22 September 2014, the final super-sized element in the canopy was fitted in place, marking a significant milestone in the museum's construction phase. In October, The Tourism & Development Investment Company announced that the Louvre Abu Dhabi was more than 50 percent complete. ### Prefiguration exhibitions The Louvre Abu Dhabi first started sharing its collection with the public through an exhibition at the Gallery One of the Emirates Palace, entitled "Talking Art: Louvre Abu Dhabi." It was inaugurated by Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and Nicolas Sarkozy on 26 May 2009, the same day as the construction work officially started on Saadiyat Island. The exhibition presented the first 19 acquisitions for the institution, including a Mamluk Quran from the 14th century, a 5th-century Fibula from Domagnano, a Virgin and Child by Bellini, and Mondrian’s Composition with blue, red, yellow and black from 1922. A second exhibition, "Birth of a Museum", opened at the exhibition space Manarat Al Saadiyat in May 2013, ending in August that year. The first large-scale preview of the collection, it featured 130 works acquired by the government of Abu Dhabi for the permanent collection. They included a never-before-seen work by Picasso, a Bronze Age terracotta statue from Cyprus, along with artifacts from Greece, Turkey, Japan and Syria. In May 2014, the Birth of a Museum exhibition, featuring works shown in Abu Dhabi and a number of new acquisitions, opened at the Louvre in Paris. A number of new works were presented, including Chirisei Kyubiki by the Japanese artist Kazuo Shiraga and painted in 1960. ### Inauguration and aftermath The museum was eventually inaugurated on 8 November 2017 by French President Emmanuel Macron, Abu Dhabi Crown Prince (and de facto ruler) Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and UAE Prime Minister and Emir of Dubai Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum. Other personalities present at the inauguration included Mohammed VI of Morocco and President of Afghanistan Ashraf Ghani. The museum was opened to the public three days later. It welcomed more than one million visitors in its first full year of operations, of which 30-40 percent were UAE residents and 60-70 percent from abroad (mainly France, Germany, China, the UK, the US, India and the GCC countries); this made it the 77th most visited museum worldwide in 2018. In November 2019, the waterfront boulevard on which the museum is located on the eastern end of Saadiyat Island was named after former French President Jacques Chirac, in recognition of his role in the project and more generally in the development of links between France and the UAE. In February 2020, a Fouquet's restaurant opened as the main catering amenity inside the museum, with a menu created in partnership with celebrity chef Pierre Gagnaire. ## Design ### Architecture During the initial Concept Design phase in 2006-2007, Jean Nouvel and his team designed the museum as a "seemingly floating dome structure"; its web-patterned dome allowing the sun to filter through. The overall effect is meant to represent "rays of sunlight passing through date palm fronds in an oasis." The total area of the museum will be approximately 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft). The permanent collection will occupy 6,000 square metres (65,000 sq ft), and the temporary exhibitions will take place over 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft). ### Engineering The engineers were BuroHappold Engineering, who provided multidisciplinary engineering services across the project. Their structural engineers realised the "floating dome" from 7,850 aluminium stars of varying sizes, which tessellate over eight layers to create a perforated roof structure that allows sunlight through to the spaces below. A team of specialist geotechnical and water engineers designed a watertight basement and tidal pools within the galleries to give the illusion of a "museum in the sea" while protecting artwork, artefacts and visitors from the corrosive marine environment. Guests who visit the museum can discover the 55 buildings of which 23 are art galleries and are constructed to look like the low-rise home of the region. ### Wayfinding The three-languages wayfinding system for the Louvre Abu Dhabi was designed by Philippe Apeloig, and is implemented in both Arabic and Roman script. Frutiger LT typeface has been chosen for the Roman texts for its perfect readability for signage; while Lebanese typographer Kristyan Sarkis created an Arabic bespoke typeface, the LAD Arabic, based on the classic Naskh style and his Colvert Arabic font. The design of the pictograms was inspired by the museum's architecture, and particularly by the abstract shapes created by the rain of light filtering through the dome. Each pictogram is a combination of several of these shapes, creating silhouettes and objects. ### Public art Two works of public art have been commissioned for the building's opening: - a monumental sculpture in white limestone from Marbella by American artist Jenny Holzer, in one of the building courtyards covered by the dome, with large-scale engraved facsimiles of excerpts from texts in three different scripts: a bilingual Sumerian and Akkadian creation myth (ca. 2000 BCE), in Cuneiform, from a clay tablet held at the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin; Muqaddimah, by Ibn Khaldun (14th century), in Arabic and Arabic script, from a manuscript held at the Atif Efendi Library [tr] in Istanbul; and Michel de Montaigne's Essays in French (16th century), in Latin script, from a printed version held at the Bordeaux municipal library with handwritten annotations by the author. - Germination, an installation by Giuseppe Penone in three parts: Leaves of Light, a tall bronze tree under the dome; Propagation, a panel of concentric circles in porcelain that is based on the fingerprint of UAE founding father Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan; and Earth of the World, a composition in pottery using various clays all sourced in the UAE. ## Permanent collections Questions have been raised as to the nature of the artworks to be displayed at the museum. However, according to The National: "the type and nature of the exhibits planned for the Louvre Abu Dhabi have been affected to no extent by the fact the new museum would be in a Muslim country, said Mr. Loyrette." > Subjects and themes have been freely discussed with our partners in Abu Dhabi and no request to avoid such subjects has been made. The exhibition policy will be set up regarding excellence and high-standard quality. As a new museum we hope the Louvre Abu Dhabi will be part of the international community. It has been noted that the museum will showcase work from multiple French museums, including the Louvre, the Centre Georges Pompidou, the Musée d'Orsay and Palace of Versailles. However, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres, the French Minister of Culture, stated at the announcement that the Paris Louvre "would not sell any of its 35,000-piece collection currently on display". > It will not be dedicated to occidental art but will show all kinds of artistic creations. It will set up a dialogue between west and east, between north and south. As such, art from the Middle East will be shown within the Louvre Abu Dhabi. In 2012, the Louvre Abu Dhabi started collecting photography, making its first acquisitions in the field, including works by Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey, Roger Fenton and George Wilson Bridges. The museum also acquired a sculpture of a Bactrian princess dating from the third millennium BC, a pavement and fountain set from the early Ottoman period, as well as the paintings Breton Boys Wrestling (1888) by Paul Gauguin and The Subjugated Reader (1928) by René Magritte. Further details of the museum's collection on opening were revealed in October 2014, with a number of important works to be loaned including Leonardo da Vinci's La Belle Ferronnière and works by Henri Matisse, a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh, Jacques-Louis David's Napoleon Crossing the Alps and Claude Monet's Gare Saint-Lazare. The Museum tweeted 8 December 2017 that it was looking forward to displaying the Salvator Mundi by Leonardo da Vinci. The work was acquired, at a record price for a painting, by the Department of Culture & Tourism of Abu Dhabi for the museum. No date was set for the display of this work but in September 2018, the unveiling was indefinitely postponed and a January 2019 news report indicated that "no one knows where it is, and there are grave concerns for its physical safety". ### Selected exhibits from the Louvre Abu Dhabi's permanent collection ## Legal basis, management and programs The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a national museum of the UAE, overseen by the Abu Dhabi Department of Culture & Tourism. As of 2019, half of the museum's staff were UAE nationals. Whereas the Louvre Abu Dhabi is an Emirati entity separate from the Louvre in Paris, the two are linked by a thirty-year agreement that was signed in March 2007 by the two governments and covers a number of areas, including the license of the Louvre name until 2037. The text of the agreement was published by the French authorities for its parliamentary ratification. That agreement foresaw the establishment by the French side of a private-sector project entity, which was subsequently incorporated on 23 August 2007 and named Agence France-Muséums [fr] (AFM). AFM's shareholders include the Louvre, with over a third of equity capital, and a number of other French cultural institutions: the Musée du Quai Branly, Centre Pompidou, Musée d'Orsay, National Estate of Versailles, Guimet Museum, Musée Rodin, Château de Chambord, Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Opérateur du patrimoine et des projets immobiliers de la culture [fr], École du Louvre and Bibliothèque nationale de France. The Musée de Cluny and Palace of Fontainebleau, while not shareholders of AFM, have also been among the project's beneficiaries. AFM was initially chaired by French financier and philanthropist Marc Ladreit de Lacharrière and led by Bruno Maquart, former head of the Centre Georges Pompidou, as its Executive Director. In January 2008, AFM and Ministry of Culture Christine Albanel signed another agreement with Sultan bin Tahnoon al-Nahyan, chairman of the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture & Heritage. Under the March 2007 agreement, Abu Dhabi is to pay the following: €400 million for the use of the Louvre name, €190 million for art loans (ending in 2027), €75 million for special exhibitions (ending in 2032), €165 million for management advice and support, and €25 million for naming a space inside the Louvre in Paris after UAE founding father Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan. With inflation taken into account, a French Senate report in 2017 estimated the total amount of payments over the duration of the contract (2007–2037) at €974.5 million. As of 2017 (included), according to the French Senate, the cumulated payments had reached €477 million, broadly in line with the initial agreement's provisions despite the delays in project execution. The March 2007 agreement prohibits the creation of any similar operation with the name of the Louvre in any of the other emirates of the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iran, or Iraq. The space to be named after the UAE founding father was initially expected to be in a refurbished part of the Pavillon de Flore that was to display international art, but that project was later abandoned and the Sheikh Zayed Center eventually opened in 2016 as a set of three rooms in the Pavillon de l'Horloge dedicated to the history of the Louvre Palace. In the project's early years, frictions appeared between the various French stakeholders, partly over the sharing of roughly half of total payments (€420 million in total) that were not unambiguously directed at the Louvre. The conflicts led to the departure of AFM's first director Bruno Maquart in 2010, who was not immediately replaced. Manuel Rabaté, formerly a senior administrator at the Musée du Quai Branly in Paris, was the agency's general secretary from 2010 to 2013, then chief executive from 2013 to 2016, and in September 2016 was appointed the Louvre Abu Dhabi's first director. Also in September 2016, Hissa Al Dhaheri, a UAE national, was appointed the museum's deputy director; she had joined the project team in 2010. The Louvre Abu Dhabi has also been working with the Paris Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi to set up a master's program for museum professionals to train them and help them respond to local needs. It also runs an ambassadors programme, where representatives include poet Shamma Al Bastaki. It has developed a number of outreach initiatives to engage with new publics, including a Children's Museum, a roadside "Highway Gallery" on the Dubai-Abu Dhabi expressway, and kayaking tours around the museum building. ## Influence In a late-2021 joint interview, Louvre President-Director Laurence des Cars and Centre Pompidou President Laurent Le Bon, both recently appointed to their positions, cited the Louvre Abu Dhabi as "the great model" for their planned endeavor to develop more initiatives in common between their respective institutions and the Musée d'Orsay, taking inspiration from the Abu Dhabi museum's seamless chronological approach across geographies, and moving away from the ring-fencing of different eras between the Louvre (pre-1848), Orsay (1848-1914) and Pompidou (after 1914). ## Controversies ### Motivations for the project The museum has sparked opposition to the expansion of the Louvre name in both artistic and academic circles in France. The opposition that has surfaced in France is led by art historian Didier Rykner, who is considered one of the most outspoken critics of the French–Emirati museum deal. An online petition against the deal, signed by 4,650 curators, archaeologists and art historians, has insisted that French museums are not for sale. Klaus-Dieter Lehmann, the president of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, characterized the Louvre as behaving "like a corporation with a clearly-defined strategy: profit maximization." According to the New York Times, Henri Loyrette, the president and director of the Louvre, responded to the criticism of the museum's policy of establishing footholds abroad, arguing that the Louvre cannot ignore the "internationalization" of museums. French minister of culture, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres, defended the French government's decision to expand the Louvre to Abu Dhabi, explaining that it helps to enhance the image of France abroad while investing in French culture through revenues generated by the deal. The United Arab Emirates president Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan stated that the museum is a milestone in international cooperation and strengthens longstanding friendly ties between France and the United Arab Emirates. ### Treatment of construction workers Human Rights Watch reported issues during construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi including the confiscation of workers passports resulting in forced labour conditions. High "recruitment loans" paid by migrant workers to construction companies still had not been repaid as of 2019, according to government-paid monitors. 86% of these fees were over \$2,000. The Human Rights Watch report welcomed improvements in the law made by the UAE since their previous report in 2009 such as the introduction of minimum standards for workers accommodation. However, they added "the true test lies in the impact of these changes on workers" and suggested that if the abusive recruitment fees were not reimbursed by construction companies or the UAE government, the responsibility to repay them lies with the foreign sponsors who gave their names to the project such as the Louvre. Amid these reports, Jean Nouvel, the architect of Louvre Abu Dhabi defended the treatment of the construction workers, claiming that the conditions of construction workers were better than some European countries. ### Western curatorial bias The museum has been criticized for not fulfilling its stated intent of balancing western and eastern cultural and artistic perspectives, particularly in its collections of modern and contemporary art which exhibit a marked European focus. This bias, however, may erode over time as loans from French museums are gradually replaced by purchases made by the Louvre Abu Dhabi on its own. ## See also - Cultural policy in Abu Dhabi - Louvre-Lens
49,090,000	Q20 and Q44 buses	1,171,091,241	Bus routes in Queens and the Bronx, New York	[ "Bus routes in Queens, New York", "Bus routes in the Bronx", "MTA Regional Bus routes", "Select Bus Service" ]	The Q20A and Q20B (collectively referred to as Q20A/B or Q20) and Q44 bus routes constitute the Main Street Line, a public transit line in Queens, New York City, running primarily along Main Street between two major bus-subway hubs in the neighborhoods of Jamaica and Flushing. The Q20A/B terminates in College Point at the north end of Queens. The Q44 continues north into the borough of the Bronx, terminating in the West Farms neighborhood near the Bronx Zoo. The Q44 is one of two Queens bus routes to operate between the two boroughs (along with the ). The Q44 and Q20 were originally operated by the North Shore Bus Company from the 1930s to 1947; they are now operated by MTA Regional Bus Operations under the New York City Transit brand. In June 1999, the Q44 began limited stop service in Queens, with the Q20 split into two branches to provide local service. On November 29, 2015, the Q44 was converted into a Select Bus Service (SBS) route. ## Route description and service ### Q44 The current Q44 route begins at the intersection of Merrick Boulevard and Archer Avenue in Downtown Jamaica, Queens (or Jamaica Center), just south of the 165th Street Bus Terminal. This terminus is shared with the . Traveling west along Archer Avenue, it passes the Jamaica Center station of the Archer Avenue subway and its bus terminal. At the Sutphin Boulevard subway station, which connects to the Jamaica station of the Long Island Rail Road and AirTrain JFK, the route turns north onto Sutphin Boulevard. It then turns west onto Hillside Avenue and north onto Queens Boulevard, interchanging with two stations of the IND Queens Boulevard Line. At Main Street the Q44 turns north, running the entire distance of the street between Queens Boulevard and Northern Boulevard in Downtown Flushing (also known as Flushing Chinatown). In Downtown Flushing is the Flushing–Main Street terminal, where several bus lines, the IRT Flushing Line subway, and the LIRR Port Washington Branch interchange. The Q44 shifts onto Union Street and Parsons Boulevard to 14th Avenue in Whitestone. It then enters the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, sharing the bridge with the . Throughout Queens, the Q44 provides limited-stop service, making intermittent stops primarily at major intersections and points of interest. After entering the Bronx, the Q44 and Q50 follow the Hutchinson River Parkway service road to just south of the Bruckner Interchange, making only two stops: one at Lafayette Avenue, and another one at Brush Avenue and Bruckner Blvd, where passengers can also connect to the bus. While the Q50 turns east to follow the Bx5, the Q44 turns west onto East 177th Street (the Cross Bronx Expressway service road), running along either direction of the road. At the Parkchester subway station, the Q44 goes around the Hugh J. Grant Circle. The Q44 continues along East 177th Street until the interchange with the Sheridan Expressway, where it turns north onto Devoe Avenue. The Q44 stops at East Tremont Avenue near the West Farms Square subway station, and terminates at East 180th Street at the southern boundary of the Bronx Zoo. Buses lay over on a bridge over the Bronx River, before reentering service on Boston Road. Although the Q44's northern terminal is signed as "Bronx Zoo" (formerly "Bronx Zoo − West Farms Square"), the zoo is not accessible from this location; the closest entrance is several blocks north at Bronx Park South and Boston Road. Prior to 1999, the Q44 ran entirely local between Jamaica, Queens and West Farms, Bronx. It was the only bus service along Main Street in Queens. Before the implementation of Select Bus Service in November 2015, the route ran entirely local along East 177th Street. Now it employs an equivalent to limited-stop service on East 177th Street, but with no additional local route operating along the street. #### Select Bus Service stops ### Q20A/B The Q20A and B services share the same routing as the Q44 between Jamaica and Whitestone, before diverging west towards their shared terminal in College Point near Flushing Bay. The Q20A branches off at 20th Avenue, running along the northern edge of the former Flushing Airport and serving a large shopping center. This route is shared with the . The Q20B turns west farther north at 14th Avenue, running through a much more residential area. Both the 20th and 14th Avenue routes were part of the original Q20, which only ran between College Point and Downtown Flushing. Both routes provide local service, but the Q20A runs at all times, while the Q20B operates only on weekdays. ## History ### Original route On February 15, 1932, North Shore Bus Company began operating a bus service to replace the Long Island Rail Road's Whitestone Branch. This service was labeled the "Q35". This service was different from the current service between Brooklyn and Rockaway Park. It ran from the Flushing–Main Street terminal, north along Linden Street (now Linden Place) and 127th Street to 14th Avenue through Flushing and College Point. This is the routing of the current bus in the area. The original Q35 then ran east along 14th Avenue before following the current and routes to Whitestone. On May 2, 1933, North Shore Bus began a shuttle service along Main Street between Main Street/Roosevelt Avenue subway station in Flushing and Horace Harding Boulevard (now the Long Island Expressway) in Queensboro Hill. This was the predecessor to Q44 service. At the time, Main Street had yet to be extended south past Reeves Avenue (the north end of modern Queens College). On September 22, 1935, the North Shore Bus Company acquired, but did not merge with, the Flushing Heights Bus Corporation which operated the and the services between Jamaica and Flushing. North Shore only acquired the Q25 on a temporary basis; as compensation, the city assured the company that they would get a new route between Flushing and Jamaica via Main Street. This was planned to go into service after the extension of Main Street, including a bridge over the Grand Central Parkway, was completed. In 1937, several major bus route changes occurred. Queens–Nassau Transit took over the Q25 service and combined it with their Q34 route along Linden Place and 127th Street in College Point (predecessor to the northern portion of the current Q25). The Q35 was discontinued by North Shore, and was replaced by a new Q20 service. The route of the Q20 was the same as the current route of the Q20B (via 14th Avenue), except that it continued north along 122nd Street (now College Point Boulevard) and followed the same looping route as the current Q25 (then Q34) near MacNeil Park at the north end of the borough. ### Start of Q44 service In December 1936, North Shore applied for a franchise on route "Q-44" between Flushing and Jamaica via Main Street. On March 22, 1938, Q44 service began between Flushing–Main Street and Archer Avenue at the Jamaica Long Island Rail Road station, when Main Street was extended south to the Grand Central Parkway. The company advertised the route as the shortest "from the entire North Shore" of Queens to Jamaica, running 15 minutes between terminals. Following the opening of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge in April 1939, North Shore began operating bus service between West Farms Square in the Bronx and the 1939 New York World's Fair in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park on July 1 of that year. On October 28, 1940, this route was combined with the Q44, running from Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike station (along the route that would become the ) through Whitestone and along East 177th Street in the Bronx to Tremont Avenue and Boston Road at West Farms Square. An alternate branch ran to Westchester Square, Bronx. By December of that year, the Q44 returned to Jamaica, running to the 165th Street Bus Terminal. On July 1, 1939, the Q20 became interlined with the Q17, meaning that south of Flushing the bus would continue via the Q17 route to the Jamaica−165th Street terminal. The service was designated "Q17-20" or "Q20-17" and rollsigns would display Q17/20. Beginning on June 8, 1942 due to restrictions on gasoline and tire usage during World War II, the service was truncated to 14th Avenue and 122nd Street in College Point. Service north of 14th Avenue was restored on February 4, 1946. The Q20 was separated from the Q17 during off-peak "base period" hours on January 27, 1947. In March of that year, North Shore Bus would be taken over by the New York City Board of Transportation (later the New York City Transit Authority [NYCTA]), making the bus routes city operated. The joint Q17-20 service later became popular among students of St. John's University, and residents from Jamaica Estates and Flushing Heights (now Kew Gardens Hills) shopping in Downtown Flushing. On February 3, 1957, the NYCTA separated the Q17 and Q20 services at all times, eliminated service north of 14th Avenue and 122nd Street (College Point Boulevard), and renamed the Q20 the Q44FS (Flushing Shuttle). It was one of several routes using the "Q44" designation including the Q44 itself, the Q44A (now the ), the Q44B (a shuttle to Malba, Queens which has since been discontinued), and the Q44VP (later the Q74). During the 1964 New York World's Fair, special Q44 service was inaugurated, running to the Rodman Street entrance of Flushing Meadows Park. The routes, designated "Q44 WF" and marked "World's Fair", originated from either West Farms Square or 165th Street and made stops on the Bronx or Queens portions of the route respectively before terminating at the fair. On July 11, 1966, the NYCTA moved the terminals of the Q13, Q14, Q16, Q28, and Q44FS from downtown Flushing to the Flushing Parking Field surrounded by 37th Avenue, Union Street, 138th Street, and 39th Avenue on a six-month pilot basis. The change, which was made at the request of multiple Queens elected officials, was intended to provide shelter for riders and reduce downtown congestion. However, due to immediate opposition from shoppers, who complained that the change forced them to walk four blocks to get from the subway to the buses, businessmen, and elected officials, on July 20, 1966, the NYCTA announced that it would undo the change on July 24. Q13, Q16, and Q28 service would go back to terminating on the north side of Roosevelt Avenue to the east of Main Street, while Q14 and Q44FS service would resume terminating on the east side of Main Street at 39th Avenue. Queens Borough President Mario Cariello had sent a letter to the NYCTA asking for the change in service to be reversed on July 18. The NYCTA had made the change in service at his request in April. Cariello noted that many of his constituents had requested the change. In December 1967, the NYCTA transmitted a proposed extension of the Q44 by 4.33 miles (6.97 km) to serve Co-Op City and to make a minor change at the western terminal of the route due to the conversion of some streets to one-way to the Board of Estimate. In October 1969, the General Superintendent of the NYCTA recommended modifying the route of the Q44 in the Bronx to eliminate its use of streets deemed to be "inadequate for bus passage." The route would be modified to run along East Tremont Avenue between Boston Road and Bryant Avenue, Bryant Avenue between Boston Road and East Tremont Avenue, and Boston Road between Bryant Avenue and East Tremont Avenue. ### Reroutes and institution of limited-stop service On April 15, 1990, the Q44FS was renumbered to Q20; at this time 20th Avenue service began, when the street was widened and the shopping center was constructed. In September 1995, weekend service was eliminated on the Q20, making it a weekday-only service. On January 11, 1998, the Q44 began running on Archer Avenue between Merrick Boulevard and Sutphin Boulevard in both directions to provide direct access to the Long Island Rail Road's Jamaica station and to eliminate difficult turns on congested streets. A new turnaround loop was set up using Archer Avenue, 168th Street, Jamaica Avenue, and Merrick Boulevard. Previously, southbound buses ran along Jamaica Avenue until Merrick Boulevard, and northbound buses ran along Archer Avenue and 153rd Street until they turned onto Jamaica Avenue. This change was presented to the MTA Board for approval in November 1997, and was initially going to take effect in December 1997. On June 27, 1999, the Q44 began limited-stop service in Queens, with the Q20 split into two branches (Q20A and Q20B) to provide local service, with the Q20B providing service along the old Q20 route on 14th Street, and the Q20A providing new service along 20th Avenue. The addition of service along 20th Avenue was done at the request of owners of commercial developments on the avenue, such as BJ's and Target. Weekend service was also restored on the Q20A. Since the Q44 became limited, the Q20 was extended south along Main Street to make local stops. Prior to the change, Q20 service had run during weekdays only from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. at frequencies of 15 to 30 minutes. At this time, the Q44 was shifted from its historical route in the neighborhood of Briarwood between Union Turnpike and Hillside Avenue. It had previously turned east onto the Grand Central Parkway service road and then turned south onto 150th Street towards Jamaica, the same route employed since 1938 when Main Street dead-ended at the Grand Central service road. It was rerouted to continue south via Main Street, and then via Queens Boulevard to Hillside Avenue. Initially, Q44 buses made limited stops from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. on weekdays, from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m. on Saturdays, and from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m. on Sundays. The changes in service on the Q44 and Q20 were made to increase ridership growth and to serve new markets. On July 29, 1999, a meeting was held at Borough Hall, with officials of the MTA in attendance, to discuss the changes. Many riders spoke against the changes, noting that the change made it harder for senior citizens and people with disabilities who had used the stops along 150th Street, and that the change added an additional transfer to complete their trips, requiring an additional fare. A spokesperson for the MTA said that it had no plans to revert the change in service, and noted that the areas on Queens Boulevard and Main Street that the Q44 was rerouted to had increased in density. Briarwood residents had organized and circulated a petition in opposition to the loss of bus service on 150th Street soon after the changes took effect. This change was announced to elected officials in late March 1999, and was approved by the MTA Board on April 15, 1999. On April 1, 2005, Q44 limited-stop service at Main Street and Sanford Avenue was discontinued, with service continuing to be provided by the Q20A and Q20B. ### Select Bus Service and service expansion In 2004 and 2006, the Main Street corridor was identified as a potential route for Flushing-Jamaica bus rapid transit (BRT) service, as part of the first phase of the MTA and DOT's Select Bus Service (SBS) plan. The corridor was ultimately not included in the first phase of SBS routes. In February 2008, the MTA proposed an additional limited-stop service on the northern portion of the corridor between Flushing and Fordham Plaza, provisionally named the Q94. Eliminating the required transfer to the at East 180th Street, it was referred to as a "Super Limited", and would have also replaced the special school service (since discontinued) between Queens and Bedford Park. Though the Q94 was never implemented, the Q44 route was included in the SBS Phase II study in 2009. By 2013, the Q44 was the first route in Queens to have a full fleet of articulated buses; the same buses (the Nova Bus LFS model) used on SBS service. In 2014, the 164th Street corridor () and the Parsons/Kissena corridor ( and ) joined the Main Street corridor as potential SBS routes between Flushing and Jamaica. The Q25 Limited and Q44 Limited were selected for further studies, with the Q44 prioritized due to its high ridership, interborough connection between Queens and the Bronx, and the width of Main Street to facilitate bus lanes. As part of the conversion, eight stops in the Bronx were eliminated; those retained constituted 85% of passenger usage in the borough. Several limited stops in the Jamaica business district were also eliminated. In addition, Q44 Limited stops at Guy R Brewer Boulevard/165th Street and Archer Avenue, Main Street and Northern Boulevard, Parsons Boulevard and 17th Avenue, Parsons Boulevard and 21st Avenue, and the southbound only stop at Whitestone Expressway and Center Drive were eliminated. On November 29, 2015, the Q44 SBS began service, operating 24 hours a day. The Q20A became a full-time route to replace the discontinued late-night-only Q44 local route. ### Bus redesign In December 2019, the MTA released a draft redesign of the Queens bus network. As part of the redesign, the Q44 would have become a "high-density" route called the QT44 and would be extended in the Bronx to Fordham Plaza Bus Terminal. The Q20 would have been replaced by a "neighborhood" route, the QT86, which would run from Linden Place in College Point to Cooper Avenue in Glendale, leaving the Main Street corridor at Vleigh Place. The 20th and 14th Avenue corridors would have been served by the QT64 and QT84, respectively. The redesign was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, and the original draft plan was dropped due to negative feedback. A revised plan was released in March 2022. Under the new plan, the Q44 would still be extended to Fordham Plaza and the northbound stop for Kissena Boulevard would be removed. The Q20 would still run on Main Street but would no longer have branches; the 20th and 14th Avenue corridors would be taken over by the Q76 and Q31, respectively. The northern part of the Q20 would take over the Q15's routing in Beechhurst, while its southern terminus would be cut back to the Briarwood station. ## Incidents On September 18, 2017, during the morning rush hour, a private tour bus moving at a high speed collided with the back of a New Flyer Xcelsior XD40 Q20A bus turning from Main Street onto Northern Boulevard in Flushing. The bus then plowed into a Kennedy Fried Chicken restaurant at the corner of the intersection. The accident killed 3 people including the tour bus driver, and injured at least 17. The private charter bus company had been repeatedly cited for reckless driving. The charter driver was a former MTA bus driver, until he was fired in April 2015 after a crash in his personal automobile in which he pleaded guilty to driving under the influence and leaving the scene of the crash. ## See also - Q17 (New York City bus), another New York City bus route connecting Flushing to Jamaica - Q25 and Q34 buses, another New York City bus corridor connecting Flushing to Jamaica - Q65 (New York City bus), another New York City bus route connecting Flushing to Jamaica - Q74 (New York City bus), a former New York City bus route that ran on Main Street
967,176	Eye of Horus	1,171,098,515	Ancient Egyptian symbol of protection, royal power and good health	[ "Ancient Egyptian culture", "Ancient Egyptian society", "Ancient Egyptian symbols", "Egyptian amulets", "Egyptian fractions", "Egyptian hieroglyphs: parts of the human body", "Eyes in culture", "Horus", "Magic symbols", "Wadjet" ]	The Eye of Horus, also known as left wedjat eye or udjat eye, specular to the Eye of Ra (right wedjat eye), is a concept and symbol in ancient Egyptian religion that represents well-being, healing, and protection. It derives from the mythical conflict between the god Horus with his rival Set, in which Set tore out or destroyed one or both of Horus's eyes and the eye was subsequently healed or returned to Horus with the assistance of another deity, such as Thoth. Horus subsequently offered the eye to his deceased father Osiris, and its revitalizing power sustained Osiris in the afterlife. The Eye of Horus was thus equated with funerary offerings, as well as with all the offerings given to deities in temple ritual. It could also represent other concepts, such as the moon, whose waxing and waning was likened to the injury and restoration of the eye. The Eye of Horus symbol, a stylized eye with distinctive markings, was believed to have protective magical power and appeared frequently in ancient Egyptian art. It was one of the most common motifs for amulets, remaining in use from the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC) to the Roman period (30 BC – 641 AD). Pairs of Horus eyes were painted on coffins during the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) and Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC). Other contexts where the symbol appeared include on carved stone stelae and on the bows of boats. To some extent the symbol was adopted by the people of regions neighboring Egypt, such as Syria, Canaan, and especially Nubia. The eye symbol was also rendered as a hieroglyph (). Egyptologists have long believed that hieroglyphs representing pieces of the symbol stand for fractions in ancient Egyptian mathematics, although this hypothesis has been challenged. ## Origins The ancient Egyptian god Horus was a sky deity, and many Egyptian texts say that Horus's right eye was the sun and his left eye the moon. The solar eye and lunar eye were sometimes equated with the red and white crown of Egypt, respectively. Some texts treat the Eye of Horus seemingly interchangeably with the Eye of Ra, which in other contexts is an extension of the power of the sun god Ra and is often personified as a goddess. The Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson believes the two eyes of Horus gradually became distinguished as the lunar Eye of Horus and the solar Eye of Ra. Other Egyptologists, however, argue that no text clearly equates the eyes of Horus with the sun and moon until the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC); Rolf Krauss argues that the Eye of Horus originally represented Venus as the morning star and evening star and only later became equated with the moon. Katja Goebs argues that the myths surrounding the Eye of Horus and the Eye of Ra are based around the same mytheme, or core element of a myth, and that "rather than postulating a single, original myth of one cosmic body, which was then merged with others, it might be more fruitful to think in terms of a (flexible) myth based on the structural relationship of an Object that is missing, or located far from its owner". In the myths surrounding the Eye of Ra, the goddess flees Ra and is brought back by another deity. In the case of the Eye of Horus, the eye is usually missing because of Horus's conflict with his arch-rival, the god Set, in their struggle for the kingship of Egypt after the death of Horus's father Osiris. ## Mythology The Pyramid Texts, which date to the late Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC), are one of the earliest sources for Egyptian myth. They prominently feature the conflict between Horus and Set, and the Eye of Horus is mentioned in about a quarter of the utterances that make up the Pyramid Texts. In these texts, Set is said to have stolen the Eye of Horus, and sometimes to have trampled and eaten it. Horus nevertheless takes back the eye, usually by force. The texts often mention the theft of Horus's eye along with the loss of Set's testicles, an injury that is also healed. The conflict over the eye is mentioned and elaborated in many texts from later times. In most of these texts, the eye is restored by another deity, most commonly Thoth, who was said to have made peace between Horus and Set. In some versions, Thoth is said to have reassembled the eye after Set tore it to pieces. In the Book of the Dead from the New Kingdom, Set is said to have taken the form of a black boar when striking Horus's eye. In "The Contendings of Horus and Set", a text from the late New Kingdom that relates the conflict as a short narrative, Set tears out both of Horus's eyes and buries them, and the next morning they grow into lotuses. Here it is the goddess Hathor who restores Horus's eyes, by anointing them with the milk of a gazelle. In Papyrus Jumilhac, a mythological text from early in the Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC), Horus's mother Isis waters the buried pair of eyes, causing them to grow into the first grape vines. The restoration of the eye was often referred to as "filling" the eye. Hathor filled Horus's eye sockets with the gazelle's milk, while texts from temples of the Greco-Roman era said that Thoth, together with a group of fourteen other deities, filled the eye with specific plants and minerals. The process of filling the Eye of Horus was likened to the waxing of the moon, and the fifteen deities in the Greco-Roman texts represented the fifteen days from the new moon to the full moon. The Egyptologist Herman te Velde suggests that the Eye of Horus is linked with another episode in the conflict between the two gods, in which Set subjects Horus to a sexual assault and, in retaliation, Isis and Horus cause Set to ingest Horus's semen. This episode is narrated most clearly in "The Contendings of Horus and Set", in which Horus's semen appears on Set's forehead as a golden disk, which Thoth places on his own head. Other references in Egyptian texts imply that in some versions of the myth it was Thoth himself who came forth from Set's head after Set was impregnated by Horus's semen, and a passage in the Pyramid Texts says the Eye of Horus came from Set's forehead. Te Velde argues that the disk that emerges from Set's head is the Eye of Horus. If so, the episodes of mutilation and sexual abuse would form a single story, in which Set assaults Horus and loses semen to him, Horus retaliates and impregnates Set, and Set comes into possession of Horus's eye when it appears on Set's head. Because Thoth is a moon deity in addition to his other functions, it would make sense, according to te Velde, for Thoth to emerge in the form of the eye and step in to make peace between the feuding deities. Beginning in the New Kingdom, the Eye of Horus was known as the wḏꜣt (often rendered as wedjat or udjat), meaning the "whole", "completed", or "uninjured" eye. It is unclear whether the term wḏꜣt refers to the eye that was destroyed and restored, or to the one that Set left unharmed. Upon becoming king after Set's defeat, Horus gives offerings to his deceased father, thus reviving and sustaining him in the afterlife. This act was the mythic prototype for the offerings to the dead that were a major part of ancient Egyptian funerary customs. It also influenced the conception of offering rites that were performed on behalf of deities in temples. Among the offerings Horus gives is his own eye, which Osiris consumes. The eye, as part of Osiris's son, is ultimately derived from Osiris himself. Therefore, the eye in this context represents the Egyptian conception of offerings. The gods were responsible for the existence of all the goods that they were offered, so offerings were part of the gods' own substance. In receiving offerings, deities were replenished by their own life force, as Osiris was when he consumed the Eye of Horus. In the Egyptian worldview, life was a force that originated with the gods and circulated through the world, so that by returning this force to the gods, offering rites maintained the flow of life. The offering of the eye to Osiris is another instance of the mytheme in which a deity in need receives an eye and is restored to well-being. The eye's restorative power meant the Egyptians considered it a symbol of protection against evil, in addition to its other meanings. ## In ritual ### Offerings and festivals In the Osiris myth the offering of the Eye of Horus to Osiris was the prototype of all funerary offerings, and indeed of all offering rites, as the human giving an offering to a deity was likened to Horus and the deity receiving it was likened to Osiris. Moreover, the Egyptian word for "eye", jrt, resembled jrj, the word for "act", and through wordplay the Eye of Horus could thus be equated with any ritual act. For these reasons, the Eye of Horus symbolized all the sustenance given to the gods in the temple cult. The versions of the myth in which flowers or grapevines grow from the buried eyes reinforce the eye's relationship with ritual offerings, as the perfumes, food, and drink that were derived from these plants were commonly used in offering rites. The eye was often equated with maat, the Egyptian concept of cosmic order, which was dependent on the continuation of the temple cult and could likewise be equated with offerings of any kind. The Egyptians observed several festivals in the course of each month that were based on the phases of the moon, such as the Blacked-out Moon Festival (the first of the month), the Monthly Festival (the second day), and the Half-Month Festival. During these festivals, living people gave offerings to the deceased. The festivals were frequently mentioned in funerary texts. Beginning in the time of the Coffin Texts from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC), funerary texts parallel the progression of these festivals, and hence the waxing of the moon, with the healing of the Eye of Horus. ### Healing texts Ancient Egyptian medicine involved both practical treatments and rituals that invoked divine powers, and Egyptian medical papyri do not clearly distinguish the two. Healing rituals frequently equate patients with Horus, so the patient may be healed as Horus was in myth. For this reason, the Eye of Horus is frequently mentioned in such spells. The Hearst papyrus, for instance, equates the physician performing the ritual to "Thoth, the physician of the Eye of Horus" and equates the instrument with which the physician measures the medicine with "the measure with which Horus measured his eye". The Eye of Horus was particularly invoked as protection against eye disease. One text, Papyrus Leiden I 348, equates each part of a person's body with a deity in order to protect it. The left eye is equated with the Eye of Horus. ## Symbol Horus was represented as a falcon, such as a lanner or peregrine falcon, or as a human with a falcon head. The Eye of Horus is a stylized human or falcon eye. The symbol often includes an eyebrow, a dark line extending behind the rear corner of the eye, a cheek marking below the center or forward corner of the eye, and a line extending below and toward the rear of the eye that ends in a curl or spiral. The cheek marking resembles that found on many falcons. The Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson suggests that the curling line is derived from the facial markings of the cheetah, which the Egyptians associated with the sky because the spots in its coat were likened to stars. The stylized eye symbol was used interchangeably to represent the Eye of Ra. Egyptologists often simply refer to this symbol as the wedjat eye. ### Amulets Amulets in the shape of the wedjat eye first appeared in the late Old Kingdom and continued to be produced up to Roman times. Ancient Egyptians were usually buried with amulets, and the Eye of Horus was one of the most consistently popular forms of amulet. It is one of the few types commonly found on Old Kingdom mummies, and it remained in widespread use over the next two thousand years, even as the number and variety of funerary amulets greatly increased. Up until the New Kingdom, funerary wedjat amulets tended to be placed on the chest, whereas during and after the New Kingdom they were commonly placed over the incision through which the body's internal organs had been removed during the mummification process. Wedjat amulets were made from a wide variety of materials, including Egyptian faience, glass, gold, and semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli. Their form also varied greatly. These amulets could represent right or left eyes, and the eye could be formed of openwork, incorporated into a plaque, or reduced to little more than an outline of the eye shape, with minimal decoration to indicate the position of the pupil and brow. In the New Kingdom, elaborate forms appeared: a uraeus, or rearing cobra, could appear at the front of the eye; the rear spiral could become a bird's tail feathers; and the cheek mark could be a bird's leg or a human arm. Cobras and felines often represented the Eye of Ra, so Eye of Horus amulets that incorporate uraei or feline body parts may represent the relationship between the two eyes, as may amulets that bear the wedjat eye on one side and the figure of a goddess on the other. The Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC) saw still more complex designs, in which multiple small figures of animals or deities were inserted in the gaps between the parts of the eye, or in which the eyes were grouped into sets of four. The eye symbol could also be incorporated into larger pieces of jewelry alongside other protective symbols, such as the ankh and djed signs and various emblems of deities. Beginning in the thirteenth century BC, glass beads bearing eye-like spots were strung on necklaces together with wedjat amulets, which may be the origin of the modern nazar, a type of bead meant to ward off the evil eye. Sometimes temporary amulets were created for protective purposes in especially dangerous situations, such as illness or childbirth. Rubrics for ritual spells often instruct the practitioner to draw the wedjat eye on linen or papyrus to serve as a temporary amulet. ### Other uses Wedjat eyes appeared in a wide variety of contexts in Egyptian art. Coffins of the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) and Middle Kingdom often included a pair of wedjat eyes painted on the left side. Mummies at this time were often turned to face left, suggesting that the eyes were meant to allow the deceased to see outside the coffin, but the eyes were probably also meant to ward off danger. Similarly, eyes of Horus were often painted on the bows of boats, which may have been meant to both protect the vessel and allow it to see the way ahead. Wedjat eyes were sometimes portrayed with wings, hovering protectively over kings or deities. Stelae, or carved stone slabs, were often inscribed with wedjat eyes. In some periods of Egyptian history, only deities or kings could be portrayed directly beneath the winged sun symbol that often appeared in the lunettes of stelae, and Eyes of Horus were placed above figures of common people. The symbol could also be incorporated into tattoos, as demonstrated by the mummy of a woman from the late New Kingdom that was decorated with elaborate tattoos, including several wedjat eyes. Some cultures neighboring Egypt adopted the wedjat symbol for use in their own art. Some Egyptian artistic motifs became widespread in art from Canaan and Syria during the Middle Bronze Age. Art of this era sometimes incorporated the wedjat, though it was much more rare than other Egyptian symbols such as the ankh. In contrast, the wedjat appeared frequently in art of the Kingdom of Kush in Nubia, in the first millennium BC and early first millennium AD, demonstrating Egypt's heavy influence upon Kush. Down to the present day, eyes are painted on the bows of ships in many Mediterranean countries, a custom that may descend from the use of the wedjat eye on boats. ### Hieroglyphic form A hieroglyphic version of the wedjat symbol, labeled D10 in the list of hieroglyphic signs drawn up by the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner, was used in writing as a determinative or ideogram for the Eye of Horus. The Egyptians sometimes used signs that represented pieces of the wedjat eye hieroglyph. In 1911, the Egyptologist Georg Möller noted that on New Kingdom "votive cubits", inscribed stone objects with a length of one cubit, these hieroglyphs were inscribed together with similarly shaped symbols in the hieratic writing system, a cursive writing system whose signs derived from hieroglyphs. The hieratic signs stood for fractions of a hekat, the basic Egyptian measure of volume. Möller hypothesized that the Horus-eye hieroglyphs were the original hieroglyphic forms of the hieratic fraction signs, and that the inner corner of the eye stood for 1/2, the pupil for 1/4, the eyebrow for 1/8, the outer corner for 1/16, the curling line for 1/32, and the cheek mark for 1/64. In 1923, T. Eric Peet pointed out that the hieroglyphs representing pieces of the eye are not found before the New Kingdom, and he suggested that the hieratic fraction signs had a separate origin but were reinterpreted during the New Kingdom to have a connection with the Eye of Horus. In the same decade, Möller's hypothesis was included in standard reference works on the Egyptian language, such as Ägyptische Grammatik by Adolf Erman and Egyptian Grammar by Alan Gardiner. Gardiner's treatment of the subject suggested that the parts of the eye were used to represent fractions because in myth the eye was torn apart by Set and later made whole. Egyptologists accepted Gardiner's interpretation for decades afterward. Jim Ritter, a historian of science and mathematics, analyzed the shape of the hieratic signs through Egyptian history in 2002. He concluded that "the further back we go the further the hieratic signs diverge from their supposed Horus-eye counterparts", thus undermining Möller's hypothesis. He also reexamined the votive cubits and argued that they do not clearly equate the Eye of Horus signs with the hieratic fractions, so even Peet's weaker form of the hypothesis was unlikely to be correct. Nevertheless, the 2014 edition of James P. Allen's Middle Egyptian, an introductory book on the Egyptian language, still lists the pieces of the wedjat eye as representing fractions of a hekat. The hieroglyph for the Eye of Horus is listed in the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block of the Unicode standard for encoding symbols in computing, as U+13080 (). The hieroglyphs for parts of the eye (, , , , , , ) are listed as U+13081 through U+13087.
59,840,905	Ishi in Two Worlds	1,170,619,648	Biography of the Native American Yahi called Ishi	[ "1961 non-fiction books", "American biographies", "Biographies adapted into films", "Native American history of California", "Non-fiction books about Native Americans", "University of California Press books" ]	Ishi in Two Worlds is a biographical account of Ishi, the last known member of the Yahi Native American people. Written by American author Theodora Kroeber, it was first published in 1961. Ishi had been found alone and starving outside Oroville, California, in 1911. He was befriended by the anthropologists Alfred Louis Kroeber and Thomas Waterman, who took him to the Museum of Anthropology in San Francisco. There, he was studied by the anthropologists, before his death in 1916. Theodora Kroeber married Alfred Kroeber in 1926. Though she had never met Ishi, she decided to write a biography of him because her husband did not feel able to do so. Ishi in Two Worlds was published in 1961, after Theodora Kroeber had spent two years studying the sources about him. It sold widely, remained in print for many years, and was translated into more than a dozen languages. The book was twice adapted into film, in 1978 (as Ishi: The Last of His Tribe) and 1992 (as The Last of His Tribe). It was highly praised by reviewers, who commended Kroeber's writing and her ability to evoke the Yahi culture. A 2013 biography of Theodora Kroeber wrote that she had a talent for "making us part of a life we never took part in", while scholar James Clifford stated that the book "wrapped up Ishi's story in a humane, angry, lovely, bittersweet package." ## Background and writing Ishi, believed to have been born between 1860 and 1862, was a member of the Yahi people, a subgroup of the Yana, a Native American tribe. The Yahi lived near the foothills of Mount Lassen for several thousand years before the arrival of white settlers. Most of the Yahi were killed by settler militia in the early 1800s. The number of Yahi living near their ancestral home shrank rapidly, and in 1872 they were believed to have gone extinct. A tiny settlement inhabited by Ishi, his elderly mother, and two others was found by some surveyors in 1908, who then looted the village. Two of the Native Americans fled, and were never heard of again. Ishi's mother was left unharmed, but died soon after. Ishi lived alone for three years until he was found half-starved in a cattle corral near Oroville, California in August 1911. Ishi was initially imprisoned by the local sheriff. Alfred Louis Kroeber and Thomas Waterman, two anthropologists at the University of California, Berkeley, heard of his imprisonment, visited him, determined that he was a member of the Yahi tribe, and had him released to Waterman's custody. They took him to the University of California's Museum of Anthropology, where he was given a job as a janitor and a place to live. He was given the name "Ishi", meaning "man" in the Yana language, by Kroeber as a practical necessity; he was forbidden to say his own name by a traditional taboo, and his original name was never discovered. Ishi was described in the media as the "last wild man in the West", and became an object of public curiosity. He was befriended and studied by Kroeber, Waterman, and Saxton Pope, a physiologist at the University Medical School in San Francisco. Five years after he was found in Oroville, Ishi died of tuberculosis. The biographical account Ishi in Two Worlds was written by Theodora Kroeber. Theodora had married Alfred Kroeber in 1926, and had never met Ishi. Kroeber, whose academic background was in psychology and anthropology, did not start writing seriously until the late 1950s, when her four children had grown up. In 1959, she began studying the academic literature about Ishi. She stated that she took on the task of writing the biography because her husband found the subject too painful to write a book about. Alfred Kroeber was a major source for the material in the book, but died in 1960, a year before it was published in 1961. ## Synopsis The book is divided into two parts. The first, titled "Ishi the Yahi", describes the history and the culture of the Yahi people, while the second, titled "Mister Ishi", discusses his life at the museum. Each part has its own prolog: the first describes how Ishi was found in Oroville, his imprisonment, and the efforts of the anthropologists to get him released into their custody. The second describes his release, as he was being taken to the museum in San Francisco. The first part begins with the history of California before European colonization, and describes the territory of the Yana people, within which the Yahi inhabited the southern region. Kroeber suggests that the Yahi were never numerous, and probably never numbered over 3,000. She writes that though they once occupied a large section of the Sacramento Valley, they were likely pushed into the hills by invasions of other, more numerous, Native American peoples. The first section also describes the Yahi language, and the landscape of their territory near Mount Lassen. Multiple chapters in the first section focus on the destruction of the Yahi by white settlers. The Yahi territory began to be affected when the Mexican government of Alta California made land grants to settlers in the Yahi lands in the 1840s: most of these grants were later confirmed by the US government. The California Gold Rush began soon afterward, bringing huge numbers of settlers into the region. Fierce military conflicts followed, leading to the destruction of the local Native American peoples over the next few decades, until eventually only a small band were left to found the settlement where settlers encountered them in 1908. The second part of the book begins with a history of the museum in San Francisco to which Ishi was taken, and a narration of how he came to be called Ishi. At the museum, Alfred Kroeber and others arranged for weekly public interactions, at which Ishi would usually demonstrate stringing a bow, or making fire with a fire drill. Eventually Ishi's friends were obliged to arrange for Ishi to be employed as a janitor, to enable the university to fund his upkeep. In addition to Kroeber, Waterman and Pope, Ishi befriended other Native American friends of the anthropologists, such as Juan Dolores, a Tohono O'odham Indian. Ishi spent much of his time at the museum crafting tools and weapons. He was also frequently taken hunting by his friends. The final chapter of the book tells of Ishi developing a tuberculosis infection in late 1914, and his death from the disease soon afterwards. ## Publication and adaptation In 1964, three years after the publication of Ishi in Two Worlds, Kroeber published a version of the story for children titled Ishi, Last of His Tribe. While the original had been published by Berkley Books, the children's volume was published by Parnassus Press, and illustrated by Ruth Robbins. Kroeber stated that she found it difficult to write the book because of its tragic subject matter, saying she was "very late in coming to any pleasure from it". She found the children's version even more difficult, as she struggled to present death to an audience largely shielded from it. A new edition issued in 1976 included new color photographs, as well as higher-quality prints of some of the 32 black and white images in the original. The dimensions of the book were also increased. The book was twice adapted for the screen, as Ishi: The Last of His Tribe in 1978, and as The Last of His Tribe in 1992. An anthology about Ishi and his relationship with Alfred Kroeber, coedited by the Kroebers' sons Karl and Clifton, was released in 2013. ## Reception and analysis Ishi in Two Worlds became an immediate success, selling widely and earning high praise from reviewers. Described as a classic, it was translated into more than a dozen languages, and established Kroeber's reputation for anthropological writing. It had sold half a million copies by 1976, and a million copies by 2001, at which point it was still in print. Scholar Albert Elsasser, reviewing the 1976 edition, said that there was "something extraordinarily compelling about Theodora Kroeber's elegant prose", and that the addition of higher quality photographs had created a volume of "an impressive and subtle alchemy". A 1989 biography of Kroeber again praised her writing, saying that she had a talent for "making us part of a life we never took part in, of allowing our presence where we never were, of raising up a gone world." In contrast, scholar Augie Fleras wrote in 2006 that she found the book "slow", and said that it often romanticized and even stereotyped Ishi, occasionally "[lapsing] into a treacly sentimentality". Elsasser praised the book again in a 1979 obituary for Kroeber, calling Ishi in Two Worlds the most widely read book about a Native American subject, and said it was a "beautifully written story" that was "evocative of Yahi culture". Another obituary stated that Ishi in Two Worlds had probably been read by more people than had ever read Alfred Kroeber's works. A scholarly review published in 1962 described as a "unique and vividly written account", and commented that it was accessible to both scientists and laypeople. Writing in 2010, scholar Douglas Cazaux Sackman compared Ishi in Two Worlds to To Kill a Mockingbird, and stated that it spoke to the experiences of Native Americans in its exploration of "the dark side of American expansion and the legacy of genocidal policies" in the same way that Harper Lee's book, published the previous year, examined racial prejudice and the legacy of slavery in the experience of African Americans. Sackman stated that Ishi in Two Worlds "struck a chord" with its audience, and inspired greater interest in both Native American and environmental causes. Scholar Thomas E. Simmons wrote that the book's perspective on Ishi was "empathetic yet deeply flawed", saying that it glossed over or did not take issue with the manner in which Ishi was presented as an exhibit. Scholar Richard Pascal wrote that the book, "to its credit", did not evade the "horrors inflicted upon the Yahi by the invading whites". However, he argued that the narrative's goal is one of assimilation, and said it was "colonizing 'Ishi' in the name of American culture. Scholar James Clifford wrote in 2013 that the account of Ishi's life in San Francisco was "absorbing", and written with "skill and compassion". Clifford noted that Ishi in Two Worlds contained a few factual mistakes, and that scholars had over time criticized some of the emphases placed by Kroeber. Additionally, he argued that Kroeber's writing challenged some stereotypes of Native Americans, but it also demonstrated others. Kroeber, possibly influenced by her knowledge of the brutalities perpetrated by Western nations during World War II and its aftermath, was "uncompromising" in describing the systematic killing of Native Americans in California. However, Clifford criticized the implicit assumption that coming into the care of Alfred Kroeber was the best outcome for Ishi; other alternatives, such as settling him with other Native American peoples from the region, were not considered. Nonetheless, he said that "[w]ith a generous appreciation of human complexity and an eye for the telling detail, Theodora Kroeber, a novice author, created a masterpiece". Ishi in Two Worlds "wrapped up Ishi's story in a humane, angry, lovely, bittersweet package", which remained the most detailed and complete account of Ishi's life.
4,347,315	Mymoorapelta	1,170,147,514	Extinct genus of ornithischian dinosaur	[ "Dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation", "Fossil taxa described in 1994", "Late Jurassic dinosaurs of North America", "Nodosaurids", "Ornithischian genera", "Paleontology in Colorado", "Taxa named by James I. Kirkland", "Taxa named by Kenneth Carpenter" ]	Mymoorapelta (Meaning "Vannetta Moore and Pete and Marilyn Mygatt's shield" after a combination of the names of the discoverers of the Mygatt-Moore Quarry that fossils were originally collected from, and the Greek word pɛltə "shield") is a nodosaurid ankylosaur from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, around 155 to 150 million years ago) Morrison Formation (Brushy Basin Member) of western Colorado and central Utah, USA. The animal is known from a single species, Mymoorapelta maysi, and few specimens are known. The most complete specimen is the holotype individual from the Mygatt-Moore Quarry, which includes osteoderms, a partial skull, vertebrae, and other bones. It was initially described by James Kirkland and Kenneth Carpenter in 1994. Along with Gargoyleosaurus, it is one of the earliest known nodosaurids. Mymoorapleta is one of the smaller known nodosaurids, with the estimated length of the largest specimen only reaching 3 metres (9.8 ft). It had a narrow snout and almost triangular skull in dorsal view, with two large horns pointing backwards from the brow and two horns below these that pointed backwards and down on the jugal. Five different armor types have been observed in Mymoorapelta, ranging from elongated, sharp spines on the side of the body to a giant sacral shield composed of tiny osteoderms, called ossicles, that covered the top of the pelvis. In contrast to the club-tailed ankylosaurids, the tail bore spikes that Mymoorapleta likely used for defense. Mymoorapelta was a low browser in the Morrison ecosystem, feeding on cycads and conifers, in contrast to the high-browsing Apatosaurus known from the same quarries. Other dinosaur groups were also present, including the large theropods Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus and possibly the ornithischian Nanosaurus. Both of the theropods have also been found in association with the animal, and we have evidence that the former preyed on Mymoorapelta. ## Discovery and naming The Mygatt-Moore Quarry was first discovered in March of 1981 by hikers Vanetta Moore and Pete and Marilyn Mygatt in Mesa County, west-central Colorado. The quarry's strata come from the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation, which dates to the Upper Jurassic. Fossils of Mymoorapelta were first discovered in the quarry in 1990, and since then over 160 elements have been found scattered over 25 metres (27 yd) of the 150-square-metre (1,600 sq ft) quarry. A few of these elements are part of a single adult individual and were described by American paleontologists James Kirkland and Kenneth Carpenter in 1994. This specimen (MWC 1815) would be designated the holotype of the species and includes a left ilium (hip bone) with preserved bitemarks. Kirkland and Carpenter named the species Mymoorapelta maysi, the generic name deriving from the names of Marilyn Mygatt and the Moores, who had discovered the quarry, and the Greek root pelta, meaning “shield”, due to the preserved armor. The specific name is after Chris Mays, the president of the Dinamation International Corporation and Society, who funded the initial excavation of the Mygatt-Moore Quarry. Mymoorapelta was the first Jurassic ankylosaur named from North America, with the closely related Gargoyleosaurus being named four years later in 1998. Other parts of the type specimen that were excavated from the quarry include several dorsal (back) and caudal (tail) vertebrae, ribs, isolated limb bones, and many osteoderms, including the signature triangular cervical spine of basal ankylosaurs. Some osteoderms which have been found in the quarry and referred to Mymoorapelta come from a higher stratigraphic layer, suggesting that a second individual is preserved. In 1998, a partial skeleton referred to Mymoorapelta was described by Kirkland et al from Cactus Park, Colorado, though at the time the fossil was still undergoing fossil preparation. The skeleton preserved natural molds and body fossils of the sacrum, caudal vertebrae, chevrons (bones attached to the underside of the tail vertebrae in dinosaurs), pes (foot), and many pieces of the dermal armor, including parts of the sacral shield, which was a type of armor that would cover the top of the pelvis. Though skull material was mentioned to be preserved it is still in preparation and undescribed. Some of the material, namely from the pes and sacral shield, was preserved in articulation making it the only known articulated specimen of the taxon. In a 2010 abstract, Kirkland and colleagues mentioned the discovery of many more elements of Mymoorapelta at Mygatt-Moore Quarry including a nearly complete skull and every postcranial element except the pubis and femur. All of the fossils found at Mygatt-Moore Quarry and Cactus Park are currently deposited in the Dinosaur Journey Museum of Western Colorado in Fruita. 2015 saw the presentation of an abstract by Katie Tremaine et al that mentions a new Mymoorapelta specimen unearthed at Hanksville-Burpee Quarry near Hanksville, Utah. The specimen includes one individual preserving: 24 osteoderms, three ribs, one vertebra, and a femur, though more material has yet to be excavated. The discovery of a single, dorsal osteoderm that had been collected from the Peterson Quarry outside of Albuquerque, New Mexico was described in 2016. The osteoderm is morphologically (based on external anatomy) similar to Mymoorapelta, however it is stratigraphically (based on rock layers) closer to Gargoyleosaurus. ## Description Mymoorapelta is one of the smallest ankylosaurs known and the smallest known quadrupedal dinosaur from the Morrison Formation. However, few individuals have been found and only a portion of the known material has been described in detail. The Cactus Park specimen is the largest described individual, with its length being estimated at around 3 metres (9.8 ft) long in 1998. Body mass estimates based on the type specimen give a weight of around 300–562 kilograms (661–1,239 lb). ### Skull and dentition The skull specifically has not been described in detail, but the preserved morphology (external anatomy) is very similar to that of Gargoyleosaurus, which also hails from the Morrison Formation. It had a narrow snout and almost triangular shaped skull in dorsal (top) view, with two large horns pointing backward from the back of the brow, and two horns below these that pointed backward and down from the jugal (cheek bone). A preserved jugal described in 1998 has a wedge-shaped, armored morphology and projects ventrolaterally (down and outwards) like in ankylosaurids. The premaxillae (bones at the tip of the snout) probably possessed a narrow, toothed, and trapezoidal muzzle like in Gargoyleosaurus. In the back of the skull, the quadrate-articular area (place of contact between the skull and lower jaw) faces slightly medially (towards the midline of the body), and is subtly lengthened anteroposteriorly (front to back). The distal surface of the quadrate, especially on the medial condyle, is robust and elongated anteroposteriorly. In all ankylosaurs, the jaw joint (joint connecting the skull to the jaw bone) is placed ventrally to the occlusal plane (contact surface between teeth). The coronoid process (bony projection on the lower jaw) is very well developed in nodosaurids, and the jaw joint is well depressed in turn, which corresponds to a higher relative bite force. Most ankylosaurs have heterodont dentition (variation in tooth morphology), but not in Gargoyleosaurus, which shows only subtle morphological differences in the premaxillary, maxillary, and dentary teeth. Ankylosaur teeth are compressed labiolingually and are phylliform (leaf-shaped), with an apical cusp and secondary cusps along the mesial and distal edges. Nodosaurid teeth are blade-like, larger, and usually more complex than the basic cusps of ankylosaurids, having a larger crown, a rough enamel surface, confluent fluting with grooves of the marginal cusps, and a crenelated cingulum (shelf-like bulge surrounding the base of a tooth crown). The wear facets on Ankylosaur teeth vary greatly, but in nodosaurids they are usually more extensive and steeply inclined than in ankylosaurids, demonstrating underlying patterns of shape-constrained function. In early nodosaurids like Gargoyleosaurus and Gastonia, the pterygoid (a dermal, paired bone of the palate) is not yet well developed anteroposteriorly and mediolaterally, but in later species they are much wider, with more robust lateral wings, and they are more expanded anteroposteriorly than in basal forms, reaching the level of the distal quadrate condyles. This suggests more developed pterygoid muscles in later nodosaurids than in ankylosaurids, reflecting a more efficient jaw adductor system in nodosaurids. The mandibular adductor chamber and the coronoid process are generally taller in nodosaurids than in ankylosaurs, suggesting differences in the size and attachment of muscles. ### Postcranial skeleton A large part of the postcranial (behind the skull) skeleton of Mymoorapelta is known. For instance, many cervical vertebrae (vertebrae of the neck) are known, though many of them have not been fully researched or excavated. In the cervicals, the faces (ends) of the centra are wider than they are tall and display a heart-shaped morphology. The centra overall are anteroposteriorly short with lengths that are around equal to their width. The neural spines are short and thick,and possess round, circular neural canals. A deep, tear-shaped fossa (small opening in bone) is present between the postzygapophyses (backwards projections of the vertebral arch). Several dorsal (back, sometimes referred to as thoracic) vertebrae are known from Mymoorapelta, and they are unique when compared to those of Cretaceous nodosaurids. The centra are cylindircal, longer posteriorly, and less laterally compressed than those of other, later nodosaurids like Sauropelta and Dracopelta. The anterior dorsals are unique in that they bear a triangular pit between the prezygapophyses (forwards projections of the vertebral arch), which are also much more elongate at the anterior end of the vertebra. Meanwhile, the postzygapophyses are truncated at the posterior end, with the left and right postzygapophyses divided by a large groove. The mid dorsal vertebrae differ in that they are rounded ventrally and have a weak keel at the bottom. The transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae do not ascend steeply and are instead gradually heightened, similar to the condition in basal ankylosaurs, and differing from that of nodosaurids. Mymoorapelta has 13 ribs, all of which have triangular cross-sections and a weak T-shape, in contrast to other ankylosaurs. Mymoorapelta is also one of the few ankylosaurs with 4 sacral ribs, a trait it shares with only 3 other taxa. The caudal (tail) vertebrae of Mymoorapelta and other nodosaurids are longer than they are wide, and dorsoventrally (top-bottom) flattened with a reduction of the neural spines when compared to the anterior caudals. The haemal spine takes on a rounded, hatchet-shaped appearance. The prezygapophyses are short and extend past the anterior edge of the centra by only 25% or less. This trait is only present in nodosaurids and basal anklosaurs, but in taxa like Liaoningosaurus and more derived ankylosaurids they overlap by at least 50% of its length, making them more fused together. Mymoorapelta lacks tail club handles or tail club knobs, as in other nodosaurids, giving them less ankylosis. The transition from anterior to posterior caudal vertebrae is less abrupt compared to ankylosaurids, which have an abrupt transition at the midcaudals, the lack of this abrupt transition would give the tail more flexibility, which is unique to nodosaurids when compared to the strongly fused tails of ankylosaurids. The vertebral centra and neural spines are much shorter when compared to Gargoyleosaurus. Mymoorapelta, like other dinosaurs, preserves chevrons along the undersides of the caudal vertebrae, and just like in many other ankylosaurs, the chevrons are strongly fused to the lower posterior part of the centra, and the haemal arches extend parallel to the elongate vertebral centra. The extension of these arches is greater anteriorly than posteriorly, forming a continuous bony structure underneath the haemal canal. One of the preserved chevrons measures 9.1 centimetres (3.6 in) and is strongly recurved posteriorly. The scapular spine forms a vertical ridge opposite the glenoid in Mymoorapelta, as in other ankylosaurids and in an indeterminate ankylosaur scapula found in the nearby Dry Mesa Quarry. In the pelvic region, Mymoorapelta displays an intermediate between some features of basal and more derived ankylosaurs. The ischium is bent as in other nodosaurids and polacanthines, indicating that a straight ischium is a derived feature in ankylosaurids. In the forelimbs, the ulna has a broad, massive olecranon process that preserves rugosities. The coronoid process develops about 1/3rd of the way down the ulna’s shaft, compared to 1/4th of the way down in taxa like Stegopelta and Polacanthus. In the pes (foot), the genus preserves short, wide metapodials with long phalanges, with the distal phalanges looking triangular and pointed in side view, contrary to other nodosaurids like Edmontonia. ### Armor A prominent feature of Mymoorapelta was its armor, which mostly consisted of large spiked osteoderms (bony armor) protruding from the lateral and dorsal sides of the body. These have not been found in articulation, so their exact placement on the body is unknown, though their position can be surmised based on the well preserved skeletons of other nodosaurids and ankylosaurs. In Mymoorapelta, there are five different preserved armor types: elongated spines with a large, hollow base; thin triangular plates with a narrow, asymmetrical base; small bladelike spines with a rounded, solid base; isolated, flat, keeled scutes; and scutes fused into a single plate of armor. The large spine is assumed to have extended from the base of the neck outward laterally, with the point curving posteriorly. Evidence from Borealopelta also supports the extension of the spike by a large keratin sheath. The aforementioned thin triangular plates, of which eight are known, are preserved similarly to those in Polacanthus further down the body. It was theorized by Kirkland and Carpenter that the largest of these plates were attached to the proximal part of the tail, and protruded laterally along the sides of the body. A specimen of Mymoorapelta preserves one of these at 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. A single, small triangular plate was reported in 1994 and it preserves a thin, bladelike morphology, though its position is unknown. Twelve of the previously mentioned keeled, flat scutes were recovered from a specimen of Mymoorapelta in 1994, they preserve a keeled oval shape and an external surface that bears uniform, weak pitting, and a privation of neurovascular grooves (the system that controls blood flow and homeostasis) and foramina (small openings within bones). In the internal structure of the scutes, half of the space is made up of trabecular bone, while the rest is made up of thick external and basal cortices. Lastly, a small fragment of dermal armor preserves a rosette (a large osteoderm surrounded by smaller osteoderms, forming a flower-like arrangement) formed by a large central scute surrounded on all sides by smaller ossicles. This piece of armor comes from the sacral shield, which is a large plate of small, connected armor across the sacrum and pelvis for protection. A more complete sacral shield was preserved in the Cactus Park specimen, with estimates placing the complete sacral shield at 70 centimetres (28 in) in width for a pelvis that is 50 centimetres (20 in) wide. The sacral shield also preserves two middle rows of larger scutes, with each row preserving seven. Mymoorapelta preserves a category 2 sacral shield, which is characterized by bosses (keeled osteoderms) that border tubercles (elevated knobs) as well as rosettes of co-ossified osteoderms. This category of sacral shield is mostly found in the "polacanthids", but the status of this group is generally unstable, and the trait is also known in some ankylosaurids like Shamosaurus. The category 2 shield is most similar to that of category 3, though the latter preserves polygonal osteoderms that lack rosettes. However, Victoria Arbour et al. (2011) suggested that category 1 shields could simply be an ontogenetic (growth) stage of category 2, as they have very similar morphology but are not co-ossified, which is an ontogenetic trait present in extant armored animals like armadillos and alligators. The current categorisation of sacral shields into distinct categories finds its origins in a 2011 paper by Arbour, Michael E. Burns and Philip J. Currie, and gives three distinct characteristics, one for each of the three categories. Category 1 shields are characterized by non-coosified osteoderms, category 2 shields by coossified rosettes, and category 3 by uniformly sized coossified polygons. On the upper surface of the back and tail, the skin was covered in small osteoderms, which are sometimes referred to as ossicles, in-between larger plates of armor as inferred by Sauropelta, though ossicles themselves are not known confidently outside of the sacral shield in Mymoorapelta. The armor of Mymoorapelta differs from that of Gargoyleosaurus in that the former has solid conical armor compared to the thin-walled armor of the latter. ## Paleobiology ### Diet and feeding Mymoorapelta was a low-browsing herbivore like its relatives, likely feeding on the ferns, cycads, and conifers that dominated the flora of its time due to the lack of complex grasses in the Jurassic. Nodosaurids like Mymoorapelta had narrow snouts, an adaptation seen today in animals that are selective browsers as opposed to the wide muzzles of grazers. In ankylosaurs, the Jurassic and mid-Cretaceous forms with narrow and pointed muzzles were apparently the most selective feeders, akin to extant mammalian browsers. This is in stark contrast to the later ankylosaurs that were adapted to bulk feeding on food with lower nutritional value. The preservation of complete a hyoid in taxa like the ankylosaurid Pinacosaurus and the nodosaurid Edmontonia demonstrate that ankylosaurs had fleshy, muscular tongues that could have assisted with feeding on plants that grew low to the ground. Tongue protrusion and prehension is not confidently known, but lingual food manipulation could have been used in later ankylosaurids to crop food, like in giraffes. The preservation of cheek plates in Edmontonia and Panoplosaurus provide evidence for fleshy cheeks and chewing, with the cheek covering the tooth rows both for defense and to prevent food loss when eating. Tooth occlusion is not directly preserved in Mymoorapelta or its close relative Gargoyleosaurus, but it has been found in other nodosaurids from the Cretaceous. The earliest evidence of nodosaurid dental occlusion is in Sauropelta, which demonstrated a basic motion, in that the power strokes moved vertically. In contrast to later nodosaurids, tooth-to-tooth contact was incidental or local when present and a biphasial jaw mechanism was lacking in both Mymoorapelta and Gargoyleosaurus. Ankylosaurs generally demonstrate more variable wear patterns than the contemporary ceratopsids and hadrosaurids of the Cretaceous. Even though ankylosaurs may not have fed on fibrous and woody plants, they may have had a varied diet which included tough leaves and pulpy fruits. ### Habitat preference Due to competition with Diplodocid sauropods, Mymoorapelta seems more adapted for open environments. Mymoorapelta has a very limited known distribution, having only been found at two sites in Western Colorado, in addition to the Hanksville-Burpee and potential Albuquerque specimens. This could be due to Mymoorapelta preferring to feed on a specific variety of plant, constricting its possible distribution. The Hanksville-Burpee specimen's taphonomy (how and where it decomposed to end up as a fossil) suggests that the individual had died inland, contrary to the coastal distribution previously inferred for nodosaurids. ### Limb movements Reconstructions of ankylosaur forelimb musculature made by Coombs in 1978 suggest that the forelimbs bore the majority of the animal's weight and that they were adapted for high force delivery on the front feet, possibly for food gathering. In addition, Coombs suggested that ankylosaurs may have been capable diggers, though the hoof-like structure of the manus would have limited fossorial capibilities. Ankylosaurs were likely to have been slow-moving and sluggish animals, though they may have been capable of quick movements when necessary. Mymoorapelta preserves very short limbs with even shorter distal limb elements, which is in contrast to the longer distal limb elements known in other nodosaurids but similar to the condition found in ankylosaurids and Polacanthus. ### Armor and tail The scientific literature mostly considers the armor of ankylosauroids to have been used for defensive purposes, mainly to fend off any attacking carnivores. The tails of these animals have a complex evolutionary history, with basal taxa like Mymoorapelta possessing a flexible tail with pointed osteoderms on either side and on top. The aforementioned flexibility of the tail would allow for a greater range of motion than the stiff tails of later ankylosaurids and nodosaurids. It is thought that the tail could also have been used in defense against predators, though more recent findings by Arbour et al. in 2022 also consider the possibility that the tails of ankylosaurids were used for intraspecific combat and might have primarily evolved to fill a function here, which might indicate a similar use in more basal taxa like Mymoorapelta and Gargoyleosaurus. ## Classification Mymoorapelta is one of the basalmost known genera of Nodosauridae, an extinct family of medium to large, heavily built, quadrupedal, herbivorous dinosaurs which possess small, leaf-shaped teeth. The clade was named in 1890 by Othniel Charles Marsh, who designated the Cretaceous genus Nodosaurus as the type genus based on the heavy dermal armor, solid bones, large forelimbs, and ungulate feet it preserves. Nodosaurids first evolved in the Late Jurassic (ca. 155 mya), with Mymoorapelta and the similarly sized Gargoyleosaurus being early members of the evolutionary radiation which would continue into the Cretaceous in accordance with Cope's Rule. The nodosaurids went extinct in the Late Cretaceous (ca. 66 mya) during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event along with the other non-avian dinosaurs. Nodosaurids are situated within the group Euankylosauria, together with the closely related family Ankylosauridae. Nodosaurids differ from ankylosaurids in the fact that ankylosaurids evolved more recently, during the Early Cretaceous, and in several distinct anatomical characteristics; most notably the lack of mace-like tail clubs, with nodosaurs having osteoderm-lined, flexible tails instead, and the possession of sacral shields. Many nodosaurids also had spikes projecting outwards from their shoulders, and two armored half-rings on their neck, among other traits. A third proposed family, Polacanthidae, was erected for several genera that were similar to nodosaurids but had more fragile armor and a different distribution. However, it has seen little support from phylogenetic analyses in recent years and is in a state of flux. Euankylosauria encompasses all members of Ankylosauria except for the clade Parankylosauria, which is a smaller group known exclusively from a few taxa that lived in the Cretaceous of Gondwana, rather than the euankylosaurs, who were endemic to Laurasia.When Mymoorapelta was originally named, Kirkland and Carpenter placed the taxon as a potential nodosaurid, though at that time there were only a few taxa to compare the material to. The phylogenetic placement was changed in 1998 when it was considered closer to the European polacanthids, though this affiliation has been doubted. Matthew Vickaryous et al. (2004) considered the genus Ankylosauria incertae sedis, while a cladistic analysis performed by Thompson et al. (2011) suggests that Mymoorapelta is a basal nodosaurid as originally theorized by Kirkland and Carpenter. A 2010 phylogenetic analysis utilizing undescribed material resulted with Mymoorapelta as the sister taxon to Gargoyleosaurus in their own group outside of Polacanthidae, Nodosauridae, and Ankylosauridae. In a 2018 phylogenetic analysis by Rivera-Sylva and colleagues which has been reproduced below, Mymoorapelta is recovered as a basal nodosaurid in a clade with Sauroplites and Dongyangopelta that represents the most basal group within Nodosauridae, while Gargoyleosaurus is recovered as more derived, further proving their distinction. Alternatively, Mymoorapelta may also be an ankylosaur outside both Nodosauridae and Ankylosauridae. Below at left is a reproduced phylogenetic analysis from Soto-Acuña (2021), which uses a modified version of the matrix from Arbour & Currie (2016) with Nodosaurinae and Ankylosaurinae collapsed for simplicity. Below at right is a 2018 phylogenetic analysis by Rivera-Sylva and colleagues, with Panoplosaurini and Struthiosaurini having been collapsed for simplicity. ## Paleoecology The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, to \~150 ma at the top, placing it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Upper Jurassic period. The paleoenvironment of the Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons, and flat floodplains. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of conifers, tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains. The Mygatt-Moore Quarry where Mymoorapelta was first found has been dated between 151.89 and 152.47 million years old, firmly placing it within the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation. The broader paleoenvironment of the area has been interpreted as a riparian (riverine) ecosystem with abundant flora and a high water table, with the quarry itself having been interpreted as an attritional accumulation of dinosaur fossils at a seasonal waterhole. This has allowed it to become one of the most fossil abundant sites in the United States, with the site notably preserving plants, pollen, coprolites, and even skin impressions preserved alongside dinosaur fossils. The quarry's abundant plant fossils include horsetails, cycads, Gingkoales, Czekanowskiales, and many different Coniferales represented by leaf, wood, and pollen fossils. Invertebrates represented in the quarry include gastropods and, most notably, fossils of fossil crayfish. As for vertebrates, three different kinds of fish have been described from the quarry based on fossils of astonishing quality, including Hulettia hawesi and Morrolepis schaefferi. The most common fossils from the quarry are dinosaurian in nature. Allosaurus, a large carnivorous theropod, and Apatosaurus, a large diplodocid sauropod, are the two most common dinosaurs in the quarry, with Mymoorapelta being the third most common at the site. Fossils of several other dinosaurs are known from the quarry, including the theropod Ceratosaurus, the sauropods Camarasaurus and Diplodocus, and potentially the small ornithischian Nanosaurus. Remains of other vertebrate groups like crocodyliforms and turtles are rare in the quarry, indicating the lack of continuous standing water in the form of lakes or ponds. Fossils of Mymoorapelta and the theropod Allosaurus that preserve bite marks have been described from the Mygatt-Moore Quarry by Stephanie Drumheller et al. (2020), alongside other bones found with feeding traces. Unlike the others, the fossils of Mymoorapelta and Allosaurus preserve striations that, when measured to determine denticle (serration) width, produced tooth and body size extrapolations greater than any known specimen of Allosaurus or Ceratosaurus, the two large predators of the quarry that are known from osteological remains. The extrapolations are instead coherent either with an unusually large specimen of Allosaurus, or a separate large taxon like Torvosaurus or Saurophaganax, neither of which preserves fossil material within the quarry. The result either increases the known diversity of the site based on ichnological evidence alone, or represents powerful evidence of cannibalism in Allosaurus. Based on the position and nutrient value associated with the various skeletal elements with bite marks, it is predicted that Mymoorapelta was either predated upon or scavenged shortly after death. ## See also - Gargoyleosaurus - Gastonia - Polacanthus - Timeline of ankylosaur research
21,191,897	Let's Get Crazy (Hannah Montana song)	1,169,760,033	null	[ "2009 songs", "Dance-rock songs", "Hannah Montana songs", "Songs from television series", "Songs written by Miriam Nervo", "Songs written by Olivia Nervo", "Songs written by Stefanie Ridel", "Songs written by Vitamin C (singer)", "Walt Disney Records singles" ]	"Let's Get Crazy" is a song by American singer–songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus, performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana. It was released to Hannah Montana: The Movie and its soundtrack. The song is also included on the Hannah Montana 3 soundtrack. A karaoke version is available in Disney's Karaoke Series: Hannah Montana 3. The song is musically dance-rock based. Lyrically, the track speaks about having fun and cutting loose. The song received critical success and garnered average commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries, compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana. This includes Canada and the United States. The song reached its highest international peak in the Canadian Hot 100, at number twenty-six. It therefore became Cyrus' highest charting song in Canada, as Montana. The song never received an official music video, but three promotional music videos were, of which two aired on Disney Channel. Cyrus promoted the song through several venues, including a performance on her second headlining tour, the Wonder World Tour. ## Background The song is associated with dance-rock with a slight country twang. Electric guitars and synths are also used. Near the start, the song begins to make a beat of paparazzi's flashbulbs. It is set in common time with a moderated tempo of 120 beats per minute. The song is written in the key of A minor. Cyrus' vocals span two octaves, from A<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>5</sub>. The song has the following chord progression, A5—C5—D5. The song was written by Colleen Fitzpatrick known as Vitamin C, Michael Kotch, Dave Derby, Michael “Smidi” Smith, Stefanie Ridel, Mim Nervo and Liv Nervo. The song's lyrics center around a party and having fun, once referencing to leading a double life with, "You see me on the cover of your magazines, things are always different than the way they seem." ## Critical reception The song received generally positive reviews from critics. Warren Truitt of About.com stated "Let's Get Crazy" was a mirror of Gwen Stefani's musical style. Allmusic reviewer Heather Phares described the song negatively, as a "fizzy caricature of pop", drawing away from the original musical influences by Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Avril Lavigne. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly stated that the song was a "demographic" because of it is "electric guitar-heavy confection". Owen Gleiberman, also from Entertainment Weekly drew attention to the line "Everyone can rock out like a superstar!", saying it was "her mantra". Gleiberman added that the song a "freeze-dried [version of] Avril Lavigne". When reviewing Cyrus' Wonder World Tour, Jim Harrington, writing for The Oakland Tribune, described "Let's Get Crazy" as "fun". ## Chart performance The song received mediocre airplay due to it not being released for mainstream radio and only Radio Disney. However, the song debuted at number 33 on Digital Songs which led to it making into the Billboard Hot 100, for the week ending April 11, 2009. The song debuted and peaked at number 57 in the Hot 100 and spent a total of three non-consecutive weeks on the chart. On the same week, the song debuted and peaked at number 26 in the Canadian Hot 100 due to its number 11 position on Canadian Digital Song Sales, becoming Cyrus' highest charting effort in Canada credited to Hannah Montana. The song then ascended and descended several times until falling off the chart for the week ending May 9. ## Music video The song's first promotional music video, directed by Peter Chelsom, is an excerpt from Hannah Montana: The Movie that was premiered on Disney Channel on January 19, 2009. The video begins with Montana entering Lilly Truscott's, portrayed by Emily Osment, Sweet sixteen at the Santa Monica Pier. Montana is attempting to explain the scenario to Osment's character, saying, "I'll make it up to you, I promise." Then Truscott (Osment) says, "You will never make this up to me." Montana is being overwhelmed by fans, which proceed to lift her to a stage and perform the song. Throughout most of the video Cyrus' character performs the song with background dancers, a band, and Steve Rushton on the electric guitar. In the conclusion, Rico Suave, portrayed by Moises Arias, emerges from a massive birthday cake that explodes on the crowd. A second promotional music video for "Let's Get Crazy" was filmed as promotion for the soundtrack. The video was released in March 2009 on Disney.com and features Cyrus singing in a recording studio. It was a part of a series of promotional videos entitled The Miley Sessions. The song was also featured in the theatrical trailer of the film. ## Live performances Cyrus, dressed as Montana, premiered "Let's Get Crazy", along with eight other songs, at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana, which was set on October 10, 2008 in Irvine, California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre. The performance began with Montana, in a T-shirt with a pink star, zebra-patterned skirt, tennis shoes and metallic jacket, coming out from behind a giant mirror ball. She then roamed the stage singing the number. The performance was later premiered on July 1, 2009 on Disney Channel to promote Hannah Montana 3. Proceeded by "Fly on the Wall" and succeeded by "Hoedown Throwdown", "Let's Get Crazy" is one of the songs on the set list of Cyrus' second headlining concert tour, the Wonder World Tour. The song is one of two Hannah Montana songs that she performed as herself. The performance featured Cyrus wearing white tutu-like dress and an Asian culture-themed video playing on a couple of overhead screens. ## Charts
2,699,343	When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd	1,168,945,244	Poem by Walt Whitman on the death of Abraham Lincoln	[ "1865 poems", "Abraham Lincoln in art", "American poems", "Assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "Cultural history of the American Civil War", "Poetry by Walt Whitman", "Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln" ]	"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" is a long poem written by American poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892) as an elegy to President Abraham Lincoln. It was written in the summer of 1865 during a period of profound national mourning in the aftermath of the president's assassination on 14 April of that year. The poem, written in free verse in 206 lines, uses many of the literary techniques associated with the pastoral elegy. Despite being an expression to the fallen president, Whitman neither mentions Lincoln by name nor discusses the circumstances of his death in the poem. Instead, he uses a series of rural and natural imagery including the symbols of the lilacs, a drooping star in the western sky (Venus), and the hermit thrush, and he employs the traditional progression of the pastoral elegy in moving from grief toward an acceptance and knowledge of death. The poem also addresses the pity of war through imagery vaguely referencing the American Civil War (1861–1865), which effectively ended only days before the assassination. Written ten years after publishing the first edition of Leaves of Grass (1855), "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" reflects a maturing of Whitman's poetic vision from a drama of identity and romantic exuberance that has been tempered by his emotional experience of the American Civil War. Whitman included the poem as part of a quickly written sequel to a collection of poems addressing the war that was being printed at the time of Lincoln's death. These poems, collected under the titles Drum-Taps and Sequel to Drum-Taps, range in emotional context from "excitement to woe, from distant observation to engagement, from belief to resignation" and "more concerned with history than the self, more aware of the precariousness of America's present and future than of its expansive promise." First published in autumn 1865, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd"—along with 42 other poems from Drum-Taps and Sequel to Drum-Taps—was absorbed into Leaves of Grass beginning with the fourth edition, published in 1867. The poem is one of several that Whitman wrote on Lincoln's death. Although Whitman did not consider the poem to be among his best, it has been compared in both effect and quality to several acclaimed works of English literature, including elegies such as John Milton's Lycidas (1637) and Percy Bysshe Shelley's Adonais (1821). ## Writing history and background In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Whitman established his reputation as a poet with the release of Leaves of Grass. Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic and developed a free verse style inspired by the cadences of the King James Bible. The small volume, first released in 1855, was considered controversial by some, with critics attacking Whitman's verse as "obscene." However, it attracted praise from American Transcendentalist essayist, lecturer, and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, which contributed to fostering significant interest in Whitman's work. At the start of the American Civil War, Whitman moved from New York to Washington, D.C., where he obtained work in a series of government offices, first with the Army Paymaster's Office and later with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. He volunteered in army hospitals as a "hospital missionary." His wartime experiences informed his poetry, which matured into reflections on death and youth, the brutality of war, and patriotism, and offered stark images and vignettes of the war. Whitman's brother, George Washington Whitman, had been taken prisoner in Virginia on 30 September 1864, and was held for five months in Libby Prison, a Confederate prisoner-of-war camp near Richmond, Virginia. On 24 February 1865, George was granted a furlough to return home because of his poor health, and Walt Whitman travelled to his mother's home in New York to visit his brother. While visiting Brooklyn, Whitman contracted to have his collection of Civil War poems, Drum-Taps, published. The Civil War had ended, and a few days later, on 14 April 1865, President Abraham Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth while attending the performance of a play at Ford's Theatre. Lincoln died the following morning. Whitman was at his mother's home when he heard the news of the president's death; in his grief he stepped outside the door to the yard, where the lilacs were blooming. Many years later, Whitman recalled the weather and conditions on the day that Lincoln died in Specimen Days, where he wrote: > I remember where I was stopping at the time, the season being advanced, there were many lilacs in full bloom. By one of those caprices that enter and give tinge to events without being at all a part of them, I find myself always reminded of great tragedy of that day by the sight and odor of these blossoms. It never fails. Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated, and his death had a long-lasting emotional impact in the United States. During the three weeks after his death, millions of Americans participated in a nationwide public pageant of grief, including a state funeral, and the 1,700-mile (2,700 km) westward journey of the funeral train from Washington, through New York, to Springfield, Illinois. Lincoln's public funeral in Washington was held on 19 April 1865. Whitman biographer Jerome Loving believes that Whitman did not attend the public ceremonies for Lincoln in Washington, as he did not leave Brooklyn for the nation's capital until 21 April. Likewise, Whitman could not have attended ceremonies held in New York after the arrival of the funeral train, as they were observed on 24 April. Loving thus suggests that Whitman's descriptions of the funeral procession, public events, and the long train journey may have been "based on second-hand information." He does concede that Whitman in his journey from New York to Washington may have passed the Lincoln funeral train on its way to New York—possibly in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Whitman may have recalled the imagery of lilacs from his earliest home, now the Walt Whitman Birthplace State Historic Site, which still boasts lilacs blooming in the farmhouse dooryard. ## Publication history On 1 April 1865, Whitman had signed a contract with Brooklyn printer Peter Eckler to publish Drum-Taps, a 72-page collection of 43 poems in which Whitman addressed the emotional experiences of the Civil War. Drum-Taps was being printed at the time of Lincoln's assassination two weeks later. Upon learning of the president's death, Whitman delayed the printing to insert a quickly-written poem, "Hush'd Be the Camps To-Day", into the collection. The poem's subtitle indicates it was written on 19 April 1865—four days after Lincoln's death. Whitman was unsatisfied with the poem and resolved to write a fitting poem mourning Lincoln's death. Upon returning to Washington, Whitman contracted with Gibson Brothers to publish a pamphlet of eighteen poems that included two works directly addressing the assassination—"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" and "O Captain! My Captain!". He intended to include the pamphlet with copies of Drum-Taps. The 24-page collection was titled Sequel to Drum-Taps and bore the subtitle When Lilacs Last in the Door-Yard Bloom'd and other poems. The eponymous poem filled the first nine pages. In October, after the pamphlet was printed, he returned to Brooklyn to have them integrated with Drum-Taps. Whitman added the poems from Drum-Taps and Sequel to Drum-Taps as a supplement to the fourth edition of Leaves of Grass printed in 1867 by William E. Chapin. Whitman revised his collection Leaves of Grass throughout his life, and each additional edition included newer works, his previously published poems often with revisions or minor emendations, and reordering of the sequence of the poems. The first edition (1855) was a small pamphlet of twelve poems. At his death four decades later, the collection included around 400 poems. For the fourth edition (1867)—in which "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" had first been included—Leaves of Grass had been expanded to a collection of 236 poems. University of Nebraska literature professor Kenneth Price and University of Iowa English professor Ed Folsom describe the 1867 edition as "the most carelessly printed and most chaotic of all the editions" citing errata and conflicts with typesetters. Price and Folsom note that book had five different formats—some including the Drum-Taps poems; some without. "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" and his other three Lincoln Poems "O Captain! My Captain", "Hush'd be the Camps To-day", "This Dust Was Once the Man" (1871) were included in subsequent editions of Leaves of Grass, although in Whitman's 1871 and 1881 editions it was separated from Drum-Taps. In the 1871 edition, Whitman's four Lincoln poems were listed as a cluster titled "President Lincoln's Burial Hymn". In the 1881 edition, this cluster was renamed "Memories of President Lincoln". The collection was not substantially revised after this edition—although later editions saw new poems added. Leaves of Grass has never been out of print since its first publication in 1855, and "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" is among several poems from the collection that appear frequently in poetry anthologies. ## Analysis and interpretation ### Structure "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" is a first-person monologue written in free verse. It is a long poem, 206 lines in length (207 according to some sources), that is cited as a prominent example of the elegy form and of narrative poetry. In its final form, published in 1881 and republished to the present, the poem is divided into sixteen sections referred to as cantos or strophes that range in length from 5 or 6 lines to as many as 53 lines. The poem does not possess a consistent metrical pattern, and the length of each line varies from seven syllables to as many as twenty syllables. Literary scholar Kathy Rugoff says that "the poem...has a broad scope and incorporates a strongly characterized speaker, a complex narrative action and an array of highly lyrical images." The first version of "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" that appeared in 1865 was arranged into 21 strophes. It was included with this structure in the fourth edition of Leaves of Grass that was published in 1867. By 1871, Whitman had combined the strophes numbered 19 and 20 into one, and the poem had 20 in total. However, for the seventh edition (1881) of Leaves of Grass, the poem's final seven strophes of his original text were combined into the final three strophes of the 16-strophe poem that is familiar to readers today. For the 1881 edition, the original strophes numbered 14, 15, and 16 were combined into the revised 14th strophe; strophes numbered 17 and 18 were combined into the revised 15th strophe. The material from the former strophes numbered 19, 20 and 21 in 1865 were combined for the revised 16th and final strophe in 1881. According to literary critic and Harvard University professor Helen Vendler, the poem "builds up to its longest and most lyrical moment in canto 14, achieves its moral climax in canto 15, and ends with a coda of 'retrievements out of the night' in canto 16." ### Narrative While Whitman's "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" is an elegy to the fallen president, it does not mention him by name or the circumstances surrounding his death. This is not atypical; Whitman biographer Jerome Loving states that "traditionally elegies do not mention the name of the deceased in order to allow the lament to have universal application". According to Rugoff, the poem's narrative is given by an unnamed speaker, adding: > The speaker expresses his sorrow over the death of 'him I love' and reveals his growing consciousness of his own sense of the meaning of death and the consolation he paradoxically finds in death itself. The narrative action depicts the journey of Lincoln's coffin without mentioning the president by name and portrays visions of 'the slain soldiers of war' without mentioning either the Civil War or its causes. The identifications are assumed to be superfluous, even tactless; no American could fail to understand what war was meant. Finally, in the 'carol of the bird,' the speaker recounts the song in which death is invoked, personified and celebrated. According to Vendler, the speaker's first act is to break off a sprig from the lilac bush (line 17) that he subsequently lays on Lincoln's coffin during the funeral procession (line 44–45): > > Here, coffin that slowly passes, I give you my sprig of lilac. ### Style and techniques Whitman's biographers explain that Whitman's verse is influenced by the aesthetics, musicality and cadences of phrasing and passages in the King James Bible. Whitman employs several techniques of parallelism—a device common to Biblical poetry. While Whitman does not use end rhyme, he employs internal rhyme in passages throughout the poem. Although Whitman's free verse does not use a consistent pattern of meter or rhyme, the disciplined use of other poetic techniques and patterns create a sense of structure. His poetry achieves a sense of cohesive structure and beauty through the internal patterns of sound, diction, specific word choice, and effect of association. The poem uses many of the literary techniques associated with the pastoral elegy, a meditative lyric genre derived from the poetic tradition of Greek and Roman antiquity. Literary scholar Harold Bloom writes that "Elegies often have been used for political purposes, as a means of healing the nation." A pastoral elegy uses rural imagery to address the poet's grief—a "poetic response to death" that seeks "to transmute the fact of death into an imaginatively acceptable form, to reaffirm what death has called into question—the integrity of the pastoral image of contentment." An elegy seeks, also, to "attempt to preserve the meaning of an individual's life as something of positive value when that life itself has ceased." A typical pastoral elegy contains several features, including "a procession of mourners, the decoration of a hearse or grave, a list of flowers, the changing of the seasons, and the association of the dead person with a star or other permanent natural object." This includes a discussion of the death, expressions of mourning, grief, anger, and consolation, and the poet's simultaneous acceptance of death's inevitability and hope for immortality. According to literary scholar James Perrin Warren, Whitman's long, musical lines rely on three important techniques—syntactic parallelism, repetition, and cataloguing. Repetition is a device used by an orator or poet to lend persuasive emphasis to the sentiment, and "create a driving rhythm by the recurrence of the same sound, it can also intensify the emotion of the poem". It is described as a form of parallelism that resembles a litany. To achieve these techniques, Whitman employs many literary and rhetorical devices common to classical poetry and to the pastoral elegy to frame his emotional response. According to Warren, Whitman "uses anaphora, the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of lines; epistrophe, the repetition of the same words or phrase at the end of lines, and symploce (the combined use of anaphora and epistrophe), the repetition of both initial and terminal words. According to Raja Sharma, Whitman's use of anaphora forces the reader "to inhale several bits of text without pausing for breath, and this breathlessness contributes to the incantatory quality". This sense of incantation in the poem and for the framework for the expansive lyricism that scholars have called "cataloguing". Whitman's poetry features many examples of cataloguing where he both employs parallelism and repetition to build rhythm. Scholar Betty Erkkila calls Whitman's cataloguing the "overarching figure of Leaves of Grass, and wrote: > His catalogues work by juxtaposition, image association, and by metonymy to suggest the interrelationship and identity of all things. By basing his verse in the single, end-stopped line at the same time that he fuses this line—through various linking devices—with the larger structure of the whole, Whitman weaves an overall pattern of unity in diversity. According to Daniel Hoffman, Whitman "is a poet whose hallmark is anaphora". Hoffman describes the use of the anaphoric verse as "a poetry of beginnings" and that Whitman's use of its repetition and similarity at the inception of each line is "so necessary as the norm against which all variations and departures are measured...what follows is varied, the parallels and the ensuing words, phrases, and clauses lending the verse its delicacy, its charm, its power". Further, the device allows Whitman "to vary the tempo or feeling, to build up climaxes or drop off in innuendoes" Scholar Stanley Coffman analyzed Whitman's catalogue technique through the application of Ralph Waldo Emerson's comment that such lists are suggestive of the metamorphosis of "an imaginative and excited mind". According to Coffman, Emerson adds that because "the universe is the externalization of the soul, and its objects symbols, manifestations of the one reality behind them, Words which name objects also carry with them the whole sense of nature and are themselves to be understood as symbols. Thus a list of words (objects) will be effective in giving to the mind, under certain conditions, a heightened sense not only of reality but of the variety and abundance of its manifestations." ## Themes and symbolism ### A trinity of symbols: "Lilac and star and bird twined" Whitman's poem features three prominent motifs or images, referred to as a "trinity" of symbols, which biographer David S. Reynolds describes as autobiographical: 1. the lilacs represent the poet's perennial love for Lincoln; 2. the fallen star (Venus) is Lincoln; and 3. the hermit thrush represents death, or its chant. #### "Lilac blooming perennial" According to Price and Folsom, Whitman's encounter with the lilacs in bloom in his mother's yard caused the flowers to become "viscerally bound to the memory of Lincoln's death." According to Gregory Eiselein: > Lilacs represent love, spring, life, the earthly realm, rebirth, cyclical time, a Christ figure (and thus consolation, redemption, and spiritual rebirth), a father figure, the cause of grief, and an instrument of sensual consolation. The lilacs can represent all of these meanings or none of them. They could just be lilacs. #### "Great star early droop'd in the western sky" In the weeks before Lincoln's assassination, Whitman observed the planet Venus shining brightly in the evening sky. He later wrote of the observation, "Nor earth nor sky ever knew spectacles of superber beauty than some of the nights lately here. The western star, Venus, in the earlier hours of evening, has never been so large, so clear; it seems as if it told something, as if it held rapport indulgent with humanity, with us Americans" In the poem, Whitman describes the disappearance of the star: > > O powerful, western, fallen star! O shades of night! O moody, tearful night! O great star disappear'd! O the black murk that hides the star! (lines 7–9) Literary scholar Patricia Lee Yongue identifies Lincoln as the falling star. Further, she contrasts the dialectic of the "powerful western falling star" with a "nascent spring" and describes it as a metaphor for Lincoln's death meant to "evoke powerful, conflicting emotions in the poet which transport him back to that first and continuously remembered rebellion signaling the death of his own innocence." Biographer Betsy Erkkila writes that Whitman's star is "the fallen star of America itself", and characterizes Whitman's association as "politicopoetic myth to counter Booth's cry on the night of the assassination—Sic Semper Tyrannis—and the increasingly popular image of Lincoln as a dictatorial leader bent on abrogating rather than preserving basic American liberties." The star, seemingly immortal, is associated with Lincoln's vision for America—a vision of reconciliation and a national unity or identity that could only survive the president's death if Americans resolved to continue pursuing it. However, Vendler says that the poem dismisses the idea of a personal immortality through the symbol of the star, saying: "the star sinks, and it is gone forever." #### "A shy and hidden bird" In the summer of 1865, Whitman's friend, John Burroughs (1837–1921), an aspiring nature writer, had returned to Washington to his position at the Treasury department after a long vacation in the woods. Burroughs recalled that Whitman had been "deeply interested in what I tell him of the hermit thrush, and he says he largely used the information I have given him in one of his principal poems". Burroughs described the song as "the finest sound in nature...perhaps more of an evening than a morning hymn...a voice of that calm, sweet solemnity one attains to in his best moments." Whitman took copious notes of his conversations with Burroughs on the subject, writing of the hermit thrush that it "sings oftener after sundown...is very secluded...likes shaded, dark places...His song is a hymn...in swamps—is very shy...never sings near the farm houses—never in the settlement—is the bird of the solemn primal woods & of Nature pure & holy." Burroughs published an essay in May 1865 in which he described the hermit thrush as "quite a rare bird, of very shy and secluded habits" found "only in the deepest and most remote forests, usually in damp and swampy localities". Loving notes that the hermit thrush was "a common bird on Whitman's native Long Island". Biographer Justin Kaplan draws a connection between Whitman's notes and the lines in the poem: > > In the swamp in secluded recesses, A shy and hidden bird is warbling a song. > > > > Solitary the thrush The hermit withdrawn to himself, avoiding the settlements, Sings by himself a song. (lines 18–22) According to Reynolds, Whitman's first-person narrator describes himself as "me powerless-O helpless soul of me" and identifies with the hermit thrush a "'shy and hidden bird' singing of death with a "bleeding throat'". The hermit thrush is seen as an intentional alter ego for Whitman, and its song as the "source of the poet's insight." Miller writes that "The hermit thrush is an American bird, and Whitman made it his own in his Lincoln elegy. We might even take the 'dry grass singing' as an oblique allusion to Leaves of Grass." Scholar James Edwin Miller states that "Whitman's hermit thrush becomes the source of his reconciliation to Lincoln's death, to all death, as the "strong deliveress" Killingsworth writes that "the poet retreats to the swamp to mourn the death of the beloved president to the strains of the solitary hermit thrush singing in the dark pines...the sacred places resonate with the mood of the poet, they offer renewal and revived inspiration, they return him to the rhythms of the earth with tides" and replaces the sense of time. ## Legacy ### Influence on Eliot's The Waste Land Scholars believe that T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) drew from Whitman's elegy in fashioning his poem The Waste Land (1922). In the poem, Eliot prominently mentions lilacs and April in its opening lines, and later passages about "dry grass singing" and "where the hermit-thrush sings in the pine trees." Eliot told author Ford Madox Ford that Whitman and his own lines adorned by lilacs and the hermit thrush were the poems' only "good lines". Cleo McNelly Kearns writes that "Whitman's poem gives us not only motifs and images of The Waste Land...but its very tone and pace, the steady andante which makes of both poems a walking meditation." While Eliot acknowledged that the passage in The Waste Land beginning "Who is the third who walks always beside you" was a reference to an early Antarctic expedition of explorer Ernest Shackleton, scholars have seen connections to the appearance of Jesus to two of his disciples walking on the Road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–35). However, Alan Shucard indicates a possible link to Whitman, and a passage in the fourteenth strophe "with the knowledge of death as walking one side of me, / And the thought of death close-walking the other side of me, / And I in the middle with companions" (lines 121–123). Beginning in the 1950s, scholars and critics starting with John Peter began to question whether Eliot's poem were an elegy to "a male friend." English poet and Eliot biographer Stephen Spender, whom Eliot published for Faber & Faber in the 1920s, speculated it was an elegy, perhaps to Jean Jules Verdenal (1890–1915), a French medical student with literary inclinations who died in 1915 during the Gallipoli Campaign, according to Miller. Eliot spent considerable amounts of time with Verdenal in exploring Paris and the surrounding area in 1910 and 1911, and the two corresponded for several years after their parting. According to Miller, Eliot remembered Verdenal as "coming across the Luxembourg Garden in the late afternoon, waving a branch of lilacs," during a journey in April 1911 the two took to a garden on the outskirts of Paris. Both Eliot and Verdenal repeated the journey alone later in their lives during periods of melancholy—Verdenal in April 1912, Eliot in December 1920. Miller observes that if "we follow out all the implications of Eliot's evocation of Whitman's "Lilacs" at this critical moment in The Waste Land we might assume it has its origins, too, in a death, in a death deeply felt, the death of a beloved friend"..."But unlike the Whitman poem, Eliot's Waste Land has no retreat on the 'shores of the water,' no hermit thrush to sing its joyful carol of death." He further adds that "It seems unlikely that Eliot's long poem, in the form in which it was first conceived and written, would have been possible without the precedence of Whitman's own experiments in similar forms." ### Musical settings Whitman's poetry has been set by a variety of composers in Europe and the United States although critics have ranged from calling his writings "unmusical" to noting that his expansive, lyrical style and repetition mimics "the process of musical composition". Jack Sullivan writes that Whitman "had an early, intuitive appreciation of vocal music, one that, as he himself acknowledged, helped shape Leaves of Grass" Sullivan claims that one of the first compositions setting Whitman's poem, Charles Villiers Stanford's Elegiac Ode, Op. 21 (1884), a four-movement work scored for baritone and soprano soloists, chorus and orchestra, likely had reached a wider audience during Whitman's lifetime than his poems. #### Holst After World War I, Gustav Holst turned to the last section of Whitman's elegy to mourn friends killed in the war in composing his Ode to Death (1919) for chorus and orchestra. Holst saw Whitman "as a New World prophet of tolerance and internationalism as well as a new breed of mystic whose transcendentalism offered an antidote to encrusted Victorianism." According to Sullivan, "Holst invests Whitman's vision of "lovely and soothing death" with luminous open chords that suggest a sense of infinite space.... Holst is interested here in indeterminacy, a feeling of the infinite, not in predictability and closure." #### Hartmann In 1936, German composer Karl Amadeus Hartmann (1905–1963) began setting a German translation of an excerpt from Whitman's poem for an intended cantata scored for an alto soloist and orchestra that was given various titles including Lamento, Kantate (trans. 'Cantata'), Symphonisches Fragment ('Symphonic Fragment'), and Unser Leben ('Our Life'). The cantata contained passages from Whitman's elegy, and from three other poems. Hartmann stated in correspondence that he freely adapted the poem, which he thought embraced his "generally difficult, hopeless life, although no idea will be choked with death" Hartmann later incorporated his setting of the poem as the second movement titled Frühling ('Spring') of a work that he designated as his First Symphony Versuch eines Requiem ('Attempt at a Requiem'). Hartmann withdrew his compositions from musical performance in Germany during the Nazi era and the work was not performed until May 1948, when it was premiered in Frankfurt am Main. His first symphony is seen as a protest of the Nazi regime. Hartmann's setting is compared to the intentions of Igor Stravinsky's ballet The Rite of Spring where it was not "a representation of the natural phenomenon of the season, but an expression of ritualistic violence cast in sharp relief against the fleeting tenderness and beauty of the season." #### Hindemith American conductor Robert Shaw and his choral ensemble, the Robert Shaw Chorale, commissioned German composer Paul Hindemith to set Whitman's text to music to mourn the death of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on 12 April 1945. Hindemith had lived in the United States during World War II. The work was titled When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem for those we love. Hindemith set the poem in 11 sections, scored for mezzo-soprano and baritone soloists, mixed choir (SATB), and full orchestra. It premiered on 20 April 1946, conducted by Shaw. The composition is regarded by musicologist David Neumeyer as Hindemith's "only profoundly American work." and Paul Hume described it as "a work of genius and the presence of the genius presiding over its performance brought us splendor and profound and moving glory." It is noted that Hindemith incorporated a Jewish melody, Gaza, in his composition. #### Weill, Hughes, and Rice Whitman's poem appears in the opera Street Scene (1946), which was the collaboration of composer Kurt Weill, poet and lyricist Langston Hughes, and playwright Elmer Rice. Rice adapted his 1929 Pulitzer prize-winning play of the same name for the opera. In the opera, which premiered in New York City in January 1947, the poem's third stanza is recited in song as part of the duet "Remember that I Care" at the end of the first act. The poem is referenced again towards the end of the opera in the duet "Don't Forget the Lilac Bush". Weill received the first Tony Award for Best Original Score for this work #### 1990s onward African-American composer George T. Walker, Jr. (1922–2018) set Whitman's poem in his composition Lilacs for voice and orchestra which was awarded the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for Music. The work, described as "passionate, and very American," with "a beautiful and evocative lyrical quality" using Whitman's words, was premiered by the Boston Symphony Orchestra on 1 February 1996. Composer George Crumb (born 1929) set the Death Carol in his 1979 work Apparition (1979), an eight-part song cycle for soprano and amplified piano. The University of California at Berkeley commissioned American neoclassical composer Roger Sessions (1896–1985) to set the poem as a cantata to commemorate their centennial anniversary in 1964. Sessions did not finish composing the work until the 1970s, dedicating it to the memories of Civil Rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. and political figure Robert F. Kennedy, who were assassinated within weeks of each other in 1968. Sessions first became acquainted with Leaves of Grass in 1921 and began setting the poem as a reaction to the death of his friend, George Bartlett, although none of the sketches from that early attempt survive. He returned to the text almost fifty years later, composing a work scored for soprano, contralto, and baritone soloists, mixed chorus and orchestra. The music is described as responding "wonderfully both to the Biblical majesty and musical fluidity of Whitman's poetry, and here to, in the evocation of the gray-brown bird singing from the swamp and of the over-mastering scent of the lilacs, he gives us one of the century's great love letters to Nature." In 2004, working on a commission from the Brooklyn Philharmonic, the American composer Jennifer Higdon adapted the poem to music for solo baritone and orchestra titled Dooryard Bloom. The piece was first performed on 16 April 2005 by the baritone Nmon Ford and the Brooklyn Philharmonic under the conductor Michael Christie. Steve Dobrogosz also set the poem to music; a CD of it was released in 2006. ## See also - 1865 in literature - 1865 in poetry - Poetry of the United States
62,774,541	Freydal	1,160,869,606	16th century uncompleted illustrated prose work	[ "16th-century books", "16th-century illuminated manuscripts", "Cultural depictions of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Literature of the German Renaissance", "Medieval tournament", "Miniature painting", "Paintings in the Kunsthistorisches Museum", "Unfinished books" ]	Freydal is an uncompleted illustrated prose narrative commissioned by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in the early 16th century. It was intended to be a romantic allegorical account of Maximilian's own participation in a series of jousting tournaments in the guise of the tale's eponymous hero, Freydal. In the story, Freydal takes part in the tournaments to prove that he is worthy to marry a princess, who is a fictionalised representation of Maximilian's late wife, Mary of Burgundy. The text was never completed, although a manuscript draft is held by the Austrian National Library. Over 200 high quality drawings were created to be used as planning sketches, 203 of which are held in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., with a small number of others preserved in the British Museum and the Vatican Library. Based on these drawings, 256 miniature paintings were created by court painters, and 255 are preserved in an illuminated manuscript, the Freydal tournament book held by the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. These miniatures vividly record the different types of jousts that were popular at the time as well as the court masquerades, or ‘mummeries’, that took place at the end of the day after each tournament. It is the most extensive visual record of late medieval tournaments and court masquerades that exists. The written story and illustrations were never brought together in a single work, as Maximilian had originally intended. Freydal survives as three separate elements: a draft incomplete text, the planning drawings and the tournament book. ## Background Maximilian I and his father Frederick III were part of what was to become a long line of Holy Roman Emperors from the House of Habsburg. Maximilian was elected King of the Romans in 1486; upon his father's death in 1493 he succeeded to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. During his reign, Maximilian commissioned a number of humanist scholars and artists to assist him in completing a series of projects, in different art forms, intended to immortalize his life and deeds and those of his Habsburg ancestors. He referred to these projects as Gedechtnus ("memorial"), and included a series of stylised autobiographical works: Freydal, the prose romance Weisskunig, and the poem Theuerdank. Freydal and Theuerdank are closely linked and together give an allegorical account of the events leading to Maximilian's marriage to Mary of Burgundy in 1477. Mary died five years later, in 1482. In Freydal, which is partly a tribute to Mary, the eponymous hero pursues his fair lady by jousting in tournaments. Theuerdank is effectively a sequel in which the hero overcomes dangers on the journey to his wedding. Freydal has a comedic tone which contrasts with Theuerdank, which has more of the character of a tragedy. The theme of Freydal reflects Maximilian's lifelong enthusiasm for jousting. He attended his first tournament at the age of 14 and was captivated by its traditions and spectacle. He staged many tournaments, with major ones held to celebrate his wedding to Mary of Burgundy in 1477, his coronation as King of the Romans in 1486 and on the occasion of the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. Unusually for a powerful ruler, Maximilian was himself a frequent participant in tournaments. The first tournament he is recorded as participating in was in 1485 when he was 26 and he continued until 1511, when he was in his 50s. His affinity for jousting contributed to his soubriquet the “last knight”. ## Creation and history Maximilian took a leading part in the creation of Freydal, a name derived from Freyd-alb, meaning "white joyful young man". He appears to have begun planning the work in 1502 when he instructed his court taylor, Martin Trummer, "to have drawn in a book all those costumes as yet seen in mummeries organised by his majesty". A “mummery” was a late medieval courtly masquerade or costumed dance. The next development was the commissioning of planning sketches for the entire work, created over the following ten years. They were drawn in pen on laid paper, using brown and black ink with watercolour over black chalk and leadpoint. A collection of 203 of these are housed in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. A small number of additional drawings are held at the British Museum and the Vatican Library. Maximilian's instructions on the subjects to be illustrated as well as corrections, in his own hand, of some of the proofs have survived. In 1511, Maximilian dictated some of the text to his secretary, Max Trytssaurwein, (or Marx Treitzsauerwein) and the following year wrote "Freydal is half conceived, the largest part of which we have made in Cologne". The work was never completed, however, and the text exists only in draft form. The manuscript text dictated to Treitzsauerwein, and corrected in Maximilian's hand, is held by the Austrian National Library in Vienna. Although the text was never finalised, 256 high quality miniatures, based on the planning sketches, were created between 1512 and 1515 to illustrate the text. These were painted on paper in gouache with gold and silver highlights over pen, pencil and leadpoint by two dozen anonymous court artists under the direction of the imperial master-taylor. All but one of the paintings are preserved in an illuminated manuscript ‘tournament book’ held by the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The remaining painting has been missing since at least 1600. It was intended to print and publish the work with woodcut illustrations derived from the miniatures. Although Maximilian never succeeded in doing this, and the text remained only a draft, five of the illustrations were trial printed. These were from woodcuts made in about 1516 by Albrecht Dürer, albeit the cutting was somewhat rough. A sixth woodcut has been attributed to Lucas Cranach the Elder. One of the woodcut blocks has survived, and is held by the Kupferstichkabinett Berlin. In modern times, the Kunsthistorisches Museum illuminated manuscript tournament book has been published twice. A multi-volume edition, edited by Quirin von Leitner (de), was published in Vienna in stages between 1880 and 1882. In 2019, the German publisher, Taschen, published the entire tournament book in a single volume, edited by Stefan Krause. ## Content ### Narrative Based on the draft text preserved in the Austrian National Library, the story is an account of a series of tournaments in which Freydal – a young knight and Maximilian's literary alter ego – demonstrates his valour in combat in order to earn honour and fame and to win the hand of a princess. Freydal is the son of a “mighty prince” and he is born with “noble virtue”; his heraldic colours are white, red, and black, symbolising purity, fire, and bravery. The narrative begins with three noble ladies asking Freydal to compete in the tournaments. A description of sixty-four tournaments follows in a ritualised and repetitive pattern. Each is hosted by one of the finest courts in the land and comprises three events: two different types of jousting; a foot combat; and a masquerade ball. Freydal competes in each tournament and almost always wins. Once all the tournaments are completed, Freydal receives a letter from one of the noble ladies who, it transpires, is a powerful queen; in the letter, she professes her love for him. The narrative ends with Freydal setting out to search for her, and Theuerdank then takes up the subsequent story. The work reflects Maximilian's vanity, as exemplified by a poem which forms part of the draft text: > This did the gallant Freydal > In knightly deeds of fame > Thus rendering illustrious > The glories of his name. > His virtues and his goodness > Are manifest to all; > His many glorious triumphs > At tilt, at masks and ball... > His like will ne’er be seen again. However, the tournaments described are based on encounters Maximilian actually had. This is evidenced by a list of people involved in the story in the first seven quires of the draft text, and who are known to have been actual courtiers. ### Illuminated manuscript tournament book The miniatures in the tournament book manuscript illustrate the types of jousting popular at the time, both on horse and on foot. Freydal features in each illustrated combat and his opponent is an historical figure with whom Maximilian actually jousted. Each picture, in the lower margin, identifies the name of the opponent and the other courtiers depicted. Two types of joust – Rennen and Stechen – are depicted for each tournament. Rennen, or “jousts of war”, are where the lance has a sharpened tip and Stechen, or “jousts of peace”, are where the lance has a blunted tip. Within these two broad groupings, eleven sub-types are shown. In the Welsches Gestecht (Italian joust of peace) a board separates the jousters so that they can ride more closely to each other and strike their opponent frontally with greater force. This results in a spectacular splintering of the lances. In the Scharfrennen (joust of war with flying shields) the shield is shown loosely fixed to the rider's breastplate, the aim being to dislodge it. In contrast, the objective of the Antzogenrennen is to unseat the opponent and his shield is fixed to his armour. The Feldrennen (or Kampfrennen) jousts replicate skirmishes in war and the riders wear battlefield armour. The rarest type of joust depicted is the Krönlrennen where one rider wears the armour of a joust of peace but wields the lance of a joust of war and the other rider has the opposite combination. One of the most spectacular jousts depicted is the Bundrennen (joust of war with flying shields without bevors) and its variation, Geschifttartschen-Rennen (joust of war with flying and exploding shields). In the Bundrennen, the shield is held in place on the rider's breastplate with a complicated spring mechanism and when it is struck in the right place by the opponent it is ejected high into the air. The Geschifttartschen-Rennen increases the spectacle by attaching multiple triangular platelets to the shield which, when the shield is ejected, come loose and explode into the air like a firework display. Maximilian claimed to have invented this type of joust. In each of the tournaments, the participants are shown engaging in a foot combat. A variety of weapons are used, including iron clubs (Eisenkolben), flails (Drischel), swords (Turnierschwert) and daggers. The mêlée is also shown in the manuscript. After each of the sixty-four tournaments is a scene depicting a moresca (a pantomime dance) or other post-tournament festivities with male courtiers, including the knights who had competed in the tournament, dressing up to dance in a variety of exotic costumes. Known as ‘mummeries’, these were a regular feature of the evening entertainment after tournaments. Although the illustrations usually depict dances — either row or circle dancing — sometimes other types of mummeries are shown, such as burlesques of little known court ceremonies, prize-givings and mock battles, for example a pike battle between peasants and Landsknechte. The male courtiers in the mummeries in the manuscript dress up, amongst other things, in costumes based on nationality or ethnicity, for example Turkish, Venetian or Burgundian costume, or as animals such as apes and creatures with bird's heads. In one masquerade illustrated, the male participants engage in cross-dressing and wear women's gowns. In each scene, all the men are dressed in the same costume and normally wear a mask. Women, however, are always shown wearing their usual court attire. In each of these post-tournament pictures, Freydal appears carrying a torch and wearing a mask. ## Significance Tournament books were a feature of late medieval and renaissance courtly culture and provide a graphic record of jousting and its associated rituals. Notable examples include King René's Tournament Book and the tournament books of the Electors of Saxony. The Freydal illuminated manuscript is considered one of the most important and precious of this genre. As the largest surviving tournament book, it provides an unparalleled pictorial source of jousting from the late medieval period.} It is also the only one to depict spectacular falls. In addition to illustrating the jousts themselves, it represents a remarkable catalogue of the weaponry used during tournaments and is the most extensive record of mummery, the early court masquerade, that exists. The manuscript has been recognised in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme. However, Freydal was intended to be not only an artistic work but also political propaganda. As part of what he called his ‘memorial projects’ or Gedechtnus, Maximilian I used literary and visual works such as Freydal to model and enhance his public image. Traditionally, Maximilian is seen as doing this in a backward-looking and, even, in a delusional way, by harking back to a former age. As part of this view, his aim was perceived as making up for the limitations to his actual power by the use of media like printing to maximize his imperial aura. As the historian Jan-Dirk Müller (de) has said, the extent to which Maximilian employed this strategy meant that his court “literally existed on paper: to a large extent it was a virtual quantity”. However, the notion that Maximilian was an unsuccessful ruler who indulged in his Gedechtnus projects either because he was fantatasist or to compensate for his weakness has been challenged. According to Klaus Albrecht Schröder [de], Maximilian was "the world's most powerful monarch at the time". Increasingly, his skilful use of new media, such as the printing press, for propaganda purposes is seen as part of his success in laying the foundations of future Habsburg power.
182,231	Salford	1,171,189,291	City in Greater Manchester, England	[ "Cities in North West England", "Geography of Salford", "Salford", "Towns in Greater Manchester", "Unparished areas in Greater Manchester" ]	Salford (/ˈsɒlfərd/ SOL-fərd) is a city in Greater Manchester, England. The city is situated in a meander on the western bank of the River Irwell which forms its boundary with Manchester and its city centre. Landmarks in the city include the 100 Greengate skyscraper, the old town hall, cathedral and St Philips Church. It is the main settlement of the wider City of Salford metropolitan borough. Nearby towns in the built-up area include Stretford, Bolton, Sale and Bury with additional towns nearby being Prestwich, Radcliffe and Urmston. The wider metropolitan borough includes the towns of Eccles, Pendlebury, Swinton, Walkden and other surrounding villages and suburbs. It was the former Salfordshire's judicial seat in historic county of Lancashire. It was granted a market charter in about 1230 by Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester. These two initially made it of greater cultural and commercial importance than neighbouring Manchester: the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries reversed that relationship. The former County Borough of Salford was granted city status in 1926: the current wider borough was established in 1974. The economy of the city was focused on a major cotton and silk spinning and weaving factory district in the 18th and 19th centuries and important inland port on the Manchester Ship Canal from 1894. Industrial decline in the 20th century lead to the city having run-down and antisocial areas. Multiple media sector headquarters relocated to the Salford Quays development called MediaCityUK to replace the loss of heavy industrial. Notable establishments and companies in the city include the University of Salford, Salford City Football Club, Salford Red Devils,Salford Lads' Club, BBC North and ITV Granada. ## History ### Toponymy The name of Salford derives from the Old English word Sealhford, meaning a ford by the willow trees. It referred to the willows (Latin: salix) or sallows that grew alongside the banks of the River Irwell. The ford was about where Victoria Bridge is today. Willow trees are still found in Lower Broughton. Salford appears in the pipe roll of 1169 as "Sauford" and in the Lancashire Inquisitions of 1226 as "Sainford". ### Early history The earliest known evidence of human activity in what is now Salford is provided by the Neolithic flint arrow-heads and workings discovered on Kersal Moor and the River Irwell, suggesting that the area was inhabited 7–10,000 years ago. The raw material for such tools was scarce and unsuitable for working, and as a result they are not of the quality found elsewhere. Other finds include a neolithic axe-hammer found near Mode Wheel, during the excavation of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1890, and a Bronze Age cremation urn during the construction of a road on the Broughton Hall estate in 1873. The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England. With a stronghold at the sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands, opposite Salford's original centre, their territory extended across the fertile lowland by the River Irwell that is now Salford and Stretford. Following the Roman conquest of Britain, General Agricola ordered the construction of a Roman fort named Mamucium (Manchester) to protect the routes to Deva Victrix (Chester) and Eboracum (York) from the Brigantes. Salford was founded when the fort was completed in AD 79, and for over 300 years the Pax Romana brought peace to the area. Both the main Roman road to the north, from Mamucium to Ribchester, and a second road to the west, ran through what is now Salford, but few Roman artefacts have been found in the area. The withdrawal of the Romans in AD 410 left the inhabitants at the mercy of the Saxons. The Danes later conquered the area and absorbed what was left of the Brigantes. Angles settled in the region during the Early Middle Ages and gave the locality the name Sealhford, meaning "ford by the willows". According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Sealhford was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria until it was conquered in 923 by Edward the Elder. Following the emergence of the united Kingdom of England, Salford became a caput or central manor within a broad rural area in part held by the Kings of England, including Edward the Confessor. The area between the rivers Mersey and Ribble was divided into six smaller districts, referred to as "wapentakes", or hundreds. The south east district became known as the Hundred of Salford, a division of land administered from Salford for military and judicial purposes. It contained nine large parishes, smaller parts of two others, and the township of Aspull in the parish of Wigan. After the defeat of Harold II during the Norman conquest of England, William I granted the Hundred of Salford to Roger the Poitevin, and in the Domesday Book of 1086 the Hundred of Salford was recorded as covering an area of 350 square miles (906 km<sup>2</sup>) with a population of 35,000. Poitevin created the subordinate Manor of Manchester out of the hundred, which has since in local government been separate from Salford. Poitevin forfeited the manor in 1102 when he was defeated in a failed rebellion attempt against Henry I. In around 1115, for their support during the rebellion, Henry I placed the Hundred of Salford under the control of the Earldom of Lancaster, and it is from this exchange that the Hundred of Salford became a royal manor. The Lord of the Manor was either the English monarch, or a feudal land owner who administered the manor for the king. During the reign of Henry II the Royal Manor of Salford passed to Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester. Salford began to emerge as a small town early in the 13th century. In 1228, Henry III granted the caput of Salford the right to hold a market and an annual fair. The fairs were important to the town; a 17th-century order forced each burgess – a freeman of the borough – to attend, but the fairs were abolished during the 19th century. The Earls of Chester aided the development of the caput, and in 1230 Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester made Salford a burgage, or free borough. The charter gave its burgesses certain commercial rights, privileges and advantages over traders living outside Salford; one of the 26 clauses of the charter stated that no one could work in the Hundred of Salford unless they also lived in the borough. Salford's status as a burgage encouraged an influx of distinguished families, and by the Late Middle Ages Salford was "rich in its manor houses", with over 30 within a 5-mile (8 km) radius of Ordsall. These included Ordsall Hall (owned by the Radclyffe family) and Broughton Hall, owned by the Earls of Derby. During the Civil War of 1640–49, Salford supported the Royalist cause, in contrast to Manchester just across the Irwell which declared in favour of the Parliamentarians. Royalist forces mounted a siege of Manchester across what is now the site of Victoria Bridge, which although short-lived, "did little to improve relations between the two towns". A century later, in 1745, Salford was staunchly in support of Bonnie Prince Charlie, in his attempt to seize the Throne of England. He entered the town at the head of his army and was blessed by the Reverend John Clayton before leaving "in high spirits" to march on London; he returned to Salford in defeat just nine days later. ### Industrial Revolution Salford has a history of textile processing that pre-dates the Industrial Revolution, and as an old town had been developing for about 700 years. Before the introduction of cotton there was a considerable trade in woollen goods and fustians. Other cottage industries prevalent at this time included clogging, cobbling, weaving and brewing. The changes to textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution had a profound effect on both on population and urbanisation, as well as the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of Salford. The well-established textile processing and trading infrastructure, and the ready supply of water from the River Irwell and its tributaries, attracted entrepreneurs who built cotton mills along the banks of the river in Pendleton and Ordsall. Although Salford followed a similar pattern of industrial development to Manchester, most businesses preferred to build their premises on the Manchester side of the Irwell, and consequently Salford did not develop as a commercial centre in the same way as its neighbour. Many of these earlier mills had been based on Arkwright-type designs. These relied on strong falls of water, but Salford is on a meander of the Irwell with only a slight gradient and thus mills tended to be built upstream, at Kersal and Pendleton. However, with the introduction of the steam engine in the late 18th century, merchants began to construct mills closer to the centres of Salford and Manchester, where supplies of labour and coal were more readily available (the first steam-powered mill was built in Manchester in 1780). One of the first factories to be built was Philip's and Lee's Twist Mill in Salford, completed in 1801, the second iron-framed multi-story building to be erected in Britain. The large Salford Engine Twist Company mill was built to the west of Salford, between Chapel Street and the Irwell, and in 1806 was the first large cotton mill to use gas lighting. Many engineering companies were established in this area, including Samuel Ellis and Company at the Irwell Foundry. However, it was outnumbered by the numerous smaller factories and mills throughout the area, including Nathan Gough's steam-driven mule spinning mill, near Oldfield Road, where a serious accident occurred on 13 October 1824 (see illustration). Canal building provided a further stimulus for Salford's industrial development. The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761 improved the transport of fuel and raw materials, reducing the price of coal by about 50%. The later Manchester, Bolton & Bury Canal (which terminated at Salford) brought more cheap coal from pits at Pendleton, Agecroft Colliery and beyond. By 1818 Manchester, Salford and Eccles had about 80 mills, but it was the completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 which triggered Salford's development as a major inland port. Salford Docks, a major dockland on the Ship Canal 35 miles (56 km) east of the Irish Sea, brought employment to over 3,000 labourers. By 1914 the Port of Manchester, most of whose docks were in Salford, had become one of the largest port authorities in the world, handling 5% of the UK's imports and 4.4% of its exports. Commodities handled included cotton, grain, wool, textile machinery and steam locomotives. For centuries, textiles and related trades were the main source of employment in the town. Bleaching was a widely distributed finishing trade in Salford, carried over from the earlier woollen industry. In the 18th century, before the introduction of chemical bleaching, bleaching fields were commonplace, some very close to the town. In 1773 there were 25 bleachers around Salford, most to the west of the township. Printing was another source of trade; the earliest recorded in the region was a calique printer in the Manchester Parish Register of 1763. These industries became more important as Salford faced increasing competition from the nearby towns of Bolton and Oldham. As its cotton spinning industries faltered its economy turned increasingly to other textiles and to the finishing trades, including rexine and silk dyeing, and fulling and bleaching, at a string of works in Salford. Both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels spent time in Salford, studying the plight of the British working class. In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, Engels described Salford as "really one large working-class quarter ... [a] very unhealthy, dirty and dilapidated district which, while other industries were almost always textile related is situated opposite the 'Old Church' of Manchester". The effect on Salford of the Industrial Revolution has been described as "phenomenal". The area expanded from a small market town into a major industrial metropolis; factories replaced cottage industries, and the population rose from 12,000 in 1812 to 70,244 within 30 years. By the end of the 19th century it had increased to 220,000. Large-scale building of low quality Victorian terraced housing did not stop overcrowding, which itself led to chronic social deprivation. The density of housing was as high as 80 homes per acre. Private roads were built for the use of the middle classes moving to the outskirts of Salford. The entrances to such roads, which included Elleray Road in Irlams o' th' Height, were often gated, and patrolled. ### Post-industrial decline During the early 20th century, improvements in regional transport infrastructure precipitated the decline of Salford's existing industries, including those at the Salford Docks. Increased foreign competition began to undermine the competitiveness of local textile processing businesses. Rising unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1920s and 1930s, and a significant economic decline in the decades following the Second World War contributed toward a fall in Salford's population. By 1939 local coal mining had almost stopped, and cotton spinning had by 1971 ceased completely. Between 1921 and 1939, the population of Salford decreased by 29%, from 234,045 to 166,386, far greater than the rate of decline within the whole of North West England. A survey in 1931 concluded that parts of Salford contained some of the worst slums in the country. Many houses were infested by rats and lacked elementary amenities. Inspectors found that of 950 houses surveyed, 257 were in a state of bad repair with leaking roofs, broken flooring and rotten woodwork. The inspectors were "struck by the courage and perseverance with which the greater number of tenants kept their houses clean and respectable under most adverse conditions". By 1933, slum clearance projects were under way, and by the end of 1956 over a thousand families had been rehoused in overspill estates at Little Hulton. These clearances have, for some, changed the character of the area to such an extent that "observers in search of the typical Salford may have to look in Eccles and Swinton, for much of the community and townscape ... has gone from Salford, replaced by tall blocks of flats". Large areas of the city were redeveloped in the 1960s and 1970s, with Victorian era terraced housing estates that inspired painter L. S. Lowry and soap opera Coronation Street giving way to concrete tower blocks and austere architecture. Life in Salford during the early 20th century was described by Robert Roberts, in his study The Classic Slum. Despite extensive redevelopment, throughout the 1980s and 1990s the area experienced high levels of deprivation and unemployment, particularly during the recessions of the early years of both decades. This social deprivation was a major factor in the increased levels of gang crime linked to illegal narcotics, firearms and robberies. This was comparable to the similar issues faced in parts of neighbouring Manchester including Moss Side, as well as areas of the more distant neighbouring city of Liverpool. Organised crime in Salford, particularly in Ordsall and Pendleton, "began to have a disturbing effect on grass roots democracy. Both the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives announced they would not contest certain Salford wards" because they regarded them as "unsafe" and would put their "party workers at risk". Salford's social amenities and the night-time economy folded amid criminal "intimidation", "drug use, fights and demands for money". In early 2005, the Government of Latvia appealed to the European Union to advise people against travelling to Salford after a Latvian man was stabbed in the head in Lower Broughton. However, a crackdown by Greater Manchester Police coupled with investment in, and structural changes to the housing stock, began changing Salford's fortunes; population decline has slowed, and Salford's city councillors have insisted it is a safe place to visit. In August 2005, a survey by Channel 4 television rated the city as the 9th worst place to live in the United Kingdom, based on criteria of crime, education, environment, lifestyle and employment. ### Regeneration Salford has suffered from high levels of unemployment, housing, and social problems since around the 1960s, although there are regeneration schemes to reverse its fortunes. Many of the high-rise housing blocks from the 1960s and 1970s were demolished during the 1990s, "a sign that the great social engineering schemes (from that period) had failed". However, the high-rises that remain are a striking feature of Salford's landscape. Work was scheduled to begin on the £180 million redevelopment of the Greengate area of Salford in January 2007. The plans include the construction of what will be the two tallest tower blocks in Salford. Plans also include a five-star hotel, a new public square and park, restaurants, cafes and 403 apartments. Work is ongoing to regenerate the area known as Middlewood Locks, with the restored Salford terminus of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal forming the centrepiece of a brand new residential development. As part of the Pathfinder initiative, Salford was identified in 2002 as one of nine areas in specific need of investment for new homes. Between 2003 and 2006 £115M was invested in the Manchester and City of Salford housing markets, £44M of which was invested in central Salford. Rows of terraces in neighbourhoods such as Seedley and Langworthy – once used for the title sequence of Coronation Street – are being compulsorily purchased, demolished and replaced by "modern sustainable accommodation". Other schemes such as the Charlestown and Lower Kersal New deal for Communities, have concentrated on renovating existing terraced housing stock by block improvement and alleygating, as well as demolishing unsuitable properties and building new facilities, in consultation with the local community. Salford now has many tourist attractions, such as Ordsall Hall, the Bridgewater Canal and the Lowry Centre, an award-winning theatre and art gallery complex, consisting of two theatres and three art galleries. The centre is named after the artist L. S. Lowry, who attended Salford School of Art and lived in nearby Pendlebury for 40 years. Many of his paintings of Salford and Manchester mill scenes, populated with small matchstick-like figures, are on display. A notable regeneration project is MediaCityUK, located at Salford Quays. The development houses BBC departments including CBBC, BBC Sport and Radio 5 Live which moved in 2011 and BBC Breakfast, which moved from London in spring 2012. In recent years, various large residential schemes have been built in Salford. A notable development, the £700m Middlewood Locks began construction in 2016. ## Governance Salford was anciently part of the Manchester parish of the Salford Hundred, an area much larger than the present-day city of Salford, within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire. A stroke of a Norman baron's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford, although it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester, but Manchester, with its humbler line of lords, that was separated from Salford. Salford received its town charter from Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester, then Lord of the Manor, in 1230. From then until 1791, when police commissioners were appointed, it was governed by a reeve, a medieval administrator and law enforcement official. It was not recognised as a borough in the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, but was granted borough status in 1844; the new Salford borough was made up of the township of Salford and part of Broughton. The remainder of Broughton, the township of Pendleton, and a small part of Pendlebury were added in 1853. When the administrative county of Lancashire was created by the Local Government Act 1888, Salford was elevated to become the County Borough of Salford and was, in modern terms, a unitary authority area exempt from the administration of Lancashire County Council. Following a campaign supported by William Joynson-Hicks, Home Secretary and Member of Parliament (MP) for a neighbouring constituency of Manchester, city status was granted to the county borough by letters patent dated 21 April 1926. This was in spite of the opposition of civil servants in the Home Office who dismissed the borough as "merely a scratch collection of 240,000 people cut off from Manchester by the river". In 1961, a small part of the Municipal Borough of Eccles was added to the city, and in 1966, Salford was twinned with Clermont-Ferrand in France. In 1974 the City and County Borough of Salford was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972, and was replaced by the metropolitan borough of City of Salford, a local government district of the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester, with triple the territory of the former City of Salford, taking in neighbouring Eccles, Swinton and Pendlebury, and Worsley and Irlam. Both Salford and the wider City of Salford are unparished areas. ### Parliamentary representation Salford was enfranchised as a parliamentary borough by the Great Reform Act of 1832, returning a single Member of Parliament (MP). From 1868 it returned two MPs to the House of Commons until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, when the constituency was split into three single-member divisions: Salford North, Salford South and Salford West. Boundaries changed again under the provisions of the Representation of the People Act 1948 when the constituencies were reorganised into Salford East and Salford West. Since 1997, Salford has lain within the reconstituted Salford parliamentary constituency. Hazel Blears – a member of the Labour Party – has been the MP for the constituency since 1997. Rebecca Long-Bailey has been the MP for Salford and Eccles since 2015, a member of UK Labour. From the general election of 2010 Salford will be part of the new constituency of Salford and Eccles. The wards of Broughton and Kersal, however, are to be part of the cross boundary constituency of Blackley and Broughton. ## Geography At (53.483°, −2.2931°), and 205 miles (330 km) northwest of central London, Salford stands about 177 feet (54 m) above sea level, on relatively flat ground to the west of a meander of the River Irwell – the city's main topographical feature. In 1904, Salford was recorded as "within a great loop of the River Irwell ... roughly three-quarters of a mile from north to south and one mile from east to west". Salford is contiguous with Manchester, and has been described "in participation of its trade, and for all other practical purposes, an integral part of it; presents a near resemblance to it in streets and edifices; contains several public buildings and a great public park, which belong fully more to Manchester than to itself". Greengate, the original centre of Salford, is located at a fording point on the river opposite Manchester Cathedral. In 1969 Nikolaus Pevsner wrote: > That [neighbouring] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England. The Irwell, sourced at Cliviger in Lancashire, flows from the north and for a distance forms the statutory boundary between Salford and Manchester. Flooding has historically been a problem and the Irwell has seen much modification along its course in Salford with some bends being removed, channelisation, and the construction of levees and bank reinforcements. Salford has expanded along the river valley to the north and south and on to higher ground on the valley sides at Irlams o' th' Height and Higher Broughton. Unconsolidated glacial deposits along the riverbank at Broughton have caused several landslides along the riverbank. The City Engineer's Department of the City of Salford recorded one such incident near Great Clowes Street in February 1882, and others in 1886, 1887 and 1888. In 1892 the road was propped with timber supports. The tram service along the road was discontinued in 1925, and the road closed to mechanically propelled vehicles in January 1926. Further slips saw the road closed completely in July 1933, and although no substantial movements have been recorded since 1948 slow subsidence around the Cliff continues to this day. Salford's built environment is made up of a range of building stock. Some inner-city areas are noted for chronic urban decay. Salford's housing stock is characterised by an oversupply of older, smaller terraced housing and flatted accommodation that declined in value during the late 20th century. As demand fell, it left many owners in negative equity and often without the means to maintain their homes in reasonable condition. As a result, much of the built environment is poor. Land use in Salford is overwhelmingly urban, with a number of green spaces. The largest is Kersal Dale Country Park, which covers about 32 hectares (0.32 km<sup>2</sup>). Others include Kersal Moor in Higher Kersal, The Meadow, Peel Park and the adjacent David Lewis Recreation Ground close to the University of Salford, and Albert Park and Clowes Park in Broughton. The territory of Salford is contiguous with other towns on all sides, and as defined by the Office for National Statistics forms the sixth-largest settlement in the Greater Manchester Urban Area, the United Kingdom's second-largest conurbation. The M602 motorway enters Salford from Eccles to the west. The A580 "East Lancashire Road" terminates at Salford, entering the area from Pendlebury. ## Demography As of the 2001 UK census, Salford had a population of 72,750. The 2001 population density was 9,151 per mi<sup>2</sup> (3,533 per km<sup>2</sup>), with a 100 to 98.4 female-to-male ratio. Of those over 16 years age, 44.0% were single (never married) and 36.7% married. Salford's 32,576 households included 44.1% one-person, 22.0% married couples living together, 7.6% were co-habiting couples, and 13.3% single parents with their children. Of those aged 16–74, 37.3% had no academic qualifications, similar to that of 35.5% in all of the City of Salford but significantly higher than 28.9% in all of England. 15.9% of Salford's residents aged 16–74 had an educational qualification such as first degree, higher degree, qualified teacher status, qualified medical doctor, qualified dentist, qualified nurse, midwife, health visitor, etc. compared to 20% nationwide. As a result of 19th-century industrialisation, Salford has had "a special place in the history of the British working class"; together with Manchester it had the world's "first fully formed industrial working class". Salford has not, in general, attracted the same minority ethnic and cosmopolitan communities as in other parts of Greater Manchester, although it did attract significant numbers of Irish in the mid-19th century. Many migrated to Salford because of the Great Hunger in Ireland combined with Salford's reputation as a hub for employment in its factories and docks. In 1848, Salford Roman Catholic Cathedral opened, reflecting the large Irish-born community in Salford at that time. In the decades following the Second World War, Salford experienced significant population decline, as residents followed employment opportunities to other locations in Greater Manchester, taking advantage of a greater choice in the type and location of housing. In 2011, Salford had a population of 103,886, which is about the same size as Rochdale. The population increased from 72,750 in the previous census, mainly due to boundary changes. In 2011, 22.7% of the population in the Salford USD (Urban Subdivision) were non-white British, compared with 15.6% for the surrounding borough. The USD had a slightly larger percentage of Asian and black people. Salford has become a lot more ethnically diverse since the previous census, mostly due to boundary changes, but also due to the relocation of many BBC departments from London between 2011 and 2012. This has created many jobs and encouraged migration to the area, which was previously very deprived since the loss of many traditional industries in the 20th century. ### City Centre Salford is mostly polycentric in that it has more than one single centre. Its main shopping centres are both Salford City Shopping Centre in the suburb of Pendleton and Salford Quays. The main city centre would be located around Bexley Square where the town hall and cathedral are located near to. However, as the city has expanded and incorporated the towns of Eccles, Walkden, Swinton and Pendlebury, there are now multiple retail and economic centres in these towns. It is quite similar to Stoke on Trent in that there is more than just one main shopping centre. Salford is credited as the birthplace of the Bush Roller Chain. Hans Renold, a Swiss-born engineer, came to Salford in the late 19th century. In 1879 he purchased a small textile-chain making business in Ordsall from James Slater and founded the Hans Renold Company, what is now Renold, a firm which still produces chains. Renold invented the bush roller chain shortly after and began producing it. It is the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power on bicycles, motorbikes, to industrial and agricultural machinery to uses as varied as rollercoasters and escalators. According to the 2001 UK census, the industry of employment of Salford's residents aged 16–74 was 18.0% retail and wholesale, 14.4% property and business services, 12.3% manufacturing, 11.7% health and social work, 8.6% education, 7.3% transport and communications, 6.8% hotels and restaurants, 5.8% construction, 4.4% finance, 4.2% public administration, 0.6% energy and water supply, 0.3% agriculture, 0.1% mining, and 5.7% other. Compared with national figures, Salford had a relatively low percentage of residents working in agriculture. The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16–74, 4.4% students were with jobs, 9.1% students without jobs, 6.3% looking after home or family, 11.2% permanently sick or disabled, and 4.8% economically inactive for other reasons. The proportion of students economically active in Salford was higher than the City of Salford and England averages (3.0% and 2.6% respectively); the same is true for economically inactive students (5.1% in City of Salford and 4.7% in England). The rest of the figures were roughly inline with national trends. ## Landmarks Salford has a series of bridges over the Manchester Ship Canal and onto the River Irwell, including the Grade II listed Blackfriars Bridge, completed in 1820. The settlement is dominated by the several railway viaducts built in the 19th century. Another Grade II\* listed building, Salford Cathedral, is a decorated neo-Gothic Roman Catholic church built between 1844 and 1848. Salford (Old) Town Hall, situated in Bexley Square off Chapel Street, is a Neo-classical brick building dressed in stone, designed by Richard Lane. Closer to Manchester, the tower of the Church of the Sacred Trinity dates from 1635, the main building from 1752. It was restored between 1871 and 1874. Public swimming baths were provided, on Blackfriars Road. Now in commercial use, the two-storey building was constructed in about 1890 from brick, with terracotta dressings and a part-glazed roof. The University of Salford campus, visible partly from the Crescent, contains a number of interesting buildings including the Royal Art Gallery and the Peel Building. Kersal Cell is a Grade II\* listed 16th-century timber-framed manor house, currently in use as a private residence. One of Salford's oldest buildings is the Grade I listed Ordsall Hall, a Tudor mansion and former stately home in nearby Ordsall. It dates back over 750 years, although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century. Salford Lads' Club is a recreational club established in 1903 and located in Ordsall. It is a listed building and gained international fame in 1986 when the pop band The Smiths posed in front of it for the inside cover of their album The Queen Is Dead. A report by English Heritage said "The building is thought to be the most complete example of this rare form of social provision to survive in England." In 2007, the Manchester Evening News reported that the club was third in a nationwide hunt to find the most iconic buildings in the country. ## Transport One of the earliest transport schemes in Salford was constructed by the Salford to Wigan Turnpike trust, by an Act of Parliament of 1753. Turnpike roads had a huge impact on the nature of business transport around the region. Packhorses were superseded by wagons, and merchants would no longer accompany their caravans to markets and fairs, instead sending agents with samples, and dispatching the goods at a later date. However, road transport was not without its problems, and in 1808 the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal was connected to the River Irwell. In the main a coal-carrying canal, it provided a valuable boost to the economies of Salford and Manchester, with a large number of wharves at its terminus in Salford. Sixteen years later John Greenwood started the first bus operation from Pendleton to Market Street, Manchester. The Liverpool & Manchester Railway – the world's first steam driven inter-city passenger railway – opened through Salford on 15 September 1830. The railway was primarily built to provide faster transport of materials and goods between the Port of Liverpool and mills in Manchester and surrounding towns, and stopped along the route at Ordsall Lane railway station. Almost eight years later the Manchester and Bolton Railway was opened, terminating at Salford Central railway station. By 1801 the population of both Manchester and Salford was about 94,000. By 1861 this had risen to about 460,000, and so in the same year John Greenwood Jr. made an application to Salford Borough Council and to the Pendleton Turnpike Trust, to build a tramway from Pendleton to Albert Bridge in Salford. The system was innovative in that the rails were designed to be 'flush' with the road surface, with a third central rail to accommodate a perambulator wheel attached to the front axle of the omnibus. Approval was granted and work commenced immediately, with the horse-pulled tramway finished in September 1861. It remained in use for a further eleven years when the condition of the track had deteriorated such that the council ordered it removed. The Tramways Act 1870 allowed councils to construct their own tramways, and on 17 May 1877 the 'Manchester and Salford Tramways' opened for business. The network of lines was largely complete by September 1880, the company changed its name to the Manchester Carriage & Tramways Company, and the system reached its peak in the 1890s. A steam tramway was opened on 12 April 1883 from Bury to Higher Broughton. The vehicles provoked letters of complaints from residents about the associated noise, dirt, and grease, and by 1888 the route was eventually curtailed to Besses o' th' Barn. Electric trams were a common sight in early 20th century Salford, and had from 1901 replaced the earlier horse-drawn vehicles. A network of lines crossed the region, with coordinated services running through Salford, Manchester and the surrounding areas. Many served the new suburban housing and industrial developments built at the time, but in 1947 they were withdrawn in favour of more practical services – buses. The city is served by a complex road infrastructure, with connections from the M602 motorway to several major motorways, and A-roads including the A57 Regent Road and the A6042 Trinity Way. Salford City Council has also created both advisory and mandatory cycle lanes across the city. Public transport in Salford is now co-ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester (TfGM), a combined authority area-wide public body with direct operational responsibilities such as supporting (and in some cases running) local bus services, and managing integrated ticketing in Greater Manchester. Salford City Council is responsible for the administration and maintenance of public roads and footpaths throughout the city. The city is served by two railway stations, Salford Central and Salford Crescent. Most train services are provided by Northern Trains, although Salford Crescent is also served by TransPennine Express. Buses run to destinations throughout Salford, the City of Salford, across Greater Manchester and further afield: Pendleton is served by a route to Preston and Blackpool. The Eccles line of the Manchester Metrolink runs through Salford, with stations at Exchange Quay, Salford Quays, Anchorage, Harbour City, Broadway, Langworthy, Weaste and more recently MediaCityUK. The line was opened in two stages, in 1999 and 2000, as Phase 2 of the system's development. Since 2020, electric scooters have been available for public hire in central Salford, Salford Quays, Ordsall, Pendleton and at the University of Salford. The e-scooter hire service is operated by shared micromobility company Lime. ## Education ### University and museum The University of Salford, a plate glass university, is one of four in Greater Manchester. It has its origins in the former Royal Technical College, which was granted the status of a College of Advanced Technology (CAT), on 2 November 1956. In November 1963 the Robbins Report recommended that the CATs should become technological universities; and on 4 April 1967 a Charter was established creating the University of Salford. The university is undergoing £150M of redevelopment through investment in new facilities, including a £10M law school and a £22M building for health and social care, which were opened in 2006. The University of Salford has over 19,000 students, and was ranked 81st in the UK by The Times newspaper. In 2007, the university received nearly 17,000 applications for 3,660 places, and the drop-out rate from the university was 25%. Of the students graduating, 50% gained first class or 2:1 degrees, below the national average of about 55%. The level of student satisfaction in the 2009 survey ranged from 62% to 94%, depending on subject. Salford developed several civic institutions; in 1806, Chapel Street became the first street in the world to be lit by gas (supplied by Phillips and Lee's cotton mill). Salford Museum and Art Gallery opened in November 1850, under the terms of the Museums Act 1845, as the Royal Museum and Public Library. It was built on the site of Lark Hill estate and Mansion, which was purchased by public subscription. The estate around the building was named Peel Park after Robert Peel who contributed to the subscription fund. The library was said to be the first unconditionally free public library in the country, preceding the Public Libraries Act 1850. ### Schools and colleges Despite the rapid progress made during the Industrial Revolution, by 1851 education in Salford was judged "inadequate to the wants of the population", and for those children who did get schooling "order and cleanliness were little regarded ... [they] were for the most part crowded in close and dirty rooms". Salford has thirty-two primary schools, and five secondary schools. Until recently there were three main 6th form and FE colleges: Pendleton College, Eccles College and Salford College. They merged to create Salford City College in January 2009. ## Religion From the formation of the Hundred of Salford, the entire area was within the Diocese of Lichfield. This diocese was divided in 1541, upon the creation of the See of Chester. Early worship took place at the parish church of Manchester, however a small chantry chapel existed in 1368 on the only bridge linking the two settlements. In the 16th century, it was converted into a dungeon, and was later demolished in 1779. In 1634–35, Humphrey Booth, a wealthy local merchant, opened a chapel of ease, which a year later was consecrated as the Chapel of Sacred Trinity (the parish of Sacred Trinity was created in 1650). John Wesley preached in the building, before his break with the Anglican Church. However, upon his return in 1747, he preached in the open, at Salford Cross. The chapel was rebuilt in about 1752–53, although the tower probably belonged to the original building. It was restored in 1871–74 by the architect J. P. Holden and a chapel was added to the south-east in 1934. It is now a Grade II\* listed building. Salford Cathedral is one of the largest Catholic cathedrals in Northern England. It was built between 1844 and 1848, and was listed as a Grade II\* building in 1980. It is at the centre of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford, which was founded in 1850 as one of the first post-Reformation Catholic dioceses in Britain. Its current boundaries encompass Manchester and a large part of North West England. The Bishop of Salford's official residence is at Wardley Hall. `Salford Deanery is in the Salford Archdeaconry of the Church of England. The sixteen churches in the deanery include the Parish Church of Saint Paul the Apostle in Paddington, St. Thomas' in Pendleton, St Philip with St Stephen near the town hall and St Clement's in Ordsall.` The Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation, Manchester was founded in 1861, in Broughton. It was established by the local Greek immigrant community, who had arrived in the area soon after the Greek War of Independence in the early 19th century. It replaced an earlier place of worship on Cheetham Hill Road, and an earlier chapel on Wellington Street. It is the oldest purpose-built Orthodox church in the country. ## Sports Salford has a notable history in sports, which includes hosting some of the events in the 2002 Commonwealth Games: rugby league, speedway, and horse racing. Salford had a venue for horse racing since the 17th century; the earliest record of racing at Kersal Moor dates from 1687. Salford Red Devils is the city's rugby league club and has been based in Salford since 1873. They participate in the Super League. Salford now play all home games at the AJ Bell Stadium. Junior rugby league is also played within Salford's boundaries, with Langworthy Reds, Folly Lane and Salford City Roosters amongst other clubs providing playing personnel to the senior club. The Premiership side Sale Sharks play their home games at the AJ Bell Stadium since the start of the 2012–13 season Salford Quays has been used as a major international triathlon site, but a 2009 aquathlon was cancelled because of a lack of competitors. During the early part of the 20th century speedway was staged at Albion Stadium. Prior to Salford City's promotion to the Football League in 2019, Salford was one of the largest settlements in the UK without a league football team;. In the formative years of the sport the region's football heartland was in east Manchester, with few teams to the west. Salford City are Salford's only representatives in the Football League, playing in League Two, the fourth tier of English football, as of the 2019–20 season. ## Culture Harold Brighouse's play Hobson's Choice takes place in the Salford of 1880, and the 1954 film version was shot in the town. Walter Greenwood's 1933 novel Love on the Dole was set in a fictional area known as Hanky Park, said in the novel to be near Salford, but in reality based on Salford itself. A more modern fictional setting influenced by the area is Coronation Street'''s Weatherfield. The Salford of the 1970s was the setting for the BAFTA award winning East is East. Salford was featured in the second series of the Channel 4 programme The Secret Millionaire, screened in 2007. Salford is also home to the theatre venue Studio Salford. The folk song "Dirty Old Town", written by native Ewan MacColl, is the origin of Salford's nickname. Local band Doves released a song on their 2005 album Some Cities called "Shadows of Salford". One of the most famous photographs of band The Smiths shows them standing outside the Salford Lads Club, and was featured in the artwork for their album The Queen Is Dead. In 2010, The Cold One Hundred, an English indie rock band formed in Salford. The videos for the Timbaland song "The Way I Are", and the Justin Timberlake song "Lovestoned" were filmed in Salford. ## Public services Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1835, the County Borough of Salford was obliged to appoint a Watch Committee to establish a police force and appoint a chief constable. On 1 June 1968 the Manchester and Salford city constabularies formed the Manchester and Salford Police. Since 1974, Home Office policing in Salford has been provided by the Greater Manchester Police. The force's "(F) Division" has its headquarters for policing the City of Salford at Swinton, with further police stations in Little Hulton, Higher Broughton and Salford. The Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service, whose headquarters are on Bolton Road in nearby Pendlebury. Salford Royal Hospital dated back to 1830 and was extended in 1911. It was closed and converted into flats. The modern Salford Royal, at Hope, near the boundary with Eccles, was opened in 1882 as the Salford Union Infirmary. Later renamed Hope Hospital and then again as Salford Royal, it is a large NHS hospital administrated by Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust. In a 2006–07 review of all 394 NHS Trusts in England by the Healthcare Commission, Salford Royal was one of 19 to be rated excellent in its quality of services and its use of resources. The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport. Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small clinics and surgeries. Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority. Salford's distribution network operator for electricity is United Utilities; there are no power stations in the city. United Utilities also manages Salford's drinking and waste water. ## Notable people People from Salford are called Salfordians, the city has been the birthplace to notable people of national and international acclaim. Joy Division were an English rock band formed in Salford in 1976. The group consisted of vocalist Ian Curtis, guitarist/keyboardist Bernard Sumner, bassist Peter Hook and drummer Stephen Morris which later reformed as New Order. Amongst other notable persons of historic significance with a connection to Salford are Emmeline Pankhurst, one of the founders of the British suffragette movement, who lived in Salford, and the scientist James Prescott Joule, who was born and raised in Salford. The novelist Walter Greenwood (Love on the Dole) and the dramatist Shelagh Delaney (A Taste of Honey'') were both born in, and wrote about, Salford. Ewan MacColl, folk singer-songwriter, known as one of the instigators of the 1960s folk revival as well as for writing such songs as "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" and "Dirty Old Town", was born in Salford. Dirty old town was about Salford. Salford is also the hometown of the band Happy Mondays and punk poet John Cooper Clarke. Composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, who was appointed Master of the Queen's Music in 2004, was born in Salford. Notable Salfordian sportspeople include former England football international and Manchester United F.C. midfielder Paul Scholes, who with several celebrity team mates from his Manchester United playing days bought Salford F.C. Another notable resident of Salford is Eddie Colman, the youngest of the Manchester United players to die in the Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958, when only 21. Born at Archie Street in November 1936, he lived in the area all his life and is buried at Weaste Cemetery. His former home was demolished in the early 1970s. Geoff Bent, another Manchester United player who died at Munich, was born in Salford. Other sporting Salfordians include Olympic Javelin Thrower Shelley Holroyd, English former snooker player Mick Price, who was born in the area, and Great Britain and England rugby league international and former Warrington Wolves front-rower Adrian Morley (later with the Salford Red Devils.) Actors Albert Finney and Robert Powell were both born and raised in Salford. Journalist Alistair Cooke who wrote and broadcast "Letter from America" for decades on the BBC was born in Salford. Lesley Whittaker, nee Hill, environmental campaigner and one of the four founders of PEOPLE in 1972, the political party which later changed its name to the Green Party, was born in Salford. She was Head Prefect of Pendleton High School for Girls in 1961/2. The Party sparked an environmental political movement around the world. ## See also - Listed buildings in Salford, Greater Manchester
71,499,894	1977 Bob–Tangol earthquake	1,172,729,301	Earthquake sequence in Iran	[ "1977 earthquakes", "1977 in Iran", "December 1977 events in Asia", "Earthquakes in Iran", "History of Kerman Province", "Zarand County" ]	The 1977 Bob–Tangol earthquake (also known as the Gisk earthquake) struck Kerman province of Iran on December 20, 1977 at 03:04 Iran Standard Time (December 19 at 23:34 UTC). The earthquake destroyed homes and left thousands homeless. A maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong) was evaluated based on damage. Between 584 and 665 people perished while a further 500–1,000 were injured. Casualties from the earthquake was considered moderate due to the sparsely populated area it affected. The earthquake measured 5.9 and struck at a depth of 22.7 km (14.1 mi). It had a strike-slip focal mechanism, which was unusual as the source structure was a thrust fault. It was part of a sequence of strong earthquakes along the 400 km (250 mi) Kuh Banan Fault. Preceded by foreshocks the month before, many residents became wary of a larger earthquake and took refuge outside their homes, contributing to the moderate death toll. However, there were none immediately before the mainshock so many were still in their homes when it struck. Aftershocks were felt for several months, some causing additional damage. ## Tectonic setting The Iranian plateau is a broad zone of deformed continental crust as it is wedged between the Arabian and Eurasian plates. The Arabian Plate, located southeast of the plateau, undergoes oblique convergence with the Eurasian Plate in the northeast at a rate of 22 cm (8.7 in) annually. Deformation of the crust is distributed non-uniformly by the fold and thrust belts of the Zagros, Alborz, and Kopet Dag; oceanic lithosphere subduction along the Makran Trench; and strike-slip and reverse faulting within the plateau. The Iranian plateau itself is divided into rigid tectonic blocks. These crustal blocks are aseismic, but at their boundaries, seismicity is high. ## Earthquake The northeastern boundary of the Zarand plain is well-expressed by a northwest–southeast range front. This also lies the Kuh Banan Fault (KBF), a steep, east-dipping thrust fault measuring 300 km (190 mi) in length and strikes northwest–southeast. It caused the uplift of late Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic rocks over younger Quaternary alluvium. The fault showed active thrusting in the early Quaternary. The eastern side of the KBF is the mountainous range front which is likely the result of the uplift it caused. The KBF is part of a north–south to northwest–southeast striking system of right-lateral faults. These faults accommodate less than 5 mm (0.20 in)/yr of right-lateral deformation between central Iran and the Lut desert. Seismic activity was first detected along the KBF on September 17 when a strong earthquake shook the region. Two shocks were felt on October 15 and November 7. The foreshock on November 9 damaged several villages. Two additional shocks occurred on November 10 and 13, respectively. No earthquakes were felt from November 13 to the day of the mainshock. Seismicity progressed southwards with the occurrence of the mainshock. The November 9 foreshock may have increased stress in the mainshock zone. Aftershocks were felt until April 2, 1978. The aftershocks which occurred within four months of the mainshock were restricted to the Bob–Tangol segment of the KBF. A strong aftershock on December 24 frightened residents and caused further damage. Seismicity on the KBF progressed northwest to Behabad, five months later, where a damaging earthquake struck on May 24, 1978. That earthquake also had a foreshock sequence which started two days before. ### Mechanism The mainshock was associated with dextral strike-slip faulting caused by rupturing the Bob–Tangol segment. A focal mechanism analysis displayed a minor thrust component, but was not observed during field research. There were no significant vertical ground displacements along the rupture zone. A 19.5 km (12.1 mi) surface rupture and maximum slip of 20 cm (7.9 in) was measured. This strike-slip mechanism is unusual because it differs from the type of faulting associated with the fault that was responsible, indicating an evolvement in slip vector. Earlier surveys of the fault before the earthquake did not display any strike-slip movement. ### Strong ground motion The damaging effects of the earthquake were restricted to an area measuring 45 km (28 mi) by 70 km (43 mi) (the meizoseismal area). Structures in the damage area were left in an extremely unsafe and dilapidated state. High-frequency and low amplitude shaking was inferred in the meizoseismal area. The shaking was insufficient in noticeably displacing objects on the ground. A Modified Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong) was assessed at Dartangal, Gisk and Sarbagh, a 15 km (9.3 mi) zone along the rupture where damage was the greatest. Adobe buildings on bedrock near the rupture were damaged but not destroyed. It was evaluated that ground motion was extreme but of short duration—had it lasted longer, these weakened buildings would have been destroyed. Similarly-constructed homes located further southeast on the Zarand plain were razed. This pattern of damage was likely due to the different types of ground or construction. ## Impact Between 584 and 665 people were killed, and up to 1,000 more were injured. The death toll was considered "moderate" as the mainshock only affected a sparsely populated area. In addition, the foreshock on November 9 made residents take refuge in tents. The foreshock damaged and weakened homes in Dehzu village. There were no precursor seismic activity immediately before the mainshock, which would have alerted residents to flee their homes. Many residents were asleep in their stone or mud homes when the earthquake struck. The town of Zarand and four nearby settlements were heavily affected. Thousands were reported homeless. It was the third destructive earthquake to affect Iran that year—an earthquake in March caused 167 deaths and another in April killed 352 people. Many homes in the affected communities were double storey and had vaulted roofs. Very few intact homes could be repaired. The village of Gisk, home to 2,000 inhabitants, was levelled. The thick masonry walls of homes experienced lateral spreading, allowing roofs to collapse. At least 175 people died in Gisk. In Dartangal, a village of 400 families, many homes were razed and 382 people perished. At Sarbagh, 90 of its 200 residents were killed. Nearly every home in the village was flattened or sustained irrecoverable damage. Shaking was so strong that people were tossed to the ground. In Zarand, 16 people were killed or seriously hurt. About 250 homes were seriously damaged, and to another 900, damage was minor. Modern infrastructures were mostly unaffected. Damage to these structures, including a nearby power station, were non-structural and superficial. At Aqai, 12 homes were destroyed and two people died. Nearly all 45 homes in Dehzuiyeh were damaged and some roof collapses occurred—one fatality was reported. ## Aftermath A spokesman for the Red Lion and Sun Society, a relief organization, said there were many casualties in the villages of Bab-Tanqal, Ghisak and Sarabagh, where the total population was 5,000. Many survivors lacked access to drinking water and were suffering from cold temperatures. Wet weather forecasted in the days after the disaster was anticipated to make rescue attempts challenging. Early reports of the death toll varied; the Red Lion and Sun Society said 80 bodies were recovered while government officials said that 343 were killed, citing rescuers. Rescuers said that the death toll could rise as they inspected levelled villages. Armed forces were instructed to assist in rescue operations. Soldiers and rescue workers used kerosene lamps to assist in night time rescue efforts as they comb the debris. The homeless sought refuge at campsites. The air force transported doctors, medical essentials, meals and tents. Several hundred helicopters were conveyed from a base in Isfahan. Injured survivors were taken onboard trains and helicopters to Kerman and Zarand for medical attention. When hospitals were overwhelmed, inhabitants of the cities invited survivors into their homes. ## See also - List of earthquakes in 1977 - List of earthquakes in Iran
63,618,737	French cruiser Du Chayla	1,136,527,888	Protected cruiser of the French Navy	[ "1895 ships", "D'Assas-class cruisers", "Ships built in France" ]	Du Chayla was a protected cruiser built for the French Navy in the 1890s; she was a member of the D'Assas class. The D'Assas-class cruisers were ordered as part of a construction program directed at strengthening the fleet's cruiser force at a time the country was concerned with the growing naval threat of the Italian and German fleets. The new cruisers were intended to serve with the main fleet and overseas in the French colonial empire. Du Chayla was armed with a main battery of six 164 mm (6.5 in) guns, was protected by an armor deck that was 70 to 80 mm (2.8 to 3.1 in) thick, and was capable of steaming at a top speed of 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). Du Chayla entered service in 1899, joining the Mediterranean Squadron, where she served for the next eight years. During this period, she was occupied primarily with routine training exercises. In August 1907, she supported an amphibious assault in French Morocco during the Bombardment of Casablanca. During World War I, she patrolled the Atlantic for German commerce raiders but saw no action. By 1918, she had been partially disarmed to supply weapons to the French Army. Du Chayla took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in 1919 but was recalled to France in 1920, where she was struck from the naval register in 1921 and sold to ship breakers. ## Design In response to a war scare with Italy in the late 1880s, the French Navy embarked on a major construction program in 1890 to counter the threat of the Italian fleet and that of Italy's ally Germany. The plan called for a total of seventy cruisers for use in home waters and overseas in the French colonial empire. The D'Assas class, which also included D'Assas and Cassard, was ordered as part of the program. Their design was heavily drawn from that of the preceding Friant-class cruisers, being slightly longer and wider, which improved speed and stability. Du Chayla was 99.65 m (326 ft 11 in) long overall, with a beam of 13.68 m (44 ft 11 in) and an average draft of 5.8 m (19 ft 0 in). She displaced 3,957.1 t (3,894.6 long tons; 4,362.0 short tons) as designed. Her crew varied over the course of her career, and consisted of 370–392 officers and enlisted men. The ship's propulsion system consisted of a pair of triple-expansion steam engines driving two screw propellers. Steam was provided by twenty coal-burning Lagrafel d'Allest water-tube boilers that were ducted into three funnels. Her machinery was rated to produce 10,000 indicated horsepower (7,500 kW) for a top speed of 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). She had a cruising radius of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km; 6,900 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) and 1,000 nmi (1,900 km; 1,200 mi) at 20 knots. The ship was armed with a main battery of six 164.7 mm (6.5 in) guns. They were placed in individual pivot mounts; one was on the forecastle, two were in sponsons abreast the forward conning tower, and the last was on the stern. These were supported by a secondary battery of four 100 mm (3.9 in) guns, which were carried in pivot mounts in the fore and aft conning towers, one on each side per tower. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried ten 47 mm (1.9 in) 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns, and three 37 mm Hotchkiss revolver cannon. She was also armed with two 356 mm (14 in) torpedo tubes in her hull above the waterline. Armor protection consisted of a curved armor deck that was 30 to 80 mm (1.2 to 3.1 in) thick, along with 60 mm (2.4 in) plating on the conning tower. The main and secondary guns were fitted with 54 mm (2.1 in) thick gun shields. ### Modifications Du Chayla's 37 mm revolving cannon were removed in 1902, and her torpedo tubes were removed in 1908. She sent her 100 mm guns ashore in 1917 to strengthen the defenses of Port Said at the northern end of the Suez Canal. By 1918, most of her armament was removed, leaving her equipped with two 164.7 mm guns (one at the bow and the other at the stern), four 75 mm (3 in) M1897 guns in her sponsons, and four 47 mm guns. ## Service history ### Construction – 1902 Du Chayla was built by the Arsenal de Cherbourg shipyard; the shipyard received the contract for the ship on 18 March 1893. Her keel was laid down on 23 March 1894, and she was launched on 10 November 1895. The ship was commissioned on 15 July 1897 to begin sea trials, which were completed by 19 February 1898, when she was placed in full commission for active service. During her trials, she reached a top speed of 20.2 knots (37.4 km/h; 23.2 mph) using forced draft. The examinations revealed stability issues that necessitated the installation of bilge keels. After entering active service, she departed Cherbourg on 20 February for Toulon on the French Mediterranean coast, which she reached on 27 February. There, she joined the Escadre de la Méditerranée (Mediterranean Squadron), France's primary battle fleet. She remained in the unit the following year; at that time, the squadron consisted of six pre-dreadnought battleships, three armored cruisers, seven other protected cruisers, and several smaller vessels. Du Chayla operated with the Mediterranean Squadron in 1900, which was stationed in Toulon. On 6 March, Du Chayla joined several pre-dreadnought battleships and the cruisers Cassard, Lavoisier, and Galilée for maneuvers off Golfe-Juan on the Côte d'Azur, including night firing training. Over the course of April, the ships visited numerous French ports along the Mediterranean coast, and on 31 May the fleet steamed to Corsica for a visit that lasted until 8 June. She then took part in the fleet maneuvers that began later that month as part of Group II, along with Cassard and Galilée. The maneuvers included a blockade conducted by Group II in late June, and after completing its own exercises, the Mediterranean Squadron rendezvoused with the Northern Squadron off Lisbon, Portugal, in late June before proceeding to Quiberon Bay for joint maneuvers in July. The maneuvers concluded with a naval review in Cherbourg on 19 July for President Émile Loubet. On 1 August, the Mediterranean Fleet departed for Toulon, arriving on 14 August. She remained with the Mediterranean Squadron the following year. That year, the annual fleet maneuvers were conducted from 3 to 28 July. During the exercises, the Northern Squadron steamed south for joint maneuvers with the Mediterranean Squadron. The Northern Squadron ships formed part of the hostile force, and as it was entering the Mediterranean from the Atlantic, represented a German squadron attempting to meet its Italian allies. The ship continued to serve in the squadron through 1902. During the 1902 fleet maneuvers, which began on 7 July, the Northern Squadron attempted to force a passage through the Strait of Gibraltar. The cruisers of the Mediterranean Squadron, including Du Chayla, conducted patrols from their base at Mers El Kébir to observe their entrance and signal the rest of the fleet. After successfully detecting the simulated enemy squadron, they shadowed the vessels until the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron assembled, but the Northern Squadron commander was able to shake his pursuers long enough to prevent them from intercepting his force before the end of the exercises on 15 July. Further maneuvers with the combined fleet took place, concluding on 5 August. ### 1903–1933 The ship remained in service with the squadron in 1903. Du Chayla was once again assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron in 1904. She remained in service with the unit in 1905, and in late March, she and the cruiser Linois were present in Tangier during a visit by the German armored cruiser Friedrich Carl and the passenger steamer SS Hamburg, which had the German Kaiser Wilhelm II aboard. The visit precipitated the First Moroccan Crisis between France and Germany. She was still assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron the following year. She was present for a naval review in Marseille on 16 September with elements of the Mediterranean Squadron. She took part in the fleet maneuvers that year, which began on 6 July with the concentration of the Northern and Mediterranean Squadrons in Algiers. The maneuvers were conducted in the western Mediterranean, alternating between ports in French North Africa and Toulon and Marseilles, France, and concluding on 4 August. She remained in the Mediterranean Squadron in 1907, by which time the cruiser strength had been reduced to three armored cruisers and the protected cruiser Lalande. Du Chayla was present for the 1907 fleet maneuvers, which again saw the Northern and Mediterranean Squadrons unite for large-scale operations held off the coast of French Morocco and in the western Mediterranean. The exercises consisted of three phases and began on 2 July and concluded on 30 July. In early August, the ship supported the landing of French soldiers at Casablanca in French Morocco. Rebels in French Morocco had seized control of the city and murdered several Europeans, which led to a request for support. Galilée was sent to put a landing party ashore, and she sent a force of 75 men into the city on 5 August. While the men were fighting their way to the French consulate, Galilée was joined by Du Chayla, and the two cruisers then bombarded the port and the fortress in the city, killing around 200. Additional French forces arrived by 9 August and sent a larger force of 3,000 sailors ashore. The rebels made a major assault on the French forces the next day, but intense fire support from the French warships drove them off with heavy losses. She remained on station in Morocco in 1908, nominally part of the Mediterranean Squadron. She was still assigned to the Morocco Division in 1911, by which time she had been joined by the protected cruiser Cosmao. During World War I, Du Chayla operated in the Atlantic Ocean on patrol for German commerce raiders from the start of the war in July 1914 to 1916. That year, she was transferred to the Red Sea, where she spent the next two years. In May 1917, she was sent to the Indian Ocean, and in August, she sent some of her guns ashore at Port Said to strengthen the harbor defenses there. In April 1918, she sailed to Bizerte in French Tunisia, where she sent her four amidships 164.7 mm guns ashore. In late 1918, she was reassigned to the Levant Squadron. Immediately after the war in late 1918, she joined the French fleet that entered the Black Sea to intervene in the Russian Civil War, though she remained there only into the following year, when she was recalled to France. When she left Sevastopol, Russia, on 28 April 1919, she took the cruiser Almaz under tow to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire, where she left her two days later. Du Chayla later returned to Cherbourg, where she was decommissioned on 28 July 1921 and struck from the naval register on 27 October. The ship was then towed to Brest in 1922, where she was used as a stationary training ship for engine room officers. By December 1925, Du Chayla had been replaced in that role by the old aviso Vauquois, and she was taken to Lorient, where she was employed as a landing hulk for the oil depot in the port. The ship was eventually placed for sale on 29 March 1933, being purchased on 15 November to a ship-breaking firm based in Saint-Nazaire; she was towed there in December and scrapped.
4,140,416	Tribal Hidage	1,167,927,302	List of thirty-five Anglo-Saxon tribes	[ "Anglo-Saxon kingdoms", "Mercia", "Texts of Anglo-Saxon England" ]	The Tribal Hidage is a list of thirty-five tribes that was compiled in Anglo-Saxon England some time between the 7th and 9th centuries. It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories, and assigns a number of hides to each one. The list is headed by Mercia and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the Humber estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom, some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars. The value of 100,000 hides for Wessex is by far the largest: it has been suggested that this was a deliberate exaggeration. The original purpose of the Tribal Hidage remains unknown: it could be a tribute list created by a king, but other purposes have been suggested. The hidage figures may be symbolic, reflecting the prestige of each territory, or they may represent an early example of book-keeping. Many historians are convinced that the Tribal Hidage originated from Mercia, which dominated southern Anglo-Saxon England until the start of the 9th century, but others have argued that the text was Northumbrian in origin. The Tribal Hidage has been of importance to historians since the middle of the 19th century, partly because it mentions territories unrecorded in other documents. Attempts to link all the names in the list with modern places are highly speculative and resulting maps are treated with caution. Three different versions (or recensions) have survived, two of which resemble each other: one dates from the 11th century and is part of a miscellany of works; another is contained in a 17th-century Latin treatise; the third, which has survived in six mediaeval manuscripts, has omissions and spelling variations. All three versions appear to be based on the same lost manuscript: historians have been unable to establish a date for the original compilation. The Tribal Hidage has been used to construct theories about the political organisation of the Anglo-Saxons, and to give an insight into the Mercian state and its neighbours when Mercia held hegemony over them. It has been used to support theories of the origin of the listed tribes and the way in which they were systematically assessed and ruled by others. Some historians have proposed that the Tribal Hidage is not a list of peoples, but of administrative areas. ## Hide assessments The Tribal Hidage is, according to historian D. P. Kirby, "a list of total assessments in terms of hides for a number of territories south of the Humber, which has been variously dated from the mid-7th to the second half of the 8th century". Most of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy are included. Mercia, which is assigned 30,000 hides, is at the top at the list, followed by a number of small tribes to the west and north of Mercia, all of which have no more than 7000 hides listed. Other named tribes have even smaller hidages, of between 300 and 1200 hides: of these the Herefinna, Noxgaga, Hendrica and Unecungaga cannot be identified, whilst the others have been tentatively located around the south of England and in the border region between Mercia and East Anglia. Ohtgaga can be heard as Jutegaga and understood as the area settled by Jutes in and near the Meon Valley of Hampshire. The term'-gaga' is a late copyist mistranscription of the Old English '-wara' (people/ men of) the letter forms of 'w' wynn and the long-tailed 'r' being read as 'g'. A number of territories, such as the Hicca, have only been located by means of place-names evidence. The list concludes with several other kingdoms from the Heptarchy: the East Angles (who are assessed at 30,000 hides), the East Saxons (7,000 hides), Kent (15,000 hides), the South Saxons (7,000 hides) and Wessex, which is assessed at 100,000 hides. The round figures of the hidage assessments make it unlikely they were the result of an accurate survey. The methods of assessment used probably differed according to the size of the region. The figures may be of purely symbolic significance, reflecting the status of each tribe at the time it was assessed. The totals given within the text for the figures suggest that the Tribal Hidage was perhaps used as a form of book-keeping. Frank Stenton describes the hidage figures given for the Heptarchy kingdoms as exaggerated and in the instances of Mercia and Wessex, "entirely at variance with other information". ## Surviving manuscripts A manuscript, now lost, was originally used to produce the three recensions of the Tribal Hidage, named A, B and C. Recension A, which is the earliest and most complete, dates from the 11th century. It is included in a miscellany of works, written in Old English and Latin, with Aelfric's Latin Grammar and his homily De initio creaturæ, written in 1034, and now in the British Library. It was written by different scribes, at a date no later than 1032. Recension B, which resembles Recension A, is contained in a 17th-century Latin treatise, Archaeologus in Modum Glossarii ad rem antiquam posteriorem, written by Henry Spelman in 1626. The tribal names are given in Old English. There are significant differences in spelling between A and B (for instance Spelman's use of the word hidas), indicating that the text he copied was not Recension A, but a different Latin text. According to Peter Featherstone, the highly edited form of the text suggests that Spelman embellished it himself. Recension C has survived in six Latin documents, all with common omissions and spellings. Four versions, of 13th-century origin, formed part of a collection of legal texts that, according to Featherstone, "may have been intended to act as part of a record of native English custom". The other two are a century older: one is flawed and may have been a scribe's exercise, and the other was part of a set of legal texts. ## Origin Historians disagree on the date for the original compilation of the list. According to Campbell, who notes the plausibility of it being produced during the rise of Mercia, it can probably be dated to the 7th or 8th century. Other historians, such as J. Brownbill, Barbara Yorke, Frank Stenton and Cyril Roy Hart, have written that it originated from Mercia at around this time, but differ on the identity of the Mercian ruler under whom the list was compiled. Wendy Davies and Hayo Vierck have placed the document's origin more precisely at 670-690. There is near universal agreement that the text originates from Mercia, partly because its kings held extensive power over other territories from the late 7th to the early 9th centuries, but also because the list, headed by Mercia, is almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the river Humber. Featherstone concludes that the original material, dating from the late 7th century, was used to be included in a late 9th century document and asserts that the Mercian kingdom "was at the centre of the world mapped out by the Tribal Hidage". Frank Stenton wrote that "the Tribal Hidage was almost certainly compiled in Mercia", whilst acknowledging a lack of conclusive evidence. In contrast to most historians, Nicholas Brooks has suggested that the list is of Northumbrian origin, which would account for the inclusion of Elmet and the absence of the Northumbrian kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia. Mercia would not have been listed, as "an early mediaeval king did not impose tribute upon his own kingdom": it must have been a list produced by another kingdom, perhaps with an altogether different purpose. N. J. Higham has argued that because the original information cannot be dated and the largest Northumbrian kingdoms are not included, it cannot be proved to be a Mercian tribute list. He notes that Elmet, never a province of Mercia, is on the list, and suggests that it was drawn up by Edwin of Northumbria in the 620s, probably originating when a Northumbrian king last exercised imperium over the Southumbrian kingdoms. According to Higham, the values assigned to each people are likely to be specific to the events of 625-626, representing contracts made between Edwin and those who recognised his overlordship, so explaining the rounded nature of the figures: 100,000 hides for the West Saxons was probably the largest number Edwin knew. According to D. P. Kirby, this theory has not been generally accepted as convincing. ## Purpose The purpose of the Tribal Hidage is unknown. Over the years different theories have been suggested for its purpose, linked with a range of dates for its creation. The Tribal Hidage could have been a tribute list created upon the instructions of an Anglo-Saxon king such as Offa of Mercia, Wulfhere of Mercia or Edwin of Northumbria — but it may have been used for different purposes at various times during its history. Cyril Hart has described it as a tribute list created for Offa, but acknowledges that no proof exists that it was compiled during his rule. Higham notes that the syntax of the text requires that a word implying 'tribute' was omitted from each line, and argues that it was "almost certainly a tribute list". To Higham, the large size of the West Saxon hidation indicates that there was a link between the scale of tribute and any political considerations. James Campbell has argued that if the list served any practical purpose, it implies that tributes were assessed and obtained in an organised way, and notes that, "whatever it is, and whatever it means, it indicates a degree of orderliness, or coherence in the exercise of power...". Yorke acknowledges that the purpose of the Tribal Hidage is unknown and that it may well not be, as has been commonly argued, an overlord's tribute list. She warns against assuming that the minor peoples (of 7000 hides or less) possessed any "means of defining themselves as a distinct gentes". Among these, the Isle of Wight and the South Gyrwe tribes, tiny in terms of their hidages and geographically isolated from other peoples, were among the few who possessed their own royal dynasties. P. H. Sawyer argues that the values may have had a symbolic purpose and that they were intended to be an expression of the status of each kingdom and province. To Sawyer, the obscurity of some of the tribal names and the absence from the list of others points to an early date for the original text, which he describes as a "monument to Mercian power". The 100,000 hides assigned to Wessex may have reflected its superior status at a later date and would imply that the Tribal Hidage in its present form was written in Wessex. The very large hidage assessment for Wessex was considered to be an error by the historian J. Brownbill, but Hart maintains that the value for Wessex is correct and that it was one of several assessments designed to exact the largest possible tribute from Mercia's main rivals. ## Historiography Sir Henry Spelman was the first to publish the Tribal Hidage in his first volume of Glossarium Archaiologicum (1626) and there is also a version of the text in a book written in 1691 by Thomas Gale, but no actual discussion of the Tribal Hidage emerged until 1848, when John Mitchell Kemble's The Saxons in England was published. In 1884, Walter de Gray Birch wrote a paper for the British Archaeological Association, in which he discussed in detail the location of each of the tribes. The term Tribal Hidage was introduced by Frederic William Maitland in 1897, in his book Domesday Book and Beyond. During the following decades, articles were published by William John Corbett (1900), Hector Munro Chadwick (1905) and John Brownbill (1912 and 1925). The most important subsequent accounts of the Tribal Hidage since Corbett, according to Campbell, are by Josiah Cox Russell (1947), Hart (1971), Davies and Vierck (1974) and David Dumville (1989). Kemble recognised the antiquity of Spelman's document and used historical texts (such as Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum) to assess its date of origin. He proposed locations for each tribe, without attempting to locate each one, and suggested that some Anglo-Saxon peoples were missing from the document. Birch, in his paper An Unpublished Manuscript of some Early Territorial Names in England, announced his discovery of what became known as Recension A, which he suggested was a 10th or 11th century copy of a lost 7th-century manuscript. He methodically compared all the publications and manuscripts of the Tribal Hidage that are available at the time and placed each tribe using both his own theories and the ideas of others, some of which (for instance when he located the Wokensætna in Woking, Surrey) are now discounted. Maitland suspected that the accepted number of acres to each hide needed to be reconsidered to account for the figures in the Tribal Hidage and used his own calculations to conclude that the figures were probably exaggerated. John Brownbill advised against using Latin versions of the document, which he described as error-prone. He determined that the Old English manuscript was written in 1032 and was a copy of an original Mercian manuscript. Chadwick attempted to allocate each tribe to one or more English shires, with the use of key passages from historical texts. In 1971, Hart attempted a "complete reconstruction of the political geography of Saxon England at the end of the 8th century". Assuming that all the English south of the Humber are listed within the Tribal Hidage, he produced a map that divides southern England into Mercia's provinces and outlying dependencies, using evidence from river boundaries and other topographical features, place-names and historical borders. ## Importance for historians The Tribal Hidage is a valuable record for historians. It is unique in that no similar text has survived: the document is one of a very few to survive out of a great many records that were produced by the administrators of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, a "chance survivor" of many more documents, as Campbell has suggested. Hart has observed that "as a detailed record of historical topography it has no parallel in the whole of western Europe". The Tribal Hidage lists several minor kingdoms and tribes that are not recorded anywhere else and is generally agreed to be the earliest fiscal document that has survived from medieval England. Historians have used the Tribal Hidage to provide evidence for the political organisation of Anglo-Saxon England and it has been "pressed into service by those seeking to interpret the nature and geography of kingships and of 'peoples' in pre-Viking England", according to N. J. Higham. In particular, the document has been seen as invaluable for providing evidence about the Mercian state and those peoples that were under its rule or influence. Alex Woolf uses the concentration of tribes with very small hidages between Mercia and East Anglia as part of an argument that there were in existence "large, multi-regional provinces, some of which were surrounded by small, contested territories". Stenton positions the Middle Anglian peoples to the south-east of the Mercians. He suggests that an independent Middle Anglia once existed, seemingly consisting of twenty of the peoples that were listed in the Tribal Hidage. The expansion of Wessex in the tenth century would have caused the obliteration of the Middle Anglia's old divisions, by which time the places listed would have become mere names. Middle Anglia in the 7th century constitutes a model for the development of English administrative units during the period, according to Davies and Vierck, who demonstrate that it was created by Penda of Mercia when he made his son Peada king of the Middle Angles at the time that they were introduced to Christianity. James Campbell refutes suggestions that the hides given for each tribe were the sum of a system of locally collected assessments and argues that a two-tier system of assessment, one for large areas such as kingdoms and a more accurate one for individual estates, may have existed. He considers the possibility that many of the tribes named in the Tribal Hidage were no more than administrative units and that some names did not originate from a tribe itself but from a place from where the people were governed, eventually coming to signify the district where the tribe itself lived. Yorke suggests that the -sætan/sæte form of several of the place-names are an indication that they were named after a feature of the local landscape. She also suggests the tribes were dependent administrative units and not independent kingdoms, some of which were created as such after the main kingdoms were stabilized. The term Tribal Hidage may perhaps have led scholars to underestimate how the names of the tribes were used by Anglo-Saxon administrators for the purpose of labelling local regions; the names could be referring to actual peoples (whose identity was retained after they fell under Mercian domination), or administrative areas that were unconnected with the names of local peoples. Campbell suggests that the truth lies somewhere between these two possibilities. Davies and Vierck believe the smallest of the groups in the Tribal Hidage originated from populations formed into tribes after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century and suggest that these tribes might sometimes have joined forces, until large kingdoms such as Mercia emerged around the beginning of the 7th century. Scott DeGregorio has argued that the Tribal Hidage provides evidence that Anglo-Saxon governments required a system of "detailed assessment" in order to construct great earthworks such as Offa's Dyke. The kingdom of East Anglia is recorded for the first time in the Tribal Hidage. According to Davies and Vierck, 7th century East Anglia may have consisted of a collection of regional groups, some of which retained their individual identity. Martin Carver agrees with Davies and Vierck when he describes the territory of East Anglia as having unfixed borders, stating that "political authority appears to have primarily invested in people rather than territory".
54,179,799	2019 Tour de France	1,164,331,566	106th edition of cycling Grand Tour	[ "2019 Tour de France", "2019 UCI World Tour", "2019 in Belgian sport", "2019 in Brussels", "2019 in French sport", "July 2019 sports events in France", "Tour de France by year" ]	The 2019 Tour de France was the 106th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's three Grand Tours. The 3,365.8 km (2,091 mi)-long race consisted of 21 stages, starting in the Belgian capital of Brussels on 6 July, before moving throughout France and concluding on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 28 July. A total of 176 riders from 22 teams participated in the race. The overall general classification was won for the first time by a Latin American rider, Egan Bernal of . His teammate and 2018 Tour winner Geraint Thomas finished second while Steven Kruijswijk () came in third. Kruijswijk's teammate Mike Teunissen won stage 1's bunch sprint to take the first yellow jersey of the Tour. Julian Alaphilippe of took the lead of the race following his victory of stage 3. He lost the yellow jersey after the sixth stage to Giulio Ciccone () who was the highest placed rider of a breakaway group that finished ahead of the peloton (main group). Ciccone's lead of the Tour lasted two stages, before Alaphilippe retook it after stage 8. Against expectations, he held the yellow jersey for the next eleven stages, including the Pyrenees, before losing it to Bernal on the second day in the Alps, stage 19, which was shortened by inclement weather. Bernal held his lead in the final two stages to win the Tour. The points classification was won by 's Peter Sagan for a record seventh time, with Romain Bardet of winning the mountains classification. Bernal also won the young rider classification. The team classification was won by and Alaphilippe was named the overall most combative rider. Caleb Ewan of won the most stages, with three. ## Teams The 2019 edition of the Tour de France consisted of 22 teams. The race was the 27th of the 38 events in the UCI World Tour, and all of its 18 UCI WorldTeams were entitled, and obliged, to enter the race. Additionally, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), the organisers of the Tour, invited four second-tier UCI Professional Continental teams to participate in the event. The three French and one Belgian teams had each participated in the race before. The presentation of the teams – where the members of each team's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place in front of a crowd of 75,000 on the Grand-Place square in Brussels, Belgium, on 4 July, two days before the opening stage. Each squad was allowed a maximum of eight riders, resulting in a start list total of 176. Of these, 33 competed in their first Tour de France. The riders came from 30 countries. Six countries had more than ten riders in the race: France (43), Belgium (21), Italy (15), Spain (13), Germany (11) and the Netherlands (11). The average age of riders in the race was 29.71 years, ranging from the 21-year-old Jasper Philipsen () to the 39-year-old Lars Bak (). had the youngest average age while had the oldest. The teams participating in the race were: UCI WorldTeams UCI Professional Continental teams ## Pre-race favourites Pre-race predictions in the media, as well as the bookmakers, on the general classification were drastically altered when four-time Tour winner Chris Froome () was ruled out with multiple injuries following his crash at the Critérium du Dauphiné three weeks before the Tour. Although he was third overall behind teammate and winner Geraint Thomas in the previous year's Tour, Froome was considered the 2019 Tour favourite before his crash. Prior to Froome's withdrawal, there was no official announcement by on leadership for the Tour, which could have potentially been shared between himself, Thomas and Egan Bernal. Another major absentee was the 2018 Tour runner-up Tom Dumoulin (), who missed the Tour with a knee injury he picked up at the Giro d'Italia, the Grand Tour of Italy that took place a month before the Tour de France, and a race he won in 2017. With their absence, the Tour was expected to be a more open race, with Thomas and Bernal as the leading contenders. Their closest rivals were thought to be Romain Bardet (), Jakob Fuglsang (), Steven Kruijswijk (), Mikel Landa (), Vincenzo Nibali (), Thibaut Pinot (), Nairo Quintana () and Adam Yates (). After celebrating his 2018 Tour victory, Thomas was overweight at the start of the 2019 season. His only result of note before the Tour was a third-place overall finish at the Tour de Romandie in early May. In June he abandoned the Tour de Suisse following a crash, and required recovery time, which put his ability to perform at the Tour in doubt. Bernal made his Tour debut in 2018 riding as a domestique (leader's assistant) for Froome and Thomas, who are ten years his senior. In the 2019 season, he was planned to lead his team's Giro squad, but missed the race after he broke his collarbone. His major wins of the season up to the Tour were the Paris–Nice stage race before his injury and the Tour de Suisse on his return. In the Tour, he was to share the leadership with Thomas according to the team, although some in the media expected an internal battle between the two. Bardet had finished on the podium twice in his career, second in 2016 and third in 2017. His form was lacking in the build up to the Tour, although his experience and the consistency of his previous performances in the race were considered enough to make him a serious contender. Fuglsang was the most in-form contender, enjoying a successful spring classics campaign, including victory in the prestigious "monument" one-day race Liège–Bastogne–Liège as well as the stage races Vuelta a Andalucía and the Dauphiné. Fuglsang was thought likely to benefit from a strong team, but doubt was cast on his ability to perform over a three-week Grand Tour, as he had never finished in the top three places in a Grand Tour. That too was the case with Kruijswijk, who had performed well in the season and was considered a top contender, despite suffering with illness leading up to the Tour. Landa's form was considered harder to predict, as he had stayed away from racing after the Giro, where he just missed out on a podium place. His best overall result in the Tour so far had been in 2017, when he finished fourth riding as a domestique to Froome. Veteran rider Nibali had no wins so far in 2019, but placed second overall at the Giro and was considered to be a danger due to his experience. He was the only rider on the start list apart from Thomas to have won a Tour, the 2014 edition. Pinot was also considered to be in form after finishing fifth overall in the Dauphiné, and before that, winning the general classification of the non-World Tour Tour de l'Ain and Tour du Haut Var. It was however speculated that the pressure of being a home favourite could affect him negatively, as well having issues with heat. His previous results in the Tour had been mixed: he had finished third in 2014, but had dropped out of the race twice since then. Quintana, a two-time Grand Tour winner, was seen as a podium contender. Yates returned to the race after finishing 29th overall the previous year. Although he withdrew from the Dauphiné a few weeks earlier for illness, he had been in good form before then. Other riders expected to place high in the general classification were Emanuel Buchmann (), Dan Martin (), Enric Mas (), Richie Porte (), Rigoberto Urán and Tejay van Garderen (both ), Alejandro Valverde () and Ilnur Zakarin (). The 2018 winner of the points classification, Peter Sagan (), returned to defend his title in an attempt to break Erik Zabel's record of six wins. Before the Tour he shared the record with Zabel, after winning the classification in six out of the past seven editions. Sagan was regarded as the clear favourite for winning the points classification. The riders thought to be Sagan's biggest rivals were Caleb Ewan (), Dylan Groenewegen (), Michael Matthews () and Elia Viviani (). Other contenders for the green jersey were Julian Alaphilippe (), Edvald Boasson Hagen (), Alexander Kristoff () and Wout van Aert (). ## Route and stages On 30 May 2017, the ASO announced that Brussels would host the 2019 edition's opening stages (known as the Grand Départ), honouring one of the Tour's most successful riders, Belgian Eddy Merckx, on the 50th anniversary of his first of five overall victories. It was the second time the Grand Départ had taken place in Brussels and was the fifth Belgian Grand Départ. It also marked 100 years since the race leader's yellow jersey was first seen at a Tour. Further details of the Grand Départ were revealed on 16 January 2018: the opening stage that featured the Muur van Geraardsbergen climb, an iconic steep cobbled climb of the Tour of Flanders "monument" race, and a second stage team time trial around the streets of Brussels. The entire route, which the race director Christian Prudhomme described as "the highest Tour in history", was unveiled on 25 October 2018. The opening stage visited Charleroi and looped back to Brussels, to connect the regions of Flanders and Wallonia in a stage. Starting in Binche, the third stage left Belgium for France, with the following stage taking the race to the north-east to the Vosges Mountains for two further stages. The transitional stage 7 moved the Tour south-west and towards the Massif Central highland region, with stage 8 ending in the city of Saint-Étienne. Stages 9 and 10 traversed the Massif Central, before the Tour's first rest day. The following two stages moved the race to the Pyrenees, which hosted four stages. After the second rest day, the Tour took a long transfer east for stage 16, finishing in Nîmes. Stage 17 took the race up to the Alps at Gap. After three Alpine stages, an air transfer moved the Tour to the outskirts of Paris, ending with the Champs-Élysées stage. There were 21 stages in the race, covering a total distance of 3,365.8 km (2,091 mi). There were two time trial events, stage 2's 27.6 km (17 mi) team time trial and stage 13's 27.2 km (17 mi) individual time trial. Of the remaining nineteen stages, seven were officially classified as flat, five as hilly and seven as mountainous. The longest mass-start stage was stage 7, at 230 km (143 mi), and the shortest was stage 14, at 117.5 km (73 mi). The route contained five mountain-top finishes: stage 6, to La Planche des Belles Filles; stages 14, to the Col du Tourmalet; stage 15, to Foix; stage 19, to Col de l'Iseran; and stage 20, to Val Thorens. The Iseran mountain pass, the highest paved pass in Europe, featured on stage 19. This was the seventh time that the Tour climbed the 2,770 m (9,090 ft) Iseran, but only the second ascent from the more difficult southern side. It was among five hors catégorie (beyond category) rated climbs in the race. Of the 34 stage start or finish hosts, the race visited Binche, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges and Pont du Gard for the first time. ## Race overview ### First week: Belgium, north-eastern to southern France Stage 1's bunch sprint finish was won by 's Mike Teunissen. He was initially a member of the team's sprint train who were leading out their designated sprinter Dylan Groenewegen, but following Groenewegen's crash in the closing 2 km (1.2 mi), Teunissen was free to race in the sprint. He took the first yellow and green jerseys as the leader of the general and points classifications respectively. Early in the stage, Greg Van Avermaet () led the breakaway group over the highest categorised climb of the stage, the third-category Muur van Geraardsbergen, claiming the lead in the mountains classification and the first polka dot jersey as the leader of the classification. Teunissen increased his overall lead in the race following his team's victory in stage 2's team time trial, finishing twenty seconds ahead of second-placed . However, his hold on the yellow jersey was short lived after the following day's hilly stage when he lost the race lead to Julian Alaphilippe, who launched a solo attack with 16 km (9.9 mi) to go over the final climb, the third-category Côte de Mutigny, catching and passing the remainder of the breakaway to win the stage. Peter Sagan and Tim Wellens () took the green and polka dot jerseys respectively. The following day's flat stage ended in a bunch sprint won by Elia Viviani. The climbs of stage 5 did not cause trouble to the race, as most of the stage contenders retained their energy for the following stage's steep finish of the first-category Planche des Belles Filles climb. An early four-man breakaway, which included mountains classification leader Wellens, was caught well before the sprint bunch finish, won by Sagan. The mountainous stage 6 saw a 14-strong breakaway gain a lead of more than 8 minutes. By the second-category Col des Chevrères, only four riders remained. Wellens and Xandro Meurisse (), the former having secured his polka dot jersey for another day, were distanced on the final climb by Dylan Teuns () and Giulio Ciccone (). Teuns went on to win the stage, and despite Ciccone fading before Teuns in the final metres of the climb he managed to take over the yellow jersey, as the strongest of the peloton (main group) came in over one and a half minutes behind, with former leader Alaphilippe standing six seconds down in second place. The final 500 m (1,640 ft) also proved to be a difficulty for general classification contenders Vincenzo Nibali, Richie Porte and Romain Bardet, who lost time on the climb. Stage 7, returning to the flat after the Vosges Mountains, was uneventful, with the breakaway being held by the peloton to only a few minutes, and despite early crashes by Tejay van Garderen and Teunissen, ended in a technical bunch sprint won by Groenewegen. The Tour began its traverse of the Massif Central with stage 8; with close to 4,000 m (13,000 ft) of elevation gain, it was seen before the race as a potential win from a breakaway, which on the day had four riders. As the successive climbs were passed, this number was gradually reduced, with only Thomas De Gendt () and Alessandro De Marchi () surviving until the final climb, on which De Gendt successfully distanced him. With the breakaway duo's advantage down to under a minute in the final kilometres, Alaphilippe and Thibault Pinot attacked and gained twenty seconds on the much reduced peloton, as De Gendt managed to hold on for the stage victory, with Alaphilippe regaining his yellow jersey. Defending champion Geraint Thomas survived his second crash in this edition of the Tour. Stage 9 saw an early 15-strong breakaway form, which the peloton let go. At the 40 km (24.9 mi) to go mark, Lukas Pöstlberger of escaped the breakaway until 15 km (9.3 mi) from the finish on the final climb of the third-category Côte de Saint-Just. Following this, a leading trio emerged, consisting of Nicolas Roche (), Tiesj Benoot () and Daryl Impey (). Roche was dropped before the finish, leaving the victory to Impey who overcame Benoot in the final sprint, in a day which otherwise saw no significant changes in the overall standings. The tenth stage was on relatively flat terrain. With 30 km (18.6 mi) remaining, splits occurred in the peloton as and others took to the front and broke the field apart in strong crosswinds. This effort proved decisive, as several overall contenders who were caught behind, including Pinot, Richie Porte, Rigoberto Urán, Jakob Fuglsang and Mikel Landa, lost time on the front group. Thomas, Egan Bernal, Alaphilippe and Bardet maintained their position at the front of the race, amongst a reduced bunch. The victory went to Wout van Aert, as several of the main sprinters were caught behind, including his teammate Groenewegen. By the first rest day, which was a day later than usual, the general classification was led by Alaphilippe, who had a lead of 1' 12" on Thomas, behind whom was Bernal in third place, just 4" from Thomas. Home favourite Pinot, despite being 1' 21" back from Thomas in eleventh place, was considered by his directeur sportif Marc Madiot to still be in contention. In the points classification, pre-race favourite Sagan was in first position, already 62 points ahead of second-placed Michael Matthews. The mountains classification was more closely contested, with breakaway riders and teammates Wellens and De Gendt respectively first and second, with a gap of six points. ### Second week: Southern France and Pyrenees Stage 11's small breakaway was caught with 5 km (3.1 mi) remaining, before Caleb Ewan won the bunch sprint finish. The first Pyrenean stage, the twelfth, saw a 42-rider breakaway reduce to a group of Simon Yates (), Pello Bilbao () and Gregor Mühlberger () on the final climb of La Hourquette d'Ancizan, the second of the stage's two first-category climbs. The trio descended to the finish at Bagnères-de-Bigorre, where Yates won the sprint. The majority of the peloton came in close to ten minutes after. A notable abandonment of the stage, for personal reasons, was the reigning world time trial champion Rohan Dennis (), a favourite for the following day's time trial. In the aforementioned stage, Alaphilippe took the victory, with a time of 35' 00" across the 27.2 km (17 mi) course, achieving a victory on a day where he was expected to lose time to riders such as Thomas, who ended up in second place, fourteen seconds down. Wout van Aert, one of the favourites for the stage, had to abandon the race during the time trial after he crashed, having clipped a barrier on the side of the road. On stage 14, the last of the breakaway riders were caught by the leading group of general classification contenders at 10 km (6.2 mi) before the finish atop the hors catégorie Col du Tourmalet. With 1 km (0.62 mi) remaining, Thomas got detached from the lead group containing Alaphilippe, Emanuel Buchmann, Pinot, Bernal, Landa and Steven Kruijswijk. Pinot attacked in the final 250 m (270 yd) and held his lead to the finish line at the summit. On the final stage in the Pyrenees, Simon Yates took his second stage win of the race from a reduced breakaway of six at the summit of the 11.8 km (7.3 mi) first-category climb to Prat d'Albis. Pinot attacked the group of general classification contenders with 6 km (3.7 mi) remaining to finish in second place with Landa, 33 seconds behind, progressing to fourth overall. The duo of Bernal and Buchmann came in 33' down, followed by the last few breakaway riders, and then the group of favourites, led by Thomas, who finished 1' 22" behind Yates. The following day was the Tour's second rest day. By this point, overall race leader Alaphilippe was exceeding expectations, with a 1' 35" lead over Thomas. Kruijswijk was third at 1' 47", followed by Pinot, Bernal and Buchmann respectively. The green jersey was still held by Sagan, who now had a lead of 85 points over second-placed Viviani, while the mountains classification was still led by Wellens. ### Third week: Southern France, Alps and finale in Paris As the Tour came down from the Pyrenees for transitional stages towards the Alps, it experienced the beginning of the July 2019 European heat wave, which saw temperatures reach a high of 35 °C (95 °F) during stage 16. Ewan won the stage from a bunch sprint in Nîmes, his second of the Tour. Crashes during the stage included overall favourites Thomas and Fuglsang, with the latter forced to abandon. In the following stage, the 33-rider breakaway's advantage grew to 15 minutes at one point. Matteo Trentin of attacked a reduced breakaway with 40 km (25 mi) from the finish on the final climb, the third-category Côte de la Sentinelle, and soloed to victory with lead of 37 seconds, with peloton over 20 minutes behind. Luke Rowe () and Tony Martin () were both disqualified from the Tour following an altercation near the front of the peloton in the latter part of the stage. Stage 18, the first in the Alps, was led by breakaway riders throughout the stage's climbs, which included the first-category Col de Vars and the hors catégorie Col d'Izoard and Col du Galibier. The 34-strong breakaway had been reduced to a group of elite riders by the foot of the Galibier, the final climb. Nairo Quintana attacked with 7.5 km (4.7 mi) still to climb, and by the summit had built a lead of over a minute and a half, which he held on the descent to the finish. Meanwhile, with 2 km (1.2 mi) remaining of the Galibier, Bernal attacked from within the group of general classification contenders containing Alaphilippe and Thomas, allowing Bernal to recover half a minute on his rivals by the finish and move up to second overall. The lead of the mountains classification went to Romain Bardet, who was a pre-race favourite for the yellow jersey but moved out of contention after losing 20 minutes on stage 14's Col du Tourmalet, thereafter switching focus to breakaway rides. Around 40 km (25 mi) into stage 19, Pinot, who had been placed fifth in the general classification, abandoned the race with a leg muscle injury. At the head of the race in the closing kilometres of the planned second to last climb, the hors catégorie Col de l'Iseran, Bernal attacked from the group of overall contenders, catching and passing final breakaway riders by the summit. Next over the top were breakers Simon Yates and Warren Barguil (), one minute behind Bernal, with the yellow jersey contenders following. Alaphilippe was dropped following Bernal's attack, and was two minutes behind at the summit. During the descent, the race was neutralised when a hailstorm caused ice and landslides to block the route to the final climb to Tignes, particularly a mudslide at the foot of the descent before Val-d'Isère. Times for the general classification were taken at the summit of the Iseran, with the stage victory and most combative rider of the day not awarded. As a result, Bernal, who had been in second place overall, moved ahead of Alaphilippe and took the yellow jersey. The stage was shortened from 126.5 km (79 mi) to 89 km (55 mi). The inclement weather also caused the penultimate stage to be reduced in length beforehand, from 130 km (81 mi) to 59.5 km (37 mi), bypassing the first-category Cormet de Roselend and the second-category Côte de Longefoy, with the only climb being the hors catégorie-rated one to Val Thorens at the finish. A group of 29 riders established a two-and-a-half minute lead over the peloton, before being vastly reduced to six on the early slopes of the Val Thorens climb. With 12 km (7.5 mi) remaining, Nibali attacked from this group and soloed to victory, ten seconds ahead of chasers Landa and Alejandro Valverde. Close behind, Bernal and Thomas led the other general classification contenders Urán, Buchmann and Kruijswijk. Alaphilippe was dropped again, losing three minutes to Bernal and dropping from second overall to fifth. The final stage in Paris was won by Ewan in a bunch sprint on the Champs-Élysées, his third win and the most of any rider in this edition of the race. Bernal won the race with no changes in the final stage. The 22-year-old Colombian became the youngest since François Faber in 1909 and first Latin American Tour winner. Thomas came second overall, 1' 11" down on Bernal, with Kruijswijk a further 20 seconds behind in third. Sagan won a record seventh points classification with a total of 316, 68 ahead of Ewan in second. Bardet won the mountains classification with 86 points, 8 ahead of Bernal in second. The young rider classification was won by Bernal, with thirteenth-placed overall Gaudu second. Bernal became the fifth rider to win both the general and young rider classification in the same year, following Laurent Fignon (1983), Jan Ullrich (1997), Alberto Contador (2007), and Andy Schleck (2010). The squad finished as the winners of the team classification, 47' 54" ahead of second-placed . Of the 176 starters, 155 reached the finish of the last stage in Paris. ## Classification leadership and minor prizes Four main individual classifications and a team competition were contested in the race. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage. Time bonuses (time subtracted) were awarded at the end of every stage apart from the time trial stages. The first three riders received 10, 6, and 4 seconds, respectively. In an effort to animate racing in the general classification, time bonuses of 8, 5, and 2 seconds respectively were also awarded for the first three riders across a mountain summit, given out on eight climbs. These occurred on stages 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 19. These bonuses replaced the special time "bonus point" sprints that were a feature in the 2018 edition. For crashes within the final 3 km (1.9 mi) of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, any rider involved would have received the same time as the group he was in when the crash occurred. The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered to be the overall winner of the Tour. The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey. In celebration of 100th anniversary of the yellow jersey, individual jersey designs were worn on each stage, apart from the first. Additionally, there was a points classification. Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type, and sprints, with the first fifteen places in all receiving points. In flat stages, 50 points were given to the stage winner, down to 2 points for 15th place. In hilly stages, the winner gained 30 points, also down to 2 points. In mountain stages, individual time trials and intermediate sprints, 20 points were given to the winners, down to 1 point. The cyclist with the most points led the classification, and was identified with a green jersey. There was also a mountains classification. Most stages of the race included one or more categorised climbs, in which points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit first. The climbs were categorised as fourth-, third-, second-, and first-category and hors catégorie, with the more difficult climbs rated lower. Mountains ranked hors catégorie gave 20 points to the first rider to cross the summit, down to 2 points to the 8th cyclist. For first-category climbs, 6 riders received points, with 10 for the first rider to reach the summit. Second-, third- and fourth-category climbs gave 5, 2 and 1 points to the first rider respectively. Double points were awarded at the top of the five planned hors catégorie climbs higher than 2,000 m (6,562 ft). The cyclist with the most points led the classification, wearing a white jersey with red polka dots. The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but only riders under 26 years were eligible. This meant that in order to compete in the classification, a rider had to be born after 1 January 1994. Of the 176 starters, 48 were eligible. The leader wore a white jersey. The classification for the teams was calculated by adding together the times of the first three cyclists of a team on each stage; the leading team was the one with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team would have determined the outcome of a tie. The riders on the team that led this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets. In addition, there was a combativity award given after each stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship". No combativity awards were given for the time trials and the final stage. The winner wore a red number bib for the following stage. At the conclusion of the Tour, Julian Alaphilippe won the overall super-combativity award, again awarded by a jury. A total of €2,291,700 was awarded in cash prizes in the race. The overall winner of the general classification received €500,000, with the second and third placed riders getting €200,000 and €100,000 respectively. All finishers in the top 160 were awarded money. The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they led; the final winners of the points and mountains were given €25,000, while the best young rider and most combative rider got €20,000. The team classification winners earned €50,000. €11,000 was given to the winners of each stage of the race, with smaller amounts given to places 2–20. There were also two special awards each with a prize of €5000. The Souvenir Jacques Goddet, given to the first rider to pass Goddet's memorial at the summit of the Col du Tourmalet in stage 14, and the Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given to the first rider to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour, the Col de l'Iseran on stage 19. Thibaut Pinot won the Jacques Goddet and Egan Bernal claimed the Henri Desgrange. - On stages 2 and 3, Peter Sagan, who was second in the points classification, wore the green jersey, because first placed Mike Teunissen wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. - On stages 7 and 8, Egan Bernal, who was second in the young rider classification, wore the white jersey, because first placed Giulio Ciccone wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. - On stages 20 and 21, David Gaudu, who was second in the young rider classification, wore the white jersey, because first placed Egan Bernal wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. ## Final standings ### General classification ### Points classification ### Mountains classification ### Young rider classification ### Team classification ## UCI rankings For the UCI World Ranking system, riders from both the WorldTeams and Professional Continental teams competed individually, for their teams, and for their nations, winning points that contributed towards separate rankings, which included all UCI road races. There was also an individual ranking introduced for the 2019 season that only took into account UCI stage races, the Stage Race World Ranking. Points were awarded to the top 60 in the general classification, each yellow jersey given at the end of a stage, the top 5 finishers in each stage and for the top 3 in the final points and mountains classifications. The points accrued by Egan Bernal moved him from 23rd to 6th in the individual World Ranking and from ninth to second in the Stage Race World Ranking. Julian Alaphilippe retained his position at the top of individual World Ranking, with and Belgium also holding the lead of the team and nation ranking respectively. ## See also - 2019 in sports - 2019 La Course by Le Tour de France – a women's one-day race held during the Tour
25,074,246	Are You My Mummy?	1,160,635,539	null	[ "2008 American television episodes", "Phineas and Ferb episodes" ]	"Are You My Mummy?" is the 13th broadcast episode of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb. The episode sees stepbrothers Phineas and Ferb going to an Egyptian-themed theater where they become inspired to befriend a mummy they believe is being kept in the theater basement. They confuse the mummy for their sister Candace, who was accidentally wrapped up in toilet paper. Meanwhile, Dr. Doofenshmirtz tries to blow up a beaver dam in order to make his property beachfront. "Are You My Mummy?" was written by series co-creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff "Swampy" Marsh, along with Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson, and directed by Povenmire. The episode originally aired on Disney Channel in the United States on February 15, 2008, as part of the month-long marathon event "Phineas and Ferb-urary." Critical reception for the episode was generally favorable. The featured song, "My Undead Mummy and Me," was also well received and became available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack in 2009. ## Voice cast - Vincent Martella as Phineas Flynn, Additional Voices - Thomas Sangster as Ferb Fletcher - Ashley Tisdale as Candace Flynn, Additional Voices - Richard O'Brien as Lawrence Fletcher, Additional Voices - Bobby Gaylor as Buford Van Stomm - Dee Bradley Baker as Perry the Platypus, Additional Voices - Dan Povenmire as Dr. Doofenshmirtz, Additional Voices - Jeff "Swampy" Marsh as Major Monogram, Additional Voices ## Plot summary Phineas and Ferb, along with Candace and their father Lawrence, go to an Egyptian-themed movie theater where they see a movie about two archeologists who discover an undead mummy. Phineas and Ferb are inspired to find their own mummy and go out to the basement of the theater, where there is rumored to be a mummy. Candace sees them going off to do this and follows them, hoping to get them in trouble with their father. However, as Phineas and Ferb go searching for the mummy through the basement hallways wearing archeologist hats, they run into what they believe are booby traps; they avoid the traps but Candace ends up getting hit by them all. Eventually, she becomes caught up in raggy toilet paper and cannot talk properly (due to eating stale bubble gum), which leads to the boys mistaking her for the mummy and capturing her. Meanwhile, Perry goes off to a lake near a beaver dam which Dr. Doofenshmirtz plans on destroying. Once Perry arrives, Doofenshmirtz traps him an indestructible bubble made of "pure evil" and Space Age polymers and explains that he hopes to disassemble the dam using the Woodinator (described as operating like a magnet, except that it attracts wood), in order to raise water levels, making his estate beachfront property. Perry eventually destroys the bubble and begins to fight Doofenshmirtz, until the dam is destroyed and they are sent with the water as it washes into the pipe system. Doofenshmirtz, Perry, and the lake water reach the pipe lines next to the theater's basement where the boys and Candace are. Perry defeats Doofenshmirtz without catching the attention of the three and the water washes away Candace's toilet paper. When they get outside to meet up with their father, Phineas is dumbfounded as to where their mummy went, but Lawrence thinks he is simply referring to their mother, and also wonders why Candace got all wet. As they ride back home, Ferb explains the process of mummification and Candace says that only the "lucky [mummies]" get the full process. ## Production "Are You My Mummy?" was written by Phineas and Ferb co-creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff "Swampy" Marsh, along with Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson. It was storyboarded by artists Kyle Baker and Mike Roth, and directed by Povenmire. It was originally broadcast in the United States on Disney Channel on February 15, 2008 as part of the special month-long marathon event "Phineas and Ferb-urary." Plot elements for the episode date back to the original pitch to The Walt Disney Company for the series produced by Povenmire and Marsh. The pitch was constructed of storyboard reels which were recorded and dubbed over by Povenmire for voices, narration, and sound effects. The initial theme song featured an illustration of Phineas and Ferb, wearing their archeologist hats, discovering Candace, dressed in raggy toilet paper. "Are You My Mummy" is available on the 2008 DVD compilation Phineas and Ferb: The Fast and the Phineas, along with fellow first season episodes of the series "One Good Scare Ought to Do It!" "The Fast and the Phineas," "Lawn Gnome Beach Party of Terror," "Flop Starz," "Raging Bully," "Lights! Candace! Action!" and "It's About Time!" The song "My Undead Mummy and Me," which is based on the theme song for The Courtship of Eddie's Father, became available in 2009 on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack. ## Reception "Are You My Mummy?" received generally favorable reviews from television critics. Reviewers particularly praised the musical number "My Undead Mummy and Me." DVD Verdict reviewer Jim Thomas called it "truly twisted" in his review of The Fast and Phineas. Ed Liu of Toon Zone was critical of the episode and several other early ones from the series, citing them as "way too manic for their own good," but considered the song to be an "amusing video sequence." A Wired magazine review for the series' soundtrack dubbed the song "whimsical," considering it to be a quick improvement from the album's previous track, "Disco Miniature Golfing Queen," from the episode "Put That Putter Away."
8,468,344	Armenian illuminated manuscripts	1,158,030,824	Armenian decorated documents	[ "Armenian art", "Illuminated manuscripts" ]	Armenian illuminated manuscripts (Armenian: Հայկական մանրանկարչություն, romanized: Haykakan manrankarch'owt'yown), form an Armenian tradition of formally prepared documents where the text is often supplemented with flourishes such as borders and miniature illustrations. They are related to other forms of Medieval Armenian art, and to Byzantine illuminated manuscripts. The earliest surviving examples date back to the Golden Age of Armenian art and literature in the 5th century. Armenian illuminated manuscripts embody Armenian culture; they illustrate its spiritual and cultural values. The most famous Armenian miniaturist, Toros Roslin, lived in the 13th century. The art form flourished in Greater Armenia, Lesser Armenia and the Armenian Diaspora. Its appearance dates back to the creation of the Armenian alphabet in Armenia, in the year 405 AD. Very few fragments of illuminated manuscripts from the 6th and 7th centuries have survived. The oldest fully preserved manuscript dates from the 9th century. Art experienced a golden age in the 13th and 14th centuries when the main schools and centers started to pop up (fifteen hundred centers of writing and illumination). The most striking are those of Syunik, Vaspurakan and Cilicia. Many Armenian illuminated manuscripts outside the country of Armenia have also survived the centuries. Despite the creation of the Armenian printing press in the 16th century, the production of miniatures continued until the 19th century and survives through modern Armenian painting and cinema. Armenian miniaturists have always been in contact with other artists of the East and the West whose art has deeply and richly influenced Armenian illumination. According to the Russian poet Valery Bryusov, "crossing and intertwining before merging into a single and entirely new whole, two forces, two opposing principles have, over the centuries, governed the destiny of Armenia and shaped the character of its people: the principle of the West and that of the East, the spirit of Europe and the spirit of Asia". The most famous works of Armenian miniaturists are distinguished by precise skill in execution, originality of composition and color treatment, brilliance due to the use of pigments mainly prepared with the bases of metal oxides and an extremely stylized portrayal of the world. The Matenadaran Institute in Yerevan has the largest collection of Armenian manuscripts, including the Mugni Gospels and Echmiadzin Gospels. The second-largest collection of Armenian illuminated manuscripts is stored in the depository of the St. James Cathedral, of the Holy Apostolic Church's Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Other collections exist in the British Library, Bibliothèque nationale de France, and other large collections at the Mechitarist establishments in Venice and Vienna, as well as in the United States. The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) keeps an Armenian illuminated manuscript dating back to the 14th century among its collection of Armenian manuscripts, which is one of the largest in the world. They also have the manuscript of the Gladzor Gospels (cf. University of Gladzor). ## Origins ### Emergence The Armenian form of miniatures and illuminations probably originated with the creation of the first Armenian books at the beginning of the 5th century, but a hiatus of four centuries separated the emergence of the art from the oldest preserved illuminated manuscripts (with the exception of the 'Final Four Miniatures' of the Echmiadzin Gospels); the latter, however, is probably inspired by earlier manuscripts. At its beginnings, the art of the illuminator was done by the same scribe who wrote the manuscript, the ornamentations like the text, only simple copies of earlier models, but in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became more refined and sophisticated until it separated from the work of the scribe to form a unique role in the making of manuscripts. The first surviving manuscripts are the tetra-gospels (including, in addition to the four gospels, the Letter of Eusebius and the Eusebian canons and the "mystical allegory of the economy of salvation") which already demonstrate the diversity in genre, style and technique of the illustrations. The art got influenced by Byzantine art, with its monumental appearance (see for example the Gospel of Trebizond, 11th century, San Lazzaro degli Armeni, Ms. 1400), and by oriental art, with its taste for heavily ornamented pages (illustrated in the Mughni gospel, 11th century, Matenadaran, Ms. 7736.), the two influences were sometimes found in one manuscript (such as the Gospel of King Gagik of Kars, 11th century, Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, Ms. 2556). The time period stretching from the 10th to the 11th centuries encompassed the formation of Armenian artistic traditions, which witnessed the development of its diversity, a balance between early Christian elements and new influences, as shown by "the special role of missals, the important contributions made by the patrons and the goal to express in images the power of the Gospel", and a reinterpretation of Byzantine decorative elements in the light of Islamic art, as well as the taste for bright and brilliant colors. The miniatures usually occupy full pages, most often at the beginning of the manuscript, but sometimes also appear in the body of the text, and are expressed with great liberty in the Eusebian canons. The oldest of the well-preserved ornamented manuscripts is the Gospel of Queen Mlke, named after the wife of King Gagik I of Vaspurakan, who had it restored in the 10th century(San Lazzaro degli Armeni, Ms. 1144). Made in Vaspurakan around 862 AD, it is the first illuminated manuscript known after the Arab occupation period (7th - 9th centuries) and the oldest of the fully preserved Armenian manuscripts. Inspired by an older manuscript, its illustrations, in particular, the Nilotic landscape of the tables and the frontispiece resemble the Syriac Rabbula Gospels while presenting an early Christian echo, something common in the East at the time, but show a solemnity only found in Armenian examples of illuminated manuscripts. With a somewhat stern style, the thin and light lines and the subtle gradations of colors are reminiscent of the art from the Macedonian renaissance, while standing out from it by using a lively and saturated palette. These characteristics make this Gospel “a unique example of reception and interpretation of the ancient heritage in the Armenian milieu”. The Echmiadzin Gospel Book (Matenadaran, Ms. 2374) is another famous example of these early manuscripts. Produced in 989 at the monastery of Bgheno-Noravank, the sumptuous work has a Byzantine ivory binding (second half of the 6th century) and incorporates four full-page miniatures, grouped on two leaves, from the 6th to 7th centuries, in a style similar to 7th-century frescoes while reflecting a Sassanian influence that is especially noticeable with the clothing and hairstyles of the Magi<sup>,</sup> these four miniatures with a monumental character in the treatment of the characters, characterized by their large eyes and freely brushed modeled faces, whose architectural decoration recalls Christian house of worship from the late antiquity, are part of the early Christian pictorial tradition and thus constitute a persistence of the ancient tradition. Other miniatures from the 11th and 12th centuries are found in this manuscript, notably introductory miniatures illustrating the major themes of salvation and the four Evangelists, and are of a less antique style than those of the late 6th century pages from the same manuscript and those of the queen Mlke Gospel. While demonstrating freshness and eloquence and adopting neutral backgrounds. "An exceptional example of the blossoming of painting can be seen in the aftermath of Arab domination", Jannic Durand, a French art historian, also describes the Gospel of Queen Mlké as "the highest expression of a classical antiquizing current which crossed in the 9th and 10th centuries paintings in Armenia, perfectly distinct from the more abstract and decorative current which also characterized it at the same time, represented in particular by the Gospel of Baltimore”. Other manuscripts include: the Gospel of Baltimore (Walters Art Museum, Ms. 537) produced in 966, which is an example of a radical transformation of the architectural decorations with its use of small geometric patterns, or the 'Gospel of Vahapar' (Matenadaran, Ms. 10780), produced before 1088 in Vaspurakan or Melitene, it includes sixty-six Christological illustrations in the text, in a naïve but lively style, and accompanied by speech scrolls reminiscent to modern comic strips, it is the probable source of inspiration in the 14th century for the Gospel of Gladzor. The Seljuk invasions of the second half of the eleventh century marked another halt, and it also started the beginning of a period of decline for the art of miniatures in Greater Armenia until the thirteenth century (with rare exceptions, such as the Gospel of Matenadaran, Ms. 2877, decorated with great attention to small details), while a renewal was taking place in Cilicia. ## Development ### Apotheosis The political and cultural life in Greater Armenia experienced a brief development at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century, with the support of neighboring Georgia. The Armenians then managed to fight off the Seljuk invasions and experienced a certain boom called the “Zakarid renaissance”. As a result, they formed an independent principality governed by the Zakarids in which a brief period of relative peace reigned before the coming of the Mongol invasions of Transcaucasia between 1220 and 1240. Construction projects of palaces and churches grew in number in the first half of the 13th century. In parallel, the activity of the schools of miniaturists and scriptoria was in full expansion; grammar, language, rhetoric, theology, philosophy, music, painting and calligraphy were all taught there, notably in the universities (hamalsaran) of Tatev and Gladzor, often called as the “second Athens”. This last university, "almost contemporary with one of the main centers of European thought, the University of Paris, could compete with the latter as much in terms of cultural training as by the richness of its library and the diversity of the subjects taught. ”. Only a few ruins of the University of Gladzor remain today, a result of the Mongol and Timurid invasions. As if to compensate for the catastrophic losses by these invasions, the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia flourished from the eleventh century to the end of the fourteenth century. Art and culture developed there until its fall at the end of the 14th century under the conquering advance of the Egyptian Mamluks. This period saw the peak of Armenian illuminated manuscripts: “For example, the miniatures painted in the northeastern regions are distinguished by their monumental character and the intensity of their colors; while the ones in the Vaspurakan school by their simplicity and a tendency to stylization. The illuminations of Bardzr Khaïk, or Upper Armenia, can be recognized by the majestic gravity of the characters and the variety of their ornamentation; while the Cilician miniatures display remarkable refinement and virtuosity”. The miniatures of Cilicia and Greater Armenian were variants of the same national art of which they share the fundamental features, they were however distinguished: “the Cilician miniatures acquired in a short time a brilliant level and a great depth of expression. While keeping their own unique style, they reflect their miniaturists' interest in the early western European Renaissance. The miniatures of Greater Armenia, from which many schools and currents arose in the 13th and 14th centuries, are simpler, more monumental and more original. They were able to retain an expressiveness that was unparalleled in any painting of the time”. ### Miniatures of Greater Armenia #### Upper Armenia The surviving manuscripts of upper Armenian origins, a northwestern region of historic Armenia, crossing several roads of transit axis in the 13th century, are "always decorated with rich vegetal motifs, curved leaves with the sharpness of a sickle and scrolls with palmettes”. At first, treated "in a fairly realistic manner", these motifs gradually experienced an "increasingly pronounced stylization", to end up spreading to the art of Transcaucasia, the Near East and the Middle East. In the largest of the known Armenian manuscripts, the Homiliary of Mush (monastery of the Holy Apostles, 1200-1202, Matenadaran, Ms. 7729), written in erkataghir (Armenian uncials), the pages are filled with vignettes and marginal motifs of Armenian pagan origin. This is largely due to the pagan and Zoroastrian sanctuaries getting consecrated as temples dedicated to Christianity, a result of the Christianization of the country in 301 AD with the conversion of the king of Armenia, Tiridates III from paganism to Christianity. Subsequently, elements inherited from ancient paganism mixed with Christian art, but they carried new meanings. This homily symbolizes with its ornamentation a search for the renovation of already existing shapes and an effort to create new motifs. It seems to be the work of three artists of whom only the name of the author of the title page has been preserved: Stepanos. A second miniaturist executed an important series of more vivid miniatures. With a more fiery temperament, he painted in the margins of the manuscript vegetal ornaments of various shapes, in which birds as well as real and fantastic animals are also found. From a stylistic point of view, warm color combinations are based on the principle of contrasts. The orange tones are shaded with dark brown, they contrast with the light blue of the intense velvety ultramarine. As for the third miniaturist, he is the author of only a small number of subject miniatures. The harmonious balance of the text and the ornamented parts, as well as the text-image relationship, characterizes well the composition of the pages of this period. The so-called Gospel of the Translators of 1232 (Matenadaran, Ms. 2743) was written by the scribe Tiratsi and illustrated by the painter Grigor Tsaghkogh. Inspired by the frescoes of the cave temples of neighboring Cappadocia, his works show a clear individuality: "the dramatic tension of the characters and the coloring where dark blues and purples dominate, with rare flashes of bright red and pink, are so impressive that certain inaccuracies in the design go unnoticed”. The colophon of a manuscript produced in 1318 at Erzincan bears the following content: "Due to the difficult times, I had emigrated five times before being able to finish my manuscript...". #### Ani Still protected during the early period of the 13th century by the Zakarid dynasty, the capital of the kingdom of Ani was full of activities involving numerous economic occupations such as craftsmen, artisans and traders of diverse languages and cultural backgrounds. Cultural life was maintained there amidst numerous difficulties. Lydia Durnovo writes in her essay: “this middle class of the population, in constant expansion, naturally made its culture prevail over those of the aristocracy and the working classes. It didn't aspire to pomp and did not intend to spend large sums on the production of lavish manuscripts, but the laconic simplicity of folk art did not satisfy it either. This class had widened its horizon and its field of knowledge. It needed texts in the form of detailed narratives sprinkled with digressions and explanations. The illustrations were to hold the attention more by the variety of the motifs rather than by the beauty of the forms or the ornaments”. Only two names of miniaturists from Ani have survived: Margare and Ignatios Horomostsi. The former decorated the Gospel of 1211 (known as the Haghpat Gospel, Matenadaran, Ms. 6288) copied at Haghpat Monastery, bound and illustrated at the Horomos Monastery, near Ani; it is characterized by a thematic repertoire extended by the illustrations of the daily life contemporary to the miniaturist. The aspiration to realism is noticed especially in the treatment of the characters. It is especially noticeable in a single Gospel scene, the Entry of Christ into Jerusalem. The impressions experienced are reflected in the crowd massed to welcome Christ; and even a certain form of secularization is noticed in the treatment of the characters. The second painter, Ignatios, worked at the Armenian monastery of Horomos in the middle of the 13th century and witnessed the Mongol invasion. He left a manuscript that he illuminated in this colophon: "the manuscript was written at the painful and fatal time when Ani, the capital, was taken and when we witnessed countless destructions of cities and of the country ". In the work of Khatchikian, about "the Colophons of the Armenian manuscripts...of the fourteenth century", he noted that one can read these words which as a testament to the harshness of the period in which these painters lived, without ever interrupting their work; words added as a postscript: "Times are so hard that for four years I have been writing while resting my book on the palm of my hand". Despite the poor living conditions, and the constant emigration from one place to another, calligraphers and miniaturists moved from school to school to keep up with their studies, and even into caves, like how the master Hovhannes Vanakan did during the Mongol invasion, not far from the fortress of Tavush. #### Syunik Syunik, a province in the southeast of Lake Sevan, is home to the regions where the last two great Armenian academies of the Middle Ages flourished before the foreign invasions: the university of Gladzor and the monastic university of Tatev. The founding of the school of Gladzor dates back to the second half of the 13th century. Young scholars from all over Armenia and even from Cilicia came to learn from the greatest scholars at the time. Two names stand out the most: Nerses Mchetsi and Essai Nchetsi; the first is the founder of this university, he had a great interest in Latin and Greek, and the second is a political figure and a master of rhetoric and philosophy. The school of calligraphy and illumination was well renowned. The miniatures bear the marks of ancient local traditions, influenced by paganism such as totems, allegories of good and evil, and mythological beings, such as sirens, griffins, wyverns, unicorns and dragons. The nature of these miniatures is represented in a realistic way. The Cilician influences assert themselves with the young painters who came with other secular traditions. Mateos, a famously local-oriented artist, is the author of the Gospel illustrations of 1292 (Matenadaran, Ms. 6292). His work shows a particular ornamental richness: “the painter has a preference for large vegetal motifs and has a liking of illustrating elegant peacocks with magnificently outstretched tails in the foliage. These birds are represented in pairs, sometimes drinking from a water source and sometimes intertwining their graceful necks”. A multi-talented artist, Momik is famous for his intricate khachkars: he left carved stone stelae of unparalleled subtlety and extreme finesse. He is also a renowned architect and a miniaturist who also worked at the University of Gladzor. His work reflects new directions in the art of miniature painting. A certain lyricism and poetry of sensual and refined depth emerged from his style; “these new tendencies manifest themselves both in the graceful design of his khachkars, whose fine openwork carving manages to make one forget the hardness of the stone, and in his miniatures imprinted with the spontaneity typical of popular art. The Matenadaran has two manuscripts of Momik (Ms. 6792 and Ms. 2848). The miniaturist sometimes decorates the entire surface of the background with usually bluish semicircles, which resemble clouds and seem to symbolize the sacred character of the events represented. Momik's compositions emphasize symmetry and balance of proportions”. Toros Taronatsi, an Armenian miniaturist and poet, was the most prolific painter of the school of Gladzor. He was a pupil of Essai Ntchetsi. At first, influenced by ancient pagan symbols, he then introduced new ornamentation of canon tables and marginal motifs of sirens, sometimes two-headed, serpents and dragons personifying evil, fighting among themselves, torturing their prey or, following a late Christian interpretation, getting struck down by military saints. The decoration of the leaves of the Eusbian canons in the Bible of 1318 (Matenadaran, Ms. 206) is so rich and abundant that there is barely room for the actual tables. In a second phase, Taronasti's art underwent the influence of Cilician illumination and the decorative element then took precedence in his miniatures: "the shapes, the types of motifs, the general arrangement of the frontispieces and the canons are inspired by Cilician models (Matenadaran , Ms. 6289). On the other hand, certain iconographic particularities, such as the way of treating the nursing mother of Jesus, attest that Taronatsi was familiar with Western art”. Avag, an Armenian miniaturist, was an itinerant and eclectic painter. He traveled between Gladzor and its university, Cilicia for several years and also Persia. The Cilician influence is significant in the composition of his art which can be seen in a gospel he illustrated (Matenadaran, Ms. 7631) with Sarkis Pitsak. The Gospel of 1337 (Ms. 212) preserved in Matenadaran is decorated with numerous full-page miniatures, marginal scenes and miniatures inserted in the texts. These illustrations are replicas of Toros Roslin's illustrations. "It is precisely the combination of a refined style, bordering on mannerism, and a solemn austerity that make all the charming elements of these miniatures executed with a quite remarkable mastery". In 1338, after the death of Essai Ntchesti, the University of Gladzor closed its doors; as a result, the university of Tatev influenced the academies under the lead of Grigor Tatevastsi, politician and philosopher, poet and painter. Miniatures of several subjects and biblical figures as well as illuminated title pages are found in a gospel he illustrated in 1378 (Ms. 7482). “Tatevatsi's painting can be recognized by the skilful use of elements borrowed from popular ornamentation. The artist fills the entire background with large motifs executed in muted, monochrome tones, they look like the carpets hung on the walls of houses, which gives the scenes represented an intimate character (Madonna and Child, Annunciation). The posture of the characters is embodied by its quiet majesty. The miniatures of Grigor are also similar to frescoes: the application of color is done in thick and matte touches". During the periods of trouble and chaos Armenian monks were most often seen abandoning their monasticism and asceticism to become soldiers and this is found even in the themes of the miniatures. A mix of decorative elements, designs and colors of great diversity is usually noticed in the manuscripts. Besides the background, all the elements of the miniature, both in the architectural details and in the clothing, are dotted with small floral motifs which had led a gospel (Matenadaran, Ms. 6305) to be named The printed fabric manuscript. “The variety of the thematic repertoire, the expressiveness of the characters and the soft luminosity of the coloring make this manuscript a particularly sumptuous copy. The full-page figures of four holy warriors hold a great attention from scholars and researchers. Their presences seems to highlight their role as intercessors, necessary to the enslaved Armenian peoples”. But the deterioration of living conditions, and the political and economic troubles in the country forced many scriptoria to considerably reduce their capabilities at the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, the art of calligraphy and illumination survived only in remote monasteries in southern and eastern Armenia. #### Vaspurakan The so-called Vaspurakan school was one of the main centers of Armenian art in the 13th and 14th centuries, nearly 1500 of its manuscripts have survived, with most of them containing miniatures. The most frequent themes of illustrations are the Creation of the world, the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Apparition under the Oak of Mamre. The miniaturists continued the ancient local traditions which had found survival in the form of reliefs and frescoes like the ones in the Holy Cross Cathedral of Aghtamar of the 10th century. According to Sirarpie Der Nersessian, the introduction of Old Testament scenes as symbols of New Testament subjects appeared as early as the 9th century in Armenian art. This artistic representation in the reliefs is particularly visible in the scene of the Sacrifice of Abraham which led to an iconographic tradition of miniatures among the illuminators of the 13th and 14th centuries (Simeon Artchichetsi, Zakaria and Daniel of Uranc). The lack of perspective, typical of medieval art, is accentuated in the case of Vaspurakan school Miniatures. Common characteristics of this style most notably include flat figurative representation and scenes arranged in a frieze: “the characters are generally represented frontally. Their gestures are abrupt, dynamic and so expressive that they sometimes evoke several movements instead of just one. The goal is to discover the idea that is the basis of the subject, to reveal its very essence, without worrying about the interpretation of the narrative or the potentially meaningful symbols that the scene may have”. The miniaturists of Vaspurakan paid little attention to the faithful reproduction of concrete details drawn from the observation of the real world. What seems to have concerned them the most is the rhythm. And it is through rhythm that they worked on the symbolism. “They illustrated several types of ideograms that reveal the hidden meaning of the scenes depicted. The overall harmony stems from the traditional arrangement of the figures and their rhythmic movements. This rhythm, which is not that of ordinary gestures, acquires a deep meaning of perpetual motion. The course of events with their external details and the idealist character of the gestures are relegated to the background, while their symbolic meaning becomes fundamental”. The ornamentation of the Eusebian canons reveals a mastery in its execution in the form of horseshoe arches adorned with geometric and vegetal motifs. The silhouettes of both real and mythological beings were often intertwined by the vegetal motifs and the complex scrolls. Beneath the conventional symbolism in the treatment of the characters shines through the spontaneity following the popular way of thinking at the time. This principle of ornamental art addresses religious themes with simplicity and lack of formalism. It is this particularity that gives it its place in the history of Armenian miniature. Its eastern influence brings it closer to the art of Cappadocia, the art of Arab countries and Syria, Iran, as well as Mesopotamia; which constitutes a vast set of different but related cultures. #### Nakhichivan The influence of the art of Vaspurakan goes beyond the bordering territories. This is noticed in the presence of a strong link between the Vaspurakan school and the school of the previously Armenian-populated Nakhichevan. Two illuminated manuscripts are often cited to describe the characteristics of the art of this region: the first is a Gospel (Matenadara, Ms. 3722) copied in 1304 by the artist Simeon and another Gospel (Matenadaran, Ms. 2930) transcribed in 1315 by a miniaturist (and scribe) named Margaret. In the first manuscript of 1304, the subjects placed in the margins are treated with extreme simplicity that they are almost reduced to the status of symbols. “The Baptism of Christ is symbolized by a cup containing myrrh. The artist chose to represent exulting shepherds and frolicking lambs for his nativity while for the Last Supper he painted a chalice and two fish; a scene with multiple figures par excellence, and the entry into Jerusalem is represented with only three figures, including Christ mounted on a mule. This pictorial style undoubtedly goes back to ancient traditions, present in particular in the famous Echmiadzin Gospel of 989. This manuscript is abundantly illustrated with figures of animals, ornamental motifs and symbols of pagan origin”. Lydia Durnovo describes the art of the miniaturist as such: "He introduced various ornamentation of the margins motifs of a wide variety, among which there are an abundance of animals, birds, mermaids and human faces thus completing the thematic range and developing the form of the marginal symbols. (...) His work is not precise, but full of vigor and passion, energy and skill. The dynamism of the artist's brush seems to be embodied in the dynamism of the subjects”. The 1315 manuscript contains an extended series of Gospel cycle miniatures, which is more characteristic of the Vaspurakan school than of the Nakhichevan school. The first miniature deals with the theme of Abraham's Sacrifice, borrowed from the Old Testament. The Descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles is the last scene represented. According to the works of Akopian and Korkhmazian: “The iconography has a number of archaic features, especially in the miniatures representing the Nativity, the Resurrection and the Entombment. The artist used for his compositions the most bare variants, which take on a monumental character for his art. The colors are applied in thick and generous layers. The dominant tones are red, velvety green and sienna”. #### Artsakh, Utik and the Lake Sevan basin The manuscripts illuminated by the Khachen painters have been preserved in quite a large number. This is largely because the principality of Kachen managed to obtain a lot of them during the reign of the Zakarians, which was a reign of relative autonomy under the Mongol occupation. Thus, the art of writing and illumination flourished in their vassal principalities of northeastern Armenia. The Gospel of 1224 (Matenadaran, Ms. 4832), a notable example of these manuscripts is known for its miniatures that belong to the "composite trend", a new trend which is a mixture of aristocratic and folk elements, coinciding with the emergence of urban culture and characterized by the combination of a certain deep use of expressions and very simple technical means: "a maximum of results for a minimum of expenditure". One manuscript which dates from before 1261: Ms. 378 (Matenadaran) was illustrated by Toros (not to be confused with Toros Taronatsi and Toros Roslin), in the same region, but some of its miniatures were added later. "The manuscripts produced in the southern regions of Artsakh and in the Lake Sevan basin are of great iconographic interest and artistic value. Their illustrations differ significantly from the miniatures of other Armenian schools, which is particularly evident when compared to the productions of the Vaspurakan school. In the manuscripts of the Artsakh-Sevan group, the Sacrifice of Abraham, an Old Testament theme dear to the Vaspurakan painters, to which it serves as a prologue, is completely absent, as is the traditional miniature of Christ in Majesty and the thematic cycles of the Last Judgment, the Advent of the Son of Man and the Miracles of Christ. There are also no details of the secular daily life. The most common themes of this school are those of the childhood of Jesus (the Nativity, the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, the Massacre of the Innocents and Jesus among the Doctors), the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins, original sin and the betrayal of Judas. In other words, instead of the narrative subjects and allegorical themes often associated with the Old Testament the painters of this school emphasize the creation of the world, original sin and the dramatic events of the Gospel". One of the particularities worthy of note among others is a representation of the Last Supper. Painted in a unique way, the illuminators chose to show the heads of the apostles nimbed, while Judas alone, isolated from the group, is represented full-length. This way of treating the subject remains unique in the history of medieval art. Another peculiarity scholars are often interested in is a scene of the Annunciation, where an angel with spread wings playing the flute in the clouds can be found. Thus, the painters of this school are the only ones to represent the scene in this unique way. Strongly influenced also by the classical art of Syunik, represented here by Momik and Toros Taronatsi, as well as by the Vaspurakan school, the miniatures of Artsakh, Utik and the Lake Sevan basin combine the simplicity of the decorative gesture with the appeal of the primitivism of folk origin. Despite the use of contradictory pictorial principles, this group of painters managed to create a surprising stylistic harmony. In contrast to the miniatures of Vaspurakan, which are sparer in style, the works of the Artsakh-Sevan painters are finely worked and carefully finished. Large colored frames, where the miniatures are found, further enhance the page of the manuscript: "there is a rigorous coordination in space between the silhouettes and the objects. All are arranged within a single spatial zone. When one looks at the miniatures one cannot help but be reminded of carpets, as if each of the motifs with which the overall surface is studded had an independent existence". According to the specialists of Armenian miniatures of Matenadaran, "the decorative principle clearly prevails over the figurative. The Artsakh-Sevan painters emphasize symbolic attributes, such as the flute of the Annunciation, the twelve partridges which, in the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, symbolize the twelve apostles, and the cross placed on the table of the Last Supper, an allusion to the sacrifice of Christ. These details serve to illuminate the meaning of the scene depicted while also playing the role of decorative elements. This process is characteristic of the Vaspurakan school. In spite of the stylistic peculiarities that differentiate them, the various trends and schools of miniature painting in Greater Armenia in the 13th and 14th centuries have in common their fidelity to local traditions and folk art. The Byzantine influence, which played such a great role in the formation of many national schools in the Middle Ages, never prevailed in Armenian art. Its ascendancy was more actively exerted only on the painters of Cilician Armenia". #### Cilician miniatures Armenian cultural life slowed down at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries, but it experienced a new boom in the 13th and 14th centuries, not only in the country itself but also in the new regions to which ethnic Armenians had migrated. Cilicia was the most vital place among these regions to Armenian civilization. #### Beginnings The origins of Cilician miniature go back to the Armenian miniatures of the 11th century. According to the colophons found in these manuscripts, they were taken from Armenia to Cilicia. There, they enjoyed a certain prestige and subsequently served as models for Cilician miniaturists, with their simplicity and their sober but intense colors and their characters with majestic and voluminous silhouettes. The Cilician painting had its roots in the stylistic peculiarities of the art of Greater Armenia, but the new historical and social, political and economic conditions could not but shake up the cultural and pictorial principles of the region. The changes affected the form, structure and style of the art form. Despite the fact that in the 12th and 13th centuries, the formats of the manuscripts were more manageable, and easy to hold in the hand as they no longer rested as they did in the 10th and 11th centuries on the ambon of the churches or in the sacristies. The ornamentation did become richer, and the space previously given to the miniatures was increased to full pages or the middle of the text. From the middle of the 13th century, there was a dramatic increase in the number of illuminated manuscripts. Bibles, lectionaries and psalters were starting to get illuminated. Moreover, not only did the style got refined, it became richer and more ornamental in nature. According to one of the specialists of Cilician miniature in the Matenadaran, "The thick layers of paint in large sizes and the small range of the colors reminded me of frescoes. The Cilician miniature of the 13th century is, on the contrary, a book painting in its own right: it is made to be looked at closely, because this is the only way to fully appreciate the elegant and complex lines, the finesse of the ornaments and the richness shown by the range of colors. It collaborates shades of thick blue with bright red, the refinement of purplish mauves, the delicacy of pink and pale green, light blue and the shimmer of gold". Several schools or artistic centers can be distinguished, including Hromgla, a fortified monastery located on the banks of the Euphrates, it was the seat of the Catholicos, the head of the Armenian Church; Drazark, Akner and Grner near Sis, the capital of the kingdom and Skevra in the lands of the Hethumids, of which the Skevra Evangeliary(in the National Library of Warsaw) is an example (late eleventh century). Among the dignitaries, some names appear such as Nerses the Gracious, Nerses Lambronatsi, the catholicos Constantine I Bartzabertsi and archbishop Ovannes. According to Drampian: "the art of illumination in Cilicia knew its greatest splendor between 1250 and 1280. But this period of flowering was prepared by a century and a half of evolution and continued for another half-century, although with less brilliance. The Cilician style began to define itself at the end of the 12th century and asserted itself in the 13th century, especially after 1250". The formation of the style arose in the treatment of the silhouettes as well as in the faces of the evangelists. The painters seem to have wanted to render the volumes. Subsequently, the folds of the clothes allow the academics to guess the shapes of the human figures, as a result, it's known that their proportions are less stylised. Additionally, the vigor animated the colors took hold of intense blues, the greens got more brilliant, the reds less carmine and the gold increased in use. The ornamental motifs also acquired finesse and intricacy. The peculiarities of the Cilician style are very discreetly manifested in the Gospel of 1237 (Ms. 7700) kept in the Matenadaran. According to TobIrina Drampian; "The coloring of the miniatures (Eusbian canons, portraits of the evangelists and title pages) is still far from the generous and bright range that will be the main characteristic of Cilician painting in its period of full maturity,". She continues with an analysis of the colors with depth and reveals what will soon be this illumination: "the tones are soft, quite a few, with the predominance of finely shaded green, light blue, pale yellow and mauve combined with gold. She concludes on the subject of the harmony of the nature of the art which is described in detail: "The proportions of the canons do not possess the perfect harmony which will characterize the Cilician miniature twenty years later. The ornamentation does not yet have that subtlety which will bring it closer to gold smithery. The iconographic details merge in voluminous masses and one does not find the diversity and the ornamental richness which will make the splendor of the Cilician manuscripts in their period peak. The birds that surround the arches of the canons have not yet acquired the realism that they will gain in later manuscripts”. The middle of the 13th century was a period of new phases in the search for pictorial elements. The forms came out of the rigidity of the medieval canons, the painting depth in the composition widened, and the characters acquired curves, rich modeling and more natural postures. #### Toros Roslin This trend of realism was asserted with the coming of Toros Roslin, (disciple of a man named Kirakos who was his immediate predecessor, his older contemporary and probably his master). Few of his biographical details are known, the same is true for other painters of this period. According to the colophons from 1250 to 1260 AD, he worked in Hromgla. He was considered the most prominent miniaturist of the scriptorium while enjoying the patronage of the Catholicos Constantine I. There are currently only seven manuscripts signed by him. All of them were produced in Hromgla between 1256 and 1268. The latest and most well-preserved of the seven surviving manuscripts is the Malatia Gospel of 1268 (Matenadaran, Ms. 10675). This lean for realism is accompanied by a richer and more complex rendering of space: successive plans in the layout of the characters, overlays of the spatial zones, multiple angles of view, and even visual illusions. "These new trends and pictorial techniques are the result of a conception of the world that has evolved and moved away from religious values; this concept epitomize the entire cilican culture of this period. Without departing from the main principles of medieval art, Roslin was able to expand them [these new trends] considerably compared to his predecessors and even to his contemporaries, and was able to give his painting a dynamism that does not, however, withdraw its sublime character". Roslin was the leading artist of his time, notable for his use of a wide range of bright colors and his choices of color plays, most notably allying blue with gold enhanced by a linear white speckled with red and pale mauves with velvety greens. The figures found in his miniatures are known for their realistic proportions, something rare during the medieval period. He seems to have borrowed the motifs and ornaments he uses from everyday life. “A serene solemnity emits from Roslin's paintings, a strange fusion of peaceful joy and slight melancholy. The aesthetic ideal of the artist shines through in the regularity of the facial features of his characters, a reflection of their spiritual beauty. In his miniatures, Jesus does not have the majestic and severe expression of transcendence. His face is imbued with gentleness and nobility, traits that must have belonged to the inner world of the artist himself. Roslin wanted to make the image of Christ more human and accessible to his contemporaries”. Another anonymous manuscript of Matenadaran has been attributed to Toros Roslin, but only 38 of its pages remain. These are fragments of the Gospel of 1266 (Ms. 5458) executed at the monastery of Hromgla, at the order of King Hethum I. "The calligraphy is of great beauty: the subtly drawn black and gold characters, initials and finely ornamented marginal patterns are arranged on the page with remarkable taste and sensitivity. There are only two marginal miniatures representing Christ. Their technical perfection exudes a deep spirituality. All these qualities suggest that this manuscript was one of the most beautiful specimens of Cilician art," says Irina Drampian in her study. The classical period of Cilician illumination is represented by the art of Roslin and the painters of his generation. The next stage, 10 or 15 years after Roslin's last known manuscript, will be a period of the upheaval of the historical conditions. The last two decades marked the end of the peak of the Cilician state. It will be followed by a decline, albeit a slow but harsh one. The Egyptian Mamluks devastated the country and plundered the Hromgla monastery in 1292. The painters who followed went in the direction of pictorial realism and neglected the ideal of elegance that distinguished the art from their artistic predecessor. Drampian notes: "the faces of their characters sometimes reflect a certain rudeness. The silhouettes are stretched and appear distorted in comparison with those of Roslin, whose proportions had something of a Hellenic character". #### Cilician miniatures after Toros Roslin When the end of the “classical” period arrived, another trend is known as the "Armenian baroque" appeared at the beginning of the 1280s. The manuscripts of this period were executed in monasteries located near the city of Sis. The Lectionary (Matenadaran, Ms. 979) of 1286 is the most lavish and richly illustrated manuscript of this period in the history of Armenian illumination. Commissioned by the Crown Prince (the future Hethum II to whom also belonged the Gospel of Malatia of Toros Roslin), this manuscript is adorned with miniatures on almost all of its pages, the number of which exceeds four hundred. According to Drampian: "The manuscript reflects the new orientations taken by Cilician painting from the 1280s onwards. There is a convulsive and dramatic expressiveness. These features are reflected in the general structure of the miniature as well as in detail elements, such as the shape of the silhouettes, the contour lines and the refinement of the intense and vibrant tones". The distinctly oriental trend asserted itself, accentuating the ornamental and picturesque side of the painters' works. There is a place for diversity, fantasy and boldness in the richness of the illustrations, reflecting the contacts of the Armenian miniaturists of Cilicia with the art of other nations. An example is in the miniature of Jonas thrown into the sea: the treatment of the waves, in the form of deep spirals, resembles Chinese engravings and drawings. Another Gospel (Matenadaran, Ms. 9422), whose original colophon was lost and replaced in the 14th century, recounts the turbulent history of the manuscript when it was in the monastery of Saint John the Holy Precursor of Mush. Iconographer Irina Drampian reports the story as such: "In the mid-14th century, the monks of this monastery were forced to hide a series of manuscripts, including this Gospel (Ms. 9422), to save them from strangers. They only opened their hiding place several years later and found that many manuscripts had gotten moldy and could not be read, so they buried them. Fortunately, a certain deacon named Simeon got wind of the matter, dug up the manuscripts, gave them away for restoration, then returned them to the monastery of Mush. Despite all these misfortunes, this Gospel retains an astonishing freshness, shimmering and vibrant colors, and we admire the aesthetics of its miniatures which are among the most poetic of the book art in Armenia". These monks had a lot of idiosyncrasies in their imagination, and it is not always easy to decipher their symbolism. "There is no doubt that the Cilician miniaturists knew the writings of Nerses the Gracious, since he was destined for them. But they were careful not to follow the prescriptions exactly. They did not always take into account the symbolic meaning attributed to certain motifs and grouped them according to their own fantasy, so as to obtain purely decorative effects. If the birds that quench their thirst in the water of a basin are the souls thirsty for immortality, if the pomegranates that hide the sweetness of their fruits under a bark symbolize the goodness of the prophets, if the slender palms represent the righteousness that rises to the sky, it is more difficult to explain the presence in the canons of elements such as a human silhouette with a monkey or goat head that holds a flower or a horn of abundance and dancers or naked horsemen, etc. life that bubbled around artists, with its circus performances, its mysteries, its hunting. They are also certainly the fruit of the fertile imagination of illuminators". Another Gospel entered the history of the Armenian books under the name of the Gospel of the Eight Painters (Ms. 7651). It is one of the most famous Cilician art monuments preserved in the Matenadaran, due to the character of its illustrations. No full-page thumbnail, but horizontal stripes; a rarity in Armenian illuminated manuscripts, which denotes a Byzantine influence. Cilician scribe Aevtis probably copied it in Sis at the end of the 13th century. In a 1320 colophon, the bishop of Sevastus, Stepanus, the second owner of the manuscript which he had received as a gift from King Oshin, recounts the history of this Gospel: "I, the unworthy Stepanus, bishop of Sevastus, pastor and lost sheep, mediocre author (of this inscription), went to Cilicia, blessed country of God, to worship the relics of St. Gregory and received there a welcome full of esteem and respect from Patriarch Constantine and King Oshin. And the pious king Oshin wanted to give me a gift, unworthy of me, and, despising temporal property, I desired to possess a gospel. On the king's order, I entered the reserve of the Palace where the holy books were gathered, and I liked it among all, because it was of a beautiful quick writing and decorated with polychrome images, but it was unfinished: one part was finished, another part was only drawn and many spaces remained untouched. I took the manuscript with great joy, went in search of a skilled artist and found Sarkis, said Pitsak, a virtuous priest who was very competent in painting. And I gave him 1,300 drachmas, the fruit of my honest work, and he accepted. With extreme care, he achieved and completed the missing illustrations and their gilding, to my delight. All was completed in the year 769 (1320 of the Armenian calendar), in bitter, difficult and terrible times, which I consider unnecessary to speak of...”. Pitsak remained a very skillful painter. He enjoyed great prestige among the miniaturists of the Vaspurakan school of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He imposed it by the ornamental richness of his painting, more familiar and more accessible, it is true, to the artists of the people than by the research and finesse of the miniatures of the 13th century. This painter, rather cold, does not take into account all the novelties introduced in the illumination by Roslin and his successors. For the iconography analyst Irina Drampian: "his miniatures have no architectural elements or landscapes. The silhouettes are arranged on a gold background dotted with ornamental motifs. The characters are not really treated in flat figuration, but the painter has no concern to render the volume of the human body, nor to give the silhouettes natural poses. Movements are conventional and not very expressive, while the modeling of faces is obtained by a wide use of graphic lines more than by the play of color. The contours have lost all expressiveness and all stylistic character, while the shapes have become heavier. The shades of mauve, lilac and soft green have completely disappeared from the color range to make way for colors without shades. Bright red is associated with blue and gray brown, and gold is widely used". The work of these miniaturists marks the end of the golden age of Cilician illumination. Its history suffered a sudden break at the beginning of the 14th century. Toros Roslin's simple style was no longer fashionable. The illuminators of the 14th century got heavily influenced by the iconography of the East. "This abrupt turn in the art of the book in Cilicia coincides with dramatic events that were upsetting the political and social life of the country. The devastating incursions of the Egyptian Mamluks dealt a fatal blow to Cilicia, already weakened by internal strife, causing the Kingdom to fall at the end of the 14th century." Sarkis Pitsak is therefore the last great Cilician painter and the most fruitful, he illustrated with his hand more than 32 manuscripts. #### Miniatures of the Armenian diaspora For centuries, Armenians fled wars and invasions that struck their country. Among the surviving miniatures, a number come from the "Armenian colonies", that is to say, the different regions of the world where Armenians had settled temporarily, and sometimes even permanently. Countries that have welcomed ethnic Armenians include Greece, Italy, Iran, Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, India, Egypt, and many other countries. As a result, the Armenians came into contact with the art of the countries where they had found refuge, but they still maintained their national traditions. Of these numerous colonies, the Crimean one remained one of the most important and it reached its full bloom in the 14th and 15th centuries. #### Crimea Three hundred Armenian manuscripts from Crimea are in the Matenadaran; these works are at the crossroads of traditions, schools and various trends. The influence of Greek and Italian cultures is dominant because they are known through the emigrants from these countries who settled in Crimea. According to Emma Korkhmazian, "the art of the book shows a certain eclecticism at first. But over time, the Armenians of Crimea have formed their own characteristics, such as the association of the visual layout and the painted miniature in the same manuscript: next to the polychrome miniatures, the ornamental patterns are colored in only one or two tones applied in light gradient. The colors of the miniatures are slightly muted. They are laid in thick, compact layers. The most common combination is dark blue and mauve, while red, yellow and ochre are used only in moderation. The most representative painters of these two trends are Avetis, Arakel, Kirakos and Stepanos. This school is characterized on the one hand by the pasty application of color, a pictorial manner without great finesse and a tendency to simplify the shapes , but also by a great thoroughness in the treatment of the characters and especially of their faces". The art of the Paleologian renaissance has left its mark on the school of Crimea. The Gospel of 1332 (Matenadaran, Ms. 7664), copied and illustrated in Surkhat (modern Staryi Krym) bears the imprint of this Byzantine influence which demonstrates freedom and boldness, with its desire to accurately interpret the textures and volumes, its ability to place the characters in the most varied movements and postures adds to the brilliance of its dynamism: "the spirit and enthusiasm of some miniatures makes them real scenes of genre. We think in particular of the episode of the Merchants driven from the Temple, the cycle dedicated to the life of John the evangelist and the Passion of Christ. The slightly elongated oval shape of the faces, their delicate model, their soft and almost dull colors, light shadows of a gloomy green, are all unusual elements for Armenian miniatures. They resemble the Byzantine or southern Slavic models of the early 14th century. Each miniature stands out against the whiteness of the background with a sharpness and shine reminiscent of easel painting." In 1375, many new exiled emigrants from the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia arrived in Crimea, with them a large number of manuscripts, but most notably the Gospel of the Eight Painters, the Gospel of Smbat, and a manuscript illustrated by Sarkis Pitsak. Miniaturists in Crimea added their own new miniatures to these manuscripts. The most notable of these miniaturists is the 14th-century painter Hovhanes, his style was clearly influenced by Italian art, as can be seen by his use of chromatic contrasts and the play of the light shadows to render the volume.Among the Matenadaran manuscripts that have not preserved a colophon are three 14th-century Gospels (Ms. 318, Ms. 4060 and Ms. 7699) whose origin has recently been located in Surkhat in Crimea. The style of their miniatures is a synthesis of Cilician traditions and the style of late Byzantine art, with its Hellenistic elements and its aspiration for a more realistic and pictorial rendering. The use of chiaroscuro dominates the play of contrasts, and the innovative spirit is revealed in the style of the figures: "their collected, almost palpable figures are built with more freedom. Their faces with animated features and the general softness of the shapes bring the illustrations of these three Gospels closer to the painting of the Southern Slavs contemporary to their time". Among the distinguished works, one is about Grigor Tatevatsi in a Gospel (Matenadaran, Ms. 1203). The rector of the university of Tatev is here painted in the middle of his class of students, with a church in the background. His facial features are very detailed, and personalized and correspond to a written physical description of Grigor Tatevatsi. A notable element of this manuscript is the rare and striking presence of a true portrait at the end of the 14th century. The Armenian art of portraiture dates back to the 5th century, according to Agathange and Movses Khorenatsi in the manuscripts of the copyists (not preserved) of the Armenian illuminations; However, the oldest of the preserved portraits dates back to the year of 1007 AD. This portrait commissioned by Hovhannes is preserved in the national library of the city of Venice (Gospel Ms. 887). #### Other colonies Apart from Crimea, the oldest and most important manuscript is a part of the Bible copied and illustrated in Bologna (Matenadaran, Ms. 2705) which dates from the late 12th century, it is known for its rich ornamentation. According to the latest research. After the fall of Constantinople in 1204, a number of painters emigrated to Italy, "where they exercised until the beginning of the 14th century a significant influence on the development of the arts. The illustrations in the Bologna Bible are of refined elegance and bear witness to a certain artistic taste. The tones are soft and very nuanced, the shapes are modeled with great finesse of detail, while the compositions reveal an unusual mastery. The Western contribution is manifested in the appearance of new subjects, such as the Apocalypse". From the 15th century onwards, without being totally assimilated into Catholicism, many Armenians converted but remained faithful to their original culture. In these vital periods, the first printed Armenian book was published in 1511 in Venice. At the beginning of the 18th century, an Armenian monastery was founded by Mkhitar Sebastatsi on San Lazzaro degli Armeni, an island not far from Venice. Its congregation had and still has a rich library of a collection of manuscripts, a museum and a publishing house that make this place an island of Armenian culture on the territory of Italy. ## Decline This apotheosis was negatively affected by the Mongol and Mamluk conquests, which gave rise to a new wave of diaspora, notably towards Crimea. In Greater Armenia, miniature production declined after 1350 till the invasions of Timur in 1386-1387, 1394-1396 and 1399-1403. At the beginning of the 15th century, Northern Armenia (mainly Tatev) still produced a limited amount of illuminated manuscripts, in a "fairly new, fiery and lively" style, while the school of the Lake Van region produced miniatures with a "more classical, static and monotonous" design, before getting assimilated to the style of Tatev then totally fading away. The late pictorial tradition of Greater Armenia also developed in Khizan, where it incorporated Persian influences, and manifested itself in a "richer and nuanced" palette and "bright colors, dynamic and emotive compositions, elongated silhouettes". The school of Van, on the other hand, lead a renewal based on late Cilician models, in search of a more refined expression; linked to the Aghtamar catholicosate, this school gave rise to "richly colored with sustained tones, enhanced with gold compositions that occupy all available space", illustrated in particular by Minas, an Armenian miniaturist. These artistic elements stimulated "the lasting evolution of Armenian painting until the seventeenth century". The end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th centuries saw all production stop, before being reborn timidly, especially again in Khizan, with Hakob of Julfa. The new 16th-century artists dedicated the revival of the miniatures for historiographical works, which was exceptional at the time, probably reflecting an intention to preserve national identity, with for example Karapet de Berkri (from the end of the 15th century), or the illuminators of two copies of the Alexander Romance; the abundant illustrations show more freedom, the Christological cycle is enriched, the style is mainly decorative but does not exclude a monumental expressiveness, and the colors are vivid. Patronage was also changing: a lot of the patrons were now traders or artisans, which reflects a certain secularization of Armenian manuscripts. The Armenian printing press made its debut in Venice (in 1511) and in Constantinople and finally in New Julfa (in 1630). In the 17th century, the art of miniature was mainly expressed in the Armenian minorities of Crimea, Poland, Italy and Jerusalem, where it experienced the first tendency towards uniformity. The Cilician tradition continued in Constantinople, while moving closer to the Crimean models (especially with the color palette) and while innovating new iconographic themes from the Old Testament, as well as new pictorial techniques in perspectives due to the contact with western European books. The school of New Julfa witnessed the coexistence of Armenian, Persian, European and even Far Eastern styles. However, a wave of standardization in Constantinople soon gained the lead, as well as a Westernization inspired by European engravings, to finally produce the last Armenian illuminated manuscripts in the 18th century, such as a Book of Prayers by Gregory of Narek made in 1762 in Constantinople. Replaced by the printing press, manuscripts were no longer produced out of necessity but out of pure piety and for their aesthetic quality. The Armenian tradition of miniature painting completely disappeared at the beginning of the 19th century, "but the history of art does not forget any of its pages of glory, and the miniature which reflects with joy the loftiness of the aesthetic ideal of the Middle Ages, continues to be part of the treasures of world culture". ## Legacy While the art of the Armenian miniature declined little by little, a transition, little studied until now, took place between it and painting on canvas in the seventeenth century; artists exercised their talent both in miniature and in painting, such as the illuminator Minas and Ter Stepanos. This transition thus leads to modern Armenian painting. Armenian painters, like other painters from different cultures, have never ceased to look into what the past masters of their national culture had accomplished. Indeed, in 1944, the Armenian painter Arshile Gorky, an abstract expressionist, wrote from the United States of America a letter to his sister and spoke to her of his passion for the painter and illuminator Toros Roslin. He notes: “Toros Roslin is the Renaissance. What electricity does man contain! To me he is the greatest artist the world has produced before modern times, and his use of dimension is surpassed only by Cubism. Masterful, unsurpassed dimensionality. I bow to our Toros”. "The dimension of a drawing", of a painting or of a portrait "is the relationship between the object drawn and the object taken in kind". For Gorky, Toros Roslin already possessed precision, depth and perspective in his miniatures, hence his expression of “masterful dimensionality”. As for the Armenian painter Minas Avetisyan, his own contemplation on illuminators comes above all from the Vaspurakan school with its stylistic particularities. Indeed, in certain miniatures, the composition and treatment of the scenes are subject to a linear layout without figuration of depth. "The line then becomes the main means of expression and it acquires liveliness thanks to the use of pure and vibrant colors", according to iconographers Akopian and Korkhmazian. The use of scarlet red in opposition to ultramarine blue and sienna, as decorative elements (therefore without depth), and the use of pure and vibrant colors with powerful chromatic chords is reminiscent of the miniatures of Greater Armenia. This use of vibrant colors in their purity has a purpose. Its purpose of touching directly on emotion, used by Roslin whilst following the aesthetic ideal of the Middle Ages, but exacerbated and ardent with the works of Soviet Armenian painter Martiros Saryan, vehement and thrilling, and even tragic in all its subject matter with the works of Minas Avetissian. Thus, the Armenian painters of the modern period seem closer to the illuminators of the Middle Ages than to many painters from other periods of the history of Armenian art. Long before Caravaggio and his technical development of chiaroscuro: “Toros is the Renaissance”, concludes Arshile Gorky. ### Armenian filmography Miniature art has also influenced Armenian cinema. Sergei Parajanov, the author of Sayat-Nova, (later renamed The Color of Pomegranates) an allegorical film about the life of the Armenian poet Sayat-Nova, had reflected a great deal on the art of miniature, in the medieval era and its relationship to space and time in their representation. Indeed, in the Middle Ages, the construction of space according to the rules of perspective was still ignored. The hierarchy of figures and elements is suggested by the size, the rhythmic alternation of colours, the symbolic code of gestures, and that of hieratic postures, like the more lively scenes of popular life. The composition of the space into places corresponds to a specifically medieval conception. Moreover, time is expressed by space: by the juxtaposition of different places which constitute so many different moments of a story, and thus brought together to produce meaning. The richness of the image is the most striking feature. “By drawing on Armenian poetry and culture without fear of crossing Persian influences, one of the cradles of alchemy, the filmmaker encounters the hermetic tradition. She finds herself indissolubly attached to the images and motifs with which he arranges his shots. Hence the enigmatic tone of the paintings, close to the impeded fantasy of which Roger Caillois speaks in connection with alchemical allegories”. The entire film is an expression of the material imagination, that is to say, “the art of staying as close as possible to the elements, materials, textures, colors”. In an article in the newspaper Libération, in 1982, Serge Daney, a film critic, takes up the words of the filmmaker: "it seemed to me that a static image, in the cinema, can have a depth like a miniature, a plasticity and an internal dynamic,” noted Paradjanov. The author of Sayat-Nova contemplated a lot on the Armenian miniature, he declared: "I thought that the cinema could be static by the image, as can be a Persian or Indian miniature, and have a plastic and inner dynamics. This is why Sayat-Nova was different from my previous films, when I reflected and worked on Armenian religious miniatures, full of spirituality and poetry. They awakened in me an astonishing feeling of veneration”. ## Armenian prayer roll Another form of an illuminated manuscript is a prayer roll, which traditionally included images from the Armenian iconography as well as Biblical passages or teachings but at a much smaller size was a more personal, and portable, religious treasure. Armenian prayer rolls could include iconography applicable to all Christian sects, such as images of St. Mark, St. Luke, or St. John as well as panels depicting important moments in the life of Jesus Christ. For the Armenians, however, the rolls would also include illustrations specific to the history of their country or church. These included St. Gregory the Illuminator credited with bringing Christianity to Armenian in the 4th century and St. Nerses IV important to the growth of Christianity in Armenia in the 12th century as well as establishing the theology of icon veneration within the Armenian Church. As in the case of other traditional Armenian manuscripts, prayer rolls were drawn and illustrated by hand on vellum. The scroll served as a personal talisman for the protection of its owner or for the needs and prayer intentions of members of their family. Prayer rolls were narrow in width and included panels of religious illustrations followed by religious text. The rolls were always quite long although exact measurements varied, depending on the number of panels it contained. The owner of this religious artifact could tightly roll the vellum and conceal it when carried. Concealment was crucial for the protection of the prayer roll since illuminated manuscripts and prayer rolls were highly valued and targeted by thieves. Devout Armenians held manuscripts and other works of art of the Church in high regard due to the fact the church and its teachings were an important part of daily life in medieval Armenia; the church fulfilled all spiritual, social, moral and cultural needs. ## Techniques and scripts About 31,000 manuscripts still survive after continuous invasions of Armenia throughout the centuries and the more recent Armenian Diaspora where hundreds of thousands of Armenians were displaced or massacred. Illuminated manuscripts mostly recount religious teachings and gospels of the Armenians and were handed down through families. So valuable were these manuscripts it was regarded as a sacrilege to sell or damage them, or to allow the manuscripts to fall into enemy hands. Most of the manuscripts were written and illustrated by monks located in monasteries. Many manuscripts are very elaborate, covered in gilt and brilliant colors. However, there is another type of manuscript which was stripped of unnecessary ornamentation, lacking colored backgrounds and painted with transparent colors, often with less-than-perfect artistry. Manuscripts were adorned with fantastical creatures and birds, which often formed the initial letters of chapters to attract the eye while providing a mental break during which the beauty of the illustration could refresh the mind and spirit. These brilliantly illustrated letters were followed by "erkat’agir", an uncial script also known as iron script, as it originally was carved into stone. Notary script known as "notrgir" was used for writing the script and colophon and "bologir", meaning "rounded letters" was often used as a minuscule in writing the rubrics, which are sections written in red ink in order to draw attention. Black lettering was used to write the chapters, symbolizing the pain of original sin, while the white paper space symbolized the innocence of birth. The colophon, also written in red ink, was usually found at the beginning or end of the manuscript and would provide information about the scribe, the patron, the artist, the date, when, where, and for whom the manuscript was created. Often the scribe would add notes about his working conditions or anecdotes of wisdom in the colophon and often carried into the margins of the manuscript. So important was owning a manuscript, the owner would add his name to the script. If a manuscript had multiple owners, multiple signatures might be found within the script. The painting support used by the artists of Armenian miniatures was the same as the material used for the pages of the manuscripts: parchment, until the 12th century, or paper; the latter, already present in the 10th century, was then used the most (56% of manuscripts in the 12th century, 66% in the 14th century, 80% in the 15th century) and ended up eclipsing parchment. This support was assembled and folded in codices; the 8-folio format was standard, although the 12-folio became widespread in Cilicia in the 13th century. The illuminator used to paint after the scribe finished writing the manuscript (except with the Eusebian canons); the artists most often started with “the non-figurative decoration, frontispieces, ornamental letters, marginal decorations, to end with the miniatures”. The pigments used by Armenian illuminators are mainly preparations of metallic oxides, which contribute to the brilliance of their works: cobalt for the blues, iron for the brownish red, copper for the greens, and antimony for the yellow. As for the gold, it was used in the form of thin sheets cut and pasted on the sheet of the manuscript, or reduced to powder then transformed into the paint. Organic pigments were also used, such as cochineal carmine, or gamboge for the yellows, produced from the resin of species of the Clusiaceae family. Finally, the calcined bones were used to produce different substances used for white or for black. The binders used were most commonly gum arabic and oil. ## See also - Armenian art - Armenian literature - Armenian Apostolic Church - Culture of Armenia - Byzantine illuminated manuscripts - Arabic miniature - Persian miniature - History of Armenia
72,074,942	Edward V. Boursaud	1,169,261,683	American Jesuit priest (1840–1902)	[ "1840 births", "1902 deaths", "19th-century American Jesuits", "20th-century American Jesuits", "Burials at Woodstock College Cemetery", "Clergy from New York City", "Mount St. Mary's University alumni", "Pastors of the Church of the Immaculate Conception (Boston, Massachusetts)", "Presidents of Boston College", "Rectors of Woodstock College", "Spring Hill College", "St. Stanislaus Novitiate (Frederick, Maryland) alumni" ]	Edward Victor Boursaud (September 1, 1840 – March 19, 1902) was an American Catholic priest and Jesuit who was the president of Boston College from 1884 to 1887. Raised in New York City and France, he studied at Mount St. Mary's College in Maryland before entering the Society of Jesus in 1863. For the next 18 years, he studied and taught at Jesuit institutions, including Boston College, Georgetown College, and Woodstock College, as well as the novitiate in Frederick, Maryland. In 1881 and 1887, he served three-year terms in Italy as the assistant secretary to the Jesuit Superior General for the English-speaking world. In 1884, Boursaud became the president of Boston College, where he would remain for three years. He then served three years as the rector of Woodstock College from 1890 to 1893. In his later years, he spent time teaching and as a spiritual father at Jesuit institutions throughout the eastern United States. ## Early life Edward Victor Boursaud was born on September 1, 1840, in New York City. Boursaud's father, Augustin, was born in Bourdeaux, France, and emigrated to New York at the age of thirty. Boursaud's mother, Elizabeth née Perret, was born in New York City and was of French and Swiss descent. After marrying in New York City, Boursaud's parents moved to Baltimore, Maryland, where Boursaud's father ran a large, private, boarding school and day school for 10 years. While Boursaud's mother was visiting New York City (Brooklyn was then a separate city), she gave birth to Boursaud. The family then moved to Brooklyn in 1850, where Boursaud's father would operate a school for another 18 years. Boursaud was educated by his father in his school. While a child, he moved with his parents to France. Boursaud studied there before returning to the United States. He worked for a time as a clerk in an import house in New York City. Boursaud then enrolled at Mount St. Mary's College in Emmitsburg, Maryland, and graduated in June 1863. He became familiar with the Jesuits during a retreat, and entered the Society of Jesus on August 14 of that year, proceeding to the Jesuit novitiate in Frederick, Maryland. ## Jesuit formation After two years as a novice, Boursaud became a professor of classics at the Jesuit juniorate in Frederick. In his first year, he also taught grammar, and in his second year, he taught poetry. While at the novitiate, he translated Joseph-Epiphane Darras's A General History of the Catholic Church from French to English, at Archbishop Martin John Spalding's request. Boursaud then taught poetry at Georgetown College in Washington, D.C., from 1867 to 1870. While there, he served as the president of the Philodemic Society at Georgetown. Boursaud began his philosophical and theological studies at Woodstock College in Woodstock, Maryland, in September 1871. During this time, he was also a writer and effectively an editor for the Messenger of the Sacred Heart. Boursaud was ordained a priest on April 6, 1877, and completed his theological studies the next year. In 1878, he went to Boston College in Massachusetts, teaching sophomores as a professor of poetry and rhetoric, for a year each. In 1880, he taught juniors at the Frederick scholasticate as a professor of rhetoric. Boursaud then returned to Woodstock College for a year of asceticism. He became the first American appointed to be the assistant secretary of the Jesuit Superior General's assistancy for the English-speaking world in 1881. Boursaud was fluent in English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Latin, which was useful in this position. He remained in this position for three years, and resided in Fiesole, Italy, where the Superior General was then based. While there, he completed his third year of probation and professed his final vows on August 15, 1882, which were accepted by Superior General Peter Jan Beckx. ## Boston College Boursaud returned to the United States, and on July 31, 1884, he succeeded Jeremiah O'Conor as the fifth president of Boston College. During his presidency, Boursaud was also the pastor of Immaculate Conception Church in the South End of Boston, which was Boston College's chapel. Enrollment at the college increased from 250 in 1883 to 297 in 1886. His first project was to remodel and expand the basement of Immaculate Conception Church, adding marble altars, statues, and stained glass windows. During a strike by streetcar workers, in support of the strikers, Boursaud refused to ride the streetcars. The requirements for the degree of Master of Arts were first established during Boursaud's term, but the first master's degree was not awarded until after the end of his presidency. When approached by an alumnus about creating a Boston College alumni organization, Boursaud was reluctant to endorse it because he believed there was insufficient interest by alumni. However, after interest was shown, he gave his approval for alumni to create the organization in 1886. Boursaud's presidency ended on August 5, 1887, and he was succeeded by Thomas H. Stack. ## Later years After the end of his presidency at Boston College, Boursaud returned to Italy and resumed the position of assistant secretary of the English-speaking assistancy for three years. Around this time, his health began to decline, and he returned to the United States in 1890, initially going to Georgetown. On October 9, 1890, Boursaud became the rector of Woodstock College. He held this position until November 29, 1893, when his health began to significantly deteriorate. He also became the socius to the provincial superior of the Jesuit Maryland-New York Province. In 1894, Boursaud was stationed at Saint Joseph's College in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as an assistant to the central director of the Apostleship of Prayer and as a staff member of the Messenger of the Sacred Heart, that organization's publication. When the apostleship moved to New York City, he moved with it. In 1895, Boursaud returned to Boston College served as the treasurer. The following year, he became a teacher of the lower classes and spiritual father at the school. Due to his failing health, Boursaud was sent by his superiors to Spring Hill College in Mobile, Alabama. When his health improved, he went to Frederick for a year as the instructor of the third year of probation. He was then stationed at the College of St. Francis Xavier in New York City and Saint Joseph's College in Philadelphia for a year each as spiritual father. After a time at Woodstock College, where he edited a new edition of the Raccolta, he retired to the Frederick novitiate. In Frederick, he suffered several strokes and kidney disease. Boursaud died on March 19, 1902, at the Jesuit novitiate in Frederick, Maryland. His body was buried in the cemetery at Woodstock College. ## Works
442,689	Lloyd Kenyon, 1st Baron Kenyon	1,166,219,692	British politician and barrister	[ "1732 births", "1802 deaths", "Barons Kenyon", "British MPs 1780–1784", "British MPs 1784–1790", "Lord chief justices of England and Wales", "Lord-Lieutenants of Flintshire", "Masters of the Rolls", "Members of Lincoln's Inn", "Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies", "Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Tregony", "Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain", "Peers of Great Britain created by George III", "People educated at Ruthin School", "Serjeants-at-law (England)" ]	Lloyd Kenyon, 1st Baron Kenyon, PC (5 October 1732 – 4 April 1802), was a British politician and barrister, who served as Attorney General, Master of the Rolls and Lord Chief Justice. Born to a country gentleman, he was initially educated in Hanmer before moving to Ruthin School aged 12. Rather than going to university he instead worked as a clerk to an attorney, joining the Middle Temple in 1750 and being called to the Bar in 1756. Initially almost unemployed due to the lack of education and contacts which a university education would have provided, his business increased thanks to his friendships with John Dunning, who, overwhelmed with cases, allowed Kenyon to work many, and Lord Thurlow who secured for him the Chief Justiceship of Chester in 1780. He was returned as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Hindon the same year, serving repeatedly as Attorney General under William Pitt the Younger. He effectively sacrificed his political career in 1784 to challenge the ballot of Charles James Fox, and was rewarded with a baronetcy; from then on he did not speak in the House of Commons, despite remaining an MP. On 27 March 1784, he was appointed Master of the Rolls, a job to which he dedicated himself once he ceased to act as an MP. He had previously practised in the Court of Chancery, and although unfamiliar with Roman law was highly efficient; Lord Eldon said "I am mistaken if, after I am gone, the Chancery Records do not prove that if I have decided more than any of my predecessors in the same period of time, Sir Lloyd Kenyon beat us all". On 9 June 1788, Kenyon succeeded Lord Mansfield as Lord Chief Justice, and was granted a barony. Although not rated as highly as his predecessor, his work "restored the simplicity and rigor of the common law". He remained Lord Chief Justice until his death in 1802. ## Early life and education Kenyon was born on 5 November 1732 in Gredington, Flintshire, to Lloyd Kenyon, a country gentleman and Justice of the peace, and his wife Jane Eddowes. He was initially educated at a school in Hanmer – it was written that "no man ever set out on his career with fewer advantages" than Kenyon. When he was 12 he was sent to Ruthin School, where he learnt French and Latin, and was considered one of the best students at the school. His knowledge of Greek was non-existent, and his scientific training minor; "he was said to have believed to his dying day that the sun goes around the earth". As a second son, he had initially considered joining the clergy, but instead decided on the law and spent 5 years working as a clerk to Mr W. J. Tomkinson, an attorney. He proved to be an excellent clerk, becoming a "rapid and accurate conveyancer". Originally happy with the idea of being a simple attorney, after the death of his older brother it was instead assumed he would become a barrister, and Kenyon joined the Middle Temple in November 1750. In February 1755 he left Tomkinson's practice and moved to London, where he was called to the Bar on 10 February 1756. ## Career as a barrister Without the education or connections that a university education would have provided he was almost entirely unemployed for several years. Kenyon instead lived off an £80 allowance from his father, and money from his richer relatives, spending the time watching Lord Mansfield conduct cases at the Court of King's Bench. His early business was almost entirely conveyancing, and to make extra money he began to attend the Welsh Circuit, where Tomlinson's contacts allowed him to pick up some small cases. After several years of this he also began attending quarter sessions at Oxford, Stafford and Shrewsbury, "where he was more successful". While his work slowly began to increase, his main rise was due to his friendship with John Dunning, at the time a similarly near-unemployed barrister. In 1762 one of the leaders of the Northern Circuit died, and his work was given to Dunning; as he found himself with too many cases, he gave many to Kenyon. In 1767, for example, Kenyon dealt with 20 of Dunning's cases. As a result of his speedy and efficient work attorneys began to employ him directly, and within 10 years he was making £3,000 a year just from opinions. Kenyon's next rise came about as a result of his introduction to the Duke of Richmond, who was struggling with Sir James Lowther for the control of several Parliamentary constituencies. Kenyon went with Richmond to Carlisle and Cockermouth as his lawyer, and secured the constituencies for Richmond; as a result, Richmond chose to employ Kenyon as his lawyer from then onwards. In 1780 he successfully defended Lord George Gordon for high treason, assisted by Thomas Erskine, and the resulting fame was enough to propel him further up the ranks of his profession and within the political sphere. At the same time he became friends with Lord Thurlow, and when the holder of the Chief Justiceship of Chester died that year, Thurlow ensured that it was given to Kenyon. The rise of Kenyon's work in the Court of Chancery was also attributed to his friendship with Thurlow, who as Lord Chancellor was the head of the Court. ## Political career When Parliament was dissolved in 1780, Thurlow ensured that Kenyon was returned as a Member of Parliament for Hindon. In April 1782, on the formation of the Rockingham government, Kenyon was made Attorney-General for England and Wales, despite having never sat in the lower office of Solicitor-General or spoken in Parliament. As Attorney General he spoke on only one subject, on 18 June 1782, in regards to the amount of money owed to the Exchequer by the Paymaster of the Forces. This provoked the opposition of Charles James Fox, whose father, Lord Holland, had profited greatly by that office; Kenyon's programme could have ruined Fox by making him liable for refunding his father's profits as Paymaster. On the death of Rockingham Kenyon continued in his post under the Shelburne Ministry, but left office in April 1783 when that government fell to the Fox-North Coalition. He instead allied himself with William Pitt the Younger, leading the opposition to the first Act of the new government and strongly supporting an opposition bill to reform the Exchequer. When the new government was dismissed on 19 December and Pitt took control, Kenyon was again made Attorney-General. He again took the lead on the issue of the Paymaster of the Forces, and commanded that Richard Rigby, Paymaster until 1782, "do deliver to the House an account of the balance of all public money remaining in his hands on the 13th day of November last", something Rigby complained was against common practice. In 1784 Thomas Sewell died, and, as was tradition, Kenyon succeeded him as Master of the Rolls on 27 March. Initially intending to withdraw from Parliament, Kenyon was persuaded to remain as an MP and Attorney General to increase Pitt's majority. Having purchased the seat of Tregony he "was resolved to go the whole hog", and became one of the strongest and most visible supporters of Pitt. With his contacts in Wales, he secured votes for several ministerial candidates in Welsh constituencies. In an attempt to have Charles James Fox removed as an MP he had Fox's ballot challenged; while this backfired, he was awarded with a baronetcy for the effective sacrifice of his political career. As a result of this controversy he stated that "legislation was a task to which he had by no means thought himself equal", and stayed silent in Parliament for the rest of his life. ## Judicial career Having withdrawn from politics, Kenyon instead switched his focus to his job as Master of the Rolls. As a judge of the Court of Chancery he was required to deal with cases of equity; though he was almost entirely unfamiliar with the Roman law it was based on, he had previously practised in the Chancery. He was not considered as good as his successor, Sir William Grant, but Lord Eldon wrote that "I am mistaken if, after I am gone, the Chancery Records do not prove that if I have decided more than any of my predecessors in the same period of time, Sir Lloyd Kenyon beat us all". With the retirement of Lord Mansfield as Lord Chief Justice, Kenyon succeeded him on 9 June 1788, and was made Baron Kenyon of Gredington, in the county of Flint. Kenyon's appointment was initially greeted with caution by his fellow barristers, who worried that, as he had practised in a court of equity rather than a court of common law, he might be unfamiliar with the area covered by his new posting in the Court of King's Bench. Despite this, he was noted as an excellent judge, although one who suffered from an "excess of zeal" in moral issues. One of his flaws was his defective education; he was too proud to avoid exhibiting his ignorance. He was particularly noted for using Latin incorrectly, leading George III to say "My Lord... it would be well if you would stick to your good law and leave off your bad Latin". As a judge, Kenyon over-ruled the principles that a court of law could not consider trusts or a pecuniary legacy; it was said that he "restored the simplicity and rigor of the common law". After nearly one and a half decades as a judge, Kenyon died on 4 April 1802 in Bath. ## Personal life In 1773 he married his cousin, Mary Kenyon, with whom he had three sons; Lloyd, who predeceased him, George, and Thomas. Kenyon was noted by John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell as "a man of wonderful quickness of perception, of considerable intellectual nimbleness, of much energy of purpose, and of unwearied industry", although Campbell noted that, thanks to Kenyon's lack of a university education, he knew only "the corner of jurisprudence which he professionally cultivated; he had not even the information generally picked up by the clever clerk of a country attorney". He was noted as arrogant, despising things he did not understand and condemning any opinions he disagreed with regardless of his knowledge of them. He never attempted to reform the judicial system, and "his habits of sordid parsimony brought discredit on the high station which he filled". Campbell, however, has been criticized as a biographer. When his Lives of the Chief Justices was published, which included his biography of Lord Kenyon, the Law Magazine commented that "Lord Campbell has confounded, or not rightly understood, the distinction between true and false. His political virus oozes out in sly general remarks and bantering innuendoes." (Law Magazine vol.43, p5, 209.) Despite this, as a judge he was seen as "profound in legal erudition, patient in judicial discrimination, and of the most determined integrity". ## Arms
34,606,974	Demographics of Filipino Americans	1,173,043,171	null	[ "Demographics of the United States", "Filipino American" ]	As of year 2021, there were 1.98 million Filipino immigrants in US mostly married within their own race who are categorically considered to be American; in 2021 the estimated population of Filipino immigrants constitutes the third-largest population of Asian Americans, and the largest population of Overseas Filipinos. The first recorded presence of Filipinos in what is now the United States dates to October 1587, with the first permanent settlement of Filipinos in present-day Louisiana in 1763. The 1910 United States Census recorded only 406 people of Filipino descent in the mainland U.S., including 109 in Louisiana and 17 in Washington state. Migration of significant numbers of Filipinos to the United States did not occur until the early 20th century, when the Philippines was an overseas territory of the United States. After World War II, and until 1965, migration of Filipinos to the United States was reduced limited to primarily military and medically connected immigration. Since 1965, due to changes in immigration policy, the population of Filipino Americans has expanded significantly. Filipino Americans can be found throughout the United States, especially in the Western United States and metropolitan areas. In California, Filipinos were initially concentrated in its Central Valley, especially in Stockton, but later shifted to Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area. Other states with significant populations of Filipinos include: Hawaii, Illinois, Florida, Texas, and Washington. New Jersey and the New York Metropolitan area also has a significant population of Filipinos. There are smaller populations of Filipino Americans elsewhere. As a population, Filipino Americans are multilingual, with Tagalog being the largest non-English language being spoken. A majority of Filipino Americans are Catholic, with smaller populations having other religious views. On average, Filipino Americans earn a higher average household income and achieve a higher level of education than the national average. ## National population demographics The Filipino American community is the second-largest Asian American group in the United States with a population of over 3.4 million as of the 2010 US Census, making up 19.7% of Asian Americans. Only Chinese Americans have a larger population among Asian Americans. Not including multiracial Filipino Americans, the population of those responding as Filipino alone in the 2010 Census was 2,555,923, an increase of 38% in population from the 2000 Census. 69% of Filipino Americans were born outside of the United States. 77% of all Filipino Americans are United States citizens. Filipino Americans are the largest subgroup of Overseas Filipinos; as of 2011, there are 1,813,597 Philippines-born immigrants living in the United States (4.5% of all immigrants in the United States), of which 65% have become naturalized U.S. citizens. In 2014, there was an estimated 1.23 million second generation Filipino Americans, who had a median age of 20, yet three percent were over the age of 64. Life expectancy for Filipino Americans is higher than the general population of the United States; however, survival rates of Filipino Americans diagnosed with cancer are lower than European Americans and African Americans. In 2015, the United States Census Bureau American Community Survey estimated that there were over 3.8 million Filipinos in the United States. In 2018, the American Community Survey estimated the population of Filipinos in the United States to be over 4 million. In 2019, the American Community Survey estimated the population of Filipinos in the United States to be about 4.2 Million. The U.S. Census Bureau reported that the 2007 American Community Survey, identified approximately 3.1 million persons as "Filipino alone or in any combination". The census also found that about 80% of the Filipino American community are United States citizens. According to a study published in 2007, 11% of single-heritage Filipinos did not mark "Asian" as their race; this number was greater among multiracial Filipinos. Also in 2011, the U.S. State Department estimated the size of the Filipino American community at four million, or 1.5% of the United States population. There are no official records of Filipinos who hold dual citizenship; however, during the 2000 Census data indicated that Filipino Americans had the lowest percentage of non-citizens amongst Asian Americans, at 26%. Additionally, although historically there had been a larger number of Filipino American men than women, women represented 54% of the Filipino American adult population in the 2000 Census. Filipino Americans are the largest group of Overseas Filipinos, and the majority were born outside of the United States; at the same time, more than 73% are United States Citizens. Among Asian Americans, Filipino Americans are the most integrated in American society, and are described by University of California, Santa Barbara Professor Pei-te Lien as being "acculturated and economically incorporated". One in five is a multiracial American. Multiple languages are spoken by Filipino Americans, and the majority are Roman Catholic. A U.S. Census Bureau survey done in 2004 found that Filipino Americans had the second highest median family income amongst Asian Americans, and had a high level of educational achievement. Interracial marriage among Filipinos is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups in California— only Japanese Americans have a higher rate nationally. Compared to other Asian Americans, Filipino Americans are more likely to have a Hispanic spouse. Statistically, Filipino American women are more likely to marry outside of their ethnicity (38.9%) than Filipino American men (17.6%); other Asian American populations have lower rates of marrying outside of their race than both Filipino American men and women. Between 2008 and 2010, 48% of Filipino American marriages were with non-Asians. It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are multiracial, second among Asian Americans. Depending on their parentage, multiracial Filipino Americans may refer to themselves as Mestizo, Tsinoy, Blackapino, and Mexipino. ## Historical settlement ### Early immigration The earliest recorded presence of Filipinos in what is now the United States is October 1587 when mariners under Spanish command landed in Morro Bay, California. The earliest permanent Filipino American residents arrived in the Americans in 1763, settling in Louisiana's bayou country. They later created settlements in the Mississippi River Delta such as Saint Malo, Manila Village in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, and four others in present-day Plaquemines and Jefferson Parishes. These early settlements were composed of sailors compelled to serve in press gangs who had escaped from duty aboard Spanish galleons. They were documented by Harper's Weekly journalist Lafcadio Hearn in 1883. These settlements were the first longstanding Asian American settlements in the United States. The last of these, Manila Village, survived until 1965 when it was destroyed by Hurricane Betsy. An additional 2,000 were documented in New Orleans with their roots dating back to about 1806— the first being Augustin Feliciano from the Philippines's Bicol Region. Others came later from: Manila, Cavite, Ilocos, Camarines, Zamboanga, Zambales, Leyte, Samar, Antique, Bulacan, Bohol, Cagayan, and Surigao. ### American period Significant immigration to the United States began in the 1900s after the Spanish–American War when the Philippines became an overseas territory of the United States, and the population became United States nationals. Unlike other Asians who were unable to immigrate to the United States because of the immigration laws of the time, Filipinos, as U.S. nationals, were exempt. In December 1915, it was ruled that Filipinos were eligible for naturalization and could become citizens. Naturalization remained difficult, however, with documented cases of denied naturalization and de-naturalization occurring in the early 20th century. Filipinos, many agricultural laborers, settled primarily in the then Territory of Hawaii and California. Of the one hundred thirteen thousand Filipinos who immigrated during the early American period, about a third returned to the Philippines. A smaller group of immigrants were sent on a scholarship program established by the Philippine Commission, and were collectively known as "pensionados"; the first batch of pensionados was sent in 1903 and the scholarship program continued until World War II. The students were chosen initially from wealthy and elite Filipino families, but were later from a more diverse background. Other Filipino students, outside the program, came to the United States for education; many did not return to the Philippines. During this wave of migration to the United States from the Philippines, men outnumbered women by a ratio of about 15:1. Nuclear families were rare, therefore, and an indication of privilege. This migration, known as the "manong generation", was reduced to 50 persons a year after passage of the Tydings–McDuffie Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act) which classified Filipinos as aliens. This was offset by the United States Navy's recruitment of Filipinos, that began in 1898 and authorized by President William McKinley in 1901. They were exempt from this quota. Additionally, those Filipino sailors were eligible for naturalization after three years of service. By 1922, Filipinos made up 5.7% of the United States Navy's enlisted personnel. In 1930, there were twenty-five thousand Filipino Americans in the United States Navy, primarily rated as stewards, having largely displaced African-Americans in that rating. ### Post independence The War Brides Act of 1945, and subsequent Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946, allowed veterans to return to the Philippines to bring back fiancées, wives, and children. In the years following the war, some sixteen thousand Filipinas entered the United States as war brides. That is not to say only women and children were beneficiaries of the acts, for it was recorded that a lone Filipino groom immigrated during this period. These new immigrants formed a second generation of Filipino Americans that grew Filipino American communities, providing nuclear families. Immigration levels were impacted by the independence of the Philippines from the United States, that occurred on 4 July 1946. The quota of non-naval immigration increased slightly to 100 because of the passage of the Luce–Celler Act of 1946. Thus, Filipino American communities developed around United States Navy bases, whose impact can still be seen today. Filipino American communities were also settled near Army and Air Force bases. After World War II, until 1965, half of all Filipino immigrants to the United States were wives of U.S. servicemembers. In 1946, the Filipino Naturalization Act allowed for naturalization, and citizenship for Filipinos who had arrived before March 1943. Beginning in 1948, due to the U.S. Education Exchange Act, Filipino nurses began to immigrate to the United States; 7,000 arrived that year. ### Post 1965 Following the enactment of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, until at least the 1990s, the Philippines became the largest source of Asian immigration, providing one-fourth of Asian immigrants to the United States. Filipinos were the largest number of Asians immigrants to the U.S. and the second-largest immigrant population after Mexicans. Into the 1990s, Filipino immigrants included many highly educated and higher skilled immigrants. A significant portion of them worked in the medical field filling medical personnel shortages in the U.S. in areas like nursing. As a result of the shortage of nurses, the Philippines become the largest source of healthcare professionals who immigrated to the U.S. In the 1960s, nurses from the Philippines became the largest group of nurses immigrating to the U.S. surpassing those immigrating from Canada. By the 1970s, 9,158 Filipino nurses had immigrated to the U.S., making up 60% of its immigrant nurses. By 2000, one in ten Filipino Americans, or an estimated 100,000 immigrants, were employed as nurses. in 2020, the estimate of Filipino American nurses increased to over 150,000, or 4% of the all nurses in the United States. In 2020, 7% of those employed in the medical field were Filipino American. Another result of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 was that family reunification based immigration added to the total number of Filipino immigrants resulting in two distinct economic groups within the Filipino American community. Like other immigrant groups, Filipino immigrants clustered together both out of a sense of community and in response to prejudice against them. This created the first Little Manilas in urban areas. As time passed, immigration policies changed, and prejudice diminished, leading to a decline in the presence of Little Manilas. Between 1965 and 1985, more than 400,000 Filipinos immigrated to the United States. In 1970, immigrants made up more than half (53%) of all Filipino Americans. In 1980, Filipino Americans were the largest group of Asian Americans in the entire US. Half a million of the Filipino American population were immigrants, making up 3.6% of all immigrants in the U.S. outnumbering United States-born Filipino Americans two to one. In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s more than half a million Filipinos obtained legal permanent resident status in the U.S. during each decade. In 1992, the U.S. Navy ended the Philippines Enlistment Program because of the end of the 1947 Military Bases Agreement. It had allowed about thirty-five thousand Filipinos to join the U.S. Navy, many of whom immigrated to the U.S. Filipino Americans tended to settle in major metropolitan areas, and in the West in a more dispersed fashion. They also intermarried more than other Asian Americans. ## Population concentrations The following is a list of states with significant Filipino American populations of over 70,000 in 2017. Filipino Americans are the largest group of Asian Americans in 10 of the 13 western states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Washington, Wyoming; Filipino Americans are also the largest group of Asian Americans in South Dakota. Filipino immigrants have dispersed across the United States, gravitating toward economic and professional opportunities, independent of geographic location. Among the 1,814,000 Philippines-born Filipino Americans, the states with the largest concentrations are California (44.8%), Hawaii (6.2%), New Jersey (4.8%), Texas (4.8%), and Illinois (4.7%).<sub>Table 4.</sub> In 2008, 35% of Filipino immigrants in the United States lived in the Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City metropolitan areas; by 2011, the percentage of the total Filipino immigrant population in the U.S. in those metropolitan areas was 33%. In 2010, Filipino Americans constituted the largest Asian American group within five of the nation's twenty largest metropolitan areas: San Diego, Riverside, Las Vegas, Sacramento, and Houston. ### California Although Filipinos first arrived in California in the 16th century, the first documentation of a Filipino residing in California did not occur until 1781, when Antonio Miranda Rodriguez was counted in the census as a "chino". Initially part of the expedition that would establish Pueblo de Los Ángeles, Rodriguez was not present when Pueblo de Los Ángeles was founded. Delayed in Baja California due to illness in his family, he arrived in Alta California later. In 1910, there were only five Filipinos in California; ten years later, in 1920, 2,674 Filipinos lived there. In 1930, there were about 35,000 Filipino agricultural laborers in California's Central Valley where the majority of Filipinos in the United States resided. Filipino laborers tended to have better working conditions and earn more than their Mexican or Japanese counterparts; in addition, they were described as "dandies and sharp dressers". Before World War II, Stockton had the largest population of Filipinos outside of the Philippine Islands, and during the harvest season, its Filipino population would swell to over 10,000. During the Great Depression Filipinos in California were the target of race riots, including the Watsonville riots. By the end of World War II, the Filipino population in Stockton increased to over 15,000. In the late 1950s, Filipino Americans in California were concentrated around Stockton, the Bay Area, and Los Angeles with migrant laborers being a significant part of the population. By 1970, the Filipino population in Stockton was less than 5,000, and the once vibrant Filipino community of "Little Manila" had been largely demolished except for a few blocks by 1999, mostly due to construction of the "Crosstown Freeway". A population of Filipinos remains in the Central Valley region in the 21st century, however it is no longer a significant concentration. In 2019, it was estimated that Filipino Americans are the largest populations of Asian Americans in Stockton, and are about 28,000 people. In 1940, the Filipino population grew to 31,408 and continued to grow to 67,134 by 1960. It had nearly doubled to 135,248 by 1970, and by 1990 had grown to almost three quarters of a million people (733,941). Since at least 1990, Filipino Americans have been the largest group of Asian Pacific Americans in the state. In 1990, more than half (52%) of all Filipino Americans lived in California. In 2000, almost half of all Filipino Americans in the United States lived in California (49.4%), with Los Angeles County and San Diego County having the highest concentrations; additionally in 2000, California was home to nearly half (49%) of Filipino immigrants. In 2008, one out of every four Filipino Americans lived in Southern California, numbering over one million. The 2010 Census, confirmed that Filipino Americans had grown to become the largest Asian American population in the state totaling 1,474,707 persons; 43% of all Filipino Americans live in California. Of these persons, 1,195,580 were not multiracial Filipino Americans. As of 2011, California is home to 45% of all Filipino immigrants to the United States. In 2013, 22,797 Filipino immigrants seeking lawful permanent residence within the United States sought residence in the state of California, a change from 22,484 in 2012, 20,261 in 2011, and 24,082 in 2010. 20% of California's registered nurses were Filipino in 2013; according to the California Healthcare Foundation, Los Angeles County has the largest concentration of Filipino American nurses, who are 27% of nurses in the county. By 2021, the percentage of nurses in California who are Filipino American dropped down to 18%. #### Greater Los Angeles Filipino pensionados began arriving to the region in 1903, including Ventura County; others attended schools in Los Angeles County, including the University of Southern California, and University of California, Los Angeles. In the 1920s, the area now known as Little Tokyo was known as Little Manila, where the first concentration of Filipino immigrants in Los Angeles lived. In 1930, one in five Filipinos in the United States called Los Angeles County home. The number of Filipinos in the area expanded in the winter season to work temporary jobs. In 1937, the first Filipina American graduated from UCLA. In 1940, there were 4,503 Filipinos living in the City of Los Angeles. Little Manila extended to the Bunker Hill and Civic Center areas of Los Angeles, but was forced to relocate to the Temple-Beverly Corridor in the 1950s and 1960s; it has since been largely forgotten. In the 20th century, Filipino sailors with the United States Navy began to be stationed in Oxnard and Long Beach, developing military related Filipino enclaves; Long Beach community began in the 1940s, the Oxnard community saw significant growth after the 1960s. According to the 1970 United States Census, the Los Angeles-Long Beach metropolitan area had the third largest Filipino American population in the United States at that time (32,018). In the 1980s, there were 219,653 Filipinos in Los Angeles County. In 1985, Helen Agcaoili Summers Brown opened the Filipino American Reading Room and Library. In 1990, there were more Filipinos living in suburban Los Angeles (160,778), than in urban Los Angeles (135,336). In 1996 one in four of Asian Americans in Los Angeles was Filipino. In the last two decades of the 20th century Filipinos were the second-largest population of Asian Americans in the region, however one writer described the population as having a "residential invisibility", with other Asian American populations being more visible. Greater Los Angeles is the metropolitan area home to the most Filipino Americans, with the population numbering around 606,657; Los Angeles County alone accounts for over 374,285 Filipinos, the most of any single county in the U.S. The Los Angeles region has the second-largest concentrated population of Filipinos in the world, surpassed only by Manila. Greater Los Angeles is also home to the largest number of Filipino immigrants (16% of the total Filipino immigrant population of the United States), as of 2011. Filipinos are the second-largest group of Asian Americans in the region; however, in 2010, Filipinos were the largest population of Asian Americans within the City of Los Angeles. In 2016, among those surveyed for a report entitled The Color of Wealth in Los Angeles, Filipino Americans had the second-largest proportion of college graduates, with 76.2% having at least a bachelor's degree. The City of Los Angeles designated a section of Westlake as Historic Filipinotown in 2002. It is now largely populated by Hispanic and Latino Americans. Most Filipinos who resided in the area and the city in general have moved to the suburbs, particularly cities in the San Gabriel Valley, including West Covina and Rowland Heights. Due to West Covina's significant concentration of Filipino Americans, it was proposed a business district be designated a "Little Manila". In 2014, about a quarter of Historic Filipinotown's population was Filipino, however the population did not have a significant "visible cultural impact"; in 2007, Filipinos were 15% of the area's population. Within the City of Los Angeles, Eagle Rock has over 6,000 Filipinos calling the neighborhood home; additionally, as of 2000 the largest source of foreign-born individuals was the Philippines. Panorama City is another Los Angeles neighborhood with a noticeable Filipino population. In 2010, 32.4% of Asians in La Puente were foreign-born Filipino. Other significant concentrations of Filipino Americans in Los Angeles County are in Carson, where "Larry Itliong Day" was dedicated, Cerritos, and Glendale. Orange County also has a sizable and growing Filipino population, whose population grew by 178% in the 1980s; by 2018 the population was estimated to be 89,000. The Inland Empire also has a population of Filipinos, with an estimated 59,000 living in the region in 2003, a hundred years after the first Filipinos arrived in the area to attend Riverside High School; of those about 2,400 lived in Coachella Valley. By the early 2010s estimates were there were around 90,000 Filipinos living in the region—the largest group with Asian ancestry in the area. #### San Francisco Bay Area `One of the earliest records of a Filipino settling in the San Francisco Bay Area occurred in the mid-19th century, when a Filipino immigrant and his Miwok wife settled in Lairds Landing on the Marin County coast; many Coast Miwok trace their lineage to this couple. Significant migration began in the early 20th century, including upper-class mestizo businessmen, mariners, and students (known as pensionados). Another group of Filipinos who immigrated to the Bay Area was war brides, many of whom married African-American "buffalo soldiers". Additionally, other immigrants came through the U.S. Military, some through the Presidio of San Francisco, and others as migrant workers on their way to points inland; many of these Filipinos would settle down permanently in the Bay Area, establishing "Manilatown" on Kearny Street (next to Chinatown). At its largest size, "Manilatown" was home to at least 10,000, the last of whom were evicted in August 1977 from the International Hotel. After 1965, Filipinos from the Philippines began immigrating to San Francisco, concentrating in the South of Market neighbourhood. In 1970, the San Francisco-Oakland metropolitan area had the largest population of Filipinos of any metropolitan area in the continental United States—44,326. Two other nearby metropolitan areas also had a population of Filipinos greater than 5,000 in 1970, San Jose (6,768), and Salinas-Monterey (6,147). Due to a change in the ethnic make up of the Yerba Buena neighborhood, and with the construction of the Dimasalang House in 1979, four street names were changed to honor notable Filipinos. By 1990, 30% of the population in South of Market was Filipino American.` The 2000 Census showed that the greater San Francisco Bay Area was home to approximately 320,000 residents of Filipino descent, with the largest concentration living in Santa Clara County. In the mid-2000s Filipino Americans were between one fifth and one fourth of the total population of Vallejo, having been drawn there by agriculture and Mare Island Naval Shipyard. In 2007, there were about a hundred thousand Filipino Americans living in the East Bay alone. By the time of the 2010 Census the greater San Francisco Bay Area was home to 463,458 Filipino Americans and multiracial Filipino Americans; Santa Clara county continued to have the largest concentration in the area. In 2011, 9% of all Filipino immigrants to the United States reside in the San Francisco metropolitan area, and an additional 3% resided in the San Jose metropolitan area. Daly City, in the San Francisco Bay Area, has the highest concentration of Filipino Americans of any municipality in the U.S.; Filipino Americans comprise 35% of the city's population. In 2016, although the number of Filipinos living within the City of San Francisco has been reduced, a heritage district was designated "SoMa Pilipinas". #### San Diego County San Diego has historically been a destination for Filipino immigrants and has contributed to the growth of its population. One of the earliest instances of a Filipino being in San Diego, occurred during the Portolá expedition in 1769, while California was still part of New Spain. The first documentation of Filipinos arriving in San Diego, as part of the United States, occurred in 1903 when Filipino students arrived at State Normal School; they were followed as early as 1908 by Filipino sailors serving in the United States Navy. Due to discriminatory housing policies of the time, the majority of Filipinos in San Diego lived downtown around Market Street, then known as "Skid Row". Prior to World War II, due to anti-miscegenation laws, multi-racial marriages with Hispanic and Latino women were common, particularly with Mexicans. In the 1940s and 1950s, Filipino Americans were the largest population of Asians within the City of San Diego, with a population around 500. After World War II, the majority of Filipino Americans in San Diego were associated with the U.S. Navy in one form or another. Even in the late 1970s and early 1980s more than half of Filipino babies born in the greater San Diego area were born at Balboa Naval Hospital. In the 1970s, the typical Filipino family consisted of a husband whose employment was connected to the military, and a wife who was a nurse. Many Filipino American veterans, after completing active duty, would move out of San Diego, to the suburbs of Chula Vista and National City. In 1995, it was estimated that Filipinos made up between 35% and 45% of the population of National City. From a population of 799 in 1940, to 15,069 in 1970, by 1990 the Filipino American population in San Diego County increased to 95,945. In 2000, San Diego County had the second-largest Filipino American population of any county in the nation, with over 145,000 Filipinos, alone or in combination; by the 2010 Census the population had grown to 182,248. In 1990 and 2000, San Diego was the only metropolitan area in the U.S. where, at more than fifty percent, Filipinos constituted the largest Asian American nationality. As of 2011, 5% of all Filipino immigrants in the United States call San Diego County home; by 2012, there was an estimated 94,000 Filipino immigrants living in San Diego. Filipinos concentrated in the South Bay, where they had been historically concentrated. In 2015, there were over 31,000 Filipino Americans in Chula Vista alone. Also, in 2015, it was documented that the county had the third largest concentration of Filipino Americans in the entire United States. By late 2016, the population in the county increased to almost 200 thousand. More affluent Filipino Americans moved into the suburbs of North County, particularly Mira Mesa (sometimes referred to as "Manila Mesa"). A portion of California State Route 54 in San Diego is officially named the "Filipino-American Highway", in recognition of the Filipino American community. ### Hawaii From 1909 to 1934, Hawaiian sugar plantations recruited Filipinos, later known as sakadas; by 1932 Filipinos made up the majority of laborers on Hawaiian sugar plantations. In 1920, Filipinos were the fifth largest population by race in Hawaii, with 21,031 people. By 1930, the population of Filipinos in Hawaii had nearly tripled to 63,052. As late as 1940, the population of Filipinos in the Territory of Hawaii outnumbered Filipinos in the continental United States. In 1970, the Honolulu metropolitan area alone had a population of 66,653 Filipinos, the largest Filipino population in any metropolitan area in the United States. According to the 2000 Census, the state of Hawaii had a Filipino population of over 275,000, with over 191,000 living on the island of Oahu; of those, 102,000 were immigrants. Furthermore, Filipinos made up the third largest ethnicity among Asian Pacific Americans, while making up the majority of the populations of Kauai and Maui counties. In June 2002, representatives from the Arroyo Administration and local leaders presided over the grand opening and dedication of the Filipino Community Center in Waipahu. In the 2010 census, Filipino Americans became the largest Asian ethnicity in Hawaii, partially due to the declining population of the state's Japanese Americans. In 2011, four percent of all Filipino immigrants in the U.S. resided in the Honolulu metro area, and were 43% of all immigrants in the Honolulu metro area as well. Filipino immigrants in Hawaii made up six per cent of all Filipino immigrants in the United States. ### Illinois Filipino migration to the Chicago area began in 1906 with the immigration of pensionados, consisting predominantly of men. A significant number of them married non-Filipinos, mainly Eastern or Southern European women. At one point, 300 of these early Chicago Filipinos worked for the Pullman Company, and overall tended to be more educated than most men of their age. During the 1930s, they were predominantly in the Near South Side until the 1965 immigration reforms. In 1930, there were 1,796 Filipinos living in Chicago. The population decreased to 1,740 in 1940 with men outnumbering women 25:1. In the 1960s, there were 3,587 Filipinos in Illinois, the population increased to 12,654 in 1970 and 43,889 in 1980, growing at a pace greater than the national average, and made up largely of professionals and their families. By the 1970s, Filipinas outnumbered Filipinos, with a total of 9,497 Filipinos in the Chicago Area; the total population of Filipinos in Illinois was 12,654, of which 57% were college graduates. In 1990, Filipinos were the largest population of Asian Americans in Illinois, with a population of 64,224. Outside the Chicago metropolitan area, there were fewer Filipinos. For instance in the state capital of Springfield, Illinois, there were only 171 in 2000. In 2000, 100,338 Filipino Americans lived in Illinois— 95,928 in the Chicago metropolitan area. In that same year, among ethnic groups in the Chicago metropolitan area, Filipinos had the highest proportion of foreign- born. By the 2010 Census, 139,090 Filipino Americans and multiracial Filipino Americans lived in Illinois, 131,388 lived within the Chicago metropolitan area. As of 2010, Filipinos were the second-largest population of Asian Americans in Illinois after Indian Americans. In 2011, five percent (84,800) of all Filipino immigrants in the United States lived in Illinois, the majority of whom (78,400) lived in the Chicago metropolitan area. Although not as concentrated as other Asian American groups, they are the fourth-largest ethnicity currently immigrating to the Chicago metro area. In 2011, the Chicago metropolitan area was home to four percent of all Filipino immigrants in the United States. A large concentration of Filipino Americans resides in the North and Northwest sides, often near hospitals. ### Texas The first Filipino known by name in Texas was Francisco Flores, who came to Texas by way of Cuba in the nineteenth century. Flores lived initially in Port Isabel later moving to Rockport. Following the annexation of the Philippines by the United States, Filipinos began migrating to Texas. Filipino employees of American officers who served in the Philippines, would move with those officers when they returned to the Continental United States, with many settling around San Antonio. Other Filipinos resettled in Texas after initially residing elsewhere in the United States. In 1910, there were six Filipinos living in Texas, by 1920 this number had increased to 30, and by 1930, the population had grown to 288. With the disbandment of the Philippine Scouts, many who remained in the military came to call Fort Sam Houston home, along with Filipina war brides. After World War II, many Filipino professionals began immigrating to Texas; 2,000 Filipino nurses called Houston home. In 1950, about 4,000 Filipino Americans were in Texas; their number had increased to 75,226 by 2000. As more Filipino Americans came to Texas, the center of their population shifted to Houston, which today has one of the largest Filipino populations in the South. Fort Bend County near Houston has the highest percentage of Filipinos in Texas. With Texas being part of the Bible Belt, it is often a popular destination for emigrating Filipino Protestants. In 2000, Texas was home to the seventh-largest population of Filipino immigrants. According to the 2010 Census, there were 137,713 Filipino Americans and multiracial Filipino Americans in Texas. In 2011, five percent (86,400) of all Filipino immigrants in the United States lived in Texas. ### Washington The first documented Filipino in Washington state was a worker at the Port Blakely Lumber Mill in Port Blakely in 1888, but there were some earlier instances of Filipino seamen settling in the Puget Sound region. In 1910, the population of Filipinos in Washington was twelve times greater than in California. In 1920, there were almost a thousand (958) Filipinos in Washington. Pre-World War II, Washington had the second-largest population of Filipino Americans in the mainland United States—3,480 in 1930; this population had declined to 2,200 by 1940. A significant population of these early Filipinos were migratory workers, working in the canneries in Puget Sound, and harvesting crops in Yakima Valley. In 1970, Filipino Americans were the fifth-largest minority population, with 11,462 persons, after African-Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Native Americans, and Japanese Americans; they were 0.3% of the total population of Washington at the time; 87.2% lived in urban areas, and 7,668 Filipinos lived in the Seattle–Tacoma–Everett metropolitan area. In 1990, Filipinos were the largest population of Asian Pacific Americans in Washington. As of the 2010 Census, the state was home to the fifth largest Filipino American population in the nation. 60% of Filipino Americans living in Washington have arrived since 1965. ### New Jersey Filipinos are the third largest group of Asian Americans in New Jersey after Indian and Chinese Americans. In 2010, there were 110,650 single-race Filipino Americans living in New Jersey. In 2011, New Jersey was home to five percent (86,600) of the United States' Filipino immigrants. By 2013, an estimated 134,647 single- and multi-racial Filipino Americans lived in New Jersey. Bergen County, Hudson County, Middlesex County, and Passaic County (all in Northern and Central New Jersey) have the state's largest Filipino populations, and are home to over half the Filipinos residing in New Jersey. In Bergen County in particular, Bergenfield, along with Paramus, Hackensack, New Milford, Dumont, Fair Lawn, and Teaneck have become growing hubs for Filipino Americans. Taken as a whole, these municipalities are home to a significant proportion of Bergen County's Philippine population. A census-estimated 20,859 single-race Filipino Americans resided in Bergen County as of 2013, an increase from the 19,155 counted in 2010. Bergenfield has become known as Bergen County's Little Manila and hosts its annual Filipino American Festival. Within Bergen County, there are Filipino American organizations based in Paramus, Fair Lawn, and Bergenfield. In Hudson County, Jersey City is home to the largest Filipino population in New Jersey, with over 16,000 Filipinos in 2010, accounting for seven percent the city's population. This is an increase from 11,677 in 1990. In the 1970s, to acknowledge the Filipinos immigrating to Jersey City, the city named a street Manila Avenue. ### New York In 1970, there were 14,279 Filipinos in New York State. In 2004, 84% of Filipinos in New York had obtained a college education, compared to 43% of all Filipino Americans in the United States. In 2010, there were 104,287 single-race Filipino Americans living in New York State. In 2011, five percent (84,400) of all Filipino immigrants in the United States lived in New York. By 2013, an estimated over 120,000+ single- and multi-racial Filipino Americans lived in New York State. #### New York City metropolitan area In the 1970s and 1980s, Filipinos in New York and New Jersey had a higher socioeconomic status than Filipinos elsewhere; more than half of Filipino immigrants to the metropolitan area were healthcare or other highly trained professionals, in contrast to established working-class Filipino American populations elsewhere. The high percentage of healthcare professionals continues; in 2013, 30% of Filipinos were nurses or other professionals in the healthcare industry. In 1970, the New York metropolitan area had the largest concentration of Filipinos (12,455) east of the Rocky Mountains, and the fifth largest population of Filipinos of all metropolitan areas in the United States. In 1990, more Filipinos lived in urban New York (60,376), than in suburban New York (44,203).<sub>Table 1a</sub> In 2008, the New York tri-state metropolitan area was home to 215,000 Filipinos. In 2010, according to the 2010 United States Census, there were 217,349 Filipino Americans, including multiracial Filipino Americans, living in the New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, (NY-NJ-PA) metropolitan area. In 2011, eight percent of all Filipino immigrants in the United States lived in the New York City metropolitan region, and it had become a new destination for Filipino immigrants. In 2012, a Census-estimated 235,222 single-race and multiracial Filipino Americans lived in the broader New York-Newark-Bridgeport, New York-New Jersey-Connecticut-Pennsylvania Combined Statistical Area. By 2013 Census estimates, the New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, New York-New Jersey-Pennsylvania MSA was estimated to be home to 224,266 Filipino Americans, 88.5% (about 200,000) of them single-race Filipinos. In 2013, 4,098 Filipinos legally immigrated to the New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA core based statistical area; in 2012, this number was 4,879; 4,177 in 2011; 4,047 in 2010, 4,400 in 2009, and 5,985 in 2005. Little Manilas have emerged in the New York City metropolitan area, in Woodside, Queens; Jersey City, New Jersey; and Bergenfield, New Jersey. In 2017, one quarter of Filipino American adults in the metropolitan area work in the medical field. ##### New York City Filipinos have resided in New York City since the 1920s. In 1960, there were only 2,744 Filipinos in New York City. In 1990, there were 43,229 Filipinos increasing to around 54,993 in 2000. A profile of New York City's Filipino American population, based on an analysis of 1990 and 2000 U.S. census data, showed that Filipino New Yorkers surpassed non-Filipino New Yorkers as a whole in terms of income. New York City was home to an estimated 82,313 Filipinos in 2011, representing a 7.7% increase from the estimated 77,191 in 2008. Median household income of Filipinos in New York City was \$81,929 in 2013; 68% held a bachelor's degree or higher. The 2010 census reported the borough of Queens was home to the largest concentration of Filipinos within New York City— about 38,000 individuals. In 2011, an estimated 56% of New York City's Filipino population, or about 46,000, lived in Queens. In 2014, Filipinos remained the fourth-largest population of Asian Americans in New York City, behind Chinese, Indians, and Koreans. The annual Philippine Independence Day Parade is traditionally held on the first Sunday of June on Madison Avenue in Manhattan. In the 1920s, Filipinos settled near Brooklyn Navy Yard. Woodside, Queens, is known for its concentration of Filipinos. Of Woodside's 85,000 residents, about 13,000 (or 15%) are of Filipino background. Due to a significant concentration of Filipino businesses, the area has become known as Little Manila. Along the IRT Flushing Line (), known colloquially as the Orient Express, the 69th Street station serves as the gateway to Queens' largest Little Manila, whose core spans Roosevelt Avenue between 63rd and 71st Streets. Filipinos are also concentrated in Jackson Heights and Elmhurst in Queens. There are also smaller Filipino communities in Jamaica, Queens, and parts of Brooklyn. The Benigno Aquino Triangle is located on Hillside Avenue in Hollis, Queens, to commemorate the slain Filipino political leader and to recognize the large Filipino American population in the area; it was built in 1986. ### Nevada Five Filipinos were documented in Nevada in 1920; the population increased to 47 in 1930. According to the Center of Immigration Studies, the Filipino population in Nevada grew 77.8% from 7,339 in 1990, to 33,046 in 2000. In 2000, Nevada was home to two percent (31,000) of all Filipino immigrants in the United States. Nevada's Filipino American population grew substantially from 2000 to 2010, with a 142% increase for a 3.6% share of the state's total population by 2010. More than half of Asian Americans in Nevada in 2010 were Filipino, and are Nevada's largest group of Asian Americans. In 2005, outside of Las Vegas Valley, the only other area in Nevada with a significant population of Filipinos was Washoe County. In 2012, about 124,000 Filipinos lived in Nevada, mostly in Las Vegas Valley; by 2015, it had risen to more than 138,000. The first known Filipinos to arrive in Clark County arrived from California during the Great Depression. Filipinos arriving in the mid-20th century settled primarily around Fifth and Sixth Streets, and an enclave remains in this area. Beginning in 1995, five to six thousand Filipinos from Hawaii began to migrate to Las Vegas. In 2005, Filipinos were the largest ethnic group of Asian Americans in Las Vegas. In 2013, according to the American Community Survey, 2011–2013, there were an estimated 114,989 Filipinos (+/-5,293), including multiracial Filipinos, in Clark County; according to other sources, there were about 140,000 Filipinos living in Las Vegas. According to The Star-Ledger in 2014, more than 90,000 Filipino nationals resided in the Las Vegas area. By 2015, Filipino Americans are more than half of the population of Asian Americans in Las Vegas. ### Florida In 1910, there was a single Filipino living in Florida, this population increased to 11 in 1920, and 46 in 1930. 1990 United States Census, the 31,945 Filipinos were the state's largest population of Asian Pacific Americans. Florida is home to 122,691 Filipino Americans, according to the 2010 Census. As of 2013, Filipinos are the largest group of Asian Americans in Duval County. The 2000 Census reported there were around 15,000 Filipino Americans living in the Jacksonville metropolitan area, though community leaders estimated the true number was closer to 25,000. Indeed, the 2010 Census found the community numbered at 25,033, about 20% of the state's Filipino Americans. Many of Jacksonville's Filipinos served in or otherwise had ties to, the United States Navy, which has two bases in Jacksonville. Two of Florida's other metropolitan areas also have substantial Filipino American communities: the Miami metropolitan area has 21,535, and the Tampa Bay Area has 18,724. ### Virginia The first year that Filipinos were documented in Virginia by the United States Census Bureau was in 1920, when 97 Filipinos were counted; by 1930, that population increased to 126. In 1970, there were 7,128 Filipinos living in Virginia, 5,449 of whom lived in the Norfolk-Portsmouth metropolitan area. By 1980, there were 18,901 Filipinos in Virginia, with significant concentrations in Norfolk, and Virginia Beach. In the following decade, by 1990, the Filipino population in the Hampton Roads area increased by 116.8%, increasing to 19,977 in the area alone. In 1990, Filipinos were the largest population of Asian Pacific Americans in Virginia, followed by Korean Americans. In 2000, Virginia's Filipino population was 59,318. There were 90,493 Filipino Americans in Virginia as of 2010, 39,720 of whom lived in the Virginia part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. Many Filipinos settled around the Hampton Roads region near the Oceana Naval Air Station because the U.S. Navy had recruited them in the Philippines. In 2007, Filipino Americans made up one-quarter of all foreign-born residents of the area. In 2011, there were between 17,000 and 22,000 Filipino Americans living in Virginia Beach. Filipino immigrants in that population represent one-fifth of all immigrants living in Virginia Beach. A larger population of Filipino Americans, 40,292, reside in the Virginia part of the Washington metropolitan area. In the Greater Richmond Region, they are the largest population of Asian Americans in Prince George County. ### Elsewhere The first Filipino immigrated to Annapolis after the Spanish–American War when Filipinos served at the United States Naval Academy. They dealt with institutional racism and later established organizations to support their community, including the Filipino-American Friendly Association. According to the 2010 Census, there were 56,909 Filipino Americans living in Maryland— the largest population of Asian Americans in Charles County. In the neighboring District of Columbia, there were 3,670 Filipino Americans in 2010, 12.78% of the District's Asian American population. Filipinos have been in Alaska since the 1700s and were the largest Asian American ethnicity in the state in 2000. In 2014, Filipinos made up 52% of Alaska's Asian American population. During the early 20th century, Alaska was the third-leading population center of Filipinos in the United States, after Hawaii and California; many worked seasonally in salmon canneries. The first efforts to recruit Filipinos to work in the canneries began in the 1910s. By 1920, there were 82 Filipinos in Alaska, only one of whom was a Filipina. In 1930, Filipinos, who were called "Alaskeros", made up 15% of the workers in the Alaskan fisheries. Filipinos were two-thirds of all Asians in Alaska in the 1930s. In many of the canneries, Filipinos were treated as "second class workers". According to the 2000 U.S. Census, there were 12,712 Filipino Americans in Alaska; By the 2010 U.S. Census that number had increased to 25,424 (alone or in combination), constituting 49% of Asian Americans in Alaska. In 2011, more than one in four (26%) immigrants in Alaska was Filipino. As of 2014, Filipino Americans are Anchorage's largest minority group. In Utah, the population of Filipino Americans doubled between 2000 and 2010, to 6,467, having the third-highest rate of growth by state of Filipinos in the nation behind Texas and Florida. In the United States' insular areas in 1920, the Philippine Islands had the largest Filipino population of 10,207,696; Guam had 396; the Panama Canal Zone 10, the Virgin Islands seven; there was a single Filipino in Puerto Rico. In 1930, the Filipino population of Puerto Rico increased to six, in the Virgin Islands it decreased to four as it did in Guam to 364. The population in the Panama Canal Zone increased to 37. In 2000, there were 394 Filipinos in Puerto Rico. In 2010, of the 159,358 people on Guam, slightly more than one in four (26.3%) were Filipino; Filipinos are the largest demographic in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, making up 35% of its 53,833 people in 2010 and 2015. In American Samoa, there were 50 Filipinos in 1980, 415 in 1990, and 792 resident in 2000. In 2010 the population increased to 1,217, or 2.2% of the total population. In 2013, there remains a Filipino American population in the Virgin Islands; these Filipinos make up a few of the 6,648 persons counted as "Other races" in the 2010 Census. ### U.S. metropolitan areas with large Filipino American populations (2010) ### Little Manilas In areas with sparse Filipino populations, they often form loose-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a "sense of family", which is a key feature of Filipino culture. These organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events. They are often organized into regional associations, which are a small part of Filipino American life. Filipino Americans formed close-knit neighborhoods, notably in California and Hawaii. A few communities have "Little Manilas", civic and business districts tailored to the Filipino American community. ## Language Filipino Americans form a multilingual community but the two most spoken languages are English and Tagalog. In 2009, Tagalog was the fourth largest language spoken in the United States with around 1.5 million speakers. ## Religion According to a Pew Research Center survey published in July 2012, the majority of Filipino American respondents are Roman Catholic (65%), followed by Protestant (21%), unaffiliated (8%), and Buddhist (1%). There are also smaller populations of Filipino American Muslims—particularly those who originate from the Southern Philippines. ## Socioeconomic status ### Economics The Filipino American community is largely middle and upper middle class; in 2014, 18% of Filipino American households were in the top tenth of U.S. households in terms of income. As of 2019, the Pew Research Center revealed that Filipino Americans had one of the highest median annual household income among all Asians at \$90,400. The median household income for all Asians was \$85,800. The representation of Filipino Americans employed in health care is high. Other sectors of the economy where Filipino Americans have significant representation are in the public sector, and in the service sector. Compared to Asian American women of other ethnicities, and women in the United States in general, Filipina Americans are more likely to be part of the work force; a large population, nearly one fifth (18%), of Filipina Americans worked as registered nurses. Among Overseas Filipinos, Filipino Americans are the largest remitters of U.S. dollars to the Philippines. In 2005, their combined dollar remittances reached a record-high of almost \$6.5 billion. In 2006, Filipino Americans sent more than \$8 billion, which represents 57% of the total foreign remittances received by the Philippines. By 2012, this amount had reached \$10.6 billion, but made up only 43% of total remittances. Filipino Americans own a variety of businesses, making up 10.5% of all Asian owned businesses in the United States in 2007. In 2002, according to the Survey of Business Owners, there were over 125,000 Filipino-owned businesses; this increased by 30.4% to over 163,000 in 2007. By then, 25.4% of these businesses were in the retail industry, 23% were in the health care and social assistance industries, and they employed more than 142,000 people and generated almost \$15.8 billion in revenue. Of those, just under three thousand (1.8% of all Filipino-owned businesses) were million dollar or more businesses. California had the largest number of Filipino-owned businesses, with the Los Angeles metropolitan area having the largest number of any metropolitan area in the United States. In 2010, Filipino Americans' employment rate was 61.5%; the unemployment rate was 8.5%. In 1990 and 2000, the decennial censuses found that, while lower than the national average, foreign-born Filipinos had a lower poverty rate than those born in the United States; by 2007, the situation had reversed. In 2012, a smaller percentage of Filipino American adults lived in poverty than the national average (6.2% verse 12.8%). At the point of retirement, a notable percentage of Filipino Americans return to the Philippines. In 1990, the elderly Filipino American poverty rate was eight percent. In 1999 among elderly Filipino Americans, the poverty rate had dropped to 6.3%—lower than that of the total geriatric population (9.9%), and lowest among Asian Americans. ### Education The 1990 Census reports that Filipino Americans had the highest percentage of college educated individuals of any Asian American population. Filipino Americans have some of the highest educational attainment rates in the United States with 47.9% of all Filipino Americans over the age of 25 having a bachelor's degree in 2004, which correlates with rates observed in other Asian American subgroups. Filipino Americans of first- and second-generation descent were more likely to hold a bachelor's degree or higher than the national average for all Americans. In 2011, 61% of United States-born Filipino Americans had achieved an education level greater than a high school diploma. The post-1965 wave of Filipino professionals immigrating to the U.S. to make up the education, healthcare, and information technology employee shortages also accounts for the high educational attainment rates. Due to the strong American influence in the Philippine education system, first generation Filipino immigrants are also at advantage in gaining professional licensure in the United States. According to a study conducted by the American Medical Association, Philippine-trained physicians comprise the second-largest group of foreign-trained physicians in the United States (20,861 or 8.7% of all practicing international medical graduates in the U.S.). Other physicians, in order to immigrate from the Philippines, re-licensed as nurses. In addition, Filipino American dentists trained in the Philippines comprise the second-largest group of foreign-trained dentists in the United States. An article from the Journal of the American Dental Association asserts that 11% of all foreign-trained dentists licensed in the U.S. are from the Philippines; India is ranked first with 25.8% of all foreign dentists. The significant drop in the percentage of Filipino nurses from the 1980s to 2000 is because of the increase in the number of countries recruiting Filipino nurses (European Union, the Middle East, Japan), as well as the increase in the number of other countries sending nurses to the United States. Even with the significant drop, in 2005 Filipino American nurses made up 3.7% of the total United States nursing population, and were 40% of all foreign-trained nurses in the United States. American schools have also hired and sponsored the immigration of Filipino teachers and instructors. Some of these teachers were forced into labor outside the field of education, and mistreated by their recruiters. ## See also - Demographics of Asian Americans - History of Filipino Americans - List of Filipino Americans
27,037,324	Billionaire (song)	1,167,164,932	2010 single by Travie McCoy featuring Bruno Mars	[ "2010 singles", "2010 songs", "American reggae songs", "Bruno Mars songs", "Dutch Top 40 number-one singles", "Fueled by Ramen singles", "List songs", "Number-one singles in Israel", "Pop-rap songs", "Song recordings produced by the Smeezingtons", "Songs involved in plagiarism controversies", "Songs written by Ari Levine", "Songs written by Bruno Mars", "Songs written by Philip Lawrence (songwriter)", "Songs written by Travie McCoy", "Travie McCoy songs" ]	"Billionaire" is a song by American recording artist Travie McCoy from his debut studio album, Lazarus (2010), featuring vocals by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars. It was first released on March 9, 2010, in various countries via digital download as the album's lead single by Fueled by Ramen. McCoy co-wrote the song with its producers Mars, Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine of the Smeezingtons. The song was created from a melody hummed by Mars and Lawrence. The lyrics were written during an eleven-day trip Mars and Levine made to London to work on a record, supported by Mars's label. "Billionaire" is a reggae and pop-rap song. Critical reception towards the song was mixed, as music critics praised the song's style comparing it to the music of Sublime, Jason Mraz and Jack Johnson, but criticized its songwriting. Lyrically, the song has a money-driven hook with political elements in the verses. Such elements include helping those in need, having a show like Oprah and being on the cover of Forbes magazine once McCoy becomes a billionaire. The single reached number one in Israel and the Netherlands, number two in Ireland and New Zealand, and also reached the top five in the United Kingdom and the United States. It was certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and two-times by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and Music Canada (MC). The accompanying music video for "Billionaire", directed by Mark Staubach, was filmed at various locations in Los Angeles, California. The video is interpolated with footage of McCoy driving a Mini Cooper with Mars in the passenger seat. Mars and McCoy, with former Fall Out Boy Pete Wentz on the back, are shown riding different scooters. Mccoy is also seen helping four people, as well as a large group at the end. McCoy and Mars performed the song live on Jay Leno's The Tonight Show and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. It was also part of Mars's Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show in 2014. The song was re-recorded by Brazilian singer Claudia Leitte; her version outperformed the original single reaching number three on the Billboard Brazil Hot 100 Airplay chart. The television show soundtracks of Beavis and Butt-Head and American Housewife used the song. ## Background and development During the summer of 2009, the Smeezingtons, consisting of Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine, were booked for a week of writing sessions for Lupe Fiasco, B.o.B and Travie McCoy. The first song the team worked on and recorded with McCoy was "One at a Time", released as a charity single for MTV's Staying Alive Foundation. Mars and Lawrence usually hummed melodies, while Aaron Bay-Schuck, former Atlantic Records A&R rep, encouraged them to develop the best of those, such as "Nothin' on You" and "Billionaire". In the beginning, they had only "scratch chorus demos of "Nothin' On You" and "Billionaire", with a guitar on the backing track and Mars singing on top of it. It was the first song McCoy began to work on after abandoning the original material for the album. Mars came up with the lyrical concept for "Billionaire" during a trip to London, to work on a record. He and Ari Levine were each given £240 (\$350) by Mars's record label to live on for eleven days. Mars found the amount of money to be insufficient, and explained, "We were like, 'Is this the biggest mistake we've ever made? We thought we were broke in California; what are we going to do here?' So we've got no money, and I'm walking the streets and came up with, 'I wanna be a billionaire, so frickin' bad'". Mars also claimed that his own finances inspired him to write the track, "I wouldn’t have to worry about, you know, I can’t afford to get breakfast, so I’ll wait until lunchtime to eat". When Mars first showed McCoy the hook, the latter decided to decline the collaboration, saying to him: "Dude, we're in a recession right now. I'm gonna get crucified". Nevertheless, when McCoy later returned home to Miami, he realized the track "had potential". From then on, the rapper began writing his verses with "goofy humor and flashes of political conscience" that "counterbalanced the hook's materialism". McCoy claimed he "made it more relatable". McCoy intended to avoid "superficial" lyrics in the song in the wake of an economic recession, and added, "There's something to sing about here; if I was in the position to have a ridiculous amount of money, would I be selfish or selfless?' I just took that concept and ran with it". According to Mars, he and McCoy "came up" with the song after listening to the Beatles' "Can't Buy Me Love". Mars was not supposed to feature on the hook of "Billionaire", however, his "charisma" when he sang it prompted the label and McCoy to keep his vocal after the final version was recorded. On January 28, 2014, Demetrius Orlandus Proctor filed a lawsuit, claiming to hold the copyright for "Billionaire". Proctor alleged he has owned the copyright to the track's music and lyrics since March 31, 2011, though the song was released a year before. As evidence, he submitted a United States Copyright Office registration certificate for Frisky Vol. 1 to 30 (Tapes), issued in 2000. In the suit, Proctor accused McCoy and Mars of "willful and intentional" infringement of copyright, and sought the destruction of all copies of the recording. Proctor claimed he has exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the song. ## Production and release "Billionaire" was co-written by McCoy, Mars, Lawrence and Levine. The Smeezingtons were responsible for the music, production and played all the instruments on the track but the bass. It was played by Brody Brown and Charles Monez. Levine recorded and mixed the song at Levcon Studios, in Hollywood, California. Eric Hernandez played the live drums, while the drums were programmed by The Stereotypes. It was mastered by Chris Gehringer at Sterling Sound, in New York. "Billionaire" was first released by Fueled By Ramen via digital download in various countries on March 9, 2010. The single was serviced to U.S. contemporary hit radio on March 9, 2010, by Fueled By Ramen and RRP. On July 23, 2010, Fueled By Ramen released the Billionaire – EP that featured the single, "Bad All By Myself" as a bonus track alongside "Superbad (11:34)". Three days later, "Billionaire" was released in the United Kingdom via digital download. On September 3, 2010, the CD single version with "Billionaire" and the bonus track, "Bad All By Myself", was released in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland by Fueled By Ramen and DecayDance. On September 21, 2010, Fueled By Ramen released a deluxe single edition for digital download which contained "Billionaire", an acoustic version of the song, and the music video for it. A radio cut of the song, which replaces the word "fucking" with "freaking" and is 3:06 long instead of 3:30 was released. ## Composition "Billionaire" is an acoustic reggae and pop-rap song. It has a "laid-back ... island feel", evolving into a "reggae-tinged" beat with an acoustic guitar. Gregory Heaney of AllMusic compared the song to the works of Sublime, while Digital Spy's Nick Levine compared it to No Doubt's "Underneath It All" (2002). Rodrigo Perez of MTV News wrote the song reminded him of a fusion between Sublime, Common and Jason Mraz. MTV News' Tamar Anitai thought the song gave her a Jason Mraz, Jack Johnson and Shwayze's "Corona and Lime" (2008) summer vibe. James Montgomery felt the same way, dubbing it as "sunny, shiny, breezy and blissed-out". Mars's style of singing has also been compared to that of Jack Johnson. "Billionaire" was composed in the key of A major at a tempo of 80 beats per minute. Lyrically, the chorus of the song is materialistic, money-driven—"I wanna be a billionaire so fucking bad"—with amusing and political verses counterbalancing it. The songwriting concerns the lifestyle that McCoy and Mars would have with such money, including the fashion, luxury, "shoulder-rubbing", and influence. It goes into detail, outlining McCoy's wish list for when he becomes a billionaire. He fantasizes about success, helping after Hurricane Katrina, having a show like Oprah Winfrey, meeting The Queen and adopting unfortunate children. On the other hand, Mars expresses interest in having his name "in shining lights" and appearing on the cover of Forbes magazine. Sharyar Rizvi of the Dallas Observer compared the lyrics of "Billionaire" to those of Nas' "If I Ruled the World (Imagine That)" (1996) and Barenaked Ladies' "If I Had \$1000000" (1992). McCoy said "Billionaire" is an update on George Barr McCutcheon's novel Brewster's Millions (1903) with him giving out money and "fulfilling" desires. ## Critical reception "Billionaire" received mixed reviews from music critics. Nick Levine of Digital Spy rated the song four out of five stars, dubbing it a "summer pop treat so sweet and tasty it's even possible to forgive McCoy's slightly irritating change of billing". James Montgomery of MTV News enjoyed the track, commenting that it "is perfect for the sunshine" and raises spirits to become a "summertime smash". USA Today's Jerry Shriver praised the single, finding it "hilarious". Fraser McAlpine from BBC Chart Blog gave the single four stars. He commented that the track is "optimistic" and cheerful, with a positive message of "hope and generosity". Nevertheless, McAlpine criticized the use of explicit language, calling it "a little ripe for genteel ears". In a mixed review, Billboard's Melanie Bertoldi awarded it three-and-a-half stars out of five, saying that the song's lyrics "may be inconsistent, but the beat still goes down smoothly". Rodrigo Perez of MTV News praised the song's instrumentation but criticized its lyrics, calling them a "laundry list of wishes". The New York Times's Jon Caramanica said the song has a "moody underbelly", complementing its "stirring hook", also noting that McCoy takes a "quick potshot" at his ex Katy Perry in one of the verses. In a negative review, Mike Diver of BBC dubbed the reggae stylings of "Billionaire" as "horribly dated". Likewise, Sharyar Rizvi of the Dallas Observer heavily criticized the song's lyrics saying they, "sound a bit like other songs that explain what the musician would do if they had a bunch of money or ruled the world". Rizvi added that she would like to see McCoy to do some philanthropic work as he promised in the song. At the 2011 ASCAP Pop Music Awards, "Billionaire" was one of the winners of Most Performed Songs. It earned a nomination for Choice Music: Summer Song at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards. ## Commercial performance In the United States, "Billionaire" debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the issue dated April 17, 2010. On the week of June 26, 2010, the single reached its peak position of number four on the Billboard Hot 100. It became McCoy's highest-charting single as a solo artist. It peaked at number five on the Billboard Rhythmic chart, at number three on the Mainstream Top 40 chart and at number nine on the Billboard Hot Rap Songs chart. "Billionaire" peaked at number 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 on the week of July 31, 2010. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the single four times platinum, while Music Canada (MC) certified it two times platinum. As of September 2012, "Billionaire" has sold 3,272,000 copies in the United States. "Billionaire" entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 40 and peaked at number two, spending 24 weeks on the chart. It has received a platinum certification by Recorded Music New Zealand (RMNZ), for selling over 15,000 copies. In Australia, the single debuted at number 35 on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) chart and peaked at number five. The recording has been certified two times platinum by ARIA, with 140,000 copies sold. It reached number five on Hungary's Rádiós Top 40 chart. The Claudia Leitte version of the song peaked at number three on Brazil Hot 100 Airplay chart, while the original was only able to peak at 93. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart on August 1, 2010. On the UK R&B chart, the track debuted at the top spot. The British Phonographic Industry (BPI) certified "Billionaire" platinum for track-equivalent sales of 600,000 units. In the Republic of Ireland, the single also debuted at its peak position, entering at number two on the Irish Singles Chart. The song reached the top ten in Denmark, peaking at number eight, as well as in Poland and Romania, peaking at number two and eight, respectively. In the Netherlands, "Billionaire" peaked at number four on the Single Top 100 and at number one on the Dutch Top 40 for the week ending August 28, 2010. The song reached the top twenty in Belgium, peaking at number 18, as well as number 11 and 16 in Norway and Germany, respectively. ## Music video The accompanying music video for "Billionaire" was directed by Mark Staubach, and filmed at various Los Angeles, California, locations. It was first broadcast on MTV on May 6, 2010. The visual opens with Mars playing a guitar and singing the opening chorus while sitting at a lifeguard station at Venice Beach. The scene switches to McCoy rapping while driving a Mini Cooper with Mars in the passenger seat. The video shows McCoy helping four people and a large group at the end. He is seen replacing a man's broken skateboard, buying an aspiring artist's CD, giving the keys of a Mini Cooper to a teenager trying to hitchhike to Geneva, New York, and giving a graffiti artist more spray paint after he runs out. The video location then switches to Venice Beach. A group runs out of beer, but McCoy and Mars arrive and hand out more beers to restore life to the party. Mars and McCoy, with Fall Out Boy's Pete Wentz on the back, ride different scooters. ### Reception Robbie Daw of Idolator opined that if the song was a hit perhaps they could "wear bird suits with Miley Cyrus" on her "Can't Be Tamed" clip. MTV News's James Montgomery dubbed the video as a "fantasy ride in which McCoy helps out", calling it a "lighthearted romp". Writing for the same publication, Tamar Aitai criticized the fact that McCoy tries to be like Kevin Spacey by "paying it forward by helping out his fellow bros", referring to Spacey's film Pay It Forward (2000). ## Live performances "Billionaire" was first performed live by McCoy and Mars, wearing suits, on Jay Leno's The Tonight Show on June 15, 2010, and later that month on the Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. On July 21, 2010, both performers sang the track on Lopez Tonight. McCoy performed the song on BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge on July 27, 2010. On August 8, 2010, McCoy and Mars performed "Billionaire" live at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards. On October 19, 2010, Mars performed an acoustic version of the song on The Kidd Kraddick Morning Show. In 2011, McCoy and Mars performed "Billionaire" on their European co-headlining tour; McCoy sang it during his headlining leg in North America. That same year, it was also sung during the Vans Warped Tour, where McCoy's band, Gym Class Heroes, were the headline act. On Mars's debut international tour (2010–12) and the Hooligans in Wondaland Tour (2011), he performed a rock cover of "Money (That's What I Want)" (1959) by Barrett Strong. This served as an interlude before "Billionaire". During his second tour, The Moonshine Jungle Tour (2013–14), and on his debut concert residency, Bruno Mars at The Chelsea, Las Vegas (2013–15), Mars sung a cover of "Money (That's What I Want)" with "Billionaire" and Aloe Blacc's "I Need a Dollar" (2010). "Billionaire" was used as the introduction to Mars's performance on the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show in 2014, sung by a children's choir. It was included on several shows of the South American leg during Mars's third world tour, the 24K Magic World Tour (2017–2018). ## Use in other media The song was covered on the television show Glee during the second-season premiere episode "Audition" (2010). The cover debuted and peaked at number 28 and 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100, respectively. Two remixes were released, the first featured T-Pain and Gucci Mane, while the second is titled "Billionaire" (Party Remix), featuring Mars, LMFAO and Mane. UK rapper Professor Green covered the song on BBC Radio 1 in 2010. In 2011, Only Won released a "Geeked out" remix video, titled I Wanna Be An Engineer, which was a parody that reached viral status and caught the attention of CNN, the Discovery Channel, and Intel. The music video and song appeared in MTV's animated series Beavis and Butt-Head (1993) in the 2011 episode "Whorehouse"/"Going Down". Brazilian singer Claudia Leitte recorded a version of the song titled "Famosa" (English: Famous) featuring McCoy. The stylized title features a dollar sign and S.A., which generally designates corporations. It consists of the same lines originally performed by McCoy while Leitte adds new verses in Portuguese, replacing those of Mars. Its new lyrics refere the Jô Soares' talk show, the reality show Big Brother Brasil, the social network Twitter and the late TV hostess Hebe Camargo. The track was released on May 7, 2010, as the lead single from the album As Máscaras (2010). "Famosa" features additional production by Robson Nonato, along with the original by the Smeezingtons. Leitte released an accompanying music video for the song shot in São Paulo. It features footage of McCoy from the original "Billionaire" music video interpolated with scenes of Leitte portraying a character who must choose between fame and love. The famous Oscar Freire street, known to contain numerous sophisticated stores frequented by artists and millionaires, is heavily featured. ## Formats and track listing ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lazarus. - Travie McCoy – lead vocals, songwriting - Bruno Mars – lead vocals, songwriting - Philip Lawrence – songwriting - Ari Levine – songwriting, recording, mixing - The Smeezingtons – production, music, instrumentation - The Stereotypes – drum programming - Eric Hernandez – live drums - Brody Brown – bass - Charles Monez – bass - Chris Gehringer – mastering ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Dutch Top 40 number-one singles of 2010 - List of number-one R&B hits of 2010 (UK)
40,516,276	Reflektor (song)	1,161,425,519	2013 single by Arcade Fire	[ "2013 singles", "2013 songs", "Arcade Fire songs", "Black-and-white music videos", "Franglais songs", "Merge Records singles", "Music videos directed by Anton Corbijn", "Song recordings produced by James Murphy (electronic musician)", "Song recordings produced by Markus Dravs", "Songs written by Jeremy Gara", "Songs written by Richard Reed Parry", "Songs written by Régine Chassagne", "Songs written by Tim Kingsbury", "Songs written by William Butler (musician)", "Songs written by Win Butler" ]	"Reflektor" is a song by the Canadian indie rock band Arcade Fire. It was released on September 9, 2013, as the first single from and the title track to the band's fourth studio album. Produced by James Murphy, Markus Dravs and the band itself, the song features a guest vocal appearance by David Bowie and was released on a limited edition 12" vinyl credited to the fictional band The Reflektors. Two music videos were made for the song, one regular and one interactive, both being released on the day of the song's release. "Reflektor" was met with positive reviews, with critics often complimenting its musical approach. It also came second in NME's list of best singles of 2013. The song had a positive commercial performance, charting in several countries. ## Background and composition The band began working on the track in 2011, with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting, "We recorded a little bit in Louisiana with the Haitian percussionists [Willinson Duprate and Verrieux Zile] and we kind of lived with that. It's an incredibly long process." Regular Arcade Fire collaborators Owen Pallett and Colin Stetson provided instrumental parts, alongside English musician David Bowie who provided vocals for the song. Regarding Bowie's guest appearance on the track, multi-instrumentalist Richard Reed Parry noted, "It was just after The Next Day had come out. He basically just came by the studio in New York while we were mixing, just to have a listen to the stuff we were doing. He offered to lend us his services because he really liked the song. In fact, he basically threatened us – he was like, 'If you don't hurry up and mix this song, I might just steal it from you!' So we thought, well why don't we go one better, why don't you sing on our version? Thankfully he obliged, and we were really happy about that." "Reflektor" is a dance-rock, indie rock, and disco song. The track's lyrical content is, in part, influenced by the differences between Haitian life and that of the Western world, with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting, "I think that life [in Haiti] is incredibly difficult and it's more amazing to see people that don't have access to food or clean water throw a party. It's not like I'm trying to sing about their experiences. I was more learning from what I saw and applying it to my own life, lyrically. I'm not trying to tell other people's stories. We're just trying to allow an experience to change you." ## Reception ### Critical "Reflektor" received widespread critical acclaim. Paste awarded the song a 9.1/10 rating, commenting that it "pretty much kicks ass". Pitchfork awarded the song the "Best New Track" tag, labelling the song a "sleek, dark disco epic that doesn't belong to the 1970s, '80s, '90s-- or any decade". Rolling Stone praised it, saying "Arcade Fire are the most important band of the last decade, and the music lives up to their universe-affirming mandate. "Reflektor" turns a shared sense of isolation into communion with a sleek, surging track that seamlessly integrates arty rock and diagonal funk, breaking down [Arcade Fire]'s epic sound without scrimping on its essential cathartic thrust." American Songwriter also praised the song saying "All seven-plus minutes of the song feel absolutely vital, even if the arrangement suggests something more hedonistic. It's a neat trick they pulled there." NME placed the song at number two on their "50 Best Tracks of 2013" list, with only Daft Punk's "Get Lucky" finishing above it. The song also made Sam Skuse's prestigious 'Top 20 Songs of the Decade' list, placing at number 11. ### Commercial "Reflektor" charted in several countries, peaking within the top 20 in Canada and Ireland. The song was the band's highest-charting song in Canada, their home country, and their first song on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it peaked at number 99. ## Music video A music video for "Reflektor" was released on September 9, 2013 through YouTube. It was directed by Anton Corbijn, with art direction done by Anastasia Masaro. The video won the Best Art Direction award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards. Katie Hasty of HitFix summarized the video, stating that "Corbijn's black-and-white version of the "Reflektor" experience has its own quirks, too, as the band dons oversized papier mache heads like puppet versions of themselves, hunting down the Disco Ball Man and putting the doll versions of themselves in a shiny coffin." An interactive music video was also made available to the public, which was directed by Vincent Morisset. However, it was made only accessible through the web browser Google Chrome. For this video, the user oversees dancer Axelle Munezero's journey through the streets of Haiti. ## Packaging ### Artwork The single's cover artwork makes no mention of the band's name, and is instead credited to the fictional band The Reflektors. The front cover features a silhouette image band's core members. The album's back cover features a woman touching one of the band's Haitian veve images, used previously in a guerrilla marketing to promote Reflektors forthcoming release. ### Fictional track listing The remainder of the 12" vinyl's artwork suggests that it is a full-length album by The Reflektors. A fictional album track listing, inspired by the song's lyrical content, is featured on its back cover. Disc one 1. "Prism of Light" 2. "Darkness of White" 3. "Alone on a Stage" 4. "Reflective Age" 5. "L'Aurore" 6. "If This Is Heaven" 7. "A Way to Enter" Disc two 1. "Signals We Send" 2. "Staring at a Screen" 3. "The Connector" 4. "The Other Side" 5. "Our Love Is Plastic" 6. "Break Me (Down Down Down)" 7. "The Resurrector" ## Track listing - Merge / Sonovox — MRG484 ## Credits and personnel Personnel adapted from the single's liner notes. Arcade Fire - Win Butler – vocals - Régine Chassagne – vocals - Richard Reed Parry – electric guitar, backing vocals - Will Butler – keyboards, backing vocals - Tim Kingsbury – electric guitar, backing vocals - Jeremy Gara – drums Additional musicians - David Bowie – additional vocals - Owen Pallett – orchestral arrangements - Colin Stetson – saxophone - Stuart Bogie – saxophone - Willinson Duprate – congas - Verrieux Zile – congas Recording personnel' - James Murphy – production - Markus Dravs – production - Arcade Fire – production - Mark Lawson – additional production, recording - Korey Richey – recording - Pascal Shefteshy – recording - Damian Taylor – recording - Tom Elmhirst – mixing - Ted Jensen – mastering ## Chart performance ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts
30,519,802	RKO Keith's Theater (Flushing, Queens)	1,161,569,363	Former movie theater in Queens, New York	[ "1928 establishments in New York City", "1986 disestablishments in New York (state)", "2021 disestablishments in New York (state)", "Buildings and structures demolished in 2021", "Cinemas and movie theaters in New York City", "Flushing, Queens", "National Register of Historic Places in Queens, New York", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Queens, New York", "New York City interior landmarks", "Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in New York (state)", "Theatres completed in 1928", "Theatres in Queens, New York", "Theatres on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City", "Thomas W. Lamb buildings" ]	The RKO Keith's Theater was an RKO Pictures movie theater at 129-43 Northern Boulevard in the Flushing neighborhood of Queens in New York City. It was designed by architect Thomas W. Lamb and built in 1928. While the RKO Keith's had a plain three-story facade, its interior was elaborately designed in a Spanish Baroque Revival style. The theater had a square ticket lobby and an oval grand foyer, which led to the double-level auditorium. The auditorium was designed as an atmospheric theater with a blue ceiling and gilded-plaster decorations; it contained 2,974 seats across two levels. There were also four lounges and a mezzanine promenade. The theater was developed by Benjamin Franklin Keith and Edward Albee of the Keith–Albee vaudeville circuit, which bought the site in 1927. The Keith–Albee Theater, as it was known, opened on Christmas Day 1928 and originally operated as a vaudeville theater. In the 1930s, the theater was renamed the RKO Keith's and began showing movies. The theater continued to prosper after World War II in spite of a decline in New York City's large neighborhood movie palaces during that time. However, the RKO Keith's began to decline in the 1960s and was eventually divided into a three-screen multiplex in 1977. The RKO Keith's was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. While the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated most of the theater as a New York City interior landmark in 1984, the New York City Board of Estimate curtailed the LPC's designation to cover only the ticket lobby and grand foyer. Despite the landmark designations, the RKO Keith's closed after local developer Thomas Huang acquired the theater in 1986. Over the next three decades, it went through several efforts at redevelopment. After the theater was partially destroyed in 1987, Huang was forced to stop work on his project, and work stalled for over a decade. During this time, the RKO Keith's interior continued to deteriorate, and residents and politicians raised concerns over Huang's treatment of the theater. The RKO Keith's was sold to Shaya Boymelgreen in 2002, then to Patrick Thompson in 2010 and Jerry Karlik in 2014; all three men unsuccessfully tried to redevelop the site. After Chinese developers Xinyuan Real Estate bought the theater in 2016, most of the theater was finally demolished from 2020 to 2021. Xinyuan made plans to replace the theater with a condominium development, which would preserve the theater's ticket lobby and grand foyer. ## Description The RKO Keith's Theater was at 129-43 Northern Boulevard, at the intersection with Main Street, in the Flushing neighborhood of Queens in New York City. The site, at the northern end of Main Street, is near Flushing's central business district. As of 2020, most of the theater was being demolished and replaced with 269 condominium apartments, developed by Xinyuan Real Estate. The ticket lobby and grand foyer were temporarily removed and are planned to be reinstalled in the condominium development's lobby. The theater was designed by architect Thomas W. Lamb in a Spanish Baroque Revival style and opened in 1928. The RKO Keith's was originally conceived as a venue for vaudeville, which in the late 1920s was competing with films; as a result, the design was more elaborate than that of older theaters. The building's facade on Northern Boulevard was relatively plain, with a curved marquee facing Main Street (later replaced with a horizontal advertising board). The ground story had storefronts, while the other stories had a brown facade, with marble spandrel panels between the second- and third-story windows. Inside, a ticket lobby and grand foyer led to the double-level auditorium. Four lounges also existed in the theater: two from the ground-level foyer and two from a mezzanine promenade below the auditorium's balcony. The interior was ornately decorated in plaster and wood. ### Ticket lobby and grand foyer The ticket lobby is a double-height space, square in plan. The room measures 4,000 sq ft (370 m<sup>2</sup>). Along with the grand foyer, it is the only part of the theater that is preserved. Originally, there was a ticket booth at ground level. The ceiling, of flat plaster painted blue, is supported by carved columns, designed in the Spanish Baroque Revival style. As of 2017, plans call for a retail elevator vestibule to be built east of the ticket lobby, with two elevators. A circular stair, leading up to retail spaces on the mezzanine level, will also be built east of the ticket lobby. A sloped glass facade will be installed in the base of the condominium building, overlooking the ticket lobby. The grand foyer is also a double-height space, oval in plan; it measures 75 ft (23 m) wide. There was originally a marble fountain at the center of the grand foyer. Live goldfish swam in the fountain, which was topped by a sculpture of Cupid flanked by dolphins. This fountain was subsequently replaced by a candy concession stand. The east wall of the grand foyer contains a terracotta drinking fountain with polychrome tiles. The north wall contained gilded plaster doorways to the auditorium's orchestra level; these doorways were sealed by the 1980s. The 2017 plans for the site call for a mail room and a residential lobby with three elevators to be built behind these doorways. The ceiling was also painted blue and had an arched vault. On either side of the grand foyer are staircases between the ground story and mezzanine level, decorated with bronze balustrades. The tops of those staircases formerly led to the mezzanine promenade behind the auditorium. At the foyer's second story is an arcade supported by spiral columns. Behind the arcade was the mezzanine promenade, which was rectangular in plan. The promenade had spiral columns with Moorish-style arches, as well as wrought iron furniture. The wooden ceiling was carved; chandeliers made of cut glass were suspended from the promenade's ceiling. Further staircases and passageways connected the mezzanine promenade to the auditorium's balcony. The 2017 plans indicate that the mezzanine promenade will be replaced with a residential promenade, leading to the elevator lobby. ### Auditorium The auditorium contained 2,974 seats across an orchestra level and a balcony. It was designed as an atmospheric theater, a type of movie palace in which projectors, architectural elements, and ornamentation were used to evoke a sense of being outdoors. It was one of Lamb's only atmospheric theater designs, as well as one of seven atmospheric theaters in New York City and one of 34 nationwide. The RKO Keith's auditorium was designed to give the feeling that the audience was in a garden, with Baroque, Gothic, and Moorish ornament in the style of Spanish architect J. M. de Churriguera. The balcony level protruded very far forward, nearly reaching the proscenium opening in front of the auditorium. This was characteristic of vaudeville theaters, where the proximity of the audience to the stage was an important factor. The underside of the balcony had cut-glass chandeliers, which hung from panels shaped like eight-pointed stars. The rear wall had an arcade of round arches with double columns. Each column was designed to resemble spirals made of leather and was topped by a capital depicting an angel's or a baby's face. The side and front walls had wooden screens and gilded plaster walls, which wrapped around to the proscenium. The wooden screens were decorated with arcades and broken pediments. The finials atop each screen reached the ceiling; these finials were designed to resemble a "romantic outline" against a sky. At the center of each screen was a mural within an opening of three arches, supported by spiral columns. Each mural panel was intended to symbolize a Spanish facade. These murals were flanked by gilded plaster walls with indirect lighting. The side walls also had doorways to exit halls, flanked by spiral columns. The proscenium arch was made of wood and plaster and was supported by large piers on either side. At the top of each pier was a niche containing an urn. The top of the proscenium had a niche at its center, as well as a Baroque-style broken pediment with an urn. There were also organ screens next to each of the proscenium's piers. The screens had decorative detail such as spiral columns and niches. The screens surrounded a Wurlitzer organ, Opus 1975, which had 3 manuals and 15 ranks; the organ was donated to the College of the Ozarks in 1969. In the theater's heyday, the auditorium's plaster ceiling was painted dark blue, and light bulbs were embedded in the ceiling to evoke the appearance of stars. When a film was being screened, projectors displayed images of clouds and stars onto the ceiling. In later years, ventilation grates were placed in the ceiling. At the RKO Keith's opening in 1928, Kelcey Allen of Women's Wear Daily said the ceiling was "a triumph of artistic illusion and ethereal atmospheric suggestions". ### Lounges The theater contained four lounges, all designed in the Spanish or Mexican Baroque style. To the east of the grand foyer was a small space with a drinking fountain, plaster walls, and an overhanging lamp. This small space led to the ground-level men's lounge, which was square in plan. The floor was tiled, while the walls were decorated with moldings of gilded plaster. Each corner also had niches flanked by spiral columns. On one wall was a fireplace with a large hood; there were lighting sconces on either side of the fireplace. The 2017 plans call for the ground-level men's lounge to be converted to retail and mechanical space. To the west of the grand foyer was a marble staircase with iron handrails, which led to a circular ground-level women's lounge. The floor was covered with carpets, while the walls were decorated with moldings of gilded plaster. The walls also had niches with gilded plaster surrounds. One section of the wall had a fireplace with a large hood. The plaster ceiling contained moldings, designed to resemble twisting vines. The 2017 plans call for the ground-level women's lounge to be converted to retail. There were two lounges directly adjacent to the mezzanine promenade, directly above the ground-floor lounges. The women's lounge was to the east and the men's lounge was to the west; this was the opposite arrangement from the ground floor lounges. In both lounges, a wrought-iron chandelier was hung from the wooden ceiling, and there were fireplaces with hoods. The fireplace in the women's lounge was next to an arched window overlooking the foyer. An arched doorway also led from the women's lounge to a restroom. Plans from 2017 indicate that the women's lounge will be replaced by a fitness center, while the men's lounge will be replaced by residential amenity space. South of these will be retail spaces. ## Use as movie palace Movie palaces became common in the 1920s, between the end of World War I and the beginning of the Great Depression. In the New York City area, only a small number of operators were involved in the construction of movie palaces. Relatively few architects were responsible for these theaters' designs, including legitimate theater architects Thomas Lamb, C. Howard Crane, and John Eberson, the latter of whom popularized the atmospheric theater. Furthermore, in the 1920s, the dominant vaudeville circuit on the East Coast of the United States was the Keith–Albee circuit, composed of Benjamin Franklin Keith and Edward Albee. ### Development and early years In May 1926, the Keith–Albee circuit announced that it planned to build three theaters in New York City as part of a nationwide expansion program, including one venue in Flushing, Queens. The Flushing theater and several others in the expansion program were planned to be funded by a \$25 million bond issue. The following year, the Keith–Albee circuit bought a site at the northern end of Main Street, at the intersection with Northern Boulevard. The circuit then hired Thomas W. Lamb to design a 2,974-seat movie theater and vaudeville house for \$750,000. He filed plans for the theater with the Queens Bureau of Buildings in May 1927. Lamb designed the Keith–Albee venue in Flushing as an atmospheric theater, following Eberson's example. The Keith–Albee circuit merged at the end of the year with the Orpheum Circuit, which dominated West Coast vaudeville, and the Flushing theater became part of the Keith-Albee-Orpheum (KAO) circuit. At the time of the merger, films were directly competing with vaudeville. The theater was originally projected to be completed by August 1928 but was ultimately completed that December. It opened on December 25, 1928, as a vaudeville house called the Keith–Albee Theater. There were 11 acts during the first week, including a Pathé News newsreel and an organ performance of "Hello, Flushing" by Bernie Cowham. The theater's operators originally sold subscriptions for each season, and patrons had to reserve seats, similar to in Broadway theaters. Many stars performed at the theater, including Bob Hope, Jack Benny and the Marx Brothers, Judy Garland, Mae West, Milton Berle, Jimmy Durante, and Jerry Lewis. As at other KAO theaters, vaudeville acts at the Flushing theater could only perform with a musical accompaniment with KAO's permission. When the theater opened, the surrounding section of Flushing was rapidly growing into a residential and commercial hub. By February 1930, the theater hosted performances twice a day and often played to a full house. Following further mergers, KAO became part of Radio-Keith-Orpheum, subsequently RKO Pictures. In September 1930, less than two years after the Flushing theater opened, RKO renamed the venue from the Keith–Albee to the Keith's. Some time in the 1930s, the theater switched to screening movies nearly exclusively. The theater was also used for high school graduation ceremonies and beauty competitions. ### Use as movie palace RKO reorganized its operations into eight subdivisions in March 1934, and the Flushing theater was assigned to RKO's New York Senior Metropolitan Division. In addition to films, the theater hosted children's programs in the late 1930s. Some vaudeville features continued at the Flushing theater through the end of that decade, but they tended to charge very low admission. RKO managers changed their policy for screening double features (where patrons could see two films for one ticket price) at the Flushing Keith's in 1941. After this change, the more popular feature was typically screened at 9 p.m., while the less popular feature was shown later, so patrons could leave early if they did not want to see the second feature. RKO briefly tried to revive vaudeville at the Flushing theater and its other neighborhood venues in the early 1940s. For example, the B. F. Keith's Oldtime Vaudeville Revue performed there in February 1942, and Ink Spots and Tiny Bradshaw appeared that December as part of a tour. Following another reorganization of RKO theaters, Louis Goldberg took over operation of the Flushing Keith's and several other theaters in 1943. The Flushing theater also continued to host some productions for children in the late 1940s. The Flushing Keith's continued to prosper after World War II in spite of a decline in New York City's large neighborhood movie palaces during that time. Many such theaters in Manhattan were demolished, but those in the outer boroughs were generally either divided into smaller complexes or outright abandoned. In 1951, many of the seats were replaced; the new seats were spaced further apart than the theater's original seats. The theater's outer lobby was damaged in a car crash in 1955, when a driver on Main Street died of a heart attack while driving; two patrons were killed in the crash. Live performances continued in later years, such as in 1965 when Hollywood stars Cesar Romero and Connie Stevens performed at the Flushing Keith's. Flushing had started to decline by the late 1960s, and the theater's success decreased with it. The theater's owners renovated the auditorium around 1976, turning the RKO Keith's into a multiplex with three screens. The lower level had two screens while the balcony level contained the third screen; these spaces were separated by partitions. Surviving into the 1980s intact, RKO Keith's was one of New York City's few remaining atmospheric theaters. ### Preservation The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered designating the theater's interior as a landmark in 1981 but took no action at the time. The next year, developer Lawrence Gresser proposed redeveloping the theater into a shopping mall. Many local residents opposed the plans and, in February 1982, the National Trust for Historic Preservation gave the New York Landmarks Conservancy a \$3,000 grant for the preservation of the theater's interior, provided the Landmarks Conservancy could raise matching funds. The theater was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. The project was redesigned that August into an office complex, but residents still opposed it. Fred Ferretti of The New York Times wrote in 1983 that the RKO Keith's remained "one of the city's great theaters", despite its subdivision and the uncertainty over the theater's fate. The LPC designated the interior as a landmark in February 1984, citing it as "one of the few surviving examples in New York of the uniquely American institution of the movie palace". The New York City Planning Commission endorsed the designation. The New York City Board of Estimate then had to review the landmark status for ratification in June 1984, though the board deferred a decision on the designation for a month. Queens borough president Donald Manes, a member of the Board of Estimate, overturned the designation for the auditorium interior in July 1984, leaving only the foyer and ticket lobby protected. This left the main portion of the theater vulnerable to redevelopment. Manes had overturned six landmark designations in Queens over the past several years. The RKO Keith's landmark status was unusual in that neither the exterior nor the main portion of the interior was protected. Typically, most landmarked interiors in New York City were inside buildings whose exteriors were also landmarks, such as the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and Grand Central Terminal. ## Closure and abandonment ### Huang ownership By the 1980s, Flushing's white population was moving out, while its Asian population grew drastically, particularly Flushing's Chinatown. In 1985, local developer Thomas Huang acquired some vacant land next to the RKO Keith's with the intention of developing an office building there. Huang then acquired the RKO Keith's for \$3.4 million. Huang, a Taiwanese-American developer who had turned Flushing into "New York's second Chinatown" over the preceding decade, intended to repurpose the theater as an office building or a shopping complex. Huang had been an ally of Manes, who had died in early 1986. After the RKO Keith's was closed following Labor Day in 1986, downtown Flushing did not receive another movie theater for 35 years. Residents expressed concerns over Huang's acquisition of the theater, as he had publicly announced plans to demolish the auditorium. Huang said the theater was "a junk building"; he had to erect sidewalk sheds on Northern Boulevard because part of the facade had begun to fall off. #### Partial demolition of lobby A group called the Committee to Save the RKO Keith's Theatre of Flushing, Inc., worked to gain community support as part of its goal to maintain and preserve RKO Keith's Theater for adaptive reuse as a performing arts/convention center. In 1986 and 1987, over 3,000 Queens residents signed petitions in order to request that the entire structure become a city landmark. The petitions were submitted to Borough President Claire Shulman, who refused to support landmark status for the entire interior. The Committee gained support from the Theater Historical Society, Queens Historical Society, New York Landmarks Conservancy, Queensborough Preservation League, and State Senator Frank Padavan. The Queens Historical Society wrote a letter to the organization's founder, Jerry Rotondi, saying: "The Committee's work to protect a recognized landmark from insensitive development and inappropriate use... [is] very commendable." In January 1987, Huang started remodeling the facade into storefronts and adding offices to the upper floors. The theater was by then owned by the Farrington & Northern Development Corporation, where Huang was the vice president. The LPC gave him a construction permit for the site. Inspectors subsequently discovered that the lobby had been illegally modified, resulting in \$160,000 worth of damage. Early that March, after most of the auditorium had been demolished, the New York City Department of Buildings issued an order demanding that Huang stop all work on the theater after the inspectors found that three of the landmarked columns in the ticket lobby had been destroyed. The construction permit was also revoked. Huang claimed that vandals broke into the theater building on February 23, 1987, and destroyed the columns. Demolition contractor Steven Shapiro said he had reported the vandalism to the New York City Police Department (NYPD)'s 109th Precinct, but the NYPD had no record of such a report being made. The LPC could not ascertain who destroyed the columns, so it did not issue any fines or violations. However, the LPC did find in October 1987 that the contractors violated building codes because the construction plan for the site had not been approved. Additionally, the LPC removed the auditorium from consideration as a landmark since most of it was already destroyed. The stop-work order remained in place for the next several years. #### Further deterioration At the start of 1989, two sets of bronze doors were stolen from the theater along with their frames, and Rotondi requested a thorough inspection after realizing that someone had penetrated the wooden barrier surrounding the theater. Preservationist Richard McTighe and Huang decided that a gate should be erected to separate the landmarked interior from the rest of the site. Meanwhile, Huang had stopped paying taxes on the theater after being forced to stop work there. By October 1989, he owed \$161,000 in taxes to the city and was in danger of losing the RKO Keith's. Huang said he would not sell the theater, despite its rundown condition. Huang requested the city government's permission to redevelop the site into an office building in February 1990 but withdrew his application shortly afterwards. Huang indicated the next month that he wanted to sell the theater. Local residents started a petition to preserve the theater, which garnered 3,500 signatures. A fire was set inside the empty theater that July. Though local media accused Huang of wrongdoing, Huang denied the accusations against him. More issues arose in December 1990, when the city's buildings department fined Huang \$3,250 for building-code violations at the theater. Despite the fact that the LPC's preservation rules were among the strictest in the United States, the damage to the lobby was not fixed for several years. A local civic group, Coalition for a Planned Flushing, said that the LPC's failure to designate the entire theater as a landmark had reduced its chances of restoration. A preservation group found that, from the creation of the city's landmarks law in 1965, the Board of Estimate had overturned or modified 21 landmark designations through 1990. Of these, the RKO Keith's was one of only five landmarks that had been significantly altered or destroyed afterward. In March 1993, the LPC mandated that Huang keep \$40,000 in an escrow account for the theater's restoration. Huang filed for bankruptcy in 1993 and transferred ownership of the theater building the next year to his mother's company, Yeh Realty (later RKO Delaware). Residents and local politicians accused Huang of letting the theater deteriorate and selling off part of the theater's decoration, but Huang blamed the damage on vandalism. Huang also filed a lawsuit against the city's government, wishing to develop seven storefronts along the Northern Boulevard portion of the site. The city and Huang tentatively agreed to a settlement in which Huang could develop four storefronts, but he had to also restore the lobby to obtain a certificate of occupancy for the storefronts. As the exterior was not protected, the LPC could not force Huang to preserve the facade. Huang again requested permission to redevelop the RKO Keith's site at a hearing with the LPC in July 1996. At the time, city inspectors had found that up to 10,000 U.S. gal (38,000 L; 8,300 imp gal) of fuel had leaked into the basement. As a result, the LPC denied his request. Huang promised to remediate the theater's environmental issues but then ignored the order. #### Criminal charges and lawsuit Early in 1997, the city government said it would consider Huang's request for a certificate of occupancy if he and the city agreed to hire a third-party architect or engineer to oversee the work. Local officials proposed that the state government charge Huang with racketeering so the state could seize the theater through criminal forfeiture. Huang was arrested in March 1997 and charged with environmental violations in relation to the RKO Keith's after city officials discovered that he had lied about cleaning up the oil leak in the theater. Huang placed the theater for sale that June, and he unsuccessfully attempted to dismiss the environmental charges against him. By the end of the year, the office of the Attorney General of New York proposed an agreement in which Huang would stabilize the theater and allow a city inspection in exchange for not going to prison. In January 1998, a judge for the New York Supreme Court, the state's trial court, postponed Huang's criminal trial by a year after Huang's lawyers claimed that he could not get a fair trial in Queens. The postponement was criticized by Huang's opponents, such as state senator Leonard P. Stavisky, who said, "Justice delayed is justice denied." The New York Daily News said: "The RKO Keith's Theatre can only be described today as a ghostly shell." That March, Huang and the city made an agreement to allow city inspectors to check the theater's interior. The agreement included hiring an independent monitor to review the repairs; in addition, Huang had to file a plan for asbestos removal with the DOB. A local task force hosted a meeting in November 1998 to determine the theater's future, but city officials did not attend the meeting because it was open to the public. Huang pleaded guilty in January 1999 to lying about having cleaned up the leak in the theater. The next month, a Supreme Court judge fined Huang \$5,000 for environmental violations at the RKO Keith's and sentenced him to five years of probation. Huang's opponents saw the sentence as lenient, given that the developer had faced up to \$100,000 in fines and four years in prison. Huang sued the LPC and the DOB for \$39 million in May 2000, alleging that the agencies continued to delay the theater's redevelopment. He dropped his lawsuit in December 2001 and consented to spending \$40,000 on repairing the lobby and auditorium the following March. By October 2002, Huang was negotiating to sell the building. The media subsequently reported that Shaya Boymelgreen of Boymelgreen Developers was negotiating to buy the building for \$12 million. By then, the planks in front of the theater had been removed. ### Boymelgreen, Thompson, and Karlik plans Huang sold the theater in 2002 to Boymelgreen, who planned to build the RKO Plaza, a mixed-use development with apartments, retail, restaurants, and a senior center; the ticket lobby and foyer would be preserved. As part of the \$100 million project, Boymelgreen would demolish the facade and build a curving glass wall in front of the lobby and foyer. This came after an engineering study found that the auditorium was "so devastated that little of it can be saved". A hole behind the proscenium arch exposed the auditorium to the outdoors, and plaster and paint were peeling off the walls and ceilings. Glenn Collins of The New York Times characterized the theater as "a Sistine Chapel for connoisseurs of decay". In February 2004, members of Queens Community Board 7 voted against granting Boymelgreen an exemption to the zoning regulations to enable the addition of condominiums in the RKO Plaza. The next year, Community Board 7 approved a revised plan, which was narrower and was set back further from Northern Boulevard. The project, as approved, would have contained 200 condominium apartments, along with 229 parking spaces. In 2007, Boymelgreen and his development partner Lev Leviev decided to stop working together, and Boymelgreen put the RKO Keith's site for sale. Eastern Consolidated was originally hired as the broker. Real estate brokerage Massey Knakal had taken over the listing by May 2008, seeking \$31 million for the site. Preservationists sought to purchase the RKO Keith's Theater in 2009 in the hopes of reusing or renovating it as a performing arts center. The theater was valued at \$24 million. In order to fully revitalize the theater, Friends of RKO Keith's sought to collect donations from various film stars. Jon Favreau was one such actor that the group hoped would make a donation, since he once worked there. By late 2009, Venator Capital was planning to buy the mortgage on the theater from Boymelgreen's lender, Doral Bank, for \$20 million. Preservationists held a fundraiser for the theater in early 2010. Doral took over ownership of the theater and sold it in May 2010 to developer Patrick Thompson for \$20 million. Thompson planned to restore the lobby and build condominiums and a senior center behind it. The next January, Thompson filed an application with the New York City Board of Standards and Appeals to increase the proposed project to 357 condos and 360 parking spaces. Though the city approved Thompson's plans in July 2011, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) said the next month that the development's height might interfere with planes landing at the nearby LaGuardia Airport. The FAA concluded in October 2011 that the new development had to be reduced by four stories and approved a revised plan the following May. The theater had accumulated \$400,000 in unpaid taxes by March 2012, as Thompson had not paid taxes for 14 months. Thompson was reportedly looking to sell the theater by that time, though he was able to reduce his delinquent tax bill over the next several months. Jerry Karlik of JK Equities bought the theater in 2013 for \$30 million. Karlik wished to downsize the project to 269 condos and reduce the number of parking spaces in the basement. In addition, Karlik wished to redesign the curtain wall in front of the lobby and increase the building's height to accommodate mechanical space. By February 2016, Karlik had placed the building for sale again after JK Equities canceled plans to redevelop the RKO Keith's site. The previous developers had received a tax exemption for the site, which was also included in the sale. Graffiti artists had covered many parts of the abandoned theater, and its windows had been sealed with boards or bricks. ### Xinyuan ownership Chinese developer Xinyuan Real Estate bought the theater in August 2016 for \$66 million. Xinyuan announced that it would build a 16-story luxury condominium tower in the space, with 269 residential units and no hotel rooms. The new building, which would keep the original facade over the lower floors, would be designed by Pei Cobb Freed & Partners. The LPC approved Xinyuan's plans for the theater's redevelopment in May 2017, including a proposal to convert the ticket lobby and foyer into a condo entrance. The Historic Districts Council expressed reservations over the fact that, while the ticket lobby would be open to the public, the grand foyer was planned to be restricted to residents, at least initially. This violated New York City's landmark preservation law, which mandated that landmarked interiors be accessible to the public. Following the announcement of Xinyuan's revised plans, preservationist and Forest Hills resident Richard Thornhill started a petition to restore the theater to Lamb's original design. The petition received 4,400 signatures. Gerner Kronick and Valcarcel Architects took over the design process in 2019, discarding Pei Cobb Freed's original design. Subsequently, EverGreene Architectural Arts took apart the lobby's decorations and moved them to a warehouse for future installation in the new building. Xinyuan presented its plans for the redevelopment of RKO Keith's to Queens Community Board 7 members in February 2019. That May, Madison Realty Corporation loaned Xinyuan \$30 million for the RKO site's redevelopment. Xinyuan submitted a new proposal for the site in August 2020, which called for hotel rooms in the new building. However, members of Community Board 7 rejected the plans, citing the fact that seven hotels already existed nearby and that hotel traffic would worsen traffic congestion at Northern Boulevard and Main Street. The updated plans did include 35,000 sq ft (3,300 m<sup>2</sup>) of community space and a restaurant. The demolition of the theater began the same year. By July 2021, most of the old theater had been demolished. ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Queens - National Register of Historic Places listings in Queens - RKO Keith's Theater (Richmond Hill, Queens) - RKO Keith's Theater (Boston)
2,487,220	Gothic War (535–554)	1,169,791,165	A war between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy	[ "Gothic War (535–554)", "Wars involving Francia" ]	The Gothic War between the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Justinian I and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy took place from 535 to 554 in the Italian Peninsula, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica. It was one of the last of the many Gothic Wars against the Roman Empire. The war had its roots in the ambition of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire, which the Romans had lost to invading barbarian tribes in the previous century, during the Migration Period. The war followed the Eastern Roman reconquest of the province of Africa from the Vandals. Historians commonly divide the war into two phases: - From 535 to 540: ending with the fall of the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna and the apparent reconquest of Italy by the Byzantines. - From 540/541 to 553: a Gothic revival under Totila, suppressed only after a long struggle by the Byzantine general Narses, who also repelled an invasion in 554 by the Franks and Alamanni. In 554, Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic sanction which prescribed Italy's new government. Several cities in northern Italy held out against the East Romans until 562. By the end of the war, Italy had been devastated and depopulated. It was seen as a Pyrrhic victory for the East Romans, who found themselves incapable of resisting an invasion by the Lombards in 568, which resulted in Constantinople permanently losing control over large parts of the Italian Peninsula. ## Background ### Italy under the Goths In 476 Odoacer deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus and declared himself rex Italiae (King of Italy), resulting in the final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire in Italy. Although Odoacer recognised the nominal suzerainty of the Eastern Emperor, Zeno, his independent policies and increasing strength made him a threat in the eyes of Constantinople. To provide a buffer, the Ostrogoths, under their leader, Theodoric the Great, were settled as foederati (allies) of the Empire in the western Balkans, but unrest continued. Zeno sent the Ostrogoths to Italy as the representatives of the Empire to remove Odoacer. Theodoric and the Goths defeated Odoacer and Italy came under Gothic rule. In the arrangement between Theodoric and Zeno, and his successor Anastasius, the land and its people were regarded as part of the Empire, with Theodoric a viceroy and head of the army (magister militum). This arrangement was scrupulously observed by Theodoric; there was continuity in civil administration, which was staffed exclusively by Romans, and legislation remained the preserve of the Emperor. The army, on the other hand, was exclusively Gothic, under the authority of their chiefs and courts. The peoples were also divided by religion: the Romans were Chalcedonian Christian, while the Goths were Arian Christians. Unlike the Vandals or the early Visigoths the Goths practised considerable religious tolerance. The dual system worked under the capable leadership of Theodoric, who conciliated the Roman aristocracy, but the system began to break down during his later years and collapsed under his heirs. With the ascension of Emperor Justin I, the end of the Acacian schism between the Eastern and Western Churches, and the return of ecclesiastical unity within the East, several members of the Italian senatorial aristocracy began to favour closer ties to Constantinople to balance Gothic power. The deposition and execution of the distinguished magister officiorum Boethius and his father-in-law in 524 was part of the slow estrangement of their caste from the Gothic regime. Theodoric was succeeded by his 10-year-old grandson Athalaric in August 526, with his mother, Amalasuntha, as regent; she had received a Roman education and began a rapprochement with the Senate and the Empire. This conciliation and Athalaric's Roman education displeased Gothic magnates, who plotted against her. Amalasuntha had three of the leading conspirators killed and wrote to the new Emperor, Justinian I, asking for sanctuary if she was deposed. Amalasuntha remained in Italy. ### Belisarius In 533, using a dynastic dispute as a pretext, Justinian had sent his most talented general, Belisarius, to recover the North African provinces held by the Vandals. The Vandalic War produced an unexpectedly swift and decisive victory for the Byzantine Empire and encouraged Justinian in his ambition to recover the rest of the lost western provinces. As Regent, Amalasuntha had allowed the Byzantine fleet to use the harbours of Sicily, which belonged to the Ostrogothic Kingdom. After her son's death in 534, Amalasuntha offered the kingship to her cousin Theodahad; Theodahad accepted, but had her arrested and, in early 535, killed. Through his agents, Justinian tried to save Amalasuntha's life but to no avail and her death gave him a casus belli to go to war with the Goths. Procopius wrote that "as soon as he learned what had happened to Amalasuntha, being in the ninth year of his reign, he entered upon war". Belisarius was appointed commander in chief (stratēgos autokratōr) for the expedition against Italy with 7,500 men. Mundus, the magister militum per Illyricum, was ordered to occupy the Gothic province of Dalmatia. The forces made available to Belisarius were small, especially when compared with the much larger army he had fielded against the Vandals, an enemy much weaker than the Ostrogoths. The preparations for the operation were carried out in secret, while Justinian tried to secure the neutrality of the Franks by gifts of gold. ## First Byzantine campaign, 535–540 ### Conquest of Sicily and Dalmatia Belisarius landed at Sicily, between Roman Africa and Italy, whose population was well disposed toward the Empire. The island was quickly captured, with the only determined resistance, at Panormus (Palermo), overcome by late December. Belisarius prepared to cross to Italy and Theodahad sent envoys to Justinian, proposing at first to cede Sicily and recognise his overlordship but later to cede all of Italy. In March 536 Mundus overran Dalmatia and captured its capital, Salona, but a large Gothic army arrived and Mundus' son Mauricius died in a skirmish. Mundus inflicted a heavy defeat on the Goths but was himself mortally wounded in the pursuit. The Roman army withdrew and, except for Salona, Dalmatia was abandoned to the Goths. Encouraged, Theodahad imprisoned the Byzantine ambassadors. Justinian sent a new magister militum per Illyricum, Constantinianus, to recover Dalmatia and ordered Belisarius to cross into Italy. Constantinianus accomplished his task speedily. The Gothic general, Gripas, abandoned Salona, which he had only recently occupied, because of the ruined state of its fortifications and the pro-Roman stance of its citizens, withdrawing to the north. Constantinianus occupied the city and rebuilt the walls. Seven days later the Gothic army departed for Italy and by late June the whole of Dalmatia was in Roman hands. ### First siege of Rome In the late spring of 536 Belisarius crossed into Italy, where he captured Rhegium and made his way north. Neapolis (in Modern English: Naples) was besieged for three weeks before the Imperial troops forced their way in during November. The largely barbarian Roman army sacked the city. Belisarius moved north to Rome, which in view of the fate of Neapolis, put up no resistance; Belisarius entered unopposed in December. The rapidity of the Byzantine advance took the Goths by surprise and the inactivity of Theodahad enraged them. After the fall of Neapolis he was deposed and replaced by Vitiges. He left Rome for Ravenna, where he married Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha and began rallying his forces against the invasion. Vitiges led a large force against Rome, where Belisarius, who did not have enough troops to face the Goths in the open field, had remained. The subsequent siege of Rome, the first of three in the Gothic War, lasted from March 537 to March 538. There were sallies, minor engagements and several large actions but after 1,600 Huns and Slavs arrived from Constantinople in April 537 and 5,000 men in November, the Byzantines took the offensive and their cavalry captured several towns in the Goths' rear. The imperial navy cut off the Goths from seaborne supplies, worsening their supply difficulties, and threatened Gothic civilians. The fall of Ariminum, modern Rimini, close to Ravenna, forced Vitiges to abandon the siege and withdraw. ### Siege of Ariminum As Vitiges marched to the northeast, he strengthened the garrisons of towns and forts along the way to secure his rear and then turned towards Ariminum. The Roman force of 2,000 horsemen occupying it comprised some of Belisarius' finest cavalry; Belisarius decided to replace them with an infantry garrison. Their commander, John, refused to obey orders and remained at Ariminum. Shortly after the Goths arrived, an assault failed, but the city had few supplies with which to stand a siege. A new force of 2,000 Herul foederati, under the Armenian eunuch Narses, arrived at Picenum. Belisarius met Narses, who advocated a relief expedition to Ariminum, while Belisarius favoured a more cautious approach. The arrival of a letter from John, which illustrated the immediate danger of the city's fall, resolved the issue in favour of Narses. Belisarius divided his army into three, a seaborne force under his capable and trusted lieutenant Ildiger, another under the equally experienced Martin which was to arrive from the south, and the main force under him and Narses, which was to arrive from the northwest. Vitiges learned of their approach and, faced with the prospect of being surrounded by superior forces, hurriedly withdrew to Ravenna. The bloodless victory at Ariminum strengthened Narses against Belisarius, with many Roman generals, including John, turning their allegiance to him. In the council after the relief of Ariminum, Belisarius was in favour of reducing the strong Gothic garrison of Auximum, modern Osimo, in their rear and relieving the siege of Mediolanum; Narses favoured a less concentrated effort, including a campaign in Aemilia. Belisarius did not allow matters to fester and marched with Narses and John against Urbinum. The two armies encamped separately and shortly afterwards, Narses, convinced that the town was unassailable and well supplied, broke camp and departed for Ariminum. From there he sent John to Aemilia, which was quickly subdued. Aided by the fortunate drying up of Urbinum's only water spring, the town fell to Belisarius soon after. ### Mediolanum In April 538 Belisarius, petitioned by representatives from Mediolanum (Milan), the second most populous and wealthy city in Italy after Rome, had sent a force of 1,000 men under Mundilas to the city. This force secured the city and most of Liguria, except Ticinum (Pavia), with ease. Vitiges called upon the Franks for help and a force of 10,000 Burgundians unexpectedly crossed the Alps. Combining with the Goths under Uraias they laid siege to the city. Mediolanum was ill-provisioned and under-garrisoned; the already small Roman force had been dispersed to garrison the neighbouring cities and forts. A relief force was dispatched by Belisarius but its commanders, Martin and Uliaris, did not make any effort to help the besieged city. Instead, they asked for further reinforcements by the forces of John and the magister militum per Illyricum Justin, which were operating in the nearby province of Aemilia. Dissension in the Roman chain of command exacerbated the situation, as John and Justin refused to move without orders from Narses. John fell ill and the preparations were halted. The delays proved fatal for the city, which, after many months of siege, was close to starvation. The Goths offered Mundilas a guarantee that the lives of his soldiers would be spared if he surrendered the city but no guarantee was offered for the civilians and he refused. By the end of March 539, his starving soldiers forced him to accept the terms. The Roman garrison was spared but the inhabitants were subjected to a massacre and the city was razed. ### Frankish invasion After this disaster Narses was recalled and Belisarius confirmed as supreme commander with authority throughout Italy. Vitiges sent envoys to the Persian court, hoping to persuade Khosrow I to reopen hostilities with the Byzantines to force Justinian to concentrate the majority of his forces, including Belisarius, in the east and allow the Goths to recover. Belisarius resolved to conclude the war by taking Ravenna but had to deal with the Gothic strongholds of Auximum and Faesulae (Fiesole) first. While Martin and John hindered the Gothic army under Uraias, which was attempting to cross the River Po, a part of the army under Justin besieged Faesulae and Belisarius undertook the siege of Auximum. During the sieges, a large Frankish army under King Theudebert I crossed the Alps and came upon the Goths and the Byzantines encamped on the two banks of the Po. They attacked the Goths who, thinking they had come as allies, were swiftly routed. The equally astonished Byzantines also gave battle, were defeated and withdrew southwards into Tuscany. The Frankish invasion was defeated by an outbreak of dysentery, which caused great losses and forced the Franks to withdraw. Belisarius concentrated on the besieged cities, and both garrisons were forced by starvation to capitulate in October or November 539. ### Capture of Ravenna Troops from Dalmatia reinforced Belisarius and he moved against Ravenna. Detachments moved north of the Po and the imperial fleet patrolled the Adriatic, cutting the city off from supplies. Inside the Gothic capital, Vitiges received a Frankish embassy looking for an alliance but after the events of the previous summer no trust was placed in Frankish offers. Soon afterwards an embassy came from Constantinople, bearing surprisingly lenient terms from Justinian. Anxious to finish the war and concentrate against the impending Persian war, the Emperor offered a partition of Italy; the lands south of the Po would be retained by the Empire, those north of the river by the Goths. The Goths readily accepted the terms but Belisarius, judging this to be a betrayal of all he had striven to achieve, refused to sign, even though his generals disagreed with him. Disheartened, the Goths offered to make Belisarius, whom they respected, the western emperor. Belisarius had no intention of accepting the role but saw how he could use this situation to his advantage and feigned acceptance. In May 540 Belisarius and his army entered Ravenna; the city was not looted, while the Goths were well treated and allowed to keep their properties. In the aftermath of Ravenna's surrender, several Gothic garrisons north of the Po surrendered. Others remained in Gothic hands, among which were Ticinum, where Uraias was based and Verona, held by Ildibad. Soon after, Belisarius sailed for Constantinople, where he was refused the honour of a triumph. Vitiges was named a patrician and sent into comfortable retirement, while the captive Goths were sent to reinforce the eastern armies. ## Gothic revival, 541–551 ### Reigns of Ildibad and Eraric Belisarius' departure left most of Italy in Roman hands, but north of the Po, Pavia (which became the new capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom) and Verona remained unconquered. Soon after Belisarius' breach of faith towards them became apparent, the Goths, at the suggestion of Uraias, chose Ildibad as their new king and he re-established Gothic control over Venetia and Liguria. Justinian failed to appoint an Italian commander-in-chief. The Roman armies neglected military discipline and committed acts of plunder. The new imperial bureaucracy made itself immediately unpopular by its oppressive fiscal demands. Ildibad defeated the Roman general Vitalius at Treviso but after having Uraias murdered because of a quarrel between their wives, he was assassinated in May 541 in retribution. The Rugians, remnants of Odoacer's army who had remained in Italy and sided with the Goths, proclaimed one of their own, Eraric, as the new king, which was unexpectedly assented to by the Goths. Eraric persuaded the Goths to start negotiations with Justinian, secretly intending to hand over his realm to the Empire. The Goths perceived his inactivity for what it was and turned to Ildibad's nephew, Totila (or Baduila), and offered to make him king. Totila had already opened negotiations with the Byzantines but when he was contacted by the conspirators, he assented. In the early autumn of 541 Eraric was murdered and Totila proclaimed king. ### Early Gothic successes Totila enjoyed several advantages: the outbreak of the Plague of Justinian devastated and depopulated the Roman Empire in 542; the beginning of a new Roman–Persian War forced Justinian to deploy most of his troops in the east; and the incompetence and disunity of the various Roman generals in Italy undermined military function and discipline. This last brought about Totila's first success. After much urging by Justinian, the generals Constantinian and Alexander combined their forces and advanced upon Verona. Through treachery they managed to capture a gate in the city walls; instead of pressing the attack they delayed to quarrel over the prospective booty, allowing the Goths to recapture the gate and force the Byzantines to withdraw. Totila attacked their camp near Faventia (Faenza) with 5,000 men and, at the Battle of Faventia, destroyed the Roman army. Totila marched into Tuscany, where he besieged Florence. The Roman generals, John, Bessas, and Cyprian, marched to its relief but, at the Battle of Mucellium, their numerically superior forces were defeated. ### Southern Italy Totila marched south, where Roman garrisons were few and weak, bypassing Rome. The provinces of southern Italy were forced to recognise his authority. This campaign was one of rapid movement to take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantines in control of isolated strongholds, mostly on the coast, which could be reduced later. When a fortified location fell, its walls were usually razed so that it would no longer be of any military value. Totila followed a policy of treating his captives well, enticing opponents to surrender rather than resist to the end. He also tried to win over the Italian population, exemplified by Totila's behaviour during the Siege of Naples, where he allowed the city to surrender on terms in 543 and displayed, in the words of J. B. Bury, "considerable humanity" in his treatment of the defenders. He nursed the famished citizens back to strength after allowing the Byzantine garrison safe departure. Having captured Naples Totila attempted to broker a peace with Justinian. When this was refused he had copies of his appeal posted throughout Rome; despite the disfavour in which the Byzantines were held, there was no uprising in Totila's favour, which disgusted him. He marched north and besieged the city. Taking advantage of a five-year truce in the East, Belisarius was sent back to Italy with 200 ships in 544. He successfully reoccupied much of southern Italy, but, according to Procopius, he was starved of supplies and reinforcements by a jealous Justinian and so felt unable to march to Rome's relief. Procopius describes famine during the siege, in which the ordinary Romans, who were not rich enough to buy grain from the military, were reduced to eating bran, nettles, dogs, mice and finally "each other's dung".[^1] Pope Vigilius, who had fled to the safety of Syracuse, sent a flotilla of grain ships, but Totila's navy intercepted them near the mouth of the Tiber and captured them. A desperate attempt by Belisarius to relieve Rome came close to success but ultimately failed. After more than a year Totila finally entered Rome on 17 December 546, when his men scaled the walls at night and opened the Asinarian Gate. Procopius states that Totila was aided by some Isaurian troops from the imperial garrison who had arranged a secret pact with the Goths. Rome was plundered and Totila, who had expressed an intention to completely level the city, satisfied himself with tearing down about one third of the walls. He then left in pursuit of the Byzantine forces in Apulia. Belisarius successfully reoccupied Rome four months later in the spring of 547 and hastily rebuilt the demolished sections of wall by piling up the loose stones "one on top of the other, regardless of order". Totila returned, but was unable to overcome the defenders. Belisarius did not follow up his advantage. Several cities, including Perugia, were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and was then recalled from Italy. In 549, Totila advanced again against Rome. He attempted to storm the improvised walls and overpower the small garrison of 3,000 men, but was beaten back. He then prepared to blockade the city and starve out the defenders, although the Byzantine commander Diogenes had previously prepared large food stores and had sown wheat fields within the city walls. However, Totila was able to suborn part of the garrison, who opened the Porta Ostiensis gate for him. Totila's men swept through the city, killing all but the women, who were spared on the orders of Totila, and looting what riches remained. Expecting the nobles and the remainder of the garrison to flee as soon as the walls were taken, Totila set traps along the roads to neighboring towns that were not yet under his control and many were killed while fleeing Rome. ## Byzantine reconquest, 551–554 During 550–51, the Byzantines assembled a large expeditionary force of 20,000 or 25,000 men at Salona on the Adriatic, including regular Byzantine units and a large contingent of foreign allies, notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars. Narses, the imperial chamberlain (cubicularius'') was appointed to command in mid-551. The following spring, Narses led this Byzantine army around the coast of the Adriatic to Ancona and then turned inland, intending to march down the Via Flaminia to Rome. Near the village of Taginae, the Byzantines encountered the Ostrogothic army, commanded by Totila, who had been advancing to intercept Narses. Finding himself considerably outnumbered, Totila ostensibly entered into negotiations while planning a surprise attack, but Narses was not fooled by the ruse and deployed his army in a strong defensive position. Reinforcements having arrived, Totila launched a sudden attack at the Battle of Taginae, with a mounted assault on the Byzantine centre. The attack failed and, by evening, the Ostrogoths had broken and fled; Totila was killed in the rout. The Goths holding Rome capitulated and, at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in October 553, Narses defeated Teias and the last remnants of the Gothic army in Italy. Though the Ostrogoths were defeated, Narses soon had to face other barbarians who invaded Byzantine northern Italy and southern Gaul. In early 553, an army of about thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni crossed the Alps and took the town of Parma. They defeated a force under the Heruli commander Fulcaris and soon many Goths from northern Italy joined their forces. Narses had dispersed his troops to garrisons throughout central Italy and had wintered at Rome. After serious depredations throughout Italy, the barbarians were brought to battle by Narses on the banks of the river Volturnus. In the Battle of the Volturnus, the Byzantine phalanx held a furious Frankish assault while the Byzantine cavalry encircled them. The Franks and Alemanni were all but annihilated. Seven thousand Goths held out at Campsa, near Naples, until capitulating in the spring of 555. The lands and cities across the River Po were still held by Franks, Alemanni and Goths and it was not until 562 that their last strongholds, the cities of Verona and Brixia, were subjugated. According to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea, the barbarian population was then allowed to live peacefully in Italy under Roman sovereignty. ## Aftermath The Gothic War is often viewed as a Pyrrhic victory, which drained the Byzantine Empire of resources that might have been employed against more serious threats in western Asia and the Balkans. In the east, pagan Slavs and Kutrigurs raided and devastated the Byzantine provinces south of the Danube from 517. A century later Dalmatia, Macedonia, Thrace and most of Greece were lost to Slavs and Avars. Some recent historians have taken a different view of Justinian's western campaigns. Warren Treadgold placed greater blame for the vulnerability of the Empire in the late 6th century on the Plague of Justinian in 540–541, which is estimated to have killed up to a quarter of the population at the height of the Gothic War, sapping the Empire of manpower and tax revenues needed to complete the campaign more swiftly. No ruler, no matter how wise, could possibly have anticipated the Plague, he argues, which would have been disastrous for the Empire and Italy, regardless of the attempt to reconquer Italy. However, as a result of Rome having been under attack constantly during the war, the deaths not caused by the plague continued to rise. In Italy the war devastated the urban society that was supported by a settled hinterland. The great cities were abandoned as Italy fell into a long period of decline. The impoverishment of Italy and the drain on the Empire made it impossible for the Byzantines to hold their gains. Only three years after the death of Justinian in 565, the mainland Italian territories fell into the hands of the Germanic Lombards. The Exarchate of Ravenna, a band of territory that stretched across central Italy to the Tyrrhenian Sea and south to Naples, along with parts of southern Italy, were the only remaining Imperial holdings. After the Gothic Wars the Empire would entertain no more serious ambitions in the West. Rome would remain under imperial control until the Exarchate of Ravenna was finally conquered by the Lombards in 751. Some coastal areas of southern Italy would remain under East Roman influence, until the late 11th century, while the interior would be ruled by Lombard dukes based at Benevento and later also at Salerno and Capua. A decisive result was that Italy – united into a single political unit by the Romans in the early centuries of their expansion and remaining such throughout the Roman Empire and also under the Goths – was broken up, with the successor states often going to war with each other, until the Unification of Italy in the 19th century. The widespread destruction of Italy in the war, harsh Gothic and Byzantine reprisals of their opponents' supporters, and heavy Byzantine taxation led the Italian populace to shift allegiances: instead of loyalty to Empire, their identities were increasingly tied to religion, family and city instead. [^1]: Procopius, translation by Dewing, H B (1914) [ History of the Wars: Book VI (continued) and Book VII], William Heinemann Limited, London (pp. 299–301)
51,928,631	Connor Hamlett	1,163,892,539	American football player (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "American football tight ends", "Arizona Hotshots players", "Cleveland Browns players", "Dallas Cowboys players", "Jacksonville Jaguars players", "Living people", "New Orleans Saints players", "Oregon State Beavers football players", "People from Lynnwood, Washington", "Philadelphia Eagles players", "Players of American football from Riverside, California", "Players of American football from Snohomish County, Washington", "Seattle Dragons players" ]	Connor Hamlett (born April 12, 1992) is a former American football tight end. He lettered in football, basketball and track at Meadowdale High School in Lynnwood, Washington, where he earned All-State honors in football his senior year. He played college football at Oregon State, recording career totals of 104 receptions for 1,109 yards and 10 touchdowns. He finished third in school history in receptions for a tight end and fifth in receiving yards for a tight end. He was named Pac-12 All-Academic second-team his junior season in 2013 and Pac-12 All-Academic first-team his senior season in 2014. Hamlett signed with the Jacksonville Jaguars after going undrafted in the 2015 NFL Draft, and has since been a member of the Philadelphia Eagles, New Orleans Saints, Cleveland Browns, Dallas Cowboys, Arizona Hotshots, and Seattle Dragons. ## Early years Hamlett was a three-year letterman in football at Meadowdale High School in Lynnwood, Washington as a tight end. He earned second-team All-WesCo League 3A honors his junior season. He recorded 43 receptions for 648 yards and six touchdowns his senior year, earning second-team All-State, Associated Press Class 3A honorable mention All-State, and first-team All-WesCo League 3A honors. He also played defensive end his senior year, which was his first year playing on the defensive line. Meadowdale High finished with an 11–1 record his senior year; winning the first 11 games before losing in the Class 3A state quarterfinals. He was selected to participate in the 2010 Class 3A/4A East–West All-Star Football Game as part of the West Team but chose not to play in the game. In addition to lining up at the normal tight end spot, Hamlett was also used split out wide at the wide receiver spot while at Meadowdale. He was also a three-year letterman in basketball. He earned second-team All-WesCo South honors his junior year in 2008–09 as Meadowdale won a share of the WesCo South title, won the 3A District 1 title and also finished sixth in the Class 3A state tournament. He was team co-captain his senior year and garnered first-team All-WesCo South accolades after averaging 19 points and 10 rebounds. In the 2010 Class 3A state boys basketball tournament, Hamlett averaged 24 points and 10 rebounds per game and earned first-team All-Tournament honors as Meadowdale High finished in fifth place. The team also finished second in the 3A District 1 tournament and second in the WesCo South. He was named The Herald'''s 2010 All-Area Boys Basketball Player of the Year. He earned two letters in track as well. He graduated from Meadowdale High School in 2010. In the class of 2010, Hamlett was rated a two-star football recruit by Rivals.com, Scout.com and ESPN.com. He was also rated the No. 99 tight end in the country by Scout.com, and the No. 50 tight end in the country by ESPN.com. He was also rated both a three-star recruit and the No. 83 tight end in the country on 247Sports.com's composite rating, which takes into account the ratings of all the other major recruiting services in the country. In February 2009, Scout.com released its 2010 Northwest Fab 50 ranking, which rated the top 50 football players in the Northwest graduating in 2010. Hamlett was rated No. 33 and listed as a wide receiver. He committed to Oregon State in February 2010. He also received an offer from Washington State. When Hamlett committed to Oregon State in February, the team offered him a grayshirt, which he accepted. In March, it was reported that Hamlett was not grayshirting as originally planned and was instead walking-on in 2010 and going on scholarship after the season. However, in August 2010, it was reported he had been given a scholarship. Hamlett's brother, Casey, played football at Western Washington from 2007 to 2008 and at Washington State from 2009 to 2010. ## College career Hamlett played as a tight end for the Oregon State Beavers of Oregon State University from 2011 to 2014. In 2010, he was redshirted and shared the offensive scout MVP award with Tyler Anderson. He majored in business management at Oregon State. He played in 11 games in 2011 and earned Pac-12 All-Academic Honorable Mention honors. He appeared in 13 games, starting 7, in 2012. He caught 32 passes for 403 yards and 3 touchdowns. He also earned Pac-12 All-Academic Honorable Mention honors for the second straight year. Hamlett played in 11 games, starting 10, in 2013. He caught 40 passes for 364 yards and 5 touchdowns. He garnered All-Pac-12 Honorable Mention honors and Pac-12 All-Academic second-team honors. He missed two games due to knee problems. He had three minor knee surgeries during and after his junior season: one in October, one after the final regular season game and one after the team's bowl game. In July 2014, he was named to the watchlist for the John Mackey Award, which is given to the best tight end in college football. On October 13, 2014, he was named to the midseason watchlist for the John Mackey Award. He played in 12 games, all starts, in 2014 and totaled 32 receptions for 342 yards and 2 touchdowns. He earned Pac-12 All-Academic first-team honors. He reportedly played his senior season "at about 80 percent" due to knee pain and other issues. Hamlett played in 47 games, with 29 starts, during his college career. He recorded career totals of 104 receptions for 1,109 yards and 10 touchdowns. He was the fifth Oregon State tight end to record at least 1,000 career receiving yards. His 104 receptions were third most in school history for a tight end and his 1,109 receiving yards were fifth most in school history for a tight end. ## Professional career In a January 2015 story with The Herald, it was reported that Hamlett was retiring from football due to knee problems. Hamlett said that "after the season I decided it was time to hang it up. I didn’t want to be in pain every day. I felt like it was time to move on and live a normal life." He also said, "I’m sure I’ll wish I was still out there playing." In a story with The Florida Times-Union'' shortly after signing with the Jacksonville Jaguars, Hamlett said, "I just took some time off because I was banged up" and that "I love the game of football, and I wanted to play. The whole [story] kind of got blown out of proportion." He had previously returned to training and began feeling 100 percent in early March. Due to his break, he did not participate in the 2015 NFL Combine or Oregon State's Pro Day. Hamlett was rated the 31st best tight end in the 2015 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com. Lance Zierlein of NFL.com projected that he would go undrafted and be a priority free agent. Zierlein stated that Hamlett was "Stiff, with limited athleticism" and that he "must improve his play strength at the point of attack and make his way as a blocking tight end to have a shot". ### Jacksonville Jaguars Hamlett was signed as an undrafted free agent by the Jacksonville Jaguars after the 2015 NFL Draft on May 3. He was released by the Jaguars on August 29. He signed with the Jaguars on September 2 and was released by the team on September 4, 2015. ### Philadelphia Eagles He was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles' practice squad on September 16, 2015. He was released by the Eagles on September 21, 2015. ### New Orleans Saints Hamlett was signed to the New Orleans Saints' practice squad on September 23, 2015. He was released by the team on October 6, 2015. ### Cleveland Browns Hamlett was signed to the Cleveland Browns' practice squad on December 8, 2015. He signed a reserve/future contract with the team on January 5, 2016. He was released by the Browns on September 3 and was signed to the team's practice squad on September 4. He was promoted to the active roster on October 4. He made his NFL debut, and first career start, against the New England Patriots on October 9 and recorded one reception, a 17-yard touchdown pass from Charlie Whitehurst. The Browns waived Hamlett on October 31. He was re-signed to the practice squad on November 2, 2016. He played in 3 games, starting 2, during the 2016 season and caught 1 pass for a 17-yard touchdown. ### Dallas Cowboys Hamlett signed a reserve/future contract with the Dallas Cowboys on January 16, 2017. He broke his fibula during a preseason game against the Los Angeles Rams on August 12. The injury was reported as possibly being season-ending. He was waived/injured on August 15, and placed on injured reserve on August 16. He was released on August 24, 2017, after reaching an injury settlement. ### Arizona Hotshots In 2018, Hamlett signed with the Arizona Hotshots of the Alliance of American Football. The league ceased operations in April 2019. He appeared in 8 games (one start), making 5 receptions for 40 yards. ### Seattle Dragons In October 2019, Hamlett was selected by the Seattle Dragons during the 2020 XFL Draft's open phase. In March, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the league announced that it would be cancelling the rest of the season. Playing in all 5 games, he had 4 receptions for 35 yards. He had his contract terminated when the league suspended operations on April 10, 2020.
25,645,441	100 euro note	1,170,957,131	Euro banknote	[ "Euro banknotes", "One-hundred-base-unit banknotes" ]	The one hundred euro note (€100) is one of the higher value euro banknotes and has been used since the introduction of the euro (in its cash form) in 2002. The note is used daily by some 343 million Europeans and in the 25 countries which have it as their sole currency (with 23 legally adopting it). In July 2023, there were approximately 3,942,000,000 hundred euro banknotes in circulation in the eurozone. It is the third most widely circulated denomination, accounting for 13.3% of the total banknotes. It is the third largest note, measuring 147 millimetres (5.8 in) × 82 millimetres (3.2 in) and has a green colour scheme. The hundred euro notes depict bridges and arches/doorways in the Baroque and Rococo style (17th and 18th centuries). The hundred euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks, invisible ink, holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity. The new banknotes of the Europa series 100 euro banknote were released on 28 May 2019. ## History The euro was founded on 1 January 1999, when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe. For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency, only used in accountancy. Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002, when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12, such as the French franc and the Spanish peseta. Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011 Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania joined in 2015. ### The changeover period The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever. ### Changes Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank, Wim Duisenberg, who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean-Claude Trichet, whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012. Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank, Mario Draghi. Two series of euro notes are in circulation together. The European Central Bank will, in due course, announce when banknotes from the first series are to lose legal tender status. The first series notes do not reflect the expansion of the European Union: Cyprus is not depicted on these notes as the map does not extend far enough east, and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series' minimum size for depiction. The second series of banknotes has now been issued, with new production and anti-counterfeiting techniques, but the design is of the same theme and colours identical to the first series; bridges and arches. However, they are still recognisable as a new series. ## Design The one hundred euro note measures at 147 millimetres (5.8 in) × 82 millimetres (3.2 in) and has a green colour scheme. All bank notes depict bridges and arches/doorways in a different historical European style; the hundred euro note shows the Baroque and Rococo style (17th and 18th centuries). Although Robert Kalina's original designs were intended to show real monuments, for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era. Like all euro notes, it contains the denomination, the EU flag, the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages, a depiction of EU territories overseas, the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below. ### Security features (first series) The hundred euro note is protected by: - Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note, that appears to change colour from purple to brown, when the note is tilted. - A see through number printed in the top corner of the note, on both sides, appear combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light. - A glossy stripe, situated at the back of the note, showing the value numeral and the euro symbol. - A hologram, used on the note which appears to see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway, but in the background, it appears to be rainbow-coloured concentric circles of micro-letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch. - A EURion constellation; the EURion constellation is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996. It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image. - Watermarks, which appear when held up to the light. - Raised printing in the main image, the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised. - Ultraviolet ink; the paper itself does not glow, fibres embedded in the paper do appear, and be coloured red, blue and green, the EU flag is green and has orange stars, the ECB President's, currently Mario Draghi's, signature turns green, the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map, a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow. - Microprinting, on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting, for example, inside the "ΕΥΡΩ" (EURO in Greek characters) on the front. The micro-text is sharp, but not blurred. - A security thread, embedded in the banknote paper. The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light. The word "EURO" and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread. - Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol. There are also small numbers showing the value. - A matted surface; the note paper is made out of pure cotton, which feels crisp and firm, but not limp or waxy. - Barcodes, - A serial number. ### Security features (Europa series) The 100 euro notes are made of pure cotton fibre, which improves their durability as well as giving the banknotes a distinctive feel. The printer code is positioned at the right of 9 o'clock star. ## Circulation The European Central Bank closely monitors the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes. It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the euro area. In December 2022, there were 3,928,099,612 €100 banknotes in circulation around the euro area, with a total value of €392,809,961,200. This is a net number, i.e. the number of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem central banks, without further distinction as to who is holding the currency issued, thus also including the stocks held by credit institutions. Besides the date of the introduction of the first set to January 2002, the publication of figures is more significant through the maximum number of banknotes raised each year. The number is higher the end of the year. The figures are as follows: On 28 May 2019, a new 'Europe' series was issued. The first series of notes were issued in conjunction with those for a few weeks in the series 'Europe' until existing stocks are exhausted, then gradually withdrawn from circulation. Both series thus run parallel but the proportion tends inevitably to a sharp decrease in the first series. The latest figures provided by the ECB are the following : ## Legal information Legally, both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes. In practice, only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes. The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations. ## Tracking There are several communities of people at European level, most of which is EuroBillTracker, that, as a hobby, it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands, to keep track and know where they travel or have traveled. The aim is to record as many notes as possible in order to know details about its spread, like from where and to where they travel in general, follow it up, like where a ticket has been seen in particular, and generate statistics and rankings, for example, in which countries there are more tickets. EuroBillTracker has registered over 176 million notes as of May 2018, worth more than €3.257 billion.
12,520,860	Demi Lovato	1,173,527,037	American singer (born 1992)	[ "1992 births", "21st-century American LGBT people", "21st-century American actors", "21st-century American singers", "21st-century American songwriters", "Activists from New Mexico", "Activists from Texas", "Actors from Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Actors from Dallas", "American LGBT rights activists", "American LGBT singers", "American LGBT songwriters", "American child actors", "American contemporary R&B singers", "American feminists", "American film actors", "American gun control activists", "American non-binary actors", "American non-binary musicians", "American non-binary writers", "American pop rock singers", "American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu", "American sopranos", "American television actors", "American voice actors", "American women singer-songwriters", "Anti-bullying activists", "Demi Lovato", "Feminist musicians", "Hispanic and Latino American actors", "Hispanic and Latino American musicians", "Hollywood Records artists", "Island Records artists", "LGBT Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners", "LGBT Hispanic and Latino American people", "LGBT people from New Mexico", "LGBT people from Texas", "Living people", "Mental health activists", "Musicians from Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Non-binary activists", "Non-binary singers", "Non-binary songwriters", "Pansexual actors", "Pansexual musicians", "Pansexual non-binary people", "Participants in American reality television series", "Philanthropists from Texas", "Queer actors", "Queer singers", "Queer songwriters", "Republic Records artists", "Safehouse Records artists", "Sexually fluid people", "Singers from Dallas", "Singers from New Mexico", "Songwriters from New Mexico", "Songwriters from Texas", "Universal Music Group artists" ]	Demetria Devonne "Demi" Lovato (/ˈdɛmi ləˈvɑːtoʊ/ DEM-ee lə-VAH-toh; born August 20, 1992) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. After appearing on the children's television series Barney & Friends (2002–2004), she rose to prominence for playing Mitchie Torres in the musical television film Camp Rock (2008) and its sequel Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010). The former film's soundtrack contained "This Is Me", her debut single and duet with Joe Jonas, which peaked at number nine on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. After signing with Hollywood Records, Lovato released her pop rock debut album, Don't Forget (2008), which debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200. Its follow-up, Here We Go Again (2009), debuted at number one in the U.S., while its title track reached number 15 on the Hot 100. Her third studio album, Unbroken (2011), experimented with pop and R&B and spawned the U.S. platinum-certified single "Skyscraper". She released her eponymous fourth album in 2013, which debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, and contained the top-ten international song "Heart Attack". Lovato's fifth and sixth albums, Confident (2015) and Tell Me You Love Me (2017), infused soul and mature themes. She earned a Grammy Award nomination for Confident, while "Sorry Not Sorry", the lead single from Tell Me You Love Me, became her highest-charting single in the U.S., reaching number six. After a hiatus, she released her seventh and eighth albums Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over (2021) and Holy Fvck (2022), which reached number two and number seven in the U.S., respectively. On television, Lovato has starred as the titular character on the sitcom Sonny with a Chance (2009–2011), served as a judge on the music competition series The X Factor USA for its second and third seasons, and appeared as a recurring character on the musical comedy Glee (2013–2014) and the sitcom Will & Grace (2020). She also starred in the television drama film Princess Protection Program (2009), the animated comedy film Smurfs: The Lost Village (2017), and the musical comedy Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga (2020). Lovato has sold over 24 million records in the United States and has also received numerous accolades, including an MTV Video Music Award, 14 Teen Choice Awards, five People's Choice Awards, two Latin American Music Awards, a Guinness World Record, and was included on the Time 100 annual list in 2017. An activist for several social causes, Lovato's struggles with an eating disorder and substance abuse have received considerable media attention, in response to which she published the self-help memoir Staying Strong: 365 Days a Year (2013) and released the documentaries Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated (2017) and Demi Lovato: Dancing with the Devil (2021). ## Early life and career beginnings Demetria Devonne Lovato was born on August 20, 1992, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader Dianna De La Garza (née Lee Smith) and engineer and musician Patrick Martin Lovato. Lovato has an older full sister named Dallas, a younger maternal half-sister, actress Madison De La Garza, and an older paternal half-sister, Amber, whom Lovato first spoke to at age 20. In mid-1994, shortly after Lovato's second birthday, her parents divorced. Her father was of Nuevomexicano descent, with mostly Spanish and Native American ancestors, and came from a family that had been living in New Mexico for generations; he also had distant Portuguese and Jewish ancestry. He was a descendant of Civil War Union veteran Francisco Perea and Santa Fe de Nuevo México governor Francisco Xavier Chávez. Lovato had no interest in forging a relationship with Patrick after her parents divorced. Her mother is of English and Irish descent. She has been vocal about her strained relationship with her father, calling him abusive and once stated, "He was mean, but he wanted to be a good person. And he wanted to have his family, and when my mom married my stepdad, he still had this huge heart where he said, 'I'm so glad that [he's] taking care of you and doing the job that I wish I could do.'" After Patrick died of cancer on June 22, 2013, Lovato said that he had been mentally ill, and she created the Lovato Treatment Scholarship Program in his honor. Lovato was brought up in Dallas, Texas. She began playing the piano at age seven and guitar at ten, when she began dancing and acting classes. In 2002, Lovato began her acting career on the children's television series Barney & Friends, portraying the role of Angela. She appeared on Prison Break in 2006 and on Just Jordan the following year. Due to her acting career, Lovato was bullied and consequently requested homeschooling, through which she eventually received her high-school diploma. ## Career ### 2007–2008: Breakthrough with Camp Rock and Don't Forget From 2007 to 2008, Lovato played Charlotte Adams on the Disney Channel short series As the Bell Rings. Lovato auditioned for the channel's television film Camp Rock and series Sonny with a Chance during 2007 and got both roles. Lovato played the lead character, aspiring singer Mitchie Torres, in Camp Rock. The film premiered on June 20, 2008, to 8.9 million viewers. Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Lovato's acting skills were underwhelming and that she has "the knee-jerk smile of someone who is often told she has a great smile". The film's soundtrack was released three days earlier; however, the music was considered less current than that of High School Musical. It debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200, with 188,000 units sold in its first week of release. Lovato sang four songs on the soundtrack, including "We Rock" and "This Is Me". The latter, Lovato's debut single, debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and later peaked at number nine, marking her first entry on the chart. That summer, Lovato signed with Hollywood Records and began her Demi Live! Warm Up Tour before the release of her debut studio album, and appeared on the Jonas Brothers' Burnin' Up Tour. Lovato's debut studio album, Don't Forget, released on September 23, 2008, was met with generally positive reviews from critics. Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly said, "Demi Lovato might satisfy her 'tween fans but she won't be winning any rockers over with Don't Forget". The album debuted at number two in the US, with first-week sales of 89,000 copies. Ten of its songs were co-written with the Jonas Brothers. Don't Forget was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for US sales of over 500,000 copies. Its lead single, "Get Back", was praised for its pop rock style and peaked at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100, also selling over 560,000 copies in the United States. The album's second single, "La La Land", was cited for its strong rock elements and peaked at number 52 in the US, and cracked the top 40 in Ireland and the United Kingdom. The music video for the song was directed by Brendan Malloy and Tim Wheeler. The third single and title track, "Don't Forget", peaked at number 41 in the US. ### 2009–2010: Sonny with a Chance and Here We Go Again Lovato's Disney Channel sitcom Sonny with a Chance, in which she played Sonny Munroe, the newest cast member of the show-within-a-show So Random!, premiered on February 8. Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times described Lovato's acting ability as "very good", comparing her favorably to Hannah Montana star Miley Cyrus. That June, Lovato starred as Rosie Gonzalez / Princess Rosalinda in the Disney Channel film Princess Protection Program, alongside Selena Gomez. The film, the fourth highest-rated Disney Channel original movie, premiered to 8.5 million viewers. For the film's soundtrack, the pair recorded the song "One and the Same", which was later released as a promotional single. Lovato's second studio album, Here We Go Again, was released on July 21, 2009; she described its acoustic style as similar to that of John Mayer. The album received favorable reviews from critics who appreciated its enjoyable pop-rock elements, echoing reviews of Don't Forget. Lovato's first number-one album, it debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 108,000 copies, and was later certified Gold. The album's lead single and title track, "Here We Go Again", debuted at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100, and managed to peak at number 15, becoming Lovato's highest-charting solo single to that point. The song also peaked at number 68 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 38 in New Zealand. "Here We Go Again" was additionally certified Platinum in the US. The album's second and final single, "Remember December" failed to match the success of its predecessor, but peaked at number 80 on the UK Singles Chart. Lovato made her first 40-city national concert tour, Live in Concert, in support of Here We Go Again. The tour, from June 21 to August 21, 2009, had David Archuleta, KSM, and Jordan Pruitt as opening acts. Lovato and Archuleta received the Choice Music Tour award at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards. Lovato was featured alongside the Jonas Brothers, Miley Cyrus, and Selena Gomez on the song "Send It On", a charity single and the theme song for Disney's Friends for Change. All proceeds from the song were donated to environmental charities supported by the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund. Lovato recorded "Gift of a Friend" as a soundtrack for the Disney movie Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure. The movie was released in October 2009. In 2010, Lovato and Joe Jonas recorded "Make a Wave" as the second charity single for Disney's Friends for Change. That May, Lovato guest-starred as Hayley May, a teenager with schizophrenia, in the sixth-season Grey's Anatomy episode, "Shiny Happy People". Although critics praised her versatility, they were underwhelmed by her acting and felt that her appearance was designed primarily to attract viewers. Later that year, she headlined her first international tour, Demi Lovato: Live in Concert, and joined the Jonas Brothers: Live in Concert tour as a guest. Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam, with Lovato reprising her role as Mitchie Torres, premiered on September 3, 2010. Critics were ambivalent about the film's plot, and it has a 40-percent approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. However, Lovato's performance was called "dependably appealing" by Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly. The film premiered to eight million viewers, the number-one cable television movie of the year by the number of viewers. Its accompanying soundtrack was released on August 10 with Lovato singing nine songs, including "Can't Back Down" and "Wouldn't Change a Thing". The soundtrack debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 41,000 copies. Jonas Brothers: Live in Concert was reworked to incorporate Lovato and the rest of the film's cast; it began on August 7, two weeks later than planned. The Sonny with a Chance soundtrack was released on October 5; Lovato sang on four tracks, including "Me, Myself and Time". It debuted (and peaked) at number 163 on the Billboard 200, her lowest-selling soundtrack. In November 2010, Lovato announced her departure from Sonny with a Chance, putting her acting career on hiatus and ending the series; she later said that she would return to acting when she felt confident doing so. Her departure led to the actual spin-off series So Random! with the Sonny cast, featuring sketches from the former show-within-a-show. The series was canceled after one season. ### 2011–2012: Unbroken and The X Factor Lovato released her third studio album, Unbroken, on September 20, 2011. Begun in July 2010, the album experimented with R&B and featured less pop rock than her first two albums. Lyrically, Unbroken encompassed more mature themes as opposed to Lovato's previous works, with some songs focusing on her personal struggles. The album and its stylistic change received mixed reviews from critics, who praised Lovato's vocals and saw a growth in her musicianship due to the songs focusing on her struggles, but criticized the album's "party songs" and found the music to be more generic than her previous efforts. Unbroken debuted at number four in the US, selling 97,000 copies in its first week of release; it was later certified Gold. "Skyscraper", the lead single from Unbroken, was released on July 12, and was noted for its messages of self-worth and confidence. It debuted at number ten in the US, selling 176,000 downloads during the first week of release, becoming Lovato's highest first week sales at the time. The song also became Lovato's highest-charting single since "This Is Me" peaking at number nine in July 2008, and it also debuted at number two on the Hot Digital Songs chart. "Skyscraper" received the Best Video With a Message award at the September 2012 MTV Video Music Awards, and the track was also certified Platinum by the RIAA and Silver by the BPI. The album's second and final single, "Give Your Heart a Break", was released on January 23, 2012, and later peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 16, making Lovato's fourth highest-charting song to that point. It peaked at number 12 on the US Adult Top 40 chart and number one on the US Pop Songs chart. It also became the longest climb by a female artist to reach No. 1 in the Pop Songs chart history until 2019, when Halsey's feature on "Eastside" broke the record. The song was certified triple Platinum in the US; as of October 2014, "Give Your Heart a Break" has sold 2.1 million digital copies. Billboard has ranked the song as Lovato's best, calling it "timeless". In May, Lovato became a judge and mentor for the second season of the U.S. version of The X Factor, with a reported salary of one million dollars. Joining Britney Spears, Simon Cowell, and L.A. Reid, it was speculated that she was chosen to attract a younger audience. Mentoring the Young Adults category, her final act (CeCe Frey) finished sixth. At the Minnesota State Fair in August, Lovato announced that after a pre-show performance at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards she would release a single by December. On December 24, she released a video on her YouTube account of herself singing "Angels Among Us" dedicated to the victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. In March, she was confirmed as returning for The X Factor's third season, with her salary reportedly doubling. ### 2013–2014: Demi and Glee Lovato's fourth studio album, Demi, was released on May 14, 2013. The album features influences of synthpop and bubblegum pop and was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. Although Jon Carmichael of The New York Times found Lovato's transition fun, according to Entertainment Weekly it signified a less mature image. The album debuted at number three in the US, with first-week sales of 110,000 copies, the best-selling debut week of Lovato's discography. It was also successful internationally, charting in the top ten in New Zealand, Spain and the UK. The album has been certified Gold in the US. The lead single from Demi, "Heart Attack", was released on February 25, and debuted at number 12 in the US, with first-week sales of 215,000 copies, the highest first week sales of Lovato's discography. The song peaked at number ten (Lovato's third top ten entry in the US), and was also successful in the UK, Australia, and Europe. The second single, "Made in the USA" peaked at number 80 in the US. The third and fourth singles from Demi, "Neon Lights" and "Really Don't Care", both peaked in the top forty of the US, and at number one in the country's Dance Club Songs chart. She was also certified Platinum in the US. Lovato later released a deluxe version of Demi, which included seven new tracks, consisting of four live performances and three studio recordings. One of these songs was "Up", a collaboration with Olly Murs for his fourth studio album Never Been Better. Lovato contributed to The Mortal Instruments: City of Bones soundtrack album with "Heart by Heart". On June 11, Lovato released an e-book, Demi, on iBooks. She planned to appear in at least six episodes of the fifth season of Glee, but only appeared in four. She played Dani, a struggling New York-based artist who befriends Rachel Berry (Lea Michele) and Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera) and interacts with fellow newcomer Adam Lambert's character. Lovato debuted in the season's second episode, which aired on October 3, and made her final appearance in March 2014. On November 19, she released a book, Staying Strong: 365 Days a Year, which topped The New York Times bestseller list. She then agreed to write a memoir, which has yet to be released. While on The X Factor, her final act (Rion Paige) finished fifth. Lovato announced her Neon Lights Tour (including a Canadian leg) on September 29, 2013; it began on February 9, 2014, and ended on May 17. On October 21, she released her cover of "Let It Go" for the Disney film Frozen, which was released in theaters on November 27. Lovato's cover was described as more "radio friendly" and "pop" as compared to the original by Idina Menzel. Lovato's cover appears in the film's credits, and the song was promoted as the single for the film's soundtrack. The song peaked at number 38 on the Billboard Hot 100, spending 20 weeks on the chart. It was certified double Platinum by the RIAA. On May 18, 2014, "Somebody to You" featuring Lovato was released as the fourth single from the Vamps' debut album, Meet the Vamps. On May 29, Lovato announced the Demi World Tour, which marked her fourth concert tour (and first world tour, covering 25 cities) and second in support of her album Demi. In November 2014, she opened the UK shows on Enrique Iglesias' Sex and Love Tour and worked with longtime friend Nick Jonas on the song "Avalanche" from his self-titled album. On December 24, Lovato released a music video for the song "Nightingale". ### 2015–2016: Confident In May 2015, Billboard revealed that Lovato was in the process of starting an "artist-centric" new record label, Safehouse Records, of which she would be co-founder and co-owner. The label would be a partnership between Lovato, Nick Jonas, and her then-manager Phil McIntyre, and will form part of a new collaborative arrangement with record label Island. Her fifth studio album, Confident, was released through the new venture deal. This would be Lovato's second multi-label venture of her career; she was formerly part of Jonas Records, a UMG/Hollywood/Jonas Brothers partnership, which is now defunct. Lovato released "Cool for the Summer" as the lead single from her fifth studio album, in July 1, 2015. The song attracted attention for its bi-curious theme, and was a commercial success, peaking at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100, and reached the top ten in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and was certified 3× Platinum by the RIAA. On September 18, 2015, the title track "Confident" was released as the album's second single and peaked at number 21 on the Hot 100. Lovato performed as the musical guest on an episode of the NBC late-night sketch comedy Saturday Night Live in October 2015. Lovato was also featured on the re-release of "Irresistible", the fourth single from Fall Out Boy's sixth studio album American Beauty/American Psycho. Lovato's fifth album, Confident, was released on October 16, 2015, and was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards. The album debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 98,000 album units, and was certified Platinum by the RIAA. The album received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Annie Zaleski from The A.V. Club stated that "Confident is an impressive album by a pop star who knows what she wants—and also knows exactly how to get there." During the album's production, Lovato commented: "I've already started recording for my new album, and I have plans to record during the tour. The sound just evolves into everything that I've been and everything that I want to become." She further stated, "I've never been so sure of myself as an artist when it comes down to confidence, but not only personal things, but exactly what I want my sound to be and what I know I'm capable of and this album will give me the opportunity to show people what I can really do." On October, she signed with the major modeling agency, Wilhelmina Models. Lovato released the music video for her R&B-infused song "Waitin for You" featuring rapper Sirah on October 22, 2015. On October 26, 2015, Lovato and Nick Jonas announced that they would be touring together on the Future Now Tour, to further promote Confident, with shows in North America and Europe. Lovato was honored with the first-ever Rulebreaker Award at the 2015 Billboard Women in Music event. On March 21, 2016, "Stone Cold" was released as the third and final single from Confident. On July 1, 2016, Lovato released a new single titled "Body Say" to promote her tour. In 2016, Lovato was honored with the GLAAD Vanguard Award at the 27th GLAAD Media Awards, for her support of the rights of the LGBT community. Lovato was also named to Forbes''' 30 Under 30 list in the music category. ### 2017–2018: Tell Me You Love Me In February 2017, Lovato executive-produced a documentary, Beyond Silence, which follows three individuals and their experiences with mental illnesses including bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety. Lovato featured in Cheat Codes' song "No Promises", released in March 2017, and Jax Jones's "Instruction" along with Stefflon Don, released in June 2017. In 2017, Lovato was included in Time magazine's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. On May 8, 2017, she announced a collaboration with sportswear line Fabletics to support the United Nations' initiative, Girl Up. In July 2017, Lovato released "Sorry Not Sorry" as the lead single from her sixth studio album, which became her highest-charting song in New Zealand and the United States at number six as well as Australia at number eight. It also became her best-selling single in the US for its 5× Platinum certification by RIAA. The album, titled Tell Me You Love Me, was released on September 29 and debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 78,000 copies. It received positive reviews from music critics and became Lovato's first album to be certified Platinum in the US. On October 17, Lovato released Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated on YouTube, a documentary focusing on her career and personal struggles. It was nominated for "Best Music Documentary" at the 2018 MTV Movie & TV Awards. In October 2017, Lovato announced the tour dates for the North American leg of her Tell Me You Love Me World Tour, with special guests DJ Khaled and Kehlani. She confirmed European and South American legs of the tour in the following months, and the tour commenced in February 2018. In November 2017, Lovato released the single "Échame la Culpa" with Puerto Rican singer Luis Fonsi. Lovato performed at the March for Our Lives anti-gun violence rally in Washington, D.C. on March 24, 2018. In May, Lovato was featured on Christina Aguilera's "Fall in Line" and Clean Bandit's "Solo". The latter became Lovato's first number-one song in the United Kingdom. On June 21, Lovato released a new single, titled "Sober", which she referred to as "my truth"; it discusses struggles with addiction and sobriety. The Tell Me You Love Me World Tour concluded the following month, having originally been scheduled to end in November 2018. ### 2019–2021: Acting return and Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over On May 11, 2019, Lovato revealed she had signed with a new manager, Scooter Braun. She shared that she "couldn't be happier, inspired and excited to begin this next chapter". In August 2019, it was revealed that Lovato would appear in Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga, a Netflix original film, directed by David Dobkin, based on the song competition of the same name. The film was ultimately released on June 26, 2020, and starred Will Ferrell and Rachel McAdams. This marked Lovato's first acting appearance since her guest role on Glee in 2013 and her first film role since Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010). Later in the month, after teasing that she had been working on a new project, Lovato revealed her return to television with a recurring guest role in the final season of the NBC sitcom Will & Grace, where she played Will's surrogate. In January 2020, Lovato made her first musical appearance since her hiatus with a performance of single "Anyone" at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards. The song, which was recorded four days prior to her 2018 drug overdose, was released on iTunes immediately after. On February 2, 2020, Lovato performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Super Bowl LIV. On March 6, Lovato released a new single titled "I Love Me". The release was supplemented by both a guest appearance and guest-host role on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. On April 16, she released a collaboration with Sam Smith titled "I'm Ready". Rolling Stone ranked this song at number 32 on its list of The 50 Most Inspirational LGBTQ Songs of All Time. A remix of "Lonely Hearts" by JoJo featuring Lovato was released on August 28, 2020. At the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards, Lovato received two nominations for her song "I Love Me", becoming the first artist in VMA history to receive a nomination every year for eight consecutive years. On September 10, Lovato released a collaboration with American DJ Marshmello, titled "OK Not to Be OK", in partnership with the Hope For The Day suicide prevention movement. On September 30, 2020, Lovato released "Still Have Me" via Twitter; the song was later released on digital platforms. On October 14, she released a political ballad titled "Commander in Chief", ahead of the 2020 presidential election. She hosted the 46th People's Choice Awards on November 15, 2020. On November 20, she featured on American rapper Jeezy's song "My Reputation" from his album The Recession 2. On December 4, Lovato featured on a remix of the song "Monsters" by rock band All Time Low, alongside Blackbear. Lovato was chosen to perform during Celebrating America, the primetime television special marking the inauguration of Joe Biden. Lovato sang "Lovely Day" by Bill Withers, with appearances from President Joe Biden with his grandson. A four-part documentary series following Lovato's life premiered on YouTube in March 2021. The series, titled Demi Lovato: Dancing with the Devil, was directed by Michael D. Ratner and showcased her personal and musical journey over the past three years. It was later announced that Lovato's seventh studio album, titled Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over, would be released on April 2, 2021. Lovato defined it "the non-official soundtrack to the documentary". The album features collaborations with Ariana Grande, Noah Cyrus and Saweetie, as well as the previously released "What Other People Say", a collaboration between Lovato and Australian singer-songwriter Sam Fischer, initially released on February 4, 2021. Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 74,000 album-equivalent units in the US. Prior to the release of the album, Lovato released one of the two title tracks "Dancing with the Devil" on March 26, and "Met Him Last Night" on April 1, 2021. The Dave Audé remix of the song was nominated for Best Remixed Recording at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. On August 20, 2021, Lovato released the "Melon Cake" music video. Lovato launched a podcast series titled 4D with Demi Lovato on May 19, 2021, with new episodes releasing every Wednesday. Confirmed guests for the podcast include Chelsea Handler, Jane Fonda, Jameela Jamil, Alok Vaid-Menon, and Glennon Doyle. On July 30, 2021, a talk show hosted by Lovato titled The Demi Lovato Show was released on Roku's streaming platform. Consisting of ten-minute episodes, it features candid, unfiltered conversations between Lovato and both expert and celebrity guests, exploring topics such as activism, body positivity, gender identity, sex, relationships, social media, and wellness. The show had initially been announced in February 2020 to air on Quibi under the title Pillow Talk with Demi Lovato before Quibi sold its contents to Roku. On September 17, 2021, American rapper G-Eazy released "Breakdown" featuring Lovato as the second single from his album These Things Happen Too. On September 30, Lovato launched a four-episode series titled Unidentified with Demi Lovato on Peacock. The show follows Lovato as she searches for signs of extraterrestrial life with her sister Dallas and friend Matthew Montgomery. ### 2022–present: Holy Fvck and Revamped In early 2022, Lovato began teasing her eighth studio album, and described it as "more rock than anything". She stated that the record is reminiscent of her debut studio album, Don't Forget (2008), and would explore "heaviness" in its sound. Lovato further called the album her "absolute best yet" and "so representative of [her]". In February, the singer appeared on "FIIMY (Fuck It, I Miss You)", a collaboration with Winnetka Bowling League; its live rendition followed later that month. "Skin of My Teeth", the lead single from Lovato's forthcoming album, was released on June 10, 2022. She premiered "Skin of My Teeth" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on June 9. On June 6, the title of the album was officially announced as Holy Fvck, along with its cover art and a trailer; it was released on August 19, 2022. Holy Fvck was preceded by two other singles: "Substance" and "29". The album debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 with 33,000 units, becoming Lovato's eighth consecutive top-ten entry on the chart. It also topped the Billboard Top Rock Albums and Top Alternative Albums charts. In support of the album, she embarked on the Holy Fvck Tour, which commenced in Springfield, Illinois on August 13, 2022, and ended in Rosemont, Illinois on November 10. In August 2022, a poster advertising the album and featuring Lovato in a bondage-style outfit lying on a cushioned crucifix was banned in the UK by the Advertising Standards Authority for being "likely to cause serious offence to Christians". On March 3, 2023, Lovato released "Still Alive", a standalone promotional single for the slasher film Scream VI. The song received a nomination for the MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Song. After performing a rock version of her 2013 song "Heart Attack" on tour, Lovato officially released it with re-recorded vocals on March 24. In the following months, she continued to release rock versions of her previous top 20 hits, "Cool for the Summer" and "Sorry Not Sorry" (the latter featuring guitarist Slash), with a "darker sound backed by electric guitars and grittier lyric delivery from Lovato." Forbes said that re-recording her hits as "rock anthems" is a "brilliant business move," and stated that it "showcases her artistic versatility and demonstrates her willingness to evolve as an artist." On June 22, she surprise-released the song "Swine" as a protest song two days before the one-year anniversary of the Supreme Court's decision to overturn Roe v. Wade. On July 14, 2023, accompanying the release of the rock version of "Sorry Not Sorry", she announced her first remix album titled Revamped, which will feature ten re-recordings of previous songs in rock format, slated for release on September 15, 2023. In a press release, she said: "breathing new life into the songs that played such a huge role in my career has allowed me to feel so much closer to my music than ever before." Other singles that preceded Revamped included the rock version of "Confident". On August 4, the fourth remix of the song "Eve, Psyche & the Bluebeard's Wife" by girl group Le Sserafim was released, which featured Lovato. A week after, Lovato released a cover of the song "Let Me Down Easy" from the series Daisy Jones & the Six. On August 29, Brazilian singer-songwriter Luísa Sonza released her third studio album titled Escândalo Íntimo, which contains the song in Portuguese "Penhasco 2", a performed by Sonza and Lovato. ## Artistry ### Influences Lovato has frequently cited "power vocalists" such as Christina Aguilera, Kelly Clarkson, Whitney Houston, and Aretha Franklin as major musical and vocal influences. Lovato says, "I had a lot of respect for Whitney Houston, and Christina Aguilera." About her admiration for Clarkson, Lovato says, "I just thought she was a great role model. I feel like she set a really great example and she was extremely talented." Lovato also said that she was "obsessed with Kelly Clarkson" as a child, and she even had an AOL username, "Little Kelly", inspired by the singer. Her other influences or inspirations include Britney Spears, Rihanna, JoJo, Keri Hilson, Jennifer Lopez, Gladys Knight, Alexz Johnson, Billie Holiday, the Spice Girls, and Billy Gilman. About Gilman she said, "We had the same voice range when I was young. I would practice to his songs all the time." In her teens, Lovato listened to heavy metal music, including bands such as The Devil Wears Prada, Job for a Cowboy, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, and Bring Me the Horizon. She has said that John Mayer's songwriting has in particular been a "huge influence" on hers and that he taught her to write songs by starting with the titles. Following the release of Unbroken, her musical style shifted towards hip hop and R&B. Upon the release of the song "Without a Fight" by country music singer Brad Paisley featuring Lovato, she cited the country genre as a lifelong strong musical influence of hers, as she "grew up listening to country" and her mother "was a country singer". Lovato's Neon Lights Tour was "inspired by Beyoncé" and specifically her 2013 self-titled visual album in regard to the visuals shown onscreen. Moreover, Lovato revealed that her sixth studio album, Tell Me You Love Me, was inspired by Aguilera. Lovato said "I grew up listening to Christina Aguilera. She was one of my idols growing up. She still is. Her voice is incredible, and in Stripped you really got to hear that. I think it was her breakout album that really transformed her into the icon that she is today. So that inspired me ... she really inspired this album. I was even inspired by the black and white artwork!" ### Voice Throughout her career, Lovato has received acclaim from critics for her singing abilities. Regarding her vocals on Don't Forget, Nick Levine of Digital Spy stated, "she's certainly a stronger singer than the Jonases. In fact, her full-bodied vocal performances are consistently impressive." Becky Brain of Idolator remarked that Lovato has a "killer voice and the A-list material to put it to good use". According to Sophie Schillaci of The Hollywood Reporter, Lovato "has a voice that can silence even the harshest of critics." In his review of Lovato's second studio album Here We Go Again, Jeff Miers from The Buffalo News stated, "Unlike so many of her Disney-fied peers, Lovato can really sing," and he found it "refreshing" that she "doesn't need the help of Auto-Tune ... to mask any lack of natural ability." Commenting on working with Lovato on her third studio album Unbroken, Ryan Tedder stated that Lovato "blew me out of the water vocally! I had no idea how good her voice is. She's one of the best singers I've ever worked with. Literally, that good ... I mean, she's a Kelly Clarkson-level vocalist. And Kelly has a set of pipes." He also commented on their work together on the song "Neon Lights" from her fourth studio album, saying that Lovato "has one of the biggest ranges, possibly the highest full voice singer I've ever worked with." Tamsyn Wilce from Alter the Press commented on her vocals on Demi, stating "it shows just how strong her vocal chords [sic] are and the variation of styles that she can completely work to make her own." In a review of the Neon Lights Tour, Mike Wass from Idolator remarked "you don't need shiny distractions when you can belt out songs like Demi and connect with the crowd on such an emotional level". In a review of the Demi World Tour, Marielle Wakim from Los Angeles magazine praised Lovato's vocals, commenting, "For those who haven't bothered to follow Lovato's career, let's get something out of the way: [Lovato] can sing.... At 22 years old, her vocal range is astounding." Wakim also described Lovato's vocals as "spectacular". Lovato was lauded for her performance of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Super Bowl LIV in 2020. Patrick Ryan of USA Today commended her for delivering a "flawless performance" and described Lovato as "one of the best vocalists in the industry today". He remarked that Lovato "hit all the high notes with ease" and ultimately "even added some of her own riffs" which he says resulted in "a rendition that was uniquely and phenomenally" her own. ## Personal life ### Residence On August 20, 2010, her 18th birthday, Lovato purchased a Mediterranean-style house in Los Angeles for her family; however, Lovato decided to live in a "sober house" in Los Angeles after leaving rehab in January 2011. In September 2016, Lovato also purchased a Laurel Canyon home in Los Angeles for \$8.3 million, which she sold in June 2020 for \$8.25 million. In September 2020, Lovato purchased a Studio City home in Los Angeles for \$7 million. ### Hobbies Lovato started training in Brazilian jiu-jitsu in 2016. She was promoted to purple belt in the sport on February 4, 2023. ### Sexuality, gender, and relationships For a few months, Lovato dated singer Trace Cyrus in 2009. Lovato briefly dated her Camp Rock co-star Joe Jonas in 2010. Lovato then had an on-again, off-again relationship with actor Wilmer Valderrama; they first began dating in August 2010 when Valderrama was 29 and Lovato was 18. They ended their relationship in June 2016. Her 2022 single "29" was widely believed to be about Valderrama and the significant age gap in their relationship, although Lovato did not directly confirm this. Lovato later dated UFC athlete Guilherme "Bomba" Vasconcelos from January to July 2017. In late 2018, Lovato briefly dated designer Henry Levy until March 2019. She dated model Austin Wilson for a few months until late 2019. On July 23, 2020, Lovato announced her engagement to actor Max Ehrich. The two had begun dating four months prior, but eventually called off the engagement that September. In early August 2022, People reported that Lovato was in a "happy and healthy relationship" with a male musician. On August 20, Canadian musician Jutes confirmed the relationship in an Instagram post marking Lovato's 30th birthday. Lovato describes her sexuality as fluid, and has said she is open to finding love with someone of any gender. In July 2020, she labeled herself queer in a social media statement mourning the death of her Glee co-star Naya Rivera. In March 2021, Lovato came out as pansexual and sexually fluid, stating "I've always known I was hella queer, but I have fully embraced it." In the same interview, she called herself "just too queer" to date men at the time. She also expressed feeling proud of belonging to the "alphabet mafia", referring to the LGBT community. On May 19, 2021, Lovato publicly came out as non-binary and announced the decision to change her gender pronouns to they/them, stating that "this has come after a lot of healing and self-reflective work. I'm still learning and coming into myself; I don't claim to be an expert or a spokesperson. Sharing this with you now opens another level of vulnerability for me." She had previously come out as non-binary to her family and friends towards the end of 2020. Lovato later changed her pronouns to include she/her in April 2022, and described herself the following August as a "fluid person" who had "adopted the pronouns of she/her again" after starting to feel "more feminine". That September, she reiterated that she "still feel[s] very comfortable with they/them". ### Mental health and substance abuse Lovato had suffered from bulimia nervosa, self-harm, and being bullied before her first stint in rehab at age 18. On November 1, 2010, Lovato withdrew from the Jonas Brothers: Live in Concert tour, entering a treatment facility for "physical and emotional issues". It was reported that she decided to enter treatment after punching backup dancer Alex Welch; her family and management team convinced her that she needed help. Lovato said she took "100 percent, full responsibility" for the incident. On January 28, 2011, she completed in-patient treatment at Timberline Knolls and returned home. Lovato acknowledged that she had bulimia, had cut herself, and had been "self-medicating" with drugs and alcohol "like a lot of teens do to numb their pain". She added that she "basically had a nervous breakdown" and had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder during her treatment. She later commented that she used to use cocaine several times a day and smuggled cocaine onto airplanes. In a 2022 interview on the podcast Call Her Daddy, Lovato added that she began using opiates at the age of 13 after a car accident and "was already drinking" by that time. She said that this eventually led her to use cocaine at the age of 17. In April 2011, Lovato became a contributing editor for Seventeen magazine, penning an article that described her struggles. In March 2012, MTV aired a documentary, Demi Lovato: Stay Strong, about her rehab and recovery. She began work on her fourth studio album the following month. In January 2013, it was reported that Lovato had been living in a sober-living facility in Los Angeles for over a year because she felt it was the best way to avoid returning to her addiction and eating disorder. Lovato celebrated the five-year anniversary of her sobriety on March 15, 2017. In her 2017 YouTube documentary Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated, Lovato revealed that her treatment at Timberline Knolls had not been entirely successful, stating that she still struggled with alcoholism and a cocaine addiction in the year following her stint in the treatment center and further admitting that she was in fact under the influence of cocaine while being interviewed about her sobriety for Demi Lovato: Stay Strong. She stated, "I wasn't working my program. I wasn't ready to get sober. I was sneaking it on planes, sneaking it in bathrooms, sneaking it throughout the night. Nobody knew." Lovato also stated that her drug and alcohol addiction not only caused her to nearly overdose several times, but later began to impact her ability to perform live and promote her Unbroken album, referencing a 2012 performance on American Idol where she was severely hungover. After her management team had expressed their intentions to leave her, Lovato agreed to resume treatment and counseling for her addiction, leading to her move to a sober-living facility in Los Angeles with roommates and responsibilities to help her overcome her drug and alcohol problems. Although she had previously stated that she was entirely done with hard drugs such as heroin, Lovato revealed in March 2021 that she was not completely sober; she drank alcohol and smoked marijuana in moderation at that point, a choice that many of her friends openly disagreed with. She decided on moderation as she felt she was setting herself up for failure if she told herself she was never going to drink or smoke again. Lovato said it was because it had been drilled into her that "one drink was equivalent to a crack pipe." This changed the following December when she abandoned her "California sober ways" and declared herself "sober sober". In 2021, Lovato said she had initially accepted her bipolar diagnosis and shared this in 2011 because it explained her erratic behavior, but later came to believe it was inaccurate: "I was acting out when I was 18 for many reasons, but I know now from multiple different doctors that it was not because I was bipolar. I had to grow the fuck up." Lovato also stated that the diagnosis has been revised to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). #### 2018 drug overdose On June 21, 2018, Lovato released the single "Sober" in which she revealed she had relapsed after six years of sobriety. On July 24, 2018, she was rushed to the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles after emergency services were called to her home due to an opioid overdose. Lovato recalled, "The doctors told me that I had five to 10 minutes, like, if no one had found me, then I wouldn't be here." The singer was reported to be stable and recovering later in the day. She reportedly overdosed on oxycodone laced with fentanyl and was revived with naloxone. Lovato also had multiple health complications stemming from the overdose, including multiple strokes, a heart attack, and brain damage, the latter of which caused lasting vision problems. She was hospitalized for two weeks and subsequently entered an in-patient rehab facility. Lovato's drug overdose received widespread media coverage, leading to her becoming the most googled person of 2018, ahead of other figures who had received extensive coverage throughout the year, due largely to the public interest surrounding the overdose. CBS News ranked the overdose the 29th biggest story of 2018. In December 2018, Lovato took to Twitter to dismiss rumors regarding her overdose and went on to thank fans, writing, "If I feel like the world needs to know something, I will tell them MYSELF. All my fans need to know is I'm working hard on myself, I'm happy and clean and I'm SO grateful for their support." She added that some day she would "tell the world what exactly happened, why it happened and what my life is like today .. but until I'm ready to share that with people please stop prying and making up shit that you know nothing about. I still need space and time to heal." Lovato addressed the matter during a 2020 appearance on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, elaborating on how her worsened struggles with bulimia in 2018 contributed to her eventual drug overdose as she relapsed three months prior to the incident due to being extremely unhappy. The singer attributed these struggles to the extreme measures that her then-manager, Phil McIntyre, took to control the food she ingested. Lovato further explained that, along with the controlling nature of her management team, they did not provide her with the help she needed: "People checking what my orders at Starbucks were on my bank statements ... just little things like that ... it led me to being really unhappy and my bulimia got really bad and I asked for help and I didn't receive the help that I needed." Moreover, she recounted that her thought process the night she relapsed after six years of sobriety was as follows, "I'm six years sober and I'm miserable. I'm even more miserable than I was when I was drinking. Why am I sober?" When Lovato confronted her management about these thoughts, the latter responded with, "You're being very selfish, this would ruin things for not just you but for us as well." This made Lovato feel "completely abandoned" due to triggering her underlying abandonment issues with her birth father, and so she "drank ... that night". #### Rape trauma In 2021, Lovato said she was raped at age 15 when she was an actor on the Disney Channel, and that the rapist was a co-star whom she had to continue seeing thereafter. The incident contributed to her bulimia and self-harm. She told someone about the incident, but the assaulter "never got in trouble for it. They never got taken out of the movie they were in." Lovato stated she did not acknowledge the act as rape at the time, because sexual activity was not normalized to her and she was part of the Disney crowd who wore purity rings and were waiting until marriage. However, she decided to share her experience because she believed that everyone should "speak their voice if they can and feel comfortable doing so". Lovato also stated she was raped during her 2018 drug overdose, realizing a month after the incident that she was not in a place to consent at that point. ## Other ventures ### Activism and philanthropy Lovato's work as an LGBT rights activist has been recognized by GLAAD, which awarded her the Vanguard Award in 2016. When the Defense of Marriage Act was appealed in June 2013, Lovato celebrated the occasion on social media. Lovato has previously affirmed her support for the LGBT community: "I believe in gay marriage, I believe in equality. I think there's a lot of hypocrisy with religion. But I just found that you can have your own relationship with God, and I still have a lot of faith." In May 2014, Lovato was named lead performer for NYC Pride Week and Grand Marshal of the LA Pride Parade, where she later filmed the music video for "Really Don't Care". Lovato became the face of Human Rights Campaign's America's for Marriage Equality in 2015. In June 2016, Lovato participated in a video released by the Human Rights Campaign honoring the victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting. Lovato has also raised awareness for health and mental health issues. For her efforts to fight mental health stigma, she were honored with the Artistic Award of Courage by The Jane and Terry Semel Institute. In May 2009, Lovato was named an Honorary Ambassador of Education by the American Partnership For Eosinophilic Disorders. In December 2011, Lovato condemned the Disney Channel for airing episodes of Shake It Up and So Random! in which characters joked about eating disorders. The network subsequently issued an apology and removed the episodes from their broadcast and video on demand services. In May 2013, she was cited for her dedication to mentoring teens and young adults with mental-health problems at a National Children's Mental Health Awareness Day hosted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in Washington. Lovato has paid treatment costs for mentally-ill patients through the Lovato Treatment Scholarship Program, named for her late father, since 2013. Her speech at the 2016 Democratic National Convention focused on raising awareness for mental health. In September 2017, Lovato was named a Global Citizen ambassador for championing the mental health of thousands of children displaced within Iraq and other communities" and helped "fund the expansion of a Save the Children pilot program, Healing and Education through the Arts, to violence-scarred young people living around Kirkuk and Saladin Governorate, Iraq". In April 2020, Lovato joined a mental health campaign in support of Irish charity SpunOut.i.e. to launch The Mental Health Fund which is raising money for mental health support. Lovato identifies as a feminist. In a 2017 interview with Dolly magazine, she explained that "Feminism ... doesn't have to mean burning bras and hating men" but instead "standing up for gender equality and trying to empower our youth. And showing women that you can embrace your sexuality and you deserve to have confidence and you don't need to conform to society's views on what women should be or how you should dress. So, I think it is just about supporting other women and empowering other women." In May 2017, Lovato partnered with Fabletics to create a limited edition activewear collection for the United Nations Foundation's Girl Up campaign to fund programs for "the world's most marginalized adolescent girls". Lovato is a vocal anti-bullying advocate. In October 2010, she served as spokesperson for the anti-bullying organization PACER and appeared on America's Next Top Model to speak out against bullying. Lovato participated in the "A Day Made Better" school advocacy campaign and has supported DonateMyDress.org, Kids Wish Network, Love Our Children USA, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital and City of Hope. In April 2012, she became a contributing editor of Seventeen magazine, describing her personal struggles to its female teenage readers. In September 2012, Lovato was named the ambassador of Mean Stinks, a campaign focused on eliminating bullying by girls. Lovato is politically active, often speaking out against gun violence and racial injustice. In January 2010, she was featured in a public-service announcement for Voto Latino to promote the organization's "Be Counted" campaign ahead of the 2010 United States Census. In June 2016, Lovato signed an open letter from Billboard urging gun reform and performed at the March for Our Lives anti-gun violence rally in Washington, D.C. in March 2018. In May 2020, Lovato condemned police brutality and the officers responsible for the murder of George Floyd and the shooting of Breonna Taylor. She shared resources to support the Black Lives Matter movement and black-owned businesses and denounced white privilege. Throughout her career, Lovato has donated to and partnered with various charities. In 2009, she recorded the theme song "Send It On" with the Jonas Brothers, Miley Cyrus, and Selena Gomez for the Disney's Friends for Change program. The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 20, and its proceeds were directed to environmental charities through the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund. Lovato and Joe Jonas recorded the song "Make a Wave" for the charity in March 2010. In August 2013, she traveled to Kenya for her 21st birthday to participate in a program of the international charity organization Free the Children. She returned to Kenya in January 2017 with We Movement to work with women and children. In March 2017, as a celebration of her five-year anniversary of sobriety, Lovato donated money to Los Angeles-based charities specializing in animal, LGBT and adoption rights. In August 2017, Lovato donated \$50000 to Hurricane Harvey relief and started fund with Nick Jonas, DNCE and her then-manager Phil McIntyre. Lovato's second limited edition activewear collection with Fabletics, released in June 2020, pledged up to \$125,000 in proceeds to COVID-19 pandemic relief efforts. As spokesperson for the Join the Surge Campaign, DoSomething.Org and Joining the Surge by Clean & Clear, she has encouraged fans to take action in their own communities. In September 2021, Lovato performed from the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles to raise awareness of the different crises that the world is going through and promoting global unity, as part of the Global Citizen Live organization. ### Products and endorsements From 2014 to 2016, Lovato was the face of the Skechers footwear brand. She partnered with Shazam on the Demi World Tour in 2014. Lovato launched her skincare line Devonne by Demi in December of the same year. In addition, she became the first-ever brand ambassador of the makeup brand N.Y.C. New York Color in 2015. That year, Lovato promoted The Radiant Collection for Tampax for "empowering females of all ages to stay fearless and wear what they want anytime of the month." In June 2016, Lovato partnered with streaming service Tidal to livestream the first date of her Future Now Tour with Nick Jonas. Since 2017, Lovato has released activewear collections with the women's athleisure brand Fabletics to raise money for organizations such as United Nations Foundation's Girl Up campaign and COVID-19 relief efforts. Also in 2017, she performed at a dinner hosted by the jewelry company Bulgari to celebrate the opening of the brand's Fifth Avenue flagship store in New York City. Lovato became a brand ambassador for the JBL audio company in 2017 and for the mug company Ember in 2018. That year, she starred in CORE Hydration's "Finding Balance" campaign; she had become an initial investor of CORE Hydration after first discovering the brand in 2015. Jaguar, JBL, Lyft, Ferrari, TikTok and Samsung products have been featured in Lovato's music videos. She also appeared in commercials for Skechers, Acuvue, Apple, and Fabletics. In 2019, Dior used Lovato's song "Only Forever" from the album Tell Me You Love Me in a series of commercials and social media posts to promote the brand's "Dior Forever" makeup collection; the brand later used Lovato's song "Confident" in March 2021 to promote a new "Dior Forever" foundation in a series of social media campaigns. Since September 2020, Lovato has served as a Mental Health Spokesperson for the online and mobile therapy company Talkspace. In November 2021, Lovato announced the launch of her own vibrator, named Demi Wand, in partnership with Bellesa. The same month, she became Gaia, Inc.'s first celebrity ambassador; this endorsement attracted criticism from fans and the media due to the contents of the platform, which are widely described as promoting conspiracy theories. ## Achievements Lovato has won a MTV Video Music Award, a Guinness World Record, a iHeartRadio Much Music Video Award, two Latin American Music Awards, and five People's Choice Awards. For her music work, she was nominated for two Grammy Awards, an American Music Award, four Billboard Music Awards, and three Brit Awards. With 14 wins, Lovato is the eight-most awarded solo artist at the Teen Choice Awards. She was named the \#1 The New York Times Best Seller Author of 2013. In 2015, Lovato was honored with the Rulebreaker Award at the Billboard Women in Music event. In 2016, for her activism in the LGBT rights movement, she was awarded a GLAAD Vanguard Award at the 27th GLAAD Media Awards. That year, she was named to Forbes 30 Under 30 list in the music category. Time included Lovato on its annual list of the 100 most influential people in 2017. Billboard named her one of the 100 most successful artist of the 2010s by including her in its Top Artists of the 2010s Chart in 2019. In 2009, when Lovato was 16, her album Here We Go Again debuted atop the Billboard 200, making her one of the eleven artists of all time who topped the chart before turning 18. Lovato has eight top-ten albums on the Billboard 200 (two platinum, four gold), and four top-ten songs on the Billboard Hot 100. Four of Lovato's studio albums reached 1 billion streams on Spotify. Her song, "Sorry Not Sorry" (2017) has received over a billion streams on Spotify, while her collaboration with Luis Fonsi, "Échame la Culpa" (2017) has garnered over 2 billion views on Vevo. In 2012, she set a record for becoming the youngest X Factor judge in the show's history. Her Instagram account has more than 157 million followers, making her the eleventh-most followed musician on the platform. She is also among the top ten most-followed musicians on Twitter with over 53 million followers. ## Filmography - Camp Rock (2008) - Jonas Brothers: The 3D Concert Experience (2009) - Princess Protection Program (2009) - Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010) - Demi Lovato: Stay Strong (2012) - Smurfs: The Lost Village (2017) - Louder Together (2017) - Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated (2017) - Charming (2018) - Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga (2020) - Demi Lovato: Dancing with the Devil (2021) ## Discography - Don't Forget (2008) - Here We Go Again (2009) - Unbroken (2011) - Demi (2013) - Confident (2015) - Tell Me You Love Me (2017) - Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over (2021) - Holy Fvck (2022) ## Tours Headlining - Demi Lovato: Live in Concert (2009–2010) - A Special Night with Demi Lovato (2011–2013) - The Neon Lights Tour (2014) - Demi World Tour (2014–2015) - Tell Me You Love Me World Tour (2018) - Holy Fvck Tour (2022) Co-headlining - Future Now Tour (2016) (with Nick Jonas) Promotional - Demi Live! Warm Up Tour (2008) - An Evening with Demi Lovato (2011) Opening act' - Jonas Brothers – Burnin' Up Tour (2008) - Avril Lavigne – The Best Damn World Tour (2008) - Jonas Brothers – Jonas Brothers World Tour (2009) - Jonas Brothers – Live in Concert (2010) - Enrique Iglesias – Sex and Love Tour (2014) ## Written works ### Books - Staying Strong: 365 Days a Year, Feiwel & Friends (November 19, 2013), - Staying Strong: A Journal, Feiwel & Friends (October 7, 2014), ### Authored articles ## See also - Hispanos of New Mexico - Honorific nicknames in popular music - History of Mexican Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth - List of American Grammy Award winners and nominees - List of artists who reached number one on the Billboard'' Mainstream Top 40 chart - List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart - List of most-followed Instagram accounts - List of most-followed Twitter accounts - List of wax figures displayed at Madame Tussauds museums - The Bigg Chill
25,566,062	Cyclone Emma (2006)	1,168,129,803	Category 1 Australian region cyclone in 2006	[ "2000s in Western Australia", "2005–06 Australian region cyclone season", "2006 disasters in Australia", "2006 floods", "2006 in Australia", "21st-century floods in Oceania", "Category 1 Australian region cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2006", "Tropical cyclones in Western Australia" ]	Tropical Cyclone Emma was a weak but unusually large tropical cyclone that affected a substantial portion of Western Australia during the 2005–06 Australian region cyclone season. Forming out of an area of low pressure on 25 February, the precursor to Emma slowly tracked southward. Although classified tropical, the structure of the system represented that of a monsoonal storm. However, low wind shear and well-developed outflow gradually allowed convection to develop near the centre of circulation. As the system approached the Pilbara coastline of Western Australia on 27 February, it intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and attained peak 10-minute sustained winds of 75 km/h (47 mph). After moving inland near Mardie, Emma weakened to a tropical low but became exceedingly large; its cloud cover obscured most of Western Australia. The remnants of the weak storm persisted until 1 March, at which time they dissipated over the Great Australian Bight. Although a weak storm, rainfall from Emma caused flooding in numerous parts of Western Australia. In Karratha, six people required rescue after their cars became stranded in floodwaters. The most significant damage took place along the Murchison River which swelled to roughly 20 km (12 mi) in width. Although only one town was threatened by the river, large areas of farmland were inundated by the expanding river, leading to substantial agricultural losses. Despite the extensive flooding, no fatalities were reported as a result of Emma. ## Meteorological history Tropical Cyclone Emma originated from an area of low pressure that formed to the southeast of Java on 22 February 2006. Over the following few days, a monsoonal trough developed over the Timor Sea, leading to an increased likelihood of tropical cyclone formation from the initial low within several days. On 25 February, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low. The low tracked slowly towards the south throughout the day and the centre of circulation relocated farther south late on 26 February. By this time, the Bureau of Meteorology anticipated the low to develop into a tropical cyclone and attain winds of 95 km/h (59 mph) 10-minute sustained) before moving over land in Western Australia. Early on 27 February, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) classified the system as a tropical depression. During the day, a QuikSCAT pass revealed a broad low-level circulation with the highest winds located around the periphery of the storm, a characteristic of monsoonal systems. Although it was situated within a region of low wind shear and underneath an anticyclone, convective activity was mostly present in the system's large outer bands. Later that day, the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded the system to a Category 1 cyclone on the Australian intensity scale and named it Emma. At this time, Emma was located roughly 305 km (190 mi) north of Onslow, Western Australia. Several hours later, the JTWC classified Emma as Tropical Storm 15S following the development of convection near the centre of circulation. The storm continued to track southward in response to a strong mid to upper-level ridge situated over central Australia. Emma attained its peak wind speed of 75 km/h (47 mph) 10-minute sustained) late on 27 February as it neared landfall. However, the JTWC assessed Emma to have been slightly weaker, peaking with winds of 65 km/h (40 mph) 1-minute sustained). The storm maintained this intensity through its landfall early on 28 February near Mardie along the Pilbara coastline. Shortly after moving over land, the JTWC declared Emma extratropical and issued their final advisory on the storm. The Bureau of Meteorology, however, continued to monitor the cyclone as it rapidly tracked over Western Australia. Over land, the storm became unusually large, with outer bands from the storm covering most of Western Australia. Late on 28 February, the lowest barometric pressure in relation to Emma, 988 hPa (29.18 inHg), was recorded at Meekatharra. The remnants of Emma persisted through most of 1 March before the system moved over the Great Australian Bight and dissipated. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology uses 10-minute sustained winds, while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one-minute sustained winds. The Bureau of Meteorology's peak intensity for Emma was 75 km/h (47 mph) 10-minute sustained, or 85 km/h (53 mph) one-minute sustained. The JTWC's peak intensity for Emma was 65 km/h (40 mph) one-minute sustained, or 55 km/h (34 mph) 10-minute sustained. ## Preparations and impact Ahead of the storm, oil and mining operations in threatened regions were temporarily shut down. Already suffering from the impacts of Cyclones Clare and Daryl, residents were warned about the likelihood of flooding due to the already saturated grounds. The Bureau of Meteorology also issued tropical cyclone warnings for most of the Pilbara coastline on 28 February. The same day, the Fire and Emergency Services of Australia issued a Yellow Alert for Point Samson, Roebourne, Wickham, Dampier, Karratha, and Mardie. Residents in these areas were advised to evacuate if necessary and ensure that all cyclone preparations had been completed. Shelters were also opened for residents who sought need for one. Schools throughout the Pilbara region were also closed for several days as a result of the storm. Due to the low intensity of the storm at landfall, little or no wind damage took place from Emma. On land, sustained winds were recorded up to 78 km/h (48 mph) and gusts up to 95 km/h (59 mph). A storm surge of 0.8 m (2.6 ft) was recorded at Dampier but, no damage resulted from it. Heavy rains produced by the storm caused moderate to severe flooding in Western Australia. In Karratha, six people were rescued from two cars after they became stranded on a flooded road. Total rainfall from the storm was 306 mm (12.0 in), recorded at Karratha Airport. Localised flooding was reported in Pannawonica and Tom Price. Some buildings reported minor flooding but overall structural damage was minimal. The 190 mm (7.5 in) of rain that fell in a 24-hour span in Karratha pushed the city above its annual average rainfall totals in the first two months of the year. Near the Yarraloola Station, the Robe River overflowed its banks, inundating the area and forcing the evacuation of everyone in the homestead. In the Gascoyne region 30 cattle drowned after flood waters rapidly overtook a pasture. In the Murchison region, rainfall exceeding 100 mm (3.9 in) brought the worst floods in decades, inundating numerous farms and causing substantial agricultural losses. Two weeks after the storm passed, the mouth of the Murchison River was closed after a ship became stranded in the swollen river. By 14 March, the river had broadened to roughly 20 km (12 mi) in places normally 500 m (1,600 ft) in width. These values marked the largest flood ever recorded in the river's history. Officials distributed sandbags to build temporary levee to protect low-lying areas. The largest operation took place at Kalbarri, near the mouth of the river, where 60 firefighters and 18 volunteers worked to put up 9,000 sandbags. The Billabalong and Twinpeaks stations were also isolated from surrounding areas after the Murchison River inundated the area. Several stations in the area remained under water for over a month and farmers requested urgent assistance from the government to help alleviate losses. Initial damage from the storm was placed at A\$1 million (\$706,580 USD). Flood waters from the Murchison River finally began to recede on 17 March; however, it took several weeks for the river to return to its normal level. Although Emma had only minor effects in Carnarvon, the town enacted a A\$14 million (US\$10 million) flood protection plan in the wake of the storm. The plan would lead to the construction of new levees in areas surrounding the town and keep flood waters within Nicol Bay Flats. Additionally, four sections of the North West Coastal Highway were set to be upgraded for similar reasons. Due to the combined effects of Cyclones Clare, Darryl, Jim, Emma, Kate and Glenda, gold production in Australia fell by 8 percent, resulting in earnings losses of A\$130 million. ## See also - 2005–06 Australian region cyclone season - List of cyclones in Western Australia
31,067	The Importance of Being Earnest	1,173,649,463	Play (farcical comedy) by Oscar Wilde	[ "1895 plays", "Comedy plays", "Irish plays adapted into films", "Plays by Oscar Wilde" ]	The Importance of Being Earnest, A Trivial Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde. First performed on 14 February 1895 at the St James's Theatre in London, it is a farcical comedy in which the protagonists maintain fictitious personae to escape burdensome social obligations. Working within the social conventions of late Victorian London, the play's major themes are the triviality with which it treats institutions as serious as marriage and the resulting satire of Victorian ways. Some contemporary reviews praised the play's humour and the culmination of Wilde's artistic career, while others were cautious about its lack of social messages. Its high farce and witty dialogue have helped make The Importance of Being Earnest Wilde's most enduringly popular play. The successful opening night marked the climax of Wilde's career but also heralded his downfall. The Marquess of Queensberry, whose son Lord Alfred Douglas was Wilde's lover, planned to present the writer with a bouquet of rotten vegetables and disrupt the show. Wilde was tipped off, and Queensberry was refused admission. Their feud came to a climax in court when Wilde sued for libel. The proceedings provided enough evidence for his arrest, trial, and conviction on charges of gross indecency. Wilde's homosexuality was revealed to the Victorian public, and he was sentenced to two years imprisonment with hard labour. Despite the play's early success, Wilde's notoriety caused the play to be closed after 86 performances. After his release from prison, he published the play from exile in Paris, but he wrote no more comic or dramatic works. The Importance of Being Earnest has been revived many times since its premiere. It has been adapted for the cinema on three occasions. In a 1952 film Edith Evans reprised her stage interpretation of Lady Bracknell; a 1992 version directed by Kurt Baker used an all-black cast; and Oliver Parker's 2002 film incorporated some of Wilde's original material cut during the preparation of the first stage production. ## Composition The play was written following the success of Wilde's earlier plays Lady Windermere's Fan, An Ideal Husband and A Woman of No Importance. He spent the summer of 1894 with his family at Worthing, where he began work on the new play. His fame now at its peak, he used the working title Lady Lancing to avoid preemptive speculation about its content. Many names and ideas in the play were borrowed from people or places the author had known; Lady Queensberry, Lord Alfred Douglas's mother, for example, lived at Bracknell. Wilde scholars agree the most important influence on the play was W. S. Gilbert's 1877 farce Engaged, from which Wilde borrowed not only several incidents but also "the gravity of tone demanded by Gilbert of his actors". Wilde continually revised the text over the next months. No line was left untouched, and the revision had significant consequences. Sos Eltis describes Wilde's revisions as a refined art at work. The earliest and longest handwritten drafts of the play labour over farcical incidents, broad puns, nonsense dialogue, and conventional comic turns. In revising, "Wilde transformed standard nonsense into the more systemic and disconcerting illogicality which characterises Earnest's dialogue". Richard Ellmann argues Wilde had reached his artistic maturity and wrote more surely and rapidly. Wilde wrote the part of Jack Worthing with the actor-manager Charles Wyndham in mind. Wilde shared Bernard Shaw's view that Wyndham was the ideal comedy actor and based the character on his stage persona. Wyndham accepted the play for production at his theatre, but before rehearsals began, he changed his plans to help a colleague in a crisis. In early 1895, at the St James's Theatre, the actor-manager George Alexander's production of Henry James's Guy Domville failed, and closed after 31 performances, leaving Alexander in urgent need of a new play to follow it. Wyndham waived his contractual rights and allowed Alexander to stage Wilde's play. After working with Wilde on stage movements with a toy theatre, Alexander asked the author to shorten the play from four acts to three. Wilde agreed and combined elements of the second and third acts. The largest cut was the removal of the character of Mr. Gribsby, a solicitor who comes from London to arrest the profligate "Ernest" (i.e., Jack) for unpaid dining bills. The four-act version was first played on a BBC radio production and is still sometimes performed. Some consider the three-act structure more effective and theatrically resonant than the expanded published edition. ## Productions ### Premiere The play was first produced at the St James's Theatre on Valentine's Day 1895. It was freezing cold, but Wilde arrived dressed in "florid sobriety", wearing a green carnation. The audience, according to one report, "included many members of the great and good, former cabinet ministers and privy councillors, as well as actors, writers, academics, and enthusiasts". Allan Aynesworth, who played Algernon Moncrieff, recalled to Hesketh Pearson that "In my fifty-three years of acting, I never remember a greater triumph than [that] first night". Aynesworth was himself "debonair and stylish", and Alexander, who played Jack Worthing, "demure". The cast was: - John Worthing, J.P. – George Alexander - Algernon Moncrieff – Allan Aynesworth - Rev. Canon Chasuble, D.D. – H. H. Vincent - Merriman – Frank Dyall - Lane – F. Kinsey Peile - Lady Bracknell – Rose Leclercq - Hon. Gwendolen Fairfax – Irene Vanbrugh - Cecily Cardew – Evelyn Millard - Miss Prism – Mrs. George Canninge The Marquess of Queensberry, the father of Wilde's lover Lord Alfred Douglas (who was on holiday in Algiers at the time), had planned to disrupt the play by throwing a bouquet of rotten vegetables at the playwright when he took his bow at the end of the show. Wilde and Alexander learned of the plan, and the latter cancelled Queensberry's ticket and arranged for policemen to bar his entrance. Nevertheless, he continued harassing Wilde, who eventually launched a private prosecution against the peer for criminal libel, triggering a series of trials ending in Wilde's imprisonment for gross indecency. Alexander tried, unsuccessfully, to save the production by removing Wilde's name from the billing, but the play had to close after only 86 performances. The play's original Broadway production opened at the Empire Theatre on 22 April 1895 but closed after sixteen performances. Its cast included William Faversham as Algernon, Henry Miller as Jack, Viola Allen as Gwendolen, and Ida Vernon as Lady Bracknell. The Australian premiere was in Melbourne on 10 August 1895, presented by Dion Boucicault Jr. and Robert Brough, and the play was an immediate success. Wilde's downfall in England did not affect the popularity of his plays in Australia. ### Critical reception In contrast to much theatre of the time, the light plot of The Importance of Being Earnest does not seem to tackle serious social and political issues, something contemporary reviewers were wary of. Though unsure of Wilde's seriousness as a dramatist, they recognised the play's cleverness, humour, and popularity with audiences. Shaw, for example, reviewed the play in the Saturday Review, arguing that comedy should touch as well as amuse, "I go to the theatre to be moved to laughter." Later in a letter, he said the play, though "extremely funny", was Wilde's "first really heartless [one]". In The World, William Archer wrote that he had enjoyed watching the play but found it to be empty of meaning: "What can a poor critic do with a play which raises no principle, whether of art or morals, creates its own canons and conventions, and is nothing but an absolutely wilful expression of an irrepressibly witty personality?" In The Speaker, A. B. Walkley admired the play and was one of few to see it as the culmination of Wilde's dramatic career. He denied the term "farce" was derogatory or even lacking in seriousness and said, "It is of nonsense all compact, and better nonsense, I think, our stage has not seen." H. G. Wells, in an unsigned review for The Pall Mall Gazette, called Earnest one of the freshest comedies of the year, saying, "More humorous dealing with theatrical conventions it would be difficult to imagine." He also questioned whether people would fully see its message, "... how Serious People will take this Trivial Comedy intended for their learning remains to be seen. No doubt seriously." The play was so light-hearted that many reviewers compared it to comic opera rather than drama. W. H. Auden later (1963) called it "a pure verbal opera", and The Times commented, "The story is almost too preposterous to go without music." Mary McCarthy, in Sights and Spectacles (1959), however, and despite thinking the play extremely funny, called it "a ferocious idyll"; "depravity is the hero and the only character." The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde's most popular work and is continually revived. Max Beerbohm called the play Wilde's "finest, most undeniably his own", saying that in his other comedies – Lady Windermere's Fan, A Woman of No Importance and An Ideal Husband – the plot, following the manner of Victorien Sardou, is unrelated to the theme of the work, while in Earnest the story is "dissolved" into the form of the play. ### Revivals The Importance of Being Earnest and Wilde's three other society plays were performed in Britain during the author's imprisonment and exile, albeit by small touring companies. A. B. Tapping's company toured Earnest between October 1895 and March 1899 (their performance at the Theatre Royal, Limerick, in the last week of October 1895 was almost certainly the play's first production in Ireland). Elsie Lanham's company also toured 'Earnest' between November 1899 and April 1900. Alexander revived Earnest in a small theatre in Notting Hill, outside the West End, in 1901; in the same year he presented the piece on tour, playing Jack Worthing with a cast including the young Lilian Braithwaite as Cecily. The play returned to the West End when Alexander presented a revival at the St James's in 1902. Broadway revivals were mounted in 1902 and again in 1910, each production running for six weeks. A collected edition of Wilde's works, published in 1908 and edited by Robert Ross, helped to restore his reputation as an author. Alexander presented another revival of Earnest at the St James's in 1909, when he and Aynesworth reprised their original roles; the revival ran for 316 performances. Max Beerbohm said that the play was sure to become a classic of the English repertory and that its humour was as fresh then as when it had been written, adding that the actors had "worn as well as the play". For a 1913 revival at the same theatre, the young actors Gerald Ames and A. E. Matthews succeeded the creators as Jack and Algy. Leslie Faber as Jack, John Deverell as Algy and Margaret Scudamore as Lady Bracknell headed the cast in a 1923 production at the Haymarket Theatre. Many revivals in the first decades of the 20th century treated "the present" as the current year. It was not until the 1920s that the case for 1890s costumes was established; as a critic in The Manchester Guardian put it, "Thirty years on, one begins to feel that Wilde should be done in the costume of his period – that his wit today needs the backing of the atmosphere that gave it life and truth. ... Wilde's glittering and complex verbal felicities go ill with the shingle and the short skirt." In Sir Nigel Playfair's 1930 production at the Lyric, Hammersmith, John Gielgud played Jack to the Lady Bracknell of his aunt, Mabel Terry-Lewis. Gielgud produced and starred in a production at the Globe (now the Gielgud) Theatre in 1939, in a cast that included Edith Evans as Lady Bracknell, Joyce Carey as Gwendolen, Angela Baddeley as Cecily and Margaret Rutherford as Miss Prism. The Times considered the production the best since the original and praised it for its fidelity to Wilde's conception and its "airy, responsive ball-playing quality." Later in the same year, Gielgud presented the work again, with Jack Hawkins as Algy, Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies as Gwendolen and Peggy Ashcroft as Cecily, with Evans and Rutherford in their previous roles. The production was presented in several seasons during and after the Second World War, with mostly the same main players. During a 1946 season at the Haymarket, the King and Queen attended a performance, which, as the journalist Geoffrey Wheatcroft put it, gave the play "a final accolade of respectability." The production toured North America and was successfully staged on Broadway in 1947. As Wilde's work came to be read and performed again, it was The Importance of Being Earnest that received the most productions. By the time of its centenary, the journalist Mark Lawson described it as "the second most known and quoted play in English after Hamlet." For Sir Peter Hall's 1982 production at the National Theatre, the cast included Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell, Martin Jarvis as Jack, Nigel Havers as Algy, Zoë Wanamaker as Gwendolen and Anna Massey as Miss Prism. Nicholas Hytner's 1993 production at the Aldwych Theatre, starring Maggie Smith, had occasional references to the supposed gay subtext. In 2005 the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, produced the play with an all-male cast; it also featured Wilde as a character – the play opens with him drinking in a Parisian café, dreaming of his play. The Melbourne Theatre Company staged production in December 2011 with Geoffrey Rush as Lady Bracknell. In 2007 Theatre Royal, Bath produced the play with Peter Gill directing. Penelope Keith played Lady Bracknell, Harry Hadden-Paton played Jack, William Ellis played Algernon, Gwendolen was played by Daisy Haggard and Cecily was played by Rebecca Night. The production went on a short UK Tour before playing in the West End of London at Vaudeville Theatre in 2008 and received positive reviews. In 2011 the Roundabout Theatre Company produced a Broadway revival based on the 2009 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production featuring Brian Bedford as director and as Lady Bracknell. It opened at the American Airlines Theatre on 13 January and ran until 3 July 2011. The cast also included Dana Ivey as Miss Prism, Paxton Whitehead as Canon Chasuble, Santino Fontana as Algernon, Paul O'Brien as Lane, Charlotte Parry as Cecily, David Furr as Jack and Sara Topham as Gwendolen. It was nominated for three Tony Awards. The play was also presented internationally, in Singapore, in October 2004, by the British Theatre Playhouse, and the same company brought it to London's Greenwich Theatre in April 2005. A 2018 revival was directed by Michael Fentiman for the Vaudeville Theatre, London, as part of a season of four Wilde plays produced by Dominic Dromgoole. The production received largely negative press reviews. In 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a group of students from Newcastle University filmed a production, including scenes with Wilde himself as a character, at the Sunderland Empire to raise awareness of struggling theatres and artists who had suffered from negative implications of lockdowns in the UK. The production received largely positive press for its message. ## Synopsis The play is set in "The Present" (i.e., 1895). ### Act I: Algernon Moncrieff's flat in Half Moon Street, W The play opens with Algernon Moncrieff, an idle young gentleman, receiving his best friend, Jack Worthing ("Ernest"). Ernest has come from the country to propose to Algernon's cousin, Gwendolen Fairfax. Algernon refuses to consent until Ernest explains why his cigarette case bears the inscription, "From little Cecily, with her fondest love to her dear Uncle Jack." 'Ernest' is forced to admit to living a double life. In the country, he assumes a serious attitude for the benefit of his young ward, the heiress Cecily Cardew, and goes by the name of Jack while pretending that he must worry about a wastrel younger brother named Ernest in London. Meanwhile, he assumes the identity of the libertine Ernest in the city. Algernon confesses a similar deception: he pretends to have an invalid friend named Bunbury in the country, whom he can "visit" whenever he wishes to avoid an unwelcome social obligation. Jack refuses to tell Algernon the location of his country estate. Gwendolen and her formidable mother, Lady Bracknell, now call on Algernon, who distracts Lady Bracknell in another room while Jack proposes to Gwendolen. She accepts but seems to love him in large part because of his name, Ernest. Jack accordingly resolves to himself to be rechristened "Ernest". Discovering them in this intimate exchange, Lady Bracknell interviews Jack as a prospective suitor. Horrified to learn that he was adopted after being discovered as a baby in a handbag at Victoria Station, she refuses him and forbids further contact with her daughter. Gwendolen manages to covertly promise to him her undying love. As Jack gives her his address in the country, Algernon surreptitiously notes it on the cuff of his sleeve: Jack's revelation of his pretty and wealthy young ward has motivated his friend to meet her. ### Act II: The Garden of the Manor House, Woolton Cecily is studying with her governess, Miss Prism. Algernon arrives, pretending to be Ernest Worthing, and soon charms Cecily. Long fascinated by Uncle Jack's hitherto absent black sheep brother, she is predisposed to fall for Algernon in his role of Ernest (a name she is apparently particularly fond of). Therefore, Algernon, too, plans for the rector, Dr. Chasuble, to rechristen him "Ernest". Jack has decided to abandon his double life. He arrives in full mourning and announces his brother's death in Paris with a severe chill, a story undermined by Algernon's presence in the guise of Ernest. Gwendolen now enters, having run away from home. During the temporary absence of the two men, she meets Cecily, each woman indignantly declaring that she is the one engaged to "Ernest". When Jack and Algernon reappear, their deceptions are exposed. ### Act III: Morning-Room at the Manor House, Woolton Arriving in pursuit of her daughter, Lady Bracknell is astonished to be told that Algernon and Cecily are engaged. The revelation of Cecily's wealth soon dispels Lady Bracknell's initial doubts over the young lady's suitability, but any engagement is forbidden by her guardian Jack: he will consent only if Lady Bracknell agrees to his own union with Gwendolen – something she declines to do. The impasse is broken by the return of Miss Prism, whom Lady Bracknell recognises as the person who, 28 years earlier as a family nursemaid, had taken a baby boy for a walk in a perambulator and never returned. Challenged, Miss Prism explains that she had absent-mindedly put the manuscript of a novel she was writing in the perambulator and the baby in a handbag, which she had left at Victoria Station. Jack produces the same handbag, showing that he is the lost baby, the elder son of Lady Bracknell's late sister, and thus Algernon's elder brother. Having acquired such respectable relations, he is acceptable as Gwendolen's suitor. Gwendolen, however, insists she can love only a man named Ernest. Lady Bracknell informs Jack that, as the firstborn, he would have been named after his father, General Moncrieff. Jack examines the army lists and discovers that his father's name – and hence his own real name – was, in fact, Ernest. Pretence was reality all along. As the happy couples embrace – Jack and Gwendolen, Algernon and Cecily, and even Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism – Lady Bracknell complains to her newfound relative: "My nephew, you seem to be displaying signs of triviality." "On the contrary, Aunt Augusta", he replies, "I've now realised for the first time in my life the vital importance of being Earnest." ## Characters - Jack Worthing (Ernest), a young gentleman from the country, in love with Gwendolen Fairfax. - Algernon Moncrieff, a young gentleman from London, the nephew of Lady Bracknell, in love with Cecily Cardew. - Gwendolen Fairfax, a young lady, loved by Jack Worthing. - Lady Augusta Bracknell, a society lady, Gwendolen's mother. - Cecily Cardew, a young lady, the ward of Jack Worthing. - Miss Prism, Cecily's governess. - The Reverend Canon Chasuble, the priest of Jack's parish. - Lane, Algernon's manservant. - Merriman, the butler of Jack's country house. ## Themes ### Triviality Arthur Ransome described The Importance... as the most trivial of Wilde's society plays and the only one that produces "that peculiar exhilaration of the spirit by which we recognise the beautiful." "It is", he wrote, "precisely because it is consistently trivial that it is not ugly." Ellmann says that The Importance of Being Earnest touched on many themes Wilde had been building since the 1880s – the languor of aesthetic poses was well established, and Wilde takes it as a starting point for the two protagonists. While Salome, An Ideal Husband and The Picture of Dorian Gray had dwelt on more serious wrongdoing, vice in Earnest is represented by Algy's craving for cucumber sandwiches. Wilde told Robert Ross that the play's theme was "That we should treat all trivial things in life very seriously, and all serious things of life with a sincere and studied triviality." The theme is hinted at in the play's ironic title, and "earnestness" is repeatedly alluded to in the dialogue; Algernon says in Act II, "one has to be serious about something if one is to have any amusement in life", but goes on to reproach Jack for 'being serious about everything'". Blackmail and corruption had haunted the double lives of Dorian Gray and Sir Robert Chiltern (in An Ideal Husband), but in Earnest the protagonists' duplicity (Algernon's "bunburying" and Worthing's double life as Jack and Ernest) is undertaken for more innocent purposes – largely to avoid unwelcome social obligations. While much theatre of the time tackled serious social and political issues, Earnest is superficially about nothing at all. It "refuses to play the game" of other period dramatists, for instance, Bernard Shaw, who used their characters to draw audiences to grander ideals. ### As a satire of society The play repeatedly mocks Victorian traditions and social customs, marriage and the pursuit of love in particular. In Victorian times earnestness was considered to be the overriding societal value; originating in religious attempts to reform the lower classes, it spread to the upper ones too throughout the century. The play's very title, with its mocking paradox (serious people are so because they do not see trivial comedies), introduces the theme; it continues in the drawing room discussion, "Yes, but you must be serious about it. I hate people who are not serious about meals. It is so shallow of them," says Algernon in Act 1; allusions are quick and from multiple angles. The men follow traditional matrimonial rites, whereby suitors admit their weaknesses to their prospective brides, but the foibles they excuse are ridiculous, and the farce is built on an absurd confusion of a book and a baby. When Jack apologises to Gwendolen during his marriage proposal, it is for not being wicked: > JACK: Gwendolen, it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth. Can you forgive me? > > GWENDOLEN: I can. For I feel that you are sure to change. In turn, Gwendolen and Cecily have the idea of marrying a man named Ernest, a popular and respected name at the time. Gwendolen, quite unlike her mother's methodical analysis of Jack Worthing's suitability as a husband, places her entire faith in a Christian name, declaring in Act I, "The only really safe name is Ernest". This is an opinion shared by Cecily in Act II, "I pity any poor married woman whose husband is not called Ernest". They indignantly declare that they have been deceived when they discover the men's real names. Wilde embodied society's rules and rituals artfully into Lady Bracknell: minute attention to the details of her style created a comic effect of assertion by restraint. In contrast to her encyclopaedic knowledge of the social distinctions of London's street names, Jack's obscure parentage is subtly evoked. He defends himself against her, "A handbag?" with the clarification, "The Brighton Line". At the time, Victoria Station consisted of two separate but adjacent terminal stations sharing the same name. To the east was the ramshackle LC&D Railway, on the west the up-market LB&SCR – the Brighton Line, which went to Worthing, the fashionable, expensive town the gentleman who found baby Jack was travelling to at the time (and after which Jack was named). ### Suggested homosexual subtext Queer scholars have argued that the play's themes of duplicity and ambivalence are inextricably bound up with Wilde's homosexuality and that the play exhibits a "flickering presence-absence of ... homosexual desire". On re-reading the play after his release from prison, Wilde said: "It was extraordinary reading the play over. How I used to toy with that Tiger Life." It has been said that the use of the name Earnest may have been a homosexual in-joke. In 1892, three years before Wilde wrote the play, John Gambril Nicholson had published the book of pederastic poetry Love in Earnest. The sonnet Of Boys' Names included the verse: "Though Frank may ring like silver bell / And Cecil softer music claim / They cannot work the miracle / –'Tis Ernest sets my heart a-flame." The word "earnest" may also have been a code-word for homosexual, as in: "Is he earnest?" in the same way that "Is he so?" and "Is he musical?" were employed. Sir Donald Sinden, an actor who had met two of the play's original cast (Irene Vanbrugh and Allan Aynesworth) and Lord Alfred Douglas, wrote to The Times to dispute suggestions that "Earnest" held any sexual connotations: > Although they had ample opportunity, at no time did any of them even hint that "Earnest" was a synonym for homosexual or that "bunburying" may have implied homosexual sex. The first time I heard it mentioned was in the 1980s, and I immediately consulted Sir John Gielgud, whose own performance of Jack Worthing in the same play was legendary and whose knowledge of theatrical lore was encyclopaedic. He replied in his ringing tones: "No-No! Nonsense, absolute nonsense: I would have known". Several theories have also been put forward to explain the derivation of Bunbury, and Bunburying, which is used in the play to imply a secretive double life. It may have derived from Henry Shirley Bunbury, a hypochondriacal acquaintance of Wilde's youth. Another suggestion, put forward in 1913 by Aleister Crowley, who knew Wilde, was that Bunbury was a combination word: that Wilde had once taken a train to Banbury, met a schoolboy there, and arranged a second secret meeting with him at Sunbury. ## Bunburying Bunburying is a stratagem used by people who need an excuse to avoid social obligations in their daily lives. The word "bunburying" first appears in Act I when Algernon explains that he invented a fictional friend, a chronic invalid named "Bunbury", to have an excuse for getting out of events he does not wish to attend, particularly with his Aunt Augusta (Lady Bracknell). Algernon and Jack both use this method to secretly visit their lovers, Cecily and Gwendolen. ## Dramatic analysis ### Use of language While Wilde had long been famous for dialogue and his use of language, Raby (1988) argues that he achieved unity and mastery in Earnest that was unmatched in his other plays, except perhaps Salomé. While his earlier comedies suffer from an unevenness resulting from the thematic clash between the trivial and the serious, Earnest achieves a pitch-perfect style that allows these to dissolve. There are three different registers detectable in the play. The dandyish insouciance of Jack and Algernon – established early with Algernon's exchange with his manservant – betrays an underlying unity despite their differing attitudes. The formidable pronouncements of Lady Bracknell are as startling for her use of hyperbole and rhetorical extravagance as for her disconcerting opinions. In contrast, the speech of Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism is distinguished by "pedantic precept" and "idiosyncratic diversion". Furthermore, the play is full of epigrams and paradoxes. Max Beerbohm described it as littered with "chiselled apophthegms – witticisms unrelated to action or character", of which he found half a dozen to be of the highest order. Lady Bracknell's line, "A handbag?", has been called one of the most malleable in English drama, lending itself to interpretations ranging from incredulous or scandalised to baffled. Edith Evans, both on stage and in the 1952 film, delivered the line loudly in a mixture of horror, incredulity, and condescension. Stockard Channing, in the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin in 2010, hushed the line, in a critic's words, "with a barely audible 'A handbag?', rapidly swallowed up with a sharp intake of breath. An understated take, to be sure, but with such a well-known play, packed full of witticisms and aphorisms with a life of their own, it's the little things that make a difference." ### Characterisation Though Wilde deployed characters that were by now familiar – the dandy lord, the overbearing matriarch, the woman with a past, the puritan young lady – his treatment is subtler than in his earlier comedies. Lady Bracknell, for instance, embodies respectable, upper-class society, but Eltis notes how her development "from the familiar overbearing duchess into a quirkier and more disturbing character" can be traced through Wilde's revisions of the play. For the two young men, Wilde presents not stereotypical stage "dudes" but intelligent beings who, as Jackson puts it, "speak like their creator in well-formed complete sentences and rarely use slang or vogue-words". Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism are characterised by a few light touches of detail, their old-fashioned enthusiasms, and the Canon's fastidious pedantry, pared down by Wilde during his many redrafts of the text. ### Structure and genre Ransome argues that Wilde freed himself by abandoning the melodrama, the basic structure which underlies his earlier social comedies and basing the story entirely on the Earnest/Ernest verbal conceit. Freed from "living up to any drama more serious than conversation, " Wilde could now amuse himself to a fuller extent with quips, bons mots, epigrams, and repartee that really had little to do with the business at hand. The genre of the Importance of Being Earnest has been intensely debated by scholars and critics alike, who have placed the play within a wide variety of genres ranging from parody to satire. In his critique of Wilde, Foster argues that the play creates a world where "real values are inverted [and], reason and unreason are interchanged". Similarly, Wilde's use of dialogue mocks the upper classes of Victorian England lending the play a satirical tone. Reinhart further stipulates that the use of farcical humour to mock the upper classes "merits the play both as satire and as drama". ## Publication ### First edition Wilde's two final comedies, An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest, were still on stage in London at the time of his prosecution, and they were soon closed as the details of his case became public. After two years in prison with hard labour, Wilde went into exile in Paris, sick and depressed, his reputation destroyed in England. In 1898, when no one else would, Leonard Smithers agreed with Wilde to publish the two final plays. Wilde proved to be a diligent reviser, sending detailed instructions on stage directions, character listings, and the book's presentation and insisting that a playbill from the first performance be reproduced inside. Ellmann argues that the proofs show a man "very much in command of himself and of the play". Wilde's name did not appear on the cover, it was "By the Author of Lady Windermere's Fan". His return to work was brief though, as he refused to write anything else, "I can write, but have lost the joy of writing". On 19 October 2007, a first edition (number 349 of 1,000) was discovered inside a handbag in an Oxfam shop in Nantwich, Cheshire. The staff was unable to trace the donor. It was sold for £650. ### In translation The Importance of Being Earnest's popularity has meant it has been translated into many languages, though the homophonous pun in the title ("Ernest", a masculine proper name, and "earnest", the virtue of steadfastness and seriousness) poses a special problem for translators. The easiest case of a suitable translation of the pun, perpetuating its sense and meaning, may have been its translation into German. Since English and German are closely related languages, German provides an equivalent adjective ("ernst") and also a matching masculine proper name ("Ernst"). The meaning and tenor of the wordplay are exactly the same. Yet there are many different possible titles in German, mostly concerning sentence structure. The two most common ones are "Bunbury oder ernst / Ernst sein ist alles" and "Bunbury oder wie wichtig es ist, ernst / Ernst zu sein". In a study of Italian translations, Adrian Pablé found thirteen different versions using eight titles. Since wordplay is often unique to the language in question, translators are faced with a choice of either staying faithful to the original – in this case, the English adjective and virtue earnest – or creating a similar pun in their own language. Translators have used four main strategies. The first leaves all characters' names unchanged and in their original spelling: thus, the name is respected, and readers are reminded of the original cultural setting, but the liveliness of the pun is lost. Eva Malagoli varied this source-oriented approach by using both the English Christian names and the adjective earnest, thus preserving the pun and the English character of the play, but possibly straining an Italian reader. A third group of translators replaced Ernest with a name that also represents a virtue in the target language, favouring transparency for readers in translation over fidelity to the original. For instance, in Italian, these versions variously call the play L'importanza di essere Franco/Severo/Fedele, the given names being respectively the values of honesty, propriety, and loyalty. French offers a closer pun: "Constant" is both a first name and the quality of steadfastness, so the play is commonly known as De l'importance d'être Constant, though Jean Anouilh translated the play under the title: Il est important d'être Aimé ("Aimé" is a name which also means "beloved"). These translators differ in their attitude to the original English honorific titles, some change them all or none, but most leave a mix partially as a compensation for the added loss of Englishness. Lastly, one translation gave the name an Italianate touch by rendering it as Ernesto; this work liberally mixed proper nouns from both languages. ## Adaptations ### Film Apart from several "made-for-television" versions, The Importance of Being Earnest has been adapted for the English-language cinema at least three times, first in 1952 by Anthony Asquith who adapted the screenplay and directed it. Michael Denison (Algernon), Michael Redgrave (Jack), Edith Evans (Lady Bracknell), Dorothy Tutin (Cecily), Joan Greenwood (Gwendolen), and Margaret Rutherford (Miss Prism) and Miles Malleson (Canon Chasuble) were among the cast. In 1992 Kurt Baker directed a version using an all-black cast with Daryl Keith Roach as Jack, Wren T. Brown as Algernon, Ann Weldon as Lady Bracknell, Lanei Chapman as Cecily, Chris Calloway as Gwendolen, CCH Pounder as Miss Prism, and Brock Peters as Doctor Chasuble, set in the United States. Oliver Parker, a director who had previously adapted An Ideal Husband by Wilde, made the 2002 film; it stars Colin Firth (Jack), Rupert Everett (Algy), Judi Dench (Lady Bracknell), Reese Witherspoon (Cecily), Frances O'Connor (Gwendolen), Anna Massey (Miss Prism), and Tom Wilkinson (Canon Chasuble). Parker's adaptation includes the dunning solicitor Mr. Gribsby who pursues "Ernest" to Hertfordshire (present in Wilde's original draft, but cut at the behest of the play's first producer). Algernon too is pursued by a group of creditors in the opening scene. A 2008 Telugu language romantic comedy film, titled Ashta Chamma, is an adaptation of the play. ### Operas and musicals In 1960, Ernest in Love was staged Off-Broadway. The Japanese all-female musical theatre troupe Takarazuka Revue staged this musical in 2005 in two productions, one by Moon Troupe and the other one by Flower Troupe. In 1963, Erik Chisholm composed an opera from the play, using Wilde's text as the libretto. In 1964, Gerd Natschinski composed the musical Mein Freund Bunbury based on the play, 1964 premiered at Metropol Theater Berlin. According to a study by Robert Tanitch, by 2002, there had been at least eight adaptations of the play as a musical, though "never with conspicuous success". The earliest such version was a 1927 American show entitled Oh Earnest. The journalist Mark Bostridge comments, "The libretto of a 1957 musical adaptation, Half in Earnest, deposited in the British Library, is scarcely more encouraging. The curtain rises on Algy, strumming away at the piano, singing, 'I can play Chopsticks, Lane'. Other songs include 'A Bunburying I Must Go'." Gerald Barry created the 2011 opera, The Importance of Being Earnest, commissioned by the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Barbican Centre in London. It premiered in Los Angeles in 2011. The stage premiere was given by the Opéra national de Lorraine in Nancy, France in 2013. In 2017, Odyssey Opera of Boston presented a fully staged production of Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco's opera The Importance of Being Earnest as part of their Wilde Opera Nights series, which was a season-long exploration of operatic works inspired by the writings and world of Oscar Wilde. The opera for two pianos, percussion, and singers was composed in 1961–2. It is filled with musical quotes at every turn. The opera was never published, but it was performed twice: the premiere in Monte Carlo (1972 in Italian) and La Guardia, NY (1975). Odyssey Opera was able to obtain the manuscript from the Library of Congress with the permission of the composer's granddaughter. After Odyssey's production at the Wimberly Theatre, Calderwood Pavilion at the Boston Center for the Arts on 17 and 18 March, being received with critical acclaim, The Boston Globe stated "Odyssey Opera recognizes 'The Importance of Being Earnest.'" ### Stage pastiche In 2016 Irish actor/writers Helen Norton and Jonathan White wrote the comic play To Hell in a Handbag which retells the story of Importance from the point of view of the characters Canon Chasuble and Miss Prism, giving them their own back story and showing what happens to them when they are not on stage in Wilde's play. ### Radio and television There have been many radio versions of the play. In 1925 the BBC broadcast an adaptation with Hesketh Pearson as Jack Worthing. Further broadcasts of the play followed in 1927 and 1936. In 1977, BBC Radio 4 broadcast the four-act version of the play, with Fabia Drake as Lady Bracknell, Richard Pasco as Jack, Jeremy Clyde as Algy, Maurice Denham as Canon Chasuble, Sylvia Coleridge as Miss Prism, Barbara Leigh-Hunt as Gwendolen and Prunella Scales as Cecily. The production was later released on CD. To commemorate the centenary of the first performance of the play, Radio 4 broadcast a new adaptation on 13 February 1995; directed by Glyn Dearman, it featured Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell, Michael Hordern as Lane, Michael Sheen as Jack Worthing, Martin Clunes as Algernon Moncrieff, John Moffatt as Canon Chasuble, Miriam Margolyes as Miss Prism, Samantha Bond as Gwendolen and Amanda Root as Cecily. The production was later issued on an audio cassette. On 13 December 2000, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new adaptation directed by Howard Davies starring Geraldine McEwan as Lady Bracknell, Simon Russell Beale as Jack Worthing, Julian Wadham as Algernon Moncrieff, Geoffrey Palmer as Canon Chasuble, Celia Imrie as Miss Prism, Victoria Hamilton as Gwendolen and Emma Fielding as Cecily, with music composed by Dominic Muldowney. The production was released on an audio cassette. A 1964 commercial television adaptation starred Ian Carmichael, Patrick Macnee, Susannah York, Fenella Fielding, Pamela Brown and Irene Handl. BBC television transmissions of the play have included a 1974 Play of the Month version starring Coral Browne as Lady Bracknell with Michael Jayston, Julian Holloway, Gemma Jones and Celia Bannerman. Stuart Burge directed another adaptation in 1986 with a cast including Gemma Jones, Alec McCowen, Paul McGann and Joan Plowright. It was adapted for Australian TV in 1957. ### Commercial recordings Gielgud's performance is preserved on an EMI audio recording dating from 1952, which also captures Edith Evans' Lady Bracknell. The cast also includes Roland Culver (Algy), Jean Cadell (Miss Prism), Pamela Brown (Gwendolen), and Celia Johnson (Cecily). Other audio recordings include a "Theatre Masterworks" version from 1953, directed and narrated by Margaret Webster, with a cast including Maurice Evans, Lucile Watson and Mildred Natwick; a 1989 version by California Artists Radio Theatre, featuring Dan O'Herlihy Jeanette Nolan, Les Tremayne and Richard Erdman; and one by L.A. Theatre Works issued in 2009, featuring Charles Busch, James Marsters and Andrea Bowen.
29,981,584	Sing Like Me	1,122,115,572	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2009 singles", "2009 songs", "Chris Brown songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Pop ballads", "Songs written by Chris Brown", "Songs written by Keith Thomas (record producer)" ]	"Sing Like Me" is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown. It was released as a promotional single from his third studio album, Graffiti, on November 24, 2009, in the United States. The number was written by Brown, Big Makk, Keith Thomas, Lorenza "Big Lo" Lennon and Atozzio Towns, and produced by Makk, Thomas and Lennon. An R&B ballad, the song contains lyrics about Brown leaving a nightclub with several women. "Sing Like Me" received mixed response from critics, and charted for two weeks on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs in 2010, peaking at number eighty-four. ## Background and composition "Sing Like Me" was written by Chris Brown, Big Makk, Keith Thomas, andf Lorenza "Big Lo" Lennon, with Makk, Thomas and Lennon producing the track. It was recorded at The Compound—a recording studio in Orlando, Florida—and Tony Maserati mixed the tune at The Record Plant—a studio in Los Angeles, California. The cover art of the song's promotional release is styled similarly to the cover of Graffiti. It has a retro look, showing Brown wearing black clothes and a red cardigan and sunglasses. "Sing Like Me" was released by Jive Records and RCA Records via the United States iTunes Store on November 24, 2009. "Sing Like Me" is a slow jam R&B ballad, featuring 808 drum beats and a string arrangement featuring Asian influences. Billboard's Sarah MacRory likened the tune's beat to R. Kelly's "Feelin' on Yo Booty" (2001). Lyrically, the track is about Brown leaving a nightclub with several women, none of whom Brown wants to marry. The song's chorus features the hook "I gotta girl singin' like me". Yahoo! Music's reviewer said that the song has lyrics where Brown "boasts about the girls who can't get enough of him", and described the lyrics as Brown raving about "his celebrity status and his skills with women". A writer for Rap-Up wrote that on the song Brown "make[s] the ladies sing his praises." ## Reception "Sing Like Me" was noted as one of the best tracks on Graffiti by a Yahoo! Music critic. That Grape Juice's review called the song "ridiculously catchy", and appreciated the subtlety with which Brown gave the lyrics, comparing the technique to Janet Jackson. The Associated Press described it as "cocky but alluring". Time Out New York's reviewer disliked the fact that "Sing Like Me" and "Crawl" were placed adjacently on Graffiti, but called both tunes "otherwise strong songs". The Boston Globe's Sarah Rodman called the song "skeevy", and compared it to the "sex stuff and braggadocio" of R. Kelly. Melinda Newman of HitFix noted its lack of creativity, while Nathan S. from the DJ Booth wrote that there is "nothing particularly remarkabl[e]" about "Sing Like Me" and Graffiti'''s lead single, "I Can Transform Ya". Roxana Hadadi of Express Night Out was unimpressed with the selfish adult lyrics on "Sing Like Me". While it was not officially sent to radio, "Sing Like Me" entered the Billboard'' Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs at number ninety-six on March 6, 2010. The next week it rose to its peak position of number eighty-four, before falling off the chart the following week. ## Personnel - Big Makk – songwriting, production - Chris Brown – vocals, songwriting - Lorenza "Big Lo" Lennon – songwriting, production - Tony Maserati – audio mixing - Brian Springer – recording engineer - Keith Thomas – songwriting, production - Atozzio Towns – songwriting Source:
45,660	Swami Vivekananda	1,169,285,682	Indian Hindu monk and philosopher (1863–1902)	[ "1863 births", "1902 deaths", "19th-century Hindu philosophers and theologians", "Anti-caste activists", "Ascetics", "Bengali Hindu saints", "Bengali people", "Founders of new religious movements", "Hindu new religious movements", "Hindu philosophers and theologians", "Hindu reformers", "Hindu revivalists", "Indian Freemasons", "Indian Hindu missionaries", "Indian Hindu saints", "Indian Hindu spiritual teachers", "Indian theologians", "Indian yoga gurus", "Modern yoga gurus", "Monastic disciples of Ramakrishna", "Neo-Vedanta", "New Age predecessors", "People associated with Shillong", "People from Kolkata", "People in interfaith dialogue", "Presidency University, Kolkata alumni", "Ramakrishna Mission", "Scottish Church College alumni", "Spiritual practice", "Swami Vivekananda", "University of Calcutta alumni", "Vedanta" ]	Swami Vivekananda (/ˈswɑːmi ˌvɪveɪˈkɑːnəndə/; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, and bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion. Born into an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family in Calcutta, Vivekananda was inclined from a young age towards religion and spirituality. He later found his guru, Ramakrishna, and became a monk. After the death of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda extensively toured the Indian subcontinent, acquiring first-hand knowledge of the living conditions of Indian people in then British India. Moved by their plight, he resolved to help his countrymen and found a way to travel to the United States, where he became a popular figure after the 1893 Parliament of Religions in Chicago, in which he began his famous speech with the words: Sisters and brothers of America... before introducing Hinduism to Americans. He was so impactful at the Parliament that an American newspaper described him as "an orator by divine right and undoubtedly the greatest figure at the Parliament". After great success at the Parliament, in the subsequent years, Vivekananda delivered hundreds of lectures across the United States, England and Europe, disseminating the core tenets of Hindu philosophy, and founded the Vedanta Society of New York and the Vedanta Society of San Francisco (now Vedanta Society of Northern California), both of which became the foundations for Vedanta Societies in the West. In India, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math, which provides spiritual training for monastics and householder devotees, and the Ramakrishna Mission that provides charity, social work and education. Vivekananda was one of the most influential philosophers and social reformers in his contemporary India, and the most successful missionaries of Vedanta to the Western world. He was also a major force in contemporary Hindu reform movements, and contributed to the concept of nationalism in colonial India. He is now widely regarded as one of the most influential people of modern India and a patriotic saint. His birthday in India is celebrated as National Youth Day. ## Early life (1863–1888) ### Birth and childhood Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Datta (name shortened to Narendra or Naren) in a Bengali family in his ancestral home at 3 Gourmohan Mukherjee Street in Calcutta, the capital of British India, on 12 January 1863 during the Makar Sankranti festival. He belonged to a traditional family and was one of nine siblings. His father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court. Durgacharan Datta, Narendra's grandfather was a Sanskrit and Persian scholar who left his family and became a monk at age twenty-five. His mother, Bhubaneswari Devi, was a devout housewife. The progressive, rational attitude of Narendra's father and the religious temperament of his mother helped shape his thinking and personality. Narendranath was interested in spirituality from a young age and used to meditate before the images of deities such as Shiva, Rama, Sita, and Mahavir Hanuman. He was fascinated by wandering ascetics and monks. Narendra was mischievous and restless as a child, and his parents often had difficulty controlling him. His mother said, "I prayed to Shiva for a son and he has sent me one of his demons". ### Education In 1871, at the age of eight, Narendranath enrolled at Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's Metropolitan Institution, where he went to school until his family moved to Raipur in 1877. In 1879, after his family's return to Calcutta, he was the only student to receive first-division marks in the Presidency College entrance examination. He was an avid reader in a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, religion, history, social science, art and literature. He was also interested in Hindu scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Narendra was trained in Indian classical music, and regularly participated in physical exercise, sports and organised activities. Narendra studied Western logic, Western philosophy and European history at the General Assembly's Institution (now known as the Scottish Church College). In 1881, he passed the Fine Arts examination, and completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1884. Narendra studied the works of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Baruch Spinoza, Georg W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Auguste Comte, John Stuart Mill and Charles Darwin. He became fascinated with the evolutionism of Herbert Spencer and corresponded with him, translating Herbert Spencer's book Education (1861) into Bengali. While studying Western philosophers, he also learned Sanskrit scriptures and Bengali literature. William Hastie (principal of Christian College, Calcutta; from where Narendra graduated) wrote, "Narendra is really a genius. I have travelled far and wide but I have never come across a lad of his talents and possibilities, even in German universities, among philosophical students. He is bound to make his mark in life". Narendra was known for his prodigious memory and the ability at speed reading. Several incidents have been given as examples. In a talk, he once quoted verbatim, two or three pages from Pickwick Papers. Another incident that is given is his argument with a Swedish national where he gave reference to some details on Swedish history that the Swede originally disagreed with but later conceded. In another incident with Dr. Paul Deussen's at Kiel in Germany, Vivekananda was going over some poetical work and did not reply when the professor spoke to him. Later, he apologised to Dr. Deussen explaining that he was too absorbed in reading and hence did not hear him. The professor was not satisfied with this explanation, but Vivekananda quoted and interpreted verses from the text, leaving the professor dumbfounded about his feat of memory. Once, he requested some books written by Sir John Lubbock from a library and returned them the very next day, claiming that he had read them. The librarian refused to believe him, until cross-examination about the contents convinced him that Vivekananda was indeed being truthful. Some accounts have called Narendra a shrutidhara (a person with a prodigious memory). ### Initial spiritual forays In 1880, Narendra joined Keshab Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan, which was established by Sen after meeting Ramakrishna and reconverting from Christianity to Hinduism. Narendra became a member of a Freemasonry lodge "at some point before 1884" and of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in his twenties, a breakaway faction of the Brahmo Samaj led by Keshab Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore. From 1881 to 1884, he was also active in Sen's Band of Hope, which tried to discourage youths from smoking and drinking. It was in this cultic milieu that Narendra became acquainted with Western esotericism. His initial beliefs were shaped by Brahmo concepts, which denounced polytheism and caste restrictions, and a "streamlined, rationalized, monotheistic theology strongly coloured by a selective and modernistic reading of the Upanisads and of the Vedanta." Rammohan Roy, the founder of the Brahmo Samaj who was strongly influenced by unitarianism, strove towards a universalistic interpretation of Hinduism. His ideas were "altered [...] considerably" by Debendranath Tagore, who had a romantic approach to the development of these new doctrines, and questioned central Hindu beliefs like reincarnation and karma, and rejected the authority of the Vedas. Tagore also brought this "neo-Hinduism" closer in line with western esotericism, a development which was furthered by Sen. Sen was influenced by transcendentalism, an American philosophical-religious movement strongly connected with unitarianism, which emphasised personal religious experience over mere reasoning and theology. Sen strived to "an accessible, non-renunciatory, everyman type of spirituality", introducing "lay systems of spiritual practice" which can be regarded as an influence to the teachings Vivekananda later popularised in the west. Not satisfied with his knowledge of philosophy, Narendra came to "the question which marked the real beginning of his intellectual quest for God." He asked several prominent Calcutta residents if they had come "face to face with God", but none of their answers satisfied him. At this time, Narendra met Debendranath Tagore (the leader of Brahmo Samaj) and asked if he had seen God. Instead of answering his question, Tagore said, "My boy, you have the Yogi's eyes." According to Banhatti, it was Ramakrishna who really answered Narendra's question, by saying "Yes, I see Him as I see you, only in an infinitely intenser sense." According to De Michelis, Vivekananda was more influenced by the Brahmo Samaj's and its new ideas, than by Ramakrishna. Swami Medhananda agrees that the Brahmo Samaj was a formative influence, but that "it was Narendra's momentous encounter with Ramakrishna that changed the course of his life by turning him away from Brahmoism." According to De Michelis, it was Sen's influence which brought Vivekananda fully into contact with western esotericism, and it was also via Sen that he met Ramakrishna. ### Meeting Ramakrishna In 1881, Narendra first met Ramakrishna, who became his spiritual focus after his own father had died in 1884. Narendra's first introduction to Ramakrishna occurred in a literature class at General Assembly's Institution when he heard Professor William Hastie lecturing on William Wordsworth's poem, The Excursion. While explaining the word "trance" in the poem, Hastie suggested that his students visit Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar to understand the true meaning of trance. This prompted some of his students (including Narendra) to visit Ramakrishna. They probably first met personally in November 1881, though Narendra did not consider this their first meeting, and neither man mentioned this meeting later. At this time, Narendra was preparing for his upcoming F. A. examination, when Ram Chandra Datta accompanied him to Surendra Nath Mitra's, house where Ramakrishna was invited to deliver a lecture. According to Makarand Paranjape, at this meeting Ramakrishna asked young Narendra to sing. Impressed by his singing talent, he asked Narendra to come to Dakshineshwar. In late 1881 or early 1882, Narendra went to Dakshineswar with two friends and met Ramakrishna. This meeting proved to be a turning point in his life. Although he did not initially accept Ramakrishna as his teacher and rebelled against his ideas, he was attracted by his personality and began to frequently visit him at Dakshineswar. He initially saw Ramakrishna's ecstasies and visions as "mere figments of imagination" and "hallucinations". As a member of Brahmo Samaj, he opposed idol worship, polytheism and Ramakrishna's worship of Kali. He even rejected the Advaita Vedanta of "identity with the absolute" as blasphemy and madness, and often ridiculed the idea. Narendra tested Ramakrishna, who faced his arguments patiently: "Try to see the truth from all angles", he replied. Narendra's father's sudden death in 1884 left the family bankrupt; creditors began demanding the repayment of loans, and relatives threatened to evict the family from their ancestral home. Narendra, once a son of a well-to-do family, became one of the poorest students in his college. He unsuccessfully tried to find work and questioned God's existence, but found solace in Ramakrishna and his visits to Dakshineswar increased. One day, Narendra requested Ramakrishna to pray to goddess Kali for their family's financial welfare. Ramakrishna instead suggested him to go to the temple himself and pray. Following Ramakrishna's suggestion, he went to the temple thrice, but failed to pray for any kind of worldly necessities and ultimately prayed for true knowledge and devotion from the goddess. Narendra gradually grew ready to renounce everything for the sake of realising God, and accepted Ramakrishna as his Guru. In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer, and was transferred to Calcutta and (later) to a garden house in Cossipore. Narendra and Ramakrishna's other disciples took care of him during his last days, and Narendra's spiritual education continued. At Cossipore, he experienced Nirvikalpa samadhi. Narendra and several other disciples received ochre robes from Ramakrishna, forming his first monastic order. He was taught that service to men was the most effective worship of God. Ramakrishna asked him to care of the other monastic disciples, and in turn asked them to see Narendra as their leader. Ramakrishna died in the early-morning hours of 16 August 1886 in Cossipore. ### Founding of Ramakrishna Math After Ramakrishna's death, his devotees and admirers stopped supporting his disciples. Unpaid rent accumulated, and Narendra and the other disciples had to find a new place to live. Many returned home, adopting a Grihastha (family-oriented) way of life. Narendra decided to convert a dilapidated house at Baranagar into a new math (monastery) for the remaining disciples. Rent for the Baranagar Math was low, raised by "holy begging" (mādhukarī). The math became the first building of the Ramakrishna Math: the monastery of the monastic order of Ramakrishna. Narendra and other disciples used to spend many hours in practicing meditation and religious austerities every day. Narendra later reminisced about the early days of the monastery: > We underwent a lot of religious practice at the Baranagar Math. We used to get up at 3:00 am and become absorbed in japa and meditation. What a strong spirit of detachment we had in those days! We had no thought even as to whether the world existed or not. In 1887, Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav Charan Basak. Narendra collected and arranged most of the songs of this compilation, but could not finish the work of the book for unfavourable circumstances. ### Monastic vows In December 1886, the mother of Baburam invited Narendra and his other brother monks to Antpur village. Narendra and the other aspiring monks accepted the invitation and went to Antpur to spend a few days. In Antpur, on the Christmas Eve of 1886, Narendra and eight other disciples took formal monastic vows. They decided to live their lives as their master lived. Narendranath took the name "Swami Vivekananda". ## Travels in India (1888–1893) In 1888, Narendra left the monastery as a Parivrâjaka— the Hindu religious life of a wandering monk, "without fixed abode, without ties, independent and strangers wherever they go". His sole possessions were a kamandalu (water pot), staff and his two favourite books: the Bhagavad Gita and The Imitation of Christ. Narendra travelled extensively in India for five years, visiting centres of learning and acquainting himself with diverse religious traditions and social patterns. He developed sympathy for the suffering and poverty of the people, and resolved to uplift the nation. Living primarily on bhiksha (alms), Narendra travelled on foot and by railway (with tickets bought by admirers). During his travels he met, and stayed with Indians from all religions and walks of life: scholars, dewans, rajas, Hindus, Muslims, Christians, paraiyars (low-caste workers) and government officials. On 31 May 1893, Narendra left Bombay for Chicago with the name, as suggested by Ajit Singh of Khetri, "Vivekananda"–a conglomerate of the Sanskrit words: viveka and ānanda, meaning "the bliss of discerning wisdom". ## First visit to the West (1893–1897) Vivekananda started his journey to the West on 31 May 1893 and visited several cities in Japan (including Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, Osaka, Kyoto and Tokyo), China and Canada en route to the United States, reaching Chicago on 30 July 1893, where the "Parliament of Religions" took place in September 1893. The Congress was an initiative of the Swedenborgian layman, and judge of the Illinois Supreme Court, Charles C. Bonney, to gather all the religions of the world, and show "the substantial unity of many religions in the good deeds of the religious life." It was one of the more than 200 adjunct gatherings and congresses of the Chicago's World's Fair, and was "an avant-garde intellectual manifestation of [...] cultic milieus, East and West," with the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society being invited as representative of Hinduism. Vivekananda wanted to join, but was disappointed to learn that no one without credentials from a bona fide organisation would be accepted as a delegate. Vivekananda contacted Professor John Henry Wright of Harvard University, who invited him to speak at Harvard. Vivekananda wrote of the professor, "He urged upon me the necessity of going to the Parliament of Religions, which he thought would give an introduction to the nation". Vivekananda submitted an application, "introducing himself as a monk 'of the oldest order of sannyāsis ... founded by Sankara,'" supported by the Brahmo Samaj representative Protapchandra Mozoombar, who was also a member of the Parliament's selection committee, "classifying the Swami as a representative of the Hindu monastic order." Hearing Vivekananda speak, Harvard psychology professor William James said, "that man is simply a wonder for oratorical power. He is an honor to humanity." ### Parliament of the World's Religions The Parliament of the World's Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the Art Institute of Chicago, as part of the World's Columbian Exposition. On this day, Vivekananda gave a brief speech representing India and Hinduism. He was initially nervous, bowed to Saraswati (the Hindu goddess of learning) and began his speech with "Sisters and brothers of America!". At these words, Vivekananda received a two-minute standing ovation from the crowd of seven thousand. According to Sailendra Nath Dhar, when silence was restored he began his address, greeting the youngest of the nations on behalf of "the most ancient order of monks in the world, the Vedic order of sannyasins, a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance". Vivekananda quoted two illustrative passages from the "Shiva mahimna stotram": "As the different streams having their sources in different places all mingle their water in the sea, so, O Lord, the different paths which men take, through different tendencies, various though they appear, crooked or straight, all lead to Thee!" and "Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I reach him; all men are struggling through paths that in the end lead to Me." According to Sailendra Nath Dhar, "it was only a short speech, but it voiced the spirit of the Parliament." Parliament President John Henry Barrows said, "India, the Mother of religions was represented by Swami Vivekananda, the Orange-monk who exercised the most wonderful influence over his auditors". Vivekananda attracted widespread attention in the press, which called him the "cyclonic monk from India". The New York Critique wrote, "He is an orator by divine right, and his strong, intelligent face in its picturesque setting of yellow and orange was hardly less interesting than those earnest words, and the rich, rhythmical utterance he gave them". The New York Herald noted, "Vivekananda is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions. After hearing him we feel how foolish it is to send missionaries to this learned nation". American newspapers reported Vivekananda as "the greatest figure in the parliament of religions" and "the most popular and influential man in the parliament". The Boston Evening Transcript reported that Vivekananda was "a great favourite at the parliament... if he merely crosses the platform, he is applauded". He spoke several more times "at receptions, the scientific section, and private homes" on topics related to Hinduism, Buddhism and harmony among religions until the parliament ended on 27 September 1893. Vivekananda's speeches at the Parliament had the common theme of universality, emphasising religious tolerance. He soon became known as a "handsome oriental" and made a huge impression as an orator. ### Lecture tours in the UK and US After the Parliament of Religions, he toured many parts of the US as a guest. His popularity opened up new views for expanding on "life and religion to thousands". During a question-answer session at Brooklyn Ethical Society, he remarked, "I have a message to the West as Buddha had a message to the East." Vivekananda spent nearly two years lecturing in the eastern and central United States, primarily in Chicago, Detroit, Boston, and New York. He founded the Vedanta Society of New York in 1894. By spring 1895 his busy, tiring schedule had affected his health. He ended his lecture tours and began giving free, private classes in Vedanta and yoga. Beginning in June 1895, Vivekananda gave private lectures to a dozen of his disciples at Thousand Island Park, New York for two months. During his first visit to the West he travelled to the UK twice, in 1895 and 1896, lecturing successfully there. In November 1895, he met Margaret Elizabeth Noble an Irish woman who would become Sister Nivedita. During his second visit to the UK in May 1896 Vivekananda met Max Müller, a noted Indologist from Oxford University who wrote Ramakrishna's first biography in the West. From the UK, Vivekananda visited other European countries. In Germany, he met Paul Deussen, another Indologist. Vivekananda was offered academic positions in two American universities (one the chair in Eastern Philosophy at Harvard University and a similar position at Columbia University); he declined both, since his duties would conflict with his commitment as a monk. Vivekananda's success led to a change in mission, namely the establishment of Vedanta centres in the West. Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar with western esoteric traditions and movements like Transcendentalism and New thought. An important element in his adaptation of Hindu religiosity was the introduction of his "four yogas" model, which includes Raja yoga, his interpretation of Patanjali's Yoga sutras, which offered a practical means to realise the divine force within which is central to modern western esotericism. In 1896, his book Raja Yoga was published, becoming an instant success; it was highly influential in the western understanding of yoga, in Elizabeth de Michelis's view marking the beginning of modern yoga. Vivekananda attracted followers and admirers in the US and Europe, including Josephine MacLeod, Betty Leggett, Lady Sandwich, William James, Josiah Royce, Robert G. Ingersoll, Lord Kelvin, Harriet Monroe, Ella Wheeler Wilcox, Sarah Bernhardt, Nikola Tesla, Emma Calvé and Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz. He initiated several followers : Marie Louise (a French woman) became Swami Abhayananda, and Leon Landsberg became Swami Kripananda, so that they could continue the work of the mission of the Vedanta Society. This society still is filled with foreign nationals and is also located in Los Angeles. During his stay in America, Vivekananda was given land in the mountains to the southeast of San Jose, California to establish a retreat for Vedanta students. He called it "Peace retreat", or, Shanti Asrama. The largest American centre is the Vedanta Society of Southern California in Hollywood, one of the twelve main centres. There is also a Vedanta Press in Hollywood which publishes books about Vedanta and English translations of Hindu scriptures and texts. Christina Greenstidel of Detroit was also initiated by Vivekananda with a mantra and she became Sister Christine, and they established a close father–daughter relationship. From the West, Vivekananda revived his work in India. He regularly corresponded with his followers and brother monks, offering advice and financial support. His letters from this period reflect his campaign of social service, and were strongly worded. He wrote to Akhandananda, "Go from door to door amongst the poor and lower classes of the town of Khetri and teach them religion. Also, let them have oral lessons on geography and such other subjects. No good will come of sitting idle and having princely dishes, and saying "Ramakrishna, O Lord!"—unless you can do some good to the poor". In 1895, Vivekananda founded the periodical Brahmavadin to teach the Vedanta. Later, Vivekananda's translation of the first six chapters of The Imitation of Christ was published in Brahmavadin in 1899. Vivekananda left for India on 16 December 1896 from England with his disciples Captain and Mrs. Sevier and J.J. Goodwin. On the way, they visited France and Italy, and set sail for India from Naples on 30 December 1896. He was later followed to India by Sister Nivedita, who devoted the rest of her life to the education of Indian women and India's independence. ## Back in India (1897–1899) The ship from Europe arrived in Colombo, British Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) on 15 January 1897, and Vivekananda received a warm welcome. In Colombo, he gave his first public speech in the East. From there on, his journey to Calcutta was triumphant. Vivekananda travelled from Colombo to Pamban, Rameswaram, Ramnad, Madurai, Kumbakonam and Madras, delivering lectures. Common people and rajas gave him an enthusiastic reception. During his train travels, people often sat on the rails to force the train to stop, so they could hear him. From Madras (now Chennai), he continued his journey to Calcutta and Almora. While in the West, Vivekananda spoke about India's great spiritual heritage; in India, he repeatedly addressed social issues: uplifting the people, eliminating the caste system, promoting science and industrialisation, addressing widespread poverty and ending colonial rule. These lectures, published as Lectures from Colombo to Almora, demonstrate his nationalistic fervour and spiritual ideology. On 1 May 1897 in Calcutta, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission for social service. Its ideals are based on Karma Yoga, and its governing body consists of the trustees of the Ramakrishna Math (which conducts religious work). Both Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission have their headquarters at Belur Math. Vivekananda founded two other monasteries: one in Mayavati in the Himalayas (near Almora), the Advaita Ashrama and another in Madras (now Chennai). Two journals were founded: Prabuddha Bharata in English and Udbhodan in Bengali. That year, famine-relief work was begun by Swami Akhandananda in the Murshidabad district. Vivekananda earlier inspired Jamsetji Tata to set up a research and educational institution when they travelled together from Yokohama to Chicago on Vivekananda's first visit to the West in 1893. Tata now asked him to head his Research Institute of Science; Vivekananda declined the offer, citing a conflict with his "spiritual interests". He visited Punjab, attempting to mediate an ideological conflict between Arya Samaj (a reformist Hindu movement) and sanatan (orthodox Hindus). After brief visits to Lahore, Delhi and Khetri, Vivekananda returned to Calcutta in January 1898. He consolidated the work of the math and trained disciples for several months. Vivekananda composed "Khandana Bhava–Bandhana", a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna, in 1898. ## Second visit to the West and final years (1899–1902) Despite declining health, Vivekananda left for the West for a second time in June 1899 accompanied by Sister Nivedita and Swami Turiyananda. Following a brief stay in England, he went to the United States. During this visit, Vivekananda established Vedanta Societies in San Francisco and New York and founded a shanti ashrama (peace retreat) in California. He then went to Paris for the Congress of Religions in 1900. His lectures in Paris concerned the worship of the lingam and the authenticity of the Bhagavad Gita. Vivekananda then visited Brittany, Vienna, Istanbul, Athens and Egypt. The French philosopher Jules Bois was his host for most of this period, until he returned to Calcutta on 9 December 1900. After a brief visit to the Advaita Ashrama in Mayavati, Vivekananda settled at Belur Math, where he continued co-ordinating the works of Ramakrishna Mission, the math and the work in England and the US. He had many visitors, including royalty and politicians. Although Vivekananda was unable to attend the Congress of Religions in 1901 in Japan due to deteriorating health, he made pilgrimages to Bodhgaya and Varanasi. Declining health (including asthma, diabetes and chronic insomnia) restricted his activity. ## Death On 4 July 1902 (the day of his death), Vivekananda awoke early, went to the monastery at Belur Math and meditated for three hours. He taught Shukla-Yajur-Veda, Sanskrit grammar and the philosophy of yoga to pupils, later discussing with colleagues a planned Vedic college in the Ramakrishna Math. At 7:00 pm Vivekananda went to his room, asking not to be disturbed; he died at 9:20 p.m. while meditating. According to his disciples, Vivekananda attained mahasamādhi; the rupture of a blood vessel in his brain was reported as a possible cause of death. His disciples believed that the rupture was due to his brahmarandhra (an opening in the crown of his head) being pierced when he attained mahasamādhi. Vivekananda fulfilled his prophecy that he would not live forty years. He was cremated on a sandalwood funeral pyre on the bank of the Ganga in Belur, opposite where Ramakrishna was cremated sixteen years earlier. ## Teachings and philosophy While synthesizing and popularizing various strands of Hindu-thought, most notably classical yoga and (Advaita) Vedanta, Vivekananda was influenced by western ideas such as Universalism, via Unitarian missionaries who collaborated with the Brahmo Samaj. His initial beliefs were shaped by Brahmo concepts, which included belief in a formless God and the deprecation of idolatry, and a "streamlined, rationalized, monotheistic theology strongly coloured by a selective and modernistic reading of the Upanisads and of the Vedanta". He propagated the idea that "the divine, the absolute, exists within all human beings regardless of social status", and that "seeing the divine as the essence of others will promote love and social harmony". Via his affiliations with Keshub Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan, the Freemasonry lodge, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, and Sen's Band of Hope, Vivekananda became acquainted with Western esotericism. He was also influenced by Ramakrishna, who gradually brought Narendra to a Vedanta-based worldview that "provides the ontological basis for 'śivajñāne jīver sevā', the spiritual practice of serving human beings as actual manifestations of God." Vivekananda propagated that the essence of Hinduism was best expressed in Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta philosophy. Nevertheless, following Ramakrishna, and in contrast to Advaita Vedanta, Vivekananda believed that the Absolute is both immanent and transcendent. According to Anil Sooklal, Vivekananda's neo-Vedanta "reconciles Dvaita or dualism and Advaita or non-dualism," viewing Brahman as "one without a second," yet "both qualified, saguna, and qualityless, nirguna." Vivekananda summarised the Vedanta as follows, giving it a modern and Universalistic interpretation, showing the influence of classical yoga: > Each soul is potentially divine. The goal is to manifest this Divinity within by controlling nature, external and internal. Do this either by work, or worship, or mental discipline, or philosophy—by one, or more, or all of these—and be free. This is the whole of religion. Doctrines, or dogmas, or rituals, or books, or temples, or forms, are but secondary details. Vivekananda's emphasis on nirvikalpa samadhi was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedanta. In line with Advaita Vedanta texts like Dŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka (14th century) and Vedantasara (of Sadananda) (15th century), Vivekananda saw samadhi as a means to attain liberation. Vivekananda popularized the notion of involution, a term which Vivekananda probably took from western Theosophists, notably Helena Blavatsky, in addition to Darwin's notion of evolution, and possibly referring to the Samkhya term sātkarya. Theosophic ideas on involution has "much in common" with "theories of the descent of God in Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and other esoteric schools." According to Meera Nanda, "Vivekananda uses the word involution exactly how it appears in Theosophy: the descent, or the involvement, of divine cosnciousness into matter." With spirit, Vivekananda refers to prana or purusha, derived ("with some original twists") from Samkhya and classical yoga as presented by Patanjali in the Yoga sutras. Vivekananda linked morality with control of the mind, seeing truth, purity and unselfishness as traits which strengthened it. He advised his followers to be holy, unselfish and to have shraddhā (faith). Vivekananda supported brahmacharya, believing it the source of his physical and mental stamina and eloquence. Vivekananda's acquaintance with Western esotericism made him very successful in Western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions. Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his Western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar with Western esoteric traditions and movements like Transcendentalism and New thought. An important element in his adaptation of Hindu religiosity was the introduction of his four yoga's model, which includes Raja yoga, his interpretation of Patanjali's Yoga sutras, which offered a practical means to realize the divine force within which is central to modern Western esotericism. In 1896, his book Raja Yoga was published, which became an instant success and was highly influential in the Western understanding of yoga. Nationalism was a prominent theme in Vivekananda's thought. He believed that a country's future depends on its people, and his teachings focused on human development. He wanted "to set in motion a machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest". ## Influence and legacy Vivekananda was one of the most influential philosophers and social reformers in his contemporary India and the most successful and influential missionaries of Vedanta to the Western world. He is now considered one of the most influential people of modern India and Hinduism. Mahatma Gandhi said that after reading the works of Vivekananda, his love for his nation became a thousand-fold. Rabindranath Tagore suggested to study Vivekananda's works to learn about India. Indian independence activist Subhas Chandra Bose regarded Vivekananda as his spiritual teacher. ### Neo-Vedanta Vivekananda was one of the main representatives of Neo-Vedanta, a modern interpretation of selected aspects of Hinduism in line with western esoteric traditions, especially Transcendentalism, New Thought and Theosophy. His reinterpretation was, and is, very successful, creating a new understanding and appreciation of Hinduism within and outside India, and was the principal reason for the enthusiastic reception of yoga, Transcendental Meditation and other forms of Indian spiritual self-improvement in the West. Agehananda Bharati explained, "...modern Hindus derive their knowledge of Hinduism from Vivekananda, directly or indirectly". Vivekananda espoused the idea that all sects within Hinduism (and all religions) are different paths to the same goal. However, this view has been criticised as an oversimplification of Hinduism. ### Indian nationalism In the background of emerging nationalism in British-ruled India, Vivekananda crystallised the nationalistic ideal. In the words of social reformer Charles Freer Andrews, "The Swami's intrepid patriotism gave a new colour to the national movement throughout India. More than any other single individual of that period Vivekananda had made his contribution to the new awakening of India". Vivekananda drew attention to the extent of poverty in the country, and maintained that addressing such poverty was a prerequisite for national awakening. His nationalistic ideas influenced many Indian thinkers and leaders. Sri Aurobindo regarded Vivekananda as the one who awakened India spiritually. Mahatma Gandhi counted him among the few Hindu reformers "who have maintained this Hindu religion in a state of splendor by cutting down the dead wood of tradition". ### Name-giving In September 2010, the then Union Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee, who subsequently became President of India from 2012 to 2017, approved in principle the Swami Vivekananda Values Education Project at a cost of ₹1 billion (US\$13 million), with objectives including: involving youth with competitions, essays, discussions and study circles and publishing Vivekananda's works in a number of languages. In 2011, the West Bengal Police Training College was renamed the Swami Vivekananda State Police Academy, West Bengal. The state technical university in Chhattisgarh has been named the Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University. In 2012, the Raipur airport was renamed Swami Vivekananda Airport. ### Celebrations While National Youth Day in India is observed on his birthday, 12 January, the day he delivered his masterful speech at the Parliament of Religions, 11 September 1893, is "World Brotherhood Day". The 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda was celebrated in India and abroad. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in India officially observed 2013 as the occasion in a declaration. ### Movies Indian film director Utpal Sinha made a film, The Light: Swami Vivekananda as a tribute for his 150th birth anniversary. Other Indian films about his life include: Swamiji (1949) by Amar Mullick, Swami Vivekananda (1955) by Amar Mullick, Birieswar Vivekananda (1964) by Modhu Bose, Life and Message of Swami Vivekananda (1964) documentary film by Bimal Roy, Swami Vivekananda (1998) by G. V. Iyer, Swamiji (2012) laser light film by Manick Sorcar. Sound of Joy, an Indian 3D-animated short film directed by Sukankan Roy depicts the spiritual journey of Vivekananda. It won the National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Animation Film in 2014. ## Works ### Lectures Although Vivekananda was a powerful orator and writer in English and Bengali, he was not a thorough scholar, and most of his published works were compiled from lectures given around the world which were "mainly delivered [...] impromptu and with little preparation". His main work, Raja Yoga, consists of talks he delivered in New York. ### Literary works Bartaman Bharat meaning "Present Day India" is an erudite Bengali language essay written by him, which was first published in the March 1899 issue of Udbodhan, the only Bengali language magazine of Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission. The essay was reprinted as a book in 1905 and later compiled into the fourth volume of The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. In this essay his refrain to the readers was to honour and treat every Indian as a brother irrespective of whether he was born poor or in lower caste. ### Publications Published in his lifetime - Sangeet Kalpataru (1887, with Vaishnav Charan Basak) - Karma Yoga (1896) - Raja Yoga (1896 [1899 edition]) - Vedanta Philosophy: An address before the Graduate Philosophical Society (1896) - Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897) - Bartaman Bharat (March 1899), Udbodhan - My Master (1901), The Baker and Taylor Company, New York - Vedânta philosophy: lectures on Jnâna Yoga (1902) Vedânta Society, New York - Jnana yoga (1899) Published posthumously Published after his death (1902) - Addresses on Bhakti Yoga - Bhakti Yoga - The East and the West (1909) - Inspired Talks (1909) - Narada Bhakti Sutras – translation - Para Bhakti or Supreme Devotion - Practical Vedanta - Speeches and writings of Swami Vivekananda; a comprehensive collection - Complete Works: a collection of his writings, lectures and discourses in a set of nine volumes - Seeing Beyond the Circle (2005) ## See also - List of Hindu gurus and saints - Ātman - Self-control and discipline - Soul - Vivekananda Vidyaniketan Educational Institutions - Yoga - Ashtanga yoga - Bhakti yoga - Karma yoga - Jnana yoga
65,810,815	The Roxy (Portland, Oregon)	1,171,568,164	Defunct diner in Portland, Oregon, U.S.	[ "1994 establishments in Oregon", "2022 disestablishments in Oregon", "Defunct diners in Oregon", "Defunct restaurants in Portland, Oregon", "Diners in Portland, Oregon", "LGBT culture in Portland, Oregon", "Restaurants disestablished during the COVID-19 pandemic", "Restaurants disestablished in 2022", "Restaurants established in 1994", "Southwest Portland, Oregon" ]	The Roxy was a diner serving American cuisine in Portland, Oregon. Located on downtown Portland's Southwest Harvey Milk Street, the restaurant was established in 1994. The Roxy was popular as a late-night food destination and had a diverse clientele. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the diner operated 24 hours a day, except on Mondays. The Roxy has been described as "iconic" and a "landmark", and was known for being an LGBT-friendly establishment because of its employees' community involvement and its location within the historic hub of LGBT culture and nightlife. Following a forced six-month closure due to the pandemic, the diner opened under new public health and safety guidelines in November 2020. The diner closed in March 2022. ## Description The Roxy was a diner on Southwest Harvey Milk Street in downtown Portland. The restaurant's small storefront neighbors were the gay bar Scandals and a residential hotel. The Roxy served American cuisine, including breakfast all day, and was described as having a "funky avant-garde theme". The interior featured a jukebox and a sculpture of Jesus. Depictions of nude women appeared on an overhead mirror. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the diner was open 24 hours a day, except on Mondays. Scandals patrons could order food from The Roxy and consume from inside the bar. Jason Kaplan of Oregon Business described the diner's clientele as "a diverse bunch" and wrote: "There is usually a surge in business after 2 a.m. when the bars close. The Roxy is a popular spot after a night of clubbing." In 2020, Thom Hilton of Portland Monthly described The Roxy as a "gay diner", a "neon dive", and an "all-ages queer haven". Eater Portland's Brooke Jackson-Glidden has called the restaurant a "quintessential Portland hangout—especially among teenagers, partiers, and night-shifters". ## History The Roxy was established in 1994. Suzanne Hale (nicknamed "The Lovely Suzanne") owned the restaurant since c. 1995. In 2013, Eater Portland published Hale's "dish on what 24 hours is like at the open-all-day diner", giving readers an overview of typical shifts and The Roxy's clientele. The diner had a few longtime employees. April Shattuck served as general manager since The Roxy opened. As of 2018, one waiter had served patrons for 23 years, including 18 on the night shift. Hale's daughter April also served as a waitress at The Roxy. ### Connection to the LGBT community Hale and The Roxy had a history of supporting Portland's LGBT community. She participated in an annual drag pageant presented by the International Sovereign Rose Court, Oregon's oldest LGBT nonprofit organization, and spoke at local gay–straight alliance meetings. She and other employees of the restaurant collected signatures for the Harvey Milk Street Project, an effort to name a part of Stark Street after LGBT rights activist and politician Harvey Milk. Hale said Stark Street's namesake, Benjamin Stark, "did not represent the city well". In 2018, the stretch of Stark Street in front of The Roxy was successfully renamed Southwest Harvey Milk Street. As a sign of gratitude for the diner employees' contributions, the Harvey Milk Foundation presented The Roxy with a portrait painting of Milk. On behalf of the foundation, activist and politician Nicole Murray-Ramirez called the artwork "a way to honor the community and Portland residents who gathered signatures and helped make the city the third in the country to have a street named for Milk". In 2018, The Oregonian's Andrew Theen described Scandals and The Roxy as "the most-prominent gay businesses" still operating in the historical hub of local LGBT culture and nightlife. ### COVID-19 pandemic and closure The Roxy was forced to close for approximately six months in 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Plywood covered the diner's windows, and a sign was displayed, saying, "The Roxy is closed until this is over ... take care of yourselves, stay home, and Washie Washie!" Following a remodel, The Roxy reopened on November 8, operating under new public health and safety guidelines. Two parking spaces outside the restaurant were converted to outdoor seating areas per a "healthy business permit" issued by the Portland Bureau of Transportation (PBOT). Five structures resembling greenhouses built by nearby Cheryl's on 12th nearly doubled The Roxy's temporary capacity. The remodel saw improvements to the diner's bathrooms and kitchens as well as the installation of plexiglass to reduce the spread of COVID-19. Additionally, porcelain tile and stainless steel replaced some interior finished wood features for easier cleaning. The Roxy closed at 10:00 p.m. daily as of November 2020; COVID-19 precautions included socially distanced tables, temperature checks for patrons and staff, and regular disinfecting. The diner closed permanently on March 20, 2022. The Roxy's owners attributed the closure to financial losses during the pandemic. In February 2021, during planned reopening efforts, a fire and resulting water damage forced another four-month closure. When the city later announced it would rehabilitate the building the Roxy was operating in, Hale said the Roxy was forced out, prompting the permanent closure. ## Reception The Roxy has been described as "iconic" and a "landmark". Willamette Week said in a 2015 bar guide: > Whither the Roxy, so goes a whole culture of the teenaged, the goth, the gender-idiosyncratic, the deeply drunk and Ecstasy-enamored and otherwise merely nearby—Portland's joyful late-night fringe that seemingly, mostly, needs an insane amount of egg, biscuit, bacon and especially gravy; a bottomless 4 a.m. cup of joe; and a 5 a.m. heart attack. This ode to camp and days gone by, in the 'heart of a glamour district' that has mostly faded around it, does not change and does not fade. It never should. A 2017 article in the newspaper stated: "The Roxy is the only thing in Portland seemingly immune to the ravages of time, with DayGlo-yellow gravy, omelets thick as thighs and tables full of teens conceived on Molly who also take Molly. Long may it ruin the digestion of the drunk and high." The Portland Mercury's Santi Elijah Holley wrote: > If you're looking for a taste of Old Portland, no matter what time of night or day ... look no further than the Roxy. For more than two decades, this 24-hour diner has been a destination for late-night carousers in need of a 4 a.m. fix, or a before-work hangover meal. Breakfast at the Roxy, like any good diner worth its salt, is served anytime, in large portions, and naturally, named after second-rate actors or classic B-movies.... Mind you, this isn't food meant to be savored, shared, or Instagrammed; it is meant to sop up booze—and in that, the Roxy triumphs. In his 2018 overview of "the best in LGBTQ+ nightlife, bars, parties, comedy, and more", the newspaper's Andrew Jankowski described The Roxy as an "after-party drunk food oasis". Jason Kaplan of Oregon Business wrote in 2018: "[S]ince Portland's halcyon days of the 1990s when things were still weird, The Roxy has been a late-night oasis for revelers of all stripes. After the bars kick you out you can come here and drink coffee until you're sober, or fight a hangover with pancakes." In his 2019 "ultimate guide to Portland's 40 best brunches", The Oregonian's Michael Russell called The Roxy an "old-school Portland diner with an all-day breakfast menu and 24-hour service" and a "dim downtown haunt". The newspaper's Lizzy Acker ranked The Roxy number 20 on her 2019 list of the city's top 25 corned beef hash entrées. She also said the 24-hour service and "vibe", reminding guests they ate in "Portland F---ing Oregon", were the "best things" about the diner. In 2020, Portland Monthly's Thom Hilton said: "The Roxy is the meeting place of kids who want to be weirdo grown-ups and weirdo grown-ups who might become ghosts.... This is a joint where you might pick up a cute bear's number as you chat about Twin Peaks and lighten up your coffee with milk from a baby bottle." ## See also - Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community - List of defunct restaurants of the United States - List of diners
35,211,301	Battle of Nablus (1918)	1,166,937,904	Middle Eastern battle of WWI	[ "1918 in British-administered Palestine", "Aerial operations and battles of World War I", "Battles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk", "Battles of World War I involving Australia", "Battles of World War I involving British India", "Battles of World War I involving France", "Battles of World War I involving Germany", "Battles of World War I involving New Zealand", "Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire", "Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign", "Conflicts in 1918", "History of the Royal Air Force during World War I", "September 1918 events" ]	The Battle of Nablus took place, together with the Battle of Sharon during the set piece Battle of Megiddo between 19 and 25 September 1918 in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. Fighting took place in the Judean Hills where the British Empire's XX Corps attacked the Ottoman Empire's Yildirim Army Group's Seventh Army defending their line in front of Nablus. This battle was also fought on the right flank in the Jordan Valley, where Chaytor's Force attacked and captured the Jordan River crossings, before attacking the Fourth Army at Es Salt and Amman capturing many thousands of prisoners and extensive territory. The Battle of Nablus began half a day after the main Battle of Sharon, which was fought on the Mediterranean section of the front line where the XXI Corps attacked the Eighth Army defending the line in front of Tulkarm and Tabsor and the Desert Mounted Corps which rode north to capture the Esdrealon Plain. Together these two battles, known as the Battle of Megiddo, began the Final Offensive of the war in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. By the afternoon of 19 September, it was clear that the breakthrough attacks in the Battle of Sharon by the XXI Corps had been successful, and the XX Corps was ordered to begin the Battle of Nablus by attacking the well-defended Ottoman front line, supported by an artillery barrage. These attacks continued late into the night and throughout the next day, until the early hours of 21 September when the continuing successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps, combined with the XX Corps assault and aerial bombing attacks, forced the Seventh and Eighth Armies to disengage. The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River, aiming to cross at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge, leaving a rearguard to defend Nablus. The town was captured by the XX Corps and the 5th Light Horse Brigade, while devastating aerial bombing of the Wadi el Fara road, blocked that line of retreat. As all objectives had now been won, no further attacks were required of the XX Corps, which captured thousands of prisoners in the area and at Nablus and Balata. Defending the right flank and subsidiary to the Nablus battle, the Third Transjordan attack began on 22 September when Meldrum's Force, a section of Chaytor's Force captured the 53rd Ottoman Division on the Wadi el Fara road, running from Nablus to the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh over the Jordan River. Further sections of the retreating Seventh Army column were attacked and captured, during the subsequent battle for the bridge when several fords were also captured along with the bridge, cutting this main Ottoman line of retreat eastwards. As the Fourth Army began its retreat, Chaytor's Force supported by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft, advanced from Jisr ed Damieh to the east to capture Es Salt on 23 September. This force continued its advance eastwards, to capture Amman on 25 September, after a strong Fourth Army rearguard was defeated there. The southern Hedjaz section of the Fourth Army was captured to the south of Amman, at Ziza on 29 September, ending military operations in the area. Following the victory at Megiddo, the Final Offensive continued when Damascus was captured on 1 October, after several days of pursuit by the Desert Mounted Corps. A further pursuit resulted in the occupation of Homs. On 26 October, the attack at Haritan, north of Aleppo, was under-way when the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, ending the Sinai and Palestine campaign. ## Background After the Ottoman Army's defeat at the Battle of Beersheba, the loss to the Central Powers of southern Palestine, the retreat to the Judean Hills and the loss of Jerusalem at the end of 1917, several Ottoman army commanders in Palestine were replaced. The Yildirim Army Group's German commander, General Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by the German General Otto Liman von Sanders. The commander of the Eighth Army, Kress von Kressenstein, was replaced by Djevad Pasha and Cemal commander of the Ottoman Army, appointed Cemal Kucjuk Pasha to command the Fourth Army. Mustafa Kemal had resigned as commander of the Seventh Army in 1917 but was back by early September 1918. Following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, which ended the war on the Eastern Front between Imperial Russia and Imperial Germany, the main focus of the Ottoman Army turned to the Anatolian provinces and territories lost in 1877–1878 during the Russo-Turkish War. The Ottoman Army embarked on a series of territorial conquests in the Caucasus beginning in northern Persia. Erzerum which had been captured by the Russians in 1916, was retaken on 24 March 1918, followed by Van on 5 April and later Batum, Kars and Tiflis. Reoccupation of these former possessions brought little strategic advantage to the Ottoman Empire, compared with the potential benefits of military success in Palestine. Major offensive operations in Palestine also became a low priority for the British Army in March; being postponed because of the German spring offensive in France, but by July, it was clear that the German offensive had failed resulting in a return to the battle of attrition in the trenches. This coincided with the approach of the campaign season in Palestine. General Edmund Allenby, commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) was "very anxious to make a move in September" when he expected to capture Tulkarm and Nablus, the headquarters of the Seventh and Eighth Armies, along with the road to Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt. "Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies." ### Reorganisation of EEF infantry To replace British losses suffered during the Spring Offensive the 52nd (Lowland), the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions and nine British infantry battalions from each of the 10th, 53rd, 60th and the 75th Divisions were sent to France between April and August 1918. The resulting vacancies in the divisions were filled by British Indian Army battalions. The 75th Division had received the first Indian battalions in June 1917. Infantry brigades were now reorganised with one British battalion and three Indian battalions. Except one brigade in the 53rd Division which had one South African and three Indian battalions. The British Indian Army's 7th (Meerut) Division arrived from the campaign in Mesopotamia in January 1918 followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division in April, 1918. Only the 54th (East Anglian) Division remained, as previously, an all British division. By April 1918, 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were being prepared to move to Palestine. Some of these battalions, numbered from 150 upwards, were formed by removing complete companies from experienced regiments then serving in Mesopotamia and forming new battalions. The 2/151st Indian Infantry, was one such battalion formed from one company each from the 56th Punjabi Rifles, the 51st, 52nd and 53rd Sikhs. One regiment the 101st Grenadiers formed a second battalion by dividing itself into two with two experienced and two new companies in each battalion. The parent battalions also supplied first line transport and experienced officers with war time service. The 3/151st Indian Infantry, had the commanding officer, two other British and four Indian officers included in the 198 men transferred from the 38th Dogras. The sepoys transferred were also very experienced, in September 1918 the 2/151st Indian Infantry had to provide an honour guard for Allenby, among the men on parade, were some who had served on five different fronts since 1914, and on eight pre war campaigns. Of the 54 Indian battalions deployed to Palestine, 22 had recent experience of combat, but had each lost an experienced company, which had been replaced by recruits. Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together. The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war, in total almost a third of the troops were recruits. Within 44 Indian battalions, the "junior British officers were green, and most could not speak Hindustani. In one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men." Not all of the Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions, some were employed in defence of the lines of communication. ### Front line In September 1918, the front line began near sea level on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles (19 km) north of Jaffa and Arsuf, extending about 15 miles (24 km) south-eastward across the Plain of Sharon, then eastward over the Judean Hills for about 15 miles (24 km), rising to 1,500–2,000 feet (460–610 m) above sea level along the way. From the Judean Hills, the front line dropped down to 1,000 feet (300 m) below sea level, to cross the Jordan Valley for approximately 18 miles (29 km), ending in the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead/Moab. ### Railway The Ottoman railway from Istanbul travelled south to Deraa where it branched into two lines. One line continued east of the Jordan River in a southerly direction to supply the Ottoman Fourth Army headquarters and the garrisons and forces scattered along the southern Hedjaz railway several hundred miles to the south. The second railway line turned westward to supply the Ottoman Seventh and the Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills. This second line crossed the Jordan at Jisr Mejamie, ran southwards down the west bank of the Jordan River to Beisan, then turned westward to run parallel to the front line in the Judean Hills, across the Esdraelon Plain to Afulah. From Afulah the railway forked again into two lines: a branch line running north-westerly to Haifa, while the main line turned south to Jenin. From Jenin the railway wound through a narrow pass in the foothills to climb to Messudieh Junction in the Judean Hills where it again branched into two lines. One line ran westward to Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters before turning south to reach railhead behind the Eighth Army' front line on the coastal plain, while the second line continued south-eastward to Nablus. Here, the headquarters of the Seventh Army was located, north of Jerusalem on the main road to Nazareth and Damascus. ## Prelude "Concentration, surprise, and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby." Victory at the Battle of Megiddo depended on the success of an intense British Empire artillery barrage to cover the front line infantry attack and drive a gap in the line so the cavalry could advance to quickly reach the Esdraelon Plain 50 miles (80 km) away during the first day of battle. Control of the skies was achieved and maintained by destroying or dominating German aircraft activity and reconnaissances, and constant bombing raids by the Royal Flying Corps (RAF) and Australian Flying Corps (AFC) on Afulah and the Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus respectively and cutting communications with their commander, Liman von Sanders at Nazareth. During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Megiddo's Battle of Sharon, between 04:30 on 19 September and 17:00 on 20 September, the German and Ottoman front line had been cut by infantry, and the cavalry had passed through the gap to reach their objectives at Afulah, Nazareth, and Beisan. Without communications, no combined action could be organized by the Ottoman forces. The continuing British Empire infantry attack from the south forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills to withdraw northwards towards Damascus, along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus which ran through the Dothan Pass northwards to Jenin. Having captured the town, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade were to wait for them. ### British Empire deployments #### XX Corps The XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Phillip Chetwode consisting of the 10th and 53rd Divisions, was deployed on both sides of the road from Jerusalem to Nablus, in the Judean Hills. Chetwode was to capture Nablus by launching attacks on both Ottoman flanks, with the aim of converging about 7 miles (11 km) to the north. The 10th Division on the left was to attack the inter-army boundary with the XXI Corps 5 miles (8 km) east of Furkhah, heading for Nablus along a spur parallel with the 53rd Division on the right, which was to move east following the watershed to the Wadi el Fara. Between these two divisions was a 7 miles (11 km) gap lightly held by Watson's Force; a detachment improvised from Corps Troops' 1/1st Worcestershire Yeomanry, two Pioneer battalions, and details from the Corps Reinforcement Camp. #### Chaytor's Force On 5 September 1918 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade took over the left sector of the valley defences, continuing active patrolling. And on "the 16th September the General Officer Commanding Anzac Mounted Division took over command of the whole of the Jordan Valley defences as well as Desert Mounted Corps camps at Talaat ed Dumm and Kilo 17 Jericho Jerusalem Road and Desert Mounted Corps Reinforcement Camp, Jerusalem, the force being designated 'Chaytor's Force.'" Chaytor's Force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor, consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division, 20th Indian Brigade, 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment, 38th and 39th Battalions Royal Fusiliers (Jewish Volunteers), A/263 Battery Royal Field Artillery (RFA), 195th Heavy Battery Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA), 29th and 32nd Indian Artillery Mountain Batteries, No. 6 (Medium) Trench Mortar Battery, three anti-aircraft sections Royal Artillery (RA), two sections of captured 75 mm Ottoman guns, one section of captured 5.9 Ottoman guns and No. 35 Army Troops Company Royal Engineers (RE). On establishment, the force consisted of one mounted division, one infantry brigade and four infantry battalions (equivalent to a second infantry brigade without brigade support troops or a command structure), five batteries, six sections of artillery and transport consisting of 20 lorries, 17 tractors, 34 trucks, 300 donkeys, 11,000 horses and mules. Eight days later an additional 70 donkeys, 65 lorries in the 1040 Motor Transport Company, 110 camels in 'M' Company Camel Transport Corps, were added. Chaytor's Force was detached from the Desert Mounted Corps for independent operations. Primary responsibilities included the continuing occupation of the Jordan Valley and the protection of the eastern flank of the EEF's front line. Further, Chaytor's Force was to exploit any withdrawal by the Ottoman Fourth Army from their positions at Shunet Nimrin, Es Salt and their headquarters at Amman. #### Air support On 18 September, the Royal Air Force's 5th (Corps) Wing and the 40th (Army) Wing, both headquartered at Ramle, were deployed to the area and responsible for cooperation with artillery and contact patrols, tactical and strategic reconnaissance, photography, escorts, offensive patrols and bombing operations. No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps (AFC), No. 111 Squadron RAF and a flight of No. 145 Squadron RAF were based at Ramle, while No. 144 Squadron RAF was based at Junction Station. Tactical reconnaissance up to 10,000 yards (9,100 m) in advance of the XXI Corps, XX Corps and Chaytor's Force, was provided by corps squadrons; No. 14 Squadron RAF operating out of Junction Station was assigned to XX Corps. Operating out of Sarona was No. 113 Squadron RAF, along with No. 21 Balloon Company, both assigned to XXI Corps. No. 142 Squadron RAF, also operating out of Sarona, had orders to move forward to Jenin aerodrome as soon as it was captured and was assigned to Desert Mounted Corps. One flight from No. 142 Squadron was attached to Chaytor's Force and operated out of Jerusalem. No. 1 Squadron (AFC), consisting of Bristol Fighters, was to carry out bombing and strategic reconnaissance, as well as provide general oversight of the battlefield and report developments. Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons of S.E.5a aircraft were to patrol over the main Jenin aerodrome all day, bombing and machine gunning targets in the area to prevent any aircraft leaving the aerodrome. No. 144 Squadron, consisting of D.H. 9 aircraft, was to bomb the Afulah telephone exchange and railway station, the Messudieh Junction railway lines, as well as the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus. The newly arrived Handley–Page O-400 bomber (armed with sixteen 112-pound [51 kg] bombs) and piloted by the Australian, Ross Smith, was to support No. 144 Squadron's bombing of Afulah. #### Medical support A total of 54,800 beds were available in Palestine and Egypt, including convalescence and clearing hospitals; 22,524 beds were made available in Egypt, and a hospital centre in the Deir el Belah and Gaza region, along with stationary hospitals between Kantara and Ludd, could accommodate another 15,000 casualties. No. 14 Australian General Hospital on the Suez Canal was full of malaria cases from the Jordan Valley with the overflow in the No. 31 British General Hospital at Abbassia, Cairo. The Australian Stationary Hospital at Mosacar only had a few beds available. By August, casualty clearing stations or clearing hospitals were located at Ludd, at Jaffa and at Jerusalem, supported by medical stores depots at Ludd and Jerusalem. ### British Empire plan The timing of the attacks by the XX Corps and Chaytor's Force were dependent on the progress made by the XXI Corps during 19 September. Chetwode's XX Corps would continue holding more than 20 miles (32 km) of front in the Judean Hills, until the XXI Corps had succeeded in breaking through the Ottoman defences and was advancing north to its secondary objectives. Then, the 10th and the 53rd Divisions would launch their attacks on both sides of the road from Jerusalem to Nablus. In particular, the XX Corps right flank was to swing towards the north and north-east of Nablus to capture all remaining escape routes eastwards from the Judean Hills to the Jordan River. In the Jordan Valley, Chaytor's Force would hold the occupied area and the right flank against attack by the Ottoman Fourth Army and prevent that force from withdrawing troops, which could be sent to reinforce the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills. When the Ottoman force began its withdrawal, they were to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge. Allenby's plan was focused on capturing the Ottoman line of communication and retreat between the Fourth Army east of the Jordan river and the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills west of the Jordan: > I am very anxious to make a move in September, on the lines which I have already indicated to you ... Nablus and Tulkeram are the Headquarters of the VII and VIII Armies, joined by a lateral line of railway. The possession by the Turks of the road Nablus–Jisr ed Damie–Es Salt is of great advantage to them; and, until I get it, I can't occupy Es Salt with my troops or the Arabs. Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies. Chaytor's Force would then attack and pursue the Fourth Army, intercept and capture the 4,600 strong garrison from Maan and capture Amman. ### Yildirim Army Group In August 1918, the Yildirim Army Group commanded by von Sanders consisted of 40,598 front line infantrymen, organised into twelve divisions and deployed along 90 kilometres (56 mi) of front line. They were armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns; the high number of machine guns reflecting the Ottoman Army's new tables of organization and the high machine gun component of the German Asia Corps. The Ottoman front line in the Judean Hills was well entrenched south of Nablus in terrain which favoured defence. The area consisted of "very difficult and broken ground" in a rugged area of the Judean Hills. The defenders were supplied by two railways, one from Haifa and the main railway via Beisan across the Jordan to Deraa, Damascus and on to Istanbul as well as good roads from Haifa and Damascus, via Nazareth. #### Eighth Army The Eighth Army of 10,000 soldiers supported by 157 artillery guns, with its headquarters at Tulkarm and commanded by Cevat Çobanlı, held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills. Its XXII Corps consisted of the 7th, 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions. The Asia Corps, also known as the "Left Wing Group", consisted of the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions, three German battalion groups from the German Pasha II Brigade and the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division, which was held in reserve. This corps-sized German formation was commanded by German Colonel Gustav von Oppen. These divisions holding the front line from the Mediterranean Sea where they faced the XXI Corps, and into the Judean Hills where they faced the XX Corps, were highly regarded veteran formations in the Ottoman Army. In particular, the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions, had fought with distinction in the Gallipoli Campaign as part of Esat Pasa's III Corps. #### Seventh Army The Seventh Army of 7,000 soldiers supported by 111 guns, and commanded by Mustafa Kemal Pasha, had its headquarters at Nablus. This army, comprising the III Corps' 1st and 11th Infantry Divisions and the XXIII Corps' 26th and 53rd Infantry Division, held the line in the Judean Hills from Furkhah eastwards to Baghalat 6 miles (9.7 km) west north-west of Jericho on the west bank of the Jordan River. #### Fourth Army The Fourth Army of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry supported by 74 guns, headquartered at Amman, was commanded by Cemal Kucjuk Pasha. The Fourth Army held the line from Baghalat, across the Jordan Valley and southwards along the Hedjaz railway, where an additional 6,000 Ottoman soldiers, with 30 guns, were scattered from Maan southwards towards Mecca garrisoning the railway line. The Fourth Army was made up of two corps; the VIII Corps' 48th Infantry Division, a composite division which included a German battalion group, the Caucasus Cavalry Brigade and the division sized Serstal Group, while the II Corps (known as the Seria Group or Jordan Group) consisted of the 24th and the 62nd Infantry Divisions, with the 3rd Cavalry Division in reserve. #### Reserves The 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division were the only divisional formations available for reserve duty at the operational level. They were held in reserve for the Eight and Fourth Armies respectively. #### Other views of this force An English language assessment describes the Fourth, Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies fighting strength as 26,000 infantry, 2,000 mounted troops and 372 guns. Another states the 45 miles (72 km) of front line in the Judean Hills, was defended by 24,000 Ottoman soldiers with 270 guns against the British Empire's 22,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 157 guns. The nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division, had effective strengths equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men, while 150 to 200 men were "assigned" to the 19th Infantry Division battalions which had had between 500 and 600 men at Beersheba. Claims have been made that the Ottoman armies were under strength, overstretched, "haemorrhaging" deserters, suffering greatly from a strained supply system and overwhelmingly outnumbered by two to one by the EEF. It is claimed the Ottoman supply system was so bad in February 1918, that the normal daily ration for the Yildirim Army Group in Palestine, consisted of 125 grains (0.29 oz) of bread and boiled beans three times a day, without oil or any other condiment. ## Battle ### Preliminary attack On 18 September, the 53rd Division attempted to seize the Samieh basin overlooking the Ottoman road system behind their front lines. From this watershed, the Wadi Samieh flowed gradually to the west into the Judean Hills and the Wadi el Auja flowed down steeply to the east into the Jordan River. The area was required for the construction of a road to link the British road system with the newly captured Ottoman road system. Some objectives were captured but a position known to the British as "Nairn Ridge" was held by the Ottomans until late on 19 September. The 53rd Division's attack began shortly after 18:30 on the evening of 18 September when three battalions of the 160th Brigade, with the 21st Punjabis as vanguard, moved down into Wadi es Samieh in a wide flanking manoeuvre across rocky terrain towards the rear of the Ottoman positions. After cresting the wadi, they turned to the left and attacked a series of Ottoman positions from the east capturing small posts until an artillery bombardment between 21:52 and 22:20 enabled them to continue their advance. At 22:30, the 159th Brigade began its advance but almost immediately encountered strong Ottoman defences and the only five Hindustani-speaking British officers were wounded. Despite the casualties, the brigade captured its objectives under the command of an Adjutant Captain. The 159th Brigade advanced again and captured the Hindhead position at 04:40 after a red rocket, from the 160th Brigade indicating it had captured most of their objectives, was sighted. Meanwhile, the 160th Brigade had met increasing machine gun and artillery fire until a five-minute artillery bombardment at 04:45 enabled the capture of the Square Hill position. The southern end of Nairn Ridge was not captured, having "withstood three assaults". At 04:30, intense bombardment by artillery, trench mortars and machine guns, targeted the German and Ottoman front and second line trenches ahead of XXI Corps towards the Mediterranean coast. Additional fire support came from three siege batteries, which provided counter-battery fire, and the destroyers HMS Druid and HMS Forester, which fired on Ottoman trenches north of Nahr el Faliq; beginning the Battle of Sharon. Nairn Ridge remained in Ottoman hands until about 19:00 on 19 September, when it was finally captured and the road works could begin, and the 53rd Division could start their attempt to block the line of retreat, to the Jordan River at Mafid Jozele. ### 19 September Instead of attempting a frontal assault on the strongly entrenched Ottoman positions, the two divisions of the XX Corps were to carry out a converging movement. The 10th Division on the left of the main road was to capture Nablus, while the 53rd Division on the right was to move east of Nablus along a watershed to cut the lines of retreat from the Judean Hills to the Jisr ed Damieh and converge on Nablus. At 12:00 on 19 September, Chetwode received orders from GHQ to launch the XX Corps' attack that night on both sides of the road to Nablus. At 19:45 after a 15-minute bombardment, the 10th Division was to begin the attack on the inter army boundary between the Asia Corps (Eighth Ottoman Army) and the Seventh Ottoman Army, 5 miles (8 km) east of Furkhah at the "western end of the Fukhah spur." The 53rd Division's attack, which would not begin until after they had captured Nairn Ridge, was to move eastwards following the watershed to the Wadi el Fara to block the Roman road to the Jordan River at Mafid Jozele. Mustafa Kemal, the commander of the Seventh Army, reported to Liman that his army had repulsed practically all attacks on its front, but was about to withdraw to its second-line position between Kefar Haris and Iskaka, to conform with von Oppen's Asia Corps (Eighth Army) retirement. The XX Corps artillery bombardment began at 19:30 and fifteen minutes later two battalions of the 29th Brigade (10th Division) began to advance on either side of the Wadi Rashid against strongly entrenched Ottoman positions. After being reinforced and supported by a further artillery barrage, Furkhah village was captured and the advance continued towards Selfit, which was occupied in the "early hours of the morning" of 20 September. Meanwhile, in the Jordan Valley, Chaytor's Force faced stiff opposition from the Ottoman front line troops. As a consequence of progress made by the 160th Brigade during the afternoon of 19 September, one of the brigade's mountain batteries was able to get in a position to fire on Bakr Ridge. At 14:25, supported by the 160th Brigade's battery, three companies of the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment (Chaytor's Force) destroyed Ottoman outposts and captured a ridge to the south of Bakr Ridge, despite intense artillery and machine gun fire. Under heavy fire, they dug in and held their position while two regiments of 2nd Light Horse Brigade were able to advance towards Shunet Nimrin. ### 20 September The 10th Division advanced 7 miles (11 km) before dawn on 20 September, before encountering "solid resistance" which required artillery support, to defeat. Artillery support was delayed for some time due to the lack of a track to transport the guns. Meanwhile, the attack by the 53rd Division along the "ridge proved difficult to negotiate and progress was relatively slow." By 04:30, the left column of the 10th Division was near Kefr Haris, while the right column was at Selfit, but further advances were slowed by effective Ottoman rearguards. On the right, the 29th Brigade launched an attack at 06:45 but met strong resistance from German machine gunners a mile north of Selfit. The 31st Brigade began their advance at 08:45 but were held up in the woods east of Haris and south of Kefar Haris. At 15:00, the 29th and 31st Brigades renewed their attacks supported by artillery from the LXVII and LXVIII Brigades RFA. Haris was subsequently captured by an infantry charge into the village. In the centre between the 10th and 53rd Divisions, Watson's Force sent the 1/1st Worcestershire Yeomanry (XX Corps Troops) forward at 05:30, to advance northwards up the Jerusalem to Nablus road. The road was found to be heavily mined; two battalions of pioneers cleared 78 unexploded devices before the yeomanry advanced 1.5 miles (2.4 km) where they were fired on. By the evening they had advanced 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to Es Sawiye, encountering only small rearguards which were captured. The 10th Heavy Battery and 205th Siege Battery, pulled by four-wheel-drive lorries with ammunition and detachments in lorries, advanced as far up the road as possible, at a rate of 6 miles (9.7 km) per hour to be in action by evening near El Lubban, south of Es Sawiye. Strong Ottoman rearguards were encountered by the 53rd Division throughout the day which substantially slowed progress. At 04:40, after a ten-minute bombardment the 160th Brigade attacked Kh. Jibeit, but was counter-attacked at 08:00 by a battalion of the Ottoman 109th Regiment, which drove them back with heavy losses. By 11:00, the 158th Brigade was half way towards its objective 2,000 yards (1,800 m) south of Kh. Birket el Qusr, but could not breach the defences without artillery support. However, between 12:25 and 12:45 the 160th Brigade succeeded in recapturing Kh. Jibeit and at 15:00 the 159th Brigade captured Ras et Tawil. On the western bank of the Jordan River, the gains made on the previous day were consolidated and Bakr Ridge captured at dawn by the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment. The 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers faced heavy rifle and machine gun fire from Mellaha, which was still strongly held by Ottoman forces and in the late morning a large Ottoman force was seen south of Kh. Fusail. Jericho was shelled again in mid afternoon and at 19:00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade began their advance towards Tel sh edh Dhib. Meanwhile, on the eastern bank of the Jordan River, the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments (2nd Light Horse Brigade, Chaytor's Force) with a company of Patiala Infantry attacked well-defended positions on the Ottoman left flank, but patrols towards Shunet Nimrin and Derbasi were shelled by guns from El Haud. ### General situation More than 40 hours after the fighting began, the EEF XXI Corps had forced the Ottoman Eighth Army from the coastal Plain of Sharon, and the Desert Mounted Corps had cut the Ottoman Seventh and remnants of the Eighth Armies main lines of communication and retreat at Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain. By 17:00 20 September, about 25,000 prisoners had been captured and the Eighth Ottoman Army had ceased to exist excepting von Oppen's Asia Corps which, together with the Seventh Ottoman Army, withdrew north-eastwards through the Judean Hills between Nablus and Beisan (See Capture of Afulah and Beisan) towards the Jordan River losing most of their guns and transport. The Desert Mounted Corps had already captured Lejjun, Afulah, Beisan and, at about 17:30, Jenin, while Nazareth would be captured the following morning. The coastal Plain of Sharon had been "cleared" by the XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps controlled all the main Ottoman lines of retreat. A group of 100 soldiers retreating from Mount Ephraim to Beisan were captured in the afternoon of 20 September, and 700 soldiers were captured in the evening, attempting to cross the line of piquets established in the Esdrealon Plain by the 4th Cavalry Division from Afulah to Beisan. > My Battle is a big one; and, so far, very successful. I think I have taken some 10,000 prisoners and 80 or 90 guns ... This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh, and pushed thence rapidly south–eastwards, entered Beisan this evening, thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape. > > My infantry yesterday captured Tulkeram, and are now pursuing the enemy eastwards to Nablus ... I was at Tulkaram today, and went along the Nablus road. It is strewn with broken lorries, wagons, dead Turks, horses and oxen; mostly killed and smashed by our bombing aeroplanes. > > The same bombing of fugitives, on crowded roads, continues today. I think I ought to capture all the Turks' guns and the bulk of his Army ... My losses are not heavy, in proportion to the results gained. I hope to motor out, tomorrow, to see the Cavalry in Esdraelon. The Cavalry Headquarters are at Armageddon, at the present moment. ### 21 September Chetwode ordered the continuation of the XX Corps' attacks; the 10th Division was to capture Nablus, the 53rd Division was to advance towards the high ground north and north-east of Nablus, in the direction of the Wadi el Fara road, to capture and control this line of retreat to the Jordan Valley. At 23:30 20 September, the 29th and 31st Brigades of the 10th Division resumed their advance; the 29th Brigade supported by the Hong Kong Battery with the LXVII and LXVIII Brigades RFA on the left. The 30th Brigade concentrated west of Selfit in preparation of a follow-up advance through the 29th Brigade when it reached Quza on the Damascus road. A strong Ottoman rearguard at Rujib, 2 miles (3.2 km) south of Nablus, delayed the infantry attack for "no more than an hour" after which the defenders were outflanked from the east and the rearguard position captured at 11:00. Most of the garrison had already retreated from Rujib when the 1/1st Worcestershire Yeomanry, the Corps Cavalry Regiment, galloped in and captured several hundred prisoners. The Worcester Yeomanry continued their advance north-east of Nablus to Askar where they were stalled by machine gun fire. The 31st Brigade advanced to the hills south of Nablus, while the 29th and 30th Brigades went on to Balata where they captured some prisoners, but by this time, fighting had already ceased and the Seventh Army was in full retreat. Meanwhile, at Tabsor the 3rd (Lahore) Division (XXI Corps) continued a flanking advance to reach Rafidia at 05:00, 2,000 yards (1,800 m) west of Nablus on 21 September where they occupied a 5.5 miles (8.9 km) long line, which stretched to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east of Burqa. #### Capture of Nablus After cutting the railway north of Nablus, the 5th Light Horse Brigade (attached to the 60th Division) camped near Tulkarm for the night of 20 September. The brigade, consisting of the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments and the Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie, was ordered to assist in the capture of Nablus on the morning of 21 September. To reach Nablus, they had to negotiate around and through the wreckage caused by aerial bombing on the road from Tulkarm to Nablus. (See Battle of Sharon and Battle of Tabsor for movements of this light horse brigade.) > Dead men and animals, torn about with ruthless bombs, swollen and distorted, stank fearfully. Many of the animals still lived in speechless agony, and some of the wretched wounded were in many cases pinned down by carrion, but there was no time to stop and help them. That was for others who came behind. War is hell, and looks well only in a picture show. The 5th Light Horse Brigade with the 2nd Light Armoured Motor Battery, had advanced quickly along the Tulkarm-to-Nablus road to attack the last resistance outside Nablus and capture the town, between 800 and 900 prisoners and two field guns. The Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie, with two armoured cars, entered Nablus while the 14th Light Horse Regiment linked with the 29th and 30th Brigades (10th Division, XX Corps) at Balata. "[T]he 10th Division reached Nablus by noon, where they were met by the Fifth Australian Light Horse Brigade which had entered the town from the west at about the same time." The light horse rode through the streets of Nablus (the ancient Shechem) and camped on the plain beyond the town, where they received orders to rejoin the Australian Mounted Division at Jenin. > Outflanked, Nablus fell to the French regiment, to the usual demonstrations of allegiance to the conquerors—of whatever side. The Turkish troops had abandoned it for the surrounding country and the civic leaders formally surrendered to Onslow. The 5th then collected about 900 of the former garrison in the hinterland. Before advancing on Nablus and Balata, the 10th Division fought and marched for two days through the hills and gulleys of Mount Ephraim, suffering about 800 casualties but capturing 1,223 prisoners. Chetwode wrote: > I was able to motor into Nablus where I was joined by Allenby the same evening also in a motor, both of us being well ahead of our advance guards. The country was a mass of half starving bodies of Turks, some armed and some not, and it was quite ordinary to see an Indian havildar [sergeant] emerging from the mountains followed by 20 or 30 fully armed Turks who had surrendered to him. Allenby wrote: > I cannot estimate total number of prisoners, but 18,000 have been counted. I motored to Lejjun, today; 65 miles N. of here, overlooking the plain of Esdraelon. A beautiful view across the flat vale. Nazareth, high in hills, to the N.; Mount Tabor opposite; Mount Gilboa to the E., overlooking Jezreel. Some of the Indian cavalry got into Turks with the lance, in the plain yesterday, and killed many. I ... passed through thousands of prisoners today ... #### Advance towards Wadi el Fara road The 53rd Division maintained pressure during the day in an attempt to capture the high ground north and north-east of Nablus to seal the lines of retreat to the Jordan River crossing at Jisr ed Damieh. While the 160th Brigade guarded a water supply at Samiye, the 158th and 159th Brigades, advanced 3.5 miles (5.6 km), suffering 690 casualties but captured 1,195 prisoners and nine guns. At 01:00, the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers occupied Kh. Birket el Qusr unopposed. A follow-up advance gained them 'Aqrabe at 10:45 and after a further 10 miles (16 km) advance to the north, unopposed, it became apparent that enemy forces had disengaged. Chetwode sent orders to "stand fast" as an advance to the now blocked Wadi el Fara road was unnecessary. The road was subsequently bombarded by the RAF and artillery of 'A' Battery LXVIII Brigade RFA, the 10th Heavy Battery and two batteries of the 103rd Brigade RGA. ### German and Ottoman retreat By early afternoon of 21 September, organised Yildirim Army Group resistance in the Judean Hills had ceased, most of the Ottoman Eighth Army had surrendered while the Seventh Army was retreating east down the Wadi el Fara road hoping to cross the Jordan River by the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh. #### Liman von Sanders withdrawal Liman von Sanders had no units available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast and across the Esdrealon Plain, Allenby's attack having forced the Yildirim Army Group to retreat. In the early hours of 20 September, Liman fled from Nazareth to Damascus, via Tiberias, Samakh to Deraa. When he arrived in Deraa on the morning of 21 September he ordered the Fourth Army to withdraw to the Deraa-to-Irbid line without waiting for the southern Hedjaz troops. #### Asia Corps During the night of 20/21 September, the 16th and the 19th Divisions marched to the west of Nablus, under Liman von Sanders orders, where they linked up with von Oppen's Asia Corps. The next morning, von Oppen reorganised the Asia Corps by amalgamating the remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions into one, with a rifle company, a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment, while the 701st Battalion with its machine gun company, six guns, a troop of cavalry, an infantry-artillery platoon with two mountain guns or howitzers and a trench mortar section with four mortars and a cavalry squadron, remained intact. At 10:00, von Oppen was informed that the EEF was approaching Nablus and the Wadi el Fara road was blocked. Consequently, he decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles (11 km) east-south-east of Nablus and cross the Jordan River at Jisr ed Damieh, but this route was cut shortly afterwards. Von Oppen then ordered a retreat without guns or baggage via Mount Ebal during 21 September, which was largely successful although they suffered some casualties when fired on by British Empire artillery. von Oppen bivouacked at Tammun, with the 16th and the 19th Divisions at Tubas, unaware that Desert Mounted Corps had already occupied Beisan. On 22 September, with about 700 German and 1,300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions, von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan when he learned it had already been captured. He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a strong rearguard action; however, Jevad, the commander of the Eighth Army, ordered him to cross the Jordan instead. Von Oppen successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across the Jordan River, before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attacked, capturing those who failed to cross the river. #### Seventh Army The Seventh Army retreated down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River abandoning its guns and transports. This large column of Ottoman soldiers was seen about 8 miles (13 km) north of Nablus moving down the road towards Beisan and was heavily bombed and machine gunned by British and Australian aircraft of the RAF's Palestine Brigade. When the defile became blocked, the Ottoman forces were subjected to four hours of sustained attack, which destroyed at least 90 guns, 50 motor lorries and more than 1,000 other vehicles. The remnants of the Army then turned north at 'Ain Shible, still moving towards Beisan, except for the Ottoman 53rd Division which managed to escape before the defile was blocked but were later captured by Chaytor's Force in the Jordan Valley on 22 September. On 23 and 24 September, 1,500 prisoners were captured by Chetwode's XX Corps in the Judean Hills. ### Chaytor's Force 21–25 September On 21 September, the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment advanced on the western bank of the Jordan River to capture Kh. Fusail on the road to Jisr ed Damieh. An Ottoman defensive line covering the Jisr ed Damieh bridge, was subsequently discovered and the Seventh Army was seen moving along the Wadi el Fara towards Jisr ed Damieh. At 23:30, Meldrum's force of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, mobile detachments of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the British West Indies Regiment, the 29th Indian Mountain Battery and Ayrshire (or Inverness) Battery RHA, arrived at Kh. Fusail. Early in the morning of 22 September, Meldrum's force captured the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh and the fords at Umm esh Shert and Mafid Jozele, cutting that line of retreat. The Fourth Ottoman Army began to retreat towards Deraa during the night of 22 September, while Chaytor's Force was advancing towards Es Salt. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade advanced up the Jisr ed Damieh track, the 1st Light Horse Brigade advanced up the Umm esh Shert track and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved round the southern flank of the Shunet Nimrin position, which had been evacuated. The three brigades converging on Es Salt, which was occupied during the evening of 23 September. The next day, Chaytor's Force began their advance from Es Salt to attack Amman, which was captured on 25 September. The Southern Hedjaz II Corps of the Fourth Army was captured near Ziza on 29 September 1918. Chaytor's Force suffered 27 killed, 7 missing, 105 wounded in battle and captured 10,322 prisoners, 57 guns and 147 machine guns. ### Air support The Royal Air Force provided Allenby with timely aerial reconnaissance reports, and its attacks with bombs and machine guns spread "destruction, death, and terror behind the enemy's lines. All the nerve-centres had been paralysed by constant bombing." On 18 September the Royal Air Force's 5th (Corps) Wing headquartered at Ramle was deployed to provide support with No. 14 Squadron attached to the XX Corps stationed at Junction Station and one flight of No. 142 Squadron being attached to Chaytor's Force operating from Jerusalem. These aircraft were responsible for cooperation with artillery, contact patrols and tactical reconnaissance up to 10,000 yards in advance of XX Corps and Chaytor's Force. One of the seven squadrons of the Palestine Brigade RAF, the Australian squadron had been allotted the Handley-Page bomber three weeks before the offensive began. This squadron carried out bombing, offensive patrols and strategic reconnaissances, while the Handley–Page bomber piloted by Ross Smith bombed the central telephone exchange at Afulah, before the artillery bombardment signalled the beginning of battle. Although aircraft flying over the Jisr ed Damieh to Beisan road, the Jisr ed Damieh bridge, Es Salt and Beisan as far as Tubas, reported all quiet at dawn on the morning of 20 September, RAF Bristol Fighters would later attack a convoy of 200 vehicles withdrawing from Nablus, blocking the road, causing many horses to bolt over a precipice on one side of the road while men scattered into the hills on the other side. The last reconnaissance on 20 September reported the whole Ottoman line alarmed, three large fires were burning at Nablus railway station and at the Balata supply dumps, while a brigade of British cavalry was seen entering Beisan. Dawn aerial scouting on 21 September returned reports of the previous day's attacks on roads leading towards the Jordan River, which was only a precursor to the follow-up attacks that day. From midday on 22 September, and in particular from 15:00 to 18:00, aerial reconnaissance found Ottoman troops at Es Salt and in the surrounding areas withdrawing towards Amman. On 23 September, the first bombing formation attacked, expending large amounts of munitions on the retreating columns on the Es Salt to Amman road, returning about 07:00 when a rout resulted. Amman was attacked from the air during the day and retreating columns from Amman and another column moving from Es Salt to Amman were attacked. An Australian aircraft saw columns retreating from Deraa and Samakh, where trains appeared ready to leave for Damascus. By the afternoon of 24 September, virtually all the area west of Amman was clear of Ottoman soldiers but on 25 September a column moving from Amman was seen at Mafrak. The column was attacked between 6:00 and 08:00 by ten Australian aircraft, with attacks continuing throughout the day expending four tons of bombs and almost 20,000 machine gun rounds. ## Aftermath On 23 and 24 September, troops from the Corps Cavalry Regiment and the Desert Mounted Corps cleared the hills between Nablus and Beisan capturing 1,500 prisoners. In total, XX Corps captured 6,851 prisoners, 140 guns, 1,345 machine guns and automatic rifles suffering 1,505 casualties in the process. The remnants of the Ottoman II Corps, previously in the Maan region, surrendered to Chaytor's Force at the end of September. By 29 September, the remaining soldiers of the Fourth, Seventh, and Eighth Ottoman Armies, in total 6,000 men, were retreating towards Damascus.
2,069,237	Girlfight	1,167,978,480	null	[ "2000 directorial debut films", "2000 drama films", "2000 films", "2000 independent films", "2000s American films", "2000s English-language films", "2000s feminist films", "2000s teen drama films", "American boxing films", "American independent films", "American teen drama films", "Films about women's sports", "Films directed by Karyn Kusama", "Films scored by Theodore Shapiro", "Films set in Brooklyn", "Films shot in New Jersey", "Films shot in New York (state)", "Hispanic and Latino American drama films", "Screen Gems films", "Spanish-language American films", "Sundance Film Festival award-winning films" ]	Girlfight is a 2000 American sports drama film written and directed by Karyn Kusama in her feature directorial debut, and stars Michelle Rodriguez in her first film role. The film follows Diana Guzman, a troubled Brooklyn high school student who decides to channel her aggression by training to become a boxer, despite the disapproval of both her father and her prospective trainers, as well as the competitors in the male-dominated sport. Kusama wrote the screenplay for Girlfight after learning to box, wanting to make a film about the sport with a female protagonist. Although she struggled to find financiers for the film's \$1 million budget, the production was eventually funded by John Sayles, Maggie Renzi and the Independent Film Channel. Rodriguez was cast in the lead role despite having never acted before, and trained in boxing for four months before filming commenced in New York and New Jersey. Girlfight premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 2000, where it tied with You Can Count on Me for the Grand Jury Prize, and Kusama won the Best Director Award. It was theatrically released on September 29, 2000, to critical acclaim, with particular praise for Rodriguez's performance and Kusama's direction. The film earned several accolades, including a nomination for the Bronze Horse at the 2000 Stockholm International Film Festival. At the 16th Independent Spirit Awards, Kusama was nominated for Best First Feature and Rodriguez won for Best Debut Performance. ## Plot Diana Guzman is a Brooklyn teenager whose hot temper gets her into trouble at school as she repeatedly starts fights with other students. Her frustration stems from her unhappy home life; she lives in a public housing estate with her brother Tiny and their single father, Sandro. Sandro pays for Tiny's boxing training in hopes of his becoming a professional boxer, although Tiny would prefer to be an artist. After visiting Tiny's gym and intervening in a spar to defend him, Diana asks the trainers to let her box, too. She is told she can train there, but not compete in actual fights. When she learns that she cannot afford coaching from Tiny's trainer, Hector Soto, she asks her father for an allowance but he tells her to get a job. She resorts to stealing his money instead and returns to the gym, where Hector begins to teach her the basics of boxing. Diana's first spar is with Adrian Sturges, whom she later meets again when Hector takes her to a professional fight. Adrian invites Diana to dinner after the fight and kisses her after walking her home. One night after a spar which gave Diana a black eye, Sandro sees Diana and Adrian together and confronts her, assuming that she is in an abusive relationship. She storms out of the apartment and spends the night with Adrian. When he asks about her parents, she reveals that her mother died by suicide several years ago. When Diana returns to her apartment, Tiny offers to give up boxing so that she can use the coaching money he gets from their father. Diana later goes to Hector's birthday party, but leaves when she sees Adrian getting friendly with his ex-girlfriend. When Diana and Adrian spar at their next session in the gym, he is reluctant to hit her, and she leaves before he can talk to her. Diana's first amateur match is scheduled against another girl, but when her opponent pulls out she ends up fighting a man, Ray Cortez. Sandro arrives in the middle of the fight to see the match end in Ray's disqualification for illegal shoving. When Diana arrives home, Sandro berates her for looking like a loser. She retaliates by beating him to the floor and accuses him of abusing her mother to the point of suicide. After weeks of rigorous training, Diana wins another amateur fight, this time against a girl, Ricki Stiles. Although Diana has accepted Adrian's apology, tensions rise between them again when they learn that they both have advanced to the finals in their division to fight each other. Adrian refuses to fight a girl and Diana struggles to convince him to view her as a legitimate opponent. He turns up for the fight on the day, however, and after an even match, Diana wins with a unanimous decision by the judges. After the fight, Adrian fears that he has lost Diana's respect, but she tells him she respects him even more for fighting her, and they reconcile. ## Cast - Michelle Rodriguez as Diana Guzman - Jaime Tirelli as Hector Soto - Paul Calderón as Sandro Guzman - Santiago Douglas as Adrian Sturges - Ray Santiago as Tiny Guzman - Victor Sierra as Ray Cortez - Elisa Bocanegra as Marisol - Shannon Walker Williams as Veronica - Louis Guss as Don - Herb Lovelle as Cal ## Production Girlfight was written and directed by Karyn Kusama, marking her feature film debut. Her aim was to subvert "the classic boxing story" with a female lead, having taken up boxing herself in 1992 at the famous Gleason's Gym in Brooklyn. After writing the script, she struggled to persuade production companies to finance the film; numerous producers suggested that Kusama cast a white woman in the lead role rather than a Latina and felt that having a female protagonist was "unappealing [and] unbelievable". Maggie Renzi, Sarah Green and Martha Griffin eventually agreed to produce the film, and found a financier in 1999 to provide the \$1 million budget. Two days before pre-production on the film was set to begin the financier backed out, but Renzi and her partner John Sayles—an independent filmmaker and Kusama's former mentor—decided to provide funding for the film's entire budget themselves. The Independent Film Channel later contributed \$300,000 towards the budget. Kusama initially sought to cast a professional actor to play Diana but felt that many of those who auditioned were overly feminized and "polished" and decided to cast an untrained actor instead. Michelle Rodriguez, who had worked as a film extra but had never auditioned for a speaking role before, attended an open casting call for the lead. Although Kusama described Rodriguez's audition as "a disaster", she won the role because out of the 350 auditionees Kusama "could not find anyone who could come close to her in physical power". Since Rodriguez was not a boxer, she trained at Gleason's Gym five to six days a week for four months in preparation for filming, as did Santiago Douglas, who was cast as Adrian. Girlfight was filmed over 24 days in New York and New Jersey. The scenes inside the gym where Diana and Tiny train were shot in a warehouse in Jersey City. The initial boxing sequences were shot from a spectator's view outside of the ring, but later sequences were filmed more intimately from inside the ring. Director of Photography Patrick Cady used camera rigs that allowed the actors to hit him or the camera itself to mimic the sensation of being hit. ## Release Girlfight premiered on January 22, 2000, at the Sundance Film Festival, where it won the festival's Grand Jury Prize and the Directing Award in Dramatic Competition. Distribution rights to the film were subsequently purchased by Screen Gems for \$3 million. It had a limited release in the United States on September 29, 2000, opening in 28 theaters. In its debut week, it ranked 30th at the box office, grossing \$282,145 with a per-screen average of \$10,077. The following week it expanded to 253 theaters, but fell to a per-screen average of \$2,687, ranking 18th. In its third week, the film's per-screen average dropped to \$1,156 with a cumulative total gross of \$1,254,600. Girlfight ended its theatrical run after five weeks with a total domestic gross of \$1,565,852. Internationally, it grossed \$100,176, making a worldwide total of \$1,666,028. The film was released on DVD on March 27, 2001. The DVD includes two special features: an audio commentary by Karyn Kusama and a "making of" featurette. ## Reception ### Critical response Girlfight was well received by critics upon its release. It has a score of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 129 reviews with an average rating of 7.4 out of 10. The website's critical consensus states: "Michelle Rodriguez gives a compelling performance, despite lack of a boxing background; Karyn Kusama packs a punch with this directorial debut." The film has a score of 70 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 34 critics' reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Numerous reviews praised Rodriguez's performance in her debut role, with several critics comparing her to Marlon Brando. David Denby of The New Yorker called her "a powerhouse star who could go a long way", while Variety critic Emanuel Levy described her as "a natural performer who dominates every scene". In a review for The New York Times, A. O. Scott characterized Rodriguez as "a powerful, extraordinarily gifted young actress ... Remember the name." The Washington Post Desson Howe felt that Rodriguez's performance was the most memorable aspect of the film, and that she "becomes more appealing, formidable and beautiful by the scene". Karyn Kusama's script and direction were also highlighted by critics. The Los Angeles Times Kenneth Turan commended her "craft, empathy and respect" and compared her to the character of Diana, writing that Kusama "is her protagonist's double in terms of drive, commitment and ability". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly felt that, although the plot was clichéd and unrealistic at times, Kusama's direction showed "a clear, personal filmmaking style ... and a respect for her characters' weaknesses as well as their moments of athletic beauty". James Berardinelli gave the film three and a half stars out of four, calling it "a well crafted and emotionally satisfying debut" and applauding Kusama's "single-minded determination and a passion for the project". Roger Ebert, who gave the film three and a half out of four stars in a Chicago Sun-Times review, enjoyed that the story is "always about more than boxing" with its deeper themes "about a girl growing up in a macho society and ... discovering she has a nature probably more macho than the men around her". On the other hand, the San Francisco Chronicle Edward Guthmann opined that Kusama "ultimately undercuts her theme of female self-reliance by having Diana fall for Adrian" and criticized the plot for "tak[ing] too much time justifying a woman's right to be in the ring – instead of celebrating her achievement". ### Accolades ## Legacy Girlfight was one of the first boxing films to portray women in the sport. Film studies academic Katharina Lindner has argued that Girlfight was responsible for the "influx of female protagonists into the [boxing film] genre" of the 2000s, specifically the 2004 films Million Dollar Baby and Die Boxerin (alternatively titled About a Girl). The film was responsible for launching Rodriguez and Kusama's careers in film; Rodriguez went on to star in numerous major studio films while Kusama later directed Æon Flux (2005) and Jennifer's Body (2009).
4,701,870	Muhammad in Islam	1,173,474,421	Role of Muhammad in the Islamic religion	[ "Prophets of the Quran", "Religious perspectives on Muhammad" ]	Muḥammad bin ʿAbd Allāh bin ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib bin Hāshim ([] Error: : no text (help); c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) is believed to be the seal of the messengers and prophets of God in all of the main branches of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God, and that Muhammad was sent to restore Islam, which they believe did not originate with Muhammad but is the true unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with the Quran became the foundation of Islam and the Muslim world. Born about the year 53 BH (570 CE) into a respected Qurayshi family of Mecca, Muhammad earned the title "al-Amin" (اَلْأَمِينُ, meaning "the Trustworthy"). At the age of 40 in 11 BH (610 CE), Muhammad is said to have received his first verbal revelation in the cave called Hira, which was the beginning of the descent of the Quran that continued up to the end of his life; and Muslims hold that Muhammad was asked by God to preach the oneness of God in order to stamp out idolatry, a practice overtly present in pre-Islamic Arabia. Because of persecution of the newly converted Muslims, upon the invitation of a delegation from Medina (then known as Yathrib), Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 1 AH (622 CE), an event known as the Hijrah. A turning point in Muhammad's life, this Hijrah also marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad sketched out the Constitution of Medina specifying the rights of and relations among the various existing communities there, formed an independent community, and managed to establish the first Islamic state. Despite the ongoing hostility of the Meccans, Muhammad, along with his followers, took control of Mecca in 630, and ordered the destruction of all pagan idols. In his later years in Medina, Muhammad unified the different tribes of Arabia under Islam and carried out social and religious reforms. By the time he died in about 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslims often refer to Muhammad as Prophet Muhammad, or just "The Prophet" or "The Messenger", and regard him as the greatest of all Prophets. He is seen by the Muslims as a possessor of all virtues. As an act of respect, Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam, (meaning Peace be upon him), sometimes abbreviated as "SAW" or "PBUH". ## In the Quran The Quran enumerates little about Muhammad's early life or other biographic details, but it talks about his prophetic mission, his moral excellence, and theological issues regarding Muhammad. According to the Quran, Muhammad is the last in a chain of prophets sent by God (). Throughout the Quran, Muhammad is referred to as "Messenger", "Messenger of God", and "Prophet". Some of such verses are 2:101, 2:143, 2:151, 3:32, 3:81, 3:144, 3:164, 4:79-80, 5:15, 5:41, 7:157, 8:01, 9:3, 33:40, 48:29, and 66:09. Other terms are used, including "Warner", "bearer of glad tidings", and the "one who invites people to a Single God" (Quran , and ). The Quran asserts that Muhammad was a man who possessed the highest moral excellence, and that God made him a good example or a "goodly model" for Muslims to follow (Quran , and ). The Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad, but describes him in terms of positive human qualities. In several verses, the Quran crystallizes Muhammad's relation to humanity. According to the Quran, God sent Muhammad with truth (God's message to humanity), and as a blessing to the whole world (Quran , and ). In Islamic tradition, this means that God sent Muhammad with his message to humanity the following of which will give people salvation in the afterlife, and it is Muhammad's teachings and the purity of his personal life alone which keep alive the worship of God on this world. According to the Quran, the coming of Muhammad was predicted by Jesus: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel! I am God's messenger to you, confirming the law (which came) before me, and giving glad tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad'" (Quran 61:6). Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus. ## Traditional Muslim account ### Early years Muhammad, the son of 'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim and his wife Aminah, was born in 570 CE, approximately, in the city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. He was a member of the family of Banu Hashim, a respected branch of the prestigious and influential Quraysh tribe. It is generally said that 'Abd al-Muttalib named the child "Muhammad" (Arabic: مُحَمَّد). #### Orphanhood Muhammad was orphaned when young. Some months before the birth of Muhammad, his father died near Medina on a mercantile expedition to Syria. When Muhammad was six, he accompanied his mother Amina on her visit to Medina, probably to visit her late husband's tomb. While returning to Mecca, Amina died at a desolate place called Abwa, about half-way to Mecca, and was buried there. Muhammad was now taken in by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who himself died when Muhammad was eight, leaving him in the care of his uncle Abu Talib. In Islamic tradition, Muhammad's being orphaned at an early age has been seen as a part of divine plan to enable him to "develop early the qualities of self-reliance, reflection, and steadfastness". Muslim scholar Muhammad Ali sees the tale of Muhammad as a spiritual parallel to the life of Moses, considering many aspects of their lives to be shared. The Quran said about Moses: "I cast (the garment of love) over thee from Me, so that thou might be reared under My eye. ... We saved thee from all grief, although We tried thee with various trials. ... O Moses, I have chosen thee for Mine Own service" (). Taking into account the idea of this spiritual parallelism, together with other aspects of Muhammad's early life, it has been suggested that it was God under Whose direct care Muhammad was raised and prepared for the responsibility that was to be conferred upon him. Islamic scholar Tariq Ramadan argued that Muhammad's orphan state made him dependent on God and close to the destitute – an "initiatory state for the future Messenger of God". #### Early life According to Arab custom, after his birth, infant Muhammad was sent to Banu Sa'ad clan, a neighboring Bedouin tribe, so that he could acquire the pure speech and free manners of the desert. There, Muhammad spent the first five years of his life with his foster-mother Halima. Islamic tradition holds that during this period, God sent two angels who opened his chest, took out the heart, and removed a blood-clot from it. It was then washed with Zamzam water. In Islamic tradition, this incident means that God purified his prophet and protected him from sin. Islamic belief holds that God protected Muhammad from getting involved in any disrespectful and coarse practice. Even when he verged on any such activity, God intervened. Prophetic tradition narrates one such incident in which it is said on the authority of Ibn Al-Atheer that while working as herdsman at early period of his life, young Muhammad once told his fellow-shepherd to take care of his sheep so that the former could go to the town for some recreation as the other youths used to do. But on the way, his attention was diverted to a wedding party, and he sat down to listen to the sound of music only to soon fall asleep. He was awakened by the heat of the sun. Muhammad reported that he never tried such things again. Around the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib in a mercantile journey to Syria, and gained experience in commercial enterprise. On this journey Muhammad is said to have been recognized by a Christian monk, Bahira, who prophesied about Muhammad's future as a prophet of God. Around the age of twenty five, Muhammad was employed as the caretaker of the mercantile activities of Khadijah, a Qurayshi lady. She sent a marriage proposal to Muhammad through her maid-servant Meisara. Muhammad agreed and they were married in the presence of his uncle. #### Social welfare Between 580 CE and 590 CE, Mecca experienced a bloody feud between Quraysh and Bani Hawazin that lasted for four years, before a truce was reached. After the truce, an alliance named Hilf al-Fudul (The Pact of the Virtuous) was formed to check further violence and injustice; and to stand on the side of the oppressed, an oath was taken by the descendants of Hashim and the kindred families, where Muhammad was also a member. In later days of his life, Muhammad is reported to have said about this pact, "I witnessed a confederacy in the house of 'Abdullah bin Jada'an. It was more appealing to me than herds of cattle. Even now in the period of Islam I would respond positively to attending such a meeting if I were invited." Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with settling a dispute peacefully, regarding setting the sacred Black Stone on the wall of Kaaba, where the clan leaders could not decide on which clan should have the honor of doing that. The Black stone was removed to facilitate the rebuilding of Kaaba because of its dilapidated condition. The disagreement grew tense, and bloodshed became likely. The clan leaders agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate of Kaaba and ask him to choose. The 35-year-old Muhammad entered through that gate first, asked for a mantle which he spread on the ground, and placed the stone at its center. Muhammad had the clans' leaders lift a corner of it until the mantle reached the appropriate height, and then himself placed the stone on the proper place. Thus, an ensuing bloodshed was averted by the wisdom of Muhammad. ### Prophethood Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final messenger and prophet of God who began receiving direct verbal revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five verses of sura Al-Alaq that the archangel Jibril brought from God to Muhammad in the cave Mount Hira. After his marriage with Khadijah and during his career as a merchant, although engaged in commercial activities and family affairs, Muhammad gradually became preoccupied with contemplation and reflection. and began to withdraw periodically to a cave named Mount Hira, three miles north of Mecca. According to Islamic tradition, in the year 610 CE, during one such occasion while he was in contemplation, Jibril appeared before him and said 'Recite', upon which Muhammad replied: 'I am unable to recite'. Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and embraced him heavily. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses: > Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- > Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: > Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- > He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- > Taught man that which he knew not. This was the first verbal revelation. Perplexed by this new experience, Muhammad made his way to home where he was consoled by his wife Khadijah, who also took him to her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah was familiar with scriptures of the Torah and Gospel. Islamic tradition holds that Waraka, upon hearing the description, testified to Muhammad's prophethood. It is also reported by Aisha that Waraqah ibn Nawfal later told Muhammad that Muhammad's own people would turn him out, to which Muhammad inquired "Will they really drive me out?" Waraka replied in the affirmative and said "Anyone who came with something similar to what you have brought was treated with hostility; and if I should be alive till that day, then I would support you strongly." Some Islamic scholars argue that Muhammad was foretold in the Bible. #### Divine revelation In Islamic belief, revelations are God's word delivered by his chosen individuals – known as Messengers—to humanity. According to Islamic scholar Muhammad Shafi Usmani, God created three media through which humans receive knowledge: men's senses, the faculty of reason, and divine revelation; and it is the third one that addresses the liturgical and eschatological issues, answers the questions regarding God's purpose behind creating humanity, and acts as a guidance for humanity in choosing the correct way. In Islamic belief, the sequence of divine revelation came to an end with Muhammad. Muslims believe these revelations to be the verbatim word of God, which were later collected together, and came to be known as Quran, the central religious text of Islam. #### Early preaching and teachings During the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. The first to believe him was his wife Khadijah, who was followed by Ali, his cousin, and Zayd ibn Harithah. Notable among the early converts were Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn Affan, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Masud, Arqam, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Ammar ibn Yasir and Bilal ibn Rabah. In the fourth year of his prophethood, according to Islamic belief, he was ordered by God to make public his propagation of this monotheistic faith (Quran ). Muhammad's earliest teachings were marked by his insistence on the oneness of God (Quran ), the denunciation of polytheism (Quran ), belief in the Last judgment and its recompense (Quran ), and social and economic justice (Quran ). In a broader sense, Muhammad preached that he had been sent as God's messenger; that God is One who is all-powerful, creator and controller of this universe (Quran , Quran ), and merciful towards his creations (Quran ); that worship should be made only to God; that ascribing partnership to God is a major sin (Quran ); that men would be accountable, for their deeds, to God on last judgment day, and would be assigned to heaven or hell (Quran ); and that God expects man to be generous with their wealth and not miserly (Quran ). ### Opposition and persecution Muhammad's early teachings invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of Mecca who feared the loss not only of their ancestral paganism but also of the lucrative pilgrimage business. At first, the opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm which proved insufficient to arrest Muhammad's faith from flourishing, and soon they resorted to active persecution. These included verbal attack, ostracism, unsuccessful boycott, and physical persecution. Biographers have presented accounts of diverse forms of persecution on the newly converted Muslims by the Quraysh. The converted slaves who had no protection were imprisoned and often exposed to scorching sun. Alarmed by mounting persecution on the newly converts, Muhammad in 615 CE directed some of his followers to migrate to neighboring Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia), a land ruled by king Aṣḥama ibn Abjar, famous for his justice and intelligence. Accordingly, eleven men and four women made their flight, and were followed by more in later time. Back in Mecca, Muhammad was gaining new followers, including notable figures like Umar ibn Al-Khattāb. Muhammad's position was greatly strengthened by their acceptance of Islam, and the Quraysh became much perturbed. Upset by the fear of losing the leading position, and shocked by continuous condemnation of idol-worship in the Quran, the merchants and clan-leaders tried to come to an agreement with Muhammad. They offered Muhammad the prospect of higher social status and advantageous marriage proposal in exchange for forsaking his preaching. Muhammad rejected both offers, asserting his nomination as a messenger by God. Unable to deal with this status quo, the Quraysh then proposed to adopt a common form of worship, which was denounced by the Quran: 'Say: O ye the disbelievers, I worship not that which ye worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. To you be your Way, and to me mine' (). #### Social boycott Thus frustrated from all sides, the leaders of various Quraysh clans, in 617 CE, enacted a complete boycott of Banu Hashim family to mount pressure to lift its protection on Muhammad. The Hashemites were made to retire in a quarter of Abu Talib, and were cut off from outside activities. During this period, the Hashemites suffered from various scarcities, and Muhammad's preaching confined to only the pilgrimage season. The boycott ended after three years as it failed to serve its end. This incident was shortly followed by the death of Muhammad's uncle and protector Abu Talib and his wife Khadijah. This has largely been attributed to the plight to which the Hashemites were exposed during the boycott. #### Last years in Mecca The death of his uncle Abu Talib left Muhammad unprotected, and exposed him to some mischief of Quraysh, which he endured with great steadfastness. An uncle and a bitter enemy of Muhammad, Abu Lahab succeeded Abu Talib as clan chief, and soon withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. Around this time, Muhammad visited Ta'if, a city some sixty kilometers east of Mecca, to preach Islam, but met with severe hostility from its inhabitants who pelted him with stones causing bleeding. It is said that God sent angels of the mountain to Muhammad who asked Muhammad's permission to crush the people of Ta'if in between the mountains, but Muhammad said 'No'. At the pilgrimage season of 620, Muhammad met six men of Khazraj tribe from Yathrib (later named Medina), propounded to them the doctrines of Islam, and recited portions of Quran. Impressed by this, the six embraced Islam, and at the Pilgrimage of 621, five of them brought seven others with them. These twelve informed Muhammad of the beginning of gradual development of Islam in Medina, and took a formal pledge of allegiance at Muhammad's hand, promising to accept him as a prophet, to worship none but one God, and to renounce certain sins like theft, adultery, murder and the like. This is known as the "First Pledge of al-Aqaba". At their request, Muhammad sent with them Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair to teach them the instructions of Islam. Biographers have recorded the success of Mus'ab ibn 'Umair in preaching the message of Islam and bringing people under the umbrella of Islam in Medina. The next year, at the pilgrimage of June 622, a delegation of around 75 converted Muslims of Aws and Khazraj tribes from Yathrib came. They invited him to come to Medina as an arbitrator to reconcile the hostile tribes. This is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqabah", and was a 'politico-religious' success that paved the way for his and his followers' emigration to Medina. Following the pledges, Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Yathrib in small groups, and within a short period, most of the Muslims of Mecca migrated there. #### Emigration to Medina Because of assassination attempts from the Quraysh, and prospect of success in Yathrib, a city 320 km (200 mi) north of Mecca, Muhammad emigrated there in 622 CE. According to Muslim tradition, after receiving divine direction to depart Mecca, Muhammad began taking preparation and informed Abu Bakr of his plan. On the night of his departure, Muhammad's house was besieged by men of the Quraysh who planned to kill him in the morning. At the time, Muhammad possessed various properties of the Quraysh given to him in trust; so he handed them over to 'Ali and directed him to return them to their owners. It is said that when Muhammad emerged from his house, he recited the ninth verse of surah Ya Sin of the Quran and threw a handful of dust at the direction of the besiegers, rendering the besiegers unable to see him. After eight days' journey, Muhammad entered the outskirts of Medina on 28 June 622, but did not enter the city directly. He stopped at a place called Quba', a place some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there. On 2 July 622, he entered the city. Yathrib was soon renamed Madinat an-Nabi (Arabic: مَدينة النّبي, literally "City of the Prophet"), but an-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name is "Medina", meaning "the city". ### In Medina In Medina, Muhammad's first focus was on the construction of a mosque, which, when completed, was of an austere nature. Apart from being the center of prayer service, the mosque also served as a headquarters of administrative activities. Adjacent to the mosque was built the quarters for Muhammad's family. As there was no definite arrangement for calling people to prayer, Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed to call people in a loud voice at each prayer time, a system later replaced by Adhan believed to be informed to Abdullah ibn Zayd in his dream, and liked and introduced by Muhammad. The Emigrants of Mecca, known as Muhajirun, had left almost everything there and came to Medina empty-handed. They were cordially welcomed and helped by the Muslims of Medina, known as Ansar (the helpers). Muhammad made a formal bond of fraternity among them that went a long way in eliminating long-established enmity among various tribes, particularly Aws and Khazraj. #### Establishment of a new polity After the arrival of Muhammad in Medina, its people could be divided into four groups: 1. The Muslims: emigrants from Mecca and Ansars of Medina. 2. The hypocrites; they nominally embraced Islam, but actually were against it. 3. Those from Aws and Khazraj who were still pagans, but were inclined to embrace Islam. 4. The Jews; they were huge in number and formed an important community there. In order to establish peaceful coexistence among this heterogeneous population, Muhammad invited the leading personalities of all the communities to reach a formal agreement which would provide a harmony among the communities and security to the city of Medina, and finally drew up the Constitution of Medina, also known as the Medina Charter, which formed "a kind of alliance or federation" among the prevailing communities. It specified the mutual rights and obligations of the Muslims and Jews of Medina, and prohibited any alliance with the outside enemies. It also declared that any dispute would be referred to Muhammad for settlement. #### Persistent hostility of Quraysh Before the arrival of Muhammad, the clans of Medina had suffered a lot from internal feuds and had planned to nominate Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy as their common leader with a view to restoring peace. The arrival of Muhammad rendered this design unlikely, and from then Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy began entertaining hostility towards Muhammad. Soon after Muhammad's settlement in Medina, Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy received an ultimatum from the Quraysh directing him to fight or expel the Muslims from Medina, but was convinced by Muhammad not to do that. Around this time, Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh, chief of Aws, went to Mecca to perform Umrah. Because of mutual friendship, he was hosted and escorted by a Meccan leader, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, but the two could not escape the notice of Abu Jahl, an archenemy of Islam. At the sight of Sa'ad, Abu Jahl became angry and threatened to stop their visit to Kaaba as his clan had sheltered the Muhammad. Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh also threatened to hinder their trading caravans. Thus, there remained a persistent enmity between the Muslims and the Quraysh tribe. The Muslims were still few and without substantial resources, and fearful of attacks. #### Causes of and preparation for fighting Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca. The Quraysh leaders of Mecca persecuted the newly converted Muslims there, and they migrated to Medina to avoid persecution, abandoning their properties. Muhammad and the Muslims found themselves in a more precarious situation in Medina than in Mecca. Besides the ultimatum of the Quraysh they had to confront the designs of the hypocrites, and had to be wary of the pagans and Jews also. The trading caravans of Quraysh, whose usual route was from Mecca to Syria, used to set the neighboring tribes of Medina against the Muslims, which posed a great danger to the security of Muslims of Medina given that war was common at that time. In view of all this, the Quran granted permission to the persecuted Muslims to defend themselves: "Permission to fight is granted to those against whom war is made, because they have been wronged, and God indeed has the power to help them. They are those who have been driven out of their homes unjustly only because they affirmed: "Our Lord is God"" (Quran ). The Quran further justifies taking defensive measures by stating that "And if God had not repelled some men by others, the earth would have been corrupted. But God is a Lord of Kindness to (His) creatures" (Quran ). According to Quranic description, war is an abnormal and unenviable way which, when inevitable, should be limited to minimal casualty, and free from any kind of transgression on the part of the believers. In this regard, the Quran says, "Fight in the cause of God with those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors" (), and "And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression" (). Thus, to ensure the security of the Ansars and Muhajirun of Medina, Muhammad resorted to the following measures: 1. Visiting the neighboring tribes to enter into non-aggression treaty with them to secure Medina from their attacks. 2. Blocking or intercepting the trading caravans of the Quraysh to compel them into a compromise with the Muslims. As these trading enterprises were the main strength of the Quraysh, Muhammad employed this strategy to reduce their strength. 3. Sending small scouting parties to gather intelligence about Quraysh movement, and also to facilitate the evacuation of those Muslims who were still suffering in Mecca and could not migrate to Medina because of their poverty or any other reason. It is in this connection that the following verse of the Quran was revealed: "And why should you not fight in the cause of God and for those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee one who will protect; and raise for us from Thee one who will help!"" (Quran ). #### Battle of Badr A key battle in the early days of Islam, the Battle of Badr was the first large-scale battle between the nascent Islamic community of Medina and their opponent Quraysh of Mecca where the Muslims won a decisive victory. The battle has some background. In 2 AH (623 CE) in the month of Rajab, a Muslim patrolling group attacked a Quraysh trading caravan killing its elite leader Amr ibn Hazrami. The incident happening in a sacred month displeased Muhammad, and enraged the Quraysh to a greater extent. The Quran however neutralizes the effect saying that bloodshed in sacred month is obviously prohibited, but Quraysh paganism, persecuting on the Meccan converts, and preventing people from the Sacred Mosque are greater sins (Quran ). Traditional sources say that upon receiving intelligence of a richly laden trading caravan of the Quraysh returning from Syria to Mecca, Muhammad took it as a good opportunity to strike a heavy blow on Meccan power by taking down the caravan in which almost all the Meccan people had invested. With full liberty to join or stay back, Muhammad amassed some 313 inadequately prepared men furnished with only two horses and seventy camels, and headed for a place called Badr. Meanwhile, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, got the information of Muslim march, changed his route towards south-west along Red Sea, and send out a messenger, named Damdam ibn Umar, to Mecca asking for immediate help. The messenger exaggerated the news in a frenzy style of old Arab custom, and misinterpreted the call for protecting the caravan as a call for war. The Quraysh with all its leading personalities except Abu Lahab marched with a heavily equipped army of more than one thousand men with ostentatious opulence of food supply and war materials. Abu Sufyan's second message that the trading caravan successfully had escaped the Muslim interception, when reached the Quraish force, did not stop them from entering into a major offensive with the Muslim force, mainly because of the belligerent Quraysh leader Abu Jahl. The news of a strong Quraysh army and its intention reaching the Islamic prophet Muhammad, he held a council of war where the followers advised him to go forward. The battle occurred on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH) and resulted in a heavy loss on the Quraysh side: around seventy men, including chief leaders, were killed and a similar number were taken prisoner. Islamic tradition attributes the Muslim victory to the direct intervention of God: he sent down angels that emboldened the Muslims and wreaked damage on the enemy force. #### Treason, attacks, and siege The defeat at the battle of Badr provoked the Quraysh to take revenge on Muslims. Meanwhile, two Qurayshi men – Umayr ibn Wahb and Safwan ibn Umayya – conspired to kill Muhammad. The former went to Medina with a poisoned sword to execute the plan but was detected and brought to Muhammad. It is said that Muhammad himself revealed to Umayr his secret plan and Umayr, upon accepting Islam, began preaching Islam in Mecca. The Quraysh soon led an army of 3,000 men and fought the Muslim force, consisting of 700 men, in the Battle of Uhud. Despite initial success in the battle, the Muslims failed to consummate victory due to the mistake of the strategically posted archers. The predicament of Muslims at this battle has been seen by Islamic scholars as a result of disobedience of the command of Muhammad: Muslims realized that they could not succeed unless guided by him. The Battle of Uhud was followed by a series of aggressive and treacherous activities against the Muslims in Medina. Tulaiha ibn Khuweiled, chief of Banu Asad, and Sufyan ibn Khalid, chief of Banu Lahyan, tried to march against Medina but were rendered unsuccessful. Ten Muslims, recruited by some local tribes to learn the tenets of Islam, were treacherously murdered: eight of them being killed at a place called Raji, and the remaining two being taken to Mecca as captives and killed by Quraysh. About the same time, a group of seventy Muslims, sent to propagate Islam to the people of Nejd, was put to a massacre by Amir ibn Tufail's Banu Amir and other tribes. Only two of them escaped, returned to Medina, and informed Muhammad of the incidents. Around 5th AH (627 CE), a large combined force of at least 10,000 men from Quraysh, Ghatafan, Banu Asad, and other pagan tribes known as the confederacy was formed to attack the Muslims mainly at the instigation and efforts of Jewish leader Huyayy ibn Akhtab and it marched towards Medina. The trench dug by the Muslims and the adverse weather foiled their siege of Medina, and the confederacy left with heavy losses. The Quran says that God dispersed the disbelievers and thwarted their plans (). The Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, who were allied with Muhammad before the Battle of the Trench, were charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad. After Banu Qurayza agreed to accept whatever decision Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh would take about them, Sa'ad pronounced that the male members be executed and the women and children be considered as war captives. #### Treaty with the Quraysh Around 6 AH (628 CE) the nascent Islamic state was somewhat consolidated when Muhammad left Medina to perform pilgrimage at Mecca, but was intercepted en route by the Quraysh who, however, ended up in a treaty with the Muslims known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Though the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty were apparently unfavorable to the Muslims of Medina, the Quran declared it as a clear victory (). Muslim historians mention that through the treaty, the Quraysh recognized Muhammad as their equal counterpart and Islam as a rising power, and that the treaty mobilized the contact between the Meccan pagans and the Muslims of Medina resulting in a large number of Quraysh conversion into Islam after being attracted by the Islamic norms. ### Victory Around the end of the 6 AH and the beginning of the 7 AH (628 CE), Muhammad sent letters to various heads of state asking them to accept Islam and to worship only one God. Notable among them were Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantium; Khosrau II, the emperor of Persia; the Negus of Ethiopia; Muqawqis, the ruler of Egypt; Harith Gassani, the governor of Syria; and Munzir ibn Sawa, the ruler of Bahrain. In the 6 AH, Khalid ibn al-Walid accepted Islam who later was to play a decisive role in the expansion of Islamic empire. In the 7 AH, the Jewish leaders of Khaybar – a place some 200 miles from Medina – started instigating the Jewish and Ghatafan tribes against Medina. When negotiation failed, Muhammad ordered the blockade of the Khaybar forts, and its inhabitants surrendered after some days. The lands of Khaybar came under Muslim control. Muhammad however granted the Jewish request to retain the lands under their control. In 629 CE (7 AH), in accordance with the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims performed their lesser pilgrimage (Umrah) to Mecca and left the city after three days. #### Conquest of Mecca In 629 CE, The Banu Bakr tribe, an ally of Quraysh, attacked the Muslims' ally tribe Banu Khuza'a, and killed several of them. The Quraysh openly helped Banu Bakr in their attack, which in return, violated the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Of the three options now advanced by Muhammad, they decided to cancel the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Muhammad started taking preparation for Mecca campaign. On 29 November 629 (6th of Ramadan, 8 AH), Muhammad set out with 10,000 companions, and stopped at a nearby place from Mecca called Marr-uz-Zahran. When Meccan leader Abu Sufyan came to gather intelligence, he was detected and arrested by the guards. Umar ibn al-Khattab wanted the execution of Abu Sufyan for his past offenses, but Muhammad spared his life after he converted to Islam. On 11 December 629 (18th of Ramadan, 8 AH), he entered Mecca almost unresisted, and declared a general amnesty for all those who had committed offences against Islam and himself. He then destroyed the idols – placed in and around the Kaaba – reciting the Quranic verse: "Say, the truth has arrived, and falsehood perished. Verily, the falsehood is bound to perish" (Quran ). William Muir comments, "The magnanimity with which Muhammad treated a people who had so long hated and rejected him is worthy of all admiration." #### Conquest of Arabia Soon after the Mecca conquest, the Banu Hawazin tribe together with the Banu Thaqif tribe gathered a large army, under the leadership of Malik Ibn 'Awf, to attack the Muslims. At this, the Muslim force, which included the newly converts of Mecca, went forward under the leadership of Muhammad, and the two armies met at the valley of Hunayn. Though at first disarrayed at the sudden attack of Hawazin, the Muslim force recollected mainly at the effort of Muhammad, and ultimately defeated the Hawazin. The latter was pursued at various directions. After Malik bin 'Awf along with his men took shelter in the fort of Ta'if, the Muslim army besieged it which however yielded no significant result, compelling them to return Medina. Meanwhile, some newly converts from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and made a plea to release their women and children who had been captivated from the battlefield of Hunayn. Their request was granted by the Muslims. After the Mecca conquest and the victory at the Battle of Hunayn, the supremacy of the Muslims was somewhat established throughout the Arabian peninsula. Various tribes started to send their representatives to express their loyalty to Muhammad. In the year 9 AH (630 CE), Zakat – which is the obligatory charity in Islam – was introduced and was accepted by most of the people. A few tribes initially refused to pay it, but gradually accepted. In October 630 CE, upon receiving news that the Byzantine was gathering a large army at the Syrian area to attack Medina, and because of reports of hostility adopted against Muslims, Muhammad arranged his Muslim army, and came out to face them. On the way, they reached a place called Hijr where remnants of the ruined Thamud nation were scattered. Muhammad warned them of the sandstorm typical to the place, and forbade them not to use the well waters there. By the time they reached Tabuk, they got the news of Byzantine's retreat, or according to some sources, they came to know that the news of Byzantine gathering was wrong. Muhammad signed treaties with the bordering tribes who agreed to pay tribute in exchange of getting security. It is said that as these tribes were at the border area between Syria (then under Byzantine control) and Arabia (then under Muslim control), signing treaties with them ensured the security of the whole area. Some months after the return from Tabuk, Muhammad's infant son Ibrahim died which eventually coincided with a sun eclipse. When people said that the eclipse had occurred to mourn Ibrahim's death, Muhammad said: "the sun and the moon are from among the signs of God. The eclipses occur neither for the death nor for the birth of any man". After the Tabuk expedition, the Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif sent their representative team to Muhammad to inform their intention of accepting Islam on condition that they be allowed to retain their Lat idol with them and that they be exempted from prayers. Given that there were inconsistent with Islamic principles, Muhammad rejected their demands and said "There is no good in a religion in which prayer is ruled out". After Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif accepted Islam, many other tribes of Hejaz followed them and declared their allegiance to Islam. ### Final days #### Farewell Pilgrimage In 631 CE, during the Hajj season, Muhammad appointed Abu Bakr to lead 300 Muslims to the pilgrimage in Mecca. As per old custom, many pagans from other parts of Arabia came to Mecca to perform pilgrimage in pre-Islamic manner. Ali, at the direction of Muhammad, delivered a sermon stipulating the new rites of Hajj and abrogating the pagan rites. He especially declared that no unbeliever, pagan, and naked man would be allowed to circumambulate the Kaaba from the next year. After this declaration was made, a vast number of people of Bahrain, Yemen, and Yamama, who included both the pagans and the people of the book, gradually embraced Islam. Next year, In 632 CE, Muhammad performed hajj and taught Muslims first-hand the various rites of Hajj. On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah, from Mount Arafat, he delivered his Farewell Sermon in which he abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system, repudiated racial discrimination, and advised people to "be good to women". According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran ). #### Death Soon after his return from the pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He was confined to bed by Abu Bakr. During his illness, he appointed Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in the mosque. He ordered to donate the last remaining coins in his house as charity. It is narrated in Sahih al-Bukhari that at the time of death, Muhammad was dipping his hands in water and was wiping his face with them saying "There is no god but God; indeed death has its pangs." He died on June 8 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha. ## Legacy ### Final prophet Muhammad is regarded as the final messenger and prophet by all the main branches of Islam who was sent by God to guide humanity to the right way (Quran ). The Quran uses the designation Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Arabic: خاتم النبين) which is translated as Seal of the Prophets. The title is generally regarded by Muslims as meaning that Muhammad is the last in the series of prophets beginning with Adam. The belief that a new prophet cannot arise after Muhammad is shared by both Sunni and Shi'i Muslims. Believing Muhammad is the last prophet is a fundamental belief in Islamic theology. ### Moral character Muslims believe that Muhammad was the possessor of moral virtues at the highest level, and was a man of moral excellence. He represented the 'prototype of human perfection' and was the best among God's creations. The verse of the Quran says: 'And you [Muhammad] are surely on exalted quality of character'. Consequently, to the Muslims, his life and character are an excellent example to be emulated both at social and spiritual levels. The virtues that characterize him are modesty and humility, forgiveness and generosity, honesty, justice, patience, and, self-denial. Muslim biographers of Muhammad in their books have shed much light on the moral character of Muhammad. Besides, there is a genre of biography that approaches his life focusing on his moral qualities rather than discussing the external affairs of his life. According to biographers, Muhammad lived a simple and austere life often characterized by poverty. He was more bashful than a maiden, and was rare to laugh in a loud voice; rather, he preferred soft smiling. Ja'far al-Sadiq, a descendant of Muhammad and an acclaimed scholar, narrated that Muhammad was never seen stretching his legs in a gathering with his companions and when he would shake hands, he would not pull his hand away first. It is said that during the conquest of Mecca, when Muhammad was entering into the city riding on a camel, his head lowered, in gratitude to God, to the extent that it almost touched the back of the camel. He never took revenge from anyone for his personal cause. He maintained honesty and justice in his deeds. When an elite woman in Medina was accused of theft, and others pleaded for the mitigation of the penalty, Muhammad said: "Even if my daughter Fatima were accused of theft, I would pronounce the same verdict." He preferred mildness and leniency in behavior and in dealing with affairs, and is reported as saying: "He who is not merciful to others, will not be treated mercifully (by God)" (). He pardoned many of his enemies in his life. Biographers especially mention his forgiving the Meccan people after the Conquest of Mecca who at the early period of Islam tortured the Muslims for a long time, and later fought several battles with the Muslims. ### Muslim veneration Muhammad is highly venerated by the Muslims, and is sometimes considered by them to be the greatest of all the prophets. Muslims do not worship Muhammad as worship in Islam is only for God. In Muhammad's own words, he said: 'Do not extol me as the Christians extolled the son of Mary, I am merely a servant'. Muslim understanding and reverence for Muhammad can largely be traced to the teachings of Quran which emphatically describes Muhammad's exalted status. To begin with, the Quran describes Muhammad as al-nabi al-ummi or unlettered prophet (Quran ), meaning that he "received his religious knowledge only from God". As a result, Muhammad's examples have been understood by the Muslims to represent the highest ideal for human conduct, and to reflect what God wants humanity to do. The Quran ranks Muhammad above previous prophets in terms of his moral excellence and the universal message he brought from God for humanity. The Quran calls him the "beautiful model" (al-uswa al-hasana) for those who hope for God and the last day (Quran ). Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent not for any specific people or region, but for all of humanity. Muslims venerate Muhammad in various ways: - In proclamation of Islamic faith, the attestation to oneness of God is always followed by the declaration "verily, I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God". - In speaking or writing, Muslims attach the title "Prophet" to Muhammad's name, and always follow it with sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam (صَلّى الله عليه وسلّم, "Peace be upon him"), sometimes abbreviated SAW, PBUH, or صلى الله عليه وسلم. - Muhammad's tomb in Medina is considered the second most holy place for Muslims, and is visited by most pilgrims who go to Mecca for Hajj. - Muslims often use various titles of praise and appellations to express Muhammad's exalted status. ### Sunnah: A model for Muslims In Muslim legal and religious thought, Muhammad, inspired by God to act wisely and in accordance with his will, provides an example that complements God's revelation as expressed in the Quran; and his actions and sayings – known as Sunnah – are a model for Muslim conduct. The Sunnah can be defined as "the actions, decisions, and practices that Muhammad approved, allowed, or condoned". It also includes Muhammad's confirmation to someone's particular action or manner (during Muhammad's lifetime) which, when communicated to Muhammad, was generally approved by him. The Sunnah, as recorded in the Hadith literature, encompasses everyday activities related to men's domestic, social, economic, political life. It addresses a broad array of activities and Islamic beliefs ranging from the simple practices like, for example, the proper way of entering into a mosque, and private cleanliness to the most sublime questions involving the love between God and humans. The Sunnah of Muhammad serves as a model for the Muslims to shape their life in that light. The Quran tells the believers to offer prayer, to fast, to perform pilgrimage, to pay Zakat, but it was Muhammad who practically taught the believers how to perform all these. In Islamic theology, the necessity to follow the examples (the Sunnah) of Muhammad comes from the ruling of the Quran which it describes in its numerous verses. One such typical verse is "And obey God and the Messenger so that you may be blessed" (Quran ). The Quran uses two different terms to denote this: ita’ah (to obey) and ittiba (to follow). The former refers to the orders of Muhammad, and the latter to his acts and practices. Muhammad often stressed the importance of education and intelligence in the Muslim Ummah because it removes ignorance and promotes acceptance and tolerance. This can be illustrated when Muhammad advises his cousin Ali that, "No poverty is more severe than ignorance and no property is more valuable than intelligence." ### Pre-existence Muhammad is considered in Islamic tradition to be the first human in regards of the soul, preceding the creation of Adam. Accordingly, before the first physical human (Adam) was created, Muhammad's spirit (Ruh) had already existed. This is based on several narratives circulating among Muslim tradition: As recorded by Ibn Sa'd, Qatada ibn Di'ama quoted Muhammad: "I was the first human in creation and I am the last one on resurrection". According to a Shia tradition, after the angels prostrated themselves before Adam, God ordered Adam to look at the Throne of God. Then he saw the radiant body of Muhammad and his family. In Sunni Islam, this tradition appears in the form of a hadith, attributed to Al-Tirmidhi, stating that when Muhammad was asked, when his prophethood started, he answered: "When Adam was between the spirit and the body". A more popular but less authenticated version states "when Adam was between water and mud." Both Sunni and Shia traditions report that, when Adam was in heaven, he read on the throne of God of the Shahada inscribed, thus, Muhammad already mentioned. The Shia traditions also includes Ali. Muhammad's soul is described as a form of Light (Nūr), before he took on physical form as a human being. This light would have passed on from prophet to prophet until it manifested in the form of Muhammad. The Quranic Light verse is interpreted as Muhammad's primordial light essence. This light would even shine during Muhammad's life. As reported by Bukhari, whenever Muhammad entered darkness, light was shining around him like moonlight. Muhammad is further described as having a face radiant like light. For this reason, Muhammad's face is often blurred out by light or veiled in Islamic paintings. Some later Muslim scholars, especially among Sufi tradition of ibn Arabi, argued that Muhammad was not only the first human, but also the first being created. Qunawi identifies Muhammad with the pen (Qalam), which was ordered by God to write down everything what will exist and happen. Such ideas have been objected by others, such as al-Ghazali (Asharite) and Ibn Taymiyyah (proto-Salafi) even completely. Despite some resemblance of the Christian doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ, Islam always depicts Muhammad as a created being and never as part or a person within God. Therefore, Muhammad is considered to be the first created prophet, but the last one sent. The manifestation of the Muhammadan soul in the world is celebrated in the Muslim world during Mawlid, to welcome him as a blessing for humanity. ### Muhammad as lawgiver In Islamic Sharia, the Sunnah of Muhammad is regarded a vital source for Islamic law, next in importance only to the Quran. Additionally, the Quran in its several verses authorizes Muhammad, in his capacity as a prophet, to promulgate new laws. The verse of the Quran says, "those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet whom they find written down in the Torah and the Injil, and who (Muhammad) bids them to the Fair and forbids them the Unfair, and makes lawful for them the good things, and makes unlawful for them the impure things,... So, those who believe in him, and honor him, and help him, and follow the light that has been sent down with him (Muhammad) – they are the ones who acquire success." Commenting on this verse, Islamic scholar Muhammad Taqi Usmani says, "one of the functions of the Holy Prophet (saaw) is to make lawful the good things and make unlawful the impure things. This function has been separated from bidding the fair and forbidding the unfair, because the latter relates to the preaching of what has already been established as fair, and warning against what is established as unfair, while the former embodies the making of lawful and unlawful". Taqi Usmani recognizes two kinds of revelations – the "recited" one which is collectively known as Quran, and the "unrecited" one that Muhammad received from time to time to let him know God's will regarding how human affairs should be – and concludes that Muhammad's prophetic authority to promulgate new laws had its base on the later type. Therefore, in Islamic theology, the difference between God's authority and that of his messenger is of great significance: the former is wholly independent, intrinsic and self-existent, while the authority of the latter is derived from and dependent on the revelation from God. ### Muhammad as intercessor Muslims see Muhammad as primary intercessor and believe that he will intercede on behalf of the believers on Last Judgment day. This non-Qur'anic vision of Muhammad's eschatological role appears for the first time in the inscriptions of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed in 72/691-692. Islamic tradition narrates that after resurrection when humanity will be gathered together and they will face distress due to heat and fear, they will come to Muhammad. Then he will intercede for them with God and the judgment will start. Hadith narrates that Muhammad will also intercede for the believers who for their sins have been taken to hell. Muhammad's intercession will be granted and a lot of believers will come out of hell. ### Muhammad and the Quran To Muslims, the Quran is the verbatim word of God which was revealed, through Gabriel, to Muhammad who delivered it to people without any change (Q53:2-5, 26:192-195), Thus, there exists a deep relationship between Muhammad and the Quran. Muslims believe that as a recipient of the Quran, Muhammad was the man who best understood the meaning of the Quran, was its chief interpreter, and was granted by God "the understanding of all levels of Quran's meaning". In Islamic theology, if a report of Muhammad's Quranic interpretation is held to be authentic, then no other interpretative statement has higher theoretical value or importance than that. In Islamic belief, though the inner message of all the divine revelations given to Muhammad is essentially the same, there has been a "gradual evolution toward a final, perfect revelation". It is in this case that Muhammad's revelation excels the previous ones as Muhammad's revelation is considered by the Muslims to be "the completion, culmination, and perfection of all the previous revelations". Consequently, when the Quran declares that Muhammad is the final prophet after which there will be no future prophet (Q33:40), it is also meant that the Quran is the last revealed divine book. ### Names and titles of praise Muhammad is often referenced with these titles of praise or epithet: - an-Nabi, 'the Prophet'; - ar-Rasul, 'the Messenger'; - al-Habeeb, 'the beloved'; - al-Muṣṭafa, 'the chosen one' (); - al-Amin, 'the trustworthy' (); - as-Sadiq, 'the honest'(); - al-Haq, 'the truthful' (); - ar-Rauf, 'the kind' (); - ‘alā khuluq ‘aẓīm (Arabic: عَلَى خُلُق عِظِيْم), 'on an exalted standard of character' (); - al-Insan al-Kamil, 'the perfect man'; - Uswah Ḥasan (Arabic: أُسْوَة حَسَن), 'good example' (); - al-Khatim an-Nabiyin, 'the seal of the prophets' (); - ar-Rahmatul lil 'alameen, 'mercy of all the worlds' (); - as-Shaheed, 'the witness' (); - al-Mubashir, 'the bearer of good tidings' (); - an-Nathir, 'the warner' (); - al-Mudhakkir, 'the reminder' (); - ad-Da'i, 'the one who calls [unto God]' (); - al-Bashir, 'the announcer' (); - an-Noor, 'the light personified' (); - as-Siraj-un-Munir, 'the light-giving lamp' (); - al-Kareem, 'the noble' (); - an-Nimatullah, 'the divine favour' (); - al-Muzzammil, 'the wrapped' (); - al-Muddathir, 'the shrouded' (); - al-'Aqib, 'the last [prophet]' (, ); - al-Mutawakkil, 'the one who puts his trust [in God]' (); - al-Kutham, 'the generous one’ - al-Mahi, 'the eraser [of disbelief]' (); - al-Muqaffi, 'the one who followed [all other prophets]'; - an-Nabiyyu at-Tawbah, 'the prophet of penitence’ - al-Fatih, 'the opener'; - al-Hashir, 'the gatherer (the first to be resurrected) on the day of judgement' (); - as-Shafe'e, 'the intercessor' (, , , ); - al-Mushaffaun, 'the one whose intercession shall be granted' (, ). He also has these names: - Abu'l-Qasim, "father of Qasim"; - Ahmad, "the Praised one" (); - Hamid, "praiser"; - Mahmood, "praiseworthy"; - 'Abd-Allah, "servant of God" (). ## Miracles Several miracles are said to have been performed by Muhammad. Muslim scholar Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti, in his book Al Khasais-ul-Kubra, extensively discussed Muhammad's various miracles and extraordinary events. Traditional sources, indicate that Sura refers to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh. ### Isra and Mi'raj The Isra and Mi'raj are the two parts of a "Night Journey" that, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad took during a single night around the year 621. It has been described as both a physical and spiritual journey. A brief sketch of the story is in Sura (chapter) 17 Al-Isra of the Quran, and other details come from the hadith. In the journey, Muhammad riding on Buraq travels to the Masjid Al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in Jerusalem where he leads other prophets in prayer. He then ascends to the heavens, and meets some of the earlier prophets such as Abraham, Joseph, Moses, John the Baptist, and Jesus. During this Night Journey, God offered Muhammad five-time daily prayer for the believers. According to traditions, the Journey is associated with the Lailaṫ al-Isrā' wal-Mi'rāj (Arabic: لَيلَة الإِِسرَاء والمِعرَاج), as one of the most significant events in the Islamic calendar. ### Splitting of the Moon Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with the miracle of the splitting of the moon. According to Islamic account, once when Muhammad was in Mecca, the pagans asked him to display a miracle as a proof of his prophethood. It was night time, and Muhammad prayed to God. The moon split into two and descended on two sides of a mountain. The pagans were still incredulous about the credibility of the event but later heard from the distant travelers that they also had witnessed the splitting of the moon. Islamic tradition also tends to refute the arguments against the miracle raised by some quarters. ### During the Battle of the Trench On the eve of the Battle of the Trench when the Muslims were digging a ditch, they encountered a firmly embedded rock that could not be removed. It is said that Muhammad, when apprised of this, came and, taking an axe, struck the rock that created spark upon which he glorified God and said he had been given the keys of the kingdom of Syria. He struck the rock for a second time in a likewise manner and said he had been given the keys of Persia and he could see its white palaces. A third strike crushed the rock into pieces whereupon he again glorified God and said he had been given the keys of Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times. ### The Spider and the Dove When Muhammad and his close friend Abu Bakr had been threatened by the Quraysh, on their way to Medina, they hid themselves in Mount Thawr's cave. The cave had been concealed by a spider building a web and a dove building a nest at the entrance after they entered the cave, therefore killing a spider became associated with sin. ## Visual representation Although Islam only explicitly condemns depicting the divinity, the prohibition was supplementally expanded to prophets and saints and among Arab Sunnism, to any living creature. Although both the Sunni schools of law and the Shia jurisprudence alike prohibit the figurative depiction of Muhammad, visual representations of Muhammad exist in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish texts and especially flourished during the Ilkhanate (1256-1353), Timurid (1370-1506), and Safavid (1501-1722) periods. But apart from these notable exceptions and modern-day Iran, depictions of Muhammad were rare, and if given, usually with his face veiled. Most modern Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. One concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, but also creating an image might lead the artist to claim the ability to create, an ability only ascribed to God. ## Gallery ## See also - Children of Muhammad - List of biographies of Muhammad - Islamic mythology - Muhammad and the Bible - Mahammaddim - Muhammad in the Quran - Relics of Muhammad - Stories of The Prophets
27,490,484	Manchester City F.C. in international football	1,173,474,557	English association football club in European competitions	[ "English football clubs in international competitions", "Manchester City F.C." ]	Manchester City Football Club, an English professional association football club, has gained entry to Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) competitions on multiple occasions. They have represented England in the European Cup (now the Champions League) on thirteen occasions, the UEFA Cup (now the Europa League) on eight occasions, and in the now-defunct Cup Winners' Cup twice. Manchester City are one of thirteen English football clubs to have won European titles, in City's case the 1969–70 Cup Winners' Cup, 2022–23 Champions League, and 2023 Super Cup. The club's first entry into European competition occurred in 1968, as a result of winning the Football League Championship. However, the participation was short-lived, as Manchester City suffered a surprise defeat at the hands of Fenerbahçe in the first round. Entry into the Cup Winners' Cup the following season was more successful; Manchester City won the competition, defeating Górnik Zabrze 2–1 in the final at the Prater Stadium in Vienna. The club reached the semi-finals of the same competition the following year, and continued to play European football regularly during the 1970s. City then endured a period of decline, and did not play in Europe again until 2003, a gap of 24 years. Since then, the Blues have qualified for European competition on a regular basis; they progressed past the quarter-final stage of a continental competition four times during that period, reaching the semi-finals of the 2015–16 and 2021–22 Champions League, losing their maiden European Cup final to Chelsea in 2020–21, and winning their first-ever European championship in 2022–23. In the 1970s, Manchester City also had a track record of repeated entry into several of the non-UEFA sanctioned European competitions which were run in the era, including the Anglo-Italian League Cup and Texaco Cup. ## History ### First entries into European competition European club football competitions began in the mid-1950s. Though Manchester City were moderately successful domestically in this period, the club did not play in Europe. City were not invited to play in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, and the European Cup Winners' Cup did not begin until 1960. When eight players from neighbours Manchester United lost their lives in the Munich air disaster when returning from a European Cup match in February 1958, UEFA wished for City to take United's place in the competition. City rejected the idea out of hand. Manchester City's first appearance in European competition occurred during the 1968–69 season. City played in the European Cup, by virtue of having won the 1967–68 league championship. Extroverted Manchester City coach Malcolm Allison made a number of grandiose statements predicting how the team would fare, saying that City would "terrify Europe", and that "City will attack these people as they have not been attacked since the days of the old Real Madrid". The opposition in the first round was Turkish club Fenerbahçe. The City management did not scout Fenerbahçe in advance of the game, opting to rely on a report from Oscar Hold, an Englishman who had managed Fenerbahçe between 1965 and 1967. In the first leg at Maine Road, City had what the Guardians Albert Barham called "overwhelming territorial advantage". However, to the frustration of the home crowd City were denied by a strong defensive performance by Fenerbahçe, most notably by goalkeeper Yavuz Şimşek, and the match finished 0–0. The return leg in Istanbul was played in front of a Turkish record crowd. City took an early lead through Tony Coleman, but conceded two goals in the second half and were eliminated. Manchester City won the 1969 FA Cup final to earn a place in the 1969–70 European Cup Winners' Cup. Their first tie was against Athletic Bilbao, in Spain's Basque Country. Athletic were themselves managed by an Englishman, Ronnie Allen. In the first leg, City recovered from a two-goal deficit to secure a 3–3 draw. The home leg was a comfortable 3–0 win. Post-match reports alleged that a scuffle had taken place at half-time between Mike Doyle and José Ramón Betzuen. The referee spoke to both managers, but did not take any further action. In the second round, City travelled to Belgians Lierse S.K. and won the first leg 3–0, with two goals from Francis Lee and one from Colin Bell. The home leg produced a 5–0 win, a club record for European competition that stood until 2019. The first leg of the quarter-finals, at Académica de Coimbra, took place three days before Manchester City were due to play in the League Cup final. Malcolm Allison rejected the prevailing British football orthodoxy, in which domestic competitions took priority, by saying he would rather win in Portugal than in the League Cup final. The match finished goalless. At Maine Road, extra-time was required for Manchester City to break down the stubbornly defensive Coimbra. Tony Towers scored the only goal of the tie with a minute of extra-time remaining. The draw for the semi-finals meant Manchester City played the away leg first in every round, this time in Germany, where Schalke 04 were the opposition. City lost the first leg by a single goal. Needing to win at Maine Road by at least two goals, the Blues used a very attacking approach. It worked; City led 3–0 at half-time and won the match 5–1. In the final, they faced Górnik Zabrze of Poland, who had progressed via a coin toss after three matches with A.S. Roma could not produce a winner in the other semi-final. Kostka parried the ball, only for it to land at the feet of Neil Young for a simple finish. Shortly after, City defender Mike Doyle sustained an ankle injury after colliding with Stefan Florenski. The Blues played on with ten men for a period as Doyle received treatment from trainer Dave Ewing, but the defender was unable to continue. Substitute Ian Bowyer replaced him. The change prompted an alteration in formation, in which Colin Bell switched to a deeper position. Shortly before half-time, Young won the ball after loose play from Florenski, which put him clear on goal. As Young moved into the penalty area, Kostka rushed out of his goal and upended him, leaving the referee no option but to give a penalty. Lee struck the spot-kick with power into the centre of the goal. Kostka's legs made contact with the ball, but the force of the shot carried it into the net to make it 2–0. Górnik got a goal back midway through the second half, but there were no more goals and the match finished 2–1. After the match, City manager Joe Mercer said "the heavy rain in the second half ruined the game" and that he was "quite happy with the performance of our team, although the technical level was rather low in the second half". Górnik manager Michał Matyas blamed his side's poor start, saying the "first goal came too early for us and we never recovered from this shock". The trophy was Manchester City's fourth major honour in three seasons. It made them the third English club to win the Cup Winners' Cup, after Tottenham Hotspur and West Ham United. ### Regular participation in the 1970s As title holders, Manchester City automatically qualified to defend the Cup Winners' Cup in the 1970–71 season. Had they not won the trophy, they would still have been qualified for European competition, as City's victory in the 1970 League Cup granted a place in the Fairs Cup. As a UEFA-organised competition, the Cup Winners' Cup took precedence over the Fairs Cup, and so the club took a place in the former. In the first round, Manchester City almost suffered an upset at the hands of Linfield, from Belfast. City held a one-goal lead after the first leg, but Linfield twice took the lead in the second leg. The match finished 2–1 to Linfield, and Manchester City progressed on the away goals rule. Honvéd were the opposition in the second round. Manchester City won both legs, with the score being 3–0 on aggregate. The quarter-finals saw a rematch with Górnik Zabrze, who City had beaten in the previous year's final. Both legs finished 2–0 to the home team, so to separate the sides a third match was played on neutral ground, in Copenhagen. Despite having several players unavailable through injury, City won this match 3–1, and were drawn to play fellow English club Chelsea in the semi-finals, the first time Manchester City had drawn another English club in European competition. Further injuries occurred in domestic fixtures in the run-up to the game, to the extent that goalkeeper Joe Corrigan played the first leg of the Chelsea tie unable to fully open his left eye because of a facial injury. City lost the first leg at Stamford Bridge 1–0. Corrigan was unable to play in the second leg, in which stand-in goalkeeper Ron Healey conceded an own goal, resulting in another 1–0 defeat. A mid-table finish in the 1970–71 season meant that for the first time in four years Manchester City did not qualify for Europe. The following year, a fourth-place league finish gave the club a berth in the UEFA Cup for the first time. The UEFA Cup had replaced the Fairs Cup in 1971, when control of the competition transferred to UEFA. City's debut in the competition was a short one. Drawn against a Valencia side managed by Alfredo Di Stéfano, City were bounced out in the second leg at the Mestalla 3–2, despite producing a pulsating 2–2 draw at Maine Road in the first leg. Triumph in the 1976 League Cup final gave Manchester City a place in the UEFA Cup after a four-year absence. City drew Juventus in the first round. Drawn at home first, City won the first leg 1–0, Brian Kidd scoring his first goal for the club. The second leg in Turin resulted in a 2–0 defeat and elimination. Juventus went on to win the competition. As league runners-up in the 1976–77 season, City again qualified for the UEFA Cup. Drawn against Widzew Łódź, the Blues drew the first leg at Maine Road 2–2. In the late 1970s, hooliganism was becoming a more prominent part of English football. Following an incident where a fan invaded the pitch and attacked Widzew's Zbigniew Boniek, City were fined by UEFA, and fencing was erected between the pitch and the stands. A 0–0 draw in Łódź resulted in City's elimination on the away goals rule. A fifth-place finish in the 1977–78 season proved sufficient to qualify for the UEFA Cup once again. Dutchmen FC Twente were the first opposition. In Enschede, Dave Watson gave City the lead. Twente equalised in the second half from a free kick. In the second leg City ran up a 3–1 lead, but a second Twente goal meant a nervy finish. City held on, preserving their 3–2 lead to win the tie. This was the first time the club had progressed past the first round of the UEFA Cup in four attempts. Further opposition from the Low Countries awaited in the second round, in the form of Standard Liège. A flurry of late goals gave Manchester City a 4–0 lead after the first leg. The large lead meant that despite a 2–0 defeat in Liège, in which Gary Owen received a red card, City progressed with ease. Owen's sending off resulted in a five match ban. In the third round City faced four-time European trophy winners A.C. Milan. The first leg, held at the San Siro, was initially postponed due to fog, and was instead played the following day. City took a 2–0 lead and came close to becoming the first English team to beat Milan at the San Siro, but conceded twice; the equaliser scored eight minutes from time. City won the home leg 3–0, with goals from Booth, Hartford and Kidd. City's first European quarter-final since 1971 was against Borussia Mönchengladbach. The club received advice from Bob Paisley, whose Liverpool had met Mönchengladbach several times. City opened the scoring in the first leg, but while attempting to extend their lead were caught on the counter-attack and conceded an equaliser. After failing to win the home leg, having conceded an away goal in the process, City travelled to Germany with few expecting them to progress. So it proved, as City lost 3–1 at the Bökelbergstadion. ### Return to Europe in the 2000s; little progress in the early 2010s Manchester City's fortunes declined during the 1980s and 1990s. For a single season, 1998–99, the club fell as far as English football's third tier. The club did not qualify for European competition in this period. In ordinary circumstances, the club's fifth-placed finish in 1991 and 1992 would have granted a UEFA Cup place. However, English clubs had recently returned from a ban issued after the Heysel Stadium disaster. As the UEFA coefficient that determines the number of places per country is based upon performances in European competition over the previous five years, England had a reduced allocation until 1995. By the 2002–03 season, Manchester City were back in the Premier League. An unusual route into European competition for the 2003–04 season was provided by the UEFA Respect Fair Play ranking, which allocated extra UEFA Cup qualifying round places for the leagues with the best records for discipline and positive play. This marked Manchester City's first European participation for 24 years. In the qualifying round City played Welsh club Total Network Solutions. The first leg was the first-ever competitive match at Manchester City's new ground, the City of Manchester Stadium. Trevor Sinclair became the first ever goalscorer at the stadium in a 5–0 win. In the hope of attracting a large crowd, TNS switched the second leg to Millennium Stadium, the national stadium of Wales. With the tie effectively won, City made 10 changes to their team. The match finished 2–0 to City. Against Sporting Lokeren in the first round proper, City won the home leg 3–2, and the away leg 1–0. A tie against Groclin Dyskobolia followed. Both legs were drawn, and just as in 1976, City were eliminated on away goals after a 0–0 draw in Poland. In 2008, Manchester City once again qualified for the UEFA Cup through the Fair Play rankings. As City had to play the qualifying rounds, it meant a very early start to the season, in mid-July. Their first match was a trip to the remote Faroe Islands to play EB/Streymur. As Streymur's ground had a capacity of only 1,000, the match was moved to Tórsvøllur, the Faroese national stadium. Two early goals gave City a 2–0 win. The home leg was unusual in that it was played outside Manchester. The pitch at the City of Manchester Stadium had been relaid following a Bon Jovi concert, and was not ready in time. Instead, the match was played at Barnsley's Oakwell ground. Another 2–0 win resulted in a 4–0 aggregate scoreline. In the second qualifying round City played FC Midtjylland. The first leg ended in a 1–0 defeat, only City's second ever home defeat in European competition. In the second leg City looked to be heading out of the competition until an 89th minute cross was diverted into his own net by Midtjylland's Danny Califf. The tie then went to extra time, and City progressed on penalties. In the first round proper Cypriots AC Omonia took the lead, but City overcame the deficit and won 2–1, and also won the second leg by the same scoreline. A five team group stage then followed, in which each team played the others once. Manchester City were drawn with Twente, Schalke 04, Racing de Santander and Paris Saint-Germain. City topped the group, after wins against Twente and Schalke, a draw with Paris Saint-Germain and a defeat in a dead rubber in Santander. The knockout stages then resumed, with a visit to F.C. Copenhagen in freezing conditions. City took the lead twice but could only draw 2–2. The home leg was more comfortable, and ended in a 2–1 victory. Another Danish club, Aalborg, awaited in the next round. Both matches finished 2–0 to the home side, and the tie was decided by a penalty shootout, which Manchester City won. City then faced Hamburger SV, in their first European quarter-final since 1979. The away leg was played first, and started exceptionally well for Manchester City, as Stephen Ireland scored after just 35 seconds. However, Hamburg soon equalised, and won the match 3–1. A difficult task in the home leg soon became even harder, when Hamburg scored an away goal early in the match. City scored twice, the first by Elano, who also hit the woodwork on two occasions with free-kicks. However, City could not produce the third goal that would have taken the tie into extra time. UEFA rebranded and restructured the UEFA Cup in 2009, resulting in it becoming the UEFA Europa League. By finishing fifth in the 2009–10 Premier League, Manchester City qualified for this competition. A play-off round took place before the four team group stage, in which Manchester City beat Timișoara of Romania home and away. City's group stage opponents were Juventus, Red Bull Salzburg and Lech Poznań. Each team played the others twice. City's opener was in Salzburg, and resulted in a 2–0 win. A 1–1 draw at home to Juventus then followed. A 3–1 win at home to Lech Poznań is remembered primarily not for the action on the pitch, in which Emmanuel Adebayor scored a hat-trick, but for the actions of the Polish supporters, whose backs to the pitch dance was later adopted by Manchester City fans, for whom it became known as The Poznań. The return match with Lech Poznań resulted in a 3–1 defeat, but a 3–0 home victory over Red Bull Salzburg ensured qualification with a match to spare. The dead rubber against Juventus ended 1–1, and Manchester City won the group. In the knockout stages City then beat Aris Thessaloniki 3–0 on aggregate, and met Dynamo Kyiv in the last 16. City lost 2–0 in Kyiv, and had to play most of the second leg with ten men after Mario Balotelli was sent off. A 1–0 win was insufficient to overcome the deficit, as City lost 2–1 on aggregate. Manchester City finished third in the 2010–11 Premier League, to qualify for the rebranded version of the European Cup, the UEFA Champions League, for the first time since 1968. The club's league finish granted direct entry into the group stages without qualification. Their group stage opponents were Bayern Munich, Villarreal and Napoli. City's first group match was at home to Napoli. The Italians took the lead in the second half following a counter-attacking move, but five minutes later Aleksandar Kolarov scored from a free-kick to equalise, and the match finished 1–1. City then lost 2–0 at Bayern Munich, a match most notable for the refusal of Carlos Tevez to come on as substitute, which resulted in an exile from the first team lasting nearly six months. A double-header with Villarreal resulted in two Manchester City wins. Sergio Agüero scored a last-minute winner in the first, which finished 2–1; the second was a comfortable 3–0 victory. A 2–1 defeat at Napoli then took qualification out of Manchester City's hands, and despite a 2–0 win against group winners Bayern Munich, City finished third in the group and failed to qualify for the knockout stages. As a third placed team the club then entered the Europa League in the round of 32, where they faced Europa League holders Porto. Manchester City won both legs. Agüero's goal after 19 seconds of the second leg was the second fastest in the history of the competition. City returned to Portugal in the next round, against Lisbon club Sporting CP. City lost the first leg 0–1 in Lisbon and were trailing 0–2 early in the home game. The team mounted a great comeback, scoring three goals, but it was not enough, as they were eliminated on away goals rule. Manchester City qualified for the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League as league champions and hope were high for the team to perform successfully. The team was drawn with Real Madrid, Borussia Dortmund, and AFC Ajax. Cityzens failed to win even a single watch, losing three and drawing three and failed to progress even to the Europa League knock-out stage, finishing last in their group. The 2013–14 UEFA Champions League campaign was a watershed moment for the team, as they won five games in the group stage and qualified for the knockout phase for the first time since 1968. However, City's performance in the round of 16 was a disappointment, as they dropped both games to Barcelona with an aggregate score of 1–4. The team's next Champions League campaign was similar to the previous one, as Manchester City were again drawn with Bayern Munich and CSKA Moscow in the group stage and, after qualifying for the playoffs as the second best team, Cityzens once again had to face Barcelona. The final result saw little improvement, as Man City again lost both games but this time with an aggregate score of 1–3. Barça went on to win the tournament. The 2015–16 UEFA Champions League campaign went on to become the most successful in history for City as they reached the semi-finals before being eliminated by Real Madrid after drawing the home game and losing at the Santiago Bernabéu 0–1. Real Madrid went on to win the tournament. The Cityzens eliminated Dynamo Kyiv and Paris on their way to the semi-finals. ### Under Pep Guardiola: 2016 to present day, top-four UEFA ranking, first-ever Champions League final and continental treble In the first season under the reign Pep Guardiola, hopes were high for Manchester City as they progressed to the knockout phase after finishing second in the group that featured Guardiola's former team, Barcelona. City lost their away match to Barça 0–4, but then rebounded to win 3–1 at home. In the Round of 16 City were drawn against Monaco. The Blues were trailing 1–2 and 2–3 in their home match before scoring three unanswered goals and winning 5–3. In the away game, the Cityzens were down 0–2 when Leroy Sané scored to put City in front of the tie again, but Tiémoué Bakayoko's late goal meant that Monaco progressed further and City were eliminated. The 2017–18 season was an undoubted success for the Blues domestically, but their European campaign was quite underwhelming. The team confidently won five games in the group stage and qualified for the knockout stage, where they defeated Basel 5–2 on aggregate. The Cityzens were drawn with fellow Premier League side Liverpool in the quarter-finals. The outcome of those games was an utter devastation as Manchester City were thrashed 5–1 on aggregate and eliminated amid the controversy with refereeing mistakes favourable to Liverpool. The Premier League title where City achieved 100 points was somewhat a consolation for this anticlimactic European campaign. Manchester City were one of the favourites prior to their 2018–19 Champions league campaign. The team again won their group with 13 points, then defeated Schalke 04 in the Round of 16, winning their home game with a record 7–0 scoreline. Similarly to the previous season, Manchester City were drawn against an English club in the quarter-finals, this time Tottenham Hotspur. The Blues lost the away game 0–1, with Agüero missing a penalty. In the home leg, Sterling scored early for the hosts, but then City quickly conceded two goals and now needed to score three. They did exactly that, leading 4–2 twenty minutes before the end of the game, but Fernando Llorente's wrongly awarded handball meant that City were again required to score. In stoppage time, Sterling converted a pass from Agüero to seemingly send City through. However, the goal was disallowed after a VAR review, and the Blues were eliminated in a heartbreaking fashion. Manchester City swept all their domestic tournaments that season, but were still unable to add European success. Acknowledging that City would be judged by their Champions League performance after all, Pep Guardiola stated that the new season's main objective would be to win the European title. The Cityzens progressed to the knockout phase and faced old foes Real Madrid there. City won the away game 2–1, but the remainder of the tournament was indefinitely postponed due to the COVID–19 pandemic. Finally, UEFA announced that the tournament would be resumed in August 2020. The home match against Madrid was scheduled for 7 August. Thanks to goals from Raheem Sterling and Gabriel Jesus, the Citizens once again defeated Madrid 2–1, achieving a 4–2 victory on aggregate and advancing to the quarter-finals. Man City faced Lyon on 15 August, losing 3–1 and exiting the Champions league at the quarter-final stage for the third year in a row. The 2020–21 campaign saw City top its group with a club record of 16 points, twice defeating Marseille and Olympiacos, and collecting four points against Porto. In the round of 16, the Blues were paired with Borussia Mönchengladbach and progressed to the quarter-finals for the fourth consecutive year after winning both legs 2–0. In the quarter-finals, City were paired against another German outfit, this time Borussia Dortmund. The Blues managed to neutralize Dortmund's inform striker Erling Haaland to win the double-legged tie 4–2 on aggregate after two identical 2–1 wins home and away. In the semi-finals, Manchester City were drawn against reigning finalists Paris Saint-Germain who'd avenged their loss to Bayern Munich in the 2020 final by knocking out the German club in their quarter-final tie on away goals. City rallied from behind to win 2–1 at the Parc des Princes thanks to goals by Kevin De Bruyne and Riyad Mahrez. In the second leg, a goal in either half from Mahrez booked City's place in their first-ever European Cup final, which happened to be an all-English affair against Chelsea, with a stylish 4–1 aggregate victory. The final took place at the Estádio do Dragão in Porto, Portugal, and the Citizens were defeated 1–0 by a lone goal scored by Kai Havertz in an anticlimactic game. Still, City's breakthrough marked its most successful European campaign to date. As a consequence of that successful campaign, City entered the top four in the UEFA rankings, placing third. City once again reached the Champions League semi-finals in the 2021–22 competition. They won a group including Paris Sant Germain, RB Leipzig and Club Brugges with four victories and two defeats. In the round of 16 they earnt a commanding first leg lead in their tie against Sporting Lisbon, beating the Portuguese champions 5–0 away including a brace from Bernardo Silva. before wrapping up the victory with a 0–0 draw at home. In the quarter-final a 1–0 victory in the first leg at home gave City a slight advantage against Atlético as they headed to Madrid. An intense and maturely hard fought 0–0 draw then ensured City progressed to the semi-finals. There, City beat Real Madrid 4–3 in an outstanding game at a full and noisy Etihad Stadium to take a slender advantage to the Bernabéu. City scored in under 2 minutes as Kevin De Bruyne finished the fastest goal in European Cup semi-final history and had held a two goal advantage on three occasions during the tie, with several other good opportunities to increase their lead, only to see a resilient Madrid reduce their deficit to a single goal, including a brace and Panenka penalty from their top scorer, captain and talisman Karim Benzema. City would go onto regret these missed opportunities as they failed to reach the Champions League final in dramatic and heart-breaking circumstances. Leading the second leg 1–0 (5–3 on aggregate), from a 75th minute goal from Riyad Mahrez, and approaching the last minute of normal time, it appeared City were heading comfortably to the final, where they would have met Liverpool. However two goals in a minute from Madrid's substitute striker Rodrygo sent the game into extra time; and another penalty from Benzema five minutes later proved to be the winner as City were defeated 1–3 (5–6 on aggregate). Despite the heartbreaking defeat, City retained the third place in the UEFA rankings. For the third consecutive season, and for the fourth time in the club's history, City reached the Champions League semi-finals in 2022–23. After topping their group of Borussia Dortmund of the Bundesliga, Sevilla of La Liga and F.C. Copenhagen of the Danish Superliga undefeated, with four wins and two draws, the Blues were drawn up against RB Leipzig in the round of 16 for the third and fourth fixtures between the sides in their histories. At the Red Bull Arena, Riyad Mahrez's first half opener was cancelled out by Joško Gvardiol in the second half, and City drew 1–1 after being denied a penalty in the final seconds. The draw would not matter as City eviscerated the German side 7–0 in the second leg, with a record-equalling five goals from Erling Haaland, and one each from new captain İlkay Gündoğan and from Kevin De Bruyne. The Blues would then be drawn up against another Bundesliga side, this time Bayern Munich, 2019–20 Champions League winners and reigning German champions. In the first leg at the Etihad Stadium, City comfortably outplayed Bayern and defeated them 3–0, with a first Champions League goal for Rodri and one each from Bernardo Silva and Erling Haaland, effectively sending City through after one leg. The following week, they drew 1–1 at the Allianz Arena, with another goal from Haaland confirming City's semi-finals spot 4–1 on aggregate to face Real Madrid there for the second consecutive season. The first leg was played at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, and Vinícius Júnior gave Madrid a 1–0 lead at half time with a stunning goal. However, City's reliable talisman Kevin De Bruyne salvaged the Blues a 1–1 draw at a stadium that saw their Champions League campaign collapse a year ago. Then, in one of their best performances in the Pep Guardiola era, Manchester City sealed their spot in the final thanks to an incredible 4–0 win in the second leg at the Etihad Stadium, with a first half brace from Bernardo Silva, and second half goals from Manuel Akanji and Julián Álvarez. #### 2023 Champions League final On 10 June 2023, at the Atatürk Olympic Stadium in front of 71,412 supporters, a second-half goal from Rodri saw Manchester City win the Champions League final against Inter Milan, completing a historic continental treble, only the second in English men's football history. In doing so, City completed a task of winning the UEFA Champions League set out 15 years ago in 2008 when the club was purchased by the Abu Dhabi United Group. The game itself was a nervy one for the Blues; in the fifth minute, Bernardo Silva curled an effort just wide. Erling Haaland and Kevin De Bruyne both had efforts, but they were saved by Inter goalkeeper André Onana. In the 36th minute, De Bruyne was substituted due to injury for the second time in a Champions League final, after going off in City's 2021 defeat to Chelsea. In the 59th minute, City's keeper Ederson failed to collect a weird backpass from Manuel Akanji which was found by Inter's Lautaro Martínez; his shot from near the touchline was blocked by Ederson. Rodri scored the opening goal for City in the 68th minute by finishing a pulled-back pass that Bernardo Silva sent from near the goal to the top of the penalty area. Inter had a chance to equalise three minutes later through a header by defender Federico Dimarco that hit the crossbar. Dimarco tried to capitalise on the rebound as well, but his shot was blocked by on-loan Chelsea striker Romelu Lukaku. The Belgian striker had his own chance to score from a close-range header in the 89th minute, which Ederson blocked with his legs. The Brazilian made an additional save in stoppage time off Robin Gosens' header to preserve a 1–0 victory for City. With this being the club's first European Cup title (making them the first new winners of the competition since fellow English club Chelsea in 2012), City became the sixth English team, and 23rd overall, to win the European Cup, which also marked the 15th time an English club were European champions. With this triumph, Manchester City topped the UEFA coefficient rankings. ## UEFA competitions ## Non-UEFA competitions In addition to the major UEFA competitions, Manchester City have also played a number of first team fixtures in other, more minor multi-national competitions. As winners of the 1970 League Cup, Manchester City played against the Coppa Italia winners Bologna in the Anglo-Italian League Cup. The competition started the previous year, as a way of enabling 1969 League Cup winners Swindon Town to play European opposition. For the first leg in Bologna, the City team stayed over 100 km (60 miles) away in the coastal resort of Rimini, and took a relaxed attitude to proceedings. City lost the match 1–0, and drew 2–2 at home, losing the competition. After missing out on a UEFA berth for 1971–72, Manchester City were invited to play in the Texaco Cup, a competition for English, Scottish and Irish teams. City fielded a weakened side for the second leg of their tie against Airdrieonians. As punishment Manchester City had their £1,000 prize money withheld and were banned from the competition for two years. Upon the expiry of the suspension in 1974, the club entered the competition again, but exited in the group stage. The tournament saw Denis Law play his final matches as a professional. The withdrawal of Irish teams saw the competition renamed the Anglo-Scottish Cup the following year. Again, City failed to progress beyond the group stage. ## Records ### Competitive record ### Finals ### Lost semi-finals - Other winning semi-finalists are shown in italics. Tournaments winners are in bold. ### By country #### UEFA competitions #### Non-UEFA competitions ### UEFA coefficient The UEFA club coefficients are based on the results of clubs competing in the five previous seasons of the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League and UEFA Europa Conference League. The rankings determine the seeding of each club in relevant UEFA competition draws. The table and graph below show the progress of City's rankings in these coefficients since they re-entered the Europa League competition in 2010–11 as of the end of the season specified. ### Club records - Record European home victory: 7–0 vs Schalke 04, UEFA Champions League round of 16 second leg, 12 March 2019; vs RB Leipzig, UEFA Champions League round of 16 second leg, 14 March 2023. - Record European away victory: 5–0 vs Sporting CP, UEFA Champions League round of 16 first leg, 15 February 2022. - Record European home defeat: 1–3 vs Bayern Munich, UEFA Champions League group stage, 2 October 2013. - Record European away defeat: 0–4 vs Barcelona, UEFA Champions League group stage, 19 October 2016. - Longest winning run in UEFA competitions: 7 matches, 9 December 2020 – 29 May 2021. - Most UEFA Champions League wins in a single season: 11 matches, 2020–21, national record. - Longest unbeaten run in the UEFA Champions League: 13 matches, 6 September 2022 – 17 May 2023, ongoing. - Longest unbeaten home run in the UEFA Champions League: 26 matches, 7 November 2018 – 17 May 2023, ongoing, national record. - Most UEFA Champions League home wins in a row: 10 matches, 7 August 2020 – 24 November 2021. - Longest unbeaten away run in the UEFA Champions League: 10 matches, 18 September 2019 – 28 September 2021. - Most points amassed in a UEFA Champions League group: 16 points, 2020–21. - Fewest points amassed in a UEFA Champions League group: 3 points, 2012–13. - Most goals scored in a single season: 32 goals, 2022–23. - Fewest goals conceded in one season: 5 goals, 2020–21 and 2022–23. - Highest home attendance: 53,461 vs Liverpool, UEFA Champions League quarter-finals second leg, 10 April 2018. ### Player records - Most appearances: 75 – Fernandinho. - Most goals scored in European competitions: 43 – Sergio Agüero. - Most goals scored in the UEFA Champions League: 39 – Sergio Agüero. - Most goals scored in the play-off round: 3 – Sergio Agüero. - Most goals scored in the group stage: 27 – Sergio Agüero. - Most goals scored in the knockout phase: 11 – Kevin De Bruyne. - Most goals scored in a single season: 12 – Erling Haaland, 2022–23. - Most hat-tricks scored: 3 – Sergio Agüero. - Most hat-tricks in a single season: 2 – Sergio Agüero, 2016–17. - Most goals scored in a single match: 5 – Erling Haaland vs RB Leipzig, 2022–23. - Most assists: 27 – Kevin De Bruyne. - Most assists in a single season: 7 – Kevin De Bruyne, 2022–23. - Most assists in a single match: 3 – Kevin De Bruyne vs Tottenham Hotspur, UEFA Champions League, 17 April 2019; João Cancelo vs Club Brugge, UEFA Champions League, 3 November 2021. - Most clean sheets: 28 – Ederson. ### Manager records - Most decorated managers: 2 titles – Pep Guardiola. - Most games managed: 78 matches (including preliminary rounds) – Pep Guardiola. - Most matches won: 49 wins' (including preliminary rounds) – Pep Guardiola.
14,371,304	HMS Dominion	1,141,383,708	Pre-dreadnought battleship of the British Royal Navy	[ "1903 ships", "King Edward VII-class battleships", "Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness", "Vickers", "World War I battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Dominion was a King Edward VII-class battleship of the Royal Navy. Like all ships of the class (apart from the lead ship of the class, HMS King Edward VII) she was named after an important part of the British Empire, namely the Dominion of Canada. The ship was built by Vickers; she was laid down in May 1902, was launched in August 1903, and was completed in July 1905. Armed with a battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) and four 9.2 in (234 mm) guns, she and her sister ships marked a significant advance in offensive power compared to earlier British battleship designs that did not carry the 9.2 in guns. Commissioned in August 1905, Dominion entered service with the Atlantic Fleet but she ran aground in August 1906 in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Repairs took nearly a year, and upon completion, she was assigned to the Home Fleet. Following a reorganisation of the fleet in 1912, she and her sister ships formed the 3rd Battle Squadron, part of the Home Fleet. That year, the squadron went to the Mediterranean Sea during the First Balkan War as part of an international blockade of Montenegro. In 1913, the ship returned to British waters. When the First World War broke out, the 3rd Battle Squadron was assigned to the Grand Fleet, with Dominion conducting operations as part of the Northern Patrol. Through 1914 and 1915, the ships frequently went to sea to search for German vessels, but Dominion saw no action during this period. By the end of the year, the Grand Fleet stopped operating with the older 3rd Battle Squadron ships, and in 1916, the squadron was detached to the Nore Command. The unit subsequently dissolved in March 1918. She was a depot ship for the raids on Zeebrugge and Ostend, and, decommissioned in May, ended the war as an accommodation ship. She was sold in 1921 and eventually scrapped in 1924. ## Design Following the development of pre-dreadnought type battleships carrying heavy secondary guns of 8-inch (200 mm) diameter in the Italian Regia Marina and the United States Navy, the Royal Navy decided to build similar ships. Initial proposals called for a battleship equipped with eight 7.5 in (190 mm) guns to support the main battery, though under the direction of William Henry White, the Director of Naval Construction, these were replaced with four 9.2 in (234 mm) guns. The new ships, though based on the general Majestic type that had formed the basis of the preceding four battleship designs, marked the first significant change in the series. Like all late pre-dreadnoughts that entered service in the mid-1900s, Dominion was made almost instantaneously obsolescent by the commissioning of the all-big-gun HMS Dreadnought in December 1906, armed with a battery of ten heavy guns compared to the typical four of most pre-dreadnoughts. Dominion was 453 feet 9 inches (138.30 m) long overall, with a beam of 75 ft (23 m) and a draft of 25 ft 8 in (7.82 m). The King Edward VII-class battleships displaced 15,585 to 15,885 long tons (15,835 to 16,140 t) normally and up to 17,009 to 17,290 long tons (17,282 to 17,567 t) fully loaded. Her crew numbered 777 officers and ratings. The King Edward VII-class ships were powered by a pair of 4-cylinder triple-expansion engines that drove two screws, with steam provided by sixteen water-tube boilers. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The King Edward VII-class ships had a top speed of 18.5 knots (34.3 km/h; 21.3 mph) from 18,000 indicated horsepower (13,000 kW). Dominion had a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) 40-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft. These were supported by a heavy secondary battery of four 9.2 in (234 mm) guns in four single turrets, two on each broadside. The ships also mounted ten 6-inch (152 mm) 45-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to fourteen 12-pounder 3 in (76 mm) guns and fourteen 3-pounder 47 mm (1.9 in) guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with five 18-inch (457 mm) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull; two were on each broadside, with the fifth in the stern. Dominion had an armoured belt that was 9 inches (229 mm) thick; the transverse bulkheads on the aft end of the belt was 8 to 12 in (203 to 305 mm) thick. The sides of her main battery turrets were also 8 to 12 in thick, atop 12 in barbettes, and the 9.2 turrets had 5 to 9 in (127 to 229 mm) sides. The casemate battery was protected with 7 in (178 mm) of armour plate. Her conning tower had 12-inch-thick sides. She was fitted with two armoured decks, 1 and 2.5 in (25 and 64 mm) thick, respectively. ## Service history ### Early career HMS Dominion was ordered under the 1902 Naval Estimates. She was laid down at Vickers' yards at Barrow-in-Furness on 23 May 1902, her first keel plate placed by Lord Walter Kerr, First Sea Lord. She was launched on 25 August 1903, began trials in May 1905 and was completed in July 1905. Dominion commissioned on 15 August at Portsmouth Dockyard for service in the Atlantic Fleet. She ran aground in the Gulf of St. Lawrence on 16 August 1906, suffering severe damage to her hull plating and some flooding. She arrived at the Royal Naval Dockyard in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda (home base of the North America and West Indies Station) for temporary repairs in September, including being fitted with a temporary wooden bottom. When these were completed in January 1907, she moved to Chatham Dockyard for completion of her repairs beginning in February. While out of service at Chatham, she transferred to the Channel Fleet in March. Her repairs were completed in June and she was recommissioned for her Channel Fleet service. Under a fleet reorganization on 24 March 1909, the Channel Fleet became the 2nd Division, Home Fleet, and Dominion became a Home Fleet unit in that division. Under a fleet reorganization in May 1912, Dominion and all seven of her sisters (Africa, Britannia, Commonwealth, Hibernia, Hindustan, King Edward VII, and Zealandia) were assigned to form the 3rd Battle Squadron, assigned to the First Fleet, Home Fleet, although Dominion was initially attached to the 2nd Battle Squadron and did not join the 3rd Battle Squadron until June 1912. The squadron was detached to the Mediterranean in November because of the First Balkan War (October 1912 – May 1913); it arrived at Malta on 27 November and subsequently participated in a blockade by an international force of Montenegro and in an occupation of Scutari. The squadron returned to the United Kingdom in 1913 and rejoined the Home Fleet on 27 June. ### World War I Upon the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the 3rd Battle Squadron, at the time under the command of Vice Admiral Edward Bradford, was assigned to the Grand Fleet and based at Rosyth, where it was reinforced with the five Duncan-class battleships, It was used to supplement the Grand Fleet's cruisers on the Northern Patrol. On 6 August, the day after Britain declared war on Germany, elements of the Grand Fleet sortied to inspect the coast of Norway in search of a German naval base violating Norwegian neutrality. Dominion and the rest of the 3rd Battle Squadron provided distant support to the operation. No such base was found, and the ships returned to port the next day. On 14 August, the ships of the Grand Fleet went to sea for battle practice before conducting a sweep into the North Sea later that day and into 15 August. During sweeps by the fleet, she and her sisters often steamed at the heads of divisions of the far more valuable dreadnoughts, where they could protect the dreadnoughts by watching for mines or by being the first to strike them. On 25 August, Dominion reported that two of her 12-inch guns had cracked, though the squadron flagship, King Edward VII, had the same problem, so the squadron commander transferred his flag to Dominion while his flagship was away for repairs. King Edward VII returned on 1 September and resumed her role as flagship, allowing Dominion to leave to have her guns replaced in Devonport. On 2 November 1914, the squadron was detached to reinforce the Channel Fleet and was rebased at Portland. It returned to the Grand Fleet on 13 November 1914. On 14 December, the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron, 2nd Battle Squadron, and accompanying cruisers and destroyers left port to intercept the German forces preparing to raid Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. On the first reports of contact with German units on the morning of 16 December, the Grand Fleet commander, Admiral John Jellicoe, ordered Bradford to take the 3rd Battle Squadron to support the ships in contact at 10:00. Four hours later, they met the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons, en route from Scapa Flow, though they failed to reach the German High Seas Fleet before the latter withdrew. The Grand Fleet remained at sea until late on 17 December, at which point the 3rd Battle Squadron was ordered back to Rosyth. Dominion and the rest of the squadron joined the Grand Fleet for another sweep into the North Sea on 25 December. The fleet returned to its ports two days later, having failed to locate any German vessels. The 3rd Battle Squadron went to sea on 12 January 1915 for gunnery training, steaming north and passing to the west of Orkney on the night of 13–14 January. After completing training on the 14th, they returned to Rosyth on 15 January. On 23 January, the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons sortied to ambush the German I Scouting Group in what resulted in the Battle of Dogger Bank the following day. Later on the 23rd, the rest of the Grand Fleet, including Dominion, sortied to support the battlecruisers. The 3rd Squadron ships left first and steamed at full speed to reach ships of the Harwich Force, which had reported contact with German vessels. The battlecruisers intervened first, and Dominion and her sisters arrived around 14:00, by which time the battlecruisers had sunk the armoured cruiser Blücher and the surviving German ships had fled. The 3rd Battle Squadron patrolled the area with the rest of the Grand Fleet over the night before being detached at 08:00 on 25 January to steam to Rosyth. Elements of the Grand Fleet went to sea repeatedly over the next few months. The 3rd Battle Squadron patrolled the central North Sea in company with the 3rd Cruiser Squadron from 10 to 13 March. The two units again went to sea to sweep the central North Sea from 5 to 8 April. A major fleet operation followed on 11 April, with the entire Grand Fleet sortieing for a sweep of the North Sea on 12 and 13 April. The squadrons returned to their ports on 14 April to replenish their fuel. Another such operation followed on 17 April, which also failed to find any German ships. The 3rd Battle Squadron returned to Rosyth late on 18 April. The fleet sortied again on 21 April, returning to port two days later. The 3rd Battle Squadron, joined by the 3rd Cruiser Squadron, patrolled the northern North Sea from 5 to 10 May, during which a German U-boat attacked the battleships; the U-boat had launched a pair of torpedoes at Dominion but failed to score a hit. Another sweep into the North Sea took place on 17–19 May, and no German forces were encountered. The fleet went to sea again on 29 May for a patrol south to the Dogger Bank before returning to port on 31 May, again without having located any German vessels. The Grand Fleet spent much of June in port conducting training, but the most modern units went to sea on 11 June for gunnery practice to the northwest of Shetland. While they were training, Dominion and the rest of the 3rd Battle Squadron, along with the 3rd Cruiser Squadron, patrolled the central North Sea. Fleet activities were limited in July, owing to a threatened strike by coal miners, which began on 18 July and threatened the supply of coal for the fleet's ships. The strike continued into August, which led Jellicoe to continue to limit fleet activities to preserve his stocks of coal. The fleet saw little activity in September, and during this period, the Grand Fleet began to go to sea without the older ships of the 3rd Battle Squadron. On 29 April 1916, the 3rd Battle Squadron was rebased at Sheerness, and on 3 May 1916 it was separated from the Grand Fleet, being transferred to the Nore Command. Dominion remained there with the squadron until March 1918, being attacked unsuccessfully by a German submarine in May 1916 and undergoing a refit at Portsmouth Dockyard in June 1917. The units of the 3rd Battle Squadron had begun to disperse gradually in 1916, and by 1 March 1918, Dominion and battleship Dreadnought were the only ships left in the squadron. The squadron was finally dissolved in March 1918, and Dominion paid off to serve as a barracks ship for the Zeebrugge Raid and the First Ostend Raid; she joined Hindustan and was used to house the crews for the ships involved in the operations while the men trained. She served in this capacity, stationed in the Swin, until early May. On 2 May, Dominion was transferred into the Nore Reserve. She was employed as an accommodation ship. On 29 May 1919, Dominion was placed on the disposal list at Chatham Dockyard. She was sold for scrapping on 9 May 1921 to Thos. W. Ward. On 30 September 1923 she was towed to Belfast to be stripped, and she arrived at Preston for scrapping on 28 October 1924.
32,980,105	Winton W. Marshall	1,133,242,343	United States Air Force general	[ "1919 births", "2015 deaths", "American Korean War flying aces", "American Vietnam War pilots", "Aviators from Michigan", "Burials at Arlington National Cemetery", "Military personnel from Detroit", "Order of National Security Merit members", "Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal", "Recipients of the Air Medal", "Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)", "Recipients of the Legion of Merit", "Recipients of the National Order of Vietnam", "Recipients of the Order of Military Merit (Korea)", "Recipients of the Silver Star", "United States Air Force generals", "United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War", "United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II" ]	Lieutenant General Winton Whittier Marshall (July 9, 1919 – September 19, 2015) was a United States Air Force general and flying ace. He was deputy commander in chief, U.S. Readiness Command, with headquarters at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida before retiring in 1977. ## Early life Winton Whittier Marshall was born on July 6, 1919, in Detroit, Michigan. ## Military career Marshall began his military career as an aviation cadet in 1942. He completed flight training at Yuma Army Air Base in Arizona, and received his pilot's wings and commission as a second lieutenant in April 1943. Assigned to Las Vegas Army Air Field in Nevada, he began as a pilot with the 326th Fighter Gunnery Training Group before becoming chief of the Bell P-39 Airacobra Training Section there. In February 1945 he went to the Panama Canal Zone as a pilot with the 28th Fighter Squadron and as operations officer of the 32nd Fighter Squadron, later redesignated the 23rd Fighter Squadron, 36th Fighter Group. In July 1947, he was transferred to Dow Field, Maine, as operations officer of the 48th Fighter Squadron, 14th Fighter Group, the first squadron to be assigned the F-84 Thunderjet, and participated in service testing the F-84 at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Marshall entered the Air Tactical School at Tyndall Air Force Base in Florida, in August 1948 and four months later became operations officer of the 84th Fighter Squadron at Hamilton Air Force Base in California. ### Korean War In May 1951, Marshall was appointed as commander of the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, during the Korean War. Stationed at Kimpo Air Base in South Korea, he flew missions in the F-86 Sabre. Marshall shot down his first and second MiG-15s on September 1 and 2, 1951, respectively, over Sinanju. Marshall shot down two more MiG-15s, including a shared destruction, on November 28. One of these fighters was flown by German Shatalov, a Soviet flying ace with five aerial victories against U.S. aircraft. On November 30, 1951, the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron and other squadrons within the 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing intercepted a People's Liberation Army Air Force aerial formation consisting of nine Tupolev Tu-2 bombers and 16 Lavochkin La-11s, that was attempting an aerial raid on the Cho'do Island. Marshall shot down one Tu-2 and one La-11, crediting with his fourth and fifth aerial victories and thus earning the title of flying ace. As he was attempting to shoot another La-11, which was flown by Chinese pilot Wang Tianbao, Marshall overshot as the La-11 turned hard left, resulting in the La-11 making a long deflection shot which struck the left wing of Marshall's F-86. Wang saw the F-86 going down in a spin and claimed an F-86 kill, after he returned back to his base in Northeast China. However, Marshall managed to regain consciousness and recovered his F-86 from the spin. He flew his crippled aircraft to Suwon Air Base, where it was repaired and Marshall was treated for his wounds. For his heroism during the aerial combat on November 30, he was awarded the Silver Star. After his recovery, Marshall continued flying combat missions. He shot down his fourth MiG-15 and sixth overall aerial victory on December 5, 1951. Marshall became the fifth jet ace of the Korean War, credited with 6 1/2 enemy aircraft destroyed, seven probable, and six damaged, while flying 100 missions. In January 1952, he returned to the United States to command the 93rd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico. ### Post war Marshall was assigned as commander of the 15th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona, in July 1953. There, Marshall was credited with saving a Strategic Air Command B-47 bomber which was on fire at the end of a runway. Seeing no crash or fire-fighting equipment coming, and noting that the crew had escaped, he taxied his F-86 to the burning aircraft and blew out the fire with his jet exhaust. For this action, Marshall was named to the Strategic Air Command's Heads-Up Club. He flew in the 1953 Bendix transcontinental air race, and captained the Central Air Defense Force Team in the 1953 and 1954 Air Defense Command Weapons Meet. In July 1954, Marshall became chief of the Central Air Defense Force Tactical Evaluation Board at Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base in Missouri, where he established the first tactical evaluation system in the Air Defense Command; developed the first wind-driven tow reel target system; and headed a team of military and civilian technicians that extended radar search capability (later known as the Marshall fix) of fighter-interceptor aircraft from 30 to 200 miles (50 to 300 km). In 1957, he was chief of the Central Air Defense Force Bendix Trophy Race Team flying the F-102 Delta Dagger, with his team taking first and second place. Marshall entered the Air War College at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama, in 1958, and on graduation was assigned to the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing in France as deputy commander for operations. The wing was transferred to Spangdahlem, West Germany, where he was instrumental in getting the first strobe light landing system on an operational military base in Europe. Marshall assumed command of NATO's Allied Defense Sector in the 86th Air Division at Ramstein Air Base in West Germany, in January 1961. There he was credited with the development of an open-loop combat air defense communications network providing an immediate reaction system to cope with the East German and Czechoslovakian MiG threat. He also played a key role in the programming and installation of the 412-L Semi-automatic Air Defense System linking the 86th Air Division and the U.S. Army surface-to-air missile system. He went to Headquarters U.S. Air Force at the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., in June 1964, to serve in the Directorate of Operations successively as deputy chief and chief of the Air Defense Division, and as deputy director for forces. From June 1966 to July 1967, he served in the Joint Chiefs of Staff as deputy director of operations, J-3 in the National Military Command Center, and chief of the European Division, Directorate of Plans, J-5. In May 1968, Marshall was assigned as chief of staff, Allied Air Forces Southern Europe in Naples, Italy, and in September 1969 became director of plans, J-5, U.S. European Command, at Vaihingen, West Germany. During the Vietnam War, he was appointed as vice commander of the Seventh Air Force at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, in September 1971. During this time, he flew 88 combat missions in various fighter and attack aircraft. The following September, he moved to Headquarters Pacific Air Forces at Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii, as deputy chief of staff, plans and operations. Marshall was promoted to the grade of lieutenant general effective September 1, 1974, with date of rank August 27, 1974. He was appointed vice commander in chief of the Pacific Air Forces, in September 1974. His final assignment was as Deputy Commander in Chief of U.S. Readiness Command at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida, from June 1975 until his retirement on September 1, 1977. ## Later life Marshall died at Tripler Army Medical Center in Hawaii, on September 19, 2015. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. ## Awards and decorations His military decorations and awards include the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Silver Star; Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters; Distinguished Flying Cross with two oak leaf clusters; Bronze Star Medal; Air Medal with five oak leaf clusters; Purple Heart; from the Republic of Korea: the Order of Military Merit, Chungmu Medal with gold star and the Order of National Security Merit; and from the Republic of Vietnam: the National Order of Vietnam, 5th Class, and the Gallantry Cross with palm. ### Silver Star citation Marshall, Winton W. Colonel, U.S. Air Force 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, Fifth Air Force Date of Action: November 30, 1951 Citation: > The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Colonel Winton Whittier Marshall, United States Air Force, for gallantry in action in aerial combat over North Korea on 30 November 1951. While leading a squadron of twelve F-86 aircraft in the 335th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, Fifth Air Force, on a combat air patrol, he sighted nine TU-2 enemy bombers headed southward in the area of Namsi-Dong, North Korea, escorted by large numbers of fighter aircraft. Although realizing that the friendly forces were greatly outnumbered and were faced with intense and accurate cannon fire, Colonel Marshall displayed outstanding courage and tactical skill in leading his squadron in an immediate and aggressive attack on the enemy bombers. He coolly and skillfully deployed his forces to obtain the maximum tactical advantage and then led them in on the initial attack, during which he personally destroyed one TU-2 bomber. Expertly regrouping his force, he launched successive and continuing attacks affording the enemy no opportunity to reorganize. On the third pass, his F-86 sustained major damage from two direct hits by enemy cannon fire. One hit was in the leading edge of the left wing, the projectile exploding in the area of the fuel cell. The second projectile exploded against the head rest, destroying the canopy completely and badly damaging his parachute. He received numerous lacerations about the face, head, neck and back. Partially stunned from the force of the second explosion he recovered control of his aircraft but found himself separated from his flight. Although bleeding profusely and suffering from severe shock and exposure to sub-freezing temperatures and despite the sluggish reactions of his damaged aircraft, he rejoined his comrades in battle, against overwhelming odds. Totally disregarding his own safety, Colonel Marshall continued to carry the offensive, and largely through his own inspiring leadership and heroic personal example, the enemy formation was completely disrupted. When he has expended his ammunition and was low on fuel, he was forced to break off the attack and return to home base. Despite his wounds and the adverse flight conditions imposed by loss of his canopy, complicated further by the fact that he was without radio communication or radio compass as a result of battle damage, he managed to land his F-86 safely. At the time of this deed, Colonel Marshall had flown a total of 64 missions in the Korean campaign. The gallantry and selfless devotion to duty displayed by Colonel Marshall in this action of high personal courage reflected great credit upon himself, the Far East Air Forces, and the United States Air Force.
1,281,240	Orangeburg Massacre	1,173,605,210	1968 shooting of student protesters by Highway Patrolmen in South Carolina, USA	[ "1968 in South Carolina", "1968 mass shootings in the United States", "1968 murders in the United States", "1968 protests", "African Americans shot dead by law enforcement officers in the United States", "African-American history of South Carolina", "Conflicts in 1968", "Deaths by firearm in South Carolina", "February 1968 events in the United States", "History of African-American civil rights", "Law enforcement in South Carolina", "Mass shootings in South Carolina", "Murder in South Carolina", "Police brutality in the United States", "Protest-related deaths", "Racially motivated violence against African Americans", "South Carolina State University", "University and college shootings in the United States" ]	The Orangeburg Massacre was the killing of student protesters that took place on February 8, 1968, on the campus of South Carolina State College in Orangeburg, South Carolina. Nine Highway Patrolmen and one city police officer opened fire on a crowd of students, killing three and injuring twenty-eight. The shootings were the culmination of a series of protests against racial segregation at a local bowling alley, and marked the first instance of police killing student protestors at an American university. Two days before the shootings, student activists had been arrested for a sit-in at the segregated All-Star Bowling Lane. When a crowd of several hundred Claflin and South Carolina State College (State College) students gathered outside the bowling alley to protest the arrests, police dispersed the crowd with billy clubs. Students requested permission to hold a march downtown and submitted a list of demands to city officials. The request for a march was denied while city officials agreed to review the demands. As tensions in Orangeburg mounted over the next few days, Governor Robert McNair ordered hundreds of National Guardsmen and Highway Patrol officers to the city to keep the peace. On the night of February 8, students from both colleges and Wilkinson High School started a bonfire at the front of State College's campus. When police moved to put out the fire, students threw debris at them, including a piece of a wooden banister that injured an officer. Several minutes later, at least nine patrolmen and one city police officer opened fire on the crowd of students. Dozens of fleeing students were wounded; Sam Hammond, Henry Smith, and Delano Middleton were later pronounced dead at the Orangeburg Regional Hospital. In the aftermath of the killings, the bowling alley and most remaining whites-only establishments in Orangeburg were desegregated. Federal prosecutors charged nine patrolmen with imposing summary justice on the demonstrators, but they were acquitted in the subsequent trial. The state of South Carolina charged one of the protestors, Cleveland Sellers, with several riot charges. He was convicted on charges relating to events two days before the massacre. Sellers received a full pardon in 1993. In 2001, Jim Hodges became the first governor to make a formal apology for the massacre. ## Background The South Carolina State College (State College) entered the 1968-1969 school year having just underwent a major change in administration. For a decade, students had engaged in sporadic protests against college president Brenner Turner. President Turner was a conservative on civil rights and had maintained good relations with the white state government by taking a hard line against student activism. But a prolonged boycott of classes in spring 1967 had provoked an intervention from the governor, and Turner eventually resigned. State College was placed under an interim president who had lifted many of the restrictions on student activism, including allowing political clubs to operate on campus. The two most important of these were a chapter of the NAACP and the Black Awareness Coordinating Committee (BACC). The NAACP chapter took a moderate stance and had over 300 members. BACC was much smaller—its membership hovered around twenty students—and represented students who embraced black pride and were interested in black power. To the white community and black middle class, the creation of BACC was ominous. They associated black power with the radical rhetoric of new Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) leaders such as Stokely Carmichael and H. Rap Brown. This view was reinforced when SNCC organizer Cleveland Sellers arrived in Orangeburg in October. In his autobiography, Sellers wrote that he had returned to his home state because "I believed I could develop a movement by focusing attention on the problems of the poor blacks in South Carolina." The Orangeburg elites viewed Sellers as an outside agitator who was there to stir up trouble. Meanwhile, Orangeburg had not yet seen the same civil rights reforms as most areas in the south. Many institutions remained segregated, including doctor's offices, entertainment venues, and the Orangeburg Regional Hospital. Political offices remained beyond the reach of black citizens, in part because the city boundaries were gerrymandered to exclude blacks. In January 1968, Governor McNair announced that he was rejecting the college's request for a budget increase. In light of the wide disparity between funding for State College and white colleges in South Carolina, the black community saw this as a major disappointment. An independent committee had been set up over the summer to investigate and had issued a report urging reforms that included expanded student participation in administration. But by February, the Board of Trustees had still not formally accepted this report. ## Integration campaign at All-Star Bowling Lane In the summer and fall of 1967, a whites-only bowling alley near campus, All-Star Bowling Lane, became a focus of student protests. Owner Harry K. Floyd repeatedly refused students' requests to desegregate. Instead, he followed the trend of replacing his "Whites Only" sign with one saying "Privately Owned" (saying that only "club members" would be allowed in). In October, the college's NAACP chapter invited a lawyer to discuss how they could mount a legal challenge. The lawyer explained that while the legal status of segregated bowling alleys was unclear, the fact that All-Star had a lunch counter meant that it was required to desegregate under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Eventually, student activist John Stroman decided to prove that Floyd's club-members-only strategy was a cover for refusing black patrons by sending in a white student to bowl without a club membership. On Monday, February 5, 1968, the white student arrived and began bowling without a problem. A little while later, Stroman and a group of black students arrived and asked to bowl. When the staff refused to let them, the students tried sitting at the lunch counter and were refused service there as well. The staff threw away anything they touched. Stroman pointed out to Floyd that the white student had been allowed to bowl without ever showing that he was a member, but Floyd just called the police. City Police Chief Roger Poston arrived and ordered the alley closed for the night. Chief Poston then met with Stroman and told him that he would have to arrest him for trespassing if he returned to the bowling alley. Stroman responded that getting arrested was his plan so that he could challenge the policy in court. Stroman and a group of about 40 students returned to the bowling alley on Tuesday evening. They were met by 20 officers led by Chief Poston and South Carolina Law Enforcement Division (SLED) Chief J. P. Strom. Chief Poston told Stroman that 40 was probably more than needed to start the court case, so Stroman asked the women and any men who did not want to be arrested to leave. The fifteen remaining staged a brief sit-in and were arrested for trespassing. To this point, everything had proceeded as planned. But as the police were leading the arrestees outside, another student was arrested for cursing at an officer. One student later recalled that this was a turning point, saying "[e]verything was cool until the cops rushed into the crowd of students outside in the parking lot and arrested some cat." As the arrestees were driven downtown, one student returned to campus and shared news of the arrests with a crowd leaving a movie theater. The crowd, without knowing the arrests were planned, arrived at the bowling alley to make sure the arrestees were not being mistreated. When the police saw the new crowd gathering, they offered to release Stroman and his classmates on the condition that they help defuse the situation at the bowling alley. This worked at first; Stroman and the others returned and were able to explain that the arrests were pre-planned. Students began to return to campus. The mood of the crowd changed when a fire truck arrived. Fire hoses had been used in Orangeburg as a form of crowd control and had a reputation for brutality. Chief Poston was unaware of this and had called the truck as backup. The students interpreted the move as an act of aggression, and they began to shout insults at the firefighters. The police moved away from the alley to protect the fire truck from the students. A student then broke one of the alley's windows. The police arrested the suspect, but the crowd blocked them from leaving. Police and students began yelling abuse at each other. Although it is not clear which happened first, police began beating students with billy clubs and one student sprayed something in an officer's eyes. The beatings continued for several minutes. Witnesses described seeing an officer grab and restrain a female student while another beat her with his club. Others reported seeing "a young woman begging not to be hit again, even as a policeman swung his club." Cecil Williams recalled seeing two officers beating a female student who fell while fleeing. Eight students and one officer were sent to the hospital. The rest of the students fled back to campus, some smashing the windows of cars and businesses on their way. Although the Associated Press ran a story the following day claiming that cars had been overturned; in fact, the students had not overturned any cars and had caused less than \$5000 in damages. As soon as students arrived back on campus, they held an impromptu mass meeting. Cleveland Sellers was present at the meeting, and, when asked for his advice, suggested that the students immediately occupy the intersections in front of campus and demand to speak to the Chamber of Commerce about the bowling alley issue. This proposal was rejected. Eventually, the students agreed to ask permission to hold a protest march the following day and drew up a list of ten demands. The demands included desegregating the bowling alley, the hospital, and doctors' offices as well as an end to police brutality. ### Escalation of tensions Tensions escalated rapidly over the next few days. On Wednesday morning, the student leaders submitted their request to hold a march, but were rebuffed. Instead, Mayor E. O. Pandarvis, City Manager Bob Stevenson, and several Orangeburg business leaders came to the State College campus in an attempt to placate the students. City leaders were unprepared for the students' questions and had no response to the demands read off by the students. The head of the Chamber of Commerce was slightly more conciliatory and offered to read the demands at the Chamber's next meeting. There was no local media coverage of the students' grievances: The Times and Democrat (Orangeburg's local newspaper) did not publish the students' list of demands until several days later (when they reported that the city council had rejected them). In a journal article published a few months after the shooting, Washington Post reporter Jim Hoagland argued that this media silence may have contributed to the students' frustration and anger. There were several outbreaks of violence on Wednesday. With no protest planned, frustrated students gathered in informal groups to discuss the police "whipping our girls". Several crowds of angry students threw rocks and bricks at cars driving on U.S. Route 601 that contained white passengers. Police responded by setting up roadblocks to block traffic. Two blocks from campus, a homeowner shot and injured three Claflin College students whom he said had been trespassing. Late that night, two white men drove a car onto campus and shot at students before being chased off with rocks and bottles. On Wednesday evening Governor McNair decided to activate the National Guard. His main concern, shared by the police chiefs, was based on the unfounded rumor that the "plan of the black power people" was to attack utilities and burn down the city. Therefore, 250 Orangeburg-area National Guards took up positions protecting utilities across the city, joined by hundreds of highway patrol officers. On Thursday, McNair ordered an additional 110 National Guardsmen to Orangeburg. They were joined by FBI agents, officers from SLED, and Governor McNair's representatives. Journalist Jack Shuler argued that the arrival of these outside officials "disrupted any kind of communication among white leaders, the college campuses, and the African American community." Shuler cites Sellers as saying that while negotiations had been slow before the arrival of state officials, afterwards they broke down. ## Shooting By the evening of Thursday, February 8, tensions were high and the police had set up a command post (nicknamed "Checkpoint Charlie") at the intersection of Russell Street and US Highway 601 to monitor the State College campus. Around 7:00 p.m., about 50 State College students gathered at the front of campus to start a bonfire. Police intervened to stop them and called up additional highway patrolmen to Checkpoint Charlie and to a warehouse and freight depot across from Claflin College (see map). Students began to shout insults at the police. A .22 caliber pistol was fired from a dormitory over their heads of the police stationed near the warehouse and freight depot. About 9:30 p.m., a larger group of students led by State College student Henry Smith made a second attempt at building a bonfire. This time they were successful, using wood from a nearby abandoned house. About 200 students from State College, Claflin, and Wilkinson High School spent the next hour gathered around the bonfire in good spirits. They told reporters that they would stay as long as the police did. More than 130 police from at least five agencies were positioned near the front of State College's campus. They were under the overall command of SLED Chief Strom, and under orders from Governor McNair not to let the students leave campus. Through journalist intermediaries, Strom attempted to get the students to move away from the front of campus, a request that they refused unless the police would leave first. At about 10:30 p.m., Strom and the other leading officers decided to call a firetruck to put out the bonfire. When the truck arrived, it advanced slowly up U.S. 601 with a police escort. On the truck's left, between the highway and railroad tracks were the National Guard. On the truck's right, a squad of highway patrol officers under Lieutenant Jesse Spell advanced up Watson Street. The students retreated towards Lowman Hall, throwing rocks and bottles. The fire was quickly extinguished but continued to smolder. As Spell's squad turned to scale the embankment at the end of Watson Street, someone threw two white banister posts at patrolmen Donald Crosby and David Shealy. Crosby ducked, but Shealy was struck in the mouth and injured. The other patrolmen thought that Shealy had been shot, and several rushed to his aid. About five minutes later (around 10:38 p.m.), many of the students began to walk back towards the embankment, unaware that the patrolmen believed Shealy had been shot. Most of the sixty-six patrolmen in front of them had taken up positions behind the embankment or in the surrounding vegetation and were invisible to the students. When the first students reached about 100 feet from the officers, some witnesses recalled hearing a patrolman fire a shot into the air, possibly as a warning. Other witnesses would later recall hearing a whistle, as if signalling to fire. In either case, the noise caused the students to turn and run, some holding their hands in the air or dropping to the ground. Lieutenant Spell then shouted "now"; he and at least eight other patrolmen opened fire on the students. City police officer John Cook joined in as well, and four additional patrolmen fired over the students' heads. The shooting lasted eight seconds. Most patrolmen fired from Remington Model 870 shotguns, while a few used carbines and one fired a pistol. After expending several rounds, Lieutenant Spell gave the order to cease fire. ### Victims Thirty-one victims are known to have been hit by police fire. The victims' ages ranged between 15 and 23. They included seven students from Claflin, nineteen from State College, and three from Wilkinson High School. Two others were not students: Joseph Hampton, a recent State College graduate and Cleveland Sellers, a SNCC community organizer. Most victims sustained injuries from behind while fleeing or on the soles of the feet while lying on the ground. The most serious non-fatal wounds included those to Bobby Burton, whose left arm was paralyzed, and to Ernest Raymond Carson, who was hit by eight buckshot slugs. Three of those injured would later die of their wounds at the Orangeburg Regional Hospital: Samuel Ephesians Hammond, Delano Herman Middleton, and Henry Ezekial Smith. Smith and Hammond were both State College students, while Middleton was a senior at Wilkinson High School. Hammond was killed by a shot to his back. Middleton received seven bullet wounds: three to his arm and one each to his hip, thigh, and heart. Smith was killed by shots from both sides, leaving five bullet wounds. Many of the student witnesses believed that the patrolmen had mistaken Smith for Sellers and had aimed their fire at him. The patrolmen testified that they had not aimed at any specific target. ### Immediate aftermath The injured students were taken to the segregated waiting room at Orangeburg Regional Hospital. Reporters overheard one of the patrolmen gloating over police radio, saying "You should have been here, ol' buddy; got a couple of 'em tonight." Over the next few hours the police arrested and heavily beat several more people. Louise Kelly Crawley would suffer a miscarriage after she was arrested and beaten while taking injured students to the hospital. Several patrolmen hit John Carson in the head with their rifle butts while he was being arrested for demanding to know why they shot his younger brother, Ernest Raymond, eight times. Cleveland Sellers was arrested in the waiting room; he would later be charged with inciting a riot, arson, assault and battery with intent to kill, property damage, housebreaking, and grand larceny. Some of the hospital staff insulted and demeaned the students. Oscar Butler recalled overhearing a staff member say "they asked for it". Half an hour after the shooting, a group of students broke into the ROTC building and stole a handful of training rifles. The rifles lacked firing pins and, after other students spoke to the group that had stolen the rifles, they were returned within about twenty minutes. ## Public reactions and media coverage The reaction of the mainstream media was mainly indifference or support for the actions of the police. Civil rights demonstrations had come to be seen as violent after major riots in Detroit and Newark the previous summer. According to journalist and later historian Dave Nolan, "most whites seemed to feel that it was justified to put them down as brutally as possible." This predisposition was reinforced by inaccurate reporting on the ground. The Associated Press reported that there had been a "heavy exchange of gunfire" and never issued a correction. Newspapers across the country ran the AP story with headlines such as "Three Die in Riot", "Trio Slain after Opening Fire on Police", or "Three Killed as Negroes, Police Exchange Shots". Governor McNair gave a speech about the massacre the following day. He called it "...one of the saddest days in the history of South Carolina", but said that the shootings had taken place off campus, that the officers were reacting to being fired upon, and that the shootings had been necessary "to protect life and property." He accused "black power advocates" of having "sparked" the incident, and mentioned the theft of ROTC rifles as having helped escalate the situation. The Governor's office blamed Cleveland Sellers in particular. McNair's spokesman told reporters that Sellers was "the main man. He's the biggest nigger in the crowd" and said that he was the one who had throw the banister at Officer Shealy. The Governor's account of events was widely accepted by the mainstream media in the weeks following the event. Most of the white reporters in Orangeburg failed to investigate official claims, interview key witnesses, or ask the police probing questions. According to Washington Post reporter Jim Hoagland, they "covered the story largely from the Holiday Inn." Since it commenced at night, no one expected the shootings and therefore limited pictures or television images were available to the general public. Martin Luther King Jr. blamed the massacre on SLED Chief J. P. Strom, and called for an investigation by the US Attorney General. The NAACP's executive director Roy Wilkins echoed King's call for an investigation. John Lewis accused the white press of conspiring to obscure the true nature of events. SNCC chairman Rap Brown issued the most radical statement, calling for black people to take up arms in self-defense and to "die like men". In the State College newspaper The Collegian, students decried the inaccurate reporting in the mainstream press and argued for why the anti-segregation protests were justified. Black students staged demonstrations across the country. In Greenville, South Carolina, black and white students (mostly from Furman) protested together against the killings. Despite the fact that the Orangeburg Massacre was the first time police shot and killed students on a United States university campus, they received much less media coverage than the later police shootings at Kent State and Jackson State. For example, the week's issue of Time did not mention the event. Dave Nolan argues that the subject of the protests may have played a role: by 1968, the white public was no longer supportive of demonstrations against segregation, whereas at the time the Kent and Jackson State students were killed, the Vietnam War was a highly charged national issue. Jack Bass and civil rights lawyer Eva Paterson argue that race was a key factor; the most famous of the three incidents (Kent State) was the one where the victims were white. Bass also suggests that the fact that Orangeburg happened at night, meaning there were fewer videos or photographs, had an impact on public reactions. Survivor Thomas Kennerly blamed the lack of attention on the reactions of state officials. He also recalled that the Orangeburg Massacre was followed by the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, which quickly took over the news cycle. In contrast, Kent State and Jackson State happened in close succession, keeping the issue of how campus unrest was handled by law enforcement and university administrations in the public eye. ## Subsequent protests Orangeburg remained in a state of high tension in the weeks after the shootings. Both colleges closed and let their students return home. McNair placed Orangeburg under a curfew. Hundreds of National guards and highway patrolmen remained in the city despite a petition by 800 black residents to have them withdrawn. The NAACP launched a boycott of all of Orangeburg's white businesses starting on February 11. On March 7, BACC organized a protest of 200 Orangeburg students at the South Carolina State House. A group led by Steve Moore attempted to read a petition to the South Carolina Senate from the gallery, but was stopped and six students were arrested. On March 13, BACC led a second protest of 1000 students to Columbia and were met by police in riot gear. After some resistance, McNair eventually agreed to meet with a delegation of students. ## Court cases On February 10, the Department of Justice filed a suit against Harry Floyd (who insisted that he had a right to refuse business to black patrons). The Department also filed against the Orangeburg Regional Hospital, which remained segregated despite having promised to integrate in 1965. On February 22, federal Judge Robert Martin ordered All-Star Bowling Lane to desegregate. John Stroman became one of the first group of black students to bowl there on the day classes resumed, February 26. Most businesses in Orangeburg followed suit and desegregated. Federal prosecutors filed an information against the nine state patrolmen who had admitted to firing on the crowd, including Lt. Spell. They were charged with carrying out summary justice, thereby depriving the students of their civil rights. It was the first federal trial of police officers for using excessive force at a campus protest. The state patrol officers' defense was that they felt they were in danger, and protesters had shot at the officers first. All nine defendants were acquitted, although 36 witnesses stated they did not hear gunfire from the protesters on the campus before the shooting, and no students were found to be carrying guns. In 2007, the FBI reopened the case as part of its re-examination of civil rights-era crimes, but it declined to bring charges because the nine officers had already been acquitted. In 2008, the Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act made it possible to reopen cold cases from before 1970, and starting in 2010, the deaths of Smith, Middleton, and Hammond have been on the Department of Justice's list of unsolved civil rights cases. In 1970, the State of South Carolina charged Cleveland Sellers with riot on the night of February 8. However, after the prosecution failed to present sufficient evidence of Seller's involvement in the events that day, the judge directed a verdict of not guilty on that charge. Instead, the judge asked the jury to consider whether Sellers was guilty of riot on February 6. The jury convicted him and he was sentenced to a fine and one year in prison. He served seven months, getting time off for good behavior. In 1993, Sellers applied for and was granted a full pardon from the South Carolina Board of Paroles and Pardons. During a conference at The Citadel on the 35th anniversary of massacre, Sellers shared his perspective on the trial and its significance: > I was the only person arrested. The only person tried. The only person found guilty and sentenced. I did not commit a crime...The S.C. attorney did not want to proceed with a trial, because there was not any evidence, but Governor McNair insisted that the state go forward. All of the original charges were dropped, and in two of the three Riot Act charges the judge ruled a "directed verdict" because of the lack of evidence. All of the people who testified against me were white law enforcement officers. In the only testimony of evidence that could be used to secure a guilty verdict against me, a white South Carolina Law Enforcement Division officer lied and testified that he saw me on top of a fire truck on the night of February 6, 1968, saying "Burn, baby, burn." I was found guilty of a "one-man riot" and sentenced to one year hard labor. There was no justice. It was a legal sham. ## Legacy Soon after the event, students and activists dubbed it the "Orangeburg Massacre". According to Cleveland Sellers, the name was chosen to be reminiscent of the Sharpeville massacre. In Sharpeville, South African police had open fired on and killed dozens of unarmed anti-apartheid activists. Robert McNair strongly disliked the name because he thought it suggested the shootings had been pre-planned. Nevertheless, "Orangeburg Massacre" gradually became the accepted name in the decades after the event. South Carolina State College (now South Carolina State University) has multiple memorials dedicated to the victims. The gymnasium that opened later in the same year as the massacre was named the Smith–Hammond–Middleton Memorial Center in their honor. The college built a granite monument with the names of the victims at the center of campus in 1969. In 2000, the university erected a South Carolina Historical Marker explaining the history of the massacre near the entrance to campus. In 2022, bronze busts of the three men killed were installed behind the granite memorial. Memorial services are held every year. From 1969 to 1983 they were held at the SHM Memorial Center and since then they have been held at the monument. In 2001, on the 33rd anniversary of the killings, Governor Jim Hodges became the first governor to attend the annual memorial. He issued a formal apology for the massacre. That same year, an oral history project recorded interviews with eight of the survivors. A joint resolution was introduced in the South Carolina state general assembly in 2003 and re-introduced in each of the next three sessions of the legislature to establish an official investigation of the events of February 8, 1968, and to establish February 8 as a day of remembrance for the students killed and wounded in the protest. However, the legislature never voted on the resolution. Several works of media have also been produced about the event. It was the subject of two films released after its 40th anniversary in April 2008: Scarred Justice: The Orangeburg Massacre, 1968 by documentary filmmakers Bestor Cram and Judy Richardson; and Black Magic by Dan Klores. In 2009, the SC State Henderson Players (an acting troop of SC State students) put on a play about the events called Take a Stand. In 2019 Cecil J. Williams, a graduate of Claflin, opened a civil rights museum that includes a collection of photographs he took of the days before and after the shooting. It is South Carolina's first—and as of August 2022, only—civil rights museum. ## See also - Protests of 1968 - Greensboro massacre - List of killings by law enforcement officers in the United States - List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
770,628	Ben Bagdikian	1,165,891,142	American journalist and academic (1920–2016)	[ "1920 births", "2016 deaths", "20th-century American journalists", "20th-century American memoirists", "20th-century American newspaper editors", "American Unitarian Universalists", "American investigative journalists", "American journalism academics", "American male non-fiction writers", "American media critics", "American newspaper reporters and correspondents", "American people of Armenian descent", "American political writers", "Armenians from the Ottoman Empire", "Clark University alumni", "Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States", "Peabody Award winners", "The Providence Journal people", "The Washington Post people", "United States Army Air Forces officers", "United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II", "University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism faculty" ]	Ben-hur Haig Bagdikian (January 30, 1920 – March 11, 2016) was an Armenian-American journalist, news media critic and commentator, and university professor. An Armenian genocide survivor, Bagdikian moved to the United States as an infant and began a journalism career after serving in World War II. He worked as a local reporter, investigative journalist and foreign correspondent for The Providence Journal. During his time there, he won a Peabody Award and a Pulitzer Prize. In 1971, he received parts of the Pentagon Papers from Daniel Ellsberg and successfully persuaded The Washington Post to publish them despite objections and threats from the Richard Nixon administration. Bagdikian later taught at the University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism and served as its dean from 1985 to 1988. Bagdikian was a noted critic of the news media. His 1983 book The Media Monopoly, warning about the growing concentration of corporate ownership of news organizations, went through several editions and influenced, among others, Noam Chomsky. Bagdikian has been hailed for his ethical standards and has been described by Robert W. McChesney as one of the finest journalists of the 20th century. ## Personal life ### Background Ben-Hur Haig Bagdikian, born in Marash, Ottoman Empire, on January 30, 1920, was the fifth and youngest child of Aram Toros "Theodore" Bagdikian (1882−1957) and Dudeh "Daisy" Uvezian (1886−1923). He had four sisters. His mother's family was well-off, while his father came from a peasant family. He did graduate work at the American University of Beirut. The family was mostly based in Tarsus, where his father taught physics and chemistry at St. Paul's College in Tarsus, run by Boston Congregationalists. His family knew English well. His father also spoke Armenian, Turkish, Arabic, and learned the Biblical languages. His family left Marash on February 9, 1920, just ten days after Ben was born. They left during the Armenian genocide, as Turkish forces reached the city, while the French retreated. While escaping persecution, Bagdikian was dropped in the snow in the mountains while the family was climbing. Only an infant, he was thought to be dead. He was picked up when he began to cry. They arrived, first, in Boston and subsequently settled in Stoneham, Massachusetts. His father was a pastor at several Armenian churches in the Boston area (in Watertown, Cambridge) and Worcester. He had taken courses at the Harvard Divinity School and had been ordained. His mother was diagnosed with tuberculosis almost immediately after arrival in Boston and died three years later, after spending some time hospitalized in sanatoriums. Bagdikian was known throughout his life as Ben, though his baptismal name was Ben-Hur, after the Christian-themed historical novel Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ by Lew Wallace. Bagdikian grew up during the Great Depression, which, according to Robert D. McFadden, enforced a "passion for social justice that shaped his reporting." He described himself as an "Armenian overlaid by, of all things, the culture of New England Yankee." ### Religion Due to his father's role, Bagdikian regularly attended sermons and "disliked the avenging God of the Old Testament and was outraged when Abraham was prepared to obey the order to sacrifice his son as a gesture of faith." Later in adulthood, Bagdikian became a member of the First Unitarian Church of Providence, a Unitarian Universalist congregation in Rhode Island. ### Education and military service Bagdikian initially aspired to become a doctor because of his mother's illness and his father's collection of books on pulmonary diseases that he read. He graduated from Stoneham High School in 1937. He thereafter attended Clark University, in Worcester, Massachusetts, as a pre-medical student. He was editor of The Clark News, the college newspaper. He renamed it to The Clark Scarlet, based on the school's colors. The university president, Wallace Walter Atwood, suspected it was too closely associated with communism. Having taken many chemistry courses he sought to apply for a job as a chemist upon graduating from Clark in 1941. He had the opportunity to work as a lab assistant at Monsanto in Springfield, Massachusetts. He served as a navigator (first lieutenant) in the United States Army Air Forces from May 1942 to January 1946. He had volunteered to join the Air Forces immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. ### Marriages Bagdikian married Elizabeth (Betty) Ogasapian in 1942, with whom he had two sons: Aram Christopher "Chris" Bagdikian (1944−2015) and Frederick, Jr. "Eric" Bagdikian (born 1951). They divorced in 1972. His second marriage, to Betty Medsger, a Washington Post reporter, ended in divorce as well. His third wife was Marlene Griffith (born Marie Helene Ungar in Vienna), whom he married in 1983. ### Death Bagdikian died at his home in Berkeley, California, on March 11, 2016, aged 96. A memorial service was held at the Unitarian Universalist Church of Berkeley on June 2, 2016. ## Career Throughout his career, Bagdikian contributed to more than 200 national magazines and journals. During his college years Bagdikian worked as a reporter for the Worcester Gazette and Springfield Morning Union. After World War II he briefly joined the staff of Flying Traveler, a magazine for private flying in New York. ### The Providence Journal Bagdikian began working for the Providence Journal in 1947 as a reporter and Washington bureau chief. He also served as a local reporter. Bagdikian and Journal editor and publisher Sevellon Brown won a Peabody Award in 1951 for their "most exacting, thorough and readable check-up of broadcasts" of Walter Winchell, Drew Pearson, and Fulton Lewis, leading TV and radio commentators. He was a member of the staff that received the 1953 Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting, Edition Time for coverage of a bank robbery in East Providence (including an ensuing police chase and hostage standoff) that resulted in the death of a patrolman. Bagdikian later described the paper as one of the better papers, besides their pro-Republican and anti-union editorials. As a foreign correspondent in the Middle East, he covered the Suez Crisis in the fall of 1956 riding with an Israeli tank crew. In 1957, Bagdikian covered the civil rights movement, especially the crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas. In the fall of that year he traveled to the South with black reporter James "Jim" N. Rhea to cover the widespread discontent of the whites with the Supreme Court order to desegregate public schools. ### Freelance Bagdikian began a freelance career after leaving the Providence Journal in 1961. He researched media matters at the Library of Congress with the Guggenheim Fellowship he was awarded in 1961. Subsequently, he was a Washington-based contributing editor of The Saturday Evening Post from 1963 to 1967. He also wrote for The New York Times Magazine when he focused on social issues, such as poverty, housing, and migration. Bagdikian researched news media at the RAND Corporation in 1969–70 and published a book titled The Information Machines: Their Impact on Men and the Media in 1971. Edwin B. Parker of Stanford University praised the report for its readability, and breadth and depth of Bagdikian's "perception of technological and economic trends and his insight into potential social and political consequences." ### The Washington Post Bagdikian joined The Washington Post in 1970 and later served as its assistant managing editor and in 1972 its second ombudsman as a representative of the readers. In June 1971 Bagdikian, as the assistant managing editor for national news at the Post, met with Daniel Ellsberg, a military analyst and former RAND Corporation colleague, who in a Boston-area motel passed him 4,000 pages of the Pentagon Papers, excerpts from which were published by The New York Times days earlier and halted by a federal judge. Bagdikian flew with the Papers to Washington, where he physically presented them in large boxes to executive editor Ben Bradlee at the latter's home; he also gave the Papers to US Senator Mike Gravel on June 26 in front of the Mayflower Hotel. While the Post lawyers and management were opposed, Bagdikian argued strongly in favor of publication of the documents despite pressure from the Nixon administration not to on national security grounds. Bagdikian famously stated: "the (only) way to assert the right to publish is to publish." The first part was published by the Post on June 18, 1971. William Rehnquist phoned Post executive editor Bradlee and threatened him with prosecution if the publication of the documents was not stopped. In a landmark decision, the Supreme Court decided 6–3 that "to exercise prior restraint, the Government must show sufficient evidence that the publication would cause a 'grave and irreparable' danger." Just months after the publication of the Pentagon Papers Bagdikian became an undercover inmate at the Huntingdon State Correctional Institution, a maximum-security prison in Pennsylvania, to expose the harsh prison conditions. With permission from the attorney general of Pennsylvania, he disguised himself as a murderer to observe the prison life without the knowledge of anyone inside the prison. He remained there for six days and his eight-part series on the conditions of the prison were published in the Post from January 29 to February 6, 1972. He reported "widespread racial tension behind bars, outbursts of violence, open 'homosexualism' and an elaborate, yet fragile, code of etiquette." Bagdikian and Post reporter Leon Dash published the series first as a report in 1972 and later as a book (1976). Bagdikian left the Post in August 1972 after clashing with Bradlee "as a conduit of outside and internal complaints." ### UC Berkeley Bagdikian wrote for the Columbia Journalism Review from 1972 to 1974. He taught at University of California, Berkeley from 1976 until his retirement in 1990. He taught courses such as Introduction to Journalism and Ethics in Journalism. He was the dean of the UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism from 1985 to 1988. He was named Professor Emeritus upon departure. ## Media criticism In an interview with PBS's Frontline Bagdikian stated that while the First Amendment allows newspapers to print anything, especially unpopular things, newspapers have an implied moral obligation to be responsible, because of their power on popular opinion and because the First Amendment was "framed with the supposition that there would be multiple sources of information." Bagdikian was an early advocate of in-house critics, or ombudsmen in newspapers, who he believed, would "address public concerns about journalistic practices." He described the treatment of news about tobacco and related health issues as "one of the original sins of the media," because "for decades, there was suppression of medical evidence ... plain suppression." Bagdikian criticized the wide use of anonymous sources in news media, the acceptance of government narratives by reporters, particularly on "national security" grounds. Bagdikian formulated a law, dubbed the Bagdikian Law of Journalism: "The accuracy of news reports of an event is inversely proportional to the number of reporters on the scene." He was a harsh critic of TV news and the celebrity status of news anchors, which he argued, was the "worst thing that can happen to a journalist." He noted, "The job of the celebrity is to be observed, to make sure others learn about him or her, to be the object of attention rather than an observer." Bagdikian stressed the importance of local media. He argued that only locally based journalism can adequately report the local issues and candidates, otherwise "voters become captives of the only alternative information, paid political propaganda, or no information at all." Regarding online journalism, Bagdikian stated that there is "lots of junk on it, but it's still an outlet for an independent with no money but plenty of ingenuity and skill, like MoveOn.org. It's not controlled by the corporations. Not yet." Bagdikian was a regular New York Times reader, and appreciated The Nation, The Progressive, alternative radio, The New York Review of Books; he also read Time and Newsweek to "get a view of the total picture most magazine readers are getting." He also occasionally read the National Review and The Weekly Standard "to know what the right is thinking." Bagdikian recommended The Nation, The Progressive and Newsweek for those who wanted to stay informed but have limited time to do so. In 1987 Bagdikian testified on the effects of profit on news reporting before the House Energy Subcommittee on Communications and Technology, along with economist John Kenneth Galbraith. Both Galbraith and Bagdikian voiced their concerns about the takeover of TV networks by large corporations. ## Publications Bagdikian's first book, In the Midst of Plenty: The Poor in America, was published in 1964 by Beacon Press and covered various categories of poverty in America, including the poor in Appalachia, the elderly in Los Angeles, men in flophouses in Chicago, and others. His studies at the RAND Corporation produced two books: The Information Machines: Their Impact on Men and the Media and The Effete Conspiracy and Other Crimes by the Press, published by Harper & Row in 1971 and 1972, respectively. His memoir, Double Vision: Reflections on My Heritage, Life and Profession, was published by Beacon Press in 1995. ### The Media Monopoly In 1983 Bagdikian authored a widely cited and acclaimed work, The Media Monopoly, which was published by Beacon Press after it was rejected by Simon & Schuster. Richard E. Snyder, Simon & Schuster's president, was, according to Bagdikian, "vehemently opposed to the manuscript, because, among other reasons, [Snyder] felt it made all corporations look bad." The book examines the increasing concentration of the media in the US in the hands of corporate owners, which, he argued, threatened freedom of expression and independent journalism. He wrote that some 50 corporations controlled what most people in the United States read and watched. Bagdikian argued that "media power is political power." The book went into 5 more editions—in 1987, 1990, 1993, 1997, 2000. In 2004, The New Media Monopoly was published, essentially the 7th edition of the original. In 2000 Bagdikian stated, "Every edition has been considered by some to be alarmist and every edition ends up being too conservative." In this latest version, Bagdikian wrote that the number of corporations controlling most of the media decreased to five: Disney, News Corporation, Time Warner, Viacom, and Bertelsmann. He argued, "This gives each of the five corporations and their leaders more communications power than was exercised by any despot or dictatorship in history." The book became a "standard text for many college classes" and, along with Manufacturing Consent by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, in the opinion of Neil Henry, is a work that is the "most widely cited scholarly work about the effects of economics on modern news media practices, including market and political pressures that determine news content." The book was criticized by Jack Shafer for alleged bias. The Christian Science Monitor, though accepting such problems, declared that it is a "groundbreaking work that charts a historic shift in the orientation of the majority of America's communications media—further away from the needs of the individual and closer to those of big business." ## Political views Bagdikian was a self-proclaimed advocate for social justice. He described the McCarthy era as "very reactionary." In 1997 Bagdikian opined that "criticizing capitalism has never been a popular subject in the general news." In the 2000 U.S. presidential election Bagdikian endorsed Ralph Nader, the Green Party candidate. He was a founding member of the grassroots network Armenians for Nader. He stated: "I think Ralph Nader has already powerfully defined the issues in this campaign and has had influence on the positions of both major party candidates." He argued that "there's a natural hostility among corporate organizations toward Nader, because they see him as the person who's embarrassed them endlessly and sees them as part of the national political problem." He appeared on KPFK along with Serj Tankian and Peter Balakian on April 24, 2005, to talk about the Armenian Genocide. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had a 200-page file on Bagdikian spanning from 1951 to 1971. One document described him as well known in FBI files as a "writer who has criticized the FBI in the past. He has made snide remarks relative to" FBI director J. Edgar Hoover and "some of his work has been described [specifically, by Hoover] as 'utter bunk'." When Bagdikian requested all his FBI record under the Freedom of Information Act in 1975, the FBI withheld records on the part he played in the Pentagon Papers case. They were not released until 2018. ## Legacy and recognition C. Edwin Baker describes Bagdikian as "probably the most quoted, certainly one of the most acute, commentators on media ownership." Arthur S. Hayes, Fordham University professor, wrote in his 2008 book Press Critics Are the Fifth Estate that Bagdikian has been "farsighted, inspirational, influential, long lasting, and a forerunner." Sociologist Alfred McClung Lee praised Bagdikian as having the virtues of both an investigative journalist and a participant-observing social scientist. Robert D. McFadden of The New York Times called Bagdikian "a celebrated voice of conscience for his profession, calling for tougher standards of integrity and public service in an era of changing tastes and technology." Edward Wasserman, the dean of the UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism at the time of his death, Bagdikian was a "major figure in 20th century US journalism and journalism education, and we're all his beneficiaries." Jeff Cohen, the founder of the media watch group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) stated: Michael Moore has named The Media Monopoly the most influential book he ever read. Robert W. McChesney, who cites Bagdikian as one of the strongest influences on him, called Bagdikian one of the finest journalists of the 20th century. McChesney argued that Bagdikian was "certainly accorded more respect by working journalists" than Herman and Chomsky, the authors of Manufacturing Consent, due to their perceived radicalism, in contrast to Bagdikian's liberal views. Progressive journalist and writer John Nichols, writing for The Nation, called Bagdikian a "pioneering media reformer." In an interview with Democracy Now!, he said of Bagdikian : The Pentagon Papers controversy at The Washington Post was recounted in the Steven Spielberg film The Post (2017), where Bagdikian was played by Bob Odenkirk. ### Awards and honors - Peabody Award (1950) - Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting, Edition Time (staff contributor; 1953) - Hillman Prize (1956) for his series on civil liberties - Guggenheim Fellowship (1961) - James Madison Award (1998) Bagdikian received honorary degrees, among others, from Brown University (Doctor of Humane Letters, 1961), Clark University (Doctor of Letters, 1963), Berkeley Citation from University of California, Berkeley (equivalent of an honorary degree, 1990), University of Rhode Island (Doctor of Letters, 1992). He was the commencement speaker of the 1972 Journalism Convocation of Northwestern University. The fellowship program of the progressive magazine Mother Jones is named for Bagdikian due to his "professional record, his personal integrity, and his commitment to social justice." Bagdikian was inducted into the Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame on October 30, 2016. According to the board he had "long and significant ties to Rhode Island."
34,382,550	Jury Duty (The Office)	1,130,157,000	null	[ "2012 American television episodes", "The Office (American season 8) episodes" ]	"Jury Duty" is the thirteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show's 165th episode overall, airing on NBC in the United States on February 2, 2012. It was written by Aaron Shure and directed by Eric Appel, and guest starred Jack Coleman, Lindsey Broad, and Mark Proksch. The series, presented as if it were a real documentary, depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) returns from jury duty and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) questions him on every detail of his case. However, Jim later comes under fire when Dwight reveals he only served half a day on his single case then took the rest of the week off to spend time with his wife, Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer), looking after their toddler and new baby, Phillip. Meanwhile, Angela (Angela Kinsey) and the state senator welcome an infant son. "Jury Duty" marks the first appearance of Fischer since "Gettysburg", when her character went on maternity leave. "Jury Duty" received mostly positive reviews from critics, with many reviews noting that the episode was a step in the right direction for the show. According to Nielsen Media Research, "Jury Duty" drew 5.31 million viewers and received a 2.8 rating/7% share in the 18–49 demographic, marking a 10% drop in ratings from the previous episode, "Pool Party". Despite this, it was the highest-rated NBC series of the night. ## Synopsis Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) returns from jury duty and learns that, in his week-long absence, his co-workers were forced to pick up the slack his prolonged and unanticipated absence created. Jim reveals to the camera that, while he was called for duty, he was dismissed at noon on the first day and headed home to Pam (Jenna Fischer) and their two children; he saw that Pam was overwhelmed and took the rest of the week off to help take care of their children. He finds that his co-workers suffered various inconveniences covering for him, making him feel guilty. To appease his interested co-workers, Jim fabricates numerous details of his jury duty, and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) becomes suspicious when Jim mistakenly refers to a food truck franchise Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) ate at during his jury duty as a "restaurant". After finding a small inconsistency in Jim's story, Dwight accuses Jim of lying about jury duty and extracts from Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) a promise to fire Jim if he proves he is correct. Ashamed, Jim privately admits the truth to Andy, who insists that they keep the matter a secret so that he will not be held to his promise. However, Dwight increases his attempts to prove Jim's guilt, and Jim finally decides to defy Andy's orders and tell his co-workers the truth rather than wait for Dwight to inevitably expose him. While this angers most of the employees, Dwight is thrilled at the confession and demands that Andy keep his promise to fire Jim. Andy refuses, so Dwight tries to contact Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods). To smooth things over, Jim and Pam bring in their children, Cece and Phillip, and present pictures that Cece drew for the co-workers. It becomes clear that Jim and Pam drew the pictures themselves, but before the members of the office can berate the couple, the children begin crying loudly, creating a cacophony that Jim and Pam struggle to control, forcing them to take the children back to the car. Realizing the stress that having young kids causes, the office workers ultimately forgive Jim for his behavior and allow him to leave early to help Pam. Angela Lipton (Angela Kinsey) and her husband, state senator Robert (Jack Coleman), welcome their new baby, also named Phillip. Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez), Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper), and Gabe all visit Angela at the hospital. According to Angela, the baby was born prematurely, but due to the size, Oscar deduces that Angela lied about the date of conception. Angela admits that the baby was conceived before her wedding, and makes Oscar promise not to tell anyone. Suspecting that Dwight is the real father, Oscar breaks his promise and tells him when he arrives at the hospital in search of Gabe. Dwight barges in on Angela and her husband and begins thoroughly examining the child. When the senator leaves, Dwight confronts Angela about the child, claiming that it is his. She refutes his claim, but Dwight leaves satisfied, telling the attending nurse to call off the baby's circumcision, which the nonplussed nurse refuses to do. Upon returning to Dunder Mifflin he drops his dispute with Jim, since his self-assumed fatherhood has given him a new appreciation for the duties of parenthood. The episode ends with Dwight putting a decal on his car, in honor of his covert new family member. ## Production "Jury Duty" was written by consulting producer Aaron Shure, his sixth writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the fifth season. It was directed by Eric Appel, his first directing credit for the series. The episode features a guest appearance from Jack Coleman as Senator Robert Lipton, Angela's husband, who first appeared in the seventh season episode, "WUPHF.com". The episode marks the first appearance of Jenna Fischer since "Gettysburg". Due to her pregnancy, she was on maternity leave for four episodes. Her pregnancy was written into the series, with Pam and Jim having their second baby. Unlike the sixth season, there was no episode focusing on the baby's birth; it was instead announced on a blog. According to showrunner Paul Lieberstein, she will come back "with very little fanfare". The episode also marks the seventh appearance of Lindsey Broad, who plays Cathy, Pam's replacement during her maternity leave. She appeared in a recurring role for the season, after she initially appeared in "Pam's Replacement". The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include Andy getting a friend of his, who starred in the Scranton production of Sweeney Todd, to pretend to be a police officer, only to have Darryl uncover the truth, Dwight telling the camera about a recurring nightmare where he is on trial and all of his co-workers are the members of the jury, and Jim trying to make it up to the office by buying all of the despised black licorice from the vending machines so that the rest of the office has access to the red licorice. However, his plan goes awry and his co-workers make him eat all of the black licorice as punishment. ## Cultural references Several television shows, movies, and video games were referenced. Andy compares stress to a mayor who decrees it is illegal to dance—as in the plot of Footloose—and relieves his stress by dancing to the film's title song. Stanley complains that, after working late for Jim, he was forced to watch Rizzoli & Isles with his wife. Andy refers to Jim as "Judge Judy" when he asks what his jury case was about. Dwight mentions that Jim once tricked him into believing he had been chosen to appear in the popular police procedural drama NCIS. Kevin tells Angela that he bought her new baby Call of Duty, a popular first-person shooter video game. ## Reception ### Ratings "Jury Duty" originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 2, 2012. This was the first episode to air on Global TV in Canada on its new date, Wednesday, February 1, 2012. In the US, the episode was viewed by an estimated 5.31 million viewers and received a 2.8 rating/7% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 2.8% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 7% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a 10% drop in the ratings from the previous episode, "Pool Party". The episode also became the lowest-rated episode of the series to air on Thursday. The episode finished third in its time slot, being beaten by Grey's Anatomy which received a 3.6 rating/9% share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3.3 rating/9% share in the 18–49 demographic. The episode beat the Fox drama series The Finder and The CW drama series The Secret Circle. Despite ranking number three, the episode ranked number one in the adults and men 18–34 time slot. In addition, "Jury Duty" was the highest-rated NBC television episode of the night. ### Reviews "Jury Duty" received mostly positive reviews from critics and was considered by many critics to be a major step in the right direction for the series. Brian Marder from the New York Post wrote that, "['Jury Duty'] was a step, if not a leap, in the right direction for the show—which, let's be honest, is showing its fatigue and staleness; possibly nearing its end; clearly suffering without Steve Carell." Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times gave the episode a positive review, calling the episode "fun and surprisingly sweet." McQuinn enjoyed the episode's developments, most notably the idea that both Jim and Dwight can bond as fathers and explained that he hoped the producers would not "forget about it like almost every other development this season." New York writer Michael Tedder complimented the writers for improving on the first half of the season and wrote that the episode felt more "tightly written". He also complimented Krasinski's "understated" performance as well as Wilson's acting, citing the scene near the end of the episode wherein Dwight learns Angela's baby might be his. Despite this, he criticized the cold opening and the "miming chill pill" scene. Lizzie Fuhr from BuzzSugar gave the episode a glowing review, saying, "After a solid cold opening of Andy dancing ..., the rest of this week's episode of The Office is a success. ... This is one of my favorite episodes I can remember in a long time. Not too plot driven and chock-full of solid comedic writing plus a handful endearing moments that just made me feel good. To get a few of my favorite lines, just keep reading." Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B− rating and, although commenting on the lack of stakes for the characters, remarked that, "'Jury Duty' had a certain confidence to it. It may not have satisfyingly explored Jim’s character, but it ended with a clear statement of his role as a father, reintroducing Jenna Fischer into the cast and putting a button on that particular story development." However, several critics gave the episode a mixed review. Dan Forcella from TVFanatic gave the episode a 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "there were definitely some ups and some downs in 'Jury Duty'." However, he did praise the action of several characters, most notably Kevin and Dwight. Joseph Kratzer from WhatCulture gave the episode 3 out of 5 stars and wrote, "I truly appreciate the talented writing of Aaron Shure who crafted a genuinely well-structured episode. I guess I just didn’t feel like Jim’s story held any actual stakes and Dwight’s just felt random."
24,637	Pentium FDIV bug	1,172,160,802	Bug in the Intel P5 Pentium floating-point unit	[ "1994 in computing", "Hardware bugs", "Product recalls", "X86 architecture" ]	The Pentium FDIV bug is a hardware bug affecting the floating-point unit (FPU) of the early Intel Pentium processors. Because of the bug, the processor would return incorrect binary floating point results when dividing certain pairs of high-precision numbers. The bug was discovered in 1994 by Thomas R. Nicely, a professor of mathematics at Lynchburg College. Missing values in a lookup table used by the FPU's floating-point division algorithm led to calculations acquiring small errors. While these errors would in most use-cases only occur rarely and result in small deviations from the correct output values, in certain circumstances the errors can occur frequently and lead to more significant deviations. The severity of the FDIV bug is debated. Though rarely encountered by most users (Byte magazine estimated that 1 in 9 billion floating point divides with random parameters would produce inaccurate results), both the flaw and Intel's initial handling of the matter were heavily criticized by the tech community. In December 1994, Intel recalled the defective processors in what was the first full recall of a computer chip. In its 1994 annual report, Intel said it incurred "a \$475 million pre-tax charge ... to recover replacement and write-off of these microprocessors." ## Description In order to improve the speed of floating-point division calculations on the Pentium chip over the 486DX, Intel opted to replace the shift-and-subtract division algorithm with the Sweeney, Robertson, and Tocher (SRT) algorithm. The SRT algorithm can generate two bits of the division result per clock cycle, whereas the 486's algorithm could only generate one. It is implemented using a programmable logic array with 2,048 cells, of which 1,066 cells should have been populated with one of five values: −2, −1, 0, +1, +2. When the original array for the Pentium was compiled, five values were not correctly downloaded into the equipment that etches the arrays into the chips – thus five of the array cells contained zero when they should have contained +2. As a result, calculations that rely on these five cells acquire errors; these errors can accumulate repeatedly owing to the recursive nature of the SRT algorithm. In pathological cases the error can reach the fourth significant digit of the result, although this is rare. The error is usually confined to the ninth or tenth significant digit. Only certain combinations of numerator and denominator trigger the bug. One commonly-reported example is dividing 4,195,835 by 3,145,727. Performing this calculation in any software that used the floating-point coprocessor, such as Windows Calculator, would allow users to discover whether their Pentium chip was affected. The correct value of the calculation is: When converted to the hexadecimal value used by the processor, 4,195,835 = 0x4005FB and 3,145,727 = 0x2FFFFF. The '5' in 0x4005FB triggers the access to the 'empty' array cells. As a result, the value returned by a flawed Pentium processor is incorrect at or beyond four digits: which is actually the value of 4,195,579/3,145,727 =4,195,835 - 256/3,145,727. ## Discovery and response Thomas Nicely, a professor of mathematics at Lynchburg College, had written code to enumerate primes, twin primes, prime triplets, and prime quadruplets. Nicely noticed some inconsistencies in the calculations on June 13, 1994, shortly after adding a Pentium system to his group of computers, but was unable to eliminate other factors (such as programming errors, motherboard chipsets, etc.) until October 19, 1994. On October 24, 1994, he reported the issue to Intel. Intel had reportedly become aware of the issue independently by June 1994, and had begun fixing it at this point, but chose not to publicly disclose any details or recall affected CPUs. On October 30, 1994, Nicely sent an email describing the bug to various academic contacts, requesting reports of testing for the flaw on 486-DX4s, Pentiums and Pentium clones. The bug was quickly verified by others, and news of it spread quickly on the Internet. The bug acquired the name "Pentium FDIV bug" from the x86 assembly language mnemonic for floating-point division, the most frequently used instruction affected. The story first appeared in the press on November 7, 1994, in an article in Electronic Engineering Times, "Intel fixes a Pentium FPU glitch" by Alexander Wolfe, and was subsequently picked up by CNN in a segment aired on November 22. It was also reported on by the New York Times and the Boston Globe, making the front page in the latter. At this point, Intel acknowledged the floating-point flaw, but claimed that it was not serious and would not affect most users. Intel offered to replace processors to users who could prove that they were affected. However, although most independent estimates found that the bug would have a very limited impact on most users, it caused significant negative press for the company. During a 2019 talk, while reflecting on development of Quake, John Romero described how frequently and persistently this bug could be reproduced by describing behavior Michael Abrash spent hours tracking down that would result in parts of a game level appearing unexpectedly when viewed from certain camera angles. IBM paused the sale of PCs containing Intel CPUs, and Intel's stock price decreased significantly. The motive behind IBM's decision was questioned by some in the industry; IBM produced the PowerPC CPUs at the time, and potentially stood to benefit from any reputational damage to the Pentium or Intel as a company. However, the decision led to corporate buyers of PC equipment demanding replacements of existing Pentium CPUs, and soon afterwards other PC manufacturers began offering "no questions asked" replacements of flawed Pentium chips. The growing dissatisfaction with Intel's response led to the company offering to replace all flawed Pentium processors on request on December 20. On January 17, 1995, Intel announced "a pre-tax charge of \$475 million against earnings, ostensibly the total cost associated with replacement of the flawed processors." This is equivalent to \$ in . Intel was criticised for barring resellers and OEMs from participating in the recall program, requiring end-users to replace chips themselves. Intel's justification for this, posted on its support web page, was that "it is the individual decision of the end user to determine if the flaw is affecting their application accuracy". A 1995 article in Science describes the value of number theory problems in discovering computer bugs and gives the mathematical background and history of Brun's constant, the problem Nicely was working on when he discovered the bug. Intel's response to the FDIV bug has been cited as a case of the public relations impact of a problem eclipsing the practical impact of said problem on customers. While most users were unlikely to encounter the flaw in their day-to-day computing, the company's initial reaction to not replace chips unless customers could guarantee they were affected caused pushback from a vocal minority of industry experts. The subsequent publicity generated shook consumer confidence in the CPUs, and led to a demand for action even from people unlikely to be affected by the issue. Andrew Grove, Intel's CEO at the time was quoted in The Wall Street Journal as saying "I think the kernel of the issue we missed ... was that we presumed to tell somebody what they should or shouldn't worry about, or should or shouldn't do". In the aftermath of the bug and subsequent recall, there was a marked increase in the use of formal verification of hardware floating point operations across the semiconductor industry. Prompted by the discovery of the bug, a technique applicable to the SRT algorithm called "word-level model checking" was developed in 1996. Intel went on to use formal verification extensively in the development of later CPU architectures. In the development of the Pentium 4, symbolic trajectory evaluation and theorem proving were used to find a number of bugs that could have led to a similar recall incident had they gone undetected. The first Intel microarchitecture to use formal verification as the primary method of validation was Nehalem, developed in 2008. ## Affected models The FDIV bug affects the 60 and 66 MHz Pentium P5 800 in stepping levels prior to D1, and the 75, 90, and 100 MHz Pentium P54C 600 in steppings prior to B5. The 120 MHz P54C and P54CQS CPUs are unaffected. ## Software patches Various software patches were produced by manufacturers to work around the bug. One specific algorithm, outlined in a paper in IEEE Computational Science & Engineering, is to check for divisors that can trigger the access to the programmable logic array cells that erroneously contain zero, and if found, multiply both numerator and denominator by 15/16. This takes them out of the 'buggy' range. This fix does carry a measurable speed penalty - worst case for a program doing nothing but FDIV operations with bad divisors the running time would double since each FDIV would take about 80 instead of 40 clock cycles. With more random divisors the average time per FDIV was approximately 50 clock cycles, i.e. 10 cycles added to check the divisor: Only 5 out of 1024 random divisors would trigger the scaling fixup. Since FDIV is a rare operation in most programs, the normal slowdown with the fix installed was typically a percent or less. The main challenge faced by software companies was implementing the fix in pre-existing software, much of which relied on libraries outside their control. Some companies, such as Wolfram Research, opted to directly patch the machine code of existing executables to replace the FDIV opcode with an illegal instruction. This would then trigger an exception that an exception handler (also patched in) would catch. From here, arbitrary code could be executed to work around the bug. Microsoft offered operating system level workarounds in versions of Windows up to Windows XP. Utilities were included with the operating system to check for the presence of the bug and disable the FPU if found. ## See also - Pentium F00F bug - MOS Technology 6502 bugs and quirks - Accuracy problems in floating point operations - MaverickCrunch
3,092,077	Devils Hole pupfish	1,170,947,552	Rare species of fish native to Nevada, U.S.	[ "Amargosa Desert", "Articles containing video clips", "Cave fish", "Critically endangered fauna of the United States", "Cyprinodon", "Desert National Wildlife Refuge Complex", "Endemic fauna of Nevada", "Fauna of the Mojave Desert", "Fish described in 1930", "Fish of the Western United States", "Freshwater fish of the United States", "Natural history of Nye County, Nevada", "Taxa named by Joseph Howe Wales" ]	The Devils Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis) is a critically endangered species of the family Cyprinodontidae (pupfishes) found only in Devils Hole, a water-filled cavern in the US state of Nevada. It was first described as a species in 1930 and is most closely related to C. nevadensis and the Death Valley pupfish (C. salinus). The age of the species is unknown, with differing analyses offering ranges between one thousand and sixty thousand years. It is a small fish, with maximum lengths of up to 30 mm (1.2 in). Individuals vary in coloration based on age and sex: males are bright metallic blue while females and juveniles are more yellow. A defining trait of this species is its lack of pelvic fins. The pupfish consumes nearly every available food resource at Devils Hole, including beetles, snails, algae, and freshwater crustaceans, with diet varying throughout the year. It is preyed on by the predaceous diving beetle species Neoclypeodytes cinctellus, which was first observed in Devils Hole in 1999 or 2000. Reproduction occurs year-round, with spikes in the spring and fall. Females produce few eggs, though, and the survivorship from egg to adult is low. Individuals live 10–14 months. Devils Hole is more than 130 m (430 ft) deep, though pupfish are only found in the upper 24 m (80 ft). The water is a constant temperature of 33 °C (91 °F) and dissolved oxygen levels are low. A small, shallowly submerged rock shelf provides critical feeding and spawning habitat for the pupfish. Nearby agricultural irrigation in the 1960s and 1970s caused the water to drop in Devils Hole, resulting in less and less of the shelf remaining submerged. Several court cases ensued, resulting in the Supreme Court case Cappaert v. United States, which determined that the preservation of Devils Hole as a National Monument in 1952 implicitly included preservation of adequate groundwater to maintain the scientific value of the pool and its fauna. Other threats faced by the species include flash floods, earthquakes, and vandalism. As its entire native range is a single locality, efforts to create other populations have proceeded since the 1960s and 1970s, most of which have failed. Three refugia were created in 1972, 1973, and 1990, though all were closed by 2007 as a result of maintenance failures, hybridization, and small founder populations. In the early 2010s, an exact replica of the uppermost 6.7 m (22 ft) of Devils Hole was constructed at Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility, which was populated with eggs taken from Devils Hole in winter months when development into adults is unlikely. Efforts to conserve the wild population have included removing sediment from the shallow shelf, adding supplemental food, and installing fences and security cameras to keep unauthorized people away. Conservation efforts have been costly and divisive. During the legal battle over ground water in the 1960s and 1970s, bumper stickers were distributed that read "Kill the Pupfish" or "Save the Pupfish". Some have argued that the species should be allowed to go extinct, while others have said this would be akin to "bombing the Louvre to make way for a parking lot". Population counts are conducted twice a year, in the spring and fall, with the fall population usually much larger. Since 1972, population counts have peaked at around 550 individuals. The April 2013 count showed only 35 remaining in the wild, but by September 2022, the count showed a total of 263 observed wild pupfish. The Devils Hole pupfish has been listed as endangered by the US federal government since 1967 and critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature since 2014. ## Taxonomy and evolution The Devils Hole pupfish was described as a new species in 1930 by American ichthyologist Joseph H. Wales. The holotype had been collected by Wales and George S. Myers in March 1930 at Devils Hole in the US state of Nevada. The species name "diabolis" was chosen to allude to the type locality of Devils Hole. Both the species name and the location spell "Devils Hole" without an apostrophe, a relic of the "quirks of government cartographers and scientists". According to genetic analysis, the sister taxon of the Devils Hole pupfish is Cyprinodon nevadensis. Along with the Death Valley pupfish (C. salinus), the three Amargosa River basin species form a clade. The age of the species is subject to considerable debate, with analyses recovering starkly different figures. Devils Hole was formed around 60,000 years ago, with some researchers assuming the pupfish has existed in isolation for 10,000–20,000 years. How it colonized Devils Hole is unknown; hypotheses include arriving via subterranean waters or over dry land. As Native Americans used pupfish species as food, it has been speculated that they introduced the pupfish to Devils Hole, intentionally or not. Its divergence from a common ancestor with C. nevadensis mionectes was estimated at 217–2530 years in one study. Two studies, each based on independent genetic datasets, estimated that this species may have first colonized the hole within the past 1,000 years, but another suggested the species is as old as 60,000 years. These estimates depend heavily on knowledge of the mutation rate in this species, which is unknown, but is predicted to be one of the highest for any vertebrate due to its small population size. ## Description The Devils Hole pupfish is the smallest pupfish species in the genus Cyprinodon, with lengths up to 30 mm (1.2 in). The average length is 23 mm (0.9 in). Males and females differ in coloration. Males are overall dark brown with metallic blue on their sides. The margins of all fins are black, and the back has golden iridescence. Iridescence is particularly pronounced on the opercles (gill covers) which have a violet sheen on their posterior side. The iris is blue and also iridescent. Females and young are more yellow in color than the males. Females have yellowish-brown backs, and the margins of their pectoral and caudal fins are yellow, not black. The dorsal fin has a black margin like the males, however. Females' opercles are metallic green, and their eyes are tinted metallic blue. The young are overall colored as the females, though they have a faint vertical bar on their sides. Individuals lack pelvic fins, though have been observed to grow them when raised in lower temperatures in captivity. Its dorsal fin has twelve rays, while each pectoral fin has seventeen rays. The caudal fin is convex in appearance and has twenty-eight rays, curving outward at the margin. Its lateral series (the number of scales from the back end of the opercle to the beginning of the tail) is twenty-seven scales. The scales are ctenoid, or toothed, on the outer margin. ## Biology and ecology The Devils Hole pupfish consumes a variety of food items representing nearly all possible food resources in Devils Hole. Its food resources include inorganic particulate matter; the algae Spirogyra and diatoms; the freshwater crustaceans Hyalella azteca and ostracods; protozoa; the beetle Stenelmis calida; the flatworm Girardia dorotocephala; and the freshwater snails Tryonia. The consumption of the various food resources varies seasonally, though inorganic particulate matter had a high frequency of occurrence in stomach contents year-round in one study. The inorganic particulate matter consists of primarily travertine, a form of limestone. The three most common food items for each season by frequency of occurrence were: - Spring (March through May): inorganic particulate matter (83%), diatoms (75%), and Spirogyra (58%) - Summer (June through August): inorganic particulate matter (79%), Spirogyra (46%), and diatoms (46%) - Autumn (September through November): inorganic particulate matter (95%), Spirogyra (74%), and Hyalella azteca (33%) - Winter (December through February): inorganic particulate matter (100%), diatoms (91%), and ostracods (45%) As Spirogyra was mostly found undigested in the stomach, the authors hypothesized that it was not important as a food resource, but rather as a foraging substrate. The inorganic particulate matter was thought to be incidentally consumed as well as a result of the fish's foraging strategy of bottom feeding and surface feeding. Predators of the Devils Hole pupfish include the diving beetle species Neoclypeodytes cinctellus, which consumes its eggs and juveniles. N. cinctellus likely also preys on some of the same invertebrates as does the Devils Hole pupfish, meaning that it is a competitor as well as a predator. The diving beetle only recently became part of the ecosystem, and was first documented at Devils Hole in 1999 or 2000. Although spawning year-round, spawning peaks from mid-February to mid-May with a smaller peak from July to September. Devils Hole pupfish females have low fecundity, which is the capacity to create offspring. The average female may only produce four or five mature ova (egg cells) each breeding season. Mature ova represent 10-20% of the total number of ova produced. During each spawn, a mature female is thought to produce only a single egg, which are only 1 mm (0.039 in) in diameter. In addition to its low fecundity, eggs have low hatching success and juveniles have low rates of survival. Individuals have a lifespan of 10–14 months. Because the rock shelf upon which the fish feed and breed is susceptible to seismic activity, specialized behavior mitigates the impact of earthquakes. When a disturbance such as an earthquake occurs, it causes the fish to flee en masse into the depths, and begin a spawning event that may be out of season. During spawning brought upon by a disturbance, several males chase lone females until they become receptive, at which point the female allows one of the males to swim next to her. The female then lays an egg that the male immediately fertilizes. The Devils Hole pupfish has daily and seasonal movement within the Hole. Around midday, when incoming sunlight is at its maximum intensity on the shallow shelf, the number of fish on the shelf decreases. This tendency to leave the shelf at midday is most pronounced April through September. From December to March, when the shallow shelf receives little if any direct sunlight at midday, the number of fish on the shelf increases as the day advances. In the summer months when the shelf receives the most sunlight, fish are overall less likely to use the shallow shelf. Having adapted to an environment with low oxygen saturation, the Devils Hole pupfish has developed a behavior known as "paradoxical anaerobism". The fish enters a state of torpor, and has been known to forego breathing oxygen for up to two hours. As a byproduct of this alternate respiration method, the fish produces ethanol. ## Habitat Devils Hole and the pupfish are located in the Amargosa Desert ecosystem, in the Amargosa Valley, of southwestern Nevada, US, east of Death Valley and the Funeral Mountains and Amargosa Range. The Amargosa River is part of Devils Hole and the region's aquifer hydrology. Devils Hole is a water-filled cavern extending into a hillside. It is at an elevation of 730 m (2,400 ft) above sea level and the water is a constant temperature of 33 °C (91 °F). The surface area of Devils Hole is about 22 m long by 3.5 m wide (72 ft long by 11.5 ft wide). Its depth is at least 130 m (430 ft). Devils Hole "may be the smallest habitat in the world containing the entire population of a vertebrate species". Approximately 0.3 m (0.98 ft) deep on one end of Devils Hole is a small rock shelf of 3.5 by 5 m (11 by 16 ft). The dissolved oxygen of the water is 2.5–3.0 ppm up to around 22 m (72 ft) in depth, though the shallow shelf can have dissolved oxygen levels as high as 6.0–7.0 ppm in June and July. Although pupfish have been found as deep as 24 metres (80 ft), their numbers are most dense above depths of 15 m (49 ft). They depend on the shallow shelf for spawning as well as for much of their diet which primarily consists of diatoms. Natural threats from flash floods to earthquakes have been known to disrupt this fragile ecosystem, but in the 1960s and 1970s, the major threat was groundwater depletion due to agricultural irrigation. Research indicates that the annual population fluctuation is in response to the amount of algae on the shallow shelf, which is dependent on incoming solar radiation and nutrient levels. Nutrient availability may peak when the cave is used by barn owls as a roosting or nesting site, as their nutrient-rich pellets fall into the water. ## Conservation and status ### Threats The Devils Hole pupfish species is limited to a single site and highly susceptible to disturbance. In the 1970s, the species was threatened with groundwater depletion, as the withdrawal of groundwater lowered the water level of Devils Hole and limited their ability to spawn on the shallow shelf. After the groundwater withdrawal was limited, its population rebounded, but experienced a second decline from 1995 onward. The reasons for the second decline are unknown, but inbreeding depression, the loss of a prey species, changing algal and microbial communities, or shifting sediment dynamics have been hypothesized as potential factors. It could face threats in the future relating to climate change, as warming temperatures in the area are predicted to shorten the period of optimum recruitment, or the time when the next generation is produced and matures. Large-scale earthquakes, such as the 2012 Guerrero–Oaxaca earthquake, the 2018 Gulf of Alaska earthquake, and the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes have caused standing waves known as seiches in Devils Hole, which can lead to an unseasonal spawning event due to the disruption of the pupfishes' environment. The waves caused by earthquakes can scour the algae from the rocks (as well as eggs and larvae), affecting the food supply and spawning grounds. Flash floods also disrupt the algae via debris swept into Devils Hole. In addition to the indirect threat of groundwater depletion, human actions can impact the pupfish in other ways as well. A 2004 flash flood swept scientific monitoring equipment into Devils Hole, causing the deaths of an estimated eighty pupfish. In April 2016, three men broke into the Devils Hole protected area, destroying scientific equipment and wading onto the shallow shelf of Devils Hole, smashing pupfish eggs and larvae, as well as vomiting into the water. Isolation over the course of thousands of years has led the Devils Hole pupfish to become what are believed to be one of the most inbred vertebrates on Earth, and the resulting high mutation load and genetic instability remains a potential long-term threat to the species as a whole. ### Status designations and legal action In the late 1940s, ichthyologist Carl Leavitt Hubbs began campaigning for legal protection for Devils Hole and the pupfish. This led to President Harry S. Truman issuing a proclamation in 1952 that made Devils Hole part of Death Valley National Monument (now National Park). In 1956, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) installed the first water level recorder. The fish was officially listed as an endangered species in 1967, making it one of the first species protected under the Endangered Species Act. In 1967, Spring Meadows, Inc. began purchasing large tracts of Ash Meadows, much from the Bureau of Land Management, in anticipation of developing 48.6 km<sup>2</sup> (18.8 sq mi) of irrigated cropland. Many wells were drilled from 1967–1970, causing a decline of the water at Devils Hole by 1968. The level continued to drop through 1972, causing alarm as a 1969 study had determined that the shallow shelf was virtually the only feeding and spawning habitat available to the fish. Conservationists and public opinion began to rally for preservation of the pupfish, with a 1970 issue of the magazine Cry California stating that allowing it to go extinct would be "comparable to bombing the Louvre to make way for a parking lot". Two organizations were formed in support of the species: the Desert Fishes Council and the Desert Pupfish Task Force. In 1970, the USGS began a study to determine why the water level was receding at Devils Hole, concluding that a substantial withdrawal of groundwater would negatively affect the water level, and thus, pupfish habitat. In August 1971, the U. S. Department of Justice filed a complaint on behalf of the Department of the Interior, seeking to stop Spring Meadows from using three wells identified as having the greatest impact on Devils Hole. The basis for the argument was that when Devils Hole became part of a National Monument in 1952, sufficient water was thus reserved "to serve the requirements and purposes of the monument". Later that month, Spring Meadows and the federal government made an agreement that they would cease operation of the three identified wells, and not increase withdrawal at their other wells to compensate. Though the water level briefly rose, it once again entered a decline, exposing more than half the shallow shelf by summer 1972. This caused the government to reactivate the suit in 1972. Now, they wanted Spring Meadows to cease using any wells within 4 km (2.5 mi) of Devils Hole for any non-domestic purpose based on the implied reservation doctrine established in Winters v. United States (1908). An injunction in favor of the government was issued in June 1973, which was appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (upheld in 1974) and the Supreme Court. In the case Cappaert vs. U.S., decided in 1976, the Supreme Court upheld the injunction and determined that the district court should set the minimum water level necessary to ensure pupfish survival. The Court stated that by making Devils Hole part of a National Monument, the groundwater necessary to sustain the pupfish was implicitly reserved. In 1977 the district court determined that the water level minimum would be 0.82 m (2.7 ft) below a reference point on the wall. In 1980, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) designated about 21,000 acres (8,500 ha) as essential habitat where the groundwater most influenced the water level in the Hole. One of the identified goals of the recovery plan was to maintain the aquifer at such levels that the population fluctuates from 300 in winter to 700–900 in late summer. The water source for Devils Hole pupfish were now protected from industrial use, but the rest of Ash Meadows was unprotected. When the USFWS declined to purchase the land from Cappaert Enterprises, Ash Meadows was sold in 1980 to a property development company, Preferred Equities Corporation, who acquired additional nearby land with the intention of creating 33,636 residential parcels altogether. As the original injunction limited water with exception to domestic purposes, it was unclear if residents of the proposed subdivision would have to limit water usage in respect to the water level of Devils Hole. In 1982, Secretary of the Interior James Watt approved the emergency listing of two more Ash Meadows fish, the Ash Meadows pupfish (Cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes) and the Ash Meadows speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus nevadensis). Further development by Preferred Equities would therefore almost certainly violate the Endangered Species Act. After protracted negotiations, The Nature Conservancy (a nonprofit) was able to purchase Ash Meadows for \$5.5 million in February 1984, with reimbursement from the U.S. Federal Government of \$5 million. By June 1984, Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge was established, as The Nature Conservancy transferred the property to the government. By 1986, a recovery plan was drafted for all of Ash Meadows, encompassing Devils Hole. As of 2014, Devils Hole pupfish is evaluated as a critically endangered species by the IUCN. The species meets the criteria for this designation due to its extremely small extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, both of which are less than 1 km<sup>2</sup> (0.39 sq mi). Additionally, the species is found in a single locality and has a very small population, often with fewer than 100 mature individuals. In the state of Nevada, it is considered a protected species that is also endangered. ### Recovery actions #### In the wild Shortly after 1956, a locked gate was installed in a rock crevice of Devils Hole to limit public access to the site. By 1970, as the shallow shelf was exposed by groundwater depletion, an artificial shelf was installed at Devils Hole. It was never used by the fish. In 2005, 1.7 m<sup>3</sup> (60 cu ft) of sediment was removed from the shallow shelf to encourage feeding and spawning. While the number of larvae appeared to increase as a result, the population still experienced a net decline over the following year. In January 2006, biologists began supplementing the fish's food supply in response to observations of poor health and malnourishment. After vandalism resulted in the death of a pupfish in 2016, the National Park Service added additional barbed wire to the top of the fences surrounding Devils Hole, also installing more motion sensors and video cameras. #### Ex situ conservation Due to the fear of extinction in the 1960s and 1970s, several measures were taken to create multiple populations of the pupfish outside of Devils Hole to safeguard the species, which is known as ex situ conservation. Some of these measures, such as transplanting the fish into nearby natural springs, quickly failed. The fish disappeared, though one population at Purgatory Spring was destroyed by biologists, as the fish were misshapen and no longer looked like Devils Hole pupfish. Two attempts were made at this time to establish aquaria populations, one at Steinhardt Aquarium and the other at Fresno State College, though these also failed. A number of artificial "refugia" consisting of concrete tanks approximating conditions in Devils Hole were attempted to ensure the species' survival should the natural population at Devils Hole die out. The Hoover Dam Refugium for Endangered Desert Fish was established in August 1972, with the first twenty-seven pupfish translocated in October 1972. The Hoover Dam Refugium was successfully maintained for several years and reached a population of several hundred, though the sex ratio was highly skewed towards males with as many as three males per female. In 1985 or 1986, a component of the water supply system failed, however, killing many of the fish. Nearly all the remaining fish were killed by October 1986 when an additional failure caused the water temperature to drop drastically. The lone surviving fish was then removed. In 1973, a second refugium was established at Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge (AMNWR), the Amargosa Pupfish Station, also known as the School Springs refuge. From the founding population of twenty-five fish, it remained at several dozen individuals until a power failure in August 1984 disrupted the water flow, reducing the population to seven. The population increased to 121 by October 1987. In 1990, a third refugium was constructed, also at AMNWR, called Point of Rocks refuge. Historical attempts to maintain the refugia populations through traditional methods has been largely ineffective, blamed on the small founder population size of each refugium as well as maintenance failures. The Point of Rocks refuge population unexpectedly had individuals appear with pelvic fins, which are not found in the species. Genetic evidence showed that around three individuals of the closely related C. nevadensis, which do have pelvic fins, invaded Point of Rocks between 1997 and 2005, hybridizing with the Devils Hole pupfish. The C. nevadensis genes quickly became highly prevalent in the gene pool, with researchers concluding, "...we add hybridization to the long list of problems that have conspired against successful propagation of C. diabolis in artificial settings outside of its native habitat". The School Springs population was extirpated in 2003, the Hoover Dam refugia population became extirpated once more in 2006, and the Point of Rocks refuge was extirpated in 2007. In May through August 2006, two pupfish from Devils Hole and five from the Hoover Dam Refuge were transferred to a Las Vegas Strip casino aquarium at Mandalay Bay with the hope of understanding how to breed the species in aquaria. Propagation efforts at Mandalay Bay failed, and by April 2007 all individuals had died or been transferred. Also in 2006, six younger pupfish were moved from Devils Hole to the Willow Beach National Fish Hatchery in Arizona. Additionally, the eighteen remaining individuals from the Hoover Dam refuge were moved to Willow Beach. While early breeding efforts appeared successful and four larvae survived to adulthood, all individuals had died by December 2006, possibly from a form of leukemia. In the early 2010s, a full-scale replica of the upper 6.7 m (22 ft) of Devils Hole was built at the new Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility (AMFCF), resulting in a 380,000 L (100,000 U.S. gal) tank. Located less than a mile away (), this refuge closely mimics the natural Devils Hole, including water chemistry, spawning shelf, and natural sunlight. It intentionally differs, however, in temperature and dissolved oxygen content. The temperature is 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F) cooler than that of Devils Hole and the dissolved oxygen content is doubled in attempts to reduce thermal and respiratory stress on the fish. The population of Devils Hole pupfish at AMFCF was created by taking eggs from Devils Hole. However, eggs are only removed at times of the year when it is unlikely that they would develop into mature adults, such as in the winter. It is thought that egg removal during this time would therefore have the least impact on the population size at Devils Hole. When transferred to AMFCF, the eggs are exposed to anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, and anti-parasite treatments. They are reared in the aquarium until adulthood, at which point they are transferred to the large refuge tank. This procedure is also followed for eggs laid in the refuge tank. While efforts have been made to remove the predaceous beetle Neoclypeodytes cinctellus from the captive population's tank to lessen its depredation on eggs, it has not been removed from Devils Hole. It is unknown how removal of the species could affect the Devils Hole ecosystem, and the number of beetles in Devils Hole is less than in the tank hosting the captive population. As of 2021, the efforts of the Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility have been considered "very successful" in maintaining a refuge population. At least fifty captive fish populated the refuge as of 2019, with an additional 10–20 in propagation tanks. #### Costs and public opinion Millions of dollars have been spent conserving the Devils Hole Pupfish. The construction of the Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility alone, which opened in 2013, was estimated to cost \$4.5 million. Conservation efforts from January 2006 to May 2007 were \$750,000. The legal case over the rights to extract groundwater concluded that the Cappaert family, who invested \$7 million into opening a ranch in the area, could no longer withdraw the same amount of water. The Cappaert family's attorney decried that the Supreme Court had chosen the interests of a fish over people, and a newspaper editor from nearby Pahrump threatened to dump a pesticide into Devils Hole to kill them all. In response to bumper stickers that read "Save the Pupfish" distributed by the Desert Fishes Council, Nye County Commissioner Robert Rudd produced bumper stickers that said "Kill the Pupfish". The Cappaert family sold the ranch in the late 1970s. ### Population trends Population surveys of the Devils Hole pupfish began in 1972. Population counts since then have been conducted using the same methods, with scuba diving researchers counting fish starting at depths of 30 m (100 ft) while researchers above the water count the individuals on the shallow shelf. From 1970 through 1996, the average population was 324. Population highs were recorded in 1980, 1990, and 1995 at counts of 541–548 individuals. Since 2005, the population at Devils Hole has been below 200 individuals, although the population fluctuates depending on the season. Low algae growth and other winter conditions cause spring populations to be 35–65% of the autumn population. The reasons for the decline of the population are unclear. A 2014 study ascertained that the Devils Hole pupfish had a 26–33% chance of becoming extinct in the next twenty years In November 2005, divers counted just 84 individuals in the Devils Hole population, the same as the spring population, despite observations of egg-laying and juvenile fish during the summer. In 2007, between 38 and 42 fish were left in Devils Hole. The pupfish count rose in the autumn of 2008 to 126, the first steady increase in more than 10 years. As of April 2013 U.S. Fish and Wildlife reported only 35 fish remain in their natural habitat, but increased to 92 when measured again in 2014. As of spring 2016, a periodic count found 115 of the fish living in the waters. In spring 2019, the pupfish population reached 136, the highest springtime population since 2003. Population counts were suspended in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, however, egg collection for ex situ cultivation continued. Observers noted encouraging signs of population growth, and during the next count in April 2022, 175 pupfish were observed. The population has continued to grow, with 263 observed pupfish in September 2022. ## See also Many of the various surviving local Cyprinodon species and subspecies (pupfish), including the Devils Hole pupfish, are on the IUCN Red List of threatened species: - Ash Meadows pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes - Amargosa pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis amargosae - Death Valley pupfish, Salt Creek pupfish Cyprinodon salinus salinus - Cottonball Marsh pupfish, "Cyprinodon salinus milleri" - Shoshone pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis shoshone - Saratoga Spring pupfish, "Cyprinodon nevadensis nevadensis" - Tecopa pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis calidae (extinct) - Desert pupfish, Cyprinodon macularius - Owens pupfish, Cyprinodon radiosus
3,339,988	Stay-at-home dad	1,170,281,482	Father who is the main caregiver of his children	[ "Family", "Fatherhood", "Gender role reversal", "Marriage", "Stay-at-home parents", "Terms for men" ]	A stay-at-home dad (alternatively, full-time father, stay-at-home father, house dad) is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is generally the homemaker of the household. The female equivalent is the stay-at-home mom or housewife. As families have evolved, the practice of being a stay-at-home dad has become more common and socially acceptable. Pre-industrialization, the family worked together as a unit and was self-sufficient. When affection-based marriages emerged in the 1830s, parents began devoting more attention to children and family relationships became more open. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution, mass production replaced the manufacturing of home goods; this shift, coupled with prevailing norms governing sex or gender roles, dictated that the man become the breadwinner and the mother the caregiver of their children. In the late 20th century, the number of stay-at-home dads began gradually increasing especially in developed Western nations. The role of househusband became more socially acceptable by the 2000s, though the role is subject to many stereotypes, and men may have difficulties accessing parenting benefits, communities, and services targeted at mothers. A 2014 report released by the Pew Research Center found two million men to be stay-at-home dads in the United States. The stay-at-home dad was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s, especially in the US. ## Evolution of family roles ### Pre-industrialization In the colonial United States, the nuclear family was the most common family form. Typical families consisted of five or more children initially; because of high infant mortality rates, only a few children survived adolescence. Colonial families existed to serve six main functions: self-sufficient business, school, vocational institute, church, house of correction, and welfare institution. The first African Americans to reach America were initially brought over as indentured servants, but instead became slaves. By the 19th century, slave trading was a thriving business. Typical slave families consisted of one or two children. Women were primarily the head of the families, either because the fathers had died or had been separated from the family. ### Industrialization (1800–1900) The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization, resulting in a shift from home manufacturing to large-scale factory production. As this rapid transition took place, families lost many of their production functions. Instead, family members had to work outside the home to support their families. As a result, husbands and wives began operating in separate spheres of activity. The husband became the "breadwinner" by going out and working, while the wife stayed home and took care of the family. ### Transition to modern family (1900–present) The modern family is commonly thought to have originated in the 1830s: courtship became more open, marriages were often based on affection, and parents devoted more attention to children. At the beginning of the 20th century, married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and compatibility in their relationships. This led to more intimate and open relationships along with more adolescent freedom. The transition of the family was influenced by the Great Depression, which forced many women into the workplace in order to compensate for lack of financial stability. In 1932, a federal executive order stated that only one spouse could work for the federal government. This resulted in many women being forced to resign allowing their husbands to continue working. World War II had a significant impact on changing family roles. Because of the draft, workers were scarce in many industries and employers began to fill jobs with women, mainly in nontraditional positions. This increase in working women became one of the few times in history where women were praised for work outside the home. Divorce rates also reached a new high during this period. Not only had many women found a new sense of independence, but cultural shifts were underway, including the rise of feminism and the development of reliable methods of birth control. Such changes caused some women to decide to end their unhappy marriages. The 1950s saw a "baby boom" in America. This period was also called the "Golden '50s". This was credited to families trying to make up lost time after the war. As a result, many families moved to the suburbs instead of residing in the city, the number of two-income families began to increase, and grown children began to remain at home longer because of financial difficulties. Gradually, women began re-entering the workforce. This progression away from the traditional view of the woman as the homemaker led to the creation of the role of the stay-at-home dad. ## Increase in popularity in the 21st century Stay-at-home dads have been seen in increasing numbers in Western culture, especially in Canada, the UK, and the United States since the late 20th century. In developed East Asian nations such as Japan and South Korea, this practice is less common. There are several reasons why some families feel that it would be more beneficial for the father to be the primary caregiver while the mother works outside the home. The decision to use a stay-at-home dad arrangement is most commonly due to economic reasons. At the same time, women are progressing into higher-paying jobs. There are now financial ramifications in deciding whether the mother or father should become the stay-at-home parent. In cases where the woman is the higher-paid parent, it makes more economic sense for her to continue to work while the man takes on the caregiver role. It also makes sense at times the mother's job offers health benefits for the family whereas the father's does not. It has also been shown that if the "pregnancy was jointly planned", the father is more likely to be involved. Many men are also remote workers. In this regard, they contribute financially to the family while also acting as the primary caregiver of the family's children. Differences in parents' schedules can also account for some of the stay-at-home dads. Sometimes the father works odd work shifts while the mother has a typical nine-to-five work schedule. Fixed gender roles began to become less prominent in the Western world starting in the late 20th century, allowing men to make their own choice of career without regard to traditional gender-based roles. Some men who choose this role may do so because they enjoy being an active part of their children's lives, while in other families, the mother wants to pursue her career. For example, of the 187 participants at Fortune magazine's Most Powerful Women in the Business Summit, one-third of the women's husbands were stay-at-home dads. Families vary widely in terms of how household chores are divided. Some retired males who marry a younger woman decide to become stay-at-home dads while their wives work because they want a "second chance" to watch a child grow up in a second or third marriage. Additionally, more career and lifestyle options are accepted and prevalent in Western society. There are also fewer restrictions on what constitutes a family. ## Disadvantages Depending on the country or region, a stay-at-home dad might find more or less social support for his decision. In regions where traditional roles prevail, a stay-at-home dad might be shunned by stay-at-home moms' peer groups. In order to find support for their choice, these men have created and joined many support networks. Still, many men struggle to find acceptance within the role of stay-at-home dad despite the many gains that have been made. Many worry about losing business skills and their "professional place in line". There is a common misconception that stay-at-home dads cannot get a job and therefore must rewrite the typical family roles, forcing the wife into the workforce. One 2002 study by the American Heart Association suggested stay-at-home dads may face a higher risk of heart disease. The reasons for the health risk are not specified. The role of stay-at-home dad may be difficult for men who feel as though they had no option. It is hard for these men to adapt from being a financial provider in the family to being a homemaker. Men who willingly choose to become a stay-at-home dad are much more satisfied with their role in the family. ## Advantages ### For the child There have been many studies done which suggest the importance of the paternal role in a child's life and benefits of the stay-at-home dad. Children respond differently to males and females at birth. A study conducted by a United States child psychiatrist, Kyle D. Pruett, found that infants between 7 and 30 months responded more favourably to being picked up by their fathers. Pruett also found that a father's parenting style is beneficial for a child's physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioural development. Mothers reassure toddlers when they become frustrated, while fathers encourage them to manage their frustration. This helps the children learn to deal with stress and frustration. A long-term study Pruett conducted proved that a father's active involvement with his children, from birth to adolescence, promotes greater emotional balance, stronger curiosity and a stronger sense of self-assurance in the child. Additional studies show that during the first five years of a child's life, the father's role is more influential than the mother's in how the child learns to manage his or her body, navigate social circumstances, and play. Furthermore, a 1996 study by McGill University found that the "single most important childhood factor in developing empathy is paternal involvement in childcare". Children that have a strong paternal influence have more nurturing abilities. It has been researched in The Role of the Father in Child Development, that in general, children with stay-at-home dads develop attachments at infancy. The study further concluded that fathers who spent time alone bonding with their children more than twice per week brought up the most compassionate adults. Robert Frank, a professor of child development at Oakton Community College in Illinois, conducted a study comparing households with a stay-at-home dad and households with a stay-at-home mom. His study concluded that women were still able to form a strong bond with their children despite working full-time outside the home. Also, women working full-time were often more engaged with their children on a day-to-day basis than their male counterparts. His study concluded that in a family with a stay-at-home dad arrangement, the maternal and paternal influences are equally strong. This contrasts with the more traditional family structure where the father works outside the home and the mother stays home with the children. In this type of arrangement, the mother's influence is extremely strong, whereas the father's is relatively small. The study found that both parents play an equal role in a child's development, but the stay-at-home dad arrangement is the most beneficial for the child. ### For the mother The stay-at-home dad arrangement allows the mother to work without having to use a daycare or a nanny. This arrangement prevents the mother from having to deal with the stress of finding acceptable childcare, checking backgrounds, and paying for care. This arrangement also can help ensure that the family's values are being upheld and instilled in the children. Free from the stress of childcare, the working mother is able to actively pursue their career. This allows for a more relaxed working environment for the mother and allows her to focus on her career. If the mother has a higher-paying job, this extra income will allow for savings to be made for the children; these savings could help the mother later on pay for university for the child or children. Thus, she can advance her career and provide more money for the family. It puts a sound mind for the mother knowing that the child/children are at a safe place with the father having the same safety and values as the mother. These are the same advantages for the father from having a stay-at-home mom arrangement. ### For the father A survey conducted by Minnesota's Department for Families and Children's Services shows that men consider childcare to be far more important than a paycheck. Of 600 dads surveyed, a majority said their most important role was to "show love and affection" to kids. "Safety and protection" came next, followed by "moral guidance", "taking time to play", and "teaching and encouraging". "Financial care" finished last. Many men are now becoming more involved in their children's lives, and, because of that, many men now have a better understanding of what life is like for their child growing up in modern society. Because fathers are immersed in their children's lives, many of the stereotypically "manly" attitudes and activities historically prescribed for children may be circumscribed due to a more gender-neutral parenting approach that focuses on promoting independence and emotional well-being. This allows children, especially male children, to grow up with a greater capacity for empathy and less rigidity in attitudes pertaining to gender roles than would perhaps be the case in more traditionally-structured households. ## Prevalence ### Australia Stay-at-home dads make up a very small portion of the Australian population, although this appears to be rapidly changing. In 2003, 91 percent of fathers with children aged under 15 years were employed, with 85 percent employed full-time. Because of this, there are few role models or resources that can help Australian fathers with the stay-at-home dad role. The Australian Bureau of Statistics show that approximately 7 percent of two-parent families with children under the age of 14 have a father who is unemployed and a mother who works full-time. Stay-at-home dads in Australia have almost doubled over the past decade—from 57,900 to 106,000—and is expected to increase in the future. Recent sociological studies have shown that men are dedicating more time and support to their children in comparison to the 19th century. Until recently, the idea of a stay-at-home dad was far from mainstream; however, the rising demand for female work has influenced this statistic to rise. ### Canada Over a 20-year period during the late 20th century, there was an increase in the number of women in the workforce in Canada. This shift increased father participation in family tasks that used to primarily be the responsibility of the mother. Beginning in the late 20th century, parental roles began to become less traditional, and the stay-at-home dad arrangement began to become more common. The number of stay-at-home dads increased by three percent points between 1976 and 1998, and the average age of a stay-at-home dad in Canada is 42. A bill was passed in by the Canadian government in October 1990 which granted paid leave for fathers for the purpose of primary caregiving. According to Statscan, in 1976, stay-at-home fathers accounted for approximately 1 in 70 of all Canadian families with a stay-at-home parent. By 2015, the proportion had risen to about 1 in 10. Stay-at-home fathers were on average older (45 years old) than fathers in single-earner families (40 years old) and dual-earner families (41 years old). However, as was the case for stay-at-home mothers, stay-at-home fathers were more likely to have lower levels of education. In 2015, 42 percent had a high school diploma or less. In comparison, 31 percent of single-earner fathers and 25 percent of dual-earner fathers had similar levels of education. ### East Asia Stay-at-home dads are not prevalent in East Asian countries, which generally have strict traditional gender roles. However, a survey conducted in 2008 in Japan suggested that nearly one-third of married men would accept the role. The Japanese government passed a law in April 1992 allowing time off following the birth of a child for both male and female employees. In 1996, 0.16 percent of Japanese fathers took time off of work to raise children. In South Korea, about 5,000 men were stay-at-home dads in 2007. Even so, stay-at-home dads face discrimination from stay-at-home mothers, and are often ostracized. ### China Beginning in the 2000s, the stay-at-home dad began to emerge as a role in China, though some remain uncomfortable with the way the role changes traditional family dynamics. Customs in China suggest that men must be the heads of their households. Stereotyping is an issue for stay-at-home dads, who sometimes prefer not to tell others about their family arrangement. Traditional ideas promote criticism of "woman-like" men, and many feel that they would face humiliation and criticism for being stay-at-home dads. Others suppose they would be looked at as having a wife that is "too strong". ### North Korea Until around 1990, the North Korean state required every able-bodied adult to be employed by some state enterprise. Whilst some 30 percent of married women of working age were allowed to stay at home as full-time housewives (less than some countries in the same region like South Korea, Japan and Taiwan, more than Soviet Union, Mainland China or Nordic countries like Sweden, about the same as today's United States). In the early 1990s, an estimated 600,000–900,000 people perished in the famine, which was largely a product of the North Korean government's unwillingness to reform the economy, and the old system began to fall apart. In some cases women began by selling household items they could do without, or homemade food. Today at least three-quarters of North Korean market vendors are women.' ### United Kingdom In an interview published in the Radio Times in May 2013, Karren Brady made it plain she "could never be a housewife". While she maintains a business career in London, her husband Paul Peschisolido has the role of house-husband, though Brady collaborates in tasks at home to a certain extent. ### United States In 2008, an estimated 140,000 married fathers worked in the home as their children's primary caregivers while their wives worked outside the home to provide for the family. This number was less than the previous two years, according to the US Census Bureau. In 2007, stay-at-home dads made up approximately 2.7 percent of the nation's stay-at-home parents. This is triple the percentage from 1997, and has been consistently higher each year since 2005. In 2006, stay-at-home dads were caring for approximately 245,000 children; 63 percent of stay-at-home dads had two or more children. These statistics only account for married stay-at-home dads; there are other children being cared for by single fathers or gay couples. Also, it is difficult to ascertain how many of these stay-at-home dads have accepted the role voluntarily, and how many have been forced into it by the economic crisis of the late 2000s and early 2010s, during which a great number of mostly-male blue-collar industries suffered significant losses and many previously employed men entered periods of prolonged unemployment. ## See also - Double burden - Father's rights - Housewife - Masculism - Nursing father - Paternal bond - Parental leave
210,407	Cannon Street station	1,168,365,495	London railway and Underground station	[ "1866 establishments in England", "Bridge light displays", "Circle line (London Underground) stations", "District line stations", "Former Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Joint Railway stations", "Former South Eastern Railway (UK) stations", "John Hawkshaw railway stations", "John Poulson buildings", "John Wolfe Barry railway stations", "London station group", "Network Rail managed stations", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1866", "Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1884", "Railway stations in the City of London", "Railway stations served by Southeastern", "Railway termini in London", "Tube stations in the City of London" ]	Cannon Street station, also known as London Cannon Street, is a central London railway terminus and connected London Underground station in Travelcard zone 1 located on Cannon Street in the City of London and managed by Network Rail. It is one of two London termini of the South Eastern Main Line, the other being Charing Cross, while the Underground station is on the Circle and District lines, between Monument and Mansion House. The station runs services by Southeastern, mostly catering for commuters in southeast London and Kent, with occasional services further into the latter. The station was built on a site of the medieval steelyard, the trading base in England of the Hanseatic League. It was built by the South Eastern Railway in order to have a railway terminal in the City and compete with the rival London, Chatham and Dover Railway. This required a new bridge across the River Thames, which was constructed between 1863 and 1866. The station was initially a stop for continental services from Charing Cross, and that route was convenient for travel between the City and the West End, until the construction of the District Railway. It remained popular with commuters, though its off-peak services were discontinued in the early 20th century, leading to it being closed on Sundays for almost 100 years. The original hotel on the station was unsuccessful, and eventually closed. The station was controversially renovated in the late 1950s by John Poulson, while further construction on top of the station building occurred during the City's 1980s property boom. The Poulson building was replaced in 2007 as part of a general renovation of the station to make it more accessible. As part of the Thameslink Programme development in the 2010s, it was re-opened on Sundays and began to offer more long-distance services in place of Charing Cross. ## Location Cannon Street is a terminal station, approached across the River Thames by the Cannon Street Railway Bridge. Its approach by rail is through a triangular connection to both London Bridge and Charing Cross. It is one of eighteen stations in the country that are managed by Network Rail. There were originally eight platforms; a refurbishment in the late 1990s removed the original platform 1. It has entrances on Cannon Street itself and Dowgate Hill. It is located near London Stone (to the north of the station). London Buses routes 15 and 17 and night routes N15 and N199 serve the station. ## History ### Original structure Cannon Street station was built on a site where the Hanseatic merchants' steelyard had been based from the 10th century until 1598. The site was proposed in 1860 by the South Eastern Railway (SER) in response to its rival, the London, Chatham & Dover Railway (LC&DR), extending a line into the City of London as far north as Ludgate Hill. The SER had already made plans to extend its line towards Charing Cross, but decided that it should complement this with a terminus in the City. In 1861, the company obtained an act for a station in Cannon Street, a short distance from Mansion House and the Bank of England. In addition to taking traffic from the LC&DR, the new station would provide a direct railway link between the City and the West End, over which a journey could be made in a fraction of the time taken travelling by road. The approach was a 60-chain (4,000 ft; 1,200 m) branch of the line to Charing Cross, west of London Bridge. Work started on the station and its approach in July 1863. The construction work was undertaken by Lucas Brothers. The station was opened on 1 September 1866 at a cost of £4 million (now £ million). The original building was designed by Sir John Hawkshaw and John Wolfe-Barry and was characterised by its two Christopher Wren-style towers, 23 ft (7.0 m) square and 135 ft (41 m) high, which faced on to the River Thames. The towers supported an iron train shed, 700 ft (210 m) long and crowned by a high single arch, almost semicircular, of glass and iron. The station is carried over Upper Thames Street on a brick viaduct, 700 ft (210 m) long and containing 27 million bricks. Below this viaduct exist the remains of a number of Roman buildings, which form a scheduled monument. The bridge was open to pedestrians between 1872 and 1877; they paid a toll of 1⁄2d. The five-storey City Terminus Hotel, which fronted the station, was opened in May 1867. It was an Italianate style hotel and forecourt, designed by E. M. Barry, and it provided many of the station's passenger facilities, as well as an appropriate architectural frontispiece to the street. This arrangement was very similar to that put in place at Charing Cross. The hotel was also built by Lucas Brothers. The hotel was not profitable, and was over £47,000 (now £) in debt by 1870. The City Terminus Hotel was renamed the Cannon Street Hotel in 1879. In July 1920, the hotel was the venue for the Foundation Congress of the Communist Party of Great Britain. Most of the hotel was closed in 1931, but the public rooms were kept open for meetings. The rest were converted into offices and renamed Southern House. The hotel is referred to in The Fire Sermon section of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. Upon its opening Cannon Street station was a stopping point for all services to and from Charing Cross, including boat trains to Continental Europe. A shuttle service between the two stations ran every 20 minutes and became a popular way of travelling between the City and the West End. However, the opening of the District Railway as far as Blackfriars caused traffic to decline, and its extension to Mansion House the following year reduced it further. The SER's route could not compete with the Underground, which was more direct and reliable, but suburban traffic to Cannon Street remained popular, and the bridge was widened to 120 feet (37 m) in the late 1880s, allowing ten tracks with sidings. The rebuilt bridge was opened on 13 February 1892. The signal boxes outside the station were upgraded the following year. The SER merged with the LC&DR in 1899 to form the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR). The following year, the station was earmarked for part-time closures as it relied primarily on business travel, but this was rejected. A further proposal was a monorail running between London Bridge and Cannon Street, at an estimated cost of £100,000; this was also abandoned. The London and Southwestern Railway (LSWR) became interested in using Cannon Street as a terminus, as it would allow a connection between Waterloo and the City. ### War years Work on strengthening the bridge, by the addition of six new 443-foot (135 m) girders in between the existing ones, was completed in 1913. Most Cannon Street train services ceased during World War I. Continental boat trains were stopped on 15 November 1914 and rerouted to Victoria. The station stopped being served by through services from Charing Cross on 31 December 1916, and was closed on Sundays. Services were reduced further on 1 May 1918, when it was closed after 3 p.m. on Saturdays and between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m. Mondays to Fridays. This allowed Cannon Street to be used as a goods depot for war supplies. Between 5 and 28 June 1926, the station was closed to allow the Southern Railway to carry out various works, including the rebuilding of the platforms, relaying of the tracks and installation of a new system of electrical signalling – the four-aspect colour light scheme. The station was also renovated and the glass roof cleaned. The number of platforms was reduced from nine to eight, with five set aside for the new electric trains. The signal box spanning the width of the railway bridge was removed. In July 1939, Cannon Street was closed for a week following a fire in Borough Market which prevented any trains accessing it. The station, which had been subject to structural neglect prior to World War II, suffered extensive bomb damage and was hit by several incendiary devices which damaged the roof. A high explosive also hit platform 8. The original glass roof had been removed before the war, in an attempt to save it; however, the factory in which the roof was stored was itself badly bombed, destroying the roof. ### Redevelopment Following nationalisation of the railways in 1948, the station was managed by the Southern Region of British Railways. The station's prime location coupled with the property boom of the 1950s and the need for British Rail to seek alternative revenue streams made war-damaged Cannon Street a key target for property developers. Steam trains stopped running from Cannon Street in 1961 Various plans were mooted for the reconstruction of the station, from the installation of a new ticket hall and concourse under Southern House in 1955 as part of British Rail's Modernisation Plan to the construction of a car park estimated to cost £125,000 (now £) and even a helipad. In 1962, the British Transport Commission entered into an agreement with Town & Country Properties for the construction of a multi-storey office building above the station with 154,000 sq ft (14,300 m<sup>2</sup>) of floor space. The cost of the development was £2.35 million (now £ million) and it was scheduled for completion by June 1965. In preparation for redevelopment, the remains of the train shed roof had been demolished in 1958, and Barry's hotel (which had been used as offices since 1931) soon followed in 1960. The architect selected to design the new building was John Poulson who was good friends with Graham Tunbridge, a British Rail surveyor whom he had met during the war. Poulson took advantage of this friendship to win contracts for the redevelopment of various British Rail termini. He paid Tunbridge a weekly income of £25 and received in return building contracts, including the rebuilding of Waterloo and East Croydon stations. At his trial in 1974, Poulson admitted that, shortly before receiving the Cannon Street building contract, he had given Tunbridge a cheque for £200 and a suit worth £80. Poulson was later found guilty of corruption charges and given a seven-year concurrent sentence; Tunbridge received a 15-month suspended sentence and a £4,000 fine for his role in the affair. All that now remains of the original station architecture are the twin 120 ft (37 m) yellow brick towers at the country-end and parts of the low flanking walls. ### Modern era The station's twin brick towers were listed Grade II in 1972. In 1974, the station was closed for five weeks from 2 August to 9 September to enable alterations to be made to the track and the approaches to London Bridge to be resignalled. Traffic was diverted to London Bridge, Charing Cross and Blackfriars. On 4 March 1976, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb of about 10 lb (4.5 kg) exploded on an empty commuter train leaving Cannon Street, injuring eight people on another train travelling alongside. On 15 February 1984, it was reported in The Times that Cannon Street was to close. At the time, the station had been closed for weekends and evenings, and the publication of British Rail's new timetable for 1984–1985 revealed that it would lose all its direct off-peak services to the south-east. Services from Sevenoaks, Orpington, Hayes, Dartford, Sidcup, Bexleyheath, Woolwich, Lewisham and Greenwich would instead terminate at London Bridge except during peak hours. This was denied by British Rail (Southern)'s manager David Kirby, who pointed out that it had invested £10 million in redecking the railway bridge, and that passengers travelling from the south-east during off-peak hours would most likely be visiting the West End and not the City. In 1986, the twin towers were restored in a project costing £242,000 (now £). The works revealed that the east tower still contained a large water tank which was used during the days of steam traction to replenish locomotives and to power the station's hydraulic systems. The brickwork was repaired, cleaned and repointed, and the weather vanes gilded to complement the dome of nearby St Paul's Cathedral. This work was one of the Railway Heritage Trust's first projects and coincided with an exhibition held in the station in August of the same year to mark its 150th anniversary. In the 1980s, there was another property boom and British Rail again began looking into further commercial uses of the Cannon Street landspace, including 500,000 square feet (46,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space. The air rights over the platforms to the rear of Poulson's office were sold to Speyhawk which appointed Bovis Construction to build a free-standing structure comprising two office blocks on a 6,000 tonne steel deck constructed over the station's eight platforms. The Cannons Club, a sports club, was founded beneath the station's arches around this time, and quickly became one of the most prestigious squash clubs in the country. InterCity, the high-speed arm of British Rail, subsequently sponsored the National Squash Championships and National Squash Challenge. The larger office block, the "Atrium building", provides 190,000 sq ft (18,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space on six floors and is linked to the smaller building, the "River building", via a glazed link raised through a central glazed atrium. The River building, which has two storeys, is built on the steel deck and contained within the station's two flank walls, which were rebuilt, providing 95,000 sq ft (8,800 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space. This building projects slightly beyond the restored twin towers which form the riverside boundary to the development. The Atrium building was later let to the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange (Liffe). The River building has a 1 acre (0.40 ha) roof garden. The project cost around £500,000 and was laid to comply with planning restrictions which required the building to be low and flat to maintain the sight lines from St Paul's to Tower Bridge. Planning permission was granted in March 2007 to replace the Poulson building, with a new air rights building designed by Foggo Associates. Hines, the US developer, led a £360 million project involving the demolition of Poulson's office block, replacing it with a mixed-use development containing more than 400,000 sq ft (37,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space alongside 17,000 sq ft (1,600 m<sup>2</sup>) of station retail space. The redevelopment was part of a larger regeneration programme undertaken by Network Rail to modernise and "unlock the commercial potential" of the main London termini; Euston and London Bridge were also redeveloped. Network Rail's director of commercial property said that the finished station would be "less congested and more accessible for passengers." Cannon Street won the award for "Major Station of the Year" at the 2013 National Rail Awards. In January 2015, the station's opening hours were extended to 0500–0100 Monday to Sunday (prior to this, the station had been closed on Sundays and during the evenings), and several services which previously terminated at Charing Cross were diverted to Cannon Street as a result of Thameslink Programme works. Some of these services will revert to terminating at Charing Cross following the completion of the works, while services from the Greenwich line and from New Cross and St Johns will permanently run to Cannon Street due to the removal of the Spa Road Junction. ## National Rail The station connects the south side of the City to south and south-east London via London Bridge station. Some services run directly into Cannon Street from Kent and East Sussex, but only during rush hours. Occasionally during the weekends when track maintenance is in progress, the station serves as an intermediate station between London Bridge and Charing Cross. Either trains reverse at the station or rail passengers change trains here. From 1918 to 2015, the station was closed on Sundays; this changed with Southeastern's introduction of a new timetable from January 2015 which resulted in the station's opening hours being extended over the entire week, except when engineering works require its closure and services are diverted to Charing Cross. ### Services All services at London Cannon Street are operated by Southeastern using , , , and EMUs. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is: - 2 tph to Orpington via Grove Park - 2 tph to Slade Green via Bexleyheath, returning to London Cannon Street via Woolwich Arsenal and Greenwich - 2 tph to Slade Green via Greenwich and Woolwich Arsenal, returning to London Cannon Street via Bexleyheath - 2 tph to Gravesend via Lewisham and Woolwich Arsenal During peak hours, there are also additional services to Ashford International, Tunbridge Wells, Hastings and Ore, and to Ramsgate and Dover Priory via Chatham. ### Accidents and incidents - On 26 December 1867, seven passengers and three train crew members were injured when, "during a very thick fog", a train arriving at Cannon Street from Greenwich collided with another from Waterloo due to a signaller's error. - On 27 June 1914, one person was killed and 20 were injured in a collision and subsequent derailment at Cannon Street. A train departing for Hastings was in a side-long collision with a train arriving, across its path, from Plumstead and, although the collision occurred at low speed, part of the Plumstead service was derailed and one of its carriages overturned. The driver of the Plumstead service was blamed for a failure to observe, and a misreading of, signals which took his train into the path of the Hastings-bound service. An investigation found the man who died was likely leaning out of the window at the moment his carriage overturned, and he might have avoided serious injury had he been seated. - On 16 July 1919, 75 people were injured or left shaken when a train arriving from Dartford hit the buffers at the end of Cannon Street's platform seven. Twelve of the injured required hospital treatment. A Board of Trade report into the incident blamed "an error of judgment" on the driver's part while he was braking on his approach to the platform end. - On 11 May 1941, the station was bombed in a Luftwaffe air raid. At least one locomotive was severely damaged. - On 20 March 1951, a diesel electric multiple unit and an electric multiple unit were in a side-long collision when the driver of the latter misread signals. - On 5 April 1957, the signal box was destroyed by a fire due to an electrical fault. The station was consequently put out of action. Using hand signals, a skeleton service was put in place on 8 April. A temporary signal box was erected which came into operation on 5 May. Steam locomotives were temporarily banned from using the station, with Hastings Units being introduced into service earlier than planned. A full service was resumed from 6 May. Construction of a new signal box began on 19 April and it came into service on 16 December. - On 20 March 1961, a side-long collision and partial derailment resulted in injury to 12 people aboard an arriving service whose driver inadvertently passed a red signal and ran into an empty train as it left Cannon Street. - On 4 March 1976, a bomb exploded on an empty electric multiple unit at the station. Eight people in an adjacent train were injured. - On 20 August 1989, the Marchioness pleasure boat sank close to Cannon Street Railway Bridge, killing 51 people. - On 8 January 1991, two people were killed and hundreds were injured when an electric multiple unit failed to stop on a dead-end platform and collided with the buffers. ## London Underground The London Underground station is sub-surface, situated immediately below the main line station. It is served by the District and Circle lines. Entrances are located on Cannon Street, Dowgate Hill, and on the main line concourse upstairs at the National Rail station, providing an interconnection for commuters. An out of station interchange with Bank station has been running since 2018. ### History By 1876, the Metropolitan Railway (MR) and District Railway (DR) had constructed the majority of the Inner Circle (now the Circle line), reaching Aldgate and Mansion House respectively. The companies were in dispute over the completion of the route as the DR was struggling financially and the MR was concerned that completion would affect its revenues through increased competition from the DR in the City area. In 1874, city financiers who were keen to see the line completed established the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway (MICCR) to link Mansion House to Aldgate. Forced into action, the MR bought out the company, and it and the DR began construction of the final section of the Inner Circle in 1879. On 6 October 1884, the final section of the Inner Circle was opened, along with Cannon Street station. Initially, the station was served by trains of both companies as part of the circular Inner Circle service, but various operational patterns have been used during the station's life. The Inner Circle service achieved a separate identity as the Circle line in 1949, although its trains were still provided by the District or Metropolitan lines. A station here was part of the abandoned phase two expansion of the Fleet line (now Jubilee line). It had originally been planned in 1943, and was revived as a major transport plan in 1965. London Transport spent £10m (now £m) in 1972 safeguarding the route underneath Cannon Street and building reinforcements for laying a tube in the water-bearing ground around the station. The plan was abandoned in the early 1980s in favour of the current extension further south. The Underground station underwent major reconstruction at the same time as the main line station, with the work being completed in 2012. From 14 December 2014, the station's opening hours changed significantly, with the station opening on Sundays and no longer closing early in the evenings. The station previously had restricted opening hours because it primarily served the local financial services sector, so there was low demand for services outside office hours. However, with the main line station's opening hours being extended due to the Thameslink Programme, the Underground station's opening hours were changed to accommodate the additional passengers.
15,441,385	Texas A&M Singing Cadets	1,160,047,362	Choir at Texas A&M University	[ "1893 establishments in Texas", "Boys' and men's choirs", "Choirs in Texas", "Glee clubs", "Men in the United States", "Musical groups established in 1893", "Musical groups from Texas", "Texas A&M University student organizations", "Texas A&M University traditions", "University choirs" ]	The Texas A&M Singing Cadets are a male choral group at Texas A&M University. Nicknamed "The Voice of Aggieland", the Singing Cadets have been touring for 109 seasons, with their roots in a glee club founded on the A&M campus in 1893. The Singing Cadets are one of the oldest collegiate singing organizations in the world. They have toured both in America and abroad and have earned recognition by doing so, including invitations to sing for American presidents. Contrary to their name, the Singing Cadets are not all members of the Corps of Cadets and have not been since 1963, when the university as a whole ceased mandating Corps membership. Between 1996 and 2006, the Singing Cadets traveled over 35,000 miles and performed more than 450 concerts worldwide. ## History The first record of a singing organization at Texas A&M (then known as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas) was in 1893. The nine member glee club was composed of both students and faculty. The group grew to around twenty members through the turn of the century. Their first recorded field trip in 1905, was to Houston, Texas, where they participated in a four hundred member chorus. Other tours in this period included a trip to Fort Worth in 1907, where they met noted violinist Fritz Kreisler. One year later, the director of the group, Professor T.P. Junkin, left the A&M Glee Club. The next paradigm shift came in 1910 when it was reorganized by F.D. Steger, and subsequently performed for a number of audiences throughout Texas. After several restructuring efforts and directors, the organization laid down an official constitution during the 1937-1938 school year. The Cadets entered the national spotlight when they performed at the 1939 Sugar Bowl game. After A&M professor J. J. Woolket became director in 1940, the chorus was renamed the "Singing Cadets" following a naming contest. Under his direction the group's constitution, the Singing Cadet Handbook, was penned. For these reasons he is called the "Father of the Singing Cadets". The Singing Cadets' first full-time director, Richard Jenkins, raised the organization's profile though a series of tours throughout the American South. Under his aegis in 1942, the group provided choral music for the propaganda film We've Never Been Licked. The Singing Cadets next long term director, William Turner, held the post for fifteen years. By the early 1950s membership had stabilized at around sixty members. They performed primarily in Texas, and made a trip to Mexico in 1952. The group garnered prestige and attention by singing in front of the Texas Legislature several times. In 1960, the Singing Cadets next director, Robert L. Boone, expanded the group's national recognition. The group performed its first telecast in 1963 during the nationally televised Miss Teenage America pageant. For the next 8 years, the group served as contestant escorts, performers, and background for the show. They met Sergio Franchi during the December 10, 1970 pageant. Subsequently, the group appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show with Sergio Franchi singing "No Man is An Island" on January 24, 1971. However, they did not get to appear on a second solo performance because an earlier show ran over the allotted time; they were promised to make a return, but Sullivan died before that was able to happen. They did, however, release a 45 rpm single "No Man Is An Island" accompanying Franchi in the same year. Later that year, the Singing Cadets were invited to the White House by Senator John Tower to sing for numerous dignitaries, including President Richard Nixon. The Singing Cadets took their first trip overseas in 1974 to Romania as part of a goodwill tour sponsored by the State Department, performing several shows over a 3 week period. The Cadets accompanied the Aggie Band onto Kyle Field during the halftime of football games during special occasions of the university, such as the centennial celebration of Texas A&M University (1976), and in 1980 to dedicate the expansion of the football stadium. Under Boone's direction, the Singing Cadets won several international singing competitions. They won the silver medal in an International Choral Festival in Hawaii in 1979. In 1983 they received the silver medal in Mexico. In 1993, they returned to Hawaii, taking the gold medal. Other major tours during the 1980s included several occasions marking the Texas sesquicentennial anniversary in 1986, and European tours in 1987 and 1989. In 2004, the Singing Cadets journeyed to Australia, and sang the Australian national anthem (Advance Australia Fair) on the first concert of that tour. In May 2006 the Cadets performed at the White House at the invitation of President George W. Bush for an event to honor America's returning athletes from the 2006 Winter Olympics. Also in 2006, the cadets performed at the Miss Texas Pageant. In its 2006-2007 season, the Cadets performed over sixty concerts in the United States, plus a tour to South America during the summer, where they traveled to Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. The Singing Cadets toured South Africa in 2010, China in 2013, and Eastern Europe in 2016, Greece and Bulgaria in 2019, and Greece in 2023. ## Music The Singing Cadets have sung a wide variety of music in their history. Their repertoire has included Christian hymns and gospel music, as well as Texas A&M school songs such as the Aggie War Hymn. Musical selections varied through the decades, although Southern songs and songs from the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s remain perennial favorites. Currently, eight recordings produced by the Singing Cadets are available for purchase. In chronological order, the titles are: God Bless the USA, Live from South America, Tradition; Duty, Honor, Country: A Tribute to President Bush, Remembrance, Centennial, Let Freedom Ring, and Kennedy Center. ## Organization Members of the Corps of Cadets make up a small minority of the Singing Cadets; the group dropped Corps membership as a requirement in 1963. The Singing Cadets holds auditions twice each school year, with membership open to any male Texas A&M student. The choir is one of three within Texas A&M; the others are the all-female Women's Chorus, and co-ed choir the Century Singers. All three practice in the Music Activities Center (MAC). The group is typically backed by a pianist and conducted by a director, and regularly are accompanied by instruments, including electric guitar, drums and bass guitar. The Singing Cadets use pantomime to accompany their music, incorporating a number of forms of entertainment into their concerts. Barbershop quartet side groups called The Aggienizors and The Quad perform at some shows, as entertainment between the main musical numbers. During these performances, it is traditional that the Director step off-stage. Presently, the Singing Cadets go on a ten-day "winter tour" before the start of the spring semester and three weekend "spring tours" during the spring semester across the state, concluding with a "national tour" to an out-of-state location, or an "international tour" every three years to an international location. The Cadets perform 70-80 concerts a year. ## Directors - Professor A. M. Soule - Professor Tyrrel - Professor T. P. Junkin - F. D. Steger - D. Ford - K. H. Beach - E. W. Glenn - Professor J. J. Woolket - Richard W. Jenkins - Ewell Porter - William M. Turner - Robert "Coach" L. Boone - David L. Kipp
871,115	André Morell	1,165,495,175	British actor (1909-1978)	[ "1909 births", "1978 deaths", "20th-century English male actors", "British Army personnel of World War II", "English male film actors", "English male television actors", "English male voice actors", "English people of Dutch descent", "Male actors from London", "Royal Welch Fusiliers officers" ]	Cecil André Mesritz (20 August 1909 – 28 November 1978), known professionally as André Morell, was an English actor. He appeared frequently in theatre, film and on television from the 1930s to the 1970s. His best known screen roles were as Professor Bernard Quatermass in the BBC Television serial Quatermass and the Pit (1958–59), and as Doctor Watson in the Hammer Film Productions version of The Hound of the Baskervilles (1959). He also appeared in the films The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) and Ben-Hur (1959), in several of Hammer's horror films throughout the 1960s and in the acclaimed ITV historical drama The Caesars (1968). His obituary in The Times newspaper described him as possessing a "commanding presence with a rich, responsive voice... whether in the classical or modern theatre he was authoritative and dependable." ## Biography ### Early life and career Morell was born in London, the son of André and Rosa Mesritz. Prior to taking up acting professionally he trained as a motor engineer, while also participating in amateur theatrical productions. He turned professional in 1934, initially acting under the name André Mesritz; he anglicised his surname to Morell in 1936, and adopted the latter name legally by deed poll in 1938. In 1938 he joined the Old Vic theatre company, and appeared in several of their high-profile productions both at their home theatre and on tour throughout Britain and across the rest of the world. He appeared in Hamlet as Horatio opposite Alec Guinness in the title role, and as Alonso in John Gielgud's production of The Tempest. He played Mercutio in a production of Romeo and Juliet mounted by the Old Vic company at Streatham in 1939, with Robert Donat as Romeo. This was Morell's favourite role from his career. His performance in the play was praised by The Times'''s critic as "a neat and carefully studied portrait; he is admirable in all his cynical and humorous passages", although the reviewer did add that "one could wish that he had left this manner for the speech about Queen Mab and addressed this, as a piece of direct poetry, directly to the audience." Towards the end of the 1930s he began appearing in films, making his debut on the big screen in 13 Men and a Gun (1938). He appeared frequently in several early drama productions on the BBC's fledgling television service, featuring in such roles as Mr Wickham in Pride and Prejudice (1938) and Le Bret in Cyrano de Bergerac (1938). The onset of the Second World War interrupted his acting career, and he joined the Royal Welch Fusiliers in 1940. He served with the regiment until 1946, by which time he had attained the rank of major. ### Major film and television roles Morell returned to the theatre after the war, including another period at the Old Vic in the 1951–52 season. The New Statesman's critic T. C. Worsley wrote of his performance in a star-studded revival of King Lear that "Mr Morell's Kent is the best I remember since Sir Ralph Richardson's." Of his performance in the title role in Tyrone Guthrie's production of Timon of Athens, the Daily Mail wrote: "From his stage and screen performances we know him already as an eminently dependable actor, but last night he became a spectacular actor." The same profile quoted Morell's catholic approach to stage assignments: "If a part is a good part and I feel I can enjoy playing it, it doesn't matter whether it's Shakespeare or modern farce ... I'd hate to be bogged down in Shakespeare or classic theatre all my life. It's a good thing for an actor to do many different kinds of theatre, because it keeps his imagination stimulated." However, he now increasingly began to win leading parts on television, and in 1953 was cast by the television director Rudolph Cartier in a play called It Is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer. Cartier was impressed with Morell's performance in this play, and offered him the leading role in a science-fiction serial he was preparing with the writer Nigel Kneale, entitled The Quatermass Experiment. Morell considered the not-yet-completed script, but decided to decline the offer; the part went instead to his co-star from It Is Midnight, Dr Schweitzer, Reginald Tate. He did take one of the leading parts in another Cartier and Kneale production the following year, when he played O'Brien in their version of George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, opposite Peter Cushing as Winston Smith. This was a successful and controversial production which provoked much comment and debate; Morell's part in it has been praised for his "coolly menacing performance [that] is at least equal to Cushing's." This successful collaboration with Cartier and Kneale resulted, four years later, in him once again being offered the role of Professor Bernard Quatermass for the pair's third serial in the series, Quatermass and the Pit, although on this occasion another actor – Alec Clunes – had already turned them down. This time Morell accepted the part, and is regarded by several critics as having provided the definitive interpretation of the character. Morell personally found that in later years it was the role for which he was most often remembered by members of the public. As well as these and other television appearances, Morell gained several notable film roles towards the end of the 1950s. He appeared in two films which won the Academy Award for Best Picture; The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957), as Colonel Green, and Ben-Hur (1959) as Sextus. With Cushing as Sherlock Holmes, he played Arthur Conan Doyle's character Doctor John H. Watson, in Hammer Film Productions' version of The Hound of the Baskervilles (also 1959). Morell was particularly keen that his portrayal of Watson should be closer to that originally depicted in Conan Doyle's stories, and away from the bumbling stereotype established by Nigel Bruce's interpretation of the role. An earlier Hammer film in which Morell appeared was The Camp on Blood Island (1957). In 1960, Morell appeared as Judge Brack in a production of Henrik Ibsen's play Hedda Gabler at the Oxford Playhouse. Starring opposite him in the title role was the film actress Joan Greenwood. They fell in love and flew in secret to Jamaica, where they were married, remaining together until his death. ### Later career Morell continued to appear in Hammer's horror films in the ensuing decade. He had parts in the Shadow of the Cat (1960), She (1964, again with Peter Cushing) and its sequel The Vengeance of She (1967), the lead in The Plague of the Zombies (1965), and The Mummy's Shroud (1966). He also starred with Cushing in Hammer's Cash on Demand, playing the same role he had played opposite Richard Vernon in the original TV play, The Gold Inside, but turned down the opportunity of reprising the title role in Hammer's feature film adaptation of Quatermass and the Pit (1967). Morell continued to act successfully on television throughout the decade, with guest roles in episodes of series such as The Avengers (1963 and 1965), Danger Man (1965), Doctor Who (The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve 1966), The Saint (1965) and in The Caesars (1968) in a prominent role as the Roman emperor Tiberius. In 1969, he became the vice president of Equity, the trade union for British actors and performers. He then served as president of the organisation for a year from 1973–74. During this time he was involved in a dispute in which Equity threatened to expel Laurence Olivier as a member due to comments he made in a newspaper feature about the possibility of forming a breakaway union. The union also suffered from financial problems, and Morell continued to warn against destructive divisions amongst the members when he stepped down as president. Despite his involvement in union business he continued to be a busy working actor. He appeared in Stanley Kubrick's Barry Lyndon (1975) as a nobleman friend of the title character. His last television work was an episode of the ITV series The Professionals in 1978, the year of his death. The animated film version of The Lord of the Rings, in which he voiced the character of Elrond, was released the same year, but his final film work was not seen until the year after his death. This was as the judge in The First Great Train Robbery. Morell, who smoked up to 60 cigarettes a day until he gave up in 1976, died from lung cancer in London on 28 November 1978, at the age of 69. He and his wife Joan Greenwood had a son, Jason Morell, who also became an actor, appearing in films such as Mrs Brown (1997, as Lord Stanley) and Wilde (also 1997, as Ernest Dowson). ## Filmography - 13 Men and a Gun (1938) - Kroty - Many Tanks Mr. Atkins (1938) - Hart - Ten Days in Paris (1940) - Victor - Three Silent Men (1940) - Charles Klein - Unpublished Story (1942) - Marchand - Against the Wind (1948) - Abbot (uncredited) - That Dangerous Age (1949) - Doctor McCatcheon - No Place for Jennifer (1950) - William's Counsel - Madeleine (1950) - Dean of Falcuty - Stage Fright (1950) - Inspector Byard - So Long at the Fair (1950) - Doctor Hart - Trio (1950) - Dr. Lennox (in segment Sanatorium) - Seven Days to Noon (1950) - Superintendent Folland - The Clouded Yellow (1950) - Secret Service Chief Chubb - Flesh & Blood (1951) - Dr. Marshall - High Treason (1951) - Supt. Folland - The Tall Headlines (1952) - George Rackham - Stolen Face (1952) - David - His Majesty O'Keefe (1954) - Alfred Tetins - The Golden Link (1954) - Supt. Blake - The Black Knight (1954) - Sir Ontzlake - Three Cases of Murder (1955) - Dr. Audlin ("Lord Mountdrago" segment) - Summertime (1955) - Englishman (uncredited) - The Secret (1955) - Chief Inspector Blake - They Can't Hang Me (1955) - Robert Isaac Pitt - The Man Who Never Was (1956) - Sir Bernard Spilsbury - The Black Tent (1956) - Sheik Salem ben Yussef - The Baby and the Battleship (1956) - Marshal - Zarak (1956) - Maj. Atherton - Interpol (1957) - Commissioner Breckner - The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) - Colonel Green - Diamond Safari (1958) - Williamson - Paris Holiday (1958) - American Ambassador - The Camp on Blood Island (1958) - Col. Lambert - The Giant Behemoth (1959) - Prof. James Bickford - The Hound of the Baskervilles (1959) - Doctor Watson - Ben-Hur (1959) - Sextus - Cone of Silence (1960) - Capt. Edward Manningham - Shadow of the Cat (1961) - Walter Venable - Cash on Demand (1961) - Colonel Gore Hepburn - Woman of Straw (1964) - Judge (uncredited) - The Moon-Spinners (1964) - Yacht Captain - She (1965) - Haumeid - The Plague of the Zombies (1966) - Sir James Forbes - Judith (1966) - Haim - The Wrong Box (1966) - Club Butler (uncredited) - The Mummy's Shroud (1967) - Sir Basil Walden - Dark of the Sun (1968) - Bussier - The Vengeance of She (1968) - Kassim - Julius Caesar (1970) - Cicero - 10 Rillington Place (1971) - Old Bailey: Judge Lewis - Pope Joan (1972) - Emperor Louis - Barry Lyndon (1975) - Lord Gustavus Adolphus Wendover - The Slipper and the Rose (1976) - Bride's Father - The Message (1976) - Abu-Talib - The Lord of the Rings (1978) - Lord Elrond (voice) - The First Great Train Robbery'' (1979) - Judge (final film role)
69,817,108	Armistead Abraham Lilly	1,146,727,668	American lawyer, politician, and businessperson	[ "1878 births", "1908 United States presidential electors", "1956 deaths", "19th-century American educators", "20th-century American businesspeople", "20th-century American lawyers", "20th-century American politicians", "20th-century Baptists", "American chief executives of manufacturing companies", "American corporate directors", "American hoteliers", "Baptists from West Virginia", "Businesspeople from Beckley, West Virginia", "Businesspeople from Charleston, West Virginia", "Concord University alumni", "County prosecuting attorneys in West Virginia", "Deaths from bronchopneumonia", "Deaths from pneumonia in West Virginia", "Lawyers from Beckley, West Virginia", "Lawyers from Charleston, West Virginia", "Legislative clerks", "People from Mercer County, West Virginia", "People from Summers County, West Virginia", "Politicians from Beckley, West Virginia", "Politicians from Charleston, West Virginia", "Republican Party members of the West Virginia House of Delegates", "Schoolteachers from West Virginia", "Southern Normal University alumni", "West Virginia Attorneys General", "West Virginia city council members", "West Virginia lawyers" ]	Armistead Abraham "Cousin Abe" Lilly (March 25, 1878 – June 21, 1956) was an American lawyer, politician, and businessperson in the U.S. state of West Virginia. A Republican, Lilly served as the 16th Attorney General of West Virginia from March 4, 1913, until March 3, 1917. Lilly was born in Jumping Branch, West Virginia, in 1878, and was raised in nearby Raleigh County. He attended the county's public schools and completed high school in Bluefield, then graduated from Concord State Normal School in 1891 and earned his Bachelor of Laws from the Law Department of Southern Normal University in 1900. That same year, Lilly was admitted to the Raleigh County bar and elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates. In 1904, he was elected prosecuting attorney for Raleigh County, a position he held until 1908. Following the 1908 United States presidential election, Lilly was a presidential elector for William Howard Taft. Lilly unsuccessfully ran for West Virginia's 5th congressional district seat in 1910, losing against James A. Hughes, and was later elected state attorney general in 1912. During his tenure as attorney general, Lilly was involved with the Virginia debt case, railroad rate cases, and cases related to charges of bribery against members of the state legislature. In 1916, Lilly was defeated by 134 votes by Ira E. Robinson in the Republican primary for West Virginia governor. In 1922, he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for a U.S. Senate seat. Afterward, he served as a delegate at several Republican National Conventions, serving as the state chairperson at the 1936 convention. Lilly relocated to Charleston, where he served as president of the Virginian Rubber and Williamson Paint Manufacturing companies, and was primary owner of the Ruffner Hotel, where he resided in the penthouse until his death in 1956. ## Early life and education Armistead Abraham Lilly was born on March 25, 1878, in Jumping Branch in Summers County, West Virginia. He was one of 11 children and six sons of Robert C. Lilly, known as "Miller Bob", and his wife, Virginia Gore Lilly. In 1881, Lilly and his family relocated to nearby Raleigh County, an area which Lilly later referred to as the "lizard glades". Lilly attended the county's public schools, including a school referred to by Lilly as the "Owl River school". Lilly attended and completed high school in Bluefield. He taught as a public schoolteacher for two years in Mercer County and one year in Fayette County. Lilly then attended and graduated from Concord State Normal School in Athens in 1898. In 1899, he began his studies at the Law Department of Southern Normal University in Huntingdon, Tennessee, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1900. ## Early law and political careers Following his graduation from law school, Lilly was admitted to the bar of Raleigh County and opened a law practice in Beckley in 1900. He became active with the Republican Party, was a leader of the party's Raleigh County organization, and referred to himself as a "fighting Republican". Also in 1900, Lilly was elected a party senatorial committeeman by Republicans in West Virginia's 7th Senate district. That same year, Lilly was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates, representing Raleigh County, and he became the youngest member of the house at that time. Lilly served as a house member in the 25th West Virginia Legislature, which convened in Charleston on January 9, 1901, and adjourned February 22, 1901. In 1903, Lilly served as an assistant clerk of the West Virginia Senate. In 1904, Lilly was elected prosecuting attorney for Raleigh County. While serving as prosecuting attorney, Lilly assisted in having a post office established at Abraham, which was subsequently named for him. Lilly served in this position for a four-year-term until 1908. In August 1906, 7th Senate district Republicans reelected him as a senatorial committeeman at the party's senatorial convention in Bluefield. In January 1907, he was elected a member of the Beckley city council, with 117 votes. Lilly was a presidential elector for West Virginia's 5th congressional district and cast a vote for William Howard Taft following the 1908 United States presidential election. In March 1910, he formally announced his candidacy for West Virginia's 5th congressional district seat. That same month, the Republican Committee of West Virginia's 5th congressional district agreed upon a delegate convention over a primary election to determine the Republican nominee, with the contest between Lilly and incumbent James A. Hughes. Lilly received 25 declared delegates following a convention of Raleigh County's Republicans in May 1910, and in June 1910, Lincoln County Republicans held their convention, in which the county's 22 delegates were instructed to support Lilly at the congressional district convention. By June 15, Hughes had earned the support of 172 declared delegates, compared to Lilly's 56. At the Republican's 5th congressional district convention in Welch on June 24, Hughes was nominated as the Republican nominee with 216 votes compared to Lilly's 101, and Hughes went on to win reelection to a sixth term in Congress. ## Attorney general In 1912, Lilly was nominated without opposition as the Republican candidate for Attorney General of West Virginia. He was subsequently elected attorney general, receiving 132,452 votes, the highest number of votes of any Republican state candidate. His tenure commenced on March 4, 1913. During his tenure as attorney general, Lilly was involved with the Virginia debt case, railroad rate cases, and cases related to charges of bribery against members of the state legislature. In March 1915, disagreements between Lilly and Governor Henry D. Hatfield over political issues and the operation of state government became public, following reports of Hatfield considering the removal of Lilly from his office. By April 1915, Lilly rendered an opinion that Hatfield could legally borrow money to pay the state's expenses, noting that Hatfield had borrowed money before. However, Hatfield subsequently released a statement in which he denied ever borrowing money to pay the state's expenses and explained that the state did not need to borrow money, as there was no deficit. Lilly's tenure as attorney general ended on March 3, 1917. ### Virginia debt case During his tenure, Lilly represented West Virginia in the state's ongoing debt suit against Virginia, following the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Virginia v. West Virginia, 220 U.S. 1 (1911). The Supreme Court ruled in that case that West Virginia was bound by its state constitution to pay one-third of the outstanding debt of Virginia, as of January 1, 1861. However, in 1914, West Virginia's debt commission discovered a series of credits and assets that the state believed reduced its share of Virginia's outstanding debt. West Virginia offered to pay Virginia the reduced 1861 balance of around \$2.3 million (\$ million); however, Virginia rejected West Virginia's offer. Lilly led West Virginia's motion to reopen the case before the Supreme Court, and arguments commenced in April 1914 in Commonwealth of Virginia v. State of West Virginia, 234 U.S. 117 (1914). In June 1914, the Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia's favor and granted the state's supplemental answer with the discovered assets, which was submitted to a special master appointed by the court. West Virginia's counsel, including Lilly, presented additional testimony in Richmond in November 1914 which was submitted to the special master. In June 1915, the Supreme Court announced its final decree, in which West Virginia's discovered assets were applied to its share of Virginia's debt; however, West Virginia was charged for money and securities it received from the Restored Government of Virginia. When adjusted for principal, interest, and the additional amount owed, West Virginia was obligated to pay Virginia a total of \$12.4 million in 1915 (\$ million). ## Later political career In December 1915, Lilly formally announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for West Virginia governor. In 1916, he competed against Ira E. Robinson for the party's nomination. During this campaign, Lilly delivered addresses in almost every county in the state. Despite his efforts, Robinson narrowly defeated Lilly for the nomination by 134 votes. Lilly contested the close election results for the Republican nomination until he and Robinson reached a compromise agreement, in which Lilly agreed to cease his contest of the election results and Robinson agreed to fulfill several of Lilly's conditions. Following his term as attorney general, Lilly remained in Charleston, where he continued practicing law. In 1922, Lilly unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for a U.S. Senate seat. Lilly was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions of 1928, 1932, 1936, and 1940, and served as the chairperson of the West Virginia delegation at the 1936 convention. At the 1928 convention in Kansas City, Lilly presented and delivered a speech in support of U.S. senator Guy D. Goff as a candidate for the Republican presidential nominee. Lilly and former governor Hatfield continued to engage in a political feud from 1915, each with factions of supporters in Southern West Virginia; however, Lilly ended the feud in 1928 when he came out in support of Hatfield as the Republican candidate for U.S. senator. State senator T. H. Lilly, Lilly's second cousin, subsequently came out against his support of Hatfield's candidacy and in favor of Governor Howard Mason Gore. ## Business affairs In 1918, Lilly was also an incorporator of the Clay County Fuel Company, which undertook the development of coal lands near Hartland in Clay County. The company was sold in 1919. In addition, Lilly was a member of the board of directors of the Virginian Rubber Company in Charleston, and in July 1921, the board elected him president of the company. By 1923, he was the president of the Williamson Paint Manufacturing Company, which manufactured the asbestos roof paint, "Leak Not", and the black metal paint, "Rust Not". The company's plant was located in Charleston at the corner of Watts Street and the Kanawha and Michigan Railway, and it had the capacity to produce 4,000 US gallons (15,000 L; 3,300 imp gal) of paint per day. Lilly was also a principal owner of Charleston's Ruffner Hotel, where he resided in the penthouse in his later years. ## Later life and death Lilly was well known as "Cousin Abe" for hosting an annual gathering of the Lilly family at Flat Top in Mercer County. He organized the Lilly Reunion Association in 1929, and served as the association's first and only president during his lifetime. Lilly and the association held the inaugural family reunion in August 1930 at Flat Top, which exceeded 20,000 attendees on its second day. Notable attendees included U.S. senator Hatfield and Congressmen Thomas Jefferson Lilly, Hugh Ike Shott, and Joe L. Smith. The Hinton Daily News reported that some reunions drew up to 35,000 attendees, and that U.S. senator Robert A. Taft spoke at one of the final reunion events. Lilly held this reunion annually until 1949, with a five-year break during World War II; however, the reunions ceased afterward on account of his ill health. According to the Beckley Post-Herald, Lilly's annual reunion was called one of the largest family reunions in the world. Lilly suffered illness in the final decade of his life, and he spent most of his time in his penthouse apartment at Charleston's Ruffner Hotel. He died as a result of bronchopneumonia on June 21, 1956, at his Ruffner Hotel penthouse. Lilly's funeral service was held at the Charleston Baptist Temple on June 23, 1956, and he was interred at Sunset Memorial Park in South Charleston. ## Personal life On June 16, 1900, Lilly married Mary Elizabeth Glenn of Arlington, Kentucky. Together they had a daughter and two sons: Kanawha County Coroner Goff P. Lilly, lawyer Robert Glenn Lilly, and Thelma Lilly Wade. While in Charleston, Lilly and his wife built a large residence there, and later resided in the penthouse at the Ruffer Hotel, where Lilly was the principal owner. While in Charleston, Lilly was a member of the Baptist Church and of various civic and fraternal organizations. In his Bench and Bar of West Virginia (1919), former Governor George W. Atkinson described Lilly as "a man of large physique, and presents a commanding appearance." He further stated, "[Lilly] is a natural orator and never fails to command the attention of an audience."
15,793,688	George Curtis (footballer, born 1939)	1,164,018,288	English association football player (1939–2021)	[ "1939 births", "2021 deaths", "20th-century Royal Air Force personnel", "Aston Villa F.C. players", "Coventry City F.C. managers", "Coventry City F.C. players", "England men's youth international footballers", "English Football League players", "English football managers", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Kent", "Men's association football defenders", "People from Aylesham", "Snowdown Colliery Welfare F.C. players", "Sportspeople from Dover, Kent" ]	George William Curtis (5 May 1939 – 17 July 2021) was an English association footballer who played in the Football League as a defender for Coventry City and Aston Villa. He made 543 appearances for Coventry between 1956 and 1969, the club's record for an outfield player, winning the 1963–64 Third Division and the 1966–67 Second Division titles and also playing in the First Division from 1967 until 1969. With Aston Villa, he was part of the side which won the 1971–72 Third Division. After retiring from playing, Curtis returned to Coventry to work on the managerial staff, remaining there until his retirement in 1994. Between April 1986 and May 1987, he was the joint manager of the team alongside John Sillett, during which time the club won its only major honour, beating Tottenham Hotspur 3–2 in the 1987 FA Cup Final. ## Early life George William Curtis was born on 5 May 1939 in the Kent village of Aylesham, in the Kent Coalfield close to Dover. He was the second of seven children born into a coal mining family whose origins were in Newport, South Wales. As a child he played association football for the Dover Boys and Kent Boys teams. ## Playing career Curtis started his playing career with the Snowdown Colliery Welfare team, based close to his home, before signing for Coventry City in October 1955. He was one of four Snowdown Colliery players to join Coventry at that time, on the recommendation of former Coventry captain Harry Barratt who had become manager of the Kent club, the others being Alf Bentley, Eric Jones and Bill Patrick. Curtis made his debut for the Coventry reserve team in a Football Combination fixture against Southampton on 10 December 1955 at the age of 16. He made his first-team league debut on 21 April 1956, playing in a 4–2 defeat against Newport County at Somerton Park. Coventry were competing in the Football League Third Division South, which was at that time the third tier of the English football league system. Playing at left-back at the time, Coventry Evening Telegraph reporter Derek Henderson, writing under the byline "Nemo", wrote that Curtis had a "memorable" first game, and that "after a shaky opening [he] settled down to give a splendid showing after the interval". Curtis was then called up to the England national under-18 team in May 1956, making his debut in a match against Northern Ireland in Belfast. He went to make three more appearances for England, the last coming in 1957. In one game against Brighton in October 1957, when he was playing for the injured Roy Kirk, Henderson wrote that Curtis "did his best", but was "too often beaten in the air". Towards the end of the 1957–58 season, Curtis began playing regularly in the Coventry first team, having switched position to centre-half. In their game away against Aldershot, Henderson described it as the day "that George Curtis, Coventry City's boy footballer, became George Curtis the man". With Coventry in the lower half of the Third Division South, and heading towards a place in the new Fourth Division, Aldershot's forwards had numerous attacks on the Coventry goal, but they scored only once, which Henderson attributed to Curtis's defending alongside saves from goalkeeper Charlie Ashcroft. Curtis then became Coventry's first-choice centre-half for the following nine seasons; between 1960 and mid-1967 he missed only two games for the club. Despite an early-season blip, which saw Coventry occupy their lowest-ever league position of 91st of the 92 teams in England's top four divisions after three games, the club's stay in the Fourth Division was limited to just one season as they were promoted back to the Third Division in 1958–59. Curtis was then named as Coventry's captain in December 1959, when previous incumbent Kirk was dropped to the reserve team. At that time, Curtis was conscripted for National Service, working at RAF Gaydon during the week while still playing games for Coventry. He also played football for the Royal Air Force team at the base, commenting at the time that he scarcely "breaks sweat" in those games. In 1961, Coventry appointed Jimmy Hill as manager, a move which brought an era of success to the club known as the "Sky Blue Revolution". With Curtis as club captain and playing 50 games during the season, Coventry achieved promotion as champions of the Third Division in 1963–64. The following season they led the Second Division after five games, eventually finishing in mid-table, before mounting a serious promotion challenge in the 1965–66 Second Division. Finally, in 1966–67, with Curtis still captaining the side, Coventry achieved promotion to the First Division as Second Division champions. Evaluating the season after promotion had been secured, Henderson mentioned in particular Curtis's performance in a 1–0 win at Blackburn Rovers in March. Noting that it was "not a day when one could admire the football", Henderson labelled Curtis's defending as "quite the most magnificent performance I have seen him give". Curtis himself was optimistic about the club's prospects in the top division, commenting in May 1967 that "a lot of people – most of them I will say, outside Coventry – are forecasting that we will be out of place in the First Division". He went on to say that the club's aim was not just to avoid relegation, but to achieve qualification for European competitions and to win the league title. Curtis suffered a broken leg in Coventry's second game in the First Division, and did not return to the team until Easter of 1968. He came on as a substitute in a game at Highfield Road against Stoke City, before making his first start since the injury in an away game, also against Stoke City, the next day. He suffered a recurrence of the injury and did not play again until October 1968. He continued to play for Coventry for the next year, including scoring in a 2–1 win over Manchester United in April 1969, but at the age of 30, he eventually lost his regular place in the side to Roy Barry. His last appearance for Coventry was as a substitute against Burnley in November 1969. His 543 games in all competitions was a club record at the time, and although it was eventually surpassed by goalkeeper Steve Ogrizovic, it remains the highest for an outfield player . Curtis's next club was Second Division club Aston Villa, who signed him in December 1969 for £30,000 (approximately £500,000 as of 2021, adjusted for inflation). He scored in his debut match for the club, a 1–1 draw against Swindon Town, although Aston Villa went on to be relegated at the end of the 1969–70 season. In their second season in the third tier, the 1971–72 season, Aston Villa were promoted back to the Second Division as champions, with the club's official website later crediting Curtis as being a "key member" of that team, with 24 appearances in the season. He broke his nose in a match at Notts County in March 1972, after which he played only one more game, retiring from the game shortly afterwards under medical advice. ## Managerial career After retirement as a player, Curtis became Commercial Manager at Coventry City in 1972, going on to become an executive director at the club and then managing director, in September 1983. In April 1986, with the club facing their third successive relegation battle, and having gone eight games without a win, manager Don Mackay left the club. The board asked Curtis and youth-team coach John Sillett to take charge for the final three games. Coventry won two of those three, and escaped relegation. The pair remained in charge for the 1986–87 season; officially Curtis was the manager, while Sillett was first-team coach, but the two were effectively joint managers. The team achieved a 10th-place finish that season, while also winning the 1986–87 FA Cup, which is the only major trophy Coventry have won. The cup run began with a home win over Bolton Wanderers, followed by away victories over Manchester United, Stoke City and Sheffield Wednesday, with the semi-final being a 3–2 win over Leeds United at the neutral venue Hillsborough. Prior to the Manchester United game, in January 1987, Curtis told reporters that "our name is on the cup". In a match regarded by many pundits as one of the greatest finals in the history of the competition, Coventry beat Tottenham Hotspur 3–2 in the 1987 FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium. Sillett became Coventry's sole manager from the 1987–88 season onwards, although as he had led the team onto the field for the FA Cup final, the club gave Curtis that honour when they returned to Wembley for the season's curtain-raiser, the 1987 FA Charity Shield against Everton. Curtis returned to the managing director role, working on matters not related to the day-to-day running of the team. He remained in that role until his retirement in May 1994. ## Legacy and death Curtis was honoured with the naming of a lounge after him at Coventry's Highfield Road stadium. When that ground closed and they moved to the newly built Ricoh Arena in 2005, the club made a "Wall of Fame" which was named after him. He then became one of the club's life presidents in 2012. Curtis died on 17 July 2021, aged 82. ## Honours ### As a player Coventry City - Football League Third Division: 1963–64 - Football League Second Division: 1966–67 Aston Villa - Football League Third Division: 1971–72 ### As a manager Coventry City - FA Cup: 1986–87
445,118	17th Airborne Division (United States)	1,167,366,738	1943–1949 United States Army formation	[ "Airborne divisions of the United States Army", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1949", "Military units and formations established in 1943", "United States Army divisions during World War II" ]	The 17th Airborne Division, "The Golden Talons", was an airborne infantry division of the United States Army during World War II, commanded by Major General William M. Miley. It was officially activated as an airborne division in April 1943 but was not immediately sent to a combat theater, remaining in the United States to complete its training. During this training process, the division took part in several training exercises, including the Knollwood Maneuver, in which it played a vital part in ensuring that the airborne division remained as a military formation in the U.S. Army. As such it did not take part in the first two large-scale airborne operations conducted by the Allies, Operation Husky and Operation Neptune, transferring to Britain only after the end of Operation Overlord. When the division arrived in Britain, it came under the command of Maj. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway's XVIII Airborne Corps, a part of Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton's First Allied Airborne Army, but was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden, the airborne landings in the Netherlands, as Allied planners believed it had arrived too late and could not be "trained up" in time for the operation. However, after the end of Operation Market Garden the division was shipped to France and then Belgium to fight in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge. The 17th gained its first Medal of Honor during its time fighting in the Ardennes, and was then withdrawn to Luxembourg to prepare for an assault over the River Rhine. In March 1945, the division participated in its first, and only, airborne operation, dropping alongside the British 6th Airborne Division as a part of Operation Varsity, where it gained three more Medals of Honor. The division then advanced through Northern Germany until the end of World War II, when it briefly undertook occupation duties in Germany before shipping back to the United States. There, it was officially inactivated in September 1945, although it was briefly reactivated as a training division between 1948 and 1949. ## Formation The German Armed Forces pioneered the use of large-scale airborne formations, first during the invasion of Norway and Denmark and later that year during the assaults on the Netherlands and Belgium in 1940 and later in the Battle of Crete in 1941. The Allied governments were aware of the success of these operations (but not of the heavy German casualties incurred, particularly during the assault on the Netherlands and the invasion of Crete) and decided to form their own airborne formations. This decision would eventually lead to the creation of five American and two British airborne divisions, as well as many smaller units. The 17th Airborne Division was activated on 15 April 1943 at Camp Mackall in North Carolina, under the command of the newly promoted Major General William Miley, a veteran of World War I. The division was originally composed of the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment, activated on 11 January 1943 at Fort Benning, the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment, and the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment. The official dedication ceremony for the unit took place on 1 May 1943, with thousands of civilian and military spectators, including Major General Elbridge Chapman, overall commander of Airborne Command and of all American airborne forces during World War II. Once activated, the division remained in the United States for training and exercises. As the division, like all airborne units, was intended to be an elite formation, the training regime was extremely arduous. There were 250 feet (76 m) and 34 feet (10 m) towers built from which prospective airborne troops would jump off of to simulate landing by parachute, lengthy forced marches and practice jumps from transport aircraft; to pause in the doorway of an aircraft during a practice jump resulted in an automatic failure for the candidate. The resultant failure rate was accordingly high, but there was never a shortage of candidates, especially for the American divisions, as the rate of pay was much higher than that of an ordinary infantryman. As the division trained, a debate developed in the U.S. Army over whether the best use of airborne forces was en masse or as small compact units. On 9 July 1943, the first large-scale Allied airborne operation–the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky)–was carried out by elements of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the British 1st Airborne Division. The Commanding General (CG) of the U.S. 11th Airborne Division, Major General Joseph May Swing, had been temporarily assigned to act as airborne advisor to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, for the invasion of Sicily, and had observed the airborne assault, which went badly. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division had been deployed by both parachute and glider and had suffered high casualties, leading to a perception that it had failed to achieve many of its objectives. ### Swing Board General Eisenhower had reviewed the airborne role in Operation Husky, and had concluded that large-scale formations were too difficult to control in combat to be practical. Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair, commander of Army Ground Forces, had similar misgivings: once an airborne supporter, he had been greatly disappointed by their performance in North Africa and, more recently, Sicily. However, other high-ranking officers believed otherwise, notably the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, George Marshall. He persuaded Eisenhower to set up a review board and to withhold judgement on the effectiveness of divisional-sized airborne forces until a large-scale maneuver could be tried in December. When Swing returned to the United States to resume command of the 11th Airborne Division in mid-September 1943, he had an additional role. McNair ordered him to form a committee–the Swing Board–composed of U.S. Army Air Forces, parachute and glider infantry, and artillery officers to arrange a large-scale maneuver that would effectively decide the fate of the divisional-sized airborne force. As the 11th Airborne Division was in reserve in the United States, and had not yet been earmarked for overseas shipment, the Swing Board chose it as the test formation; it would be opposed by a composite combat team from the 17th Airborne Division with a battalion from the 541st Parachute Infantry Regiment temporarily attached. The maneuver would also provide both divisions with further airborne training, as had occurred several months previously in a large-scale maneuver undertaken by the 82nd and the 101st Airborne Divisions. ### Knollwood Maneuver The objective for the 11th as the attacking force was to capture Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield near Fort Bragg in North Carolina, after which the maneuver was named. The defending forces were to try to defend the airport and the surrounding area and repel the airborne assault. The entire operation would be observed by Lieutenant General McNair. His observations and reports to the U.S. War Department, and ultimately General Eisenhower, would do much to decide the success or failure of the exercise. The Knollwood Maneuver took place on the night of 7 December, with the troops of the 11th Airborne Division being delivered to thirteen separate objectives by 200 C-47 Dakota transport aircraft and 234 Waco CG-4A gliders, with eighty-five percent of the airborne troops being delivered to their target without navigational error. The transport aircraft were divided into four groups, each taking off from a different airfield in the Carolinas, with two groups dropping paratroopers and two towing gliders, and between them deployed 4,800 airborne troops in the first wave. These airborne troops then seized the Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield from the defending troops and secured the area in which the rest of the division landed, all before daylight. Having secured their initial objectives, the 11th Airborne Division then conducted a coordinated ground attack against a reinforced infantry regiment, as well as several aerial resupply and casualty evacuation missions in coordination with transport aircraft. The exercise was judged to be a great success by those who observed it. McNair reported that the success of the maneuver pleased him, and highlighted the great improvements in airborne training that had occurred in the months between the end of Operation Husky and the Knollwood Maneuver. Due to the success of the units of the 11th Airborne Division during the exercise, the divisional-sized airborne force was deemed to be effective and was allowed by Eisenhower to remain. ## World War II The division also participated in the Second Army maneuvers in the Tennessee Maneuver Area from 6 February 1944. It finished its training on 27 March 1944, and transferred to Camp Forrest on 24 March 1944. The division staged at Camp Myles Standish on 12 August 1944 before departing Boston Port of Embarkation on 20 August 1944. The 17th Airborne Division arrived in the United Kingdom on 26 August. Once in Britain the division was attached to U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, under Major General Matthew Ridgway, which commanded all American airborne formations, and which in turn became part of the First Allied Airborne Army when it was formed on 21 August, under the command of Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton. Although attached to XVIII Airborne Corps, the division was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden, a large-scale airborne operation intended to seize several bridges through the Netherlands to allow the Allied armies to bypass the Rhine river and enter Germany. The 17th was passed over in favour of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions because it had only recently arrived in the European Theater and was considered to be unprepared logistically as it was still collecting its combat equipment. The division was also given command of the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment. The 507th had fought in Normandy under command of the 82nd Airborne Division and remained in England as a theater reserve during Market Garden. The 507th continued to remain in England as the Allied armies continued their advance towards Germany. ### Battle of the Bulge On 16 December 1944 the Wehrmacht launched an offensive in the Ardennes region of Belgium, breaking through Allied lines and rapidly advancing towards Antwerp. On the afternoon of 17 December, Eisenhower decided to commit his theater reserve to the Ardennes in an attempt to halt the German advance; this consisted of the 17th, 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions under the control of XVIII Airborne Corps. The three divisions were to be attached to Courtney Hodges's U.S. First Army and were ordered to concentrate around the town of St Vith. However, while the other two airborne divisions were able to immediately make their way to the Ardennes as they were already stationed in France, bad weather prevented the 17th from flying in from where the division was stationed in Britain for several days. On 23 December the weather cleared and the division was finally flown to France by emergency night flights. It moved to an assembly area near Rheims. On Christmas Day, the division was attached to George Patton's U.S. Third Army and ordered to assume a thirty-mile long defensive position that ran along the Meuse River near Charleville. By 1 January 1945 the threat to Charleville had eased sufficiently for the division to be transferred to another area of the Ardennes, being transported to an area south-west of Bastogne near the village of Morhet on 3 January; there it relieved the 11th Armored Division which had occupied the village prior to its arrival. On 4 January the division entered combat for the first time when it was ordered alongside the 87th Infantry Division to seize a number of key towns to the west of Bastogne, in order to prevent German forces from encircling the town a second time; it had been relieved by the Third Army on 26 December. With the 87th Infantry Division on its left flank, the division advanced towards German positions with the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment and 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment forming the division's assault element; the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment and the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment moved behind these two regiments to deal with expected German armoured counter-attacks against them. During its initial advance the division engaged German forces, including infantry and armour, in an attempt to secure a narrow, high-rimmed road to the north-west of Bastogne; during a battle that lasted three days the division suffered nearly 1,000 casualties attempting to hold what the division's official historian labeled "Dead Man's Ridge". It was during the opening stages of this battle that the division earned its first Medal of Honor. Staff Sergeant Isadore S. Jachman of the 513th Parachute Infantry engaged and damaged with a bazooka two German tanks that formed part of an armoured column attacking American positions, forcing the column to retreat but simultaneously being killed by machine gun fire. Between 19 and 26 January, the division broke through German lines and captured several towns before linking up with elements of the British 51st Infantry Division. After it had captured the town of Espeler on 26 January the entire division was withdrawn from the front and transported by truck to Luxembourg, effectively ending its participation in the Ardennes campaign. ### Operation Varsity #### Preparation After participating in the Battle of the Bulge, the division was moved behind the front-lines as a reserve formation and theater reserve, whilst the Allies continued their advance towards the German interior. However, even as the division received replacements and trained, it had already been selected to take part in a highly ambitious airborne operation code-named Operation Eclipse. This operation, which got to such an advanced stage that plans had been created and divisional commanders briefed, called for the 17th and 82nd Airborne divisions, along with a brigade from the British 6th Airborne Division, to be dropped in daylight in and around Berlin to capture the city. The operation received the support of General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of the United States Army Air Corps, but planning ended on 28 March, when General Eisenhower sent a message to Joseph Stalin indicating that the Allied armies would not attempt to capture Berlin, thereby making Eclipse obsolete. Eclipse and several other similarly ambitious airborne operations came to nothing, but in February the division finally received word that it would be involved in an Allied airborne operation to cross the River Rhine in support of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group that would take place during March. By March 1945, the Allies had advanced into Germany and had reached the River Rhine. The Rhine was a formidable natural obstacle to the Allied advance, but if breached would allow the Allies to access the North German Plain and ultimately advance on Berlin and other major cities in Northern Germany. Following the "Broad Front Approach" laid out by General Eisenhower, it was decided to attempt to breach the Rhine in several areas. British Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, commanding the 21st Army Group, devised a plan to allow the forces under his command to breach the Rhine, which he entitled Operation Plunder, and which was subsequently authorized by Eisenhower. Plunder envisioned the British Second Army, under Lieutenant General Miles Dempsey and the U.S. Ninth Army under Lieutenant General William Simpson crossing the Rhine at Rees, Wesel, and an area south of the Lippe Canal. To ensure that the operation was a success, Montgomery insisted that an airborne component was inserted into the plans for the operation to support the amphibious assaults that would take place, which was code-named Operation Varsity. Three airborne divisions were initially chosen to take part in Varsity, these being the British 6th Airborne Division, the U.S. 13th Airborne Division and the 17th Airborne Division, all of which were assigned to the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps. However, as planning for Operation Varsity began, it soon became obvious that there was a lack of suitable transport aircraft to transport all three airborne divisions. As such the 13th Airborne Division was dropped from the operational plan, primarily because it had no combat experience, whereas the 6th Airborne Division had participated in Operation Tonga, the British airborne landings during Operation Neptune, and the 17th had seen combat in the Ardennes. The plan for the operation was therefore altered to accommodate the two remaining airborne divisions. This would be the first airborne operation the 17th would take part in, and indeed would be its only before it was disbanded. The two airborne divisions would be dropped behind German lines, with their objective to land around Wesel and disrupt enemy defences in order to aid the advance of the British Second Army. To achieve this, both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln, and were tasked with a number of objectives; they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald, a forest that overlooked the Rhine and had a road linking several towns together; several bridges over a smaller waterway, the Issel, were to be seized to facilitate the advance; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured. Once these objectives were taken, the airborne troops would consolidate their positions and await the arrival of Allied ground forces, defending the territory captured against the German forces known to be in the area. The 17th Airborne was to land its units in the southern portion of the area chosen for the operation, engaging the German forces that were defending the area, securing the Diersfordterwald Forest which dominated the surrounding area and capturing three bridges that spanned the River Issel. It would then hold the territory it had captured until it linked up units from the British 6th Airborne Division, which would land in the northern section of the operational area, and finally advance alongside 21st Army Group once the Allied ground forces had made contact with the airborne forces. To avoid heavy casualties such as those incurred by the British 1st Airborne Division during Operation Market Garden, both Allied airborne divisions would be dropped only after Allied ground units had secured crossings over the Rhine; the two divisions would also be dropped only a relatively short distance behind German lines, to ensure that reinforcements would be able to link up with them after only a few hours and they would not be isolated. #### Battle Operation Plunder began at 21:00 on 23 March after a week-long aerial bombardment of Luftwaffe airfields and the German transport system, involving more than ten thousand Allied aircraft. By the early hours of 24 March units of 21st Army Group had crossed the Rhine against heavy German opposition and secured several crossings on the eastern bank of the river. In the first few hours of 24 March, the transport aircraft carrying the two airborne divisions that formed Operation Varsity took off from airbases in England and France and rendezvoused over Brussels, before turning north-east for the Rhine dropping zones. The airlift consisted of 541 transport aircraft containing airborne troops, and a further 1,050 troop-carriers towing 1,350 gliders. The 17th Airborne Division consisted of 9,387 personnel, who were transported in 836 C-47 Dakota transports, 72 C-46 Commando transports, and more than 900 Waco CG-4A gliders. At 10:00 on the morning of the 24th, the first Allied airborne units began to land on German soil on the eastern bank of the Rhine, some thirteen hours after the Allied assault had begun. The 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment, under the command of Colonel Edson Raff, was the lead assault formation for the 17th Airborne Division, and was consequently the first U.S. airborne unit to land as part of Operation Varsity. The entire regiment was meant to be dropped in drop zone W, a clearing two miles north of Wesel; however, excessive ground haze confused the pilots of the transport aircraft carrying the 507th, and as such when the regiment dropped it split into two-halves. Colonel Raff and approximately 690 of his paratroopers landed north-west of the drop zone near the town of Diersfordt, with the rest of the regiment successfully landing in drop zone W. The colonel rallied his separated paratroopers and led them to the drop zone, engaging a battery of German artillery en route, killing or capturing the artillery crews before reuniting with the rest of the regiment. By 14:00 the 507th PIR had secured all of its objectives and cleared the area around Diersfordt, having engaged numerous German troops and destroying a German tank. The actions of the regiment during the initial landing also gained the division its second Medal of Honor, when Private George J. Peters posthumously received the award after charging a German machine gun nest and eliminating it with rifle fire and grenades, allowing his fellow paratroopers to gather their equipment and capture the regiments first objective. The 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment was the second divisional unit to land, and was under the command of Colonel James W. Coutts. En route to the drop zone, the transport aircraft containing the regiment had the misfortune to pass through a belt of German anti-aircraft weapons, losing twenty-two of the C-46 transport aircraft and damaging a further thirty-eight. Just as the 507th had, the 513th also suffered from pilot error due to the ground haze, and as such the regiment actually missed their designated drop zone, and were dropped on one of the landing zones designated for the British 6th Airlanding Brigade. However, despite this inaccuracy the paratroopers swiftly rallied and aided the British glider-borne troops who were landing simultaneously, eliminating several German artillery batteries which were covering the area. Once the German troops in the area had been eliminated, a combined force of American and British airborne troops stormed Hamminkeln and secured that town. By 14:00, Colonel Coutts reported to the Divisional Headquarters that the 513th had secured all of its objectives, having knocked out two tanks and destroyed two complete regiments of artillery during its assault. During its attempts to secure its objectives, the regiment also gained a third Medal of Honor for the division when Private First Class Stuart S. Stryker posthumously received the award after leading a charge against a German machine gun nest, creating a distraction to allow the rest of his platoon to capture the fortified position the machine gun was situated in. The third component of the 17th Airborne Division to take part in the operation was the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment, under the command of Colonel James Pierce. The regiment landed accurately in landing zone S, but their gliders and the aircraft that towed them took heavy casualties; twelve C-47 transports were lost due to anti-aircraft fire, and a further one hundred and forty were damaged by the same fire. The regiment landed in the midst of a number of German artillery batteries that were engaging Allied ground forces crossing the Rhine, and as such many of the gliders were engaged by German artillery pieces which had their barrels lowered for direct-fire. However, these artillery batteries and their crews were defeated by the glider-borne troops, and the regiment was soon able to report that its objectives had been secured, having destroyed forty-two artillery pieces, ten tanks, two mobile-flak wagons and five self-propelled guns. #### Aftermath Operation Varsity was a successful large-scale airborne operation. All of the objectives that the airborne troops of the 17th had been tasked with had been captured and held, usually within only a few hours of the operation's beginning. The bridges over the Issel had been successfully captured, although one later had to be destroyed to prevent its capture by counter-attacking German forces. The Diersfordter Forest had been cleared of enemy troops, and the roads along which the Germans might have moved reinforcements against the advance had been cut by airborne troops. By nightfall of the 24th, the British 15th Infantry Division had joined up with elements of the British 6th Airborne Division, and by midnight the first light bridge was across the Rhine. By the 27th, twelve bridges suitable for heavy armour had been installed over the Rhine and the Allies had fourteen divisions on the east bank of the river which had penetrated up to ten miles. The division also gained its fourth Medal of Honor in the days following Operation Varsity, when Technical Sergeant Clinton Hedrick of the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment received the award posthumously after aiding in the capture of Lembeck Castle, which had been turned into a fortified position by the Germans. In terms of casualties, the 17th Airborne Division suffered a total of 1,346 casualties in the space of five days, between 24 and 29 March, when Operation Plunder came to an end. After it had participated in Operation Varsity, the 17th Airborne Division continued to advance through Germany as a part of XVIII Airborne Corps, engaging German forces around Wesel, Essen and Münster. When Germany unconditionally surrendered on 7 May 1945, the division was conducting occupation duties in northern Germany. ### Composition The division was composed of the following units: - 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment (disbanded 1 March 1945, assets merged into the 194th GIR) - 194th Glider Infantry Regiment - 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment (attached 27 August 1944 to 1 March 1945, thereafter assigned) - 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment (replaced 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment on 10 March 1944) - 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment (relieved 10 March 1944, replaced by the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment) - 139th Airborne Engineer Battalion - 155th Airborne Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion - 17th Parachute Maintenance Company (assigned 1 March 45) - 224th Airborne Medical Company - 17th Airborne Division Artillery - 464th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm) (assigned 1 March 1945) - 466th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm) - 680th Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm) - 681st Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm) - Special Troops (Headquarters activated 1 Mar 45) - Headquarters Company, 17th Airborne Division - 411th Airborne Quartermaster Company - 517th Airborne Signal Company - 717th Airborne Ordnance Company - Reconnaissance Platoon (assigned 1 March 45) - Military Police Platoon - Band (assigned 1 March 45) Attached units: - 550th Airborne Infantry Battalion (not assigned; under division operational control during the Ardennes Offensive, disbanded 1 March 1945 and assets merged into the 3rd Battalion, 194th GIR) - 761st Tank Battalion (attached 15–27 January 1945) - 811th Tank Destroyer Battalion (attached 17–27 January 1945) ### Casualties - Total battle casualties: 6,745 - Killed in action: 1,191 - Wounded in action: 4,904 - Missing in action: 224 - Prisoner of war: 426 ### Awards During World War II the division and its members were awarded the following awards: - Distinguished Unit Citations: 4 - Medal of Honor: 4 - Staff Sergeant Isadore S. Jachman<sup>(KIA)</sup> - Private George J. Peters<sup>(KIA)</sup> - Private First Class Stuart S. Stryker<sup>(KIA)</sup> - Technical Sergeant Clinton Hedrick<sup>(KIA)</sup> - Distinguished Service Cross: 4 - Distinguished Service Medal: 1 - Silver Star: 179 - Legion of Merit: 15 - Soldier's Medal: 6 - Bronze Star Medal: 727 - Air Medal: 21 ### Postwar and inactivation The 17th Airborne Division was relieved of occupation duty on 14 June by British troops, and the division was split up and its component units attached to other airborne divisions, either to the 82nd Airborne Division in Berlin or to the 13th Airborne Division which was preparing to participate in the invasion of Japan. When Japan surrendered, all of the division's units returned to their parent formation and the division moved to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts, being officially inactivated on 16 September 1945. The formation was reactivated at Camp Pickett, VA, on 6 July 1948 as a training division, but on 19 June 1949 it was permanently inactivated.
37,744,658	Action of 16 October 1799	1,073,502,525	Minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1799", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles involving Spain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	The action of 16 October 1799 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and two frigates of the Spanish Navy close to the Spanish naval port of Vigo in Galicia. The Spanish ships were a treasure convoy, carrying silver specie and luxury trade goods across the Atlantic Ocean from the colonies of New Spain to Spain. Sighted by British frigate HMS Naiad enforcing the blockade of Vigo late on the 15 October, the Spanish ships were in the last stages of their journey. Turning to flee from Naiad, the Spanish soon found themselves surrounded as more British frigates closed in. Although they separated their ships in an effort to split their opponents, the Spanish captains were unable to escape: Thetis was captured after a short engagement with HMS Ethalion on the morning of 16 October, while Santa Brigida almost reached safety, only being caught on the morning of 17 October in the approaches to the safe harbour at Muros. After a short engagement amid the rocks she was also captured by an overwhelming British force. Both captured ships were taken to Britain, where their combined cargoes were transported with great fanfare to the Bank of England. The eventual value of their cargo was assessed as at least £618,040, resulting in one of the largest hauls of prize money ever awarded. ## Background In 1796, following the secret terms of the Treaty of San Ildefonso, the Kingdom of Spain suddenly reversed its position in the French Revolutionary Wars turning from an enemy of the French Republic into an ally. The Spanish declaration of war on Great Britain forced the British Mediterranean Fleet to abandon the Mediterranean Sea entirely, retreating to ports at Gibraltar and Lisbon. This force now concentrated against the Spanish Navy, most of which was stationed at the main fleet base of Cádiz in Southern Spain. A British blockade fleet won a significant victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797, dissuading the Spanish fleet from playing a significant role in the ongoing war. Other Spanish ports were also blockaded with the intention of limiting Spanish trade and movement and intercepting treasure convoys from the colonies of New Spain and South America. Vast quantities of gold, silver and valuable trade goods crossed the Atlantic in regular armed frigate convoys. To intercept and seize these shipments the Royal Navy dispatched their own frigates to patrol the Spanish coast. To encourage their sailors, the Royal Navy distributed prize money to the value of the ships and material captured and the seizure of a Spanish treasure fleet could yield spectacular amounts of money: particularly large sums had been captured during previous wars in 1656, 1744 and 1762, but during the first three years of conflict between Great Britain and Spain only one treasure convoy had been intercepted, near Cádiz at the action of 26 April 1797, and on that occasion the treasure was smuggled ashore before the convoy was seized. ## Pursuit On 21 August 1799, a convoy of two 34-gun frigates, Thetis under Captain Don Juan de Mendoza and Santa Brigida under Captain Don Antonio Pillon, sailed from Vera Cruz in New Spain with a cargo that included cochineal, indigo dye, cocoa and sugar but which principally consisted of more than two million silver Spanish dollars. The passage across the Atlantic was uneventful and by the afternoon of 15 October the convoy, under orders to make any Spanish port, was nearing its destination at Vigo, a fortified port city in Galicia just south of Cape Finisterre at the most northwestern point of Spain. The ports of Northern Spain were blockaded by British frigates sailing independently, crossing the approaches in search of enemy shipping and it was one such ship, the 38-gun HMS Naiad under Captain William Pierrepont, that sighted the Spanish convoy in position at 20:00 on 15 October. Turning away to the southeast, the Spanish ships then made all sail northeast in search of a safe harbour, with Pierrepont in pursuit. At 03:30 on 16 October, another sail was spotted to the southwest, rapidly revealed to be a second British frigate, the 38-gun HMS Ethalion under Captain James Young. Ethalion joined the chase and at dawn two more sails were sighted, the 32-gun HMS Alcmene under Captain Henry Digby to the west and 32-gun HMS Triton under Captain John Gore to the north. With four British frigates now in full pursuit, the Spanish captains sought to split their enemy and divided, at which Pierrepont directed Ethalion, the closest British ship, to pursue the faster Thetis. Young complied, firing long-range shot in Santa Brigida's direction at 09:00, driving Pillon's ship further from his companion. ## Battle As Naiad, Triton and Alcmene streamed past in pursuit of Santa Brigida, Young focused his attention on Thetis, coming within range at 11:30. Mendoza, seeing that battle was inevitable, bore up across Ethalion's bows in an effort to rake Young's ship. Young turned in order to thwart the manoeuvre and fired two rapid broadsides into Thetis, which responded in kind. For an hour the frigates exchanged running fire until Mendoza, realising escape was impossible, surrendered. Thetis had lost one man killed and nine wounded in the exchange while Ethalion had suffered no casualties. As Ethalion subdued Thetis the remainder of the British squadron continued southwards in pursuit of Santa Brigida. Pillon was an experienced officer with a good knowledge of the Northern Spanish coast and he intended to lose his pursuers in the rocky channels of Cape Finisterre. Early on 17 October he reached Spanish coastal waters, rounding Finisterre just beyond the Monte Lora rocks. Captain Gore on Triton, which was in full flow at seven knots, was unaware of the obstacle and at 05:00 crashed into them, coming to a juddering halt and inflicting severe damage to his ship's hull. Gore was able however to bring Triton off soon afterwards and continued pursuit, assisted by Digby on Alcmene who was able to block Pillon's route into Porte de Vidre. Both frigates opened fire on Santa Brigida at 07:00 as the Spanish ship sought shelter in the rocks at Commarurto close to the safe harbour at Muros, Pillon's movement hampered by the coastal rias that blocked the wind. After an hour of resistance, with Naiad belatedly approaching, Pillon was forced to surrender his ship to superior British forces. Santa Brigida had lost two men killed and eight wounded, Alcmene one killed and nine wounded and Triton a single man wounded. ## Aftermath As the British force took control of Santa Brigida, a Spanish squadron of four ships sailed from Vigo with the appearance of intending to bring Pierrepont's squadron to battle. Pierrepont immediately issued orders for his ships to meet with the Spanish who promptly turned about and returned to port without coming within range. A shore breeze enabled the British ships and their prize to extricate themselves from the Commarurto rocks without further damage. They then sailed directly for the fleet base at Plymouth, arriving on 22 October to find that Thetis and Ethalion had reached the port the day before. Dispatches were sent to Lord Bridport, commander of the Channel Fleet, which were then forwarded to the Admiralty and revealed the scale of the prize. Aboard Thetis was found a quantity of trade cocoa and a series of boxes containing coin, including 333 boxes of 3,000 dollars each, four boxes of 2,385 dollars each, 94 boxes containing 4,000 dollars each and two golden doubloons and 90 golden half-doubloons. This totalled 1,385,292 silver dollars, with a sterling value of £311,690. On Santa Brigida were trade cocoa, sugar, indigo and cochineal worth in total about £5,000 as well as 446 boxes containing 3,000 dollars each, 59 bags and three kegs of dollars and numerous loose coins, for a total value of at least 1,338,000 silver dollars or £301,350. Altogether the sterling value of the cargo was calculated as not less than £618,040 (the equivalent of £ in 2023). The captured ships however were written off as worthless, although some additional money was made auctioning off their naval stores. In the aftermath, the sailors of the squadron were noted in the streets of Portsmouth wearing "bank notes stuck in their hats, buying watches for the fun of frying them, and issuing laws that any of their crew who appeared without a gold-laced hat should be cobbed, so that the unlucky man who appeared in silver could only escape by representing that the costlier articles were all bought up, but he had compelled the shopkeeper to take money for gold lace." This vast sum of money was transported through Plymouth on 63 wagons, guarded by armed sailors and Royal Marines and accompanied by musical bands and cheering crowds to the security of the Royal Citadel. It remained in Plymouth until November when it was removed to London with considerable ceremony and placed at the Bank of England. The sums awarded as prize money, distributed in equal proscribed shares among the crews of Ethalion, Naiad, Alcmene and Triton were among the largest ever recorded. Each captain was given £40,730 (of which a third was due to the admiral in command), each lieutenant £5,091, each warrant officer £2,468, each midshipman £791 and each sailor or marine £182. For the regular seamen, this total was 15 times their annual pay of £12. As historian James Henderson noted "even the humblest seaman could set himself up with a cosy pub". For the captains, normally paid £150 a year, this was more money than they could make in 270 years. On the only subsequent occasion when a Spanish treasure fleet was successfully intercepted, at the Battle of Cape Santa Maria in October 1804, an even greater haul was captured. On that occasion however the Admiralty used an obscure regulation to seize the bulk of the prize and the captains only received around £15,000 each. Captain John Gore, commanding first HMS Triton and later HMS Medusa, received a share of the money on both occasions. Historian Richard Woodman has noted that this action illustrates both the dominance of the Royal Navy and its high standards at this stage in the war, stating that "The coincidental appearance of four frigates in the vast Atlantic testifies to the enormous resources the British put into the prosecution of the war. That the four frigate captains proceeded to act in such perfect concert is further evidence, if it were needed, of the shared standards of mutual help and assistance".
6,495,111	Swing Life Away	1,166,126,438	null	[ "2000s ballads", "2004 songs", "2005 singles", "Geffen Records singles", "Rise Against songs", "Rock ballads", "Song recordings produced by Garth Richardson", "Songs written by Tim McIlrath" ]	"Swing Life Away" is a song by American punk rock band Rise Against. It is an acoustic ballad, with a sharp guitar sound and optimistic lyrics about daily life and the working class. The song was first included in the 2003 compilation album Punk Goes Acoustic, and was later expanded upon in the band's 2004 album Siren Song of the Counter Culture. The music and lyrics for "Swing Life Away" were written by Rise Against's lead vocalist Tim McIlrath and his roommate Neil Hennessy. The band decided to not include the song in their 2003 album Revolutions per Minute, as they felt that it would not fit in with the album's hardcore sound. At the insistence of a Dreamworks Records executive, the band revisited the song for Siren Song of the Counter Culture, and released it as the album's second single. The song reached number seventeen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart and number twelve on the Alternative Songs chart, and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Critics praised the song for its simple yet effective lyrics and sharp guitar sound. The accompanying music video follows the band members as they hang out with friends, and was intended to have an easygoing feel. "Swing Life Away" remains one of Rise Against's most popular songs, and McIlrath has noted how fans have used the song for various purposes, including school graduations, proms, weddings, and funerals. In 2011, Alternative Addiction wrote: "'Swing Life Away' catapulted Rise Against past Anti-Flag to the point where they've been with the past three albums as one of most established bands going in rock." ## Recording and composition The music and lyrics for "Swing Life Away" were written by Rise Against's lead vocalist Tim McIlrath and his roommate Neil Hennessy. It was originally recorded in 2003, shortly after the recording sessions concluded for Rise Against's second album Revolutions per Minute. When producer Bill Stevenson heard the song, he asked McIlrath to put it on the album. Although the band members enjoyed the song, they questioned how an acoustic ballad could fit in an album characterized by its hardcore sound. Ultimately, the song was shelved. A year later, Fearless Records approached Rise Against about contributing to the Punk Goes Acoustic compilation album, and the band felt that "Swing Life Away would be an appropriate song for the album. The Punk Goes Acoustic version of "Swing Life Away" attracted little attention from fans, and McIlrath believed that the song had "died out". When Rise Against signed with Dreamworks Records in late 2003, a Dreamworks executive told the band that they should rerecord the song for their upcoming album, Siren Song of the Counter Culture, to which the band agreed to. When brought to producer Garth Richardson, he felt that the song was incomplete, commenting: "It's just too short. It's almost like a jingle and it needs another part." McIlrath decided to elaborate on the song, and used one of Sheryl Crow's guitars he found in the studio to add an instrumental bridge. This version of the song was included in Siren Song of the Counter Culture. "Swing Life Away" is composed entirely of acoustic strumming, and its relatively positive sound plays in stark contrast to Rise Against's hardcore oeuvre. According to the song's sheet music, the composition is written in the time signature of 6/8 swing, with a moderate tempo of 52 beats per minute. It follows verse-chorus form, and is composed in the key G♭ major, with a melody that spans a tonal range of D♭<sub>4</sub> to E♭<sub>5</sub>. Ultimate Guitar Archive noted that the song uses a more "sharp guitar sound" as opposed to normal acoustics, which complements the band's punk roots. "Swing Life Away" contains simple lyrics that are about daily life and the working class. ## Release and reception "Swing Life Away" began playing on radio stations in late April 2005, as the second single from Siren Song of the Counter Culture. It is currently available in CD single and digital download formats. Commercially, the song reached three Billboard music charts, peaking at number seventeen on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart, number twelve on the Alternative Songs chart, and number ninety-five on the Pop 100 chart. It was certified platinum in May 2012 by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting shipments of 1,000,000 copies. In his review of Punk Goes Acoustic, Aubin Paul of Punknews.org wrote that "Swing Life Away" has a "simple but amazingly catchy guitar line", and called it his favorite track from the album. The Siren Song of the Counter Culture version received similarly positive reviews. Ultimate Guitar Archive praised nearly every aspect of the song, such as the "tear-inducing" lyrics, McIlrath's vocals, and its sharp guitar sound. The reviewer also called "Swing Life Away" the best song on the album. Sputnikmusic's Davey Boy characterized the lyrics as simple but effective, while Justin Donnelly of Blistering felt that "Swing Life Away" was one of three songs that ended the album in "huge style". By contrast, Marc Hogan of Pitchfork gave a much more unfavorable review, describing it as a "drearily unpoetic acoustic weeper". ## Music video The accompanying music video was directed by Estevan Oriol and filmed in Chicago. The video begins with McIlrath exiting a subway car on the Chicago "L", a reference to the band's previous music video for "Give It All". He walks throughout Chicago meeting up with the other band members. They decide to go to a local bar and hang out with friends. While at the bar, McIlrath bumps into a man who angrily smashes the cassette tape of a song that McIlrath had been working on. The video ends with McIlrath writing the lyrics for the new song called "Swing Life Away". McIlrath wrote the video treatment, and remarked how the band at first had no idea what they wanted to do for the video due to the song's unique sound. McIlrath did know that since "Swing Life Away" has simple lyrics, he wanted the video to replicate the song's easygoing feel. The video was shot over a year after the release of Siren Song Of The Counter Culture, a rarity in the music industry, as most videos are shot only a few months after the song's parent album is released. Parts of the video were filmed at The Fireside Bowl, where Rise Against played some of their first concerts. Looking back on the video, McIlrath said: "Parts of it are kind of cheesy...but it captured where I was at when that song was written - it was written when I was living in a house with four roommates in a bedroom and we were all just trying to figure out what to do with our lives." ## Impact Dave Kim of WGRD-FM listed "Swing Life Away" as the sixth best Rise Against song, saying that although it is a significant departure from their normal sound, "we'll always welcome the softer side of Rise Against". The song has also been credited with helping Rise Against achieve mainstream appeal. In 2011, Alternative Addiction wrote "'Swing Life Away' catapulted Rise Against past Anti-Flag to the point where they've been with the past three albums as one of most established bands going in rock." McIlrath commented on the song's popularity in a 2006 interview, saying that several fans had been using it for school graduations, proms, weddings, and funerals. In particular, he remarked how one fan sent him a wedding invitation, and the front of the invitation simply had the lyrics for "Swing Life Away". Although McIlrath was happy with the song's reception, he explicitly mentioned that no acoustic songs would appear on the band's fourth album The Sufferer & the Witness, as he did not want it to become a permanent aspect for Rise Against albums. In 2013, American rapper Machine Gun Kelly released the mixtape Black Flag, which included a cover of "Swing Life Away". The cover has new verses written by Kelly, and features guest vocals by Kellin Quinn of Sleeping with Sirens. Rise Against approved of the cover, after Kelly wrote a letter to the band explaining that he "wouldn’t do anything to make them or their song look corny". Originally, Quinn had recorded vocals for an acoustic rendition, but Kelly decided against this, insisting that the cover be more melodic rock. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the "Swing Life Away" CD single. Rise Against - Tim McIlrath – lead vocals, acoustic guitar - Neil Hennessy - backing vocals Production - Garth Richardson – producer - Dean Maher – audio engineering - Andy Wallace – mixing ## Charts and certifications
3,740,635	Vertical Force	1,153,127,395	1995 video game	[ "1995 video games", "Hudson Soft games", "Nintendo games", "Single-player video games", "Vertically scrolling shooters", "Video games developed in Japan", "Virtual Boy games" ]	is a 1995 vertically scrolling shooter video game developed and published for the Virtual Boy by Hudson Soft in Japan and by Nintendo in North America. The player controls a starship, the Ragnarok, that must destroy a malfunctioning supercomputer on a human colony planet before it wipes out all of mankind. Gameplay is similar to Hudson's Star Soldier series, featuring power-up items that increase the player's abilities and parallax scrolling. The player can move their ship farther into the background to avoid enemies and obstacles in the way. Development was directed by Hitoshi Okuno, with music composed by both Shōji Tomii and Minoru Endō. The team originally planned to make the game a third-person rail shooter in the vein of Space Harrier, however the thought of similar games being released for the console later on instead caused it to become a vertical-scrolling shooter. It was shown off at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show under the working name Shoot'Em Up!. The game received negative to mixed reviews from critics; some praised the game's 3D effects and detailed graphics, while others criticized its lack of originality and for enemy bullets being hard to see due to the console's limited color palette. ## Gameplay Vertical Force is a vertical-scrolling shooter video game. The player controls a starship, the Ragnarok, and must destroy the malfunctioning supercomputer on the human colony planet Odin before it destroys Earth. The Ragnarok must shoot down oncoming enemy fighters and avoid their projectiles and other obstacles in stages, and can sustain multiple hits before being destroyed. Some enemies will drop power capsules that can be collected to strengthen the Ragnarok's abilities, such as a wide shot, a piercing laser, and a shield. Collecting additional power capsules will increase the abilities further, such as making the projectiles stronger or the shield be able to take additional hits. The Ragnarok has the ability to switch altitude into the background, which is used to avoid incoming obstacles from different planes. Enemies will also change their behavior if the Ragnarok is at a different altitude. Throughout stages, the player can find small craft known as AI Drones, which when collected will help the Ragnarok destroy enemies, each featuring different weapon types. Drones can be damaged if they are hit enough times by enemies, which allows the player to store them into a "reserve" box to repair them and eventually allow the Drone to be used again. Multiple Drones can be stored in the reserve space, and can be deployed into battle at any time. Drones can also be used as smart bombs, destroying all enemies on-screen. The game is composed of five stages, made up of starfields, mechanical bases and tunnels. Each stage features a boss at the end that must be defeated, some requiring the player to switch to the background to inflict damage. Most stages will also have the player fighting a mech-like robot miniboss named Bratt, who will learn the player's abilities as the game progresses and gradually become stronger. The player can save their high-scores to an entry table upon losing all of their lives, however these scores are soon wiped upon the system being turned off. ## Development and release Vertical Force was developed and published by Hudson Soft for the Virtual Boy on August 12, 1995 in Japan. It was later released in North America on December 1, 1995, where it was published by Nintendo. It was Hudson's only other game released for the system, alongside a port of their PC-Engine puzzle game Panic Bomber. It uses a red-and-black color scheme for its graphics, just like all other games for the console, alongside parallax scrolling to simulate a 3D effect. The development team originally planned to make the game a third-person rail shooter in the vein of Space Harrier, however the thought of similar games being released for the console later on instead caused it to become a vertical-scrolling shooter. It was presented at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, under the working title Shoot'Em Up!. The game was directed by Hitoshi Okuno, and composed by both Shōji Tomii and Minoru Endō. ## Reception Vertical Force received polarized reviews from critics upon release; while some praised the game's 3D effects and detailed graphics, other criticized its lack of originality and for enemy projectiles being difficult to distinguish from the background, which many attributed to the Virtual Boy's limited color palette. Electronic Gaming Monthly criticized the game's graphics for making it difficult to tell where enemy projectiles are, while GamePro disliked its unimpressive enemy designs and lack of originality. Next Generation was the most critical of the game, lambasting its confusing stage layouts, poor 3D effects and uninspired gameplay, alongside it being hard to spot enemy projectiles due to the system's limitations. Jeremy Parish similarly found the bullets hard to track due to hardware limitations, calling it "sloppy" compared to Hudson's Star Soldier series, although noted it was a decent effort in transitioning the Star Soldier gameplay to the Virtual Boy hardware. Japanese magazine Famitsu said that the game felt dated in comparison to other games of its genre already on the market, while also criticizing its graphics for making the enemy shots hard to see. The Electric Playground criticized its gameplay for being bland and for lacking originality, unfavorably comparing it to games such as Xevious and 1942, alongside its "generic" soundtrack and graphics. On a more positive note, GameFan magazine said that it was a must-own game, highly praising its gameplay, challenge and 3D effects. They also called it one of the system's best launch titles, despite finding Red Alarm more substantial. Game Zero liked its multi-layer depth mechanic for making it stand out among other shoot'em up titles, stating it was one of the system's best launch titles and one of Hudson's best shooting games to date. Game Zero also praised its soundtrack and detailed graphics. Electronic Gaming Monthly compared the game to shoot'em up titles on the TurboGrafx-16 in both gameplay and visuals, while also saying the multiple-depth mechanic was an interesting idea. Parish said it was the most graphically-detailed game on the Virtual Boy, claiming it made a decent addition to the console's library. Vertical Force was selected as one of the games to be shown at the "Spacewar!: Video Games Blast Off" exhibition at the Museum of the Moving Image in New York.
1,849,784	WXIX-TV	1,172,238,418	Fox affiliate in Cincinnati, Ohio	[ "1968 establishments in Ohio", "Cincinnati Stingers", "Circle (TV network) affiliates", "Fox network affiliates", "Gray Television", "Grit (TV network) affiliates", "Heroes & Icons affiliates", "Ion Television affiliates", "Metromedia", "Newport, Kentucky", "Television channels and stations established in 1968", "Television stations in Cincinnati" ]	WXIX-TV (channel 19) is a television station licensed to Newport, Kentucky, United States, serving the Cincinnati metro as the market's Fox affiliate. It is owned by Gray Television alongside low-power Telemundo affiliate WBQC-LD (channel 25), and 24/7 weather network WZCD-LD (channel 30). The three stations share studios at 19 Broadcast Plaza on Seventh Street in the Queensgate neighborhood just west of downtown Cincinnati; WXIX-TV's transmitter is located in the South Fairmount neighborhood on the city's northwest side. Though the construction permit for a fourth television station to serve Cincinnati—originally assigned channel 74—had been obtained by a Newport group in 1953, it took 15 years and two sales before the station was built on channel 19; its facilities have always been in Ohio. A successful independent station under U.S. Communications Corporation, Metromedia, and Malrite Communications Group before the creation of Fox in 1986, the station began producing a local newscast in 1993 and today airs local newscasts in many time slots. ## History ### Prior to launch On July 9, 1953, Tri-City Broadcasting Company, owner of WNOP (740 AM) in Newport, filed with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a construction permit to build a television station on channel 74, which had been assigned to Newport. After Gordon Broadcasting, owner of Cincinnati radio station WSAI, dropped its application for the channel, Tri-City became unopposed, and a construction permit for WNOP-TV was granted on December 24, 1953. Jim Lang, the former Campbell County sheriff that controlled Tri-City, envisioned the studios being adjoined by an amusement complex, complete with glass-enclosed restaurant, indoor ice rink, and outdoor swimming pool. With Lang noting the tribulations of other UHF television stations around the country, however, Tri-City opted not to build its station right away. In April 1956, Lang told a reporter for The Cincinnati Enquirer that it would only be a "matter of time" until channel 74 went on air. Some conversation around the construction permit emerged in late 1962, when Lang sold WNOP radio and the WNOP-TV construction permit to television actor Dean Miller in a deal that ultimately fell through; Tri-City had presented to the FCC a proposal to add a lower-power channel 3 station to Cincinnati (between channel 2 in Dayton and channel 3 in Louisville), which Miller also supported, though chances of approval were slim. In early 1965, channel 74 was no closer to going on the air than it had been a decade prior, but a change in ownership would lead to the foundation being laid to start a new commercial television station in Greater Cincinnati. That March, Tri-City sold the WNOP-TV permit to Daniel H. Overmyer, who was seeking to build a chain of major-market UHF television stations, for \$100,000. Two changes were nearly immediate after the purchase closed. On September 14, 1965, the call letters were changed to WSCO-TV; Overmyer's stations all bore the initials of family members, with the new designation representing his wife, Shirley Clark Overmyer. The FCC was in the process of overhauling the UHF table of allocations at the time, which—together with a rulemaking petition from Overmyer—resulted in the lower channel of 19 being substituted for 74 in 1966. Overmyer selected the Bald Knob tower site, negotiated to lease a studio facility on Eighth Street in the Queensgate neighborhood, and announced that the new station would be affiliated with the new Overmyer Network once it started. Civic leaders in Newport objected, to no avail, to the idea of the station leaving Northern Kentucky. A launch date of February 1, 1967, was initially slated, but the station did not start on that date. Instead, in April, Overmyer reached a deal to sell 80 percent of his television station group to the American Viscose Corporation (AVC). ### Startup and early years The FCC approved the purchase of the Overmyer stations by AVC (which organized its television holdings under the name U.S. Communications Corporation) in December 1967. The following May, the call letters changed one more time to WXIX-TV, representing the Roman numeral for 19; station manager Doug McLarty also cited possible confusion with WCPO-TV in changing the call sign. From the Overmyer-built transmitter facilities and a studio site within an office suite at 801 West Eighth Street in Cincinnati, WXIX-TV debuted on the afternoon of August 1, 1968. The site from which channel 19 went on air was not the one Overmyer had selected; channel 19 was then sued by that property's owners. Cincinnati's first commercial independent station featured a schedule consisting primarily of movies, sports, and syndicated programs, though it also produced a local daytime children's program hosted by puppeteer Larry Smith. The next year, the station debuted "The Cool Ghoul", a host of Scream-In, channel 19's Saturday night science fiction and horror movie played by Dick VonHoene. By the start of 1970, an American Research Bureau study had determined WXIX-TV was the number-one UHF independent station in the United States and in the top ten of all independents, VHF or UHF, nationwide. In 1970, the station purchased a facility on Taconic Terrace in Woodlawn, Ohio, from the defunct K & S Films for use as a larger studio base. ### Sale to Metromedia Channel 19 was demonstrating success and attracting viewership, which made it an outlier in the U.S. Communications portfolio. In March 1971, the company suspended operations at its stations in Atlanta and San Francisco, and channel 19 had cut back its broadcast day in the second half of 1970. WXIX-TV came close to joining them in silence. On August 5, 1971, The Wall Street Journal reported that U.S. Communications had asked the FCC for permission to take channel 19 and WPGH-TV in Pittsburgh off the air. The two stations, however, got a reprieve because they had instead attracted potential buyers. It was initially announced that a Washington, D.C., communications law firm, Welch and Morgan, would buy the station, but AVC insisted on the buyers endorsing the \$2 million in debt associated with channel 19, which caused them to balk at the deal. By month's end, Metromedia was in negotiations to purchase WXIX-TV, and a deal was reached in early October to purchase the station for the assumption of \$3 million in liabilities. The FCC approved of the deal in August 1972. Metromedia was able to stabilize WXIX-TV, increasing its ability to attract quality programming and contributing its own productions. Furthermore, WXIX-TV started a commercial production division; as none of the other stations had entered this specialty, channel 19 was able to corner between 70 and 80 percent of this market in the Cincinnati area. In the late 1970s, the station's local programs included Cincinnati Stingers hockey games and a news magazine, In Cincinnati. While a second independent station began broadcasting in 1980, WBTI (channel 64) was a part-time subscription television station which had trimmed its ad-supported schedule to a handful of programs by 1983. ### Malrite ownership and the arrival of Fox In 1982, Metromedia entered into an agreement to buy WFLD-TV in Chicago. This \$136 million deal—the most expensive purchase of an independent station and far and away the highest sale price of any UHF outlet—required it to divest of one of its two UHF stations, WXIX or KRIV in Houston, under the ownership limits of the day that allowed one company to own as many as five VHF and two additional UHF television stations. It chose to sell the Cincinnati outlet, which was in the smallest market of any in which the firm owned TV properties, and it also sold WTCN-TV in Minneapolis to finance the purchase. The buyer was Cleveland-based Malrite Communications Group. The \$45 million sale was approved by the FCC in December 1983. Under Malrite, WXIX-TV continued to be the market's leading non-network station, not far behind the network stations in early evening hours and way ahead of WBTI, which had become a full-time ad-supported station again as WIII in 1985. One advertising agency president declared it had become "one of the big boys" in local television. In the early years under Malrite, the station telecast Xavier Musketeers men's basketball before picking up a multi-year deal to air University of Cincinnati basketball games in 1987. UC basketball had previously aired on the station in the Metromedia era. It joined Fox as a charter member in 1986. When Fox made a push into children's programming with the startup of the Fox Children's Network (later known as Fox Kids), WXIX started its own Fox Kids Club; within nine months, channel 19 had 80,000 members, outpacing projections of 50,000 in the first year. It also started a new weekly local children's show, Fridays Are Fun, hosted by Michael Flannery. ### News startup, studio move, and Raycom purchase From the Malrite purchase until his death from esophageal cancer in 1992, Bill T. Jenkins was channel 19's general manager; he also served on the first Fox affiliate association board and advised the creation of Fox Kids, and within Malrite, he was named executive vice president of its television station division, securing Fox affiliations for multiple Malrite stations. He was replaced by Stu Powell, WFLD's general manager; Stu then hired Greg Caputo, who had overseen the launch of a local newsroom at WFLD in 1987, to do the same in Cincinnati. Launching local news made the Woodlawn site, 15 miles (24 km) from Cincinnati on Interstate 75, a hindrance for news crews. As a result, in 1993, WXIX-TV purchased the former Harriet Beecher Stowe School building in the Queensgate neighborhood, spending \$2 million at a sheriff's sale to acquire the former black junior high school which had since been converted into offices. The station converted a third of the structure for its own use, including using the former gymnasium as its primary studio. The station moved into what was renamed "19 Broadcast Plaza" in December 1995; at the same time, it dropped its "19XIX" moniker used for a decade and became known as "Fox 19". Between 1992 and the launch of a morning newscast in 1996, WXIX-TV's staff swelled from 63 to 141 employees. In 1998, Raycom Media purchased Malrite Communications and its five stations, three of them in Ohio. Under Raycom, the station made a series of news expansions and analyzed leaving 19 Broadcast Plaza for a larger building that could be owned rather than leased. ### Sale to Gray Television On June 25, 2018, Atlanta-based Gray Television announced that it had reached an agreement with Raycom to merge their respective broadcasting assets (consisting of Raycom's 63 existing owned-and/or-operated television stations, including WXIX-TV, and Gray's 93 television stations) under Gray's corporate umbrella in a cash-and-stock merger transaction valued at \$3.6 billion. The sale was approved on December 20 of that year and was completed on January 2, 2019. ## News operation While channel 19 studied the introduction of local news in 1978, began airing prime time news updates in 1985, and entertained expanding its news presence in 1989, it was not until the early 1990s that a full-on local newscast started at WXIX-TV. In 1993, Stu Powell of Chicago's WFLD hired that station's news director, Greg Caputo, to start a local newsroom for WXIX-TV. After a \$2 million investment, WXIX's news department—the first new TV newsroom in Cincinnati since 1958—debuted on October 18, 1993. Initially, channel 19 produced a half-hour Ten O'Clock News and the short-lived Midnight News, an unusual attempt at a late-night local newscast; both programs were originally anchored by Jack Atherton and Phyllis Watson alongside chief meteorologist Rich Apuzzo and sports director Greg Hoard, the latter the only on-air talent poached from another station. In addition, Tricia Macke was brought on as a contributor—later going full-time after the station requested she stop her other modeling job—and Kevin Frazier, now the co-host of Entertainment Tonight, was the weekend sports anchor. After channel 19 moved into the former Stowe School, several expansions of news at WXIX were carried out. The first was the extension of the 10 p.m. news to a full hour in January 1996. That fall, 19 in the Morning, a three-hour morning news program, debuted. 19 News Midday, a half-hour at 11:30 a.m., followed in May 1997. Even though the morning shows were still gaining an audience, the Ten O'Clock News was among the highest-rated in the United States. After seeing success with a 10 p.m. newscast, the station expanded further into morning news, adding a 6 a.m. hour in 1998, and ratings increased when it promoted Macke to full-time 10 p.m. anchor and hired Sheila Gray to anchor Fox 19 in the Morning in 1999. After nearly a decade, news expansions began again in 2008 with the launch of the Fox 19 Evening News, a 6:30 p.m. local newscast. In 2010, 2011, and 2012, extensions to the morning newscast brought its total length at its peak to seven hours, from 4 to 11 a.m. The station would also debut weekend morning newscasts in 2012. In the 2010s, WXIX also had news sharing partnerships with WLW radio and The Cincinnati Enquirer. In 2018, WXIX added 4 p.m. and 11 p.m. newscasts, the latter the first competition to network affiliates in that time slot in Cincinnati TV history. This was followed in January 2020 by 90 further daily minutes of news from 5 to 6:30 p.m. and in 2021 by an hour of news at 3 p.m. ### Notable alumni - Dan Hoard – radio and TV sportscaster for the Cincinnati Bengals and Cincinnati Bearcats football and basketball - Maria LaRosa – meteorologist (now with WNBC) - Chris Rose — sportscaster - Ben Swann – anchor and reporter (2010–2013) ## Technical information ### Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: WXIX's main subchannel is carried on the ATSC 3.0 (Next Gen TV) multiplex of WSTR-TV, which launched in 2021; in exchange, WXIX hosts one of WSTR's subchannels. ### Analog-to-digital conversion WXIX-TV discontinued regular programming on its analog signal, over UHF channel 19, on June 12, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 29 until being repacked to channel 15 in 2019.
2,121,277	Lost Our Lisa	1,164,458,473	null	[ "1998 American television episodes", "Television episodes directed by Pete Michels", "The Simpsons (season 9) episodes" ]	"Lost Our Lisa" is the twenty-fourth and penultimate episode of the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 10, 1998. The episode contains the last appearance of the character Lionel Hutz. When Lisa learns that Marge cannot give her a ride to the museum and forbids her to take the bus, she tricks Homer into giving her permission. After Lisa gets lost, Homer goes looking for her and the two end up visiting the museum together. The episode is analyzed in the books Planet Simpson, The Psychology of the Simpsons: D'oh!, and The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer, and received positive mention in I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide. ## Plot Bart and Milhouse visit a joke shop, and after Bart tries out some novelty props for his face, they visit Homer at the power plant to borrow his superglue for the props. Meanwhile, Marge and Lisa plan a trip to the Springsonian Museum, so they can see the Egyptian Treasures of Isis exhibit and the Orb of Isis. However, when Bart comes home and shows off his face props that he is now unable to remove, Marge is forced to take him to the hospital and is therefore unable to drive Lisa to the exhibit. She also forbids Lisa to take the bus alone, since it is too dangerous at her age. Since this is Lisa's last chance to see the exhibit, she calls Homer to ask him if she can take the bus. When he initially seems uncertain, she tricks him into letting her take the bus by suggesting that she could take a limousine instead. However, Lisa boards the wrong bus, with the unsympathetic bus driver dropping her off in the middle of nowhere. At work, Homer tells Lenny and Carl that he let Lisa ride the bus alone. When they point out the error of his judgment, he leaves work to go look for her. He heads to the museum and ends up in downtown Springfield, where Lisa has hitched a ride to from Cletus. He uses a cherrypicker to get up higher. Homer and Lisa spot each other, but the vehicle's wheels creak backwards, and it rolls down a hill. It slides off the edge of a pier at the harbor into a river. Lisa tells the drawbridge operator to close the bridge, so Homer can grab on. His head is caught between the two closing halves, and he survives with nothing more than a few tire marks across his forehead. Meanwhile, as Bart is examined by Dr. Hibbert, Hibbert tells Bart he will give him a series of painful injections in his spine to get the props off his face. Bart sweats heavily in terror, resulting in the props falling off. Hibbert then explains that terror sweat was the key to removing the superglued props; the "injector" he used is actually a button applicator. When Marge and Bart get home, Marge forces Bart to apologize to Lisa for ruining her trip; as Bart talks to Lisa behind her bedroom door, he is unaware that she is still not home. With Homer and Lisa re-united, he tells her that it is all right to take risks in life. The two decide to go to the museum after all, by illegally entering, since it is now closed. While there, Homer accidentally knocks the Orb of Isis onto the floor, where it splits open, revealing it to be a music box that had gone overlooked by scientists and museum staff. Lisa concludes that what her father said about risks was right – until the alarm goes off and guard dogs chase them out of the building. ## Production Writer Mike Scully came up with the idea for the plot because he used to live in West Springfield, Massachusetts and he would ask his parents if he could take the bus to Springfield, Massachusetts and they finally agreed to let him one day. The production team faced several challenges during development of this episode. The animators had to come up with a special mouth chart to draw Bart's mouth with the joke teeth in. The pile of dead animals in the back of Cletus' truck originally included dead puppies, but the animators thought it was too sad, so they removed them. Scully used to write jokes for Yakov Smirnoff, so he called him up to get the signs in Russian. Dan Castellaneta had to learn proper Russian pronunciation, so he could speak it during the chess scene in which he voiced the Russian chess player. In the season 9 DVD release of the episode, The Simpsons animators use a telestrator to show similarities between Krusty and Homer in the episode. This episode contains the last showing of character Lionel Hutz. He is seen standing at the bus stop with Lisa, but does not speak. Due to Phil Hartman's death, the recurring characters of Lionel Hutz and Troy McClure were retired. ## Themes In his book Planet Simpson, Chris Turner cites Lisa's experiences on the bus as an example of "satirical laughs scored at the expense of Lisa's idealism". "Lost Our Lisa" is cited in The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer along with episodes "Lisa the Iconoclast", "Lisa the Beauty Queen", and "Lisa's Sax", in order to illustrate Homer's "success bonding with Lisa". In The Psychology of the Simpsons: D'oh!, the authors utilize statements made by Homer in the episode to analyze the difference between heuristic and algorithmic decision-making. Homer explains to Lisa, "Stupid risks are what make life worth living. Now your mother, she's the steady type and that's fine in small doses, but me, I'm a risk-taker. That's why I have so many adventures!" The authors of The Psychology of The Simpsons interpret this statement by Homer to mean that he "relies on his past experiences of taking massive, death-defying risks and winding up okay to justify forging ahead in the most extreme circumstances". The episode is another featuring Homer's near invulnerability to head injury, previously explained in "The Homer They Fall". ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Lost Our Lisa" finished 45th in ratings for the week of May 4–10, 1998, with a Nielsen rating of 7.8, equivalent to approximately 7.6 million viewing households. It was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Ally McBeal, and King of the Hill. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood write positively of the episode in their book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide: "A smashing episode, loads of good jokes and clever situations ... and best of all, Lisa working intelligently. The teaming up of father and daughter has rarely been more enjoyable and lovely. Gives you a warm feeling." A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in the Daily Post notes that it includes "super illustrated colour commentaries" on "All Singing, All Dancing" and "Lost Our Lisa".
11,929,764	Maija Isola	1,161,224,017	Finnish textile designer for Marimekko	[ "1927 births", "2001 deaths", "Finnish designers", "Finnish women fashion designers", "People from Riihimäki", "Textile designers" ]	Maija Sofia Isola (15 March 1927 – 3 March 2001) was a Finnish designer of printed textiles, and the creator of over 500 patterns, including Unikko ("Poppy"). The bold, colourful prints she created as the head designer of Marimekko made the Finnish company famous in the 1960s. She also had a successful career as a visual artist. > Undisputedly the most famous textile designer... at Marimekko Isola exhibited across Europe, including at the Brussels World Fair and the Milan Triennale, and in the USA. Retrospectives of her work have been held at the Design Museum in Helsinki, the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, the Design Museum, Copenhagen, the Slovene Ethnographic Museum, Ljubljana, and the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. Products featuring her prints are still being sold at Marimekko. She lived and worked in Finland for most of her life in, but spent some years in France, Algeria and the United States. She was married three times. Her daughter, Kristina Isola, also became a Marimekko designer, collaborating with her mother for some time. Her granddaughter, Emma, also designs for the company. ## Biography ### Early life Isola was born to Mauno and Toini Isola, the youngest of their three daughters. Mauno was a farmer who wrote song lyrics, including a popular Finnish Christmas carol. The girls lived on the family farm and helped out with agricultural work in the summer. They made paper dolls with elegant dresses for their homemade paper dollhouse, which had elaborately decorated interiors. Isola studied painting at the Helsinki Central School of Industrial Arts. In 1945, as the Second World War came to an end, her life changed radically: her father died, and she became pregnant. On 22 July 1945 she married the commercial artist Georg Leander; their daughter Kristina was born in January 1946. In 1948, she went to Oslo, visiting the Van Gogh exhibition and seeing the Edvard Munch paintings there. She was inspired by a display of classical era pots at the Oslo Museum of Craft and Design to create her Amfora ("Amphora") print. The marriage with Leander did not last long, and by 1949 she was travelling Europe with the painter Jaakko ("Jaska") Somersalo, who became her second husband. He taught her woodcut printing and inspired her to paint. They divorced in 1955. ### Marimekko Her student-era work, including Amfora, was spotted in 1949 by Marimekko's founder, Armi Ratia. Ratia hired Isola to work for Printex, the forerunner of Marimekko. She became the principal textile designer for Marimekko, creating some eight to ten patterns every year. Between 1957 and 1963, Isola created her first series of works on a single theme, Luonto (Nature). It consisted of some 30 designs, based on pressed plants, which her daughter Kristina had started collecting at age 11. In 1958, she began another series, Ornamentti (Ornament), based on Slavic folk art. It, too, included about 30 designs, and made her famous. In 1959 she married the judge Jorma Tissari. He was a wealthy art lover with a spacious home in the centre of Helsinki. When Isola wanted more creative freedom from Ratia's control, Tissari negotiated with Marimekko to give her a new contract that allowed her more creative freedom. The collaboration between Isola and Ratia was an "unusual creative power game" characterised by "vitality and inventiveness" rather than a harmonious understanding. The tone for this was set when, in 1964, Isola "provocatively" defied Ratia's professed hatred of floral patterns by painting the famous Unikko (Poppy) pattern in bold pink, red and black on white; the pattern came to define the brand and has been in production ever since. It was one of some eight floral designs that Ratia chose from Isola's portfolio in that period. From 1965 to 1967, Isola worked on the theme of sun and sea, creating at least nine designs that were adopted by Marimekko, including Albatrossi (Albatross), Meduusa (Jellyfish), and Osteri (Oyster). Her patterns were, by now, being widely reproduced. To facilitate this process and to keep the patterns accurate, Isola maintained a set of "pattern books". These were handwritten exercise books containing precise details of her pattern repeats. Each one, such as her 1968 Lovelovelove, was drawn to scale on a pattern book page, coloured, and annotated with the names of the colours to be used. The books also recorded the size of the actual repeat and details of print orders. The books continued to be used as production guides in the decades after her death. In 1970 she travelled on her own to Paris to get away from her marriage and family commitments. There, she had a love affair with the Egyptian scholar Ahmed Al-Haggagi. He encouraged her to work on Arabian patterns, sketching for her the basis of her Poppy (not the same as Unikko). Her Arabian-inspired patterns of this period include Kuningatar, Naamio, Sadunkertoja, Tumma, and Välly. In 1971, she separated from Tissari, realising that she preferred to live alone. She spent three years in Algeria, taking a lover named Muhamed. In 1974, Isola designed the popular pattern Primavera, consisting of stylized Marigold flowers; this has since been printed in many different colours for tablecloths, plates and other items. In 1976 she returned to Paris, working with Al-Haggagi on a series of Egyptian-inspired prints including Niili (Nile), Nubia, and Papyrus. The next year, she accompanied Al-Haggagi to Boone, North Carolina where he was a lecturer. She spent the year painting, walking, and doing yoga, inspired by the scenery of the Appalachian Mountains, which she said reminded her of her home town, Riihimäki. She made some designs, but found it hard to sell any in the American market, as there were few factories that could print fabrics to her specifications. On returning to Finland, 160 of her works, including paintings and sketches but not her print designs, were displayed at a retrospective exhibition in a Helsinki gallery in 1979. From 1980 to 1987, Isola designed patterns for Marimekko jointly with her daughter, Kristina. They worked in their own studios, in Helsinki in the winter, in Kaunismäki in the summer. Kristina became one of Marimekko's chief designers; she had joined Marimekko when she was 18. During her 40-year career with Marimekko, Maija Isola created a "staggering" 500 prints for the company. Among the best-known are Kivet (Stones) and Kaivo (Well); they continue to sell in the 21st century. ### Retirement From 1987, when she retired, Isola worked on painting rather than textiles, until her death on 3 March 2001. Her designs, and Marimekko, went into eclipse. In 1991, the new head of Marimekko, Kirsti Paakkanen successfully relaunched Isola's Fandango, but it was not until the late 1990s that Marimekko again became widely popular. Its renewed fortunes were based on "classic" Isola patterns from the 1950s and 1960s. ## Reception According to FinnStyle, Isola was "undisputedly the most famous textile designer to have existed at Marimekko", and she "created over 500 prints during her long and colorful employment." Her work enabled the company to become a world-leading international fashion trendsetter. Ivar Ekman, writing in the New York Times, quotes Marianne Aav, director of the Helsinki Design Museum: "What we understand as the Marimekko style is very much based on what Maija Isola was doing". Ekman comments "The range of prints that Isola produced for Marimekko is astounding", as the patterns span "minimalist geometric", "toned-down naturalistic" and "explosion of colors". Marion Hume, writing in Time Magazine, explains that Isola "was able to mastermind an astonishing range, from the intricate and folkloric Ananas (1962)--which remains one of the most popular prints for the home market--to the radically simple, dramatically enlarged, asymmetrical Unikko poppy (1964), originally in red and in blue, which may be one of the most widely recognized prints on earth." According to Tamsin Blanchard, writing in The Observer, "The designs of Maija Isola – one of the company's [most] original and longest-standing designers - have stood the test of time." Blanchard describes Isola's 1972 Wind design "with its feathery organic tree skeletons in silhouette" as "timeless", her 1957 Putinotko as a "spiky black-and-white print", also discussing her 1963 work, Melon, and her 1956 work, Stones. Hannah Booth, writing in The Guardian, explains that Marimekko's founder, Armi Ratia, "recruited Maija Isola, the first and most important of many young female designers, to create original prints". She describes Isola as unconventional, leaving her daughter Kristina "to grow up with her grandmother so she could travel the world to find inspiration for her textiles". Booth quotes Finnish novelist Kaari Utrio as saying Isola was "a dangerously original character"; she "belonged to a trailblazing generation" which enabled young women to move freely into the arts. Lesley Jackson, in a chapter titled Op, Pop, and Psychedelia, writes that "from Finland the exuberant all-conquering Marimekko burst on to the international scene" in the 1960s; she illustrates this with one pattern by Vuokko Nurmesniemi, and three by Isola – Lokki, Melooni, and Unikko. Of Lokki, Jackson writes "Isola revolutionized design with her simple, bold, flat patterns, printed on a dramatic scale. The design, whose title means 'seagull', evokes the lapping of waves and the flapping of birds' wings." Of the famous Unikko, Jackson says "This huge, exploded poppy pattern embodies the unbridled design confidence of the mid-1960s, and presages the ebullience and sizzling colours of the flower power era." Hanna-Liisa Ylipoti notes that "The themes of many Marimekko designs are also very Finnish, portraying Finnish nature. For example, Maija Isola created her Luonto (Nature) design [series] using actual plant specimens". ## Legacy Aav noted that "As the twenty-first century gets underway, Marimekko is experiencing a resurgence of interest and appreciation—a true revival. Maija Isola's Unikko pattern, designed almost forty years ago, blooms as never before." In 2011, Marimekko flew a hot-air balloon decorated with an enormous version of Unikko over Helsinki, reflecting the iconic status of the print, nearly half a century later. Marimekko's marketing policy is to reissue "classics from its fifty-year back catalogue, notably a large group of patterns from the 1950s and 1960s by Maija Isola." Since 2012, Finland's airline Finnair has been flying an Airbus A340-300 to its Asia destinations sporting a blue Unikko print, while an Airbus A330 painted in an Anniversary Unikko has been serving its other intercontinental routes. Isola was described in 2013 as a style icon. Her granddaughter Emma Isola works for Marimekko as a designer, forming a three-generation tradition. ## Exhibitions ### Contemporary - Design in Scandinavia, USA 1954, 1960 - Finnish Exhibition in Germany 1956 - Triennale Milan 1954, 1957 - World Exhibition Brussels Formes Scandinaves 1958 ### Retrospective - Maija Isola and Marimekko, Retrospective exhibition, Design Museum (Designmuseo), Helsinki, Finland. 24 May 2005 – 4 September 2005. - Finnish Design, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 2005 - Marimekko - The Story of a Nordic Brand, Exhibition at Design Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2 March – 28 May 2007. - Marimekko: Fabric, Fashion, Architecture, Exhibition at Slovene Ethnographic Museum in Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1 July 2009 – 18 October 2009 - Magnifying Nature: 1960s Printed Textiles'', Exhibition at Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 5 March 2011 – 21 August 2011.
5,575,340	Slalom (video game)	1,154,361,796	1986 NES game	[ "1986 video games", "Nintendo Entertainment System games", "Nintendo Vs. Series games", "Nintendo arcade games", "Nintendo games", "Rare (company) games", "Single-player video games", "Skiing video games", "Video games developed in the United Kingdom", "Video games scored by David Wise" ]	Slalom, originally released as VS. Slalom, is a skiing sports video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo in 1986 for the Nintendo VS. System in arcades. It was then released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in March 1987 and in Europe later that year. The player races in a series of downhill slalom skiing runs while navigating past flags and obstacles before time expires. It was developed by Tim and Chris Stamper and its music was composed by David Wise. Slalom is the first NES game developed outside Japan and the Stamper brothers' first game released under the Rare brand. Reviews from the 1980s found Slalom unrealistic, but largely appreciated its graphics and animations, and the original arcade version received praise for its innovative ski controls. In contrast, AllGame's retrospective review called the game poorly made and rushed. Slalom was released in Rare's 2015 Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One. ## Gameplay Slalom is a single-player game in which players race downhill in a series of slalom skiing races. There are 24 downhill runs total that are evenly spread across three mountains. Before the game starts, players choose their mountain based on difficulty: Snowy Hill for beginners, Steep Peak for intermediate players, and Mount Nasty for experts. The goal for each run is to reach the finish line within the allotted time. Players must dodge obstacles including trees, flags, snowmen, sledders, and other skiers on their way downhill, or else they will tumble and lose time. With enough momentum, players can jump over these obstacles. Players must ski around flags to maintain their speed. If they ski on the wrong side of the flag, the racer will snowplow and slow down. Also located on the runs are moguls (bumps) that, when hit, causes the racer to go airborne and slow down slightly when landing. While airborne, players can perform freestyle tricks and earn bonus points. However, if the player botches the trick, the racer may tumble and fall, losing time. At the end of each run, final scores are calculated based on the amount of time remaining on the run and points scored from completing freestyle tricks. If the player earns enough points, they may race the next level "solo" (without other skiers onscreen). The points earned in qualifying runs convert to additional seconds on the solo run timer. The high scores on each of the runs are saved in memory until the console is powered off. ## Development Slalom was developed by British video game company Rare by Tim and Chris Stamper. Rare had been looking to develop games for consoles in the wake of rampant computer game piracy in the United Kingdom. They chose the NES for its nascent popularity, though the console had no Western developers, and asked Nintendo for a license. When Nintendo declined, they reverse engineered the console and made a demo, Slalom to show the company. Nintendo was astonished at their effort, and made Rare its first Western developer, beginning a long and close collaboration between Rare and Nintendo of America founder and president Minoru Arakawa. Slalom was originally released in 1986 in arcades as part of the Nintendo VS. System and is titled VS. Slalom. This features an upright cabinet, a joystick, one jump button, monaural sound, and standard raster graphics. An optional controller upgrade features two physical ski poles and shortened skis that the player stands on to control the skier. The NES version was released by Nintendo in North America in March 1987 and in Europe on October 15, 1987. Slalom was Rare's first video game developed as a new company. It is the Stamper brothers' first video game console release. The music is the first NES composing job by Rare's video game composer David Wise. In a December 2010 interview, Wise said that he found the NES sound board work challenging. He had to first code the HEX values for each note by hand before converting them into subroutines with a computer. Wise recalled thinking that his first NES projects sounded like doorbells. He was humbled that others continue to remix his tracks. ## Reception Upon its original release in arcades, VS. Slalom was reviewed by Clare Edgeley in British magazine Computer and Video Games. She praised the innovative ski controls, but said it lacked "staying power" and considered it an "above average" game without the ski controls. The NES version of Slalom received preview coverage in early 1987 in the first issue of Nintendo Fun Club News – the predecessor to the company's official monthly magazine Nintendo Power – citing the arcade conversion to the NES. It was featured in the following Summer 1987 issue with a brief overview and expert tips. French magazine Tilt appreciated the game's graphics and sound, but thought its animation did not fare as well. German magazine Aktueller Software Markt highly commended Slalom's animations (particularly its use of scrolling and perspective) and said its sounds were mediocre. The magazine found the game fun, though unrealistic. Power Play and Gen4 similarly praised the animations. Though Gen 4 found the game unrealistic, they appreciated its depiction of speed and the gradual difficulty progression. Power Play liked the level and obstacle graphics. Gen 4 considered the graphics average for Nintendo, and disagreed internally as to whether the game was sufficiently fantastical. Power Play thought the game needed more variety and quickly became monotonous. AllGame editor Brett Alan Weiss's retrospective review was critical as he called Slalom "a rush job" that did not capture the spirit of skiing. He said that the game was repetitive, too simple, and not fun for adults. Weiss described the graphics as blocky and insipid, the sound as repetitive and derivative. He said that even though it was an early release in the console's lifespan, Slalom was on par with the 1979 Intellivision's capabilities. He recommended Konami's Antarctic Adventure for the ColecoVision instead. UK-based magazine Retro Gamer wrote that the game received little fanfare. The magazine's Stuart Hunt wrote in December 2010, on Rare's 25th anniversary, that the game was "fun but quite simplistic" in its lack of race variety. He said, though, that the game showcased how the company could maximize the system resources of the NES. Slalom was included in Rare Replay, a compilation of 30 Rare games, released on the Xbox One on August 4, 2015.
4,733,335	Junagarh Fort	1,162,655,836	Fort in Bikaner, Rajasthan, India	[ "1594 establishments in India", "Forts in Rajasthan", "Rajput architecture", "Tourist attractions in Bikaner" ]	Junagarh Fort is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. Raja Dhaj, Ror Kumar, ruled over the principality of Junagarh in the fifth century BC. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort. The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city (the first fort built by Rao Bikaji), about 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple. Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles. ## Geography Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh. ## History Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father's territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika's name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner ("the settlement of Bika") that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner's fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 760 feet (230 m). The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert. Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh's son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950. Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, whereafter the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort. Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalgarh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel. ## Structures The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called "a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration". ### Overview The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 1,078 yards (986 m). The fort walls are 14.5 feet (4.4 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) in height. It encompasses an area of 63,119 square yards (5.28 ha). It was surrounded by a moat which was 20–25 feet (6.1–7.6 m) deep with a base width of 15 feet (4.6 m) and top width of 30 feet (9.1 m). However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a "new stronghold" outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built. The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered "at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia". Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century. Gates While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun's rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self-immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle. Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle. ### Palaces Karan Mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh, and Surat Singh, also added a lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne. Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668. Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered one of the "grandest construction". Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room. Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained. Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds. Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city's by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said "They are the pride of Bikaner." ### Temples Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of God Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi. The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu God Krishna is deified in this temple. ## Fort museum The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum is established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms. ## Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.
26,278,373	Lil Freak	1,138,537,980	null	[ "2009 songs", "2010 singles", "Dirty rap songs", "LaFace Records singles", "Nicki Minaj songs", "Pop-rap songs", "Song recordings produced by Polow da Don", "Songs written by Blac Elvis", "Songs written by Ester Dean", "Songs written by Nicki Minaj", "Songs written by Polow da Don", "Songs written by Stevie Wonder", "Songs written by Usher (musician)", "Usher (musician) songs" ]	"Lil Freak" is a song by American recording artist Usher, taken from his sixth studio album, Raymond v. Raymond. Featuring guest vocals by Trinidadian recording artist Nicki Minaj, the song was written by her, Usher, Ester Dean, Blac Elvis and Polow da Don, the latter two producing the track. Its hook is based on a manipulated sample of American soul musician Stevie Wonder's 1973 hit, "Living for the City". "Lil Freak" was released as the second single from the album in the United States and Canada on March 2, 2010. Carrying a dark tone, composed of heavy bass beats derived from R&B and hip hop music, the lyrics are about the thrill of orchestrating a ménage à trois in a club. The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented its sensual nature. It peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, and eight on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, becoming Usher's 16th top ten hit on the latter chart. The song's accompanying music video has a secret society concept, dealing with an underground club, playing on the storyline of the song. ## Background In an interview with MTV News when asked if he was just entertaining, Usher said the song was based on real life, stating, "Yeah, I mean, I wrote about it. It happens in this day and time. Those are the best chicks to be friends with, honestly." Usher reiterated his statements in another interview with Access Hollywood, and when asked if he thought the racy lyrics would raise eyebrows, he said it would, commenting that that was an objective of the song. Usher also said that the work was like the dichotomy of Raymond v. Raymond, distinguishing one world from another, as in "playing the nice guy" or "showing the other side." Before official release, the song was leaked onto the Internet in December 2009. ## Composition The song is midtempo, with supported by heavy bass beats produced by Polow da Don, which Prefix Magazine called "Jurrasic Park synths". Chris Ryan of MTV News said "Usher pairs off with current queen MC Nicki Minaj, and the two glide over Polow Da Don's minimal bass beat." Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said that the "heavy back-beat tune confirms Usher's old ways: "Yeah you the business / So What's the business / Don't be shy, I'm just talkin' to you girl." Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called the heavily manipulated "Living for the City" sample, "a monstrous swirl of orchestral exoticism". Minaj makes several puns in her lines, one of them referring to Santa Claus's reindeer in a runthrough which Prefix Magazine reviewed negatively. She also refers to P. Diddy and Cassie in her lines, that she's "plotting on how I can take Cassie away from Diddy". ## Critical reception Critics positively received the song, complimenting Minaj's cameo and the track's production and lyrics. Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine thought that Usher should have gone with "Lil Freak" as the album's first big single, saying, "It (OMG) doesn't come close to matching the filthy heights of "Little Freak [sic]..." He also said the song was "by a wide margin, the best track to be leaked from Usher's long-delayed Raymond vs. Raymond album". In his initial reaction, he pointed out flaws of the song, but said that the song "could become unavoidable if it gets traction on radio". Chris Ryan of MTV News called the song, "slick, sexy hip-hop-infused R&B done to its finest". He also called the song "nothing short of freak nasty," and "is so full of sexy sexuality that it's enough to make Tiger Woods blush". Vibe magazine commented that "wedding ring is definitely off on this Usher cut", and that Nicki Minaj stole the scene in the song. Pitchfork Media commented favourably on the songs explicit nature, stating the song "isn't some R. Kelly-esque devotional hymn to sexual addiction", and that "The whole towering mess makes a drunken 3 a.m. threesome sound like the most epic endeavor anyone could hope for". The review also compared the song to Justin Timberlake's "Cry Me a River", stating, "it pushes into "Cry Me a River" territory for the same reason that "Cry Me a River" transcended: the gigantic, operatic backing track". ### Accolades ## Chart performance On the week ending March 20, 2010, "Lil Freak" debuted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100. It then fell to 66, but rebounded ten spots to 56, and later peaked at 40 on the chart. The song's appearance on the Hot Digital Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts at number 31 and 37, respectively, helped stabilize its stay on the Hot 100. "lil Freak" charted at number 28 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs months before its release due to it being leaked on the Internet. It eventually peaked at eight, and was Usher's third straight top ten hit on the chart, and 16th overall. According to Nielsen SoundScan, it has sold 508,000 units in the US as of October 3, 2010. Internationally, "Lil Freak" reached 109 on the UK Singles Chart. Usher performed the song in the United Kingdom on The Graham Norton Show on June 7, 2010. ## Music video ### Background and concept Usher and Minaj shot the music video on March 9, 2010 in Los Angeles with director Taj Stansberry, represented by Leah Harmony and Ciarra Pardo. In an interview with Vibe, Stansberry commented on the video's sex appeal and the pairing of Usher and Minaj, stating, "This probably has the potential to be [his sexiest video ever]. Usher’s one of the best entertainers in the world, then you have Nicki Minaj who’s fresh on the scene. Put them together and there’s just sparks, it was real good." When asked about the music video's concept would redefine the word "freak", commenting: > "My general idea was to take the word and show its many faceted sides, twisting and turning it to where there’s really no distinguishing between one freak and another. Usher went there. When you’re engaging in sexual activity, there are many transitions and this is not about what they look like literally, but what they look like metaphorically. It’s about luring people into a situation. Because you have your thoughts on a ménage à trois, but then we’re doing it in a non-obvious way." On Minaj and her pairing with Usher, Stansberry said, " [Nicki] had a few looks that I really liked. She played the part, but still was her. If you really listen to her words in the song, you can kinda visualize her outfit." Stansberry also confirmed that R&B singer Ciara and singer-actor Jamie Foxx would make appearances in the video. In an interview with MTV News on the set of her video for "Massive Attack", Minaj said that "The video is freaky. And it's a great concept, a great story line," Minaj told MTV News. "It felt just like one of the sequels to Saw. It was dope." Stating that the video had a "secret society" concept, Usher told Access Hollywood that the place symbolized locations where people use to get away from pressures, and also said the movie Eyes Wide Shut was some sort of inspiration of the video. On March 22, 2010 a thirty second preview of the music video was surfaced onto the internet. Two days later on March 24, 2010, Usher premiered the full music video on BET's 106 & Park. ### Synopsis and reception The video begins with a woman walking in a tunnel, and she enters and elevator with Minaj, sporting a Cruella de Vil hairstyle, and other women. The elevator goes to what MTV News calls "Usher's underground playground," then soon finds Usher against a wall. A laptop is shown, and the video goes on to show people who are there, including Ciara playing a casino game. Then, girls are performing choreography on poles, as Usher sings his verses on the wall in the tunnel. Nicki Minaj then comes to sing her verse and starts talking to the unknown woman who was in the tunnel with Usher, and then Minaj guides the woman somewhere. Foxx makes appears near the end of the video, with a red light on him. Usher sings the rest of the song on the wall in the tunnel with choreography from the women, until the video fades out. BET Sound Off complimented the video and that it stuck to the storyline of the song, stating "there's only but so much you can do with a video like this" without the video being banned, being labelled offensive, or "resemble a video we’ve already seen." ## Credits and personnel - Songwriting - Usher Raymond, Nicki Minaj, Polow da Don, Blac Elvis, Ester Dean, Stevie Wonder - Production - Blac Elvis, Polow da Don - Recording - Jay Stevenson - Mixing - Jaycen Joshua, assisted by Giancarlo Lino - Contains a sample from "Living For The City", written and performed by Stevie Wonder, courtesy of Motown Records. Source ## Charts ## Release history
25,532,618	1984–85 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season	1,171,786,010	Cyclone season in the Southwest Indian Ocean	[ "1984–85 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons", "Tropical cyclones in 1984", "Tropical cyclones in 1985" ]	The 1984–85 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an average cyclone season. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion. The first storm formed in mid-November, though it was not officially named. A few days later, the first official storm of the year (Anety) formed. In December, one storm formed. During January 1985, two tropical cyclones formed towards the end of the month. Three more systems developed in a short period of time in early to mid-February. After nearly two more months of inactivity, an unusually powerful late season storm developed (Helisaonina) in mid-April, which was the strongest storm of the year. While a number of storms during the season reached severe tropical storm status, only one of those intensified further. Even though two tropical cyclones this year made landfall, no known damage was recorded. ## Seasonal summary During the season, advisories were issued by Météo-France's (MFR) meteorological office at Réunion. At the time, the MFR area of warning responsibility was from the coast of Africa to 80° E, and the agency primarily used the Dvorak technique to estimate the intensities of tropical cyclones. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region, also tracked a long-lived tropical storm in November in addition to the 8 storms MFR named, which is comparable to the average of nine named storms per year. Following the season, the boundary for the basin was extended to 90° E. ## Systems ### Tropical Storm 01S According to the JTWC, a tropical depression formed on November 9 quite far from land. However, the system was never monitored by MFR. Tracking southwest throughout its lifetime, the JTWC upgraded the system into a tropical storm on November 11. Twelve hours later, the storm attained peak intensity of 50 mph (80 km/h). The storm gradually weakened, and at 0000UTC on November 14, it fell to a depression. On November 17, 01S was no more. ### Tropical Disturbance Anety Early on November 20, the JTWC reported that a tropical depression had developed. Shortly thereafter, MFR reported that a tropical disturbance had formed. The low moved west-southwest while gradually deepening. Late on November 20, MFR upgraded the system into a moderate tropical storm. The storm failed to intensify further as it had moved onshore northern Madagascar. By November 21, MFR estimated that the storm weakened back into a disturbance. After emerging into the Mozambique Channel, Anety reportedly re-intensified back to moderate tropical storm status. While making its closest approach to the African mainland, the storm resumed weakening while turning back southeast. On November 23, both agencies stopped monitoring the system. ### Moderate Tropical Storm Bobalahy During the morning hours of December 2, a tropical cyclone developed in extreme western portion of the Australian basin. After crossing the 80°E boundary that at that time separated the two basins the following day, MFR classified the system as a tropical depression. Early on December 4, the agency upgraded the system into a moderate tropical storm. Moving steadily southwest, it gradually intensified, only to turn west on December 5. That day, MFR reported that Moderate Tropical Storm Bobalahy had attained peak intensity of 45 mph (70 km/h). Around that time, the JTWC estimated that Bobalahy attained peak intensity of 65 mph (105 km/h). After maintaining peak intensity for a day or so, Bobalahy resumed a southwesterly path far from land while slowly weakening. On December 6, MFR downgraded the system into a tropical depression; the JTWC followed suit the next day. Now moving south-southwest, the JTWC stopped issuing advisories on the system as it had become extratropical. However, MFR continued to monitor the remnants of the system for four more days. ### Severe Tropical Storm Celestina Well away from land, the JTWC reported that a tropical disturbance developed on January 1. Initially, the storm remained weak, but later on January 11, the JTWC noted that the system had intensified into a tropical storm. Continuing to intensify, the storm moved towards the southwest. On January 12, MFR first classified the system; within six hours, it was declared a moderate tropical storm. As Celestina made a turn towards the south-southwest, MFR estimated that Celestina attained peak intensity as a severe tropical storm at 0600 UTC on January 13. According to the JTWC, the storm briefly developed hurricane-force winds; however, Celestina began to weakened thereafter. Moving south, Celestina was situated roughly 350 mi (565 km) east of Madagascar. Furthermore, on January 15, Celestina briefly re-intensified while undergoing a counterclockwise loop. By January 18, Celestina resumed a weakening trend; by that night, MFR downgraded the system into a tropical depression as it was now moving south-southwest. The storm was re-upgraded into a moderate tropical storm three days later, on January 21. However, this trend was short lived and that evening, the JTWC stopped monitoring the system. MFR followed suit at 0600 UTC on January 23. During its lifetime, Severe Tropical Storm Celestina brought rains to Reunion, peaking at 600 mm (25 in) in Trois-Bassins. ### Severe Tropical Storm Ditra Severe Tropical Storm Ditra originated from a tropical depression that the JTWC first warned on January 26. At first, the storm moved southwest, but once it developed gale-force winds, the system turned south. At 1800 UTC on January 27, MFR started monitoring the low; early the next morning, MFR upgraded the system into a moderate tropical storm. Twelve hours later, the JTWC estimated that Ditra had intensified into winds equal to a Category 1 on Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). During the early morning hours of January 29, Ditra intensified into a severe tropical storm as the storm briefly turned west-southwest. Shortly thereafter, the JTWC announced that Ditra had attained its peak intensity of 80 mph (130 km/h). While the JTWC suggests that the storm gradually weakened during this time, MFR suggests that Ditra continued to intensify; they estimated that Ditra peaked in intensity on 0600 UTC January 30. Around this time, Ditra made its closet approach to Reunion, passing about 150 mi (240 km) south-southeast of the island. After maintaining this intensity for several hours, Ditra rapidly weakened as it accelerated to the southeast. It steadily weakened and late on January 31, the JTWC reportedly downgraded the system into a depression. Both agencies stopped monitoring Tropical Depression Ditra the following day. On January 29, Dirta passed just east of Rodrigues, bringing heavy rains. ### Moderate Tropical Storm Esitera On February 9, MFR first classified the system as a tropical depression about 400 mi (645 km) east of the northern tip of Madagascar. Never warned on by the JTWC, the storm moved southwest. After briefly weakening into a tropical disturbance, the storm suddenly re-intensified into a moderate tropical storm as Esitera re-curved to the southwest. On February 11, MFR stopped keeping an eye on the system. ### Moderate Tropical Storm Gerimena On February 11, MFR reported that a moderate tropical storm formed over 700 mi (1,125 km) east of Reunion. The storm erratically drifted south for the two days when the JTWC declared the system a tropical depression. Subsequently, the system turned north-northwest and slowed. Data from the MF suggests that Moderate Tropical Storm Gerimena rapidly degenerated tropical disturbance before slowly re-intensifying; however, the JTWC suggests it gradually intensified. Before turning west, the JTWC upgraded the system into a tropical storm midday on February 14. According to the JTWC, Gerimena reached a secondary peak with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) before weakening a little. Meanwhile, MFR upgraded the system back to moderate tropical storm status. Slowly intensifying, Gerimena turned south. Although the JTWC suggest that Gerimena briefly weakened on January 18 while turning east, data from MFR shows that Gerimena did not weaken until 1800 UTC February 19. On January 20, however, both agencies agree that Gerimena started to re-intensify. The next day, the JTWC reported that the storm intensified into a hurricane even though MFR suggests that the system was just a disturbance by that time. Not long after becoming a hurricane, the JTWC remarked that Cyclone Gerimena had attained peak intensity. Shortly thereafter, data from the JTWC suggests that Gerimena weakened as it turned southeast. Then, it turned east-southeast. On February 24, Gerimena briefly level off in intensity while turning back to south. Furthermore, the JTWC stopped keeping an eye on Gerimena at 0000 UTC on February 26 as the storm re-curved east. However, MFR continued to track Gerimena until March 4 as it fluctuated in intensity. For several days, the storm dropped heavy rainfall on Réunion, reaching 756 mm (29.8 in). ### Severe Tropical Storm Feliska On February 12, MFR first designated what would later become Feliska while it was centered north of the Mozambique Channel. The next day, MFR downgraded Feliska into a tropical depression. Hours later, the JTWC first monitored the system. Drifting east, the depression gradually intensified. MFR reported that the system regained moderate tropical storm intensity at 1800 UTC that day. Early on February 13, the JTWC upgraded Feliska into a tropical storm as it turned north. While slowing gaining strength, Feliska turned east. By 0000 UTC February 16, MFR declared that Feliska attained peak intensity. Moreover, the JTWC suggested that Feliska had peaked in intensity, with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). Thereafter, Feliska turned south and start a slow weakening trend. On February 17, Feliska briefly weakened into a tropical depression. That night Feliska was re-upgraded into a moderate tropical storm as it made landfall along northeastern Madagascar. At that time of landfall, the JTWC estimated that Feliska was still a tropical storm. After moving inland, MFR stopped monitoring the system, though the JTWC kept tracking Feliska for another 24 hours as it headed southeast. ### Tropical Cyclone Helisaonina On April 10, MFR reportedly classified a low far from any land masses. Later that day, the JTWC upgraded Helisaonina into a tropical depression after turning from west to southwest. On April 11, MFR upgraded the system into a Severe Tropical Storm. At 0600 UTC the next day, the JTWC upgraded the system into a hurricane while MFR upgraded the system into tropical cyclone intensity. That evening, the JTWC announced that it had developed winds equivalent to Category 2 intensity. Two days after becoming a severe tropical storm, on April 13, the JTWC upgraded Helisaonina to the equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane. While undergoing a counterclockwise loop, the JTWC reported that Cyclone Helisaonina had peaked in intensity with 120 mph (195 km/h) winds. At that time, 000 UTC April 14, MFR estimated it attained peak wind speed, with winds of 90 mph (145 km/h). After attaining peak intensity, the storm weakened rapidly as it began to move west-northwest. Later that morning, MFR downgraded the system into a severe tropical storm. By April 15, MFR downgraded the system into a tropical depression. That very day, the JTWC reported that winds of Helisaonina had fallen below hurricane-force. During the morning hours of April 17, the JTWC downgraded Helisaonina into a depression. Shortly thereafter, MFR stopped monitoring the system. After re-curving just east of Madagascar, Helisaonina dissipated according to the JTWC on April 18. While the storm was looping close to Rodrigues, it produced wind gusts of 117 km/h (73 mph). ## See also - Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1984, 1985 - Eastern Pacific hurricane seasons: 1984, 1985 - Western Pacific typhoon seasons: 1984, 1985 - North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1984, 1985
25,558,721	Alvin C. Graves	1,166,986,258	American nuclear physicist	[ "1909 births", "1965 deaths", "20th-century American physicists", "American nuclear physicists", "Eastern High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni", "Los Alamos National Laboratory personnel", "Manhattan Project people", "Scientists from Washington, D.C.", "University of Chicago alumni", "University of Chicago faculty", "University of Texas faculty", "University of Virginia School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni" ]	Alvin Cushman Graves (November 4, 1909 – July 28, 1965) was an American nuclear physicist who served at the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II. After the war, he became the head of J (Test) Division at Los Alamos, and was director or assistant director of numerous nuclear weapons tests during the 1940s and 1950s. Graves was badly injured in the 1946 laboratory criticality accident in Los Alamos that killed Louis Slotin, but recovered. ## Early life Alvin Cushman Graves was born on November 4, 1909, in Washington, D.C., the youngest of six children. He was the son of Herbert C. Graves, an engineer with the Coast and Geodetic Survey and member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace after World War I. Graves attended Eastern High School, and graduated at the top of his class from the University of Virginia in 1931 with a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering. He attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for a year, but found that jobs were hard to come by during the Great Depression. He received a graduate fellowship to the University of Chicago, where he earned his Ph.D., writing his thesis on "Packing Fraction Differences Among Heavy Elements". At Chicago, Graves met and married Elizabeth Riddle, a physics major there, who was known as "Diz". Elizabeth Riddle Graves earned her Ph.D., writing her thesis on "Energy Release from Beryllium-9 (Alpha, Alpha) Lithium-7 and the Production of Lithium-7". Graves remained at the University of Chicago as a research fellow and an assistant professor until 1939, when he moved to the University of Texas. Elizabeth was unable to secure a job there as well due to its anti-nepotism rules. ## Manhattan Project In 1942 Graves was invited back to the University of Chicago by Arthur H. Compton. Graves had already received a request from the MIT Radiation Laboratory to work on radar, and he asked if he could contribute more to Compton's project. Compton replied that he could. He joined the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory, and helped build the first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. Graves, Harold V. Lichtenberger and Warren Nyer formed Enrico Fermi's "suicide squad" or "liquid-control squad", assigned to smash 5-US-gallon (19 L; 4.2 imp gal) glass bottles containing a solution of cadmium sulfate over the reactor with hammers if something went wrong. Cadmium is a strong neutron absorber and Fermi hoped that this would halt a runaway nuclear chain reaction, if the reactor control rods proved to be incapable of halting it in the first place. Graves and Elizabeth moved to work at Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico when it opened in 1943. He made it a condition of his going to Los Alamos that a job be found there for her. This was probably unnecessary, as someone with her skills—she was one of the few physicists who had experience with a Cockcroft–Walton generator—would have been quickly snapped up at Los Alamos. At the time of the Trinity nuclear test in 1945, Elizabeth was seven months pregnant with her first child. Graves therefore requested that they be assigned to a post far from the blast. They listened to Samuel K. Allison's countdown to the explosion on the radio, and monitored the radioactive fallout from the test, which took until the afternoon to reach them, with survey meters. The child was a healthy daughter, Marilyn Edith. Graves was badly injured in the 1946 laboratory criticality accident at Los Alamos that killed Louis Slotin. Slotin, who was training Graves to replace him in his position as chief bomb assembler for Los Alamos, was demonstrating the dangerous "tickling the dragon's tail" test to Graves and several other scientists when the accident occurred. Graves, who was nearest to Slotin, suffered an estimated dose of 390 roentgens, and was given a 50 percent chance of survival. This caused severe radiation poisoning, loss of hair, and a sperm count of zero. After two weeks of hospitalization and several weeks of convalescence, he seemed to have recovered fully, and in a few months was back at work and skiing vigorously, with only a bald spot on the head to show for the experience. Two years later he and his wife had a healthy child, their second, a son they named Alvin Palmer (currently a chemistry lecturer at Florida International University). ## Later life Graves became dismissive of the radiation risks from nuclear testing while serving as test director for the Nevada Test Site shots during the 1950s. He announced that the risks from fallout were "concocted in the minds of weak malingerers." As a spokesman for the Nevada Test Site, he spoke in local areas around Nevada assuring the population of no danger from the activities there. As the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory's J (Test) Division, he was the scientific director or deputy director of most of the nuclear tests from 1948 through the 1950s, including the Desert Rock exercises which exposed military personnel to radiation, and the Castle Bravo test that irradiated many native islanders and test personnel. Asked to testify before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy on the danger of radiation causing cancer, Graves replied: > The danger is not that this will happen to you. The danger is that it is more likely to happen to you. Maybe the more likely is not very much more likely, but it is still more likely. Graves was a pillar of the Los Alamos community. He was an active member of the non-denominational Protestant Community Church. With the encouragement of Elizabeth, who played the violin, he learned to play the cello, hoarding his petrol ration stamps so that he could travel to Santa Fe, New Mexico, for lessons. He played in the Los Alamos Symphony, accompanying local performances of Gilbert and Sullivan and Handel's Messiah. He was chairman of the board of the local bank, and a member of the local school board. Graves died of a heart attack on July 19, 1965, while skiing in Del Norte, Colorado, twenty years after the Slotin accident, at the age of 55. He had suffered from hypertension even before the 1946 accident, and had a minor heart attack in December 1955. His father had also died of a heart attack. A 1978 follow-up study of the Slotin accident victims suggested that latent systemic damage from the accident contributed to heart failure.
4,191,666	The X-Files: The Album	1,165,060,423	null	[ "1998 soundtrack albums", "Action film soundtracks", "Elektra Records soundtracks", "Science fiction film soundtracks", "The X-Files music", "Thriller film soundtracks" ]	The X-Files: The Album is a 1998 soundtrack album released to accompany the film The X-Files. Released on June 2, 1998, the album features songs by various artists, including several who had contributed to the earlier album Songs in the Key of X: Music from and Inspired by the X-Files, and consists mostly of cover versions or reworkings of earlier material. The X-Files: The Album received mostly positive criticism upon its release, and charted in several countries worldwide, recording a peak position of number 5 in New Zealand. ## Production Although The X-Files: The Album is the soundtrack to the 1998 film The X-Files, only one of the album's songs—"Crystal Ship" by X—is actually heard during the film, briefly playing on a jukebox during a brief scene, while "Teotihuacan" by Noel Gallagher and "Walking After You" by Foo Fighters play over the ending credits. The album's producer, David Was, intended to match the film's tone rather than using the songs as content, leading to several of the artists involved contributing material which would seem "uncharacteristically eerie" compared to their usual work. Many of the songs on The X-Files: The Album are cover versions or reworkings of earlier material—singer Sting collaborated with the group Aswad to perform a reggae cover of "Invisible Sun", which he had earlier recorded with The Police; Filter's "One" is a rearrangement of a song made famous by Three Dog Night; while Foo Fighters contributed a new version of their song "Walking After You". All but one of the album's tracks are exclusive to the soundtrack, with Björk's "Hunter" having been previously released on the 1997 album Homogenic. Several of the artists on the album's roster—Foo Fighters, Filter and Soul Coughing—had previously contributed material to Songs in the Key of X: Music from and Inspired by the X-Files, the soundtrack album which accompanied the television series; however, Chris Carter, creator of The X-Files, stated before the album's release that although "there are some similarities" between the records, "there are different artists and a different flavor". The inclusion of a track by the group Ween was spurred by fact that The X-Files star David Duchovny had first met then-wife Téa Leoni through their mutual appreciation for the group; while the Cranberries were approached about contributing material after Carter saw them performing on a tour of the United States. The Filter cover of "One" was deliberately constructed by Was once he realized that Duchovny had ad-libbed the song's opening line during one of the film's scenes. The album's final track—a cover by Dust Brothers of Mark Snow's opening theme for the television series—features a hidden track which plays after a period of silence. The track features a spoken word segment by Carter which explains the series' overarching mythology up to the film's release. ## Track listing ## Release The X-Files: The Album was first released on June 2, 1998, with international releases occurring between July and October that same year. The soundtrack appeared in several charts upon its release, reaching a peak position of 26 in the United States' Billboard 200 albums chart, 21 in Austria's Ö3 Austria Top 40, 27 in Australia's ARIA Charts, and 5—its highest chart position—in the Official New Zealand Music Chart. ## Reception The X-Files: The Album has received generally positive reviews. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine awarded the soundtrack four stars out of five, calling it "the best alt-rock soundtrack of the summer of 1998". Erlewine felt that the album was more polished and well-produced than Songs in the Key of X; however, he noted that this came at the expense of the earlier record's "quirky" and "off-kilter" aesthetic. Erlewine singled out "Beacon Light" and "Hunter" as particular highlights of the album. Jim Rogatis of the Chicago Sun-Times rated the album one-and-a-half stars out of four, finding the album to be predictable and "phone[d] in"; he highlighted the songs by Filter, Foo Fighters, Björk and Ween to be particular low points for him. Writing for Entertainment Weekly, David Browne rated the album a B−, finding that it "isn’t eccentric enough" compared to the film or series. Browne found that the contributions by Noel Gallagher and Ween matched the tone of The X-Files, but felt that Tonic, Filter, Sting and Aswad had been included out of commercial rather than artistic interest. Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club considered the soundtrack to be less interesting than the accompanying film score, finding the album's roster to be formulaic and several of its tracks to not be particularly "revelatory" or "radical".
27,814,100	Angry Birds (video game)	1,173,185,492	2009 puzzle video game	[ "2009 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "Angry Birds video games", "Bada games", "BlackBerry 10 games", "BlackBerry PlayBook games", "Cancelled Windows games", "Casual games", "Chillingo games", "D.I.C.E. Award winners", "Facebook games", "Fictional birds", "IOS games", "Lua (programming language)-scripted video games", "MacOS games", "Maemo games", "Mobile games", "PlayStation Network games", "Puzzle video games", "Rovio Entertainment games", "Single-player video games", "Symbian games", "Symbian software games", "Video games about birds", "Video games developed in Finland", "Video games scored by Ari Pulkkinen", "Webby Award winners", "Windows Phone games", "Windows games" ]	Angry Birds (later renamed to Red's First Flight and formerly known as Angry Birds Classic) is a 2009 casual puzzle video game developed by Finnish video game developer Rovio Entertainment. Inspired primarily by a sketch of stylized wingless birds, the game was first released for iOS and Maemo devices starting in December 2009. By October 2010, 12 million copies of the game had been purchased from the iOS App Store, which prompted the developer to design versions for other touchscreen-based smartphones, most notably Android, Symbian, Windows Phone, and BlackBerry 10 devices. The series has since expanded to include titles for dedicated video game consoles and PCs. A sequel, Angry Birds 2, was released in July 2015 for iOS and Android. Around April 2019, the original game was removed from the App Store. A paid recreation of the game's content from 2012 was released as Rovio Classics: Angry Birds on March 31, 2022, but later on, Rovio mentioned that they were removing it from the Google Play Store on February 23, 2023, and retitling it as Red’s First Flight. The gameplay revolves around players using a slingshot to launch the birds at green Pigs stationed in or around various structures, with the intent of destroying all the Pigs on the playing field. As players advance through the game, new types of birds become available (some with special abilities that can be activated by the player). Rovio Mobile has supported Angry Birds with numerous free updates that add additional game content, and the company has also released stand-alone holiday and promotional versions of the game. Angry Birds was eventually praised by critics for its success at leveraging a combination of addictive gameplay, comical style, and low price into a viable franchise with long-term potential for profit. The game's popularity has led to the release of Angry Birds games for personal computers and gaming consoles, created a market for merchandise featuring the Angry Birds characters, a 2016 feature-length animated film, a 2019 sequel to said film, and several seasons of television cartoons. The Angry Birds series had a combined tally of over five billion downloads across all platforms, as of April 2022, including special editions. After its release, the original game was called "one of the most mainstream games out in 2010", "one of the great runaway hits of 2010", and "the largest mobile app success the world has seen as of 2011". ## Gameplay In Angry Birds, the player controls a flock of multi-colored birds that are attempting to save their eggs from green-colored pigs. In each stage of the gameplay, the pigs are sheltered by structures made of various materials such as wood, glass, and stone resembling children's toy building blocks. The objective of the game is to eliminate all the pigs on the level. Using a slingshot, players launch a limited set of birds with the goal of either striking the enemy pigs directly or damaging their surrounding structures, causing the blocks to collapse and pop the pigs. The player must set the angle and force of the bird's travel by pulling back on the slingshot (using intuitive touch-controls in the mobile versions). The launch process is quick and casual, with no visible trajectory data, and a player simply selects a point in the X-Y field behind the launch post from which the virtual slingshot will be released. In various stages of the game, additional objects such as TNT crates and rocks are incorporated into the structures, and power-ups may be used to enhance the birds to attack hard-to-reach pigs. Also hidden in the levels, players can unlock bonus levels by collecting golden eggs. There are several different types of birds used in the game, distinguished by their color and shape. In the earliest levels only the basic red cardinal whose name is Red is available. As the player advances through the game additional types of birds become available. Some birds are effective against particular materials, and some have special abilities that may be activated by the player while the bird is airborne. For example, Chuck, a canary speeds up; Bomb, a loon explodes, hence the name; a bluebird named Jay fragments from his siblings, Jake and Jim; a Leghorn hen called Matilda can drop an explosive egg-shaped projectile; a galah named Stella can trap objects in bubbles; Hal, an emerald toucanet boomerangs back; a giant cardinal named Terence, appears and functions similarly to Red, but deals more damage than his smaller counterpart; and a Jamaican oriole named Bubbles expands and inflates. The pigs also vary, with hardiness relative to their size. Small pigs are weaker and are easily vanquished by direct hits or by debris from the damaged structures, while larger pigs are able to withstand more damage before succumbing to defeat. In addition, some pigs wear hats or armor, making them even more resistant to damage. Each level starts with the quantity, types, and firing order of birds predetermined. If all of the pigs are eliminated after the last bird is launched, the level is cleared and the next level is unlocked. If all of the birds run out and the pigs are not defeated, the level is failed and must be repeated. Points are scored for each pig defeated as well as for damage to, or destruction of, structures, and hefty bonus points are awarded for any unused birds. Upon completing each level, players can receive up to three stars depending on the score received. Players are encouraged to repeat any previously beaten levels in which the full three stars weren't awarded in order to fully master them and earn the full three star rating. ## Development In early 2009, Rovio was in a state of bankruptcy; the staff began viewing proposals for potential games. One such proposal came from senior game designer Jaakko Iisalo in the form of a simulated screenshot featuring some angry-looking birds with no visible legs or wings. While the picture gave no clue as to what type of game was being played, the staff liked the characters, and the team elected to design a game around them. In early 2009, physics games, such as Crush the Castle, were popular flash-based web games, so the Rovio team was inspired by these games. During the development of Angry Birds, the staff realized the birds needed an enemy. At the time, the "swine flu" epidemic was in the news, so the staff made the birds' enemies pigs. Angry Birds was the studio's 52nd produced game and on its initial release, the game did not sell many copies. After Angry Birds was a featured app on the UK App Store in February 2010 and quickly reached No. 1 there, it reached the No. 1 spot on the paid apps chart in the US App Store in the middle of 2010, staying in that milestone for 275 days. The initial cost to develop Angry Birds was estimated to exceed €100,000, not including costs for the subsequent updates. In terms of publishing for the iOS version, Rovio partnered with distributor Chillingo to publish the game to the App Store. Chillingo claimed to have participated in final game polishing, such as adding visible trajectory lines, pinch to zoom, pigs' grunts, birds' somersaults on landing. Since then Rovio has self-published almost all of the later ports of the game, with the exception of the PSP version, which was produced under license by Abstraction Games. When Rovio began writing new versions of the game for other devices, new issues came to light. As the team began working on a version for Android systems, they observed a large number of configurations of device types and versions of the Android software. The number of combinations of software version, processor speed and even user interfaces was significantly larger than that for the iOS version. Ultimately, the team settled on a minimum set of requirements, even though that left nearly 30 types of Android phones unable to run the game, including some newly released phones. It was released on October 15, 2010. One month after the initial release on Android, Rovio Mobile began designing a lite version of the game for these other devices. In early 2010, Rovio began developing a version of Angry Birds for Facebook. The project became one of the company's largest, with development taking over a year. The company understood the challenges of transplanting a game concept between social platforms and mobile/gaming systems. In a March 2011 interview, Rovio's Peter Vesterbacka said, "You can’t take an experience that works in one environment and one ecosystem and force-feed it onto another. It's like Zynga. They can’t just take FarmVille and throw it on mobile and see what sticks. The titles that have been successful for them on mobile are the ones they’ve built from the ground up for the platform." The Facebook version incorporate social-gaming concepts and in-game purchases and entered beta-testing in April 2011; the game became officially available on Facebook in February 2012 as Angry Birds Facebook (later Angry Birds Friends). Improvements for the game include the ability to synchronize the player's progress across multiple devices; for example, a player who completes a level on an Android phone can log into their copy of the game on an Android tablet and see the same statistics and level of progress. ## Release The initial iOS version of the game, which soft launched in Finland on December 1, 2009, and released internationally 10 days later, included a single episode entitled "Poached Eggs" which contained three themed chapters, each with 21 levels. From time to time, Rovio has released free upgrades that include additional content, such as new levels, new in-game objects and even new birds. As updates have been released, they have been incorporated into the game's full version offered for download from each platform's application store. The first update released on February 11, 2010, added a new episode called "Mighty Hoax", containing two new chapters with 21 levels each. Updates released on April 6, 2010, added the "Golden Eggs" feature, which placed hidden golden eggs throughout the game that would unlock bonus content when found, and a new episode called "Danger Above", which initially contained a single chapter of 15 levels, released on April 23 under version 1.3.0. Two later updates (released as version 1.3.2 on May 18, 2010, and version 1.3.3 on June 22, 2010, respectively) added two more chapters to "Danger Above", each with 15 levels. "The Big Setup" episode, released on July 16, 2010, as version 1.4.0, added a new chapter with 45 levels and additional Golden Egg levels. A fifth episode, called "Ham 'Em High", launched on December 23, 2010, in celebration of the game's first year in the iOS App Store. "Ham 'Em High" contained 15 American Old West-themed levels in a single chapter; updates on February 4, 2011 and March 17, 2011 each added one new 15-level chapter. "Ham 'Em High" also introduced the Mighty Eagle, a new bird that may be used once per hour to clear any uncompleted levels. The Mighty Eagle can also be used in previously completed levels, without the once-per-hour limit, to play a mini-game called "Total Destruction" in which the player attempts to destroy as much of the scenery as possible, both with the standard birds and the Mighty Eagle, achieving 100% destruction earns the player a Mighty Eagle feather for the level. The Mighty Eagle is offered as a one-time, in-game purchase, and was initially only available for iOS, as its App Store customers have iTunes accounts with pre-linked credit cards. In late 2011, Rovio also added the Mighty Eagle to the Chrome App version of the game. Rovio has begun testing an Android update called the "Bad Piggy Bank" with the Elisa wireless service in Finland and T-Mobile, which allows users to charge in-app purchases, such as the Mighty Eagle, to their mobile phone bills. The service went live on Android with the release of version 2.2.0 in August 2012, using Google Play's transaction system, which allows both mobile billing and credit cards, allowing both Android phones and WiFi-only tablets to unlock the features. This version also added the powerups from the Facebook version and added an option to pay to remove ads, allowing Android players to enjoy the game ad-free as iOS players do. The sixth episode, "Mine and Dine", was released on June 16, 2011, with 15 new mining-themed levels and a new Golden Egg. A July 25, 2011, update would release 15 further levels, and an August 25, 2011, update concluded "Mine and Dine" with the final 15 levels. The seventh update, "Birdday Party", was released on December 11, 2011, to commemorate the second anniversary of the first release of the iOS version into the iTunes App Store. It included 15 new birthday cake-themed levels, as well as updated graphics and the addition of elements from the spin-off games, such as the scoring graphic seen in Angry Birds Rio and the introduction of "Bubbles", the Orange Bird that first appeared in Angry Birds Seasons. The update was later released for Android and Microsoft Windows. The eighth update was released initially to iOS on March 20, 2012, in a lead-up to the release of Angry Birds Space. The new update included an animated tutorial, enhanced gameplay, all new UI graphics, and the first 15 levels of "Surf and Turf," the Angry Birds Facebook-exclusive episode (see below); another 15 levels were added later on August 2, 2012, with the iOS version receiving the power-ups first seen in the Facebook version. On October 9, 2012, the final chapter of "Surf and Turf" was released, along with a new episode called "Bad Piggies" meant to advertise the new Rovio game, Bad Piggies. Another update was released on December 11, 2012, the 3rd anniversary of the game's release, with 15 new levels to "Birdday Party" and 15 new levels to "Bad Piggies". The second set of 15 levels in "Birdday Party" introduced "Stella", the Pink Bird to the game. 15 final levels were later released for the "Bad Piggies" episode on March 7, 2013. On the same day these final 15 levels were released, Angry Birds became "Free App of the Week" on the Apple App Store until March 14, 2013, and became an instant hit on the Top Free App charts on the App Store until March 18, 2013, when the app returned to the normal price of \$0.99. On June 17, 2013, Rovio teased on its Facebook page that Red, the main protagonist of the game, would receive an ability in a new episode. On June 26, 2013, Rovio released a YouTube video, uncovering three new facts: the episode would be called Red's Mighty Feathers, the update would come in July, and the Angry Birds app icon would receive a new design. On July 3, 2013, the update was released, with fifteen levels of all-new game play. Instead of knocking over the pigs' castles, the player's goal is to keep the pigs from stealing the egg and leaving the playing field with it. The pigs arrive in waves of complicated vehicles, and the only available bird is Red, whose new ability is to target the nearest pig. There is no score, and the three stars are awarded by completing three objectives in one try. The first objective is to finish the level without getting the egg stolen. The second is to pop all the pigs in the level. The third is to use fewer than or equal to a certain number of birds to clear the level. Because some people were skeptical about the new gameplay, Rovio later announced that they would add levels to the episode based on the original level style. On September 16, 2013, Rovio added 15 levels to the episode using the original style and these levels include manual targeting for Red Bird. On November 26, 2013, Rovio added a 30-level episode called Short Fuse that transforms the Bomb's explosions into highly-destructive electrical pulses, adds a powerup that transforms any Bird into a Bomb Bird and 3 different potions that can change the pigs. On December 11, 2013, Rovio added 15 levels to episode Birdday Party (cake 4) to celebrate its fourth birthday. On March 4, 2014, 15 final levels were added to Short Fuse and the power-up icons were updated. On July 22, 2014, a 15-level episode called "Flock Favorites" that is inspired by fans' favorite episodes (Poached Eggs, Danger Above, Mine and Dine, Bad Piggies, Red's Mighty Feathers, Short Fuse, and Surf and Turf) was added. On November 23, 2014, in partnership with (RED) and Apple Inc., an update to the app was released that was exclusive to iOS. In this update, there was an added special (RED)-themed Golden Egg level and Red's power from the Red's Mighty Feathers episode as a stand-alone power-up, that when purchased, can be used indefinitely (1 use per level) and 100% of the money went to the Global Fund to end AIDS. This purchase was only available until December 7, 2014. On December 11, 2014, in honor of the Angry Birds' 5th birthday, an episode with 30 user-inspired levels was added. On June 23, 2015, Flock Favorites was added with a second and final slate of 15 levels inspired by previous episodes. On December 11, 2015, in honor of Angry Birds 6th birthday, new 15 levels were added to Birdday Party. On November 10, 2016, 21 levels were released as singular episode called "Bird Island" that promoted the Angry Birds Movie, though the levels didn't unlock for players until November 17. On December 10, 2016, in honor of Angry Birds' seventh birthday 15 more levels were released as an addition to Birdday Party (though the levels didn't unlock until December 17). In the following months, a newer episode called "Piggy Farm" would be released as a set of 15 levels on February 27, 2017, with two subsequent updates on March 30, 2017, and May 16, 2017, providing the next 15 levels and final 15 levels respectively. On the May 16 update, a dual virtual currency system was also added to the game, in which currency is earned throughout gameplay (or accrued through in-app purchases) and can be used to purchase power-ups and other in-game items. The next subsequent update, which released the first 15 levels of the last chapter "Jurassic Pork" and served to conclude the unresolved plot in "Piggy Farm", arrived on August 23, 2017, followed by an update of 15 more "Jurassic Pork" levels on September 15, 2017. The final levels of "Jurassic Pork" and the most recent levels of the game would release as a set of 16 levels on November 20, 2017. In spite of the upcoming 8th anniversary of the game, no new 'Birdday Party' levels would be released and all subsequent updates until the game's 2019 removal would solely feature bug fixes. ### Ports Since its initial release for the Nokia N900 multimedia Internet device, and Apple's iPhone and iPod Touch mobile digital devices, Rovio has released versions of Angry Birds for additional devices. An iPad-exclusive version, Angry Birds HD, was released with the iPad mobile digital device in April 2010. In August 2010, Angry Birds was made available to the Palm Pre phone running Palm's webOS operating system through its App Catalog online store. Symbian^3 phones received a version of the game in October 2010, which initially includes only the "Poached Eggs" and "Mighty Hoax" episodes. Angry Birds works on Kindle Fire and Kindle Fire HD. In May 2010, Rovio announced plans for a version for devices using Google's Android operating system, with a beta version being released through the Android Market (now Google Play) in September 2010. The full Android version of the game was first released instead on GetJar in October 2010, though it was subsequently released on Android Market within days. Rovio officials noted that GetJar had a more global reach than Android Market, and GetJar's availability on other smartphone platforms (including Symbian) would make cross-platform promotion of the game easier. Unlike the previous versions, Angry Birds for Android is a free, ad-supported application, as paid applications aren't available on Android in some nations. An update called "Bad Piggy Bank" enabled players to buy out the in-game ads. In October 2010, Microsoft suggested on one of its websites that a Windows Phone version of Angry Birds was in development. Rovio complained that Microsoft had not asked permission to make such a statement, noting that at that time it had not committed to design a Windows Phone version. Although Rovio asked Microsoft to revise its site to remove references to the game, a Windows Phone version was ultimately released in June 2011. Near the end of 2010, Rovio stated that it was developing new ports of the game, this time for devices outside of the mobile phone market. In January 2011, three of those ports launched. First, Sony announced the release of Angry Birds for its PlayStation Portable handheld system in the form of a PlayStation mini game that includes nearly 200 levels from the original game; the version is also playable on the PlayStation 3. Next, Rovio announced the release of a Windows version of the game on January 4, 2011, available for sale exclusively from the Intel AppUp center, which included 195 levels at launch and plans for exclusive features not available on the smartphone versions. One day after the Windows version was released, the Mac App Store launched, with one of the first offerings being its own version of Angry Birds. Ports of Angry Birds have also been proposed for the Wii and Nintendo DS systems, with the former becoming realized through Angry Birds Trilogy (see below). A 3D-enhanced version of the game was proposed for release on the LG Optimus 3D in October 2011. The popularity of Angry Birds has helped spread the game to other devices that were not initially designed as gaming machines. Barnes & Noble announced that a future update for its Nook Color e-reader will let the Android-based device run applications, including a port of Angry Birds. In June 2011, Rovio announced plans to partner with Roku to include a version of Angry Birds on a new model of its Internet-connected set-top box, the Roku 2 XS. In May 2011, an in-browser HTML5 version of Angry Birds was released in beta form. The game uses WebGL or Canvas and is distributed through the Chrome Web Store for use with Google's Chrome web browser. It runs on any WebGL- or Canvas-enabled browser, and features exclusive content when played on Chrome, such as exclusive levels and the so-called "Chrome Bombs". The version includes offline playability and features 60 FPS gameplay with a selection of graphics settings to accommodate a variety of hardware capabilities. In October 2011, during Nokia World 2011, it was announced that Angry Birds would come preloaded in Nokia's Asha series of Series 40 touch handsets, aimed at emerging markets such as India, China and South Africa. In December 2011, Rovio released Angry Birds HD, Angry Birds Seasons HD, and Angry Birds Rio HD on the BlackBerry PlayBook tablet from Research In Motion. In January 2012, Angry Birds was released for devices using Bada OS. In February 2012, Angry Birds made its official debut on Facebook. It is known as Angry Birds Friends since May 23, 2012. The version launched with two chapters from the original game, along with then exclusive "Surf and Turf" chapter. The Facebook version adds a number of new power-up items, with a maximum of two in use per level. For example, the Power Potion power-up (Formerly known as the Super seeds) will make the launched bird larger and thus more powerful, while the King Sling power-up makes the slingshot stronger and able to launch birds higher and faster. Power-ups can be purchased in-game or given by friends who also play the game. "Surf and Turf" would later be included in the original mobile versions of the game, starting with iOS. The Facebook version features weekly tournaments among your friends, with the top 3 winners earning free in-game "Bird Coins" which can be used to purchase power-ups. There was a unique Green Day themed episode in the Facebook version of the game; however, it was removed in December 2012. At the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles, California, Rovio and distribution partner Activision announced plans to bring Angry Birds and two of its spin-off games, Angry Birds Seasons and Angry Birds Rio to the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo 3DS systems. Bundled together as Angry Birds Trilogy, the games were built specifically for their respective consoles, taking advantage of their unique features, such as support for PlayStation Move, Kinect, high-definition displays, and glasses-free 3D visuals. Trilogy was also ported to the Wii and Wii U almost a year later. A motion controlled version of the game has also been released as a Samsung Smart TV App. On April 28, 2015, it was also announced that the game was also released on Tizen smartphones by running with OpenMobile's Application Compatibility Layer (ACL) emulation technology. ### \#BringBack2012 and Rovio Classics: Angry Birds In early 2019, several games in the franchise, including the original title, were unexplainably removed from the App Store and Google Play. Fans of the original game adopted the hashtag \#BringBack2012 to demand the relisting of the removed games. Responding to the campaign, Rovio explained the removal of the games in a blog post citing software rot and the expiration of licensing deals. On March 31, 2022, Rovio released a new version of the original game titled Rovio Classics: Angry Birds marketed to its older fanbase. It is a remake of the game's state in 2012, replacing its proprietary engine with Unity for compatibility with newer and future devices. The remake also notably lacks microtransactions and pop-up advertisements in favor of a traditional revenue model. In February 2023, Rovio announced that Rovio Classics: Angry Birds would be unlisted from the Google Play store and renamed to Red’s First Flight on the App Store. According to Rovio, the delistings and renames were "due to the game's impact on our wider games portfolio". ## Reception In reviews, Angry Birds has been praised by critics. Chris Holt of Macworld called the game "an addictive, clever, and challenging puzzler", and Pocket Gamer's Keith Andrew said Angry Birds is "a nugget of puzzling purity dished out with relish aplenty". Jonathan Liu of Wired News wrote that "going for the maximum number of stars certainly adds a lot of replay value to a fairly extensive game". Reviews for the first versions of the game that did not use a touch-screen, the PlayStation 3/PSP version and the Windows version, have also been positive, but with some disagreement over the different interfaces. Will Greenwald of PC Magazine, in his review of the PlayStation Network version, said that the control scheme on these platforms is good, "but they're not nearly as satisfying as the touch-screen controls found on smartphone versions", and that the PlayStation 3 version appeared "blocky and unpleasant, like a smartphone screen blown up to HDTV size". Conversely, Greg Miller of IGN preferred the analog control setup of the PSP version, saying it "offered me tiny variances in control that I don't feel like I get with my fat finger on a screen". While giving the game a positive review, Miller concluded, "There's no denying that Angry Birds is fun, but it could use polish – such as sharper visuals, a better price and smoother action." Damien McFerrin of British website Electric Pig reviewed the PC version, saying "the mouse-driven control method showcases many distinct advantages over its finger-focused counterpart". Angry Birds has also been described critically as impossible to understand the playing rules criteria by game critic Chris Schiller of Eurogamer.net, which has 'a contemptuous attitude towards its players, keeping them just frustrated enough not to switch off and play something else instead.' Angry Birds became the top-selling paid application on Apple's UK App Store in February 2010, and reached the top spot on the US App Store a few weeks later, where it remained until October 2010. Since release, the free, limited version of Angry Birds has been downloaded more than 11 million times for Apple's iOS, and the full-featured paid version has been downloaded nearly 7 million times as of September 2010. The Android version of the game was downloaded more than 1 million times within the first 24 hours of release, even though the site crashed at one point due to the load, and over 2 million downloads in its first weekend. Rovio receives approximately US\$1 million per month in revenue from the advertising that appears in the free Android version. According to Rovio, players logged more than 5 million hours of game time each day across all platforms, with the series having 200 million monthly active users, as of May 2012. In November 2010, Digital Trends stated that "with 36 million downloads, Angry Birds is one of the most mainstream games out right now". MSNBC's video game news blog has written that "[n]o other game app comes close" to having such a following. The Christian Science Monitor has remarked, "Angry Birds has been one of the great runaway hits of 2010". In December 2010, in honor of the one-year anniversary of the release of Angry Birds, Rovio Mobile announced that the game had been downloaded 50 million times, with more than 12 million on iOS devices and 10 million on Android. By January 2014, the Angry Birds series had reached 2 billion downloads, including Angry Birds, Angry Birds Seasons, Angry Birds Rio, Angry Birds Space, Angry Birds Star Wars I and II, and Angry Birds Go! On Christmas Day 2011 alone, 6.5 million copies of the various Angry Birds games were downloaded across all supported platforms. In the history of the Apple App Store, Angry Birds holds the record for most days at the top of the Paid Apps chart, having spent a total of 275 days at the No.1 position; Angry Birds Rio has been No.1 for a total of 23 days, ranking ninth on the list. In Apple's "iTunes Rewind" list of the most popular iTunes Store media for 2011, Angry Birds was the top-selling paid iPhone/iPod app on the App Store and its free version was the fourth-most downloaded. The game's two special-edition versions, Angry Birds Seasons and Angry Birds Rio, were also ranked in the top 10 for paid iPhone/iPod apps, while its iPad-exclusive Angry Birds HD versions were the top-selling and top-downloaded iPad apps for the year. Mattel also made a few board games based on the app. These were called Angry Birds: Knock on Wood, Angry Birds: On Thin Ice, and Angry Birds: Mega Smash. ### Awards In February 2010, Angry Birds was a nominee for the "Best Casual Game" award at the 6th annual International Mobile Gaming Awards in Barcelona, Spain. In September 2010, IGN named Angry Birds as the fourth best iPhone game of all time. In April 2011, Angry Birds won both the "Best Game App" and "App of the Year" at the UK Appy Awards. At the 2011 Webby Awards, Angry Birds was awarded "Best Game for Handheld Devices". At the 14th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards), Angry Birds HD was awarded "Casual Game of the Year", and also received nominations for "Outstanding Innovation in Gaming" and "Game of the Year". It is the first mobile app game in the ceremony's history to be nominated for "Game of the Year". ## Sequel In 2015, a sequel, Angry Birds 2, was released, featuring two new birds, a Peale's falcon named Silver, a potoo named Melody, as well as a playable pig named Leonard, who originated from the Angry Birds movies. ## See also - The Angry Birds Movie
11,209,352	Music of Final Fantasy IV	1,171,550,574	Music from the video game Final Fantasy IV	[ "Final Fantasy IV", "Final Fantasy music", "Video game music discographies", "Video game soundtracks" ]	The music of the video game Final Fantasy IV was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu. The Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version, a compilation of almost all of the music in the game, was released by Square Co./NTT Publishing, and subsequently re-released by NTT Publishing. It was released in North America by Tokyopop as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack: Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles, with one additional track. It has since been re-released multiple times with slight changes as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box and as Final Fantasy IV DS OST. An arranged album entitled Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon, containing a selection of musical tracks from the game performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach, was released by Square and later re-released by NTT Publishing. Additionally, a collection of piano arrangements composed by Nobuo Uematsu and played by Toshiyuki Mori titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was released by NTT Publishing. The music was overall well received; reviewers have praised the quality of the original composition despite the limitations of the medium, and reacted favorably to the arranged soundtracks. Several tracks, especially "Theme of Love", remain popular today, and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series, as well as being published in arranged and compilation albums by Square as well as outside groups. ## Concept and creation Uematsu has noted that the process of composing was excruciating, involving trial and error and requiring the sound staff to spend several nights in sleeping bags at Square Co. headquarters. He blamed much of the problem on the fact that this was his first soundtrack to use the new Super Famicom hardware, as opposed to his previous soundtracks composed for the Famicom. The liner notes for the Final Fantasy IV OSV album were humorously signed as being written at 1:30 AM "in the office, naturally". Uematsu has stated that, beginning with the soundtrack to Final Fantasy IV, he started to move away from the idea that the soundtrack had to be solely an orchestral score. In June 2007, Square Enix held a casting for a vocalist to sing a version of Final Fantasy IV'''s "Theme of Love" rearranged by Nobuo Uematsu. Megumi Ida was selected from approximately 800 applicants to perform the song, which was featured on the Japanese Nintendo DS remake of the game, as well as the accompanying soundtrack album. ## Albums ### Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album containing the musical tracks from the game, composed, arranged, produced and performed by Nobuo Uematsu. It spans 44 tracks and covers a duration of 58:25. It was first released on June 14, 1991, by Square Co./NTT Publishing, and subsequently re-released on November 26, 1994, and October 1, 2004, by NTT Publishing. The original release bears the catalog number N23D-001, and the re-release bears the catalog number NTCP-5014. After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Sony PlayStation as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles, the album was released in North America by Tokyopop on August 21, 2001 as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack: Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles. This is nearly the same release as Final Fantasy IV: Original Sound Version, some track titles were slightly changed, and a 45th track was added, "Theme of Love (Arranged)", which had previously only been released as a piano version on the second track of Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV. This release has the catalog numbers TPCD 0210-2. The GBA version was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28, 2007 under the catalog number FFFB-0001 along with the OSTs of V and VI after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance. This version included several tracks which were not included in the original album, such as the "Chocobo Forest" theme, the music for the dancing girl, the short intro to "Cry in Sorrow/Sorrow and Loss", and various fanfares. After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Nintendo DS, a new version of the Soundtrack arranged by Junya Nakano and Kenichiro Fukui, respectively, was released in Japan in January 2008 as Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack. Most of the pieces are the same as on the original album, although they were reproduced for the sound hardware of the DS, with new synthesizer effects. A new version of "Theme of Love" was included, with lyrics sung by Megumi Ida. It was released as a two-disk set with a bonus DVD containing the full motion video included in the re-releases of Final Fantasy IV, and has the catalog numbers SQEX-10105-7. This version of "Theme of Love" was also released as a single, entitled Moonlight -Final Fantasy IV Theme of Love-. The single also includes the DS version of the song, the original track, and a karaoke version of the Megumi Ida rendition. It was released along with a bonus DVD containing a music video for the song on December 5, 2007 with the catalog numbers of BVCR-19727-8 and a duration of 16:21. Final Fantasy IV OSV sold over 164,000 copies. It was well received; reviewers have praised the quality of the composition despite the limited medium. Soundtrack Central compared it favorably with Uematsu's later works, especially the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI, and termed it a "great CD". However, the length of several tracks as well as of the album as a whole was criticized, with reviewers finding it "too short" and disapproving of the early fade-out of some tracks. Reviewers found the expanded and remastered version found in the Finest Box to be comparable to the quality of the original album, with some tracks improving in their remake, becoming "deeper" or "sharper" as was appropriate. A new edition of the soundtrack, Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack Remaster Version, was released by Square Enix on July 3, 2013. This version is expanded to two discs, allowing the tracks to play through two loops rather than just one, as well as the addition of a few short pieces that were left off of the original recording. Despite the name, the album features the original Super NES version of the music, rather than a more modern synthesizer sound. The album has the catalog number SQEX-10373\~4, and its 57 tracks have a duration of 1:32:40. Joshua Bateman of RPGFan stated that while the remaster edition wasn't strictly necessary, given that Square Enix still sold the original version online, the new edition was still a superior version and an important step in preserving classic video game music. <table> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><p>Track listing</p></th> <th><p>\|</p></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><table> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><p>#</p></th> <th><p>Japanese title (Romanization)</p></th> <th><p>English title<br /> (literal translation if different)</p></th> <th><p>Length</p></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1.</p></td> <td><p>プレリュード (Pureryūdo)</p></td> <td><p>"The Prelude"</p></td> <td><p>1:13</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>2.</p></td> <td><p>赤い翼 (Akai tsubasa)</p></td> <td><p>"The Red Wings"</p></td> <td><p>2:06</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>3.</p></td> <td><p>バロン王国 (Baron Ōkoku)</p></td> <td><p>"Kingdom of Baron"</p></td> <td><p>1:10</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>4.</p></td> <td><p>愛のテーマ (Ai no Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Theme of Love"</p></td> <td><p>1:49</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>5.</p></td> <td><p>オープニング (Ōpuningu)</p></td> <td><p>"Prologue"<br /> ("Opening")</p></td> <td><p>1:10</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>6.</p></td> <td><p>街のテーマ (Machi no Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Welcome to Our Town!"<br /> ("Town Theme")</p></td> <td><p>0:49</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>7.</p></td> <td><p>ファイナルファンタジーIV メインテーマ (Fainaru Fantajī Fō Mein Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY IV"</p></td> <td><p>1:25</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>8.</p></td> <td><p>バトル1 (Batoru 1)</p></td> <td><p>"Battle 1"</p></td> <td><p>1:00</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>9.</p></td> <td><p>勝利のファンファーレ (Shōri no Fanfāre)</p></td> <td><p>"Fanfare"<br /> ("Victory Fanfare")</p></td> <td><p>0:25</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>10.</p></td> <td><p>デブチョコボ登場 (Debu Chokobo Tōjō)</p></td> <td><p>"Enter Fat Chocobo"</p></td> <td><p>0:24</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>11.</p></td> <td><p>チョコボ (Chokobo)</p></td> <td><p>"Chocobo Chocobo"<br /> ("Chocobo")</p></td> <td><p>0:30</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>12.</p></td> <td><p>ダンジョン (Danjon)</p></td> <td><p>"Into the Darkness"<br /> ("Dungeon")</p></td> <td><p>1:21</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>13.</p></td> <td><p>バトル2 (Batoru 2)</p></td> <td><p>"Battle 2"</p></td> <td><p>1:13</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>14.</p></td> <td><p>ボムの指輪 (Bomu no Yubiwa)</p></td> <td><p>"Bomb Ring"</p></td> <td><p>0:52</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>15.</p></td> <td><p>少女リディア (Shōjo Ridia)</p></td> <td><p>"Rydia"<br /> ("Little Girl Rydia")</p></td> <td><p>1:01</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>16.</p></td> <td><p>ダムシアン城 (Damushian jō)</p></td> <td><p>"Damcyan Castle"</p></td> <td><p>1:03</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>17.</p></td> <td><p>哀しみのテーマ (Kanashimi no Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Sorrow and Loss"<br /> ("Theme of Sorrow")</p></td> <td><p>1:01</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>18.</p></td> <td><p>ギルバートのリュート (Girubāto no Ryūto)</p></td> <td><p>"Edward's Harp"<br /> ("Gilbart's Lute")</p></td> <td><p>0:54</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>19.</p></td> <td><p>試練の山 (Shiren no Yama)</p></td> <td><p>"Mt. Ordeals"</p></td> <td><p>1:18</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>20.</p></td> <td><p>ファブール国 (Fabūru koku)</p></td> <td><p>"Fabul"<br /> ("Fabul Country")</p></td> <td><p>1:35</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>21.</p></td> <td><p>脱出 (Dasshutsu)</p></td> <td><p>"Run!"<br /> ("Escape")</p></td> <td><p>0:24</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>22.</p></td> <td><p>疑惑のテーマ (Giwaku no Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Suspicion"<br /> ("Theme of Suspicion")</p></td> <td><p>0:37</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>23.</p></td> <td><p>黒い甲冑ゴルべーザ (Kuroi katchū Gorubēza)</p></td> <td><p>"Golbez, Clad in Darkness"<br /> ("Black-armored Golbeza")</p></td> <td><p>1:00</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>24.</p></td> <td><p>親方シド (Oyakata Shido)</p></td> <td><p>"Hey Cid!"<br /> ("Master Cid")</p></td> <td><p>0:55</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>25.</p></td> <td><p>ミシディア国 (Mishidia koku)</p></td> <td><p>"Mystic Mysidia"<br /> ("Misidia Country")</p></td> <td><p>1:19</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>26.</p></td> <td><p>長い道のり (Nagai Michinori)</p></td> <td><p>"A Long Way to Go"</p></td> <td><p>0:45</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>27.</p></td> <td><p>パロム・ポロムのテーマ (Paromu, Poromu no Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Palom and Porom"<br /> ("Palom and Porom's Theme")</p></td> <td><p>0:37</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>28.</p></td> <td><p>ゴルべーザ四天王とのバトル (Gorubēza Shitennō to no Batoru)</p></td> <td><p>"Battle With the Four Fiends"<br /> ("Battle With Golbeza's Four Fiends")</p></td> <td><p>1:39</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>29.</p></td> <td><p>飛空挺 (Hikūtei)</p></td> <td><p>"The Airship"</p></td> <td><p>0:55</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>30.</p></td> <td><p>トロイア国 (Toroia koku)</p></td> <td><p>"Troian Beauty"<br /> ("Toroia Country")</p></td> <td><p>1:23</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>31.</p></td> <td><p>サンバ・デ・チョコボ (Sanba de Chokobo)</p></td> <td><p>"Samba de Chocobo!"</p></td> <td><p>0:45</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>32.</p></td> <td><p>バブイルの塔 (Babuiru no Tō)</p></td> <td><p>"Tower of Bab-il"<br /> ("Tower of Babil")</p></td> <td><p>1:31</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>33.</p></td> <td><p>一方その頃 (Ippō sono koro)</p></td> <td><p>"Somewhere in the World..."<br /> ("Meanwhile, At This Time...")</p></td> <td><p>0:33</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>34.</p></td> <td><p>ドワーフの大地 (Dowāfu no Daichi)</p></td> <td><p>"Land of Dwarves"</p></td> <td><p>1:04</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>35.</p></td> <td><p>キング・ジォットの城 (Kingu Jotto no Shiro)</p></td> <td><p>"Giott, King of the Dwarves"<br /> ("King Giott's Castle")</p></td> <td><p>0:57</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>36.</p></td> <td><p>踊る人形カルコブリーナ (Odoru Ningyō Karukoburīna)</p></td> <td><p>"Dancing Calbrena"<br /> ("Dancing Doll Calcobrena")</p></td> <td><p>0:32</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>37.</p></td> <td><p>ゾットの塔 (Zotto no Tō)</p></td> <td><p>"Tower of Zot"</p></td> <td><p>1:05</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>38.</p></td> <td><p>幻獣の街 (Genjū no Machi)</p></td> <td><p>"The Land of Summons"<br /> ("Town of Mythical Beasts")</p></td> <td><p>1:14</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>39.</p></td> <td><p>魔導船 (Madōsen)</p></td> <td><p>"Lunar Whale"<br /> ("Magic Ship")</p></td> <td><p>1:08</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>40.</p></td> <td><p>もう一つの月 (Mō Hitotsu no Tsuki)</p></td> <td><p>"Another Moon"</p></td> <td><p>1:06</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>41.</p></td> <td><p>月の民 (Tsuki no Tami)</p></td> <td><p>"The Lunarians"<br /> ("People of the Moon")</p></td> <td><p>1:16</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>42.</p></td> <td><p>巨人のダンジョン (Kyojin no Danjon)</p></td> <td><p>"Within the Giant"<br /> ("Giant's Dungeon")</p></td> <td><p>1:27</p></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>43.</p></td> <td><p>最後の闘い (Saigo no Tatakai)</p></td> <td><p>"The Final Battle"</p></td> <td><p>1:55</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>44.</p></td> <td><p>エンディング・テーマ (Endingu Tēma)</p></td> <td><p>"Epilogue"<br /> ("Ending Theme")</p></td> <td><p>11:37</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table></td> <td></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> ### Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon is a selection of musical tracks from the game, arranged and performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach. It spans 15 tracks and covers a duration of 52:36. It was first released on October 28, 1991, in Japan, and subsequently re-released on November 26, 1994, and on October 1, 2004, by NTT Publishing. The original release bears the catalog number N30D-006, the first re-release bears the catalog number PSCN-5017, and the most recent re-release has the catalog number NTCP-5017. The album sold over 26,000 copies. Overall reception of Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon was also positive, though some reviewers felt that several of the tracks were of lesser quality than the rest of the album. Patrick Gann of RPGFan described it as spectacular, and Matt Brady of Final Fantasy Symphony concurred, saying that the "music quality for this soundtrack was spectacular". Daniel Space of RPGFan, however, found the quality mixed, and said that "some of the pieces do not live up to the new orchestration", although others "were a delight to hear". He also found some of the instruments to be slightly out of tune, which he disliked, though Matt Brady felt it gave the pieces an "ethnic feel". ### Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV is a collection of Final Fantasy IV music composed by Nobuo Uematsu, arranged by Shiro Satou and played on piano by Toshiyuki Mori. It spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 57:24. It was first published by NTT Publishing on April 21, 1992, and subsequently re-published on May 23, 2001. The original release bears the catalog number N38D-010, and the reprint bears the catalog number NTCP-1001. Critical reception for Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was positive, with reviewers terming the album "fantastic". Damian Thomas of RPGFan said that the album was "a true gem" and said that despite his dislike of piano arrangements, he "truly appreciated" the album. Some reviewers felt that the pieces in the album were "simplistic", especially in comparison to the piano collections for Final Fantasy V and VI, but said that "its simplicity calls for a different feeling, and it is still great" and that despite the lack of complexity, "all of the songs...are extremely nicely done". ### Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album is a 6 track Mini CD EP released on September 5, 1991 by NTT Publishing Co. It contains unreleased and arranged tracks from the original soundtrack. The catalog number is N09D-004 and it has a total playing time of 20:25. ## Legacy The music of Final Fantasy IV has remained popular since its release, especially in Japan. The track "Theme of Love" has even been taught to Japanese school children as part of the music curriculum. Additionally, The Black Mages have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy IV. These are "Battle with the Four Fiends", an arrangement of "The Dreadful Fight", and "Zeromus", an arrangement of "The Final Battle", both of which can be found on the album The Skies Above, published in 2004. A lyrical version of "Theme of Love", sung by Risa Ohki, appeared on Final Fantasy: Pray, a compilation album produced by Square. Additionally, lyrical versions of "Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY IV" and "Edward's Harp", sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi, appeared on Final Fantasy: Love Will Grow. Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends: Music from Final Fantasy concert series. The music of Final Fantasy IV has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums, such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY, a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game. "Red Wings", "Theme of Love", and "Ending Theme", were played by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in their first Orchestral Game Concert in 1991 as part of a five concert tour, which was later released as a series of albums. Additionally, "Theme of Love" was performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour, as well as by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon: Music from Final Fantasy concert series. Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy IV music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix, which focuses on arranging video game music. Another popular album release was Echoes of Betrayal, Light of Redemption, an unofficial download-only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on July 19, 2009 containing 54 remixes over 4 "discs". Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums, called dojin music, and on English remixing websites.
2,447,662	HMS Cressy (1899)	1,165,141,505	1899 Cressy-class armored cruiser	[ "1899 ships", "Cressy-class cruisers", "Maritime incidents in September 1914", "Protected Wrecks of the United Kingdom", "Ships built in Govan", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "Ships sunk by German submarines in World War I", "Steamships of the United Kingdom", "World War I cruisers of the United Kingdom", "World War I shipwrecks in the North Sea" ]	HMS Cressy was a Cressy-class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy around 1900. Upon completion she was assigned to the China Station. In 1907 she was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station before being placed in reserve in 1909. Recommissioned at the start of World War I, she played a minor role in the Battle of Heligoland Bight a few weeks after the beginning of the war. Cressy and two of her sister ships were torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine U-9 on 22 September 1914 with the loss of 560 of her crew. ## Design and description Cressy was designed to displace 12,000 long tons (12,190 t). The ship had an overall length of 472 feet (143.9 m), a beam of 69 feet 9 inches (21.3 m) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches (8.2 m). She was powered by two 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, which produced a total of 21,000 indicated horsepower (15,660 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). The engines were powered by 30 Belleville boilers. On her sea trials, Cressy only reached 20.7 knots (38.3 km/h; 23.8 mph), the slowest performance of any of her class. She carried a maximum of 1,600 long tons (1,600 t) of coal and her complement ranged from 725 to 760 officers and ratings. Her main armament consisted of two breech-loading (BL) 9.2-inch (234 mm) Mk X guns in single gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. They fired 380-pound (170 kg) shells to a range of 15,500 yards (14,200 m). Her secondary armament of twelve BL 6-inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships. Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather. They had a maximum range of approximately 12,200 yards (11,200 m) with their 100-pound (45 kg) shells. A dozen quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder 12-cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats, eight on casemates on the upper deck and four in the superstructure. The ship also carried three 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged torpedo tubes. The ship's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches (152 mm) and was closed off by 5-inch (127 mm) transverse bulkheads. The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick. The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1–3 inches (25–76 mm) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches (305 mm) of armour. ## Service history Cressy, named after the 1346 Battle of Crécy, was laid down by Fairfield Shipbuilding at their shipyard in Govan, Scotland on 12 October 1898 and launched on 4 December 1899. After finishing her sea trials she passed into the fleet reserve at Portsmouth on 24 May 1901. She was commissioned for service on the China Station on 28 May 1901, but her departure was delayed for several months when her steering gear broke down shortly after leaving the base and she had to return. She eventually left home waters in early October 1901, arriving at Colombo on 7 November, and then Singapore on 16 November. She was assigned to the North America and West Indies Station from 1907 through 1909 and placed in reserve upon her return home. The ship was assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron shortly after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. The squadron was tasked with patrolling the Broad Fourteens of the North Sea in support of a force of destroyers and submarines based at Harwich which protected the eastern end of the English Channel from German warships attempting to attack the supply route between England and France. During the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August, the ship was part of Cruiser Force 'C', in reserve off the Dutch coast, and saw no action. After the battle, Rear Admiral Arthur Christian ordered Cressy to take aboard 165 unwounded German survivors from the badly damaged ships of Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt's Harwich Force. Escorted by her sister Bacchante, she set sail for the Nore to unload their prisoners. ### Fate On the morning of 22 September, Cressy and her sisters, Aboukir and Hogue, were on patrol without any escorting destroyers as these had been forced to seek shelter from bad weather. The three sisters were steaming in line abreast about 2,000 yards (1,800 m) apart at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). They were not expecting submarine attack, but had lookouts posted and one gun manned on each side to attack any submarines sighted. The weather had moderated earlier that morning and Tyrwhitt was en route to reinforce the cruisers with eight destroyers. U-9, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Otto Weddigen, had been ordered to attack British transports at Ostend, but had been forced to dive and take shelter from the storm. On surfacing, she spotted the British ships and moved to attack. She fired one torpedo at 06:20 at Aboukir which struck her on the starboard side; the ship's captain thought he had struck a mine and ordered the other two ships to close to transfer his wounded men. Aboukir quickly began listing and capsized around 06:55 despite counterflooding compartments on the opposite side to right her. As Hogue approached her sinking sister, her captain, Wilmot Nicholson, realized that it had been a submarine attack and signaled Cressy to look for a periscope although his ship continued to close on Aboukir as her crew threw overboard anything that would float to aid the survivors in the water. Having stopped and lowered all her boats, Hogue was struck by two torpedoes around 06:55. The sudden weight loss of the two torpedoes caused U-9 to broach the surface and Hogue's gunners opened fire without effect before the submarine could submerge again. The cruiser capsized about ten minutes after being torpedoed and sank at 07:15. Cressy attempted to ram the submarine, but did not succeed and resumed her rescue efforts until she too was torpedoed at 07:20. Weddigen had fired two torpedoes from his stern tubes, but only one hit. U-9 had to maneuver to bring her bow around with her last torpedo and fired it at a range of about 550 yards (500 m) at 07:30. The torpedo struck on the port side and ruptured several boilers, scalding the men in the compartment. As her sisters had done, Cressy took on a heavy list and then capsized before sinking at 07:55. Several Dutch ships began rescuing survivors at 08:30 and were joined by British fishing trawlers before Tyrwhitt and his ships arrived at 10:45. From all three ships 837 men were rescued and 62 officers and 1,397 ratings lost: 560 of those lost were from Cressy. In 1954 the British government sold the salvage rights to all three ships to a German company and they were subsequently sold again to a Dutch company which began salvaging the wrecks' metal in 2011.
17,592,545	Denys Page	1,152,972,513	British classical scholar and academic (1908–1978)	[ "1908 births", "1978 deaths", "English classical scholars", "Fellows of Jesus College, Cambridge", "Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge", "Fellows of the British Academy", "Knights Bachelor", "Masters of Jesus College, Cambridge", "Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of classics", "People educated at St. Bartholomew's School", "People from Northumberland", "People from Reading, Berkshire", "Presidents of the British Academy", "Regius Professors of Greek (Cambridge)", "Scholars of ancient Greek literature" ]	Sir Denys Lionel Page FBA (11 May 1908 – 6 July 1978) was a British classicist and textual critic who served as the 34th Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Cambridge and the 35th Master of Jesus College, Cambridge. He is best known for his critical editions of the Ancient Greek lyric poets and tragedians. Coming from a middle-class family in Reading, Page studied classics at Christ Church, Oxford, and served the college as a lecturer for most of the 1930s. He spent the Second World War working on Ultra intelligence material at the Government Code & Cypher School based at Bletchley Park. In 1950, he was elected Regius Chair of Greek at Cambridge which he held until his retirement in 1973. Initially a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Page was appointed master of the university's Jesus College in 1959. He died of lung cancer in 1978. Having published an edition of the poets Sappho and Alcaeus with fellow Oxford classicist Edgar Lobel, Page went on to write what became for some time the standard edition of the remaining Greek lyric poets, Poetae Melici Graeci (PMG) (1962). His other notable publications include commentaries on Euripides' Medea (1938) and Aeschylus' Agamemnon (1957). In 1971, he was knighted for his services to classical scholarship. ## Early life and education Denys Lionel Page was born on 11 May 1908 in Reading, Berkshire, to Frederick Page, a railway engineer at the Great Western Railway and his wife Elsie. He spent part of his childhood in South Wales but returned to Berkshire and became a student at Newbury Grammar School. In 1926, he won a scholarship to study classics at Christ Church, Oxford. Although Page came from a modest background compared to most of his peers, he settled in well at the college and made a number of friends, including the future Lord Chancellor Quintin Hogg and the Labour politician Patrick Gordon Walker. Among his tutors at Oxford, the archaeologist John Beazley and the Hellenist John Dewar Denniston exerted the greatest influence on his future work. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1930 and was awarded a Derby Scholarship. The award enabled him to spend a year at the University of Vienna with the German philologist Ludwig Radermacher. ## Career ### Lecturer at Christ Church, Oxford (1931–1939) In 1931, Page was appointed a lecturer at Christ Church and became a Student (a full member of the college's governing body) the following year. It was during this period that he began working on the plays of the Greek poet Euripides, which culminated in the publication of a critical edition and commentary of Euripides' Medea (1938). Following in the footsteps of fellow Oxford classicist Edgar Lobel, he also worked on the poems of the archaic Greek lyric poets. Page assumed an active role in college affairs. In 1936, he strongly opposed the candidacy of the Irish scholar E. R. Dodds for the Regius Chair of Greek which was hosted at Christ Church. Dodds was elected to the position in spite of Page's reservations. In 1937 he was appointed to the office of junior censor at the college – the Censor Naturalis Philosophiae, responsible for undergraduate discipline. However, he resigned the position a year later to marry Katharine Elizabeth Dohan, daughter of the American archaeologist Edith Hall Dohan. They had four daughters, one of whom is the Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley. ### Wartime service at Bletchley Park (1939–1945) In 1939, Page was recruited to the Government Code and Cypher School and posted to Bletchley Park. Page's command of German, acquired during his time at Vienna, was put to use in the interpretation activities of Hut 9A. In 1942 he joined the ISOS "illicit signals" section run by Oliver Strachey and later headed that unit. In this role, he joined the inter-services XX Committee, and became a Deputy Director of GC&CS. After the end of World War II in Europe, he was part of a mission to the British headquarters in Colombo, then Singapore and finally Sri Lanka near the end of the war. ### Cambridge (1950–1973) After the end of the war, Page returned to Oxford from 1946 and was elected to the office of Senior Proctor (1948). Page's tenure at Oxford came to an abrupt end in 1950: the Regius Chair of Greek at Cambridge University had become vacant after the retirement of Donald Struan Robertson. Though he did not submit an application, Page was offered the post by the electors and accepted. He was duly elected a fellow of Trinity College. At this time, Cambridge provided a less stimulating environment for scholars of the classics than Oxford. Page's arrival, together with that of the German Latinist Charles Brink, marked a reinvigoration of classical teaching at the university. Similarly to his time at Oxford, Page actively participated in the running of the university. Having been elected to the council of Trinity College soon after his arrival, he was chosen to replace classicist E. M. W. Tillyard as the Master of Jesus College in 1959. He held this position until his retirement in 1973. Many contemporaries considered Page suitable for the position of vice-chancellor but he was never elected. According to classicist Hugh Lloyd-Jones, his failure to obtain the office was a consequence of his staunch opposition to the students involved in the Garden House riot, a violent protest against the Greek military junta. Having played as a bowler while at Christ Church, Page also served as the president of Cambridge University Cricket Club from 1971 to 1973. His tenure at Cambridge saw the publication of a number of books on Greek poetry. In 1955, Lobel and Page published a critical edition of the poems of the Lesbian poets Alcaeus and Sappho, followed by a book on the same authors (Sappho and Alcaeus). He was also the sole author of studies on Homer's Odyssey (The Homeric Odyssey, 1955) and the Iliad (History and the Homeric Iliad, 1959). His most comprehensive work, an edition of all lyric poets apart from the Lesbians, appeared in 1962 under the title of Poetae Melici Graeci. Resuming his earlier work on the tragedian Euripides, he took over from the recently deceased Denniston an edition of Aeschylus' Agamemnon, which was published in 1957 as a rival to Eduard Fraenkel's edition of the play. ## Retirement and death Although Page had not reached the age of 67, the customary retirement age for his position, he stepped down from his university and college duties in 1973 after his wife's health deteriorated. The couple led a quiet life in Northumberland where he continued his research, drawing on the library of the University of Newcastle. In 1978, he was diagnosed with lung cancer and died on 6 July of the same year. He was survived by his wife Katharine. ## Legacy Page's reputation as a scholar rested chiefly on his work as an editor of Greek poetic texts. He has been described by Lloyd-Jones as the most accomplished scholar amongst his contemporaries in this field, rivalled only by Edgar Lobel. His complete critical edition of the Greek Lyric poets (Poetae Melici Graeci) is consulted as the standard edition of their texts and was praised for its "philological and critical judgement, and masterly knowledge of dialects" by classicist G. M. Kirkwood in a 1964 review. Although his work on tragedy has not garnered the same admiration from fellow classicists, Page's edition of Euripides' Medea was considered "indispensable" by a reviewer for the Journal of Hellenic Studies. In 1978, his contributions to the study of Greek poetry were honoured by the publication of Dionysiaca: nine studies in Greek poetry by former pupils, presented to Sir Denys Page on his seventieth birthday, edited by a group of leading Hellenists. An accomplished textual critic, Page was not among the leading literary critics of his generation. His focus lay narrowly on philological questions and, according to Lloyd-Jones, he sometimes exhibited a tendency towards dogmatism when dealing with literary matters. His 1955 book The Homeric Odyssey, in the view of contemporary reviewer J. A. Davison, suffers from these weaknesses and is among his most poorly received publications. ## Honours Page was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1952 and was awarded the institution's Kenyon Medal in 1969. He later served as the academy's president from 1971 to 1974. He was also a corresponding member of the Academy of Athens, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the Greek Humanistic Society. He was granted honorary fellowships by Trinity College, Cambridge, Jesus College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford. He held honorary degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1960), Oxford (1972), Dublin, Newcastle, Hull, and Bristol. He was knighted in 1971. ## Selected publications
39,143,839	Falko Bindrich	1,104,994,431	German chess grandmaster	[ "1990 births", "Chess Olympiad competitors", "Chess grandmasters", "German chess players", "Living people", "People from Zittau" ]	Falko Bindrich (born 17 October 1990) is a German chess grandmaster. He is the No. 7 ranked German player as of October 2017. Born in Zittau, Bindrich became a FIDE Master at the age of 13. He earned his International Master title in 2006 and his grandmaster title a year later. He played in the 2008 Chess Olympiad, held in Dresden, where his German team placed 13th. He has competed in several other prestigious chess events, such as the 2008 Bundesliga and the 2010 Chess Olympiad. ## Early life Falko Bindrich was born on 17 October 1990 in Zittau, Germany, to parents Zdena and Oswald Bindrich. His father, Oswald Bindrich (born 1951), was an expert-level chess player, with a highest Elo rating of 2212. In 1993, at the age of three, Falko was taught chess by his brother and soon after, his father, Oswald, enrolled him the Oberland Chess Club. In 1998, he entered for the German Youth Individual Championship (under nine) and placed 28th out of 80 participants. After achieving second place in the 1999 German Youth U10 Individual Championship, he was allowed to attend the U10 European Championship where he finished only 39th. After this disappointment, he asked his father, Oswald, how he could improve, and he set him on a daily training regimen with him and later consulted with stronger German players. In late 1999, he reached 1400 Elo, whereby his training sessions were extended and held with the likes of grandmasters Lubomir Ftacnik and Zigurds Lanka. In 2000, he reached second place in the German Youth Individual Championship (under ten) and travelled to Spain for the U10 World Cup, where he placed seventeenth. By 2001, aged 11, Falko was rated 2054 fide and had achieved first place in the German Youth Individual Championship U12. In 2002, Bindrich defeated Hungarian International Master Attila Parkanyi and in September, also defeated Swedish grandmaster Tiger Hillarp Persson in Fürth at the Pyramid Cup. In October 2002 he delivered an outstanding performance of 2500+ in the Czech Open Championship. In 2003, Bindrich became the youngest German player to receive the FIDE master title, after crossing 2300 fide. ## Chess career In late 2003, Bindrich came in fifth in the German Youth Championship U18 which got him elected to the German Under-18 team. He gained his first International Master norm in 2004 for the B national team in the Mitropa Cup. After this he attended tournaments in several Eastern countries, such as Krakow, Budapest, Moscow and Riga. Later that year Bindrich supported the German Cancer Society by holding a simultaneous exhibition. In 2005, he earned his second IM norm in a grandmaster tournament in Crimea. Bindrich settled first place in his first adult event in the early January 2006 Staufer Open and a few days later in Geneva, he earned his 3rd and final IM norm, and was awarded the International Master title. With 11.0/15 and an Elo performance of 2670 for the SC Remagen event, he secured his first Grandmaster norm. He gained his second GM norm in the European Championships 2007. By spring 2007, Bindrich had crossed 2500 fide and had met all of the requirements for the grandmaster title and became GM-elect. In October 2007, he was given the grandmaster title. At the age of 16, he was the youngest German ever to achieve the grandmaster title and was given the honorary title of Zittau and signed in the Golden Book of the city. Bindrich attended the 12th Neckar Open in 2008 and finished first out of over 300 participants, with 71⁄2/9, finishing only half a point ahead of Leon Hoyos, Dgebuadze, Lauber, Graf, Krämer, Peralta, Chatalbashev, Erdos, and Fedorchuk, who all finished the tournament with 7.0/9. He also played for Germany in the 2008 Chess Olympiad, held in Dresden, where his team placed 13th out of 146 overall teams. In 2011, Bindrich became CEO of the Amateur Chess Organization (ACO), alongside international master Tobias Hirneise. Bindrich played in and won the 2011 April Budapest event despite there being no prizes offered there, with 61⁄2/9. There he defeated his fellow countryman Natsidis Cristoph, who only needed a draw to reach an IM norm. He also won the Luzern Open 2011 Group A section tournament, with 51⁄2/7 in November 2011. During the fourth round of the 2011 German Chess Championships, Falko Bindrich was late to his game and tournament director Ralph Alt declared the game lost on Bindrich's arrival after a few minutes. Bindrich refused to accept the penalty and withdrew from the tournament shortly after, and went on to blog about the double standards of arbiters, claiming that he had seen several other players arrive late in the previous rounds, and no penalty was issued to them. Since the October Bundesliga issue, Bindrich has appeared in the Austrian Team Championship, where he scored 6 out of 8, and the 36th Zurich Christmas Open, where he came in as shared second place ahead of 133 players. ## 2012 Bundesliga cheating accusations In Mülheim, in the first round of the 2012 German Bundesliga on 20 October 2012, Falko Bindrich defeated the strong 2600+ Elo grandmaster Pavel Tregubov in an English Symmetrical: Botvinnik system. Bindrich–Tregubov 1.Nf3 c5 2.c4 Nc6 3.Nc3 e5 4.g3 g6 5.Bg2 Bg7 6.a3 Nge7 7.0-0 0-0 8.d3 d6 9.Rb1 a5 10.Bd2 h6 11.Ne1 Be6 12.Nc2 d5 13.cxd5 Nxd5 14.Ne3 Nde7 15.Na4 b6 16.b4 cxb4 17.axb4 b5 18.Nc5 Ba2 19.bxa5 Bxb1 20.Qxb1 Ra7 21.Qxb5 Nd4 22.Qb6 Nc8 23.Qxd8 Nxe2 24.Kh1 Rxd8 25.Nc4 Nd4 26.Rb1 Bf8 27.Nb7 Re8 28.Be3 f6 29.f4 Ra6 30.fxe5 fxe5 31.Bd5 Kh7 32.g4 Nc2 33.Bd2 Ne7 34.Be4 Ng8 35.Rb6 Rxb6 36.axb6 Bb4 37.Nbd6 Rb8 38.Bxb4 Nxb4 39.b7 Nf6 40.Nxe5 Nxe4 41.dxe4 Rd8 42.Nec4 Kg7 43.e5 Nc6 44.Kg2 Kf8 45.Kf3 Ke7 46.Ke4 Ke6 47.Nb5 Rd1 48.Na5 Re1 49.Kd3 Nb8 50.Nc6 Rd1 51.Kc2 Nxc6 52.Kxd1 Kxe5 53.Ke2 h5 54.Kf3 Nb8 55.h4 Kd5 56.g5 Kc6 57.Nd4 Kxb7 58.Ke4 Nd7 59.Kd5 Kc8 60.Ke6 Kc7 61.Nf3 At the end of the game, feeling insulted, Tregubov refused to shake his hand. Two days after the game, Tregubov and his team would complain to arbiters about his suspect strong play, and his frequent toilet breaks. On the second day, Bindrich had the black pieces against Sebastian Siebrecht and on move 10, he took a second toilet break. Siebrecht, having played such cheaters as Christoph Natsidis in the past, suspected that he was using an analysis program on his smartphone. On Bindrich's return an arbiter asked to search him and that he give over his smartphone, which under tournament rules, the referee is allowed to do. Bindrich refused to hand it over, saying that there was private information on the phone, and he was forfeited the game. Siebrecht–Bindrich 1.c4 e5 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.Nf3 Nc6 4.a3 e4 5.Ng5 Qe7 6.e3 h6 7.Nh3 g5 8.Qc2 Bg7 9.Ng1 0-0 10.Nge2 1–0 Bindrich later fervently denied cheating, and released a five-page document, declaring his innocence, stating that his smartphone was always switched off. He claimed to not use the bathroom any more than usual and that several others did so too without penalty. Bindrich denied that he went to the toilet on his turn, saying that there were witnesses there who could confirm this. He stated that, in his game with Tregubov, "... after reaching a clear advantage I didn't play the best way possible, as anyone who plays through the game at home can easily establish" and Tregubov had played the same opening three weeks earlier against Andrei Istrățescu, and that he'd looked up the theory to the line that was played. He also questioned "Is it really so unlikely that a grandmaster with 2530 Elo wins with white against a grandmaster with 2600 Elo?" and complained that the search was an invasion of privacy. The team he was playing for, SC Eppingen went on to lose overall to Katernberg 31⁄2–41⁄2. The use of a chess engine was never proven, but as a result of his actions, the German Chess Federation issued a 2-year suspension from play. Bindrich issued a statement saying that he did not accept the decision of the board, and issued an appeal against the decision of the President of the German Chess Federation. On 2 May 2013, the arbitration court of the German Chess Federation cancelled the ban, stating it was issued without legal basis.
536,970	Spectral bat	1,172,495,664	Species of bat	[ "Bats of Brazil", "Bats of Central America", "Bats of Mexico", "Bats of South America", "Fauna of Los Tuxtlas", "Mammals described in 1758", "Mammals of Colombia", "Mammals of Ecuador", "Mammals of Guyana", "Mammals of Trinidad and Tobago", "Phyllostomidae", "Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus" ]	The spectral bat (Vampyrum spectrum), also called the great false vampire bat, great spectral bat, American false vampire bat or Linnaeus's false vampire bat, is a large, carnivorous leaf-nosed bat found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. It is the only member of the genus Vampyrum; its closest living relative is the big-eared woolly bat. It is the largest bat species in the New World, as well as the largest carnivorous bat: its wingspan is 0.7–1.0 m (2.3–3.3 ft). It has a robust skull and teeth, with which it delivers a powerful bite to kill its prey. Birds are frequent prey items, though it may also consume rodents, insects, and other bats. Unlike the majority of bat species, it is monogamous. Colonies consist of an adult male and female and their offspring. The adult male will bring food back to the roost to provision the adult female and their offspring. Colonies generally roost in tree hollows, though individuals may roost in caves. Due to habitat destruction and its low population density, it is listed as a near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). ## Taxonomy and evolution The spectral bat was described in 1758 by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus. The holotype was collected in South America by Daniel Rolander. Linnaeus assigned it to the genus Vespertilio, which he classified as a kind of primate. Its species name "spectrum" is from Latin meaning "apparition" or "specter". The genus Vampyrum was not described until 1815 by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque. The genus and species names were not used in their current combination until biologist George Gilbert Goodwin did so in 1942. "Vampyrum" is a Neo-Latin derivative of vampire, thus named because it was once erroneously believed that the species was sanguivorous and consumed blood. Based on mitochondrial DNA and the RAG2 gene, the spectral bat is most closely related to the monotypic genus Chrotopterus (the big-eared woolly bat). Vampyrum and Chroptopterus diverged from other leaf-nosed bat species approximately 20.75 million years ago, with the two genera diverging from each other 14.35 million years ago. The spectral and big-eared woolly bats likely evolved from an insectivorous ancestor. The spectral bat is included within the subfamily Phyllostominae, which includes species of diverse feeding strategies, including carnivory, insectivory and mixed insectivory/frugivory. The spectral and big-eared woolly bats are the two extant members of the tribe Vampyrini. Vampyrini additionally includes the extinct genus Notonycteris. Based on dental characteristics, Czaplewski and Morgan additionally included the fringe-lipped bat (genus Trachops) and sometimes the round-eared bats (genus Lophostoma) in Vampyrini. ## Description The spectral bat is the largest bat species native to the New World and the largest carnivorous bat in the world. The wingspan typically ranges from 0.7–1.0 m (2.3–3.3 ft). Its forearm length is 101–110 mm (4.0–4.3 in). Its body length is 135–147 mm (5.3–5.8 in) and its mass is 134–189 g (4.7–6.7 oz). Its wings, though large in an absolute sense, are short relative to its body size. The wings are wide, though, creating a large surface area. Its wingtips are rounded and almost squarish. The thumbs are long, at 21.4–22.2 mm (0.84–0.87 in). Each of its thumbs has a large, recurved claw that is grooved, similar to those of cats. Its back fur is reddish-brown, long, and soft, while its belly fur is shorter and paler. The forearm is furred on the half closer to the body, but naked on the half closer to the wrist and fingers. Its molars are narrow with W-shaped crests. While six of its molars have three cusps, as in many mammal species, the last upper molars are reduced to two cusps; they are much smaller than the other molars. The talonids (crushing surfaces) of the molars are small relative to their trigonids (shearing surfaces). The upper canine teeth are well-developed. Its dental formula is for a total of 34 teeth. Its skull is narrow and elongated with a pronounced sagittal crest. Overall, its skull resembles a miniature canid or bear skull. Its nose-leaf is large, at 17 mm (0.67 in) in length. There is no discernible tail, but the uropatagium (tail membrane) is long and broad. Its legs are long, and the feet are composed of slender bones; each digit has a well-developed claw. The ears are large and rounded, at 39–42 mm (1.5–1.7 in) long. The brain is large relative to the body; at 1:67, its brain-to-body mass ratio is higher than that of cats and dogs. The cerebral hemispheres of the brain are extensively convoluted. The brain has well-developed olfactory bulbs and its cerebellum is the most ornamented and complex of any member of its subfamily. McDaniel described its corpus callosum and white matter as "exceptionally thick". ## Biology and ecology ### Diet The spectral bat is exclusively carnivorous, consuming birds, rodents, and other species of bat. Additionally, it consumes some insects such as beetles. It preys on other bats opportunistically, and it is known to eat bats out of researchers' mist nets. Prey species include the highland yellow-shouldered bat, Geoffroy's tailless bat, Pallas's long-tongued bat, short-tailed fruit bats, the common vampire bat, and fruit-eating bats It was once thought to supplement its diet with fruit, but a captive pair refused to eat any fruit over a 5-year period. Its diet can be studied passively because it carries prey items back to its roost to consume, discarding unwanted parts such as bird feathers, bat wings, and rodent tails. Over the course of a year, 18 bird species were identified from feathers left under a roost in Costa Rica: based on the assemblage, it prefers non-perching bird species that weigh 20–150 g (0.71–5.29 oz). However, a later study in Brazil determined that perching bird species were a majority of prey items. Doves and cuckoos are frequently consumed—they represented over half the prey items documented in the Costa Rican study. Some prey species such as cuckoos, trogons, and motmots are known to have a strong odor, leading Vehrencamp et al. to hypothesize that spectral bats may rely on scent to locate prey. It also prefers prey that roost in groups, which may aid in detection. The groove-billed ani, which both has a strong smell and roosts in groups, is a particularly common prey item, representing approximately 24-26 of the 86 prey items identified in the study. Other species identified included the orange-fronted parakeet, orange-chinned parakeet, rufous-naped wren, streak-backed oriole, and scissor-tailed flycatcher. The largest prey species identified was the white-tipped dove, which at 150 g (5.3 oz), weighs almost as much as spectral bats. Because its prey items can be so large, it may only need to consume one bird every two or three nights to meet its caloric requirements. ### Foraging The spectral bat uses echolocation to navigate, creating short pulses of ultrasound at relatively low frequencies; its echolocation characteristics are suited for maneuvering around obstacles while flying low to the ground. Its foraging style has been compared to owls; it likely uses its agile and maneuverable wings to hover as it plucks prey items off the ground or tree branches. It stalks the prey and then lands on it from above, securing the prey by hooking it with its sharp thumb claws. It kills its prey by delivering a forceful bite to the skull. Relative to its size, its bite force is stronger than any Carnivoran. Its bite force is predicted to measure 80–100 Newtons based on its body size and canine teeth characteristics. It has been recorded as being attracted to the distress calls of smaller bats while hunting. In a study of the wing morphology of 51 Neotropical bat species, the spectral bat had the lowest wing loading (body mass to wing area ratio) at 20.05. Low wing loading is advantageous for carnivorous bats because it allows them to pick up prey items from the ground and fly with them. Its wing structure allows it to take flight in confined spaces and to carry heavy prey items, despite the bat's size. Males will carry prey back to their roosts to provision females and their pup. ### Reproduction and life cycle The spectral bat is one of an estimated 18 species of bat which are monogamous. Additionally, it is one of two known species of bat where the males provide parental care, the other being the yellow-winged bat. Males have relatively small testes—as a monogamous species, there is not generally sperm competition, so males can save energy by producing less sperm. It is a seasonal breeder, with females giving birth at the end of the dry season or the beginning of the rainy season. The litter size is one individual, with offspring called "pups." The mother is reportedly very attentive and gentle with her offspring. The male is often in attendance as well and will frequently sleep with both the female and their young completely wrapped up in his wings. The extent of natural depredation upon spectral bats is unknown, but spectral bat remains were once documented in a western barn owl pellet in Oaxaca, Mexico. Spectral bats roost independently or in small colonies of up to five individuals in hollow trees. An examination of one colony of five individuals consisted of an adult male and female, a nursing pup, and a juvenile male and female. The juvenile male was estimated to be six months old; he was presumed to be the older offspring of the adults, while the female was also possibly their offspring. Though it was initially believed to only roost in trees, it was first documented using a cave as a roost in 2008. Its average lifespan is unknown; however, it is believed that the same individual roosted in a cave from 2008 until at least 2016 based on a unique ear pigmentation, making lifespans of at least 8 years possible. In captivity, one adult individual of uncertain initial age was maintained for 5.5 years. ## Range and habitat The spectral bat is found in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. It has been documented at elevations from 0–1,650 m (0–5,413 ft) above sea level, though in Mexico it is only found in lowland areas of below 150 m (490 ft). It is associated with tropical rainforests. In 2010, the species was documented for the first time in the Cerrado of Brazil. It is occasionally encountered in pastures and orchards. ## Conservation As of 2018, the spectral bat is classified as near threatened by the IUCN. Its population size is difficult to assess, as it is rarely encountered. However, its population trend is assessed as decreasing. It may be intentionally persecuted by humans. In Trinidad, the bats are sometimes thought to be ghosts, and locals will seek out and destroy their roosts. As of 1999, the spectral bat is listed as endangered in Bolivia. It has been listed as an endangered species in Mexico since 2001.
607,234	George Meany	1,173,058,132	American labor leader (1894–1980)	[ "1894 births", "1980 deaths", "20th-century Roman Catholics", "Activists from Washington, D.C.", "American anti-communists", "American anti-corruption activists", "American plumbers", "American trade unionists of Irish descent", "Burials at Gate of Heaven Cemetery (Silver Spring, Maryland)", "Catholics from New York (state)", "Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany", "Laetare Medal recipients", "People from City Island, Bronx", "People from the Bronx", "Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients", "Presidents of the AFL–CIO", "Presidents of the American Federation of Labor", "Secretary-Treasurers of the American Federation of Labor", "Trade unionists from New York (state)" ]	William George Meany (August 16, 1894 – January 10, 1980) was an American labor union leader for 57 years. He was the key figure in the creation of the AFL–CIO and served as the AFL–CIO's first president, from 1955 to 1979. Meany, the son of a union plumber, became a plumber himself at a young age. He became a full-time union official 12 years later. As an officer of the American Federation of Labor, he represented the AFL on the National War Labor Board during World War II. He served as president of the AFL from 1952 to 1955. He proposed its merger with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1952 and led the negotiations until the merger was completed in 1955. He then served as president of the merged AFL–CIO for the next 24 years. Meany had a reputation for integrity and consistent opposition to corruption in the labor movement, and strong anti-communism. He was one of the best known union leaders in the United States in the mid-20th century. ## Early years Meany was born into a Roman Catholic family in Harlem, New York City on August 16, 1894, the second of 10 children. His parents were Michael Meany and Anne Cullen Meany, who were both American-born and of Irish descent. His ancestors had immigrated to the United States in the 1850s. His father was a plumber and a strong supporter of the trade union movement and served as president of his plumber's union local. Michael Meany was also a precinct level activist in the Democratic Party. Meany grew up in the Port Morris neighborhood of The Bronx, where his parents had moved when he was five years old. Always called "George", he learned that his real first name was William only when he got a work permit as a teenager. Following his father's career path, Meany quit high school at 16 to work as a plumber's helper. He then served a five-year apprenticeship as a plumber and got his journeyman's certificate in 1917, with Local 463 United Association of Plumbers and Steamfitters of the United States and Canada. His father died of a heart attack in 1916 after a bout of pneumonia. When Meany's older brother joined the US Army in 1917, George became the sole source of income for his mother and six younger siblings. He supplemented his income for a while by playing as a semiprofessional baseball catcher. In 1919, he married Eugenia McMahon, a garment worker and a member of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union. They had three daughters. ## Beginning of union career in New York In 1920, Meany was elected to the executive board of Local 463 of the Plumber's Union. In 1922, he became a full-time business agent for the local, which had 3,600 members at that time. Meany later stated that he had never walked a picket line during his plumber's union days, explaining that his original plumber's union never needed to picket, because the employers never attempted to replace the workers. In 1923, he was elected secretary of the New York City Building Trades Council, the city federation of unions representing construction workers. He won a court injunction against an industry lockout in 1927, which was then considered an innovative tactic for a union, and was opposed by many of the older union leaders, . In 1934, he became president of the New York State Federation of Labor, the statewide coalition of trade unions. In his first year of lobbying in Albany, the state capital, 72 bills that he supported in the state legislature were enacted into law, and he developed a close working relationship with Governor Herbert H. Lehman. He developed a reputation for honesty, diligence and the ability to testify effectively before legislative hearings and to speak clearly to the press. In 1936, he cofounded the American Labor Party, a pro-union political party active in New York, along with David Dubinsky and Sidney Hillman, partly as a vehicle to organize support among socialists in the union movement for the re-election that year of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and mayor Fiorello La Guardia . ## National leadership in Washington, DC Three years later, he moved to Washington, D.C., to become national secretary-treasurer of the American Federation of Labor, where he served under AFL president William Green. During World War II, Meany was one of the permanent representatives of the AFL to the National War Labor Board. During the war, he established close relationships with prominent anticommunists in the American labor movement, including David Dubinsky, Jay Lovestone and Matthew Woll. In October 1945, he led the AFL boycott of the founding conference of the World Federation of Trade Unions, which welcomed participation by labor unions from the Soviet Union and was later called a communist front. The strike wave of 1945-1946, which was led to a large extent by CIO unions, resulted in passage of the Taft Hartley Act in 1947, which was widely perceived as anti-union. One provision required union officials to sign loyalty oaths affirming that they were not communists; this had a major impact on the CIO unions. Meany, in opposition to Lewis and other left-wing union leaders, replied that he would "go further and sign an affidavit that I was never a comrade to the comrades" since he had always ostracized communists. Within a year, most US union leaders unaffiliated with the Communist Party signed the affidavit, later upheld by the Supreme Court, which ruled in 1949 that the Communist Party was unique among American political parties in swearing allegiance to a foreign power. ## Merger of AFL and CIO When Green's health declined in 1951, Meany gradually took over day-to-day operations of the AFL. He became president of the American Federation of Labor in 1952 upon Green's death. Upon taking leadership of the AFL, Meany put forward a proposal to merge with the CIO. Meany quickly took effective control of the AFL, but it took a bit longer for Walter Reuther to solidify his control of the CIO. Reuther then became a willing partner in the merger negotiations. It took Meany three years to negotiate the merger, and he had to overcome significant opposition. John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers called the merger a "rope of sand", and his union refused to join the AFL–CIO. Jimmy Hoffa, second in command of the Teamster's Union, protested, "What's in it for us? Nothing!" However, the Teamsters went along with the merger initially. Mike Quill, president of the Transport Workers Union of America also fought the merger, saying that it amounted to a capitulation to the "racism, racketeering and raiding" of the AFL. Fearing a drawn-out negotiation process, Meany decided on a "short route" to reconciliation. This meant all AFL and CIO unions would be accepted into the new organization "as is", with all conflicts and overlaps to be sorted out after the merger. Meany further relied on a small, select group of advisors to craft the necessary agreements. The draft constitution was primarily written by AFL Vice President Matthew Woll and CIO General Counsel Arthur Goldberg, while the joint policy statements were written by Woll, CIO Secretary-Treasurer James Carey, CIO vice presidents David McDonald and Joseph Curran, Brotherhood of Railway Clerks President George Harrison, and Illinois AFL–CIO President Reuben Soderstrom. Meany's efforts came to fruition in December 1955 with a joint convention in New York City that merged the two federations, creating the AFL–CIO, with Meany elected as president. Called Meany's "greatest achievement" by Time magazine, the new federation had 15 million members. Only two million US workers were members of unions remaining outside the AFL–CIO. ## Campaigns against corrupt unions In 1953, under Meany's leadership, the International Longshoremen's Association, accused of racketeering, was expelled from the AFL, an early example of Meany's efforts against corruption and the influence of organized crime in the labor movement. After bitter internal reform, it was readmitted to the now-merged AFL–CIO, in 1959. Meany also fought against corruption in the AFL affiliated United Textile Workers of America from 1952. In 1957, he reported that the president of that union had been stealing more than \$250,000. Meany also appointed an independent monitor to oversee reform of the union. Concerns about corruption and the influence of organized crime in the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, under the leadership of Dave Beck, led Meany to begin a campaign to reform that union in 1956. In 1957, in the midst of a fight for control of the union with Jimmy Hoffa, Beck was called before the United States Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management, commonly called the "McClellan Committee" after its chairman John Little McClellan, of Arkansas. Televised hearings in early 1957 exposed misconduct by both the Beck and the Hoffa factions of the Teamsters Union. Both Hoffa and Beck were indicted, but Hoffa won the battle for control of the Teamsters. In response, the AFL–CIO instituted a policy that no union official who had taken the Fifth Amendment during a corruption investigation could continue in a leadership position. Meany told the Teamsters that they could continue as members of the AFL–CIO if Hoffa resigned as president. Hoffa refused, and the Teamsters were ousted from the AFL–CIO on December 6, 1957. Meany supported the AFL–CIO's adoption of a code of ethics, in the wake of the scandal. Meany also led campaigns against organized crime leadership and corruption in the International Jewelry Workers Union, the Laundry Workers International Union, the AFL Distillery Workers, the AFL United Auto Workers, and the Bakery and Confectionery Workers International Union. He demanded the firing of corrupt union leaders and internal reorganization of the unions. When some unions resisted, he organized their expulsion from the AFL and later from the AFL–CIO, and he even set up rival unions. He set up an AFL–CIO Committee on Ethical Practices to investigate misconduct and insisted for unions under investigation to co-operate with its inquiries. According to John Hutchinson, a professor at UCLA, "few American union leaders have such a public record of repeated and explicit opposition to corruption." ## Vietnam War Meany consistently defended President Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam War policies. In 1966, Meany insisted for AFL–CIO unions to give "unqualified support" to Johnson's war policy. AFL–CIO critics opposing Meany and the war at that time included Ralph Helstein of the United Packinghouse Workers of America, George Burdon of the United Rubberworkers and Patrick Gorman of the United Auto Workers. Charles Cogen, president of the American Federation of Teachers opposed Meany in 1967, when the AFL–CIO convention adopted a resolution pledging support for the war in Vietnam. Reuther stated that he was busy with negotiations with General Motors in Detroit and could not attend the convention. In his speech to the convention, Meany said that, in Vietnam the AFL–CIO was "neither hawk nor dove nor chicken" but was supporting "brother trade unionists" struggling against Communism. As an anticommunist who identified with the working class, Meany expressed contempt for the New Left. That movement had often criticized the labor movement for conservatism, racism, and anticommunism, and in the late 1960s and early 1970s, it included many supporters of Communist movements, such as the Viet Cong. In the aftermath of the violence by antiwar demonstrators and police at the 1968 Democratic National Convention, Meany sided with the police by calling the protesters a "dirtynecked and dirty-mouthed group of kooks". Meany opposed the antiwar candidacy of U. S. Senator George McGovern for the presidency against incumbent Richard Nixon in 1972 despite McGovern's generally pro-labor voting record in Congress. However he declined to endorse Nixon. On Face the Nation in September 1972, Meany criticized McGovern's statements that the US should respect other peoples' rights to choose communism by pointing out that there had never been a country that had freely voted for communism. Meany accused McGovern of being "an apologist for the Communist world". Following Nixon's landslide defeat of McGovern, Meany said that the American people had "overwhelmingly repudiated neo-isolationism" in foreign policy. Meany pointed out that the American voters had split their votes by supporting the Democrats in Congress. Meany's support for the war effort continued to the final days before Saigon fell to the North Vietnam in April, 1975. He called for President Gerald Ford to provide a US Navy "flotilla" if it was needed to ensure that hundreds of thousands of "friends of the United States" could escape before a communist regime could be established. He also appealed for the admission of the maximum possible number of Vietnamese refugees to the United States. Meany blamed Congress for "washing its hands" of the war and of weakening South Vietnam's military, damaging its "will to fight". In particular, Meany accused Congress of failing to provide adequate funding for US troops to stage an orderly withdrawal. ## Conflict with Reuther Despite their co-operation in the AFL–CIO merger, Meany and Reuther had a contentious relationship for many years. In 1963, Meany and Reuther disagreed about the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, a major event in the history of the civil rights movement in the United States. Meany opposed AFL–CIO endorsement of the march. In an AFL–CIO executive council meeting on August 12, Reuther's motion for a strong endorsement of the march was supported by only A. Philip Randolph of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the titular leader of the march. The AFL–CIO endorsed a civil rights law and allowed individual unions to endorse the march. When Meany heard Randolph's speech after the march, he was visibly moved. Thereafter, he supported the creation of the A. Philip Randolph Institute to strengthen labor unions among African Americans and to strengthen ties with the African American community. Randolph said that he was sure that Meany was morally opposed to racism. At the time of the 1967 AFL–CIO convention, Reuther demanded that Meany make the AFL–CIO more democratic. After years of disagreement with Meany, Reuther resigned from the AFL–CIO executive council in February 1967. In 1968, Reuther led the UAW out of the AFL–CIO, and the UAW did not re-affiliate with the AFL–CIO until 1981, long after Reuther's death in a 1970 plane crash. ## Political goals In the midst of the Great Society reforms advocated by President Johnson, Meany and the AFL–CIO in 1965 endorsed a resolution calling for "mandatory congressional price hearings for corporations, a technological clearinghouse, and a national planning agency". American socialist leader Michael Harrington commented that the AFL–CIO had "initiated a programmatic redefinition that had much more in common with the defeated socialist proposal of 1894 than with the voluntarism of Gompers" referring to Samuel Gompers, the founder of the AFL, who had openly opposed socialism for decades. The 1965 resolution was part of the AFL–CIO's ongoing support for industrial democracy. Despite Meany's support for reform policies that were sometimes called "socialist", he also said that "I very much agree with the free market system-" Meany pointed out, "When you don't have anything, you have nothing to lose by these radical actions. But when you become a person who has a home and has property, to some extent you become conservative." As AFL–CIO president, Meany supported raising the minimum wage, increasing public works spending, and protecting union organizing rights. He also supported universal health care. Under his leadership, the AFL–CIO lobbied vigorously for its goals. He backed the two party system, and believed in "supporting your friends and punishing your enemies". ## Later years and death By the mid-1970s, Meany was past his 80th birthday and there were increasing calls for him to retire and pass leadership of the AFL–CIO to a younger man. In his final years, Meany took up amateur photography and painting as hobbies. in June 1975 Meany as president of the AFL–CIO hosted Alexander Solzhenitsyn in his tour of the US and held a dinner in Solzhenitsyn's honor where the Russian writer gave one of his most well known speeches. Meany introduced Solzhenitsyn with a powerful speech. Meany's wife of 59 years, Eugenia, died in March 1979, and he became depressed after losing her. He injured his knee in a golfing mishap a few months before his death and was reliant on a wheelchair. In November 1979, he retired from the AFL–CIO, after a 57-year career in organized labor. He was succeeded by Lane Kirkland, who served as AFL–CIO president for the next 16 years. Meany died at George Washington University Hospital on January 10, 1980, of cardiac arrest. The AFL–CIO had 14 million members at the time of his death. President Jimmy Carter called him "an American institution" and "a patriot". He was interred at Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Silver Spring, Maryland. ## Awards, tributes and legacy President John F. Kennedy established the Presidential Medal of Freedom on February 22, 1963, but died before he could award it. Two weeks after Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon Johnson awarded it to Meany and thirty others on December 6, 1963. Johnson said the award was for Meany's service to the union movement and for advancing freedom throughout the world. On November 6, 1974, Meany dedicated the George Meany Center for Labor Studies (founded 1969), which was renamed the National Labor College in 1997. From 1993 to 2013, the college housed the George Meany Memorial Archives. In 2013 the archival and library holdings were transferred to the University of Maryland libraries, making the university the official repository. The holdings date from the establishment of the AFL (1881), and offer almost complete records from the founding of the AFL–CIO (1955). Among the estimated 40 million documents are AFL–CIO Department records, trade department records, international union records, union programs, union organizations with allied or affiliate relationships with the AFL–CIO, and personal papers of union leaders. Extensive photo documentation of labor union activities from the 1940s to the present are in the photographic negative and digital collections. Additionally, collections of graphic images, over 10,000 audio tapes, several hundred films and videotapes, and over 2,000 artifacts are available for public research and study. The George Meany Award was established by the Boy Scouts of America in 1974. Books published about Meany include Meany: The Unchallenged Strong Man of American Labor (1972) and George Meany and His Times: A Biography (1981). Meany's entry in the biographical encyclopedia American National Biography was published in 2000, authored by historian David Brody. Meany was known as a cigar smoker, and pictures of him often appeared in newspapers and magazines smoking a cigar. On the 100th anniversary of his birth in 1994, Meany was pictured on a United States commemorative postage stamp. ## See also - American Federation of Labor - Argo features a scene about his death - "Bart of Darkness", with a fictionalized cameo
34,754,269	The OF Tape Vol. 2	1,171,003,948	2012 studio album by Odd Future	[ "2012 albums", "Albums produced by Frank Ocean", "Albums produced by Left Brain", "Albums produced by Tyler, the Creator", "Odd Future Records albums", "Odd Future albums", "Sequel albums" ]	The OF Tape Vol. 2 is the debut studio album by American hip hop collective Odd Future. It was released on March 20, 2012, by Odd Future Records and RED Distribution. It serves as the sequel to their debut mixtape, The Odd Future Tape (2008). The album features appearances from Odd Future members Hodgy Beats, Tyler, the Creator, Domo Genesis, Frank Ocean, Mike G, the Internet, Taco, Jasper Dolphin, Left Brain and L-Boy, as well as an uncredited appearance from Earl Sweatshirt. Production on the album was primarily handled by Left Brain and Tyler, the Creator, with Frank Ocean, Hal Williams and Matt Martians also receiving production credits. Lyrically the album ranges from being serious to being satirical, with some tracks offering an overly absurdist take on rap. Odd Future toured in support of the album, and four singles were released from it, all of which received music videos. The album peaked at number 5 on the US Billboard 200 and received mostly positive reviews from critics, receiving a score of 71 out of 100 on review aggregator Metacritic. Critics generally praised the presence of Tyler and Ocean, the vintage style of production and album closer, "Oldie". ## Background and recording Los Angeles hip hop collective Odd Future, who were known for their frequent collaborations, have released mixtapes together in the past, such as Radical and the original Odd Future Tape. In January 2012, the group confirmed that they were to release their first commercially released album, titled The OF Tape Vol. 2. The album was to feature production and appearances by only Odd Future members, and would be promoted with a North American tour. The album was quickly recorded in Los Angeles over the course of two weeks. In an interview with The Guardian, when asked about the expectations of the album, Tyler replied "I don't know. I have my doubts. Everybody's going on it and I just think, fuck, everybody might hate this shit. Everybody might go: 'What the fuck is this? We wanted this, we wanted that.' There we go. We made an album we wanted to make. If everybody hates it, OK. We have an album we like." The track "Forest Green" was released over a year before the release of the album, but was featured on the project with remastered production. ## Content The album opener "Hi", is a song where group member L-Boy insults each "dusty ass motherfucker" on the album, serving as a comical hip hop skit. "Bitches" is performed by Hodgy and Domo, with production by Left Brain. The track is a "boastful" scorcher, built from New Age synthesizers and hammering snare drums. The two rappers trade off-kilter verses at each other, with Hodgy delivering his verses with a melodic flow. Hodgy "turns up the aggression" on "NY (Ned Flander)", a track similar to the aesthetic of Tyler's album Goblin. Critics noted the song's "stark", "unnerving" and repetitive piano line that serves as the platform for Tyler and Hodgy's verses. Nathan Rabin wrote that all the songs up to "NY (Ned Flander)" are rap songs, but the one that follows, "Ya Know", is not, as it is more reminiscent of the band N.E.R.D. with its sonic shifts and "hazy" atmosphere. The track is performed by Matt Martians and Syd the Kyd of psych-soul act the Internet, with jazz influences. Mike G is the only performer on "Forest Green", which reviewers described as a lurching banger with a creepy, hypnotic beat. "Lean" is a parody song in the style of Waka Flocka Flame, an absurdist take on rap music with lines like "If I was a dinosaur, I’d be a flexasaurus". Syd the Kyd makes another singing appearance on "Analog 2". The song features Ocean singing a chorus over a production of what writers thought of as atmospheric, with a sultry swirl of synths, and a segue with 12 seconds of silence. Tyler raps with relative innocence about hanging out with his girlfriend, and Syd the Kid muses about moonlight kisses and rooftop sexual encounters. Hodgy is the main contributor to "50", a bass-driven, comical song that takes cues from the comedy troupe The Lonely Island. "50" demonstrates both an aggressive and comical side to the album, with verses like "I'll fuck your grandmother up." Hodgy reappears on "Snow White", featuring more singing from Ocean. Hodgy Beats raps at a very fast rate, centered on an intense beat. The 10th track is "Rella", where Tyler boasts about taking "three pills of Extenzo" to cure his erectile dysfunction, in a flow similar to rapper Eminem. The production was handled by Left Brain, with elements of electronic music, sounding like "something out of a Donkey Kong Country level." MellowHype and Taco contemplate the issues of not having an ideal woman on "Real Bitch". The track was written to be purposely offensive, with the two rappers trading verses on what reviewers described as an atmospheric, "slow-jam" beat. "P" features a bass-driven beat influenced by post-grunge, with Tyler rapping in the vein of the Wu-Tang Clan. The song features casual references to Jerry Sandusky and Casey Anthony, and Tyler's description of his flow being as "retarded as the sound of deaf people arguing." "White" features Ocean alone, and is similar to a song from his album Channel Orange with the same name. The song is a vast departure from the rest of the album, featuring Ocean gently singing in the style of Stevie Wonder. Ocean speaks a contemplative poem about the transitory mystery of love, with the song serving as an intermission from the more aggressive style of the album. The song is followed by "Hcapd", with heavy synths played over Left Brain's verses about horror-related topics. Taco and Jasper Dolphin appear on the comical track "We Got Bitches", another absurdist parody composition. The song has a chaotic beat, taking influence from punk rock and rave music. Braggadocio rapping is prominent on the track, with the crew screaming the chorus "We got bitches, we got diamonds, we got cars, we got jacuzzis," adding "and yo’ bitch be on my dick!" The album closer is "Oldie", where Earl Sweatshirt makes his first rapping appearance in over a year. The song is a 10-minute track featuring, in order of appearance on the song, Taco, Tyler, Hodgy Beats, Left Brain, Mike G, Domo Genesis, Frank Ocean, Jasper Dolphin and Earl Sweatshirt, with Tyler closing the song with another verse. The song features the collective's blending of eccentricity and rebellion, and each rapper taking a verse to express their own topics of interest lyrically. ## Promotion On February 20, 2012, the music video for single "Rella" premiered online. The video was directed by Tyler, and according to Pitchfork Media's Jordan Sargent. The video can be summarized as "Hodgy Beats shoots lasers from his crotch turning girls into cats, while Domo Genesis smacks a black girl in the face, turning her into an Asian, and Tyler as a coke-snorting centaur." The music video for "NY (Ned Flander)", also directed by Tyler, was premiered on March 5. The video contained scenes of Hodgy as a bald, deadbeat dad preoccupied with softcore porn, and Tyler's head on a baby's body. The music video for "Oldie", directed by Lance Bangs, was released on March 20. The video was shot during a Terry Richardson photo shoot featuring the entire group. The collective decided to shoot an impromptu video, lip-syncing their verses. The rappers interrupt each other, while laughing and smiling. "Sam (Is Dead)" was promoted as a short film, directed by Tyler. The short film is a war-themed comedic narrative, featuring Sweatshirt, Tyler, L-Boy, and even Lee Spielman of Odd Future Records's Trash Talk. Odd Future have performed several of the songs from the album on their tours. During Ocean's 2012 setlist at the Coachella Music Festival, Tyler joined Ocean on stage for a performance of "Analog 2". ## Critical reception The OF Tape Vol. 2 received mostly positive reviews from music critics. Pitchfork's Jordan Sargent stated that the album was mostly a success because "every member steps up", with Domo who had "evolved from the group's bumbling stoner into a guy who can spit dizzying, complicated verses". Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone stated that the album contained a "fizzy energy that elevates it above its limitations", musing that Odd Future were a lot like "early Wu-Tang, a thrilling regional act, and a bunch of whip-smart black hipsters whose worldview is grounded in their corner of sun-baked southern California." PopMatters's Jeff Dunn felt that every member improved from their past mixtapes, stating that Ocean, Tyler, and Sweatshirt were all impressive, consistently "spitting dizzying, more original lines than they ever have on mixtapes past." Dunn wrote that "after the mixed returns of Goblin, Tyler himself now seems to realize that less is more on his part", who "wisely tones down the shock-for-shock's-sake rhymes quite a bit, making his appearances all the more rewarding when they do occur." Steve Labate of Paste mused that "while Odd Future's critics try hard to frame them as such, it's difficult to accept Tyler and the OF crew as mere shock artists, flippantly tossing off incendiary slurs for attention—the music is too tongue-in-cheek clever, too brainy and self-aware, too anything-goes eccentric." The A.V. Club's Chris Martins praised the album, stating that "perhaps most impressive is that Tyler, the Creator takes a noticeable step back so that his friends can enjoy the spotlight. When he does show up—standouts include the hulking G-funk mutation "Hcapd" and the grungy, bass-addled "P”—both his beats and raps thrill: All of the twisted jokes, tough introspection, and rabble-rousing that fans have come to expect, with none of the unfortunate rape references his detractors rightly called him on." AllMusic's David Jeffries called album closer "Oldie" epic in nature, stating that Earl Sweatshirt's return was the highlight of the album, summarizing the album as "hype warranted." Beats Per Minute's Craig Jenkins compared the album extensively to prior Odd Future releases, reporting that "it ditches the expansive ooze that made stretches of Tyler's Goblin a chore, the nihilistic agitprop of MellowHype's BlackenedWhite, and the lackadaisical drugginess of Mike G's Ali and Domo's Rolling Papers in favor of the kind of restless, jerky energy that skyrocketed Bastard into the dialogue months prior." He described the album as something that "mainly sounds like a bunch of dudes in a dank basement cooking up the wildest smack talk possible, with one-upping each other being the primary objective." Jeff Reiss of Spin gave the album a mixed review, commenting that "it's Odd Future at their best, blending eccentricity, rebellion, and weird humor, with the fearlessness of kids convinced that there are no consequences to their actions", though noted that "at their worst, they are guilty of every adolescent's biggest fear - being boring." Ray Rhamen, writer for Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review, reporting that "robbed of their outsider status, the boys swap horror for hormones on The OF Tape, Vol 2., giddily trading tall tales and witty obscenities. For better or worse, OF might actually be growing up." musicOMH's Andy Baber viewed the album as "an eclectic and solid - if unspectacular - return, which should see their already dedicated fanbase increase", commenting that "Frank Ocean is criminally underused". Mike Madden of Consequence of Sound felt that "too many things happen here, from the Brick Squad-type rave-ups to Ocean's R&B laments, for it to ever sound like a truly unified, full-length group project." In 2019, Pitchfork placed album closer "Oldie" at number 160 on their list of "The 200 Best Songs of the 2010s." ## Commercial performance In the United States, the album debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 40,000 copies. As of May 2012, the album has sold 71,000 copies in the United States. The album topped the US Billboard Top Rap Albums chart, the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and the Top Independent Albums chart. It also charted within the top 40 in Australia, Canada, Denmark and the UK. The song "Oldie" appeared at position 23 on the Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart. ## Track listing Notes - "Doms" and "50" features additional vocals by Tyler, the Creator - "We Got Bitches" features additional vocals by L-Boy ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts
45,143,599	Hôtel d'Alluye	1,173,856,159	Hôtel particulier in Blois, France	[ "Buildings and structures completed in 1508", "Buildings and structures in Loir-et-Cher", "Hôtels particuliers", "Renaissance architecture in France" ]	The Hôtel d'Alluye is an hôtel particulier in Blois, Loir-et-Cher, France. Built for Florimond Robertet when he was secretary and notary to Louis XII, the residence bears the name of his barony of Alluyes. On Rue Saint-Honoré near Blois Cathedral and the Château de Blois, it is now significantly smaller than it was originally as the north and west wings were destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. Built between 1498 (or 1500) and 1508, the hôtel particulier is one of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois. Its façades consist of Gothic, French Renaissance and Italian Renaissance architecture. The Hôtel d'Alluye was owned by the Robertet family from 1508 until 1606 before undergoing frequent changes in ownership; since 2007, it has been divided into ten apartments and a large office. As a result of its ownership changes the building has been considerably altered, with only the east and south wings retaining their original appearance. Destruction of the west wing began during the seventeenth century, and the north wing was destroyed in 1812. The Hôtel d'Alluye was classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929, and its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days since 2011. ## Location Built near Blois Cathedral and the Royal Château de Blois, the Hôtel d'Alluye is located on Rue Saint-Honoré. Its south side originally extended along Rue Saint-Honoré between the current No. 4 and No. 10, and its west side extended along Rue Porte-Chartraine. Records indicate that the north side was extended to Rue Beauvoir in 1643, enlarging the hôtel particulier over a large quadrangle 30 m (98 ft) wide. How Robertet obtained such a large plot in the centre of Blois is unknown; he may have acquired the land gradually for the building's future construction, or could have been granted a fief by the Crown for his services. Although, it is known that Robertet sought to acquire an adjoining building (the Hôtel Denis-Dupont) to extend his property. Lawyer Denis Dupont (the building's owner) strongly opposed the idea, and over half of the former Hôtel Denis-Dupont remains. ## History ### Construction Under Louis XII the courtesans of France settled in Blois from 1498 to 1515, and the city became the capital of the Kingdom of France. As a result, many people purchased residences in Blois and the Loire Valley. Named after Robertet's barony of Alluyes, construction of the Hôtel d'Alluye began in 1498 or 1500 and was completed in 1508. It was built during his tenure as secretary and notary to Louis XII, and a diplomatic document from the Republic of Florence described the hôtel as new in September 1508. The hôtel particulier is an example of French Renaissance architecture; this, coupled with its ornamentation, were intended to reflect the tastes of Robertet, who was well known for his artistic collections. One of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois, the hôtel indicates the influence of the Quattrocento on him. The Hôtel d'Alluye was owned by the descendants of Robertet and Michelle Gaillard de Longjumeau until the early sixteenth century. In 1588, it hosted Louis II, Cardinal of Guise, the brother of Henry I, Duke of Guise ("Scarface"), who was on the Estates General of Blois until his assassination was ordered by Henry III. Robertet's grandson, Baron François Robertet of Alluyes, died in 1603 with no male offspring; three years later, the residence and its surrounding property were seized by the Crown. ### Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries The 1620s saw the fragmentation of the west wing of the original residence. Sold to a number of owners, this part of the building was gradually distorted until only a few remnants were left. The other three wings of the building were acquired by the Huraults of Saint-Denis in 1621, and on 5 July 1637 the residence was acquired by the Bégon family. In 1644, major restoration work was done on the north wing under Charles Turmel. The Hôtel d'Alluye was sold by Michel Bégon de la Picardière to the Terrouanne family on 5 August 1718 for 9,000 livres. ### Modern era Around 1812 Lambert Rosey, a member of the Terrouanne family, demolished the building's north wing. In 1832, Rosey sold the building to Amédée Naudin for 12,000 francs. Work began in the east wing, with its depth reduced and its layout becoming more irregular. Naudin died on 21 November 1864, and his two daughters sold the residence on 5 June 1866 for 40,000 francs. From 1868 to 1869, it was restored under the direction of Félix Duban; in 1877, further restoration work was planned but not done. From 1890 to 1895 major changes were made to the Rue Saint-Honoré section, with many attics and roofs transformed. In 2007, the residence was purchased by a developer, who divided it into ten apartments three years later. This helped save the rear of the residence, which had a badly-damaged roof. Currently, the building comprises ten apartments and a large office. ## Buildings Destroyed in 1812, the original layout of the north wing is unknown but it is described in a 1644 document. Narrower than the other wings, the wing and its gallery were no more than 8 m (26 ft) wide and contained two bedrooms. A staircase at the northeast corner linked it to the other wings. Although the east wing is well-preserved, it has undergone many changes and its initial appearance is unknown. The wing has two levels overlooking the courtyard retaining their arcades (now glassed-in), which are the same shape as those in the south wing. The southeast end of the wing contained a kitchen (with a well) and a large pantry. Opening onto Rue Saint-Honoré with a large portal, the south wing was the hotel's main building; like the east wing, it is well-preserved. To the left of the portal is an area which previously served as a stable. The ground floor has a large room opening onto the courtyard and another, smaller room. The first floor consists of three rooms: two small rooms and a garderobe. During the eighteenth century, it was recorded that the top floor had two chambres de bonne. The west wing's design is known only from archival records, since it was almost totally destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. The first part of the wing consisted of stables, a spiral staircase leading to the exterior façade, a corridor linking the courtyard to the street and a large pantry. During the seventeenth century, the second part held an indoor jeu de paume court and a chapel; its first floor had three large bedrooms. ## Façades, entrances and courtyard The hotel's exterior façade was inspired by the Louis XII wing of the Château de Blois. Since its construction, dormers have been added and the window design has changed. The original façade can be seen in the decoration of some ground-floor windows and the portal, and the walls, windows and corbels of this hôtel particulier are in the Gothic style. More modern than the exterior façades and contrary to French architectural tradition, the interior façades embrace the Italian Renaissance style. The hotel's galleries had two levels of "basket-handle" arches, columns on the first floor and rectangular pillars. Italian influence on the buildings appears in the moldings and carvings on its doors and pillars—for example, facing birds. Thirteen antique terracotta medallions adorn the balustrade of the gallery's first floor, representing Roman emperors and influenced by Italian architecture. Surrounded by a thick garland of fruits and flowers, these medallions were originally painted green to suggest bronze and distinguish the façade. The building's perforated railings are inspired by the François I wing of the Château de Blois. The windows were probably added during the late-nineteenth-century restoration. Dismantled in 1812, the northern galleries were originally supported by two sets of six white marble columns (rarely found in sixteenth-century buildings). The hôtel d'Alluye originally had three entrances linking it to shopping areas. The original main entrance, on the south side of the hotel, has been preserved. The hotel was accessible from the west by a path from Rue Porte-Chartraine; that entrance was bricked up in 1606. A third, seventeenth-century entrance linked the north side of the hotel to Rue Beauvoir. The inner courtyard was originally decorated with a bronze copy of Donatello's David, which was inspired by Michelangelo. Placed in 1509, the statue was given to Robertet by the Florentine Republic. As early as 1513, it was moved to his Château de Bury. ## Interior decoration Much of the hôtel d'Alluye's original interior decoration remains. A notable exception is the fireplace in the largest room of the south wing, which was repainted and redecorated by Martin Monestier during the nineteenth century. On the sides of the fireplace, two maxims (maxima propositio) are engraved in ancient Greek. The first reads, "Remember the common fate" ("ΜΕΜΝΗΣΟ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΗΣ ΤΥΧΗΣ") and the second "Above all, respect the divine" ("ΠΡΟ ΠΑΝΤΩΝ ΣΕΒΟΥ ΤΟ ΘΕΙΟΝ"). ## Conservation The hôtel d'Alluye, classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929, is privately owned. Since 2011, its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days. ## See also
65,799,104	Therefore I Am (song)	1,172,613,676	2020 single by Billie Eilish	[ "2020 singles", "2020 songs", "Billie Eilish songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Song recordings produced by Finneas O'Connell", "Songs about the media", "Songs written by Billie Eilish", "Songs written by Finneas O'Connell" ]	"Therefore I Am" is a song by American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish and the second single from her second studio album, Happier Than Ever (2021). It was released on November 12, 2020, through Darkroom and Interscope Records. It is an uptempo, hip hop-influenced pop, dark pop, R&B, and electropop track. Eilish wrote the song with its producer, Finneas O'Connell. The song received positive reviews from music critics, with many of them comparing it to Eilish's hit single "Bad Guy". "Therefore I Am" was featured in 2020 year-end lists by multiple publications, including Billboard, NME, and Uproxx. The song peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100, giving Eilish her fourth top-10 hit in the United States. The song further reached the top five on the Billboard airplay Hot Rock & Alternative Songs charts and number one on the Mainstream Top 40 chart. It peaked at number one on the singles charts in Greece, Ireland, Lithuania, and New Zealand, alongside receiving a platinum certification in Canada from Music Canada (MC). The song's music video, directed by Eilish herself and filmed inside the Glendale Galleria shopping mall in California, premiered on the same day as the single release. In the video, Eilish is by herself in the empty shopping mall, eating and drinking various foods and beverages from Wetzel's Pretzels, Hot Dog on a Stick, and Chipotle Mexican Grill. Eilish performed the song at American Music Awards of 2020 in November 2020 and as part of a concert film and a world tour in support of Happier Than Ever. ## Background and development Development for "Therefore I Am" began in January 2020, and continued throughout quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic. On September 14, 2020, during an Instagram Live session, Eilish revealed she would release a new song and music video. On November 9, 2020, Eilish announced on social media that "Therefore I Am" would be released on November 12, 2020, while simultaneously revealing the cover art. In an interview with Zane Lowe on Apple Music 1, Eilish explained: "You know this song is very, very up for interpretation. I'm very curious to see what people get from it and also what they feel when they hear it. It was very fun to complete. It was fun to record. I feel like you can hear it. I feel that I sound very much like...I'm just fucking around. I'm just joking. It's like, come on. It's so real. I feel like a natural, and don't take me seriously, you know? I love it." ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "Therefore I Am" is an uptempo pop, dark pop, R&B, and electropop track, that has hip-hop influences. The song is played in the key of D minor with Eilish's vocals spanning a range of E<sub>3</sub> to F<sub>4</sub>. Both the title and corresponding line are a reference to Cogito, ergo sum, a philosophical statement coined by René Descartes. Music critics have commented that the song features instrumentation consisting of a bassline, kick drum, "disaffected vocal performance" and a "swaggering beat". Moreover, the track uses a synthesizer throughout the hook and has braggadocios rapped verses in between each hook. Lyrically, Eilish sings about disregarding people's opinions towards her. She explains that she is an individual with a mind of her own and does not require anybody making decisions on her behalf. In the chorus, Eilish makes fun of an unknown person, telling them that they believe they are "the man" while beginning to wonder the reality of existence. As the song continues, Eilish does not feel the person is what they believe themselves to be. In the first verse, Eilish expresses disdain towards the constant media coverage about her and demands the charlatans to stop speaking her name as if they know her personally. Laura English of Music Feeds theorized that she is singing about "articles about her baggy getups to paparazzi shots when she wears normal clothes". In the bridge, Eilish laughs as she claims she does not know who the person is, repeating: "I'm sorry, I don't think I caught your name". ## Critical reception "Therefore I Am" was met with positive reviews from music critics. Glenn Rowley of Billboard mentions that the song has Eilish's "signature throbbing beats" and "whispery vocals". In a five-star review, Thomas Smith of NME noted that Eilish "fuses critical philosophy with a swipe at the haters on her thrilling new single, a deliciously spicy tale that will no doubt have fans decoding every line". Rachael Dowd of Alternative Press commented that the song "shows another side to [Eilish] some may have never seen before". Good Morning America's Josh Johnson described the song as a sequel to Eilish's number one hit "Bad Guy". Mike Wass of Idolator viewed the song as a "defiant banger" and said it was "easily her catchiest and most commercial song since "Bad Guy". Steffanee Wang of Nylon cited that the song is a "dark-sounding bange" and "sheds the self-seriousness of her last few releases and lets loose". Slant Magazine's Alexa Camp analyzed that the song is a "stark contrast" compared to her two previously released singles, "No Time to Die" and "My Future". Jordan Robledo of the Gay Times lauded the songs "eerie" sound, "hypnotizing" vocals, and its "unapologetic" lyrics. He thought the song was a "bop from start to finish". In his review for The New York Times, Jon Pareles said "Therefore I Am" was a "relatively minor addition to [Eilish's] catalog" but mentioned it "has attitude enough to get by". The song featured on 2020 year-end lists by Billboard (14), Consequence of Sound (24), NME (14), and Uproxx (50). ## Accolades ## Release and commercial performance "Therefore I Am" was released digitally on Thursday, November 12, 2020. It was serviced to Australian and Italian radio stations the next day. It was serviced to the US alternative contemporary and contemporary hit radios on November 17. It was released to the US adult contemporary radio stations on December 7. "Therefore I Am" debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 with 3.1 million streams, 5,000 downloads, and 11.7 million radio airplay audience impressions in its first four days of tracking. The song rose to number two on the chart the next week after it drew 24.2 million streams, 14,000 downloads, and 18.3 million radio airplay audience impressions, giving Eilish her fourth top-10 hit in the United States and 20th total Hot 100 hit. With a vault of 92 positions, "Therefore I Am" made the fourth-greatest leap in the Hot 100's history. The song also peaked within the top five on the US Billboard airplay Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart, and topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart, her second number one on the latter chart. It reached number two in Canada and received a platinum certification by Music Canada (MC) for track-equivalent sales of 80,000 units. The song also reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and received a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), which denotes track-equivalent sales of 200,000 units. "Therefore I Am" peaked at number one on the singles charts in Greece, Ireland, Lithuania, and New Zealand. It further reached the top five in Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Portugal, Singapore, Sweden, and Switzerland. The song also peaked within the top 20 in the Czech Republic, Italy, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and both the Belgium Flanders and Wallonia charts. ## Music video ### Background A music video for "Therefore I Am" premiered on Eilish's YouTube channel on November 12, 2020. The video was solely directed by Eilish. It was shot inside the Glendale Galleria shopping mall in California, where she would frequently go when she was a young teenager. Eilish told Lowe about the visual: "The video is just the way that the song feels to me—careless and not really trying. The video, we, number one, shot on an iPhone, which we didn't even mean to do". She described the video as both "random" and "chaotic", and revealed that it was filmed overnight with "barely any crew". Fans believe Eilish made the music video in order to prove that she does not care what people think about her body. ### Synopsis and reception The video begins with Eilish, dressed in both a baggy white cardigan that has graffitied symbols and patches, and a pair of shorts, walking around an empty shopping mall alone. As the song's beat kicks in, Eilish begins to dance wildly throughout the mall. The singer helps herself to food and drinks from Wetzel's Pretzels, Hot Dog on a Stick, and Chipotle Mexican Grill. Thereafter, Eilish ascends an escalator, and sings the chorus while eating the food acquired in the video. The video concludes with an off-screen security guard yelling at Eilish, instructing her to leave the building; the singer flees from the mall into a parking garage. Writing for The Fader, Jordan Darville compared the visual to Fatboy Slim's "Weapon of Choice" music video (2001), but said it had "less dancing and more french fries". Patrick Hosken of MTV noted the video captures a feeling of "estrangement" and "isolation". He mentioned that Eilish was not "implicitly haunted by the shuttered shops and eerie emptiness", while adding the video evokes "Dawn of the Dead's suburban post-apocalyptica" and plays like a "nuclear-fallout version of New Radicals's beloved late-'90s kids-take-over-the-mall anthem, 'You Get What You Give'". Liam Hess, writing for Vogue magazine, stated the video offered a "mall rat-inspired twist on a signature Eilish silhouette—and marked a welcome return for one of pop's most agenda-setting style stars". The staff of Paper magazine noted the production has a "lo-fi handheld camera quality", and hypothesized that Eilish and her crew spent their budget on renting out the mall. ## Live performances To further promote "Therefore I Am", Eilish performed the song for first time at the American Music Awards of 2020 on November 22. She included it in the Disney+ concert film Happier Than Ever: A Love Letter to Los Angeles, released on September 3, 2021. Eilish also performed "Therefore I Am" it in the set list of an ongoing world tour (2022–2023) in support of Happier Than Ever. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Billie Eilish – vocals, songwriter - Finneas – producer, songwriter, recording engineer - Rob Kinelski – mixer - Dave Kutch – mastering engineer - Mourad Lagsir – mastering engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history
46,625,633	2015 Football League Championship play-off final	1,170,272,367	null	[ "2014–15 Football League Championship", "2015 Football League play-offs", "2015 sports events in London", "EFL Championship play-off finals", "May 2015 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Middlesbrough F.C. matches", "Norwich City F.C. matches" ]	The 2015 Football League Championship play-off Final was an association football match which was played on 25 May 2015 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Middlesbrough and Norwich City. The match was to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Football League Championship, the second tier of English football, to the Premier League. The top two teams of the 2014–15 Football League Championship season gained automatic promotion to the Premier League, while the teams placed from third to sixth place in the table partook in play-off semi-finals; Norwich ended the season in third place while Middlesbrough finished fourth. The winners of these semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2015–16 season in the Premier League. Winning the game was estimated to be worth around £120 million to the successful team. The 2015 final, refereed by Mike Dean, was watched by a crowd of more than 85,000 people in relatively sunny conditions. Norwich City won 2–0, with goals from Cameron Jerome and Nathan Redmond within the first fifteen minutes of the first half. It was Norwich's first game at Wembley since winning the 1985 Football League Cup Final and marked their return to the Premier League for the first time since their relegation in the 2013–14 season. Norwich were relegated back to the Championship the following season, as they finished 19th in the 2015–16 Premier League. Middlesbrough finished the following season in second place and were automatically promoted to the Premier League for the 2016–17 season. ## Route to the final Norwich City finished the regular 2014–15 season in third place in the Football League Championship, the second tier of the English football league system, one place ahead of Middlesbrough. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the Premier League and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Norwich finished three points behind Watford (who were promoted in second place) and four behind league winners Bournemouth. Middlesbrough ended the season one point behind Norwich. Middlesbrough faced Brentford in their play-off semi-final, with the first leg being held at Griffin Park. Jelle Vossen gave the visitors a first-half lead with a header from an Adam Clayton cross but Andre Gray equalised eleven minutes into the second half after taking the ball from Middlesbrough goalkeeper Dimitrios Konstantopoulos. Brentford dominated the second half but deep into injury time, Fernando Amorebieta struck the winner and the game ended 2–1. The second leg, at the Riverside Stadium, once again saw Brentford dominate possession, but goals for Middlesbrough from Lee Tomlin, Kike and Albert Adomah meant the game ended 3–0 and the Teesside club qualified for the final 5–1 on aggregate. Norwich City's semi-final opponents were local rivals Ipswich Town with the first leg being held at Portman Road. Jonny Howson put Norwich in the lead but Paul Anderson equalised in first-half injury time, and with no further goals, the match ended 1–1. The second leg, at Carrow Road, was goalless at half time, but four minutes into the second half, Ipswich's defender Christophe Berra conceded a penalty after he deliberately blocked Nathan Redmond's shot with his hand. Berra was shown a red card and Norwich took the lead through Wes Hoolahan's successful spot kick. Tommy Smith equalised with half an hour to go but goals from Redmond and Cameron Jerome ensured a 3–1 win on the day and a 4–2 aggregate victory for Norwich. ## Match .===Background=== This was Norwich's second Championship play-off final, having lost the 2002 Football League First Division play-off final at the Millennium Stadium against Birmingham City on penalties. Middlesbrough were making their fifth trip to Wembley Stadium, having lost three previous matches all 2-0, the 1990 Full Members' Cup Final, the 1997 FA Cup Final and the 1998 Football League Cup Final. Their only goal at Wembley, came in the draw, in the 1997 Football League Cup Final, which went to a replay at Hillsborough. However they did win the 1988 Football League Second Division play-off final on aggregate against First Division Chelsea, which was determined over two legs, at their respective grounds. During the regular season, Norwich had lost both times against Middlesbrough: a 4–0 defeat at the Riverside in November 2014, their heaviest of the season, was followed by a 1–0 loss at Carrow Road in April 2015, a game which consigned Norwich to the play-offs. Patrick Bamford, on loan from Chelsea, was Middlesbrough's top scorer with 17 goals and had also been recently selected as the "Championship Player of the Year" at the recent Football League Awards, while Norwich's Jerome had scored the most for his team with 20. The Teesside club's Konstantopoulos had also kept more clean sheets than any other goalkeeper. On 19 May Wembley Stadium apologised to Middlesbrough supporters for issuing tickets with the team's name misspelled as "Middlesborough". Norwich received an allocation of 38,888 tickets in the East End of Wembley which were sold exclusively to season ticket holders and club members, while Middlesbrough were allocated 38,000 in the West End. The final was refereed by Mike Dean, with assistant referees Stuart Burt and Simon Long, and Roger East acting as the fourth official. It was reported in the media and press that the match was worth around £120 million to the winning club over three years through sponsorship and television deals. Norwich were considered narrow favourites by bookmakers to win the match which was broadcast in the UK on Sky Sports. Middlesbrough's team bus was delayed and required a police escort to assist its passage to Wembley, where it arrived shortly after 2 p.m. Norwich City's starting eleven was unchanged from their second semi-final leg victory over Ipswich, and Lewis Grabban was named as a substitute, returning from suspension. Bamford returned to Middlesbrough's starting lineup having recovered from an ankle injury picked up in the first leg of the semi-finals against Brentford and replaced Kike. ### First half Norwich kicked the match off at around 3 p.m. in relatively sunny conditions in front of a crowd of 85,656. In the 3rd minute, Norwich's Bradley Johnson narrowly missed Redmond's cross. Five minutes later Steven Whittaker's ball into the box evaded Johnson, who then struck the bar from 18 yards (16 m). Middlesbrough broke away and Vossen hit Norwich's bar from 25 yards (23 m). Former Leicester City player Steve Claridge, working on BBC Radio 5 Live suggested that "you will not get two sweeter strikes. They were marvellous strikes! What a brilliant passage of play." In the 12th minute, Jerome took the ball from Middlesbrough's Daniel Ayala and took it into the box, bringing Konstantopoulos out and allowing the Norwich striker to beat him at the near post. Three minutes later, Whittaker passed the ball into Middlesbrough's penalty area, allowing Redmond to run on to it and score, making it 2–0. Former Blackpool manager Ian Holloway opined: "Norwich's play looks like Premier League ... Middlesbrough seemed to have been knocked sideways." In the 23rd minute, Middlesbrough won their first corner but the delivery from their captain Grant Leadbitter was cleared by Norwich. Vossen headed wide for Middlesbrough on 27 minutes and nine minutes later, he was off-target with another header. Two minutes of additional time were played before the half ended, with the East Anglian club leading 2–0. ### Second half Middlesbrough made a half-time substitution, the first replacement of the match, with Emilio Nsue coming on for Dean Whitehead. The first opportunity of the half fell to Norwich's Hoolahan whose shot was tame. Ayala then headed over from a corner after a cross from Adomah was deflected out by Sébastien Bassong. In the 56th minute, Vossen was booked for diving, and three minutes later, Bamford's shot was saved by the Norwich goalkeeper John Ruddy. Howson was then shown a yellow card for a foul on Tomlin, before another Adomah cross is cleared by Norwich. In the 68th minute, Middlesbrough made their second substitution, replacing Vossen with Kike. Two minutes later, after Bamford missed a chance on a through ball, Kike's ball into the box failed to find any teammates. Norwich made a double substitution in the 74th minute, with Grabban and Graham Dorrans coming on for Jerome and Hoolahan. Five minutes after his introduction, Dorrans' advance was stopped illegally by Kike and the resulting free kick was sent wide of the post by Redmond. Middlesbrough's claim for a penalty in the 81st minute after an alleged handball were dismissed by the referee Mike Dean. Ayala's header then beat Ruddy but was cleared off the line by Grabban to maintain Norwich's advantage. With three minutes of regular time remaining, Norwich made their third and final substitution, with Redmond being replaced by Gary O'Neil. Four minutes of additional time were played and the match ended with Norwich winning 2–0 and promotion back to the Premier League. ### Details ### Statistics ## Post-match The Norwich captain Russell Martin described his team's performance as "our best of the season so far". His teammate Jerome noted that Norwich and Middlesbrough "were both unlucky to miss out on automatic promotion ... We moved the ball well and we were deserved winners." Their manager, Alex Neil observed that "big players arrive on the big stage and you saw that in the first 20 minutes – we were unbelievable." Middlesbrough's head coach Aitor Karanka was graceful in defeat, acknowledging that Norwich "played better, they didn't make mistakes, we made two mistakes, and in a final you pay for those mistakes." Norwich ended the next season in 19th position in the 2015–16 Premier League, and were relegated back to the Championship. Middlesbrough finished the following season in second place in the 2015–16 Football League Championship, securing automatic promotion to the Premier League for the 2016-17 season.
16,151,965	Hensley & Co.	1,134,208,784	Beverage company	[ "1955 establishments in Arizona", "Companies based in Phoenix, Arizona", "Distribution companies of the United States", "Drink companies of the United States", "Food and drink companies based in Arizona", "Food and drink companies established in 1955" ]	Hensley & Co., also known as Hensley Beverage Company, is an Anheuser-Busch beer wholesaler and distributor headquartered in the West Phoenix area of Phoenix, Arizona. Its market territory covers nearly the entire state of Arizona. As of 2007 it was the third-largest Anheuser-Busch distributor in the United States and one of the largest privately held companies in Arizona. The company was founded in 1955 by Arizona businessman Jim Hensley and steadily grew based upon population growth in the region and a close arrangement with Anheuser-Busch. Following Hensley's death in 2000, his daughter Cindy Hensley McCain became the controlling owner. At the height of prominence of her husband, U.S. Senator and two-time presidential candidate John McCain, Hensley & Co. was arguably the best-known beer distributorship in America. Previously focused on marketing to the Phoenix, Tempe, and Prescott Valley areas, its size and scope increased significantly with the 2016 acquisition of Tucson-based Golden Eagle Distributors. Hensley Beverage Company maintains an active presence in the Phoenix area in terms of sponsorships and charitable giving. Its representatives have held high positions in several city and state business groups and the company is active in political discussions that affect the industry. ## History The company was founded in January 1955 by Arizona businessman Jim Hensley on a \$10,000 loan. It originally had 12 workers, sold 73,000 cases of beer a year (a case typically being twenty-four 12-oz. bottles or cans), and had a 6 percent market share. While it initially handled many brands of beer, Hensley accepted an offer later in 1955 to become Anheuser-Busch's sole distributor for Maricopa County in return for selling only that brand. Under the names Hensley & Company Distributors and Hensley & Company Wholesale, the company saw decades of steady growth, aided by the Phoenix area becoming one of the fastest-growing regions of the country while the company still maintained exclusivity with Anheuser-Busch. Jim Hensley's tireless sales efforts and the generous wages and benefits he gave employees were also key success factors. Hensley & Co. was the first Anheuser-Busch distributor to invest in refrigerated warehouses, which subsequently became standard in the industry. By 1970, Hensley & Co. had a 20 percent market share; by 1980, that had grown to 50 percent, the business had become quite successful, and Jim Hensley was a multi-millionaire. In 1981, Jim Hensley's new son-in-law John McCain, recently married to daughter Cindy Hensley McCain and retired from the United States Navy, was hired as Vice President of Public Relations. McCain soon left to begin his Congressional career. In 1993, the company consolidated operations under the name Hensley & Company. Robert Delgado, who had been with the company since 1975, was named president in 1994—assuming day-to-day control of the business—and later was named CEO, while Jim Hensley remained chairman. The company also acquired real estate throughout Arizona. John McCain's son Andrew, from his first marriage, joined the firm around 1997; his MBA and banking experience would lead to his becoming the company's CFO and COO, and in 2017, President. At the time of his death in 2000, Jim Hensley held most of the voting stock. Annual revenues were over \$220 million on 20 million cases of beer sold. Cindy Hensley McCain, who had been a vice president, became the controlling stockholder—she, her children, and Andrew McCain together control 68 percent of the company—and chair of the board. As chair, she consults remotely with Delgado on major initiatives such as new products, new plants, employee welfare, or charitable giving. She is considered by Anheuser-Busch to be an absentee owner, and Delgado is required to have complete control over business operations and investment decisions. Anheuser-Busch inquired about buying the distributorship in the early 2000s, preferring not to have absentee owners, but she declined (all their U.S. beer distributorships are privately owned). By 2007 Hensley employed 650 people, sold about 23 million cases of beer a year to over 5,000 retail accounts producing revenues of \$340 million, and held 60 percent or more market share in its target area. Beverage industry analysts estimated the company's value in 2008 at more than \$250 million. Despite the late-2000s recession, which resulted in a rare decline in sales volume, revenues rose slightly to \$350 million by 2009 and employment was still 650 in 2010. It subsequently rose to 800 by 2015. The company said it had record revenues in 2014 but did not disclose the amount. The company's workforce was dominated by men in their twenties. The company's facilities included its own printing shop. It operated a fleet of some 750 trucks and other vehicles and conducts its own training program for commercial driver's licenses. The company's Phoenix distribution plant occupies a number of acres, marked by a giant Budweiser sign. In addition to beer, Hensley also distributes energy drinks, root beer, liquor, and wine, some of which are distributed from a warehouse in Tucson. The move into wine was accelerated by the acquisition of Phoenix-based Quench Fine Wines Ltd. in 2010. Via the holding company King Aviation, Hensley owns and operates Cessna Citation Excel aircraft. Over half the beer sold in the Phoenix area is Anheuser-Busch, making it one of their better markets nationally. Both companies benefit when major sports events are held in the area, such as Super Bowl XLIX. The beer distribution business and its Phoenix market is very competitive; some Anheuser-Busch distributors eventually ended their exclusive arrangements with the beer maker, and for a while Hensley had no plans to do so. However, in 2009 it did, in part related to Hensley's move into craft beers, an emerging force in the market. Hensley worked with Four Peaks Brewery among others. By 2015 Hensley sold some 850 drinks and brands from around the world and had around 8,000 retail customers in the Phoenix area. In 2016 Hensley acquired another family-owned Arizona firm, Golden Eagle Distributors, based in Tucson and founded in 1974 by Bill Clements. Cindy McCain said, "My father was very, very close with the founders of Golden Eagle. He always considered them good businessmen and women, and patriots to the state of Arizona. ... Arizona is a family and keeping that business in the family was important to me. I didn't want to see someone from outside Arizona come in and do it." The deal increased the number of Hensley employees to over 1,200, its fleet size to over 1,100, and for the first time gave Hensley distribution to virtually the entire state of Arizona. During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Hensley Beverage Company faced the challenges associated with kegs of beer in the distribution channel reaching their expiration date due to the bars and restaurants that normally sell beer on tap being shut down. ## Political activities Between 1982 and 2000, the company contributed \$80,000 to John McCain's political campaigns; from 2001 to 2006, the company and its employees would contribute an additional \$24,000. In Congress, McCain recused himself on legislation involving alcohol issues. In the late 1980s, Jim Hensley was active in legislative battles against neo-prohibitionist movements. In 1992, a former Anheuser-Busch lobbyist accused Hensley & Co. of illegal "bundling" of contributions to state legislators. Hensley denied the claim, which was later withdrawn by the lobbyist with no charges filed. Hensley & Co. holds a seat on the board of the National Beer Wholesalers Association, and company spokesperson Douglas Yonko is the association's Arizona director. Company executives have contributed heavily to the association's funding. Hensley executives have been active in successfully convincing the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau to not require alcohol content displays for beer labels. In the early 2000s, Hensley sought unsuccessfully to keep liquor makers from entering the flavored malt beverage market, while it began distributing such beverages itself, including Anheuser-Busch's Tilt. During the 2010s, Hensley supported proposed state legislation that, within the rigid three-tier framework of producers, distributors, and retailers, would relax production caps on craft breweries with respect to how much beer they can make and "self-distribute", in the belief that such relief would help such breweries grow bigger and eventually need Hensley's distribution services. Hensley & Co. has continued to be a strong presence in Arizona politics, opposing liquor tax increases in all circumstances, including those targeted for childhood education and children's hospitals. Yonko has also been an officer of the Arizona Chamber of Commerce & Industry, which backed John McCain's successful bid for re-election in 2010. In 2008, Andrew McCain was chairman of the Greater Phoenix Chamber of Commerce, where he focused the group's attention on the state's budget deficit, possible transportation initiatives, and immigration reform. Like many businesses in the state, Hensley got caught up in the controversy surrounding the Arizona SB 1070 anti-illegal immigration law, with the group Somos America advocating a boycott of Hensley until the company denounced the law. The company called the action "an obvious cheap political stunt motivated solely by self promotion" and said that "Hensley Beverage Company/Budweiser will continue to embrace and encourage the wonderful diversity of our state". The boycott gained little attention. Later that year, Hensley and Delgado joined the Partnership for a New American Economy, an effort started by Michael Bloomberg to push towards comprehensive immigration reform, and in early 2011 Delgado signed a letter from a number of Arizona CEOs directed at Arizona State Senator Russell Pearce requesting that the legislature back off any more anti-illegal immigration measures. ## Community involvements Hensley engages in various local sports sponsorships, including for Phoenix International Raceway. Andrew McCain has served on the board of directors of the Fiesta Bowl and for 2014–15 was named chairman of the bowl. Hensley is a major contributor to charity in the Phoenix metropolitan area, donating about \$1 million per year to various causes and starting the Hensley Employee Foundation in 2001. In addition, the company has helped promote safe ride businesses in an effort to avoid drunk driving incidents. Another event is the Budweiser Shootout Golf Tournament, held in conjunction with the Arizona State University Hispanic Business Alumni since 1991, which has raised over \$1 million for Latino student scholarships in the area. Hensley & Co. has also been a supporter of the Phoenix gay community, sponsoring events by the Phoenix Lesbian and Gay Pride Committee, and Cindy McCain and her daughter Meghan McCain were outspoken proponents of the NOH8 Campaign.
68,214,922	Osa Maliki	1,161,240,924	Indonesian politician (1907–1969)	[ "1907 births", "1969 deaths", "Boven-Digoel concentration camp detainees", "Indonesian National Party politicians", "Indonesian collaborators with Imperial Japan", "Members of the People's Representative Council, 1955", "Members of the People's Representative Council, 1960", "People from West Bandung Regency", "Sundanese people" ]	Osa Maliki Wangsadinata (30 December 1907 – 15 September 1969) was an Indonesian politician who served as the chairman of the Indonesian National Party (PNI) and a deputy speaker of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) from 1966 until his death. Born in Padalarang, Osa was educated at a Taman Siswa school. He participated in an unsuccessful communist rebellion against the colonial government in 1926, being exiled to the Boven-Digoel concentration camp as a result. After returning from exile in 1938, he worked as a teacher. During the Japanese occupation, Osa worked in the propaganda section of a Hōkōkai and became a member of the Suishintai, however, he was briefly detained by the Kenpeitai over his connections to an underground resistance movement. Following the proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945, Osa served in various positions in the newly-formed Republican government. During the Indonesian National Revolution, he co-founded a political party, the Indonesian People's Union (SRI), which was merged to form the PNI. In 1947, he was imprisoned by the Dutch shortly after Operation Product, but was released following the signing of the Renville Agreement a year later. He remained politically active following the recognition of sovereignty by the Dutch in 1949, and was elected to the People's Representative Council (DPR) in 1955. His support of the previous parliamentary system and opposition to President Sukarno's Guided Democracy led to a power struggle within the PNI, between Osa's right-wing and Ali Sastroamidjojo's left-wing. However, following the fall of Sukarno, Osa was elected party chairman, ousting Ali. As chairman, Osa attempted to reform the PNI. He died of a heart attack on 15 September 1969 in Semarang, Central Java. ## Early life and career Osa Maliki Wangsadinata was born on 30 December 1907, in Padalarang, in what is today West Bandung. Little is known of his early life; he was educated in a Taman Siswa school. In 1924, he joined the Red Indonesian Youth Organization and later the Red Sarekat Islam. Becoming a member of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), he participated in the unsuccessful 1926 communist rebellion. In the aftermath, Osa was captured and sentenced to jail for 4 years and two months, before being exiled to the Boven-Digoel concentration camp by Dutch authorities. During his time in Boven-Digoel, Osa became a member of the Rust en Orde Bewaarder (ROB), a security force which protected the streets and villages of the area. In the ROB, he earned a salary of 17.5 Gulden. As a member of the ROB, he once dealt with the commotion between Digoel's political prisoners, some of whom used pocket knives. He returned from his exile in 1938, and began teaching at a Taman Siswa school in Bandung. A position he held from 1938 until the Japanese invasion in 1942. During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, he became head of propaganda at Jawa Hokokai. He also became a member of the Special Pioneers Front, the youth wing of Jawa Hokokai founded by future-president Sukarno. However, he was also detained by the Japanese military police (Kempeitai) for four months in Bandung. ## Early political career Following the proclamation of independence and the beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution, he served in the newly formed provincial government of the province of West Java. In December 1945, he became a member of Indonesian People's Union (Serindo), and after the Kediri Congress in 1946, he joined the Indonesian National Party (PNI). After the end of the national revolution and the beginning of an independent Indonesian state, he studied mass communication in Europe and the United States. In the 1955 Indonesian legislative elections, he was elected to the People's Representative Council representing the province of West Java. During the tenth Congress of the PNI, which took place in the town of Purwokerto, Central Java, from 28 August and 1 September 1963, a power struggle between the more left-wing faction of the PNI, led by its chairman Ali Sastroamidjojo, and the more right-wing faction, led by Hardi, occurred. Through a number of factors, including the skillful manipulation of the congress schedule, and the support of President Sukarno, Ali was re-elected chairman through acclamation. Following the election of the chairman, the election for the five deputy chairmen of the party was mostly a matter of allocating them among the two competing factions while also maintaining a semblance of geographic representation. This resulted in Osa being appointed a deputy chairman, along with Hardi, Mohamad Isa, Ruslan Abdulgani, and I Gusti Gde Subamia. ## Political infighting ### Suspension from the PNI The defeat of the right-wing Hardi faction in 1963 PNI Congress, led to their growing isolation in the subsequent years, with the left-wing continuing to gradually increase the number of their supporters in both the national and local party councils. The right-wing faction also considered the left's "ambivalent position" towards the PKI, as a "betrayal", and as the beginning of a purge of the party leadership of right-wing elements. On 25 July 1965, in the 38th anniversary of the PNI, President Sukarno gave a speech; he chided party leaders such as Ali for not having started a purge. In the weeks after the speech, many in the left issued resolutions demanding the expelling of Hadisubeno Sosrowerdojo, Mohammad Isnaeni, and Hardi. In response, party leaders decided to include the issue on the agenda for the already-scheduled meeting of the Central Leadership Council on 4 August 1965. However, six members did not attend the meeting, including Hardi, Mohammad Isnaeni, and Osa. Instead, the day before the meeting, they drafted a letter, which was delivered to all Central Leadership Council members, explaining that their refusal was based on their belief that nothing would be achieved, due to the existing tension in the party. As a result, they were all suspended by Chairman Ali from the PNI. This group, consisting of seven members, along with three other suspended PNI members, proceeded to attempt to generate support to call an extraordinary PNI congress. Between May and October 1965, 140 members were suspended by PNI for supporting Osa's faction, mostly from Jakarta and West Java. ### Takeover of the leadership Following the alleged attempted communist coup of the 30 September movement, both the PKI and President Sukarno had been severely weakened. This gave an opening to the more right-wing faction of the PNI, now led by Osa, which began acting more boldly. In early October, Osa's faction set up a competing leadership of the PNI, with Osa himself as chairman. This new leadership declared that the previous leadership under Ali was banned from the party. By mid-October, army commanders and religious groups had backed and cooperated with Osa's faction in eliminating supposed pro-PKI elements from PNI. While other PNI members such as Iskaq Tjokrohadisurjo, attempted to bring Ali's and Osa's factions together by arranging an emergency party congress with little success. In March 1966, Sukarno had been forced to yield virtually all his political power, which gave major general Suharto significant authority. Subsequently, Suharto arranged meetings between the opposing PNI factions in the same month. In the third meeting, on 24 March, Suharto extracted a joint statement from the Osa and Ali factions, in which both groups declared their agreement to hold an extraordinary congress. However, the Ali faction had not agreed to such demands while declaring its intention to hold the eleventh party congress ahead of schedule. Despite this, the extraordinary congress went ahead on 24–27 April 1966, with significant interference from the military. The delegation from the Ali faction were heckled, and Iskaq (who became the chairman of the extraordinary congress) had almost lost control of the situation. Between sessions, private negotiations were held between both sides. Osa's faction demanded the resignation of Ali, and transfer of leadership to Osa and Usep Ranawidjaja. Ali responded with the proposal that all PNI leadership council members elected the Purwokerto Congress should be ineligible to stand again for leadership positions. Ali's proposal would have excluded himself from running again, but would have also excluded Osa, Isnaeni, and Hardi, resulting in the Osa faction flatly rejecting the proposal. Eventually, both groups agreed to the appointment of Osa as General Chairman with full authority to choose a new central leadership council, with the assistance of S. Hadikusumo, a supporter of Ali. The new agreement was approved by a plenary session, and resulted in the takeover the PNI by the Osa faction, and sidelining of the Ali faction. ## Later political career During the 1966 general session of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS), the MPRS unanimously elected General Abdul Haris Nasution as speaker. In turn, Nasution appointed Osa as a Deputy Speaker, alongside, Mashudi, Mohammad Subchan, and Melanchton Siregar. Despite the end of the split, and the election of a new right-wing leadership for the PNI, the party's existence remained in question. As despite support from Suharto, Osa's PNI were still seen as too close to the "old older" in the eyes of Muslim students, the anti-communist KAMI, and the New Order militants. This was because of Osa's (and the party as a whole) reluctance to attack Sukarno. Demands for the banning of the PNI arose, with territorial commanders (who were New Order militants) beginning to "freeze" local branches of the PNI. And by 1967, the entirety of the PNI organization in Sumatra had been "frozen". However, despite these challenges, the PNI was able to survive, as in December 1967, Suharto ordered local military commanders to aid the PNI in reforming itself. Suharto's actions were based on his view of the PNI, which he saw as a natural vehicle for the expression of the political aspirations of the non-Islamic masses of Java and as an important counter-balance towards the Muslim parties, such as Parmusi, and the Nahdlatul Ulama. ## Death and funeral On the night of 14 September 1969, Osa was invited to give a speech at the opening of the 5th Indonesian National Student Movement congress in Salatiga, Central Java. While giving the speech, he experienced a heart attack, and he was rushed to Salatiga Hospital. His condition slightly improved, before he was then transferred to Dr. Kariadi Central General Hospital in Semarang. There, he remained in care until he died, at around 3:00 p.m. Western Indonesian Time on 15 September. His body was interred in Cikutra Heroes Cemetery in Bandung.
18,860,303	Betsimisaraka people	1,163,473,261	Ethnic group in Madagascar	[ "Betsimisaraka people", "Ethnic groups in Madagascar" ]	The Betsimisaraka ("the many inseparables") are the second largest ethnic group in Madagascar after the Merina and make up approximately fifteen percent of the Malagasy people. They occupy a large stretch of the eastern coastal region of Madagascar, from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north. The Betsimisaraka have a long history of extensive interaction with European seafarers, pirates and bourgeois traders, which produced a significant subset with mixed European-Malagasy origins, termed the zana-malata. European influence is evident in the local valse (waltz) and basesa musical genres, which are typically performed on the accordion. Tromba (spirit possession) ceremonies feature strongly in Betsimisaraka culture. Through the late 17th century, the various clans of the eastern coastal region were governed by chieftains who typically ruled over one or two villages. A zana-malata pirate named Ratsimilaho emerged to unite these clans under his rule in 1710. His reign lasted 50 years and established a sense of common identity and stability throughout the kingdom. But his successors gradually weakened this union, leaving it vulnerable to the growing influence and presence of European and particularly French settlers, (slave traders), missionaries and merchants. The fractured Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily colonised in 1817 by Radama I, king of Imerina who ruled from its capital at Antananarivo in the Central Highlands. The subjugation of the Betsimisaraka in the 19th century left the population relatively impoverished; under colonisation by the French (1896-1960), a focused effort was made to increase access to education and paid employment working on French plantations. Production of former plantation crops like vanilla, ylang-ylang, coconut oil, and coffee remain the principal economic activity of the region beyond subsistence farming and fishing, although mining is also a source of income. Culturally, the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub-groups. Many elements of culture are common across both groups, including respect for ancestors, spirit possession, the ritual sacrifice of zebu, and a patriarchal social structure. The groups are distinguished by linguistic sub-dialects and various fady (taboos), as well as certain funeral practices and other customs. The Betsimisaraka practice famadihana (reburial) and sambatra (circumcision) and believe in sorcery and a wide range of supernatural forces. Many taboos and folktales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles, both of which are common throughout Betsimisaraka territory. ## Ethnic identity The Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and numbered over 1,500,000 in 2011. A sub-set of the population, the zana-malata, has partly European origins resulting from generations of intermarriage between the local Malagasy population and European pirates, sailors and traders who docked or settled along the eastern coast. Like the Sakalava to the west, the Betsimisaraka are composed of numerous ethnic sub-groups that formed a confederation in the early 18th century. Like all Malagasy people, the Betsimisaraka are of mixed Bantu African and Asian Austronesian descent. However, the Betsimisaraka are one of the Malagasy tribes to have predominant East African Bantu ancestry, with the average member being around 70% East African. The Betsimisaraka occupy a long, narrow band of territory that stretches along the east coast of Madagascar from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north, including the island's main port at Toamasina and the major towns of Fénérive Est and Maroansetra. They are often subdivided into northern Betsimisaraka (Antavaratra) and southern Betsimisaraka (Antatsimo), separated by the Betanimena Betsimisaraka sub-clan (called the Tsikoa before around 1710). ## History Until the beginning of the 18th century, the peoples who would constitute the core of the Betsimisaraka were organized into numerous clans under the authority of chiefs (filohany) who each typically ruled over no more than one or two villages. Those around Antongil Bay in the north held a comparatively more official position, with regalia of leadership attested since at least 1500. The presence of natural bays along the northern coastline that became the port towns of Antongil, Titingue, Foulpointe, Fenerive and Tamatave favored the economic and political development of the Antavaratra Betsimisaraka; the southern portion of this coastline, by contrast, lacked any areas suitable for ports. Villagers in the areas surrounding the ports exported rice, cattle, slaves and other goods to the nearby Mascarene Islands. The eastern ports' strategic position for regional trade attracted the heaviest settlement of Europeans to this portion of the island, particularly including British and American pirates whose numbers dramatically increased from the 1680s to the 1720s along the coast from modern day Antsiranana in the north to Nosy Boraha and Foulpointe to the east. Intermarriage between these European pirates and the daughters of local chiefs produced a large mixed population termed zana-malata. Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around a series of powerful leaders. Ramanano, the chief of Vatomandry, was elected in 1710 as the leader of the Tsikoa ("those who are steadfast") and initiated invasions of the northern ports. According to oral histories, Ramanano established an armed militia at Vohimasina which he sent on incursions to burn neighboring villages, desecrate local tombs, and enslave the women and children, contributing to his reputation as a cruel and unpopular leader. A northern Betsimisaraka zana-malata named Ratsimilaho, who was born to the daughter of a local filohany and a British pirate named Thomas Tew around 1694 and had briefly traveled with his father to England and India, led a resistance to these invasions and successfully united his compatriots around this cause despite his young age. He captured Fenerive in 1712, causing the Tsikoa to flee across soggy red fields of clay that stuck to their feet, earning them the new name of Betanimena ("Many of Red Earth"). Ratsimilaho was elected king of all the Betsimisaraka and given a new name, Ramaromanompo ("Lord Served by Many") at his capital at Foulpointe. He gave his northern compatriots the name Betsimisaraka to reaffirm their unity in the face of their enemies. He then negotiated peace with the Betanimena by offering their king control over the port of Tamatave, but this settlement fell apart after six months, leading Ratsimilaho to recapture Tamatave and force the Betanimena king to flee south. He established alliances with the southern Betsimisaraka and the neighboring Bezanozano, extending his authority over these areas by allowing local chiefs to maintain their power while offering tribute of rice, cattle and slaves; by 1730 he was one of the most powerful kings of Madagascar. By the time of his death in 1754, his moderate and stabilizing rule had provided nearly forty years of unity among the diverse clans within the Betsimisaraka political union. He also allied the Betsimisaraka with the other most powerful kingdom of the time, the Sakalava of the west coast, through marriage with Matave, the only daughter of Iboina king Andrianbaba. Ratsimilaho's son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755. A despotic leader, Zanahary launched a series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767. Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy, who was detested for continuing his father's practice of attacking villages under his control, and for enriching himself by cooperating with French slave traders. During the reign of Iavy, an eastern European adventurer named Maurice Benyowsky established a settlement in Betsimisaraka country and proclaimed himself king of Madagascar, persuading several local chieftains to no longer pay tribute to Iboina. This action provoked Sakalava ire, and in 1776 Sakalava soldiers invaded the area to punish the Betsimisaraka inhabitants and kill Benyowsky, but were ultimately unsuccessful in the latter goal. Zakavolo, Iavy's son, succeeded his father upon his death in 1791. European accounts disparage Zakavolo for insisting that they provide him with gifts, and for insulting them when the Europeans refused to meet his demands. His subjects deposed him in 1803 with the assistance of then Governor General Magallon, who administered the French island territories; Zakavolo was eventually assassinated by his ex-subjects. Throughout the decades following Ratsimilaho's death, the French established control over Ile Sainte Marie and had established trading ports throughout Betsimisaraka territory. By 1810 a French envoy named Sylvain Roux effectively had economic control over the port city, although it was nominally governed by Zakavolo's uncle Tsihala. A dispute among Tsihala's male relatives over control of the city led to further fracturing of Betsimisaraka political unity, weakening the ability of the Betsimisaraka to unite against increasing foreign encroachment. He lost power the following year to another zana-malata, Jean Rene, who maintained close cooperation with the French. The Kingdom of Imerina in the island's center had been rapidly unifying and expanding since the late 18th century. In 1817, Merina king Radama I led an army of 25,000 soldiers from Antananarivo to successfully capture Toamasina. Although Jean Rene was not complicit and had been given no forewarning of the military campaign, when Radama arrived the Europeans and zana-malata were not expelled; rather, Radama developed a cooperation with them to develop diplomatic and economic relations with the French as he had already done over the past decade with British missionaries in the Merina homeland of the central highlands. The area was effectively colonized, with Merina garrisons established at ports and across the Betsimisaraka interior. The Betsimisaraka resented Merina domination and, not receiving assistance from the French as they had hoped, mounted an unsuccessful rebellion in 1825. As Merina presence and authority in the former Betsimisaraka kingdom grew, many local farmers migrated to areas outside Merina control or sought employment with European settlers on plantations where they might be afforded some protection. Any remnants of the ruling line in Betsimisaraka were eliminated under Merina queen Ranavalona I, who ordered many nobles to undergo the deadly tangena trial by ordeal. Throughout her reign, cultural practices associated with Europeans were forbidden, including Christianity and Western musical instruments; eventually all Europeans were expelled from the island for the duration of her reign. Her son, Radama II, lifted these restrictions and gradually European presence re-emerged in Betsimisaraka territory as French entrepreneurs established plantations for growing export crops like vanilla, coffee, tea and coconuts. The growing number of Merina colonists from the turn of the 19th century and Europeans from the 1860s onward created competition for use of the ports traditionally under Betsimisaraka control, to such an extent that the local population was prohibited from trading to maximize profits for the Merina and Europeans. This severe economic constraint, coupled with the heavy Merina imposition of fanampoana (unpaid labor in lieu of taxes), severely undermined the prosperity of the local population, who resisted by refusing to grow surplus crops that would only further enrich the outside traders. Others fled the settled life of their ancestral villages to take refuge in the forest in order to live outside Merina authority. Some of these formed into groups of bandits who plundered Merina trading parties along the east coast and mounted occasional raids further into Merina territory; these groups also periodically attacked Merina settlers, European missionaries, government outposts and churches. When the French colonized Madagascar in 1896, initial Betsimisaraka satisfaction with the fall of the Merina government rapidly evolved into displeasure with French control. This led to an uprising the same year among Betsimisaraka, particularly including the bandits and other outlaws who had long been living according to their own law in the eastern rainforests; the movement extended to the broader Betsimisaraka population, who mounted a strong resistance to French rule in 1895. These efforts were eventually subdued. After regaining control, the French colonial authority took steps to address the repercussions of historical subjugation of the Betsimisaraka by the Merina kingdom, providing increased access to basic education as well as opportunities for paid labor at plantations, but often on former Betsimisaraka land that the French authorities had forced local inhabitants to relinquish to colonists. In 1947, a nationwide uprising against French colonial rule was initiated in Moramanga, a town in Bezanozano territory neighboring the Betsimisaraka. During the conflict, Betsimisaraka nationalists fought French and Senegalese soldiers in an unsuccessful attempt to regain control of the port at Tamatave, the island's most important trading port. Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered very heavy losses and some of the worst human rights abuses, including execution by being thrown alive from airplanes. The country gained independence in 1960. It was led throughout the Second Republic (1975-1992) by Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, a Betsimisaraka. He was democratically elected president and again led the country from 1995 to 2001 during the Third Republic before being forced from power following contested 2001 presidential election by followers of Merina businessman and opposition leader Marc Ravalomanana. He remains an influential and controversial political figure in Madagascar. Ratsiraka's nephew, Roland Ratsiraka, is likewise a significant political figure, having run for president and serving as mayor of Toamasina, the country's main commercial port. ## Society Social life revolves around the agricultural year, with preparation of fields beginning in October, the harvest of rice in May, and the winter months from June to September set aside for ancestor worship and other major rituals and customs. There are clear gender divisions among the Betsimisaraka. When traveling by foot in a mixed gender group, it is forbidden for women to walk before men. Women are traditionally the ones to act as porters, carrying light items on the head and heavy items on the back; if a woman is present, it is considered ridiculous for a man to carry something. When eating, men use a single spoon to fill their plates from the communal bowl and to eat the food on their plates, whereas women are required to use two separate spoons to fill their plates and to eat. Men are generally responsible for tilling the rice fields, obtaining food, gathering firewood and building the family home and furniture, and they engage in discussion and debate about public affairs. Women's tasks include growing crops, weeding the rice fields and harvesting and processing the rice, fetching water, lighting the hearth fire and preparing daily meals, and weaving. ### Religious affiliation Religious rites and customs are traditionally presided over by a tangalamena officiant. Betsimisaraka communities widely believe in various supernatural creatures, including ghosts (angatra), mermaids (zazavavy an-drano) and the imp-like kalamoro. Efforts to Christianize the local population began in the early 19th century but were largely unsuccessful at first. During the colonial period the influence of Christianity among the local population grew, but where it is practiced is often blended syncretically with traditional ancestor worship. Syncretism of Christian and indigenous beliefs led to the motif that the sun (or the moon) was the original location for the Garden of Eden. ## Culture Although there are differences between the northern and southern Betsimisaraka, many major aspects of their culture are similar. Major customs among the Betsimisaraka include sambatra (circumcision), folanaka (the birth of a tenth child), ritual sacrifice of zebu for the ancestors, and celebrating the inauguration of a newly constructed house. Marriage, death, birth, the New Year and Independence Day are also communally celebrated. The practice of tromba (ritual spirit possession) is widespread among the Betsimisaraka. Both men and women act as mediums and spectators in these events. The indigenous raffia palm was the base fiber for the clothing traditionally worn by the Betsimisaraka. Leaves of the raffia were combed to separate the fibers, which were knotted end to end to form strands that could then be woven together to form cloth. Among the various peoples who united under the Betsimisaraka confederation, women wore a short wrapper (simbo), typically with a bandeau top (akanjo), while men wore smocks. Traditional raffia clothing is still worn by some Betsimisaraka today. The Betsimisaraka hold lemurs in high regard and tell several legends in which lemurs come to the aid of prominent Betsimisaraka figures. According to one story, a lemur saved the life of a Betsimisaraka ancestor from a grave peril. In another tale, a group of Betsimisaraka sought refuge in a forest from a marauding enemy group. Their enemies followed them into the forest, tracking the Betsimisaraka by what they believed to be the sound of their voices. Upon reaching the source of the sound they discovered a group of ghostly-looking lemurs and, believing the Betsimisaraka had been transformed into animals by magic, fled the area in terror. The spirits of Betsimisaraka ancestors are believed to reside inside the bodies of lemurs. Consequently, in general it is forbidden for the Betsimisaraka to kill or eat lemurs, and it is obligatory to free a trapped lemur and to bury a dead lemur with the same rites as a person. Crocodiles are also viewed with reverence and fear. At river banks where they are known to gather, it is not uncommon for Betsimisaraka villagers to throw them zebu hindquarters (the most favored cut), whole geese and other offerings on a daily basis. Amulets for protection against crocodiles are commonly worn or thrown into the water in areas where the animals congregate. It is commonly believed that witches and sorcerers are closely linked with crocodiles, being capable of ordering them to kill others and of walking among them without being attacked. The Betsimisaraka believe witches and sorcerers appease crocodiles by feeding them rice at night, and some are accused of walking crocodiles through Betsimisaraka villages at midnight or even being married to the crocodiles, which they then enslave to do their bidding. ### Fady Among some Betsimisaraka it is considered fady for a brother to shake hands with his sister, or for young men to wear shoes during their father's lifetime. Among many Betsimisaraka, the eel is considered sacred. It is forbidden to touch, fish or eat eel. Although many coastal Malagasy communities have a fady against the consumption of pork, this is not universal or common among the Betsimisaraka, who often keep pigs in their villages. Complex taboos and rites are associated with a woman's first childbirth. When about to give birth she is secluded in a special birthing house called a komby. The leaves she eats from and the waste produced by the newborn are kept in a special receptacle for seven days, at which point they are burned. The ash produced is rubbed on the forehead and cheeks of the mother and baby and must be worn for seven days. On the fifteenth day both are bathed in water in which lime or lemon leaves have been soaked. This ritual is called ranom-boahangy (bath of the leaves). The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches, but the mother must stay in the komby. She is not allowed to consume anything other than saonjo greens and a chicken specially prepared for her. After this celebration she is required to leave the komby and can return to routine life. Among the Betsimisaraka, like several other Malagasy ethnic groups, there is a fady against speaking the name of a chief after his death or any word that formed part of the name. The deceased leader was given a new name after death that all were required to use, and specific synonyms were selected to replace the words composing his name for use in regular conversation; anyone who spoke the forbidden words would be harshly punished or in some instances executed. ### Funeral rites Some Betsimisaraka, principally those living around Maroantsetra, practice the famadihana reburial ceremony, although in a simpler form than that practiced in the Highlands. Coffins are placed in tombs only in southern Betsimisaraka; in the north, they are placed under outdoor shelters. While in mourning, women will unbraid their hair and stop wearing their akanjo, while men no longer wear a hat; the mourning period typically lasts two to four months depending on how closely related the individual was to the deceased. ### Dance and music The ceremonial dance music style most closely associated with the tromba among the Betsimisaraka is called basesa and is performed on accordion. The traditional basesa performed for tromba ceremonies uses kaiamba shakers to accentuate the rhythm; lyrics are always sung in local Betsimisaraka dialect. The accompanying dance is performed with arms to the sides of the body and heavy foot movements. Contemporary basesa, which has been popularized across the island, is performed using a modern drum kit and electric guitar and bass with keyboard or accordion accompaniment, and the associated dance style has been influenced by dances performed to sega and kwassa kwassa music from Reunion Island. Basesa is also performed by the Antandroy, but among Betsimisaraka the style is performed significantly more slowly. Another major musical style specific to the region is valse, Malagasy interpretations of traditional European seafarers' waltzes performed on accordion; this genre is never performed during tromba ceremonies. ## Language The Betsimisaraka speak several dialects of the Malagasy language, which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages, spoken in southern Borneo. ## Economy The Betsimisaraka economy remains largely agricultural, with many cultivating vanilla and rice. Manioc, sweet potatoes, beans, taro, peanuts and a variety of greens are also commonly cultivated; other staple crops include sugar cane, coffee, bananas, pineapples, avocado, breadfruit, mangoes, oranges and lychees. Cattle are not widely raised; more commonly, the Betsimisaraka may catch and sell river crabs, shrimp and fish, small hedgehogs, various local insects or wild boar and birds in the forest. They also produce and sell homemade sugarcane beer (betsa) and rum (toaka). The production of spices for culinary use and for distillation into perfumes remains a major economic activity, with a perfume distillery located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana. Gold, garnet and other precious stones are also mined and exported from the Betsimisaraka region.
13,738,690	Fast flux	1,154,844,042	DNS evasion technique against origin server fingerprinting.	[ "Botnets", "Domain Name System" ]	Fast flux is a domain name system (DNS) based evasion technique used by cyber criminals to hide phishing and malware delivery websites behind an ever-changing network of compromised hosts acting as reverse proxies to the backend botnet master—a bulletproof autonomous system. It can also refer to the combination of peer-to-peer networking, distributed command and control, web-based load balancing and proxy redirection used to make malware networks more resistant to discovery and counter-measures. The fundamental idea behind fast-flux is to have numerous IP addresses associated with a single fully qualified domain name, where the IP addresses are swapped in and out with extremely high frequency, through changing DNS resource records, thus the authoritative name servers of the said fast-fluxing domain name is—in most cases—hosted by the criminal actor. Depending on the configuration and complexity of the infrastructure, fast-fluxing is generally classified into single, double, and domain fast-flux networks. Fast-fluxing remains an intricate problem in network security and current countermeasures remain ineffective. ## History Fast-fluxing was first reported by the security researchers William Salusky and Robert Danford of The Honeynet Project in 2007; the following year, they released a systematic study of fast-flux service networks in 2008. Rock Phish (2004) and Storm Worm (2007) were two notable fast-flux service networks which were used for malware distribution and phishing. ## Fast-flux service network A fast-flux service network (FFSN) is a network infrastructure resultant of the fast-fluxed network of compromised hosts; the technique is also used by legitimate service providers such as content distribution networks (CDNs) where the dynamic IP address is converted to match the domain name of the internet host, usually for the purpose of load balancing using round-robin domain name system (RR-DNS). The purpose of using FFSN infrastructure for the botnets is to relay network requests and act as a proxy to the backend bulletproof content server which function as an "origin server". The frontend bots, which act as an ephemeral host affixed to a control master, are called flux-agents whose network availability is indeterminate due to the dynamic nature of fast-fluxing. The backend motherships do not establish direct communication with the user agents, rather every actions are reverse proxied through compromised frontend nodes, effectively making the attack long-lasting and resilient against take down attempts. ## Types Fast-fluxing is generally classified into two types: single fluxing and double fluxing, a build-on implementation over single fluxing. The phraseologies involved in fast-fluxing includes "flux-herder mothership nodes" and "fast-flux agent nodes", referred to the backend bulletproof botnet controller and the compromised host nodes involved in reverse proxying the traffic back-and-forth between the origin and clients respectively. The compromised hosts used by the fast-flux herders typically includes residential broadband access circuits, such as DSL and cable modems. ### Single-flux network In single-flux network, the authoritative name server of a fast-fluxing domain name repeatedly permutes the DNS resource records with low time to live (TTL) values, conventionally between 180 and 600 seconds. The permuted record within the zone file includes A, AAAA and CNAME record, the disposition is usually done by means of round robin from a registry of exploited host's IP addresses and DDNS names. Although HTTP and DNS remain commonly proxied application protocols by the frontend flux-agents, protocols such as SMTP, IMAP and POP can also be delivered through transport layer (L4) TCP and UDP level port binding techniques between flux-agents and backend flux-herder nodes. ### Double-flux network Double-fluxing networks involve high-frequency permutation of the fluxing domain's authoritative name servers, along with DNS resource records such as A, AAAA, or CNAME pointing to frontend proxies. In this infrastructure, the authoritative name server of the fluxing domain points to a frontend redirector node, which forwards the DNS datagram to a backend mothership node that resolve the query. The DNS resource records, including the NS record, are set with a lower TTL value, therefore resulting in an additional level indirection. The NS records in a double-fluxing network usually point to a referrer host that listens on port 53, which forwards the query to a backend DNS resolver that is authoritative for the fluxing domain. Advanced level of resilience and redundancy is achieved through blind proxy redirection techniques of the frontend nodes; Fast-fluxing domains also abuse domain wildcarding specification for spam delivery and phishing, and use DNS covert channels for transferring application layer payloads of protocols such as HTTP, SFTP, and FTP encapsulated within a DNS datagram query. ### Domain-flux network Domain-flux network involves keeping a fast-fluxing network operational through continuously rotating the domain name of the flux-herder mothership nodes. The domain names are dynamically generated using a selected pseudorandom domain generation algorithm (DGA), and the flux operator mass-registers the domain names. An infected host repeatedly tries to initiate a flux-agent handshake by spontaneous generating, resolving and connecting to an IP address until an acknowledgment, to register itself to the flux-herder mothership node. A notable example includes Conficker, a botnet which was operational by generating 50,000 different domains in 110 top-level domains (TLDs). ## Security countermeasures The detection and mitigation of fast-fluxing domain names remain an intricate challenge in network security due to the robust nature of fast-fluxing. Although fingerprinting the backend fast-flux mothership node remains increasingly difficult, service providers could detect the upstream mothership nodes through probing the frontend flux-agents in a special way by sending a crafted HTTP request that would trigger an out-of-band network request from the backend fast-flux mothership node to the client in an independent channel, such that the client could deduce the mothership node's IP address by analyzing the logs of its network traffic. Various security researchers suggests that the effective measure against fast-fluxing is to take down the domain name from its use. However, the domain name registrars are reluctant in doing so, since there aren't jurisdiction independent terms of service agreements that must be observed; in most cases, fast-flux operators and cybersquatters are the main source of income to those registrars. Other countermeasures against fast-fluxing domains include deep packet inspection (DPI), host-based firewall, and IP-based access control lists (ACLs), although there are serious limitations in these approaches due to the dynamic nature of fast-fluxing. ## See also - Avalanche (phishing group)
36,351,565	March of loyalty to martyrs	1,151,023,501	2011 protest in Manama, Bahrain as part of the country's ongoing uprising	[ "2011 protests", "21st century in Manama", "Arab rebellions", "Bahraini uprising of 2011", "February 2011 events in Asia", "Human rights in Bahrain", "Protest marches", "Protests in Bahrain" ]	The March of loyalty to martyrs (Arabic: مسيرة الوفاء للشهداء masīra al-wafāʾ ash-shuhadāʾ) was a protest on 22 February 2011 in Manama, Bahrain. Tens of thousands participated in the protest, one of the largest in the Bahraini uprising. Named after the seven victims killed by police and army forces during previous protests, the march filled the space between Bahrain mall and Pearl Roundabout. Protesters carried Bahrain's flag and demanded the fall of the government, implementation of a constitutional monarchy and other reforms, with some of them also demanding the end of the regime. The march was named the largest in the country's history by organizers; sources estimated that over 100,000 protesters (20% of Bahrain's citizens) participated, although other sources gave higher and lower estimations. A number of ambulance drivers, police and army officers joined the protest. Security forces were not present and unlike previous protests, it ended peacefully. ## Background Protests inspired by the successful uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia erupted in Bahrain on 14 February. Security forces responded by firing tear gas, rubber bullets, sound bombs and birdshot into the crowd of protesters. More than thirty protesters were injured and one died from birdshot injuries in his back. Another protester was killed the same way the next day, on 15 February, when over 10,000 protesters occupied Pearl Roundabout. On 17 February, police launched a pre-dawn raid on sleeping protesters. Four protesters were killed and more than 300 were injured. Health workers and a journalist were allegedly attacked by security forces. The army was deployed after Pearl Roundabout was cleared of protesters and checkpoints were set up. Protesters moved to Salmaniya Hospital's car parks where thousands protested against the government. The following day, army forces stationed in the Pearl Roundabout fired live ammunition on hundreds of protesters who tried to re-occupy the site. At least 120 protesters were hurt and one was fatally wounded, bringing the number of deaths to seven. The Crown Prince offered dialogue with opposition parties. On 19 February, tens of thousands of protesters re-occupied Pearl Roundabout after the army was ordered to withdraw. On 21 February, the king canceled the Formula 1 race originally scheduled for 13 March. The Associated Press named the decision "another victory" for protesters who had called for its cancellation. "We felt it was important for the country to focus on immediate issues of national interest and leave the hosting of Bahrain's Formula One race to a later date", the king stated. In the evening, tens of thousands of government supporters, borrowing the anti-government protesters' slogan "no Sunni, no Shia, only Bahraini", gathered in Al Fateh Mosque in Juffair. One participant interviewed by The New York Times said, "The democracy they have been asking for is already here, but the Shias, they have their ayatollahs, and whatever they say, they will run and do it. If they tell them to burn a house, they will. I think they have a clear intention to disrupt this country". The next day, appearing on Bahrain's official news agency, the king ordered the release of 50 political prisoners, including 25 Shia activists arrested during the 2010 crackdown and accused of forming a "terrorist network" whose goal was to overthrow the government. Ali Abdulemam, a prominent blogger and founder of Bahrain Online opposition forum, was among those who were released. Blogger and human rights activist Abduljalil al-Singace, who called the move "a good step" and a "positive gesture", was also released. However, according to human rights activist Nabeel Rajab, about 400 more activists remained in prison on "politically inspired charges". ## Loyalty to Martyrs In the afternoon of 22 February tens of thousands of children, men and women occupied and marched on the main streets of Manama. The march was called "The march of loyalty to martyrs" in reference to those killed in previous protests. It stretched for several miles, filling the eastern side of Sheik Khalifa bin Salman Highway from Bahrain Mall to Pearl Roundabout located in Manama's business district. The protesters, while carrying the white-and-red flag of Bahrain and posters of the seven victims, chanted: "Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam" ("the people want to bring down the regime"), "Egypt, Tunisia, are we any different?" and "No Shia, No Sunni, only Bahraini". Most demanded the fall of the Bahrain government. "Some want the family out but most only the prime minister", said a protester interviewed by BBC. The march was led by ambulance drivers who reported being attacked by security forces while trying to help treat protesters from the Pearl Roundabout injured on 17 February, which came to be called Bloody Thursday. Protest organizers, which consisted of a loose coalition of seven political parties including Al Wefaq and Wa'ad, named the march the largest in Bahrain's history. Associated Press, The Huffington Post, The New York Times and Voice of America estimated that there were over 100,000 participants. The New York Times described the number as "astonishing", because Bahraini citizens total number was a little over 500,000. The BBC described the course of march as a "sea of red and white flags". Other estimates varied between 30,000 and 200,000 participants. In their documentary film Bahrain: Shouting in the Dark, Al Jazeera English stated, "Bahrain held its largest march in history; the world media recorded nearly a quarter of all citizens in the streets". The BICI report mentioned that "by many accounts more than 100,000 people were marching" and that the number of protesters at Pearl Roundabout peaked at over 150,000. IFEX estimated the number to be as high as 200,000; however, CNN Arabic said the number was just about 30,000. Security forces did not intervene to disperse the march, however a state-owned helicopter hovered overhead. A small number of police and army officers participated in the protest. Denouncing army troops who opened fire on protesters, an officer said, "What we did to the people was not heroic. We ask the people to forgive us, we ask the people for forgiveness". Another officer added, "The weapons that have been used against the people are weapons of shame, these weapons should be used to protect the people, and not be used against them. That's why we've decided to be with the people". The widow of one of the seven "martyrs" read a statement after the march that listed the opposition's demands; the most important demands were the resignation of the forty-year-long government headed by the king's uncle and the implementation of a constitutional monarchy. Other demands included the immediate commencement of an "impartial" investigation into the deaths, the neutralization of the state media and the release of the remaining "political" prisoners. Analysts stated that the large size of the protest pressured the government to concede to the protesters' demands. Al Jazeera English said that "unless they offered deep reforms, the Khalifas will likely fall". ## Aftermath Peaceful protests, including one pro-government rally, continued throughout February and the first half of March, and drew tens of thousands of participants. On 8 March, unsatisfied by the government response, a coalition of three hard-line Shia groups called for the abdication of the monarchy and the establishment of a democratic republic through peaceful means. Al Wefaq continued to demand an elected government and a constitutional monarchy. In the following days protests intensified, moving to the Royal Court in Riffa, a royal palace in Safiriyya and finally blocking roads leading to the financial district in Manama. Security forces clashed with protesters using tear gas and rubber bullets, but police were overwhelmed by protesters. The government then requested help from neighbor countries, which sent about 1,500 security forces to assist the government. A state of emergency was declared and the government launched a crackdown campaign to put down protests by force. The Pearl Roundabout, now cleared of protesters, was torn down by government and protesters found themselves pushed back into their villages. The government arrested over 1,000 protesters including leading opposition and rights activists (known as the Bahrain Thirteen) as well as sportsmen, academics, businessmen, doctors, engineers, journalists and teachers. Despite the brutal crack-down, smaller-scale protests and clashes continued, mostly outside Manama's business districts. By April 2012, more than 80 people had died during the uprising. ## See also - Day of Rage - Bloody Thursday - Bahrain: Shouting in the Dark ## External videos - The march of Loyalty to Martyrs rally −1 - The march of Loyalty to Martyrs rally – 2 - The march of Loyalty to Martyrs rally – 3 [Arab rebellions](Category:Arab_rebellions "wikilink") [Protests in Bahrain](Category:Protests_in_Bahrain "wikilink") [2011 protests](Category:2011_protests "wikilink") [Bahraini uprising of 2011](Category:Bahraini_uprising_of_2011 "wikilink") [Human rights in Bahrain](Category:Human_rights_in_Bahrain "wikilink") [Protest marches](Category:Protest_marches "wikilink") [February 2011 events in Asia](Category:February_2011_events_in_Asia "wikilink") [21st century in Manama](Category:21st_century_in_Manama "wikilink")
43,975	Yes (band)	1,173,751,966	English progressive rock band	[ "1968 establishments in England", "Atco Records artists", "Atlantic Records artists", "Eagle Records artists", "Elektra Records artists", "English art rock groups", "English progressive rock groups", "Grammy Award winners", "Musical groups disestablished in 1981", "Musical groups disestablished in 2004", "Musical groups established in 1968", "Musical groups from London", "Musical groups reestablished in 1982", "Musical groups reestablished in 2008", "Musical quintets", "Symphonic rock groups", "Yes (band)" ]	Yes are an English progressive rock band formed in London in 1968 by lead singer Jon Anderson, bassist Chris Squire, guitarist Peter Banks, keyboardist Tony Kaye, and drummer Bill Bruford. The band has undergone numerous lineup changes throughout their history, during which 20 musicians have been full-time members. Since February 2023, the band has consisted of guitarist Steve Howe, keyboardist Geoff Downes, bassist Billy Sherwood, singer Jon Davison, and drummer Jay Schellen. Yes have explored several musical styles over the years and are most notably regarded as progressive rock pioneers. Yes began performing original songs and rearranged covers of rock, pop, blues and jazz songs, as evidenced on their self-titled first album from 1969, and its follow-up Time and a Word from 1970. A change of direction later in 1970 led to a series of successful progressive rock albums, with four consecutive U.S. platinum or multi-platinum sellers in The Yes Album (1971), Fragile (1971), Close to the Edge (1972) and the live album Yessongs (1973). Further albums, Tales from Topographic Oceans (1973), Relayer (1974), Going for the One (1977) and Tormato (1978), were also commercially successful. Yes toured as a major rock act that earned the band a reputation for their elaborate stage sets, light displays, and album covers designed by Roger Dean. The success of "Roundabout", the single from Fragile, cemented their popularity across the decade and beyond. Jon Anderson and Chris Squire remained with the group throughout the 1970s, with Peter Banks, Tony Kaye, and Bill Bruford all departing across 1970 to 1972, and being replaced by Steve Howe, Rick Wakeman, and Alan White, respectively. Wakeman left the group in 1974, but returned two years later, with Patrick Moraz taking his place in the interim. After a final album, Drama, and tour in 1980, both of which saw Geoff Downes and Trevor Horn replace Wakeman and Anderson, respectively, Yes disbanded in 1981. In 1983, Squire and White reformed Yes, with Anderson and Kaye returning, and guitarist Trevor Rabin joining. Rabin's songwriting helped move the band towards mainstream rock, the result of which was 90125 (1983), their highest-selling album that featured the U.S. number-one single "Owner of a Lonely Heart". Its follow-up, Big Generator (1987), was also successful. In 1989, Anderson and former members Bruford, Wakeman, and Howe released the self-titled Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe album, after which they and the other then-current Yes members–Squire, Kaye, White, and Rabin–unified into an eight-piece line-up of Yes for the 1991 Union album and its subsequent tour. From 1994 to 2001, Yes regularly released studio albums with varied levels of success. After a four-year hiatus, they resumed touring in 2008 and have continued to release new albums; their latest, Mirror to the Sky, was released in 2023. Former members Anderson, Wakeman, and Rabin collaborated as Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman from 2016 to 2018. Among the longest serving members of the band, Squire (the last original member) died in 2015, and White died in 2022. Yes are one of the most successful, influential, and longest-lasting progressive rock bands. They have sold 13.5 million RIAA-certified albums in the U.S., as well as more than 30 million albums worldwide. In 1985, they won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance with "Cinema", and received five Grammy nominations between 1985 and 1992. They were ranked No. 94 on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock. Their discography spans 23 studio albums. In April 2017, Yes were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, which chose to induct current and former members Anderson, Squire, Bruford, Kaye, Howe, Wakeman, White, and Rabin. ## History ### 1968–1970: Formation, first album and Time and a Word In early 1968, bassist Chris Squire formed the psychedelic rock band Mabel Greer's Toyshop. The lineup consisted of Squire, singer and guitarist Clive Bayley, drummer Bob Hagger and guitarist Peter Banks. They played at the Marquee Club in Soho, London where Jack Barrie, owner of the nearby La Chasse club, saw them perform. "There was nothing outstanding about them", he recalled, "the musicianship was very good but it was obvious they weren't going anywhere". Barrie introduced Squire to singer Jon Anderson, a worker at the bar in La Chasse, who found they shared interests in Simon & Garfunkel and harmony singing. That evening at Squire's house they wrote "Sweetness," which was included on the first Yes album. Meanwhile, Banks had left Mabel Greer's Toyshop to join Neat Change, but he was dismissed by this group on 7 April 1968. In June 1968, Hagger was replaced in the nascent Yes by Bill Bruford, who had placed an advertisement in Melody Maker, and Banks was recalled by Squire, replacing Bayley as guitarist. Finally, the classically trained organist and pianist Tony Kaye, of Johnny Taylor's Star Combo and the Federals, became the keyboardist and the fifth member. The newborn band rehearsed in the basement of The Lucky Horseshoe cafe on Shaftesbury Avenue between 10 June and 9 July 1968. Anderson suggested that they call the new band Life. Squire suggested that it be called World. Banks responded, simply, "yes", and that was how the band were named. Banks has also stated that he thought of the name "Yes" a couple of years beforehand. The first gig under the new brand followed at a youth camp in East Mersea, Essex on 4 August 1968. Early sets were formed of cover songs from artists such as the Beatles, The 5th Dimension and Traffic. On 16 September, Yes performed at Blaise's club in London as a substitute for Sly and the Family Stone, who had failed to turn up. They were well received by the audience, including the host Roy Flynn, who became the band's manager that night. That month, Bruford decided to quit performing to study at the University of Leeds. His replacement, Tony O'Reilly of the Koobas, struggled to perform with the rest of the group on stage and former Warriors and future King Crimson drummer Ian Wallace subbed for one gig on 5 November 1968. After Bruford was refused a year's sabbatical leave from Leeds, Anderson and Squire convinced him to return for Yes's supporting slot for Cream's farewell concert at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 November. After seeing an early King Crimson gig in 1969, Yes realised that there was suddenly stiff competition on the London gigging circuit, and they needed to be much more technically proficient, starting regular rehearsals. They subsequently signed a deal with Atlantic Records, and, that August, released their debut album Yes. Compiled of mostly original material, the record includes renditions of "Every Little Thing" by the Beatles and "I See You" by The Byrds. Although the album failed to break into the UK album charts, Rolling Stone critic Lester Bangs complimented the album's "sense of style, taste and subtlety". Melody Maker columnist Tony Wilson chose Yes and Led Zeppelin as the two bands "most likely to succeed". Following a tour of Scandinavia with Faces, Yes performed a solo concert at the Queen Elizabeth Hall on 21 March 1970. The second half consisted of excerpts from their second album Time and a Word, accompanied by a 20-piece youth orchestra. Banks left the group on 18 April 1970, just three months before the album's release. Having expressed dissatisfaction with the idea of recording with an orchestra as well as the sacking of Flynn earlier in the year, Banks later indicated that he was fired by Anderson and Squire, and that Kaye and Bruford had no prior knowledge that it would be happening. Similar to the first album, Time and a Word features original songs and two new covers–"Everydays" by Buffalo Springfield and "No Opportunity Necessary, No Experience Needed" by Richie Havens. The album broke into the UK charts, peaking at number 45. Banks' replacement was Tomorrow guitarist Steve Howe, who appears in the photograph of the group on the American issue despite not having played on it. ### 1970–1974: The Yes Album, Fragile, Close to the Edge and Tales from Topographic Oceans The band retreated to a rented farmhouse in Devon to write and rehearse new songs for their following album. Howe established himself as an integral part of the group's sound with his Gibson ES-175 and variety of acoustic guitars. With producer and engineer Eddy Offord, recording sessions lasted as long as 12 hours with each track being assembled from small sections at a time, which were pieced together to form a complete track. The band would then learn to play the song through after the final mix was complete. Released in February 1971, The Yes Album peaked at number 4 in the UK and number 40 on the U.S. Billboard 200 charts. Yes embarked on a 28-day tour of Europe with Iron Butterfly in January 1971. The band purchased Iron Butterfly's entire public address system, which improved their on-stage performance and sound. Their first date in North America followed on 24 June in Edmonton, Canada, supporting Jethro Tull. Friction arose between Howe and Kaye on tour; this, along with Kaye's reported reluctance to play the Mellotron and the Minimoog synthesizer, preferring to stick exclusively to piano and Hammond organ, led to the keyboardist being fired from the band in the summer of 1971. Anderson recalled in a 2019 interview: "Steve and Chris came over and said, 'Look, Tony Kaye... great guy.' But, you know, we'd just seen Rick Wakeman about a month earlier. And I said, 'There's that Rick Wakeman guy,' and we've got to get on with life and move on, you know, rather than keep going on, set in the same circle. And that's what happens with a band." At the time of Kaye's departure, Yes had already found their new keyboardist—Rick Wakeman, a classically trained player who had left the folk rock group Strawbs earlier in the year. He was already a noted studio musician, with credits including T. Rex, David Bowie, Cat Stevens and Elton John. Squire commented that he could play "a grand piano for three bars, a Mellotron for two bars and a Moog for the next one absolutely spot on", which gave Yes the orchestral and choral textures that befitted their new material. Released on 12 November 1971, the band's fourth album Fragile showcased their growing interest in the structures of classical music, with an excerpt of The Firebird by Igor Stravinsky being played at the start of their concerts since the album's 1971–1972 tour. Each member performed a solo track on the album, and it marked the start of their long collaboration with artist Roger Dean, who designed the group's logo, album art and stage sets. Fragile peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 4 in the U.S. after it was released there in January 1972, and was their first record to reach the top ten in North America. A shorter version of the opening track, "Roundabout", was released as a single that peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. In February 1972, Yes recorded a cover version of "America" by Paul Simon and released it in July. The single reached number 46 on the U.S. singles chart. The track subsequently appeared on The New Age of Atlantic, a 1972 compilation album of several bands signed to Atlantic Records, and again in the 1975 compilation Yesterdays. Released in September 1972, Close to the Edge, the band's fifth album, was their most ambitious work so far. At 19 minutes, the title track took up an entire side on the vinyl record and combined elements of classical music, psychedelic rock, pop and jazz. The album reached number 3 in the U.S. and number 4 on the UK charts. "And You and I" was released as a single that peaked at number 42 in the U.S. The growing critical and commercial success of the band was not enough to retain Bruford, who left Yes in the summer of 1972, before the album's release, to join King Crimson. The band considered several possible replacements, including Aynsley Dunbar (who was playing with Frank Zappa at the time), and decided on former Plastic Ono Band drummer Alan White, a friend of Anderson and Offord who had once sat in with the band weeks before Bruford's departure. White learned the band's repertoire in three days before embarking on their 1972–1973 tour. By this point, Yes were beginning to enjoy worldwide commercial and critical success. Their early touring with White was featured on Yessongs, a triple live album released in May 1973 that documented shows from 1972. The album reached number 7 in the UK and number 12 in the U.S. A concert film of the same name premiered in 1975 that documented their shows at London's Rainbow Theatre in December 1972, with added psychedelic visual images and effects. Tales from Topographic Oceans was the band's sixth studio album, released on 7 December 1973. It marked a change in their fortunes and polarised fans and critics alike. The double vinyl set was based on Anderson's interpretation of the Shastric scriptures from a footnote within Paramahansa Yogananda's book Autobiography of a Yogi. The album became the first LP in the UK to ship gold before the record arrived at retailers. It went on to top the UK charts for two weeks while reaching number 6 in the U.S., and became the band's fourth consecutive gold album. Wakeman was not pleased with the record and is critical of much of its material. He felt sections were "bled to death" and contained too much musical padding. Wakeman left the band after the 1973–1974 tour; his solo album Journey to the Centre of the Earth topped the UK charts in May 1974. The tour included five consecutive sold-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre, the first time a rock band achieved this. ### 1974–1980: Relayer, Going for the One, Tormato and the Paris sessions Several musicians were approached to replace Wakeman, including Vangelis Papathanassiou, Eddie Jobson of Roxy Music and former Atlantis/Cat Stevens keyboardist Jean Roussel. Howe says he also asked Keith Emerson, who did not want to leave Emerson, Lake & Palmer. Yes ultimately chose Swiss keyboardist Patrick Moraz of Refugee, who arrived in August 1974 during the recording sessions for Relayer, which took place at Squire's home in Virginia Water, Surrey. Released in November that year, Relayer showcased a jazz fusion-influenced direction the band were pursuing. The album features the 22-minute track titled "The Gates of Delirium", which highlights a battle initially inspired by War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy. Its closing section, "Soon", was subsequently released as a single. The album reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 5 in the U.S. Yes embarked on their 1974–1975 tour to support Relayer. The compilation album Yesterdays, released in 1975, contained tracks from Yes's first two albums, the B-side track from their "Sweet Dreams" single from 1970 titled "Dear Father", and the original ten-minute version of their cover of "America". Between 1975 and 1976, each member of the band released a solo album. Their subsequent 1976 tour of North America with Peter Frampton featured some of the band's most-attended shows. The show of 12 June, also supported by Gary Wright and Pousette-Dart Band at John F. Kennedy Stadium in Philadelphia, attracted over 100,000 people. Roger Dean's brother Martyn was the main designer behind the tour's "Crab Nebula" stage set, while Roger and fabric designer Felicity Youette provided the backgrounds. In late 1976, the band travelled to Switzerland and started recording for their album Going for the One at Mountain Studios, Montreux. It was then that Anderson sent early versions of "Going for the One" and "Wonderous Stories" to Wakeman, who felt he could contribute to such material better than the band's past releases. Moraz was let go, after Wakeman was booked on a session musician basis. Upon its release in July 1977, Going for the One topped the UK album charts for two weeks and reached number 8 in the U.S. "Wonderous Stories" and "Going for the One" were released as singles in the UK and reached numbers 7 and 25, respectively. Although the album's cover was designed by Hipgnosis, it still features their Roger Dean "bubble" logotype. The band's 1977 tour spanned across six months. Tormato was released in September 1978 at the height of punk rock in England, during which the music press criticised Yes as representing the bloated excesses of early-1970s progressive rock. The album saw the band continuing their movement towards shorter songs; no track runs longer than eight minutes. Wakeman replaced his Mellotrons with the Birotron, a tape replay keyboard, and Squire experimented with harmonisers and Mu-tron pedals with his bass. Production was handled collectively by the band and saw disagreements at the mixing stage among the members. With heavy commercial rock-radio airplay, the album reached number 8 in the UK and number 10 in the U.S. charts, and was also certified platinum (1 million copies sold) by the RIAA. Despite internal and external criticisms of the album, the band's 1978–1979 tour was a commercial success. Concerts were performed in the round with a £50,000 revolving stage and a 360-degree sound system fitted above it. Their dates at Madison Square Gardens earned Yes a Golden Ticket Award for grossing over \$1 million in box office receipts. In October 1979, the band convened in Paris with producer Roy Thomas Baker. Their diverse approach was now succumbing to division, as Anderson and Wakeman favoured the more fantastical and delicate approach while the rest preferred a heavier rock sound. Howe, Squire and White liked none of the music Anderson was offering at the time as it was too lightweight and lacking in the heaviness that they were generating in their own writing sessions. The Paris sessions abruptly ended in December after White broke his foot while rollerskating in a roller disco. When the band, minus Wakeman (who had only committed to recording keyboard overdubs once new material would be ready to record), reconvened in February to resume work on the project, their growing musical differences, combined with internal dissension, obstructed progress. Journalist Chris Welch, after attending a rehearsal, noted that Anderson "was singing without his usual conviction and seemed disinclined to talk". By late March, Howe, Squire and White had begun demoing material as an instrumental trio, increasingly uncertain about Anderson's future involvement. Eventually, a serious band dispute over finance saw Anderson leave Yes, with a dispirited Wakeman departing at around the same time. ### 1980–1981: Drama and split In 1980, pop duo The Buggles (keyboardist Geoff Downes and singer Trevor Horn) secured the services of Brian Lane, who had managed Yes since 1970, as their manager. At this point, the departure of Anderson and Wakeman had been kept secret from everyone outside the Yes inner circle. Seeing an option of continuing the band with new creative input and expertise, Squire revealed the situation to Horn and Downes and suggested that they join Yes as full-time members. Horn and Downes accepted the invitation and the reconfigured band recorded the Drama album, which was released in August 1980. The record displayed a heavier, harder sound than the material Yes recorded with Anderson in 1979, opening with the lengthy hard rocker "Machine Messiah". The album received substantial radio airplay in the late summer–fall of 1980, and peaked at number 2 in the UK and number 18 in the U.S., though it was the first Yes album to not be certified Gold by the RIAA since 1971. Their 1980 tour of North America and the UK received a mixed reaction from audiences. They were well received in the United States and were awarded with a commemorative certificate after they performed a record 16 consecutive sold-out concerts at Madison Square Garden since 1974. After the Drama tour, Yes reconvened in England to decide the band's next step, beginning by dismissing Lane as their manager. Horn was also dismissed, and went on to pursue a career in music production, with White and Squire next to depart. Left as the sole remaining members, Downes and Howe opted not to continue with the group and went their own separate ways in December 1980. Yesshows, a live album recorded during 1976 to 1978, mixed in mid-1979 and originally intended for release in late 1979, was released in November 1980, peaking at number 22 in the UK charts and number 43 in the US. An announcement came from the group's management in March 1981 confirming that Yes no longer existed. Downes and Howe soon reunited to form Asia with former King Crimson bassist and vocalist John Wetton, and drummer Carl Palmer from Emerson, Lake & Palmer. Squire and White continued to work together, initially recording sessions with Jimmy Page for a proposed band called XYZ (short for "ex-Yes-and-Zeppelin") in the spring of 1981. Page's former bandmate Robert Plant was also to be involved as the vocalist but he lost enthusiasm, citing his ongoing grieving for recently deceased Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham. The short-lived group produced a few demo tracks, elements of which would appear in Page's band the Firm and on future Yes tracks "Mind Drive" and "Can You Imagine?". In late 1981, Squire and White released "Run with the Fox", a Christmas single with Squire on vocals which received radio airplay through the 1980s and early 1990s during the Christmas periods. A second Yes compilation album, Classic Yes, was released in November 1981. ### 1982–1988: Reformation, 90125 and Big Generator At the beginning of 1982, Phil Carson of Atlantic Records introduced Squire and White to guitarist and singer Trevor Rabin, who had initially made his name with the South African supergroup Rabbitt, subsequently releasing three solo albums, working as a record producer and even briefly considered being a member of Asia. The three teamed up in a new band called Cinema, for which Squire also recruited the original Yes keyboard player Tony Kaye. Later in 1982, Cinema entered the studio to record their debut album. Although Rabin and Squire initially shared lead vocals for the project, Trevor Horn was briefly brought into Cinema as a potential singer, but soon opted to become the band's producer instead. Horn worked well with the band. However, his clashes with Tony Kaye (complicated by the fact that Rabin was playing most of the keyboards during the recording sessions) led to Kaye's departure during the recording, though some of his playing was kept on the final album and he had returned by the time it was released. Meanwhile, Squire encountered Jon Anderson (who, since leaving Yes, had released two solo albums and had success with the Jon and Vangelis project) at a Los Angeles party and played him the Cinema demo tracks. Anderson was invited into the project as lead singer and joined in April 1983 during the last few weeks of the sessions, having comparatively little creative input beyond adding his lead vocals and re-writing some lyrics. At the suggestion of record company executives, Cinema then changed their name to Yes in June 1983. Rabin initially objected to this, as he now found that he had inadvertently joined a reunited band with a history and expectations, rather than help launch a new group. However, with four of the five members having been members of Yes (with three of them being original members, including the distinctive lead singer) it suggested that the name change was sound commercial strategy. The new album marked a significant change in style as the revived Yes had adopted more of a pop rock sound with few moments that recalled their progressive rock past. This incarnation of the band has sometimes been informally referred to as "Yes-West", reflecting the band's new base in Los Angeles rather than London. Yes released their comeback album 90125 (named after its catalogue serial number on Atco Records) in November 1983. It became their biggest-selling album, certified by the RIAA at triple-platinum (3 million copies) in sales in the U.S., and introduced the band to younger fans. "Owner of a Lonely Heart" topped the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for four weeks and went on to reach the number-one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, the only single from Yes to do so, for two weeks in January 1984. Kaye's short-term replacement on keyboards, Eddie Jobson, appeared briefly in the original video but was edited out as much as possible once Kaye had been persuaded to return to the band. In 1984, two further singles from the album "Leave It" and "It Can Happen" reached number 24 and 57, respectively. Yes also earned their only Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1985 for the two-minute track "Cinema". They were also nominated for an award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals with "Owner of a Lonely Heart", and a Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal award with 90125. The band's 1984–1985 tour was the most lucrative in their history and spawned the home video release 9012Live, a concert film directed by Steven Soderbergh with added special effects from Charlex that cost \$1 million. Issued in 1985, an accompanying live album also appeared that year, 9012Live: The Solos, which earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance for Squire's solo track, a rendition of "Amazing Grace". Yes began recording for their twelfth album, Big Generator, in 1985, initially with Trevor Horn returning as producer. The sessions underwent many starts and stops due to the use of multiple recording locations in Italy, London and Los Angeles, with interpersonal problems leading to Horn leaving the sessions partway through, all of which kept the album from timely completion (the album was intended for a 1986 release, but by the end of that year it was still incomplete). Eventually Rabin took over final production. The album was released in September 1987, and immediately began receiving heavy radio airplay, with sales reaching number 17 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. Big Generator earned Yes a nomination for a second Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1988, and was also certified platinum (with 1 million-plus in sales) by the RIAA. The single "Love Will Find a Way" topped the Mainstream Rock chart, while "Rhythm of Love" reached number 2 and "Shoot High Aim Low" number 11. The 1987–1988 tour ended with an appearance at Madison Square Garden on 14 May 1988 as part of the star-studded Atlantic Records 40th anniversary concert. ### 1988–1995: Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe, Union and Talk By the end of 1988, Anderson felt creatively sidelined by Rabin and Squire and had grown tired of the musical direction of the "Yes-West" lineup. He took leave of the band, asserting that he would never stay in Yes purely for the money, and started work in Montserrat on a solo project that eventually involved Wakeman, Howe and Bruford. This collaboration led to suggestions that there would be some kind of reformation of the "classic" Yes, although from the start the project had included bass player Tony Levin, whom Bruford had worked with in King Crimson. The project, rather than taking over or otherwise using the Yes name, was called Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH). Their eponymous album, released in June 1989, featured "Brother of Mine", which became an MTV hit and went gold in the United States. It later emerged that the four band members had not all recorded together; Anderson and producer Chris Kimsey slotted their parts into place. Howe has stated publicly that he was unhappy with the mix of his guitars on the album, though a version of "Fist of Fire" with more of Howe's guitars left intact appeared on the In a Word: Yes box set in 2002. ABWH toured in 1989 and 1990 as "An Evening of Yes Music" which featured Levin, keyboardist Julian Colbeck, and guitarist Milton McDonald as support musicians. A live album and home video were recorded and released in 1993, both titled An Evening of Yes Music Plus that featured Jeff Berlin on bass due to Levin suffering from illness. The tour was also dogged by legal battles sparked by Atlantic Records due to the band's references to Yes in promotional materials and the tour title. Following the tour, the group returned to the recording studio to produce their second album, tentatively called Dialogue. After hearing the tracks, Arista Records refused to release the album as they felt the initial mixes were weak. They encouraged the group to seek outside songwriters, preferably ones who could help them deliver hit singles. Anderson approached Rabin about the situation, and Rabin sent Anderson a demo tape with three songs, indicating that ABWH could have one but had to send the others back. Arista listened to them and wanted all of them, proposing to create a combined album with both Yes factions. The "Yes-West" group were working on a follow-up to Big Generator and had been shopping around for a new singer, auditioning Roger Hodgson of Supertramp, Steve Walsh of Kansas, Robbie Nevil of "C'est la Vie" fame, and Billy Sherwood of World Trade. Walsh only spent one day with them, but Sherwood and the band worked well enough together and continued with writing sessions. Arista suggested that the "Yes-West" group, with Anderson on vocals, record the four songs to add to the new album which would then be released under the Yes name. Union was released in April 1991 and is the thirteenth studio album from Yes. Each group played their own songs, with Anderson singing on all tracks. Squire sang background vocals on a few of the ABWH tracks, with Tony Levin playing all the bass on those songs. The album does not feature all eight members playing at once. The track "Masquerade" earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1992. Union sold approximately 1.5 million copies worldwide, and peaked at number 7 in the UK and number 15 in the U.S. charts. Two singles from the album were released. "Lift Me Up" topped the Mainstream Rock charts in May 1991 for six weeks, while "Saving My Heart" peaked at number 9. Almost the entire band have openly stated their dislike of Union. Bruford has disowned the album entirely, and Wakeman was reportedly unable to recognise any of his keyboard work in the final edit and threw his copy of the album out of his limousine. He has since referred to the album as "Onion" because it makes him cry when he thinks about it. Union co-producer Jonathan Elias later stated publicly in an interview that Anderson, as the associate producer, knew of the session musicians' involvement. He added that he and Anderson had even initiated their contributions, because hostility between some of the band members at the time was preventing work from being accomplished. The 1991–1992 Union tour united all eight members on a revolving circular stage. Following the tour's conclusion in 1992, Bruford chose not to remain involved with Yes and returned to his jazz project Earthworks. Howe also ceased his involvement with the band at this time. In 1993, the album Symphonic Music of Yes was released, featuring orchestrated Yes tracks arranged by Dee Palmer. Howe, Bruford and Anderson perform on the record, joined by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the English Chamber Orchestra and the London Community Gospel Choir. Howe and Bruford performed together on television (presented as "Yes") to promote the album, marking Bruford's final performance under the Yes name before retiring from performing. The next Yes studio album, as with Union, was masterminded by a record company, rather than by the band itself. Victory Music approached Rabin with a proposal to produce an album solely with the 90125 lineup. Rabin initially countered by requesting that Wakeman also be included. Rabin began assembling the album at his home, using the then-pioneering concept of a digital home studio, and used material written by himself and Anderson. The new album was well into production in 1993, but Wakeman's involvement had finally been cancelled, as his refusal to leave his long-serving management created insuperable legal problems. Talk was released in March 1994 and is the band's fourteenth studio release. Its cover was designed by pop artist Peter Max. The record was largely composed and performed by Rabin, with the other band members following Rabin's tracks for their respective instrumentation. It was digitally recorded and produced by Rabin with engineer Michael Jay, using 3.4 GB of hard disk storage split among four networked Apple Macintosh computers running Digital Performer. The album blended elements of radio-friendly rock with a more structurally ambitious approach taken from the band's progressive blueprint, with the fifteen-minute track "Endless Dream". The album reached number 20 in the UK and number 33 in the U.S. The track "The Calling" reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and "Walls", which Rabin had written with former Supertramp songwriter and co-founder Roger Hodgson, peaked at number 24. It also became Yes's second-last-charting single. Rabin and Hodgson wrote a lot of material together and became close friends. Yes performed "Walls" on Late Show with David Letterman on 20 June 1994. The 1994 tour (for which the band included side man Billy Sherwood on additional guitar and keyboards) used a sound system developed by Rabin named Concertsonics which allowed the audience located in certain seating areas to tune portable FM radios to a specific frequency, so they could hear the concert with headphones. In early 1995, following the tour, Rabin, feeling that he had achieved his highest ambitions with Talk, lamented its disappointing reception being due to the fact that it "just wasn't what people wanted to hear at the time", and remarked at the conclusion of the tour, "I think I'm done," returning to L.A. where he shifted his focus to composing for films. Kaye also left Yes to pursue other projects. ### 1995–2000: Keys to Ascension, Open Your Eyes and The Ladder In November 1995, Anderson, Squire and White resurrected the "classic" 1970s lineup of Yes by inviting Wakeman and Howe back to the band, recording two new lengthy tracks called "Be the One" and "That, That Is". In March 1996 Yes performed three live shows at the Fremont Theater in San Luis Obispo, California which were recorded and released, along with the new studio tracks, that October on CMC International Records as the Keys to Ascension album, which peaked at number 48 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. A same-titled live video of the shows was also released that year. Yes continued to record new tracks in the studio, drawing some material written around the time of the XYZ project. At one point the new songs were to be released as a studio album, but commercial considerations meant that the new tracks were eventually packaged with the remainder of the 1996 San Luis Obispo shows in November 1997 on Keys to Ascension 2. The record managed to reach number 62 in the UK, but failed to chart in the U.S. Disgruntled at the way a potential studio album had been sacrificed in favour of the Keys to Ascension releases (as well as the way in which a Yes tour was being arranged without his input or agreement), Wakeman left the group again. (The studio material from both albums would eventually be compiled and re-released without the live tracks onto a single CD, 2001's Keystudio.) With Yes in disarray again, Squire turned to Billy Sherwood (by now the band's engineer) for help. Both men had been working on a side project called Conspiracy and reworked existing demos and recordings from there to turn them into Yes songs, and also worked on new material with Anderson and White. (Howe's involvement at this stage was minimal, mainly taking place towards the end of the sessions.) Sherwood's integral involvement with the writing, production, and performance of the music led to his finally joining Yes as a full member (taking on the role of harmony singer, keyboardist and second guitarist). The results of the sessions were released in November 1997 as the seventeenth Yes studio album, Open Your Eyes (on the Beyond Music label, who ensured that the group had greater control in packaging and naming). The music (mainly at Sherwood's urging) attempted to bridge the differing Yes styles of the 1970s and 1980s. (Sherwood: "My goal was to try to break down those partisan walls... For that, I am proud—to have aligned planets for a moment in time.") However, Open Your Eyes was not a chart success; the record peaked at number 151 on the Billboard 200 but failed to enter the charts in the UK. The title single managed to reach number 33 on the mainstream rock chart. For the 1997/1998 Open Your Eyes tour, Yes hired Russian keyboard player Igor Khoroshev, who had played on some of the album tracks. Significantly, the tour setlist featured only a few pieces from the new album, and mostly concentrated on earlier material. Anderson and Howe, who had been less involved with the writing and production on Open Your Eyes than they'd wished, would express dissatisfaction about the album later. By the time the band came to record their eighteenth studio album The Ladder with producer Bruce Fairbairn, Khoroshev had become a full-time member (with Sherwood now concentrating on songwriting, vocal arrangements and second guitar). With Khoroshev's classically influenced keyboard style, and with all members now making more or less equal writing contributions, the band's sound found a balance between its eclectic 1970s progressive rock style and the more polished pop sound sought on the previous album. The Ladder also featured Latin music ingredients and clear world music influences, mostly brought in by Alan White (although Fairbairn's multi-instrumentalist colleague Randy Raine-Reusch made a strong contribution to the album's textures). One of the album tracks, "Homeworld (The Ladder)", was written for Relic Entertainment's Homeworld, a real-time strategy computer game, and was used as the credits and outro theme. Pleased with the result of the album's creation, the band had been in tentative discussions to continue work with Fairbairn on future projects, but he passed away suddenly during the final mixing sessions of the album. The Ladder was released in September 1999, peaking at number 36 in the UK and number 99 in the U.S. While on tour in 1999 and early 2000, Yes recorded their performance at the House of Blues in Las Vegas on 31 October 1999, releasing it in September 2000 as a live album and DVD called House of Yes: Live from House of Blues. As Sherwood saw his role in Yes as creating and performing new music, and the rest of the band now wished to concentrate on performing the back catalogue, he amicably resigned from Yes at the end of the tour. In summer 2000, Yes embarked on the three-month Masterworks tour of the United States, on which they performed only material which had been released between 1970 and 1974 (The Yes Album through to Relayer). While on tour, Khoroshev was involved in a backstage incident of sexual assault with a female security guard at Nissan Pavilion in Bristow, Virginia on 23 July 2000 and parted company with the band at the end of the tour. ### 2001–2009: Magnification, 35th Anniversary Collection, hiatus and side projects Following the departures of Sherwood and Khoroshev and the death of Fairbairn, Yes once again set about reinventing themselves, this time choosing to record without a keyboardist, opting instead to include a 60-piece orchestra conducted by Larry Groupé; the first time the band used an orchestra since Time and a Word in 1970. The result was their nineteenth studio album, 2001's Magnification. The record was not a chart success; it peaked at number 71 in the UK and number 186 in the U.S. The Yes Symphonic Tour ran from July to December 2001 and had the band performing on stage with an orchestra and American keyboardist Tom Brislin. Their two shows in Amsterdam, in November, were recorded for their 2002 DVD and 2009 CD release Symphonic Live. The band invited Wakeman to play with them for the filming, but he was on a solo tour at the time. Following Wakeman's announcement of his return in April 2002, Yes embarked on their Full Circle Tour in 2002–2003 that included their first performances in Australia since 1973. The band's appearance in Montreux on this tour was documented on the album and DVD Live at Montreux 2003, released in 2007. In 2002, Rhino Records issued In a Word: Yes, a five CD box set of classic, rare and unreleased tracks from the band's history, including some from the 1979 Paris sessions, followed a year later by the compilation album The Ultimate Yes: 35th Anniversary Collection, which reached number 10 in the UK charts, their highest-charting album since 1991, and number 131 in the U.S. During 2003 and 2004, Rhino also released remastered editions of all Yes' studio albums up to, and including, 90125, all featuring rare and previously unreleased bonus tracks. These editions would be collected in 2013 as The Studio Albums 1969–1987 box set, with Big Generator also receiving the same treatment. On 26 January 2004, the film Yesspeak premiered in a number of select theatres, followed by a closed-circuit live acoustic performance of the group. Both Yesspeak and the acoustic performance, titled Yes Acoustic: Guaranteed No Hiss, were released on DVD later that year. A 35th anniversary tour followed in 2004 which was documented on the DVD Songs from Tsongas, released in 2005. In 2004, Squire, Howe and White reunited for one night only with former members Trevor Horn, Trevor Rabin and Geoff Downes during a show celebrating Horn's career, performing three Yes songs. The show video was released in DVD in 2008 under the name Trevor Horn and Friends: Slaves to the Rhythm. On 18 March 2003, minor planet (7707) Yes was named in honour of the band. After their 35th Anniversary Tour, Yes described themselves as "on hiatus". Howe recalls this break as very much welcomed by the band due to the heavy touring of the previous year and a half, and in his opinion necessary since the band's performance on the later (European) shows of the Full Circle Tour had started to deteriorate as a result of heavier alcohol consumption by Squire and other members in spite of rules the band had agreed on in 2001 barring drinking prior to or during shows. During this period, Anderson toured both solo and jointly with Wakeman (for concerts focused largely on Yes material); Squire released his long-awaited second solo album, and White launched his own eponymous band White (subsequently joining fellow Yes-men Tony Kaye and Billy Sherwood in Circa). Wakeman also continued to release solo material, as did Howe, who released three solo albums and also reunited to record, release and tour with once-and-future Yes bandmate Geoff Downes in the reunion of the original Asia lineup. In May 2008, a fortieth-anniversary Close to the Edge and Back Tour—which was to feature Oliver Wakeman on keyboards—was announced. Anderson has said that they had been preparing four new "lengthy, multi-movement compositions" for the tour, but he had expressed disinterest in producing a new studio album after the low sales of Magnification, suggesting that recording one was not "logical anymore". The tour was abruptly cancelled prior to rehearsals, after Anderson suffered an asthma attack and was diagnosed with acute respiratory failure, and was advised by doctors to avoid touring for six months. In September 2008, the remaining three members, eager to resume touring regardless of Anderson's availability, announced a tour billed as Steve Howe, Chris Squire and Alan White of Yes, with Oliver Wakeman on keyboards and new lead singer Benoît David, a Canadian musician who'd previously played with Mystery and with Yes tribute band Close to the Edge. Anderson expressed his disappointment that his former bandmates had not waited for his recovery, nor handled the situation "in a more gentlemanly fashion", and while he wished them well, he referred to their ongoing endeavours as "solo work" and emphasised his view that their band "is not Yes". As Anderson was a co-owner of the Yes trademark, the remaining members agreed not to tour with the Yes name. The In the Present Tour started in November 2008, but it was cut short in the following February when Squire required emergency surgery on an aneurysm in his leg. Touring resumed in June 2009, with Asia and Peter Frampton supporting the band at several shows. ### 2009–2015: Lineup changes, Fly from Here, Heaven & Earth and album series tours In October 2009, Squire declared that the new lineup from the In the Present Tour "is now Yes", and the tour, with the band now billed as Yes, continued through 2010. Their 2010 studio sessions would yield material eventually to be released as From a Page. In August 2010, it was announced that new material had been written for Fly from Here, Yes's twentieth studio album. Yes then signed a deal with Frontiers Records and began recording in Los Angeles with Trevor Horn serving as producer. Much of the album material was extrapolated from a pair of songs written by Horn and Geoff Downes around the time that they had been Yes members during 1980 and the Drama album. During the recording sessions, the band thought it would be wise to bring Downes back to replace Oliver Wakeman on keyboards, reasoning that he was closer to the material. Asserting that all studio recording was to be carried out by "the lineup that actually ... does the work", Howe dispelled rumours that an invitation to sing on the record had been extended to Anderson, who subsequently announced a new project as an ongoing collaboration with former Yes members Wakeman and Rabin. Upon completion of recording in March 2011, and post-production a month later, the album was released worldwide that July. Fly from Here peaked at number 30 in the UK and 36 in the U.S. In March 2011 Yes embarked on their Rite of Spring and Fly from Here tours to support Fly from Here, with Styx and Procol Harum supporting on select dates. 2011 saw the release of the live Yes album and DVD, In the Present – Live from Lyon, taken from the band's previous tour. Trevor Rabin joined the band in playing "Owner of a Lonely Heart" at one show in Los Angeles. In February 2012, after David contracted a respiratory illness, he was replaced by Glass Hammer singer Jon Davison. Davison was recommended to Squire by their common friend Taylor Hawkins, drummer for the Foo Fighters. Following the announcement Anderson expressed his disappointment that "they had to get yet another singer after the guy who replaced me became ill," stating that he offered to "get back with them" due to his being "healthy again", and expressed his view that "they have let a lot of fans down." Davison would join Yes to complete the band's scheduled dates across the year. On 7 March 2013, founding guitarist Peter Banks died of heart failure. From March 2013 to June 2014, Yes completed their Three Album Tour where they performed The Yes Album, Close to the Edge and Going for the One in their entirety. During the tour, they led a progressive-rock themed cruise titled "Cruise to the Edge". A second cruise happened in April 2014, and the band headlined the November 2015 edition. The show on 11 May 2014 in Bristol was released as Like It Is: Yes at the Bristol Hippodrome in 2014, featuring performances of Going for the One and The Yes Album. Heaven & Earth, the band's twenty-first studio album and first with Davison, was recorded between January and March 2014, at Neptune Studios in Los Angeles with Roy Thomas Baker as producer and former band member Billy Sherwood as engineer on backing vocals and mixer. Squire enjoyed working with Baker again, describing him as a "force in the studio" (Baker had previously worked with the group in the late 70s on a project that had ultimately been scrapped). Howe reflected that he "tried to slow down" the album production in hopes that "maybe we could refine it ..." and compared it to the success of the band's classic works in which they "arranged the hell out of" the material. He wrote later that Baker behaved erratically and was difficult to work with, and was dissatisfied with the final mixes of the album. To promote Heaven & Earth, Yes resumed touring between July and November 2014 with a world tour covering North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, playing Fragile and Close to the Edge in their entirety with select songs from Heaven & Earth and encores. The show in Mesa, Arizona was released in 2015 as Like It Is: Yes at the Mesa Arts Center which features the performances of Close to the Edge and Fragile. ### 2015–2018: Squire's death, Yes Featuring ARW, and 50th Anniversary Tour In May 2015, news of Squire's diagnosis with acute erythroid leukaemia was made public. This resulted in former guitarist Billy Sherwood replacing him for their 2015 summer North American tour with Toto between August–September, and their third annual Cruise to the Edge voyage in November, while Squire was receiving treatment. His condition deteriorated soon after, and he died on 27 June at his home in Phoenix, Arizona. Downes first announced Squire's death on Twitter. Squire asked White and Sherwood to continue the legacy of the band, which Sherwood recalled "was paramount in his mind ... so I'm happy to be doing that." Yes performed without Squire, for the first time in their 47-year history, on 7 August 2015 in Mashantucket, Connecticut. In November 2015, they completed their annual Cruise to the Edge voyage. In January 2016, former Yes members Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman announced their new group, Anderson, Rabin and Wakeman (ARW), something that had been in the works for the previous six years. Wakeman stated that Squire's passing inspired them to go ahead with the band. Anderson said they had begun writing new material. Their first tour, An Evening of Yes Music and More, began in October 2016 and lasted for one year with drummer Lou Molino III and bassist Lee Pomeroy. Following Yes's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the band renamed themselves Yes Featuring Jon Anderson, Trevor Rabin, Rick Wakeman. After a four-month tour in 2018 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Yes, the group disbanded. Meanwhile, Howe & White's ongoing Yes lineup performed Fragile and Drama in their entirety on their April–June, 2016 European tour. Trevor Horn was a guest vocalist for two UK shows, singing "Tempus Fugit". For the subsequent North American tour between July and September of that year, the set was changed to include Drama and sides one and four of Tales from Topographic Oceans. White missed the latter to recover from back surgery; he was replaced by American drummer Jay Schellen. Dylan Howe, Steve's son, had originally been asked to be White's standby, but was prevented from being involved by visa problems. White returned on a part-time basis in November for their 2016 Japanese tour; until the following February, Schellen continued to sit in for White on most shows, with White playing on some songs. The live album Topographic Drama – Live Across America, recorded on the 2016 tour, was released in late 2017 and marks Yes's first not to feature Squire. In February 2017, Yes toured the U.S. which included their headline spot at Cruise to the Edge. Yes toured the U.S. and Canada with the Yestival Tour from August to September 2017, performing at least one song from each album from Yes to Drama. Dylan Howe joined the band as a second drummer. The tour was cut short following the unexpected death of Howe's son and Dylan's brother Virgil. In February 2018, Yes headlined Cruise to the Edge involving original keyboardist Tony Kaye as a special guest, marking his first performances with the band since 1994. This was followed by the band's 50th Anniversary Tour with a European leg in March, playing half of Tales from Topographic Oceans and a selection of songs from their history. The two London dates included an anniversary fan convention which coincided with the release of Fly from Here – Return Trip, a new version of the album with new lead vocals and mixes by Horn, who also performed as a special guest singer during a few shows on the leg. A U.S. leg in June and July also included guest performances from Kaye, Horn, Tom Brislin and Patrick Moraz, who had last performed with Yes in 1976. The tour culminated with a Japanese leg in February 2019. Schellen continued to play as a second drummer to support White, who had a bacterial infection in his joints from November 2017. The tour was documented with the live album Yes 50 Live, released in 2019. ### 2019–present: The Quest, White's death, and Mirror to the Sky In June and July 2019, Yes headlined the Royal Affair Tour across the U.S. with a lineup featuring Asia, John Lodge and Carl Palmer's ELP Legacy with Arthur Brown. This was followed by previously unreleased music, recorded during the Fly from Here sessions, released as From a Page, a release spearheaded by Oliver Wakeman who wrote most of its material. The CD version includes an expanded edition of In the Present – Live from Lyon. A live album from the Royal Affair Tour, entitled The Royal Affair Tour: Live from Las Vegas, was released in October 2020. Videos of Dean creating the album cover were streamed live on Facebook. Yes had planned to resume touring in 2020, beginning with a short U.S. leg in March and their appearance on Cruise to the Edge, followed by a European tour that continued their Album Series Tour and featured Relayer performed in its entirety. Both tours were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Later in 2020, Davison and Sherwood formed Arc of Life, a new group featuring Schellen and keyboardist Dave Kerzner. Yes worked on new material for their twenty-second studio album The Quest, from late 2019 through 2021, with Howe as the sole producer. The lockdowns brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in members recording their parts in separate studios and sending them to Howe and engineer Curtis Schwartz in England. In 2021, Howe, Davison and Downes got together and completed the album. The Quest was released on 1 October 2021, being the band's first new album in seven years, and the opening two tracks, "The Ice Bridge" and "Dare to Know", were released as digital singles. The album reached No. 20 in the UK. By the time The Quest was released, Yes had already discussed plans regarding a follow-up album. In May 2022, Sherwood confirmed that the band had started to record new material. On 22 May 2022, Yes announced that White would sit out of their upcoming tour due to health issues and that Schellen would handle the drums. White died on 26 May. The band kicked off a tour in June 2022 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Close to the Edge. They had originally planned to resume their Album Series Tour with a European leg featuring Relayer performed in its entirety, before the dates were rescheduled for 2023 and the program changed. A tribute concert for White was held in Seattle on 2 October, featuring special guests and former Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin. In January 2023, Yes announced that Warner Music Group had acquired the recorded music rights and associated income streams relating to 12 studio albums from 1969 to 1987, and several live and compilation releases. In February, Schellen joined the band as a permanent member. In 2023, Yes had planned to continue their Album Series Tour with Relayer performed in its entirety across Europe and the UK, but it was subsequently delayed to 2024 due to insurance incentives related to COVID-19 and acts of war being withdrawn. The non-cancelled UK dates were later rescheduled for The Classic Tales of Yes Tour 2024. Meanwhile, Anderson toured in Spring 2023 under the title "Yes Epics and Classics" with a setlist devoted to early 70s Yes material. About the tour, which features Anderson backed by The Band Geeks, he tells Rolling Stone: "In my mind... I'm still in Yes" and expressed his desire for a reunion. On 10 March 2023, Yes announced that their new studio album, Mirror to the Sky, was set for release on 19 May 2023. On the same day the opening track, "Cut from the Stars", was released as a digital single, followed by the release of "All Connected" a few weeks later. Band members have said that the formation of this album was based on continuing the creative process from The Quest, further developing "song sketches, structures, and ideas that were demanding attention". ## Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Yes were eligible to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. In August 2013, the fan campaign Voices for Yes was launched to get the band inducted. The campaign was headed by two U.S. political operators: John Brabender, senior strategist for Republican Rick Santorum's 2012 U.S. presidential campaign, and Tad Devine, who worked on Democrat John Kerry's 2004 presidential campaign and Al Gore's 2000 campaign. Also involved were former NBC president Steve Capus and former White House Political Director Sara Taylor. On 16 October 2013, Yes failed to be inducted. In November 2013, Anderson expressed a wish to return to Yes in the future for a "tour everybody dreams of", and cited Yes's nomination for inclusion into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a motive for a possible reunion. On 7 April 2017, Yes were inducted into the 2017 class by Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson of Rush in a ceremony held in New York City. The musicians inducted were Anderson, Howe, Rabin, Squire, Wakeman, Kaye, Bruford, and White, the same lineup featured on Union and its tour. Having failed to pass the nomination stage twice previously, the announcement of their forthcoming induction was made on 20 December 2016. In the ceremony, Anderson, Howe, Rabin, Wakeman, and White performed "Roundabout" with Lee on bass, followed by "Owner of a Lonely Heart" with Howe on bass. Bruford attended the ceremony but did not perform, while Kaye did not attend. Dylan Howe (Steve's son) described how at the ceremony the two groups—Yes and ARW—were seated at adjacent tables but ignored each other. ## Band members ### Current members - Steve Howe – guitars, vocals (1970–1981, 1990–1992, 1995–2004, 2008–present) - Geoff Downes – keyboards (1980–1981, 2011–present) - Billy Sherwood – bass guitar (2015–present), vocals (1997–2000, 2015–present), guitars (1997–2000), keyboards (1997–1998); touring member 1994 - Jon Davison – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, percussion, occasional keyboards (2012–present) - Jay Schellen – drums, percussion (2023–present; touring member 2016–2017, 2018–2023) ### Former members - Chris Squire – bass guitar, vocals (1968–1981, 1983–2004, 2008–2015; his death) - Jon Anderson – lead and backing vocals, guitar, percussion, occasional synthesizer (1968–1980, 1983–1988, 1990–2004, 2008) - Bill Bruford – drums, percussion (1968–1972, 1990–1992) - Tony Kaye – organ, piano, synthesizer (1968–1971, 1983–1995; touring guest 2018–2019) - Peter Banks – guitar, backing vocals (1968–1970; died 2013) - Tony O'Reilly – drums (1968) - Rick Wakeman – keyboards (1971–1974, 1976–1980, 1990–1992, 1995–1997, 2002–2004) - Alan White – drums, percussion, piano, backing vocals (1972–1981, 1983–2004, 2008–2022; his death) - Patrick Moraz – keyboards (1974–1976; guest 2018) - Trevor Horn – lead vocals, bass guitar (1980–1981, 2016, 2017, 2018; guest 2016, 2018) - Trevor Rabin – guitars, lead and backing vocals, keyboards (1983–1995, 2017) - Eddie Jobson – keyboards (1983) - Igor Khoroshev – keyboards, backing vocals (1997–2000) - Benoît David – lead vocals, acoustic guitar (2008–2012) - Oliver Wakeman – keyboards (2008–2011) ### Former live musicians - Ian Wallace – drums (1968) - Casey Young – keyboards (1984–1985) - Tom Brislin – keyboards, backing vocals, percussion (2001; guest 2018) - Dylan Howe – drums (2017) ## Timeline ## Discography Studio albums - Yes (1969) - Time and a Word (1970) - The Yes Album (1971) - Fragile (1971) - Close to the Edge (1972) - Tales from Topographic Oceans (1973) - Relayer (1974) - Going for the One (1977) - Tormato (1978) - Drama (1980) - 90125 (1983) - Big Generator (1987) - Union (1991) - Talk (1994) - Keys to Ascension (1996) - Keys to Ascension 2 (1997) - Open Your Eyes (1997) - The Ladder (1999) - Magnification (2001) - Fly from Here (2011) - Heaven & Earth (2014) - The Quest (2021) - Mirror to the Sky (2023) ## Tours
3,963,940	Loose (Nelly Furtado album)	1,169,801,500	null	[ "2006 albums", "Albums produced by Danja (record producer)", "Albums produced by Rick Nowels", "Albums produced by Thom Panunzio", "Albums produced by Timbaland", "Dance-pop albums by Canadian artists", "Interscope Geffen A&M Records albums", "Interscope Records albums", "Juno Award for Album of the Year albums", "Juno Award for Pop Album of the Year albums", "Nelly Furtado albums", "Sampling controversies" ]	Loose is the third studio album by Canadian singer-songwriter Nelly Furtado, released on 7 June 2006, by Geffen and Mosley Music Group. Following the release of Furtado's second album, Folklore (2003), through DreamWorks Records, it was announced that Universal Music Group would acquire DreamWorks Records, the latter was folded into the Interscope Geffen A&M umbrella label where Furtado would release any new music. Recording sessions for Loose took place from 2005 to 2006. Timbaland and his protégé Danja produced the bulk of the album, primarily a pop album which incorporates influences of dance, R&B, hip hop, latin pop, synth-pop, reggaeton, new wave, funk, and Middle Eastern music. Lyrically, it explores the theme of female sexuality and has been described as introspective. Overall, Loose was seen as critically and commercially successful. It reached high positions on the record charts of several markets, including number one in ten countries, and as of 2019, it has sold more than 10 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of the 2000s. However, the album received criticism because of the sexual image Furtado adopted, as some critics felt it was a ploy to sell more records. Loose was heavily promoted, released in several editions and supported by the Get Loose Tour, which is the subject of the concert DVD, Loose: The Concert. The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, making it Furtado's first album to top the chart, and spawned eight singles, including the Billboard Hot 100 number-one hits "Promiscuous" and "Say It Right", which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, respectively. Other notable singles include the UK Singles Chart number-one hit "Maneater" and the European number-one hit "All Good Things (Come to an End)”. ## Background Furtado wanted to make a pop record to prove to herself that she could be more streamlined. Furtado cited Madonna's 1998 album Ray of Light as a major influence, saying "she was smooth but sexy, universal, epic, iconic!" Interscope chairman Jimmy Iovine suggested Furtado work with Timbaland, who had produced Missy Elliott's "Get Ur Freak On", which featured Furtado in a remix and a remix of Furtado's single "Turn Off the Light". ## Recording Furtado began work on Loose by holding with emcee Jelleestone what she referred to as a "hip-hop workshop", in which they would "write rhymes, dissect them, and try different flows over beats." The first producers she worked with were Track & Field—who co-produced her first two albums, Whoa, Nelly! (2000) and Folklore (2003)—and by May 2005, she had collaborated with Swollen Members and K'naan. Furtado worked with Nellee Hooper in London on reggae-oriented material and with Lester Mendez in Los Angeles on acoustic songs. One of the tracks Mendez helped to create is "Te Busqué", which is co-written by and features Juanes, who collaborated with Furtado on his 2002 song "Fotografía". During her time in Los Angeles, she worked with Rick Nowels, who co-wrote and produced "In God's Hands", "Somebody to Love" and "Runaway". In Miami, Florida, Furtado collaborated with Pharrell (who introduced her to reggaeton and who gave her a "shout-out" in his 2005 single "Can I Have It Like That") and Scott Storch (with whom she recorded a "straight-up rap song") before entering the studio with Timbaland. He and his protégé at the time, Danja, co-produced eight of the tracks, with another produced solely by Danja. For some of the beats on the songs, Timbaland finished work on ones already present in the studio that were half-developed or just "nucleuses"; the rest were completely reworked. Furtado recorded around forty tracks for Loose, deciding which she would include based on the sonics of the album—she called Timbaland "a sonic extraterrestrial" who came up with a sequence of songs that flowed, and said that the one she had devised was supposedly unsatisfactory. She recorded an unreleased collaboration with Justin Timberlake, "Crowd Control", which she described as "kind of sexy" and "a cute, clubby, upbeat, fun track". Other songs considered for inclusion on the album include "Chill Boy", "Friend of Mine", "Go", "Hands in the Air", "Pretty Boy", "Vice" and "Weak". Furtado said in her diary on her official website that she recorded a remix of "Maneater" with rapper Lil Wayne; it was only released as part of a compilation album, Timbaland's Remix & Soundtrack Collection, she also used the instrumental of the song during many television performances of "Maneater". A version of "All Good Things (Come to an End)" featuring vocals by Coldplay lead singer Chris Martin, who co-wrote the song, was not released after a request from Martin's label, EMI. The song was released on the album, but only Furtado's vocals are featured. Furtado explained that "Loose was 90 percent written with a beat first, and then I’d write my melodies and songs to the beat." ## Post-production The "off-the-cuff" conclusion to production was one of the reasons the album was titled Loose. It was named partly after the spontaneous decisions she made when creating the album. The album is also called Loose because it is "the opposite of calculated" and came naturally to Furtado and Timbaland; she called him her "distant musical cousin because he was always pushing boundaries and always carving out his own path", which she believed she was doing with Loose. "I think you have to keep surprising people as an artist, and I like that—I love doing that", she said. Loose was also named partly for the R&B girl group TLC, who Furtado said she admires for "taking back their sexuality, showing they were complete women." She said she wanted the album to be "assertive and cool" and "sexy but fun", like TLC, MC Lyte, Queen Latifah and Janet Jackson, who inspired Furtado because, as she put it, she was "comfortable in her sexuality and womanhood" when her 1993 single "That's the Way Love Goes" was released. During the recording of Loose, Furtado listened to several electro and rock musicians, including Bloc Party, System of a Down, M.I.A., Feist, Queens of the Stone Age, Metric and Death from Above 1979, some of whom influenced the "rock sound" present on the album and the "coughing, laughing, distorted basslines" that were kept in the songs deliberately. According to her, music by such bands is "very loud and has a garage theme" to it, some of which she felt she captured on the album. Furtado has said rock music is "rhythmic again" and hip-hop-influenced after it had become "so churning and boring." Because the mixing engineers were aware of Timbaland and Furtado's rock influences, the songs were mixed on a mixing board in the studio instead of "the fancy mixer at the end". Furtado said she preferred the louder volume that process gave to the album because she wanted it to sound like her demo tapes, which she prefers to her finished albums. She said, "It didn't have that final wash over it; it didn't have the final pressing at the end, save for a couple sounds". ## Music and lyrics Furtado said that with the release of her albums before Loose, she had wanted to prove herself as a musician and earn respect from listeners through using many different instruments on an album, which most hip-hop musicians did not do. After she believed she had accomplished that, she felt she had freedom to make the type of music she "really love[d]". Furtado's problem with hip-hop was that she did not think it was good enough to base one of her albums on, though she later asked herself why she was being "pretentious". The album represents her separating from such notions and in her words, "jumping in the deep end of the pool—'Ahh, screw it, this is fun!'". Furtado said she considers herself "all over the map" and promiscuous musically because she is not faithful to only one style. For the first time, Furtado worked with a variety of record producers and followed a more collaborative approach in creating the album. Produced primarily by Timbaland and Danja, Loose showcases Furtado experimenting with a more R&B–hip-hop sound and, as she put it, the "surreal, theatrical elements of '80s music". She has categorized the album's sound as punk-hop, which she describes as Eurythmics-influenced "modern, poppy, spooky music" and stated that "there's a mysterious, after-midnight vibe to [it] that's extremely visceral." Furtado has described the album as "more urban, more American, more hip-hop, [and] more simplified" than her earlier work, which she said was more layered and textured because she "tend[s] to overthink things." In contrast, during her studio time with Timbaland, she said she was "in the VIP boys club of just letting go" and being more impulsive. According to Furtado, instead of "pristine stuff," the album features "really raw" elements such as distorted bass lines, laughter from studio outtakes and general "room for error." Furtado has said Loose is not as much about the lyrics, which are not included in the liner notes, as it is about "indulging in pleasures—whether it's dancing or lovemaking." According to her, she wasn't trying to be sexy with the album—"I think I just am sexy now," she said. Loose is primarily a pop album with influences of dance, reggaeton, latin pop, hip hop, synth pop, Middle Eastern music, R&B, new wave, and funk. ## Songs The opening track, "Afraid" (featuring rapper Attitude), depicts Furtado's fear of what people think of her, and she has said that the chorus reminds her of "walking down the hall in high school ... because you live from the outside in. Now that I'm an adult, I care about the inside of me ... Before I said I didn't care about what people thought about me, but I really did." "Maneater" is an uptempo electro rock song that combines 1980s electro synths and a more dance-oriented beat. The up-tempo song has prominent electropop and synthpop influences and is lyrically related to how people become "hot on themselves" when dancing in their underwear in front of a mirror. "Promiscuous" (featuring Timbaland) was inspired by a flirting exchange Furtado had with Attitude, who co-wrote the song. She has characterized the fifth track, "Showtime", as "a proper R&B slow jam". "No Hay Igual" is a hip-hop and reggaeton song, that has a Spanglish tongue twister over "future-tropic" beats. The song contains a "sharp mix" of percussion and "empowered chanting". In "No Hay Igual", Furtado sings in Spanish and raps in Portuguese over a reggaeton rhythm. The album also features more introspective songs, and The Sunday Times wrote that it "has a surprising sadness to it." The seventh track, "Te Busqué", which features Latin singer Juanes, is about Furtado's experiences with depression, which she said she has had periodically since she was around seventeen years old. Furtado said she was unsure what "Say It Right" is about, but that it encapsulates her feeling when she wrote it and "taps into this other sphere"; in an interview for The Sunday Times, it was mentioned that it is about her breakup with DJ Jasper Gahunia, the father of her daughter. "In God's Hands", another song on the album, was also inspired by the end of their relationship. ## Release and promotion The album was first released in Japan on 7 June 2006, through Universal Music Group before being released two days later in Germany. In the United Kingdom Loose was released on 12 June 2006, via Geffen Records and was released eight days later on 20 June 2006, in Canada and the United States. In 2007 the album was re-released in Germany. The re-release included bonus content. During the promotion of Loose, Furtado performed at major music festivals and award shows. In Europe, she appeared at Rock am Ring and Rock-im-Park in Germany and the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands in June 2006. She performed in Canada at the Calgary Stampede, the Ottawa Bluesfest in July, and at the Ovation Music Festival in September. Shortly after her August 2006 performance at the Summer Sonic in Japan, she sang at the Teen Choice Awards. In November, she contributed to the entertainment during the World Music Awards, the American Music Awards and the 94th Grey Cup halftime show. She performed at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards, held in January 2007. Furtado embarked on a world concert tour, the Get Loose Tour, on 16 February 2007, in the UK, in support of the album; the tour included thirty-one dates in Europe and Canada, with additional shows in the US, Japan, Australia and Latin America. Furtado described the show as a "full sensory experience" with "a beginning, middle and end ... [it] takes you on a journey", also stressing the importance of crowd involvement and "spontaneity and rawness, because those are my roots, you know? I started by doing club shows, and that's the energy I love, the raw club energy of just feeling like you're rocking out." Though Furtado said choreographed dance routines were to be included in the show, she described it as "music-based ... Everything else is just to keep it sophisticated and sensual and fun." Furtado said she hoped to have Chris Martin, Juanes, Justin Timberlake, Timbaland and Calle 13 to guest on the tour, and have a "revolving door" of opening acts with Latin musicians opening in the US. Furtado later released a digital reissue of the album on 4 June 2021, to Celebrate the Album's 15th Anniversary. The new expanded edition of Loose featured a selection of rare remixes and bonus tracks, like a version of "Do It" featuring Missy Elliott, as well as Spanish-language versions of "All Good Things (Come to an End)," "In God’s Hands," and "Te Busque," featuring Juanes. The tracklist also includes 12 remixes, including three different ones for "Promiscuous," done by Axwell, Crossroads Vegas, and Josh Desi, and an alternate version of "Say It Right," dubbed the "Reggae Main Mix," featuring Courtney John. ## Singles In April 2006, a remix of "No Hay Igual" featuring the band Calle 13 was issued as a club single in the US. During the same period, "Promiscuous" (featuring Timbaland) was released for digital download in North America. Promiscuous became Furtado's first single to top the US Billboard Hot 100 and was released in Australia where it reached the top five. The lead single in Europe and Latin America, "Maneater," was released in late May to early June 2006. It became Furtado's first single to top the UK Singles Chart and made the top ten in other countries; it reached the top five in Germany and the top twenty in France and Latin America. The second single in Europe, "Promiscuous," was released in late August to early September 2006 but it did not perform as well as "Maneater." It peaked inside the top five in the UK and the top ten in other countries, including Germany, and it reached the top twenty in France. During the same period, "Maneater" began its run as the second single in North America; it was not as successful as "Promiscuous," reaching number twenty-two in Canada and the top twenty in the US, though it became a top five single on the ARIA Singles Chart. Releases of the third North American single, "Say It Right", and the third Europe single, "All Good Things (Come to an End)", took place in November and December, and the third Latin American single, "Promiscuous", was released in January 2007. "Say It Right" went to number one in the US and on the Nielsen BDS airplay chart in Canada (where it was not given a commercial release), and it reached the top five in Australia. "All Good Things (Come to an End)" reached number one on the pan-European singles chart and the top five in the UK, and it was the album's most successful single in Germany, where it topped the chart, and in France, where it became a top ten hit. After the release of "Say It Right" in Europe in March 2007, the single reached the top five in Germany and the top ten in the UK, where it was a download-only release. The video for "All Good Things (Come to an End)" was released in North America during this period. "All Good Things (Come to an End)" peaked in the top five in Canada and in the top twenty in Australia, though it only reached the lower half of the US Hot 100. The album's fifth and final UK single was "In God's Hands", and the fifth and final single in North America was "Do It". In May 2007, Furtado mentioned the possibility of a sixth or seventh single, mentioning the examples of Nickelback's All the Right Reasons and the Pussycat Dolls' PCD as albums that were being supported by six or more singles at the time. Furtado said she liked the possibility because she thought Loose was good and "want[ed] people to hear as much of it as possible" before she took time off. Two other songs, "Te Busqué" and "No Hay Igual", were released as singles in other regions of the world. "Te Busqué" was the lead single in Spain because of the limited success hip-hop/R&B-influenced songs in the style of "Promiscuous" and "Maneater" achieved in the country. It was not released in the United States, but it was given airplay on Latin music radio stations and reached the top forty on Billboard'''s Latin Pop Airplay chart. The "No Hay Igual" remix featuring Calle 13 was released in Latin America, and the music video debuted in September. According to Media Traffic, worldwide sales of the singles stands at "Say It Right" (2007) 7.3 million copies, "Promiscuous" (2006) 4.81 million, "Maneater" (2006) 3.86 million copies and "All Good Things (Come to an End)" (2007) 3.425 million copies. ## Critical reception Loose received generally positive reviews from music critics; it holds an average score of 71 out of 100 at aggregate website Metacritic. AllMusic and musicOMH cited the "revitalising" effect of Timbaland on Furtado's music, and The Guardian called it "slick, smart and surprising." Q found most of it to be "an inventive, hip-hop-inflected delight." Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that "the music and the lyrics are mainly aimed at dance floors, and yet this album keeps reminding listeners that a dance floor is one of the most complicated places on earth." In its review, AllMusic wrote "It's on this final stretch of the album that the Furtado and Timbaland pairing seems like a genuine collaboration, staying true to the Nelly of her first two albums, but given an adventurous production that helps open her songs up ... Timbaland has revitalized Nelly Furtado both creatively and commercially with Loose". She won her first BRIT Award—Best International Female—in 2007. In a mixed review, Nick Catucci of The Village Voice felt that Furtado "sauces up a bit too luridly" and lacks "chemistry" with Timbaland, writing that Loose "isn't a love child, but a bump-and-grind that never finds a groove". Vibe stated, "she loses herself in Gwen Stefani–like posturing, as on "Glow," and ethnic fusions like "No Hay Igual" or "Te Busqué." In his consumer guide for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau gave the album a "B" and named it "dud of the month", indicating "a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought." Christgau viewed that its dance-oriented tracks "might accomplish God's great plan on the dance-floor. But as songs they're not much". ## Commercial performance Loose debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling more than 34,000 copies in its first week, at that time the year's strongest debut for a Canadian artist. In late July, after Furtado embarked on a short tour of Canada and made a guest appearance on the television show Canadian Idol, the album returned to number one. It subsequently stayed near the top of the album chart until late January 2007, when it reached number one again for two weeks. It was the third best-selling album of 2006 in Canada, and the highest selling by a female solo artist, with 291,700 copies sold. The Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) certified Loose five times platinum in May 2007 for shipments of more than 500,000 copies. It stayed in the top twenty for fifty-seven weeks. The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, making it Furtado's first album to top the chart with first-week sales of 219,000 copies; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and ranked sixty-fourth on the Billboard 2006 year-end chart. Loose exited the US top ten in August 2006 but re-entered it in March 2007, and according to Nielsen SoundScan in October 2007, it had sold two million units. The album ranked sixty four and thirty-second on the Billboard 2006 and 2007 year-end chart respectively. In the United Kingdom, Loose entered the albums chart at number five; in its forty-third week, it reached number four, and it was certified double platinum for shipments to retailers of more than 600,000 copies. As of July 2007, it had sold roughly 827,000 copies in the UK. The record was certified two times platinum in Australia for more than 140,000 units shipped; it reached number four there and was placed forty-fourth on the Australian Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) list of 2006 bestsellers. The album entered the chart in Germany at number one, spent a record forty-nine weeks in the German top ten, and was certified five times platinum. Loose reached number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart in early 2007, spending ten non-consecutive weeks at number one. By March 2007, it had been certified gold or platinum in twenty-five countries. As of 2019, the album has sold more than 12 million copies worldwide. ## Controversy Considerable attention was generated by the more sexual image of Furtado presented in promotion and publicity for the album, particularly in the music videos for "Promiscuous" and "Maneater", in which she dances around with her midriff exposed. According to Maclean's magazine, some said that Furtado's progression was a natural transformation of a pop singer; others believed that she had "sold out" in an effort to garner record sales, particularly after her second album was a commercial failure in comparison to her first. Maclean's wrote that her makeover "seems a bit forced" and contrasted her with singers such as Madonna and Emily Haines of Metric: "[they] seem to be completely in control, even somewhat intimidating in their sexuality: they've made a calculated decision for commercial and feminist reasons. In contrast, Furtado's new, overt sexuality comes off as unoriginal—overdone by thousands of pouty pop stars with a quarter of Furtado's natural talent ... the revamping feels as if it's been imposed rather than chosen by the unique, articulate singer we've seen in the past." Dose magazine wrote that Furtado's new "highly sexualized" image was manufactured, and noted the involvement in the album's development of Geffen's Jimmy Iovine, who helped to develop the Pussycat Dolls, a girl group known for their sexually suggestive dance routines. The writer also criticised Furtado's discussion of her buttocks and apparent rejection of feminism in a Blender magazine interview, writing: "Girls, do you hear that churning? Those are the ideas of Gloria Steinem turning in their grave." A writer for the CBC said that cynics could attribute Furtado's commercial success with Loose to her "amped-up sex appeal." The writer added that, the failure of Janet Jackson's album Damita Jo (2004) indicated such a move was not infallible. Furtado was "still demure compared to many of her competitors"—she avoided sporting lingerie or performing "Christina Aguilera-style gyrations or calisthenics" in the "Promiscuous" and "Maneater" videos. "Despite its dramatic arrival ... Furtado's new image doesn’t feel calculated", he said. "[She] seems to be thinking less and feeling more, to the benefit of her music." However, a 2015 retrospective review of the album by Adria Young for Vice noted that, "When Loose's second single 'Promiscuous' started its 24-hour rotations across Canada, Furtado was immediately and notably one of the first Canadian artists to experience public slut-shaming." Young further contends that, "the media also focused on bullshit like the kind of 'example' [Furtado] was setting, the 'tarting up' of a Canadian good-girl, romantic relationships between her and producers, her sexual orientation, her clothing, her 'midriff' and all kinds of superficial, sexist crap that had nothing to do with her music, what her music meant or what strength it might give to other women struggling with the very same gender dichotomies and double-standards around sexuality that the album was trying to explore." In early 2007, a video hosted on YouTube led to reports that the song "Do It", and the Timbaland-produced ringtone "Block Party" that inspired it, used—without authorization—the melody from Finnish demoscene musician Janne "Tempest" Suni's song "Acidjazzed Evening", winner of the Assembly 2000 oldskool music competition. Timbaland used the record of C64 adaptation of the song written by Glenn Rune Gallefoss (GRG). Timbaland admitted sampling the song, but said that he had no time to research its intellectual owner. Hannu Sormunen, a Finnish representative of Universal which represents Nelly Furtado in Finland, commented the controversy as follows on 15 January 2007, issue of Iltalehti; "In case that the artist decides to pursue the matter further, it's on him to go to America and confront them with the local use of law. It will require a considerable amount of faith and, of course, money." On 9 February 2007, Timbaland commented on the issue in an MTV interview: "It makes me laugh. The part I don't understand, the dude is trying to act like I went to his house and took it from his computer. I don't know him from a can of paint. I'm 15 years deep. That's how you attack a king? You attack moi? Come on, man. You got to come correct. You the laughing stock. People are like, 'You can't be serious.'" On 12 June 2009, Mikko Välimäki, who is one of the legal counsels of Kernel Records, the owner of the sound recording rights, reported that the case had been filed in Florida. In January 2008, Turkish newspapers reported that Kalan Müzik, the record label that released Turkish folk singer Muhlis Akarsu's album Ya Dost Ya Dost, pressed charges against Furtado for the Loose'' track "Wait for You", which label officials said features the bağlama instrumental part of Akarsu's song "Allah Allah Desem Gelsem". ## Track listing ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. - Nelly Furtado – lead vocals, songwriting - Attitude – writing - Rusty Anderson – acoustic guitar - David Campbell – conductor - Roberto Cani, Josefina Vergara, Peter Kent, Amen Garabedian, Maria DeLeon, Geraldo Hilera, Sharon Jackson, Joel Derouin – violin - Luis Conte, Daniel Stone, Taku Hirano, David Schommer, Luis Orbego – percussion - Danja – drums, keyboards, piano - Hilario Durán – piano - Dean Jarvis – bass guitar - Juanes – acoustic guitar, electric guitar - Suzie Katayama, Larry Corbett, Steve Richards – cello - Greg Kurstin, Jamie Muhoberac – keyboards - Jamie Muhoberac – keyboard - Rick Nowels – guitar, keyboards, piano - Blake O, Dan Warner, Kevin Rudolf – guitar - Ramón Stagnaro – acoustic guitar, electric guitar - Nisan Stewart, Joey Waronker – drums - Timbaland – vocals, writing, bass guitar, drums, keyboard, percussion ### Production - Thom Panunzio – executive producer - Timbaland – executive producer, producer, vocal assistance - Nelly Furtado – executive producer, producer - Danja – producer - Nisan Stewart – producer - Lester Mendez – producer - Rick Nowels – producer - Jim Beanz – vocal producer, vocal assistance - The Horace Mann Middle School Choirs – vocal assistance - Demacio Castellon – engineer - Vadim Chrislov – engineer - Ben Jost – engineer - Joao R. Názario – engineer - James Roach – engineer - Kobia Tetey – engineer - Joe Wohlmuth – engineer - Jason Donkersgoed – assistant engineer - Steve Genwick – assistant engineer - Kieron Menzies – assistant engineer - Dean Reid – assistant engineer - Marcella Araica – mixing - Demacio Castellón – mixing - Bard Haehnal – mixing - Dave Pensado – mixing - Neal H. Pogue – mixing - Chris Gerhinger – mastering - Thom Panunzio – A&R - D.J. Mormille – A&R - Evan Peters – A&R coordination - Jeanne Venton – A&R administration - JP Robinson – art direction - Gravillis Inc., Nevis – art direction - Anthony Mandler – photography - Cliff Feimann – production manager ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales \\|- !scope="row"\\|Romania (UFPR) \\|3× Platinum \\| \\|- ## Release history ## See also - List of certified albums in Romania
33,368,136	S by Shakira	1,059,805,067	Perfume by Shakira	[ "Products introduced in 2010", "Shakira perfumes" ]	S by Shakira is the first woman's fragrance by Colombian singer songwriter Shakira. Developing an interest in perfumery and scents, Shakira signed an agreement with international fashion company Puig to create a line of beauty and personal care products. S by Shakira is an amber perfume which combines scents of various exotic sources like sambac jasmine, sandalwood, and vanilla. The bottle of the perfume is made of treated glass which reflects light at different angles; it does not have a cap and instead utilises a key-like mechanism to stop the flow of the perfume. Shakira launched S by Shakira at a press release in Madrid, Spain, in June 2010, and it was sent to retail stores in September 2010. Critics praised the scent of S by Shakira, but there was criticism regarding the design of the bottle. It was nominated for a FiFi Award in 2011. In September 2011, Shakira released her second fragrance S by Shakira Eau Florale, which is a "floral interpretation" of the original fragrance. The perfume is more influenced by the scent of flowers and Shakira enlisted the aid of perfumer Elisabeth Vidal to create the fragrance. Shakira promoted S by Shakira and S by Shakira Eau Florale at a press release in Paris, France, in March 2013. S by Shakira Aquamarine was released in early 2013 as a limited edition fragrance and is inspired by the smell of the ocean, making use of various ozonic substances in its scent. ## Development ### Background In 2008, international fashion and fragrance company Puig announced that it had formed a partnership with Shakira and had signed an agreement "to develop a line of signature products produced with and inspired by the artist". The agreement included the production and creation of several beauty and personal care products and it was stated that "Shakira will develop, with a dedicated team, the creation of the product line from inception to completion". The distribution of the products and the creation of "strategic alliances" were chosen to be solely the responsibility of the company. Shakira expressed her views about the partnership, saying "I am very excited to be able to express myself through another creative medium. “My feeling is that personal care and beauty should be effortless and accessible for everyone." Interested in perfumery and conveying "emotions through aromas", the singer decided to take the idea further and began exploring various scents. The development of the perfume took three years to complete and Shakira compared the process to composing a song, opining that "It's similar to the process you go through when writing a melody: certain chord combinations inspire different feelings in the listener. I wanted to find a way of expressing the feeling of pure happiness through the medium of fragrance". José Manuel Albesa, chief brand officer of Puig, commented that Shakira was completely involved in the process of developing the fragrance and was "extremely hands-on". Didier Maine de Biran, general manager of Puig USA, opined that S by Shakira was different from other celebrity-branded fragrances, saying "What makes this stand out is how involved she [Shakira] was. The key difference is she has the knowledge of what she wants and really wants to share it with her fans. She's involved. She's committed. And it is just a great fragrance that stands on its own". ### Scent and packaging The fragrance of S by Shakira is categorized as a "transparent oriental", and according to Shakira's official website, it is inspired by "what is unique and exceptional about her, her light". The perfume is made of a variety of oils and substances derived from Middle Eastern and Indian regions. The top notes include citrus, peach, and passion fruit chord; the heart notes give a "spicy freshness" through the use of various flowers like gardenia and sambac jasmine, and cinnamon; the base notes consist of amber, musk, sandalwood and vanilla chord. The fragrance is meant to be used by women, and Shakira claimed that "The type of women who feel a connection with this fragrance would be independent and strong, but also a woman with a great capacity to love and a strong sense of who they are. It’s for a woman who believes in herself." The packaging of S by Shakira is designed to reflect light and features gold accents, which Puig felt would help it stand out. The bottle of the perfume is "soft and feminine" in design and is made of glass, which is surface finished and has six star-shaped cuts carved in its bottom so that it is able to reflect light from different angles. India Today website WonderWoman.in likened the bottle to the shape of an "oriental dancer". The bottle does not have any cap and instead utilises a key-like structure to stop the flow of the perfume. The absence of the cap aims to represent "Shakira's bare feet". She explained her idea behind the design of the bottle: "I wanted the bottle to be something that could contain a dream. Solid like the bottles of yesteryear, but with a light feeling. And it comes with something special. The pendant containing the "S" symbolizes a charm for happiness that I wanted to share." ## Release Shakira launched S by Shakira in Madrid, Spain, by organising a press release on June 22, 2010. At the press release, Shakira talked about her inspiration and the development of the perfume, saying "Like a song, a perfume is composed of different individual notes, which together form a harmony." The perfume went on sale on September 10 and was available for purchase in more than 15,000 stores. Samples were distributed to those who purchased tickets to Shakira's The Sun Comes Out World Tour, which was going to appear in New York during the fall season. S by Shakira was made available in the following range: - Eau de toilette - 50 ml/1.69 oz - Eau de toilette - 80 ml/2.71 oz - Deodorant - 150 ml/5.07 oz - Body lotion - 74 ml/2.5 oz ### Promotion A television commercial to promote the perfume was released in late-August 2010 and featured a remixed version of her 2010 single "Gypsy". Vanita Sabnani, vice president of marketing for Puig USA, revealed that the company had decided on a "true 360-degree ad and marketing campaign" and had made preparations to promote S by Shakira through Jumbotron displays, taxi advertisements, and social networking services. Print advertisements were also commissioned and the first placement was printed in the September issue of fashion magazine Vogue. ## Reception Style.com favoured Shakira's decision to release a perfume and called it "sexy, sensual, and a whole host of other words beginning with "S"". Melanie Dee from Yahoo! Voices criticised the bottle of the perfume as "probably one of the ugliest perfume bottles", but highly praised the scent, describing it to be "simply delicious"; she concluded that "I am never all too fond of celebrity fragrances, and JLo has been the only celeb, in my opinion that manages to impress time after time. S by Shakira though has managed to make another fan". Kim West from Beauty World News felt the perfume was truly reflective of Shakira's nature, saying "Full of energy, sensuality, and good vibrations, S by Shakira bottles the singer's essence and what makes her unique". In 2013, Latina magazine included S by Shakira on their list of "The 11 Best Latino Celebrity Perfumes" and found the perfume "perfect" for romantic occasions, calling it "energetic, confident, and so sexy thanks to the vanilla and sandalwood notes". At the 2010 Academia Del Perfume Award ceremony sponsored by The Fragrance Foundation, S by Shakira won the award for "Best Women's Fragrance Great Distribution". The award was received by Pilar Trabal, vice president of Puig Iberia, and Shakira thanked the jury and voters through a telephone call. At the 2011 FiFi Awards ceremony sponsored by The Fragrance Foundation, S by Shakira received a nomination in the category of "Women's Broad Appeal" but lost to American actress Halle Berry's fragrance Pure Orchid. Commercially, industry analysts predicted that S by Shakira would make \$35 to \$45 million through global retail sales in its first year. ## Flanker fragrances ### S by Shakira Eau Florale #### Background and scent After working on her first fragrance S by Shakira, Shakira further developed an interest in perfumery and wanted to explore more scents, saying "After working on my debut scent, S by Shakira, I became interested in the possibilities of expressing emotions through scents." Working closely with perfumer Elisabeth Vidal, she decided to make a "more gentle and romantic" and simpler version of the original fragrance and explored floral scents. S by Shakira Eau Florale is categorized as a "floral musky scent", and according to Shakira's official website, it is a "floral interpretation of the first fragrance by Shakira". The top notes include bergamot and cassis; the heart notes consist of jasmine, heliotropium, and wild red fruits; the base notes consist of musk and vanilla extracts. The packing of the perfume is very similar to the original one, but features a pink and white colour scheme and the "S" logo is surrounded by a bunch of flowers. Similarly, the bottle retains the original shape but has a "more romantic and feminine feel" and a pink colour scheme; the colour of the perfume is golden rose. #### Promotion Two months after giving birth to her son Milan Piqué Mebarak, Shakira organised a press release to take place on March 27, 2013, at the Sephora store on the Champs-Élysées street in Paris, France. At the event, Shakira signed autographs, posed for pictures with fans, and promoted both S by Shakira and S by Shakira Eau Florale. Prior to the press release, Shakira attended an "intimate" meeting with three fashion bloggers and discussed her experience in developing the perfumes. The commercial for S by Shakira was extended to include a section which exclusively promoted S by Shakira Eau Florale; this version was nominated for "Digital Communication Award For Best Female" at the 2012 Academia Del Perfume awards ceremony. Similar to the original perfume, S by Shakira Eau Florale was made available in the following range:. - Eau de toilette - 50 ml/1.69 oz - Eau de toilette - 80 ml/2.71 oz - Deodorant - 150 ml/5.07 oz - Body lotion - 74 ml/2.5 oz ### S by Shakira Aquamarine S by Shakira Aquamarine was launched as a limited edition fragrance in early 2013. Inspired by the ocean, Shakira aimed to "express something pure, elemental and sensual" through a fragrance and opined that "the ocean represents all of those things. In a word, it is a source of true inspiration". The perfume bottle and the packaging follow a largely similar design to the original one but feature a "metallic combination" of gold and turquoise. The top notes include bergamot, mandarin orange, passion fruit chord and various ozonic substances; the heart notes capture the scents of different flowers like jasmine, plumeria, and tiaré; the base notes also consist of ozonic substances, as well as cedar wood. S by Shakira Aquamarine was made available in the following range: - Eau de toilette - 50 ml/1.69 oz - Eau de toilette - 80 ml/2.71 oz ## See also - List of celebrity-branded fragrances - Perfumery
51,263,173	Clumsy (Britney Spears song)	1,123,190,971	2016 promotional single by Britney Spears	[ "2016 songs", "Britney Spears songs", "Electro songs", "Song recordings produced by Oak Felder", "Songs written by Oak Felder", "Songs written by Talay Riley" ]	"Clumsy" is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her ninth studio album, Glory (2016). It serves as the record's second promotional single, being released on August 11, 2016 for digital download and streaming by RCA Records and Sony Music. It was provided as an instant gratification track for those who pre-ordered Glory. "Clumsy" was written by Talay Riley, Warren "Oak" Felder and Alex Niceforo, while production was handled by Felder and Alex Nice; Mischke served as a vocal producer. Musically, "Clumsy" portrays a "synth-laden" electro song which incorporates doo-wop hand claps, stomping drums, finger snaps, soulful vocal riffs and an electronic drop in its instrumentation. Spears also alludes to her 2000 single "Oops!... I Did It Again" during the track's breakdowns. The lyrical themes of the recording delve on sex and how the singer and her suitor are clumsy during intimate moments. Writers from AllMusic, The Boston Globe, musicOMH and Rolling Stone considered the track a highlight of Glory while the latter listed it as one of the best songs of 2016. Commercially, "Clumsy" charted at number 142 in France, where it remained for two weeks on the SNEP chart. Spears included "Clumsy" on the set list of her Piece of Me Tour (2018). ## Background and release Even though Britney Spears' eighth studio album, Britney Jean (2013), had a lackluster commercial performance, her Las Vegas residency show, Britney: Piece of Me, was successful. In September 2014, she posted a picture of herself in a recording studio. During an interview with Extra, a month later, she said that she was working "very slowly, but progressively" on new music. In 2015, she released the single "Pretty Girls", which featured Iggy Azalea, but clarified that she did not have plans to release another studio album that year. She explained that her children were her priority rather than music. In late 2016, while promoting her ninth studio album Glory, Spears said that she wanted to explore new musical styles. She described the project as her "most hip-hop album," explaining, "[...] there are like two or three songs that go in the direction of more urban that I've wanted to do for a long time now, and I just haven't really done that." She collaborated with Talay Riley, who had previously co-written Iggy Azalea's "Bounce" (2013) and Nick Jonas' "Levels" (2015). After the release of the first single "Make Me..." and the promotional single "Private Show" on August 8, 2016, Spears and PopCrush announced that "Clumsy" was going to be made available as the second promotional track from the Glory as an instant grant for those who pre-ordered the album. It was subsequently released on August 11, 2016 for digital download and streaming. ## Composition "Clumsy" was written by Talay Riley, Warren "Oak" Felder and Alex Niceforo, with production being handled by the latter two; Mischke served as a vocal producer. Spears, Riley, Felder, Zaire Koalo, Trevor Brown and Mischke provided crowd vocals on the track, which were recorded at 158 Studios, Westlake Village, California, and at House of Blues Studio, Encino, California. Musically, "Clumsy" portrays a "synth-laden" electro track, with a "folksy verse stomp" and a "futuristic club beat." It additionally incorporates "stomping drums and finger snaps" in its instrumentation, as well as doo-wop "hand-claps and soulful vocal riffs as it builds to an explosive electronic drop." In an interview with radio show The Cooper Lawrence Show, the singer confirmed that she and her team "literally went into the booth together and did all the claps [...] all the sound effects are real, they're from us, our feet and everything, it's all real, so we all did it together, it's like very old-school." Joey Nolfi, writing for Entertainment Weekly, saw "Clumsy" as being " sonically in-line with songs heard on 2011's Femme Fatale and 2013's Britney Jean." The Guardian's Alex Macpherson opined that "its rapacious giddiness shares something of the same spirit as Ariana Grande's 'Greedy'." Lyrically, the recording finds Spears "[fumbling] through the early throes of love." Adam R. Holz of Plugged In claimed that the song is "about Spears and a partner 'bangin' all over [the] bedroom,' which can be seen in the lines, "Clumsy, bangin' all over this bedroom again and again." Sasha Geffen of MTV added that during the track, Spears shows off her "flirty side" with lines like, "I love how you go down." Spin's Andrew Unterberger explained that the lyrics of "Clumsy" "offer varying degrees of double-entendred literalness within the clumsiness conceit, as Britney’s lack of physical dexterity leads to her 'slippin’ off this dress." Writing for Bustle, Alexis Rhiannon noticed that the text of the recording is "frankly pretty filthy" and "also essentially a description of pure sex." For the pre-chorus, Spears sings, "Call me a fool/ Call me insane/ But don't call it a thing/ Closer to you/ Closer to pain/ It's better than far away", following which she repeats "clumsy" as a hook. During every breakdown of the track, the singer "playfully squeals", "Oops!", making reference to her 2000 song "Oops!... I Did It Again". Throughout the track, Spears delivers vocals in her "nasal come-on tone" as noted by Rolling Stone's Jon Blistein. The critic furthermore opined that the song "marks a rhythmic, almost swing-inspired turn for Spears." ## Critical reception Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone considered it "one moment that sums up the fantastic new Britney Spears album" and "a perfect Britney song, done and dusted in three minutes. Ooops, she did it again." Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, declared that "some of the highlights [on the album] are the silliest songs", citing "Clumsy" as an example and defining it as a "swinging" track. Josh Duboff of Vanity Fair felt "Clumsy" portrays "the most straight-forward 'club' track" and further explained that "the song is innocuous and propulsive." Digital Spy's Lewis Corner named the recording a "four-to-the-floor banger" [...] with an infectious clap-beat." Andrew Unterberger of Spin stated that "the rubbery track is among Britney’s most fun songs of recent years." Alexis Rhiannon of Bustle, declared, "It's both a relief and a joy to hear Spears return to her former glory with the empowering, x-rated 'Clumsy' lyrics." Maura Johnston of Boston Globe labelled "Clumsy" as a highlight from Glory. Neil McCormick of The Telegraph classified the track as "equating clumsiness with bumping and grinding sex," where "[Spears] switches back and forth between the two approaches so frequently that it almost sound like a duet between sweet and tough alter egos." The National's Si Hawkins confessed that "Clumsy" is "a return to quirky form," while John Murphy of musicOMH emphasized that the song was an "undoubted highlight". Jonathan Riggs, penning for Idolator, opined that "although none of the more manic moments match the frenzied brilliance of 'Toxic' (but what could, really?), Britney keeps control of the pulsating 'Clumsy'." While noting that "Britney holds her own on the sexually charged 'Clumsy'," Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine suggested that Christina Aguilera would match better with the recording. Entertainment Weekly's Nolan Feeney observed that "the generic bass drop" of the track is a "missed opportunity." Alex Macpherson of The Guardian was largely positive towards "Clumsy", mentioning that it "brings out grinding, Justice-style metallic synths, verses that jitter and hop uncontrollably, beery chants and an absurd moment when Spears' voice gets pitch-shifted thither and yon. But if much of her post-Blackout work seems to have had an absence of character as its end goal, [...] Spears sounds like she’s having the time of her life sparring with and riding the kitchen-sink beat. "Clumsy" was ranked at number 34 on Rolling Stone’s "50 Best Songs of 2016" list by Rob Sheffield, who said that "[the song was a] should-been-a-hit highlight from [Spears's] comeback album". He went on to say that "no singer [had] ever brought that much resonance to the word "oops"" referring to the song's lyrics and considered Britney a "TRL princess turned Vegas queen [who was revisiting] the high-energy disco-ball hysteria of her youth". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Glory. Recording - Vocals recorded at 158 Studios, Westlake Village, California; House of Blues Studio, Encino, California - Mixed at Larrabee Studios, North Hollywood, California Personnel - Britney Spears – songwriter, lead vocals, crowd vocals - Talay Riley – songwriter, crowd vocals - Warren "Oak" Felder – songwriter, producer, crowd vocals - Alex Niceforo – songwriter, producer - Mischke – vocal producer, crowd vocals - Benjamin Rice – additional vocal recording - Trevor Brown – crowd vocals - Zaire Koalo – crowd vocals - Benjamin Rice – vocal recording - Benny Faccone – recording assistant - Erik Belz – recording assistant - Jaycen Joshua – mixing - Maddox Chhim – mixing assistant - Dave Nakaji – mixing assistant ## Charts
22,869,155	The Official Razzie Movie Guide	1,140,856,766	Book by John J. B. Wilson	[ "2005 non-fiction books", "Books about film", "Lists of worsts", "Warner Books books" ]	The Official Razzie Movie Guide: Enjoying the Best of Hollywood's Worst is a book about the booby prize award show the Golden Raspberry Awards (Razzies), written by John Wilson, founder of the awards ceremony. The book was published in 2005 by Warner Books, the same year as the 25th Golden Raspberry Awards. The book includes an introduction by Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers, a brief history of the Golden Raspberry Awards, and entries on films organized thematically which include plot summaries and reviews by Wilson. Wilson comments on and discusses his picks for the worst films of all time. It was on the Los Angeles Times best-seller list. ## Contents The introduction was written by Travers, who is a voting member of the Golden Raspberry Awards Foundation. The book begins with selected quotes from the reviewers of such critically panned films as The Blue Lagoon, From Justin to Kelly, and Color of Night. The book also includes a brief history of the Golden Raspberry Awards. Wilson lists and discusses his picks of the 100 worst films of Hollywood. The chapters deal with bad movies, and are organized thematically with titles such as "Disasters ... In Every Sense." and "Can't Stop the Musicals". Each movie entry includes credits of the cast and crew, excerpts of dialogue from the movie, and a plot summary and review by Wilson. Wilson's picks of the ten worst films include The Adventurers (1970), Battlefield Earth (2000), Body of Evidence (1993), Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977), Glen or Glenda (1953), The Lonely Lady (1983), Mommie Dearest (1981), The Oscar (1966), Showgirls (1995) and Xanadu (1980). ## Marketing Pat Nason of United Press International (UPI) wrote that marketing of the book "may have been somewhat complicated by the cover art", which shows an actor in a gorilla costume with his middle finger raised, taken from the 1976 film A\P\E. Wilson had originally wanted the gorilla picture to appear on the back cover of the book; however, Warner Books stated it must appear on the book's front cover. "It might stand as an apt emblem of the Razzies themselves," commented Nason. "We are not PC. We do not pull punches. We do not pay attention to the basic rules of decorum. Hopefully the humor with which it is packaged takes a little of the sting out of it", said Wilson to UPI. Christopher Borrelli of The Toledo Blade described the book as "a merchandising tie-in" to the Golden Raspberry Awards. Wilson announced the nominees for the 25th Golden Raspberry Awards at a book signing for The Official Razzie Movie Guide at Brentano's in Century City, California. ## Reception The Official Razzie Movie Guide received generally positive reviews from critics. Barry X. Miller reviewed the book for Library Journal, and wrote "Wilson's text is a surfeit of saccharine Goobers and gooey Ju Ju Bees, empty calories but fun to eat." Miller compared to the book to Golden Turkey Awards and The Fifty Worst Films of All Time. Miller commented that Wilson provides "a wonderfully droll review" for each film entry in the book. Ben Steelman of the Wilmington Star-News called the book a "handy volume", and commented "in loving detail, Mr. Wilson describes his 100 favorites among the Worst Movies Ever Made", David Germain of the Associated Press wrote that Wilson discusses "his take on the 100 most awful—yet perversely fun—movies to watch". Jenny Marder of the Long Beach Press-Telegram noted "Wilson, creator of the Golden Raspberry Awards, or Razzies, has become the authority for all movies so dreadful, they're laughable, so excruciating, they're, well, award-winning." Catherine Shoard of The Evening Standard took a less enthusiastic approach to the book, describing it as "a companion book to the annual Golden Raspberry awards", and saying that "it's a shame elderly duds get more space than recent winners, and Wilson's style, though amusing, is never really more than descriptive. Still, that's all some films require." ## See also - Golden Raspberry Awards - 25th Golden Raspberry Awards
25,168,720	The Twilight Saga (film series)	1,173,174,484	Series of romance fantasy films about vampires	[ "American fantasy films", "American film series", "Fantasy film series", "Film series introduced in 2008", "Films produced by Karen Rosenfelt", "Lagardère SCA franchises", "Lionsgate franchises", "Romance film series", "Teen film series", "The Twilight Saga (film series)", "Works based on Twilight (novel series)" ]	<table class="infobox vevent"> <div class="plainlist " > - Catherine Hardwicke (1) - Chris Weitz (2) - David Slade (3) - Bill Condon (4–5) </div> </td> </tr> </table> The Twilight Saga is a series of romance fantasy films based on the book series Twilight by Stephenie Meyer. The series has grossed over \$3.4 billion worldwide. The first installment, Twilight, was released on November 21, 2008. The second installment, New Moon, followed on November 20, 2009. The third installment, Eclipse, was released on June 30, 2010. The fourth installment, Breaking Dawn – Part 1, was released on November 18, 2011, while the fifth installment, Breaking Dawn – Part 2, was released on November 16, 2012. The series had been in development since 2004 at Paramount Pictures' MTV Films, during which time a screen adaptation of Twilight that differed significantly from the novel was written. Three years later, Summit Entertainment acquired the rights to the film. After Twilight grossed \$35.7 million on its opening day, Summit Entertainment announced they would begin production on New Moon; they had acquired the rights to the remaining novels earlier that same month. The films in the series have received generally negative to mixed reviews from critics. ## Development Twilight was in development for about three years at Paramount Pictures' MTV Films, during which time a film adaptation differing significantly from the novel was written. For example, the script transformed Bella into a star athlete. It was so different that Stephenie Meyer worried that she had made the wrong decision in selling the film rights to her novel. She said later, '"They could have put that [earlier] movie out, called it something else, and no one would have known it was Twilight!" When Summit Entertainment reinvented itself as a full-service studio in April 2007, it acquired the rights, seeking to create a film franchise based on the book and its sequels. Erik Feig, President of Production at Summit Entertainment, guaranteed a close adaptation to the book. Meyer felt that Summit was open to letting her be a part of the film. Catherine Hardwicke was hired to direct the film, and soon afterward, Melissa Rosenberg was hired to write the film. Rosenberg developed an outline by the end of August, then worked on the screenplay with Hardwicke the following month. "She was a great sounding board and had all sorts of brilliant ideas....I'd finish off scenes and send them to her, and get back her notes." Because of the impending WGA strike, Rosenberg worked full-time to finish the screenplay before October 31. In adapting the novel for the screen, she "had to condense a great deal", combining some characters and leaving others out. "[O]ur intent all along was to stay true to the book," Rosenberg explained, "and it has to do less with adapting it word for word and more with making sure the characters' arcs and emotional journeys are the same." Hardwicke suggested using voice over to convey the protagonist's internal dialogue, since the novel is told from Bella's point of view; and she sketched some of the storyboards during pre-production. Hardwicke sought Meyer's feedback as she developed the movie; for example, the director phoned the author after changing a scene slightly. This surprised Meyer. "I've heard the stories...I know it's not normally like that when you adapt a book." Meyer, a natural pessimist, was waiting for the worst but, instead, called her experience in the book's film adaptation "the best I could have hoped for." Originally scheduled for release in December 2008, Twilight was moved to a worldwide release of November 21, 2008, after Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince moved from a November 2008 release to being released in July 2009. ## Casting Kristen Stewart was on the set of Adventureland when Hardwicke visited her for an informal screen test, which "captivated" the director. Hardwicke did not initially choose Robert Pattinson for the role of Edward Cullen; but, after an audition at her home with Stewart, he was selected. Robert Pattinson actually didn't enjoy playing his assigned character, Edward Cullen. Meyer allowed Pattinson to view a manuscript of the unfinished Midnight Sun, which chronicles the events in Twilight from Edward's point of view. Meyer was "excited" and "ecstatic" in response to the casting of the two main characters. She had expressed interest in having Emily Browning and Henry Cavill cast as Bella and Edward, respectively, prior to pre-production. Peter Facinelli was not originally cast as Carlisle Cullen: "[Hardwicke] liked [him], but there was another actor that the studio was pushing for." For unknown reasons, that actor was not able to play the part, and Facinelli was selected in his place. The choice of Ashley Greene to portray Alice Cullen was criticized by some fans because Greene is 7 inches (18 cm) taller than her character as described in the novel. Meyer said that Rachael Leigh Cook resembled her vision of Alice. Nikki Reed, who portrayed Rosalie Hale, had previously worked with Hardwicke on the successful Thirteen (2003), which they co-wrote, and Lords of Dogtown (2005). Kellan Lutz was in Africa, shooting the HBO miniseries Generation Kill, when the auditions for the character of Emmett Cullen were conducted. The role had already been cast by the time the HBO production ended in December 2007, but the selected actor "fell through." Lutz subsequently auditioned and was flown to Oregon, where Hardwicke personally chose him. Rachelle Lefèvre wanted a role in the film because Hardwicke was director; she saw "the potential to explore a character, hopefully, over three films;" and she wanted to portray a vampire. "[She] thought that vampires were basically the best metaphor for human anxiety and questions about being alive." Christian Serratos initially auditioned for Jessica Stanley, but she "fell totally in love with Angela" after reading the books and took advantage of a later opportunity to audition for Angela Weber. The role of Jessica Stanley went to Anna Kendrick, who got the part after two mix-and-match auditions with various actors. Because of major physical changes that occur in the character of Jacob Black between Twilight and New Moon, director Chris Weitz considered replacing Taylor Lautner in the sequel with an actor who could more accurately portray "the new, larger Jacob Black." Trying to keep the role, Lautner worked out extensively and put on 30 lbs. In January 2009, Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue as Jacob in The Twilight Saga: New Moon. In late March 2009, Summit Entertainment released a list of the actors who would be portraying the "wolf pack" alongside Lautner. The casting for the rest of the Quileute people was headed by casting director Rene Haynes, who has worked on films with large Native American casts, such as Dances with Wolves and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. In mid-2009, it was announced that Bryce Dallas Howard would be replacing Rachelle Lefevre as Victoria for the third Twilight film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Summit Entertainment attributed the change to scheduling conflicts. Lefevre said she was "stunned" and "greatly saddened" by the decision. Jodelle Ferland was cast as the newly turned vampire, Bree. Other new cast members for the third film include Xavier Samuel as Riley, Jack Huston as Royce King II, Catalina Sandino Moreno as Maria, Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater, and Booboo Stewart as Seth Clearwater. ## Production Principal photography for Twilight took 44 days, after more than a week of rehearsals, and completed on May 2, 2008. Similar to her directorial debut Thirteen, Hardwicke opted for an extensive use of hand-held cinematography to make the film "feel real". Meyer visited the production set three times, and was consulted on different aspects of the story; she also has a brief cameo in the film. To make their bodily movements more elegant, and to get used to their characters' fighting styles, the cast playing vampires participated in rehearsals with a dance choreographer and observed the physicality of different panthera. Instead of shooting at Forks High School itself, scenes taking place at the school were filmed at Kalama High School and Madison High School. Other scenes were also filmed in St. Helens, Oregon, and Hardwicke conducted some reshooting in Pasadena, California, in August. It is suggested that Edward drives a "shiny" and "silver" Volvo S60-R, a fast sleeper car that doesn't call attention to the Cullen family's wealth in the novel series. The film series partnered with Volvo to place a Volvo C30 in the 2008 Twilight film, feeling that the C30 better suited the persona of a 108 year old vampire pretending to be a 17-year-old high school student. Volvo reported an increase in the sale of the C30 in the US market following the film's release, and helped change the perception of Volvo as a "cool" car in a younger generation of buyers. Volvo continued the cooperation through the series, placing a Volvo XC60 in New Moon and returning to the S60 in Breaking Dawn. In early November 2008, Summit announced that they had obtained the rights to the remaining books in Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series: New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn. On November 22, 2008, one day after the theatrical release of Twilight, Summit confirmed that they would begin working on New Moon. Melissa Rosenberg had been working on adapting the novel prior to Twilight's release and handed in the draft for New Moon during Twilight's opening weekend in November 2008. In early December 2008, it was announced that Twilight director Catherine Hardwicke would not be returning to direct the sequel. Hardwicke cited time restrictions as the reason behind her leaving the project. Instead, Chris Weitz, director of The Golden Compass and co-director of American Pie, was hired to direct The Twilight Saga: New Moon. Filming for New Moon began in Vancouver in late March 2009, and in Montepulciano, Italy, in late May 2009. In early 2009, before the release of The Twilight Saga: New Moon, Summit confirmed that they would begin production on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Since Weitz would be in post-production for New Moon when The Twilight Saga: Eclipse began shooting, he would not be directing the third film. Instead, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was taken on by director David Slade, with Melissa Rosenberg returning as screenwriter. Filming began on August 17, 2009 at Vancouver Film Studios and finished in late October, with post-production beginning early the following month. In April 2010, it was revealed that re-shoots of the film were needed. Slade, who previously said he would not be around for them, was seen, along with Stephenie Meyer, on set. The three main stars were also present. Wyck Godfrey, producer of the previous films in the series, stated in mid-2009 that they had every intention to make the film version of Breaking Dawn. Following months of speculation and cast rumors,[^1] it was officially announced on April 28, 2010, that Academy Award winner Bill Condon, who directed Gods and Monsters and Dreamgirls, would direct Breaking Dawn; producing the film will be Wyck Godfrey, Karen Rosenfelt, and author Stephenie Meyer. "I'm very excited to get the chance to bring the climax of this saga to life on-screen. As fans of the series know, this is a one-of-a-kind book – and we're hoping to create an equally unique cinematic experience," said Bill Condon. A November 18, 2011 release date has been set for the first part, while the second is scheduled for release on November 16, 2012. Following that announcement, Summit officially confirmed that a two-part adaption of the fourth book would start production in the fall on June 11, 2010. With this announcement, it was made clear that all major actors, including the three lead roles, the Cullen family, and Charlie Swan, would return for both parts. Bill Condon was also confirmed to direct both parts. In order to keep the budget on both parts of Breaking Dawn reasonable, which would be substantially greater than the previous installments in the series, filming in Louisiana was also negotiated, providing larger tax credits for the studio to benefit from. ## Films ### Twilight (2008) Twilight was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and written by Melissa Rosenberg. It focuses on the development of a personal relationship between teenager Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart) and vampire Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson), and the subsequent efforts of Edward and his family to keep Bella safe from a separate group of hostile vampires. Edward refuses to grant Bella's request to transform her into a vampire so that they can be together forever, arguing that she should have a normal human life. The film was released theatrically starting on November 21, 2008. It grossed \$35.7 million on its opening day, and has come to gross US\$393.6 million worldwide. The DVD was released on March 21, 2009, and grossed an additional \$238 million from sales. The Blu-ray disc edition of the film was released on March 21, 2009, in select locations, but was made more widely available at further retailers on May 5, 2009, grossing over \$26 million; getting to a total of over \$264 million in home media sales. ### The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009) The Twilight Saga: New Moon was directed by Chris Weitz and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows the Cullens' departure from Forks, and Bella Swan's fall into a deep depression. This depression persists until Bella develops a strong friendship with Jacob Black (Taylor Lautner). She consequently discovers that Jacob has unwillingly become a werewolf. Jacob and his tribe must protect Bella from Victoria, and a gregarious herd of vampires. Edward tells Bella that he will change her into a vampire if she agrees to marry him. The film was released theatrically starting on November 20, 2009, and set numerous records. It was at the time the biggest advance-ticket seller on Fandango and held the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated \$26.3 million. Its sequel, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, broke that record in June 2010, grossing \$72.7 million on its opening day domestically, becoming the biggest single-day opening in domestic history. New Moon is the thirteenth highest opening weekend in domestic history with \$142,839,137. ### The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2010) The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was directed by David Slade and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows Bella Swan as she develops awareness of the possible complications of marrying a vampire. Jacob Black and the rest of the wolves form a temporary alliance with the Cullens to battle Victoria and her army of newborn vampires to keep Bella safe. Jacob unsuccessfully tries to convince Bella to leave Edward and be with him instead. Edward proposes to Bella and she accepts it. The film was released theatrically starting on June 30, 2010, and is the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX. It set a new record for biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) in box office history, grossing an estimated \$30 million in over 4,000 theaters. The previous record holder was the previous film in the series, The Twilight Saga: New Moon with \$26.3 million in 3,514 theaters. The film then scored the biggest Wednesday opening in domestic history with \$68,533,840 beating Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen's \$62 million. The Twilight Saga: Eclipse has also become the film with the widest release ever, playing in over 4,416 theaters. ### The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn (2011–2012) #### Part 1 (2011) The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn was directed by Bill Condon, and author Stephenie Meyer co-produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey, with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script. The book's plot was split into two films, the first of which was released on November 18, 2011. The filming of Breaking Dawn began in November 2010. The first part follows Bella and Edward as they get married and Bella becomes pregnant. They deal with her struggle of being pregnant and nearly dying because of her half-human, half-vampire child. #### Part 2 (2012) The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 was released on November 16, 2012. The second part of Breaking Dawn sees the climax of Bella and Edward's relationship. Bella must learn, as a newly transformed vampire, to use her special shield powers, as well as protect her half-human half-vampire daughter, Renesmee. The film also shows the final battle between The Cullens, along with vampires from the Denali Clan, and other vampire friends, as well as the wolves from the Quileute Tribe, against The Volturi. ## Future In September 2016, Lionsgate co-chairman Patrick Wachsberger stated that a sequel was "a possibility", but would only go ahead if Stephenie Meyer wanted to do one. On August 8, 2017, Variety reported that Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer had interest in having spinoffs made for The Twilight Saga, and wanted to create a writers' room to explore the idea. On April 19, 2023, Lionsgate Television announced that a television series based on the Twilight Saga franchise was in early development. ## Soundtracks ### Twilight Twilight: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas. The album was released on November 4, 2008, by Patsavas' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records, and debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, having sold about 165,000 copies in its first week of release, 29% of which were digital downloads. Twilight is the best-selling theatrical movie soundtrack in the United States since Chicago (2002). "Decode", by Paramore, was the first single released from the soundtrack. It premiered on Paramore's fan club site and Stephenie Meyer's official website on October 1, 2008. The song was certified Platinum in the U.S. on February 16, 2010, selling over 1,000,000 copies. It was also nominated for a Grammy Award in 2010 for Best Song Written for a Movie. "Go All the Way (Into the Twilight)", by Perry Farrell, was the second single released from the soundtrack. It premiered on Meyer's website on October 23, 2008. Twilight: The Score was composed and orchestrated by Carter Burwell over a 9- to 10-week period, and was recorded and mixed in about 2 weeks in late September 2008. Burwell began the score with a "Love Theme" for Bella and Edward's relationship, a variation of which became "Bella's Lullaby" that Robert Pattinson plays in the film, and that is included on the Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The original theme is featured throughout the film, and serves to "play the romance that drives the story". Another theme Burwell composed was a "Predator Theme", which opens the film, and is intended to play Edward's vampire nature. Other themes include a bass-line, drum beat and distorted guitar sound for the nomadic vampires, and a melody for the Cullen family. Twilight: The Score was released digitally on November 25, 2008, and in stores on December 9. ### The Twilight Saga: New Moon The Twilight Saga: New Moon (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) had, once again, Alexandra Patsavas as music supervisor; while The Twilight Saga: New Moon (The Score), was composed by Alexandre Desplat. The movie's director, Chris Weitz, has a working relationship with Desplat, who scored one of his previous films, The Golden Compass (2007). The Twilight Saga: New Moon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on October 16, 2009 by Patsavas' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The album debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200, later jumped to No. 1 with 153,000 copies sold. The Twilight Saga: New Moon: The Score was released on November 24, 2009. ### The Twilight Saga: Eclipse The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) had, once again, Alexandra Patsavas as music supervisor. It was released on June 8, 2010, by Patsavas' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The lead single from the soundtrack, "Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)", performed by the British band Muse, was released on May 17, 2010. The soundtrack debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart with estimated sales of 144,000 copies. The film's score, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (The Score), was composed by Howard Shore, who composed the scores for The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003). ### The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1: (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) saw the release of two singles: "A Thousand Years" by Christina Perri and "It Will Rain" by Bruno Mars. The former reached number thirty one and the latter of the two number three on the Billboard Hot 100. ### The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 ## Reception ### Box office performance Twilight grossed over \$7 million in ticket sales from midnight showings alone on November 21, 2008. It grossed \$35.7 million on its opening day. For its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, Twilight accumulated \$69.6 million from 3,419 theaters at an average of \$20,368 per theater. The film has made \$192.7 million in the United States and Canada, and a further \$200.8 million in international territories for a total of \$393.6 million worldwide. The film was released on DVD in North America on March 21, 2009, through midnight release parties, and sold over 3 million units in its first day. It has continued to sell units, totaling as of July 2012, making \$201,323,629. The Twilight Saga: New Moon set records for advance ticket sales, causing some theaters to add additional showings. The film set records as the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated \$26.3 million in 3,514 theatres, before expanding to 4,024 theaters. The record was previously held by Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, which grossed \$22.2 million domestically during its midnight premiere. The film grossed \$72.7 million on its opening day domestically, becoming the biggest single-day opening in domestic history, beating The Dark Knight's \$67.2 million. This opening strongly contributed to another record: the first time that the top ten films at the domestic box office had a combined gross of over \$100 million in a single day. The opening weekend of The Twilight Saga: New Moon is the ninth-highest opening weekend in domestic history with \$142,839,137. The film also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with \$274.9 million total. ### Critical response While The Twilight Saga has been successful at the box office, critical reception of the films was mixed. New York Press critic Armond White called Twilight "a genuine pop classic", and praised Hardwicke for turning "Meyer's book series into a Brontë-esque vision". USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Claudia Puig wrote: "Meyer is said to have been involved in the production of Twilight, but her novel was substantially more absorbing than the unintentionally funny and quickly forgettable film." Robert Ignizio of the Cleveland Scene described The Twilight Saga: New Moon as an "entertaining fantasy", and noted that it "has a stronger visual look [than Twilight] and does a better job with its action scenes while still keeping the focus on the central love triangle." Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film two and half stars out of four, praised Kristen Stewart's performance in the film and wrote: "Despite melodrama that, at times, is enough to induce diabetes, there's enough wolf whistle in this sexy, scary romp to please anyone." The Seattle Post-Intelligencer gave the film a "B" grading and said, "the movie looks tremendous, the dialogue works, there are numerous well placed jokes, the acting is on point." Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle responded with a more mixed review, stating, "[E]xpect this film to satisfy its fans. Everybody else, get ready for a bizarre soap opera/pageant, consisting of a succession of static scenes with characters loping into the frame to announce exactly what they're thinking." Roger Ebert gave the film 1 star out of 4 and said that it "takes the tepid achievement of Twilight, guts it, and leaves it for undead." The release of the movie has also inspired feminist criticism, with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly making light of the claim that Edward Cullen is little better than a stalker. In any case, the influx of female viewers into the theaters indicates the increasing importance of the female demographic in dictating Hollywood's tastes. The Hollywood Reporter posted a positive review of The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, saying the film "nails it". Variety reports that the film "finally feels more like the blockbuster this top-earning franchise deserves". One review stated the film was the best in The Twilight Saga so far, acknowledging that, "The person who should be worried is Bill Condon, the director tapped for the two-part finale, Breaking Dawn. He's got a real challenge to make movies as good as Eclipse." A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised David Slade's ability to make an entertaining film, calling it funny and better than its predecessors, but pointed out the acting hasn't improved much. A more negative review said that while "Eclipse restores some of the energy New Moon zapped out of the franchise and has enough quality performances to keep it involving", the film "isn't quite the adrenaline-charged game-changer for love story haters that its marketing might lead you to believe. The majority of the 'action' remains protracted and not especially scintillating should-we-or-shouldn't-we conversations between the central triangle." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave the film a more positive review than for the first two films in the saga, but still felt the movie was a constant, unclever conversation between the three main characters. He criticized the "gazes" both Edward and Jacob give Bella throughout the movie, and noted that the mountain range that appears in the film looks "like landscapes painted by that guy on TV who shows you how to paint stuff like that." He also predicted that a lack of understanding for the film series in general would not bode well with the audience, stating, "I doubt anyone not intimately familiar with the earlier installments could make head or tails of the opening scenes." He gave the film 2 stars out of 4. Breaking Dawn – Part 1 received mostly negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 25% of critics (of the 207 counted reviews) gave the film a positive review, and the site's consensus reads "Slow, joyless and loaded with unintentionally humorous moments, Breaking Dawn Part 1 may satisfy the Twilight faithful, but it's strictly for fans of the franchise". Part 2 had a mixed critical reception but was much more favorable than Part 1. Richard Roeper said that "The fifth and final entry in the historically successful Twilight franchise is the most self-aware and in some ways the most entertaining", giving it a grade C+. ### Home media sales List indicator(s) - <sup>(B)</sup> indicates the yearly rank based on the number of DVDs sold during the year released (calculated by The Numbers). ## Twilight in popular culture In 2010, a parody film, Vampires Suck, starring Jenn Proske, Matt Lanter, and Chris Riggi, was released, its material largely based on Twilight and its sequel, The Twilight Saga: New Moon. Though the film was a critical failure, with Rotten Tomatoes critics giving it an approval rating of only 4%, it was a financial success, opening at number one in the United States and grossing more than \$80,000,000 worldwide, against a \$20,000,000 budget. In 2012, another parody film, Breaking Wind, featuring a cast of unknown actors, was released straight to DVD by Lionsgate Home Entertainment. The successful animated film, Hotel Transylvania, briefly parodied the Twilight Saga, namely the scene in which Edward reveals his vampirism to Bella in the woods near Forks High School. The scene, which lasts only a few seconds, can be seen playing on an airplane TV as Count Dracula attempts to convince Jonathan to forgive him and come back to Hotel Transylvania. In 2019, Russian figure skater Alena Kostornaia used music from the Twilight and New Moon soundtracks for her free program. With this program, she later became the European champion, and was the favourite for the world title before the championship's cancellation in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ## See also - Roswell'' [^1]:

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