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174,293	Peter I Island	1,167,536,786	Island in Antarctica	[ "1920s establishments in Antarctica", "1929 establishments in Norway", "Peter I Island", "Peter the Great", "Polygenetic shield volcanoes", "Shield volcanoes of Antarctica", "Uninhabited islands of Norway", "Volcanoes of the Southern Ocean" ]	Peter I Island (Norwegian: Peter I Øy) is an uninhabited volcanic island in the Bellingshausen Sea, 450 kilometres (240 nmi) from continental Antarctica. It is claimed as a dependency of Norway and, along with Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land, composes one of the three Norwegian dependent territories in the Antarctic and Subantarctic. The island measures approximately 11 by 19 kilometres (7 by 12 mi), with an area of 156 km<sup>2</sup> (60 sq mi); its highest point is the ultra-prominent, 1,640-metre-tall (5,380 ft) Lars Christensen Peak. Nearly all the island is covered by a glacier, and it is surrounded most of the year by pack ice, making it inaccessible during these times. There is little vertebrate animal life on the island, apart from some seabirds and seals. The island was first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on 21 January 1821 and was named for Peter I of Russia. Not until 2 February 1929 did anyone set foot on the island, when Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad's Second Norvegia Expedition, financed by Lars Christensen, was successful. They claimed it for Norway, which annexed it in 1931 and made it a dependency in 1933. The next landing occurred in 1948, and the island has been subject to some scientific research and a limited amount of tourism. The island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty in 1961. Since 1987, there has been an automated meteorological station on the island. Three amateur radio DX-peditions have visited the island, and there are sporadic landings by tourists. ## History The first sighting of Peter I Island was made on 21 October 1821 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen's expedition, who commanded the ships Vostok and Mirny under the Russian flag. He named the island for Tsar Peter I of Russia. Drift ice made it impossible for Bellinghausen to come nearer than 25 kilometers (16 mi) from the island. It was the first land to have been spotted south of the Antarctic Circle, and was thus also the southernmost sighted land at the time of its discovery. In January 1910, the French expedition led by Jean-Baptiste Charcot and his ship Pourquoi-Pas confirmed Bellingshausen's discovery, but they also did not land, being stopped 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) from the island by pack ice. In 1926 and 1927, the Norwegian sailor Eyvind Tofte circumnavigated and surveyed the island from Odd I. However, he was also prevented from landing. The Norwegian whale-ship owner Lars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic, in part for research and in part to claim land for Norway. The latter was motivated by the British taxation of whaling stations in the Antarctic, and Christensen hoped to be able to establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges and so at least the taxes went to his home country. The first expedition to land on the island was the Christensen-financed second Norvegia expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad. They landed on 2 February 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. Larsen attempted to land again in 1931, but was hindered by pack ice. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency. The next landing occurred on 10 February 1948 by Larsen's ship Brategg. Biological, geological and hydrographic surveys underwent for three days, before the pack ice forced the expedition to leave. The expedition built a hut and placed a copy of the document of occupation from 1929 inside. On 23 June 1961, Peter I Island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty, after Norway's signing of the treaty in 1959. Since then, there have been several landings on the island by various nations for scientific investigations, as well as a limited number of ships that have successfully landed tourists on the island. In 1987, the Norwegian Polar Institute sent five scientists to spend eleven days on the island. The main focuses were aerial photography and topographical measurements to allow an accurate map of the island to be produced. The second important area was marine biological investigations, although also geological, biological and other surveys were conducted. The team also built an automatic weather station. Three DX-peditions have been sent to the island, in 1987, 1994 and 2006. ## Geography Peter I Island is a volcanic island located 450 kilometres (280 mi) off the coast of Ellsworth Land of continental Antarctica, and about 1,400 km (870 mi) to the south-west of Smith Island, the nearest of the South Shetland Islands. It has an area of 154 square kilometres (59 sq mi). The island is almost entirely covered by glacier, with about 95% of the surface covered by ice. Surrounding the island is a 40-meter (130 ft) tall ice front and vertical cliffs. The long stretches of ice caps are supplemented with rock outcrops. Landing is only possible at three points, and only during the short period of the year in which the island is not surrounded by pack ice. These landings take place on the west side at Kapp Ingrid Christensen, a peninsula which divides the bays Norvegiabukta and Sandefjordbukta. On the cape are some narrow strips of beach, which are suitable for landing. The beach in Norvegiabukta is just 4 meters (13 ft) wide and is entered via the natural arch Tsarporten. On the west side is a plateau, while the north and south coasts feature ice shelves. The eastern side is the steepest and features two rock columns with flat tops in the sea. The island is a shield volcano, although it is not known if it is still active, and it has been categorized as either Holocene or historic, based on date samples ranging from 0.1 to 0.35 million years ago. The summit, Lars Christensen Peak, is a 100-metre (330 ft) wide circular crater. An ultra-prominent peak at 1,640 metres (5,380 ft) elevation, it is named after Lars Christensen. It is not known whether this volcano is extinct or not, because the upper part is apparently unmodified by glaciation, indicating an eruption several centuries ago. ## Environment The island's vegetation consists exclusively of mosses and lichens which have adapted to the extreme Antarctic climate. The island has a very harsh climate with strong winds and freezing temperatures. The steady snowfall keeps vegetation to a minimum. The island is a breeding ground for a few seabirds, particularly southern fulmars, but also Wilson's storm petrels and Antarctic terns. Penguins, including Adélie and chinstrap penguins, visit the island infrequently. There are numerous seals, particularly crabeater seals, leopard seals and smaller numbers of southern elephant seals. ## Politics Peter I Island is one of Norway's two territorial claims in Antarctica, the other being Queen Maud Land. Norway, Australia, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom have all mutually recognized each other's claims in Antarctica. Other countries however, including the United States, do not recognize this claim. Peter I Island is the only claim within 90°W and 150°W and is also the only claim which is not a sector. Being south of 60°S, the island is subject to the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty ensures free access to the island for any scientific investigation, and states that it can be used only for peaceful purposes. Norwegian administration of the island is handled by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and Public Security, located in Oslo. The annexation of the island is regulated by the Dependency Act of 24 March 1933. It establishes that Norwegian criminal law, private law and procedural law applies to the island, in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid on the island. It further establishes that all land belongs to the state, and prohibits the storage and detonation of nuclear products. Since 5 May 1995, Norwegian law has required all Norwegian activity in Antarctica, including Peter I Island, to follow international environmental law for Antarctica. All Norwegian citizens who plan activities on Peter I Island must therefore report to the Norwegian Polar Institute, who may deny any non-conforming activity. All people visiting the island must follow laws regarding protection of nature, treatment of waste, pollution and insurance for search and rescue operations. ## See also - List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands - List of islands of Norway by area - List of volcanoes in Antarctica - Ranvika, a cove on the eastern shore of the island.
40,106,197	Literature in early modern Scotland	1,127,505,733	Literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers	[ "Early Modern Scotland", "Early Modern literature", "History of literature in Scotland", "Middle Scots literature", "Scottish literature" ]	Literature in early modern Scotland is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers between the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution in mid-eighteenth century. By the beginning of this era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language, confined to the Highlands and Islands, but the tradition of Classic Gaelic Poetry survived. Middle Scots became the language of both the nobility and the majority population. The establishment of a printing press in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity. James IV's creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets, or makars, who were mainly clerics. These included Gavin Douglas, whose Eneados (1513) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language. James V was also a major patron of poets. George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo-Latin poetry. In the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots and the minority of her son James VI, cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil. The Kirk discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature but secular poetry survived. In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted literature in Scots. He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish court poets and musicians, later called the Castalian Band. David Lyndsay's The Thrie Estaitis (1540) is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation. Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre, but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium. There were isolated Scottish plays, but the system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland. The accession of James VI to the English throne in 1603 meant a loss of the court as a centre of patronage and he increasingly favoured the language of southern England. A number of Scottish poets accompanied the king to London, where they began to anglicise their written language. As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined, a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge, often undertaken by women. The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637). This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets, such as Elizabeth Melville, whose Ane Godlie Dream (1603) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland. This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland. From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors. After the Union in 1707, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education. Allan Ramsay led a "vernacular revival" that laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature. He also led the trend for pastoral poetry and his pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era. Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. Tobias Smollett was a poet, essayist, satirist and playwright, but is best known for his picaresque novels, for which he is often seen as Scotland's first novelist. The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry that mixed traditional forms with influences from the Lowlands. Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London. In Scotland drama was supplied by visiting English players and actors, but there were clashes with the Kirk. Ramsay was instrumental in establishing a small theatre in Edinburgh, but it closed soon after the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act. A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s. ## Sixteenth century ### Background By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language, confined to the Highlands and Islands. The tradition of classic Gaelic poetry survived longer in Scotland than in Ireland, with the last fully competent member of the MacMhuirich dynasty, who were hereditary poets to the Lords of the Isles and then the Donalds of Clanranald, still working in the early eighteenth century. Nevertheless, interest in the sponsorship of panegyric Gaelic poetry was declining among the clan leaders. Gaelic was gradually being overtaken by Middle Scots, which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population. Middle Scots was derived substantially from Old English, with Gaelic and French influences. It was usually called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England, but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England. From the mid sixteenth century, written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England. With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England, most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion. The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity. The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman (c. 1473–c. 1528) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar (fl. 1505–08). Although the first press was relatively short lived, beside law codes and religious works, the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise, probably about 1510. The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson (f. 1532–42), the first in a long line of "king's printers", who also produced editions of works of the makars. ### Makars James IV's (r. 1488–1513) creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets. These court poets, or makars, who were mainly clerics included Robert Henryson (c. 1450-c. 1505), who re-worked Medieval and Classical sources, such as Chaucer and Aesop in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis. William Dunbar (1460–1513) produced satires, lyrics, invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind. Gavin Douglas (1475–1522), who became Bishop of Dunkeld, injected humanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry. The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas's version of Virgil's Aeneid, the Eneados. It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language, finished in 1513, but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden that brought the reign to an end. As a patron of poets and authors James V (r. 1513–42) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden, who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece, into verse and prose. David Lyndsay (c. 1486–1555), diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court, was a prolific poet. He wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires. George Buchanan (1506–82) had a major influence as a Latin poet, founding a tradition of neo-Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century. Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland (1537–95), reformer Andrew Melville (1545–1622), John Johnston (1570?–1611) and David Hume of Godscroft (1558–1629). From the 1550s, in the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots (r. 1542–67) and the minority of her son James VI (r. 1567–1625), cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil. The Kirk, heavily influenced by Calvinism, also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington (1496–1586), who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar; John Rolland (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume (c. 1556–1609), whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse. Alexander Scott's (?1520–82/3) use of short verse designed to be sung to music, opened the way for the Castalian poets of James VI's adult reign. Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI actively despised Gaelic culture. However, in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots. His treatise, Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, to which he applied Renaissance principles. He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians, later called the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler (c. 1560–1612), John Stewart of Baldynneis (c. 1545–c. 1605), and Alexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–98). They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms, including sonnets and short sonnets, for narrative, nature description, satire and meditations on love. Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander (c. 1567–1640), Alexander Craig (c. 1567–1627) and Robert Ayton (1570–1627). By the late 1590s the king's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne. ### Dramatists Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540, which satirised the corruption of church and state, and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation. Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes, which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo-classical tradition in French drama, but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium. The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play (before 1568) and Philotus (published in London in 1603), are isolated examples of surviving plays. The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors, probably designed for court performance for Mary, Queen of Scots or James VI. James VI and his wife Anne of Denmark personally dressed in costume and took part in masques, performances at weddings that typically involved music, dance, and disguise. The system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland, but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599. ## Seventeenth century ### Poetry Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible. In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald described James as creating a "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top". The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature. A number of Scottish poets, including William Alexander, John Murray and Robert Aytoun, accompanied the king to London, where they continued to write, but they soon began to anglicise their written language. James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign, but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined. The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585–1649). As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined, a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge. While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century, the vernacular continued to develop. In contrast to the Classical tradition, which used syllabic metre, vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre. However, they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role, as the verse was still often panegyric. A number of these vernacular poets were women, such as Mary MacLeod of Harris (c. 1615–1707). The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637), published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston (c.1579–1641) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet (1585–1670) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan. This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets. Elizabeth Melville's (f. 1585–1630) Ane Godlie Dream (1603) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland. Anna Hume, daughter of David Hume of Godscroft, adapted Petrarch's Triumphs as Triumphs of Love: Chastitie: Death (1644). This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland. Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, including "Sir Patrick Spens" and "Thomas the Rhymer", but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century. They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed, often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks, later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott. From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill (c. 1595-c. 1665), Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw (1627–1727) and Lady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746). ### Theatre The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the Kirk's dislike of theatre, which struggled to survive in Scotland. However, it was not entirely extinguished. The Kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas. Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander's Monarchicke Tragedies, written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603. They were closet dramas, designed to be read rather than performed, and already indicate Alexander's preference for southern English over the Scots language. There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama. In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery, a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war. It was performed at the Tennis-Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie, Earl of Rothes. Thomas Sydsurf's Tarugo's Wiles or the Coffee House, was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy. A relative of Sydsurf, physician Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation (1692), a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian Kirk, circulating in manuscript, but not published until 1722, helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre. ## Early eighteenth century ### Vernacular revival After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education. Nevertheless, Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working-class Scots. Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) was considered the most important literary figure of the era, often described as leading a "vernacular revival". He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, publishing The Ever Green (1724), a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period. He led the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza, which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form. His Tea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained poems old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style. His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era. He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital. ### Verse and prose Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield (c. 1665–1751), Robert Crawford (1695–1733), Alexander Ross (1699–1784), the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour (1704–54), socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn (1712–94), and poet and playwright James Thomson's (1700–48), most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons. Tobias Smollett (1721–71) was a poet, essayist, satirist and playwright, but is best known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) for which he is often seen as Scotland's first novelist. His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens. The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay (1714–78) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre) (1724–1812). The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald) (c. 1698–1770). His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson's Seasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns. ### Drama Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter (1679–1749), born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen. Her plays and included the verse-tragedy Fatal Friendship (1698), the comedy Love at a Loss (1700) and the history The Revolution in Sweden (1706). David Crawford's (1665–1726) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A-la-Mode (1700) and Love at First Sight (1704). These developed the character of the stage Scot, often a clown, but cunning and loyal. Newburgh Hamilton (1691–1761), born in Ireland of Scottish descent, produced the comedies The Petticoat-Ploter (1712) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine (1715). He later wrote the libretto for Handel's Samson (1743), closely based on John Milton's Samson Agonistes. James Thomson's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings, included Sophonisba (1730), Agamemnon (1738) and Tancrid and Sigismuda (1745), the last of which was an international success. David Mallet's (c. 1705–65) Eurydice (1731) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration. The opera Masque of Alfred (1740) was a collaboration between Thompson, Mallet and composer Thomas Arne, with Thompson supplying the lyrics for his most famous work, the patriotic song Rule, Britannia! In Scotland a troop of English players came to Edinburgh in 1715 where they performed Macbeth and a series of Restoration comedies, but they soon left, perhaps because of objections from local kirk presbyteries. By 1725 English actor Anthony Aston, a friend of Ramsay, was performing in Edinburgh, but seems to have fallen foul of the Scottish Master of the Revels, who licensed plays, companies and playhouses, and soon left. In 1727 the Kirk attacked theatres as immoral in the Admonition and Exhortation. The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee, Montrose, Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent. Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber's Close in Edinburgh, but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed. A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s.
426,699	Bristol Cathedral	1,169,560,853	null	[ "12th-century church buildings in England", "Anglican cathedrals in England", "Augustinian monasteries in England", "Benedictine monasteries in England", "Bristol Cathedral", "Church of England church buildings in Bristol", "Churches completed in 1332", "Churches completed in 1888", "Diocese of Bristol", "English Gothic architecture in Bristol", "English churches with Norman architecture", "G. E. Street buildings", "Gothic Revival church buildings in England", "Grade I listed cathedrals", "Grade I listed churches in Bristol", "J. L. Pearson buildings", "Monasteries in Bristol", "Music venues in Bristol", "Tourist attractions in Bristol" ]	Bristol Cathedral, the Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, is the Church of England cathedral in the city of Bristol, England. Founded in 1140 and consecrated in 1148, it was originally St Augustine's Abbey but after the Dissolution of the Monasteries it became in 1542 the seat of the newly created Bishop of Bristol and the cathedral of the new Diocese of Bristol. It is a Grade I listed building. The eastern end of the church includes fabric from the 12th century, with the Elder Lady Chapel which was added in the early 13th century. Much of the church was rebuilt in the English Decorated Gothic style during the 14th century despite financial problems within the abbey. In the 15th century the transept and central tower were added. The nave was incomplete at the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539 and was demolished. In the 19th century Gothic Revival a new nave was built by George Edmund Street partially using the original plans. The western twin towers, designed by John Loughborough Pearson, were completed in 1888. Located on College Green, the cathedral has tall Gothic windows and pinnacled skyline. The eastern end is a hall church in which the aisles are the same height as the Choir and share the Lierne vaults. The late Norman chapter house, situated south of the transept, contains some of the first uses of pointed arches in England. In addition to the cathedral's architectural features, it contains several memorials and an historic organ. Little of the original stained glass remains with some being replaced in the Victorian era and further losses during the Bristol Blitz. ## History ### Foundation and 12th century Bristol Cathedral was founded as St Augustine's Abbey in 1140 by Robert Fitzharding, a wealthy local landowner and royal official who later became Lord Berkeley. As the name suggests, the monastic precinct housed Augustinian canons. The original abbey church, of which only fragments remain, was constructed between 1140 and 1148 in the Romanesque style, known in England as Norman. The Venerable Bede made reference to St Augustine of Canterbury visiting the site in 603ACE, and John Leland had recorded that it was a long-established religious shrine. William Worcester recorded in his Survey of Bristol that the original Augustinian abbey church was further to the east of the current site, though that was rebuilt as the church of St Augustine the Less. That site was bombed during World War II and the site built on by the Royal Hotel, but archaeological finds were deposited with Bristol Museum and Art Gallery. The dedication ceremony was held on 11 April 1148, and was conducted by the Bishops of Worcester, Exeter, Llandaff, and St Asaph. Further stone buildings were erected on the site between 1148 and 1164. Three examples of this phase survive, the chapterhouse and the abbey gatehouse, now the diocesan office, together with a second Romanesque gateway, which originally led into the abbot's quarters. T.H.B. Burrough, a local architectural historian, describes the former as "the finest Norman chapter house still standing today". In 1154 King Henry II greatly increased the endowment and wealth of the abbey as reward to Robert Fitzharding, for his support during The Anarchy which brought Henry II to the throne. By 1170 enough of the new church building was complete for it to be dedicated by four bishops – Worcester, Exeter, Llandaff and St Asaph. ### 13th century Under Abbot David (1216–1234) there was a new phase of building, notably the construction in around 1220 of a chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, abutting the northern side of the choir. This building, which still stands, was to become known as the "Elder Lady Chapel". The architect, referred to in a letter as 'L', is thought to have been Adam Lock, master mason of Wells Cathedral. The stonework of the eastern window of this chapel is by William the Geometer, of about 1280. Abbot David argued with the convent and was deposed in 1234 to be replaced by William of Bradstone who purchased land from the mayor to build a quay and the Church of St Augustine the Less. The next abbot was William Longe, the Chamberlain of Keynsham, whose reign was found to have lacked discipline and had poor financial management. In 1280 he resigned and was replaced as abbot by Abbot Hugh who restored good order, with money being given by Edward I. ### 14th–16th century Under Abbot Edward Knowle (1306–1332), a major rebuilding of the Abbey church began despite financial problems. Between 1298 and 1332 the eastern part of the abbey church was rebuilt in the English Decorated Gothic style. He also rebuilt the cloisters, the canons' dining room, the King's Hall and the King's Chamber. The Black Death is likely to have affected the monastery and when William Coke became abbot in 1353 he obtained a papal bull from Pope Urban V to allow him to ordain priests at a younger age to replace those who had died. Soon after the election of his successor, Henry Shellingford, in 1365 Edward III took control of the monastery and made The 4th Baron Berkeley its commissioner to resolve the financial problems. In the late 14th and early 15th centuries Abbot Cernay and Abbot Daubeney restored the fortunes of the order, partly by obtaining the perpetual vicarage of several local parishes. These difficulties meant that little building work had been undertaken for nearly 100 years. However, in the mid-15th century, the number of Canons increased and the transept and central tower were constructed. Abbot John Newland, (1481–1515), also known as 'Nailheart' due to his rebus of a heart pierced by three nails, began the rebuilding of the nave, but it was incomplete at the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539. Newland also rebuilt the cloisters, the upper part of the Gatehouse, the canons' dormitory and dining room, and the Prior's Lodging (parts of which remained until 1884 as they were built into Minster House). The partly built nave was demolished and the remaining eastern part of the church closed until it reopened as a cathedral under the secular clergy. In an edict dated June 1542, Henry VIII and Thomas Cranmer raised the building to rank of Cathedral of a new Diocese of Bristol. The new diocese was created from parts of the Diocese of Gloucester and the Diocese of Bath and Wells; Bristol had been, before the Reformation, and the erection of Gloucester diocese, part of the Diocese of Worcester. Paul Bush, (died 1558) a former royal household chaplain, was created the first Bishop of Bristol. The new cathedral was dedicated to the Holy and Undivided Trinity. ### 19th century In the 1831 Bristol Riots, a mob broke into the Chapter House, destroying a lot of the early records of the Abbey and damaging the building. The church itself was protected from the rioters by William Phillips, sub-sacrist, who barred their entry to the church at the cloister door. Between the merger of the old Bristol diocese back into the Gloucester diocese on 5 October 1836 and the re-erection of the new independent Bristol diocese on 9 July 1897, Bristol Cathedral was a joint and equal cathedral of the Diocese of Gloucester and Bristol. Giles Gilbert Scott was consulted in 1860 and suggested removing the screen dated 1542 to provide 'a nave of the grandest possible capacity'. The work at this time also removed some of the more vulgar medieval misericords in the choir stalls. With the 19th century's Gothic Revival signalling renewed interest in Britain's ancient architectural heritage, a new nave, in a similar style to the eastern end, based on original 15th-century designs, was added between 1868 and 1877 by George Edmund Street, clearing the houses which had been built, crowded onto the site of the former nave, including Minster House. In 1829 leases for these houses were refused by the Dean and Chapter because the houses had become 'very notoriously a receptacle for prostitutes'. The rebuilding of the nave was paid for by public subscription including benefactors such as Greville Smyth of Ashton Court, The Miles family of Kings Weston House, the Society of Merchant Venturers, Stuckey's Bank, William Gibbs of Tyntesfield, and many other Bristol citizens. The opening ceremony was on 23 October 1877. However, the west front with its twin towers, designed by John Loughborough Pearson, was only completed in 1888. The niches around the north porch originally held statues of St Gregory, St Ambrose, St Jerome and St Augustine, but their frivolous detail invoked letters of protest to their "Catholic" design. When the Dean, Gilbert Elliot, heard of the controversy, he employed a team of workmen without the knowledge of the architect or committee to remove the statues. The next edition of the Bristol Times reported that 'a more rough and open exhibition of iconoclasm has not been seen in Bristol since the days of Oliver Cromwell.' The sculptor, James Redfern, was made the scapegoat by the architect and the church, he retreated from the project, fell ill, and died later that year. As a result of Elliot's actions, the committee resigned en masse and the completion of the works was taken over by the Dean and Chapter. Elliot's drop in popularity meant that raising funds was a harder and slower process and the nave had to be officially opened before the two west towers were built. Several of the bells in the north-west tower were cast in 1887 by John Taylor & Co. However, earlier bells include those from the 18th century by the Bilbie family and one by William III & Richard II Purdue made in 1658. ### 20th century The full peal of eight bells was installed in the north-west tower, taken from the ruins of Temple Church after the bombing of World War II. In 1994, the ceremony took place in Bristol Cathedral for the first 32 women to be ordained as Church of England priests. Since the early 2000s, the cathedral's associations with the legacy of philanthropist and enslaver Edward Colston have been the subject of public debate, resulting in changes to annual commemoration services and memorials inside the cathedral. ## Architecture Bristol Cathedral is a grade I listed building which shows a range of architectural styles and periods. Tim Tatton-Brown writes of the 14th century eastern arm as "one of the most interesting and splendid structures in this country". ### Specifications Most of the medieval stonework, is made from limestone taken from quarries around Dundry and Felton with Bath stone being used in other areas. The two-bay Elder Lady Chapel, which includes some Purbeck Marble, lies to the north of the five-bay aisled chancel or presbytery. The Eastern Lady Chapel has two bays, the sacristy one-bay and the Berkeley Chapel two bays. The exterior has deep buttresses with finials to weathered tops and crenellated parapets with crocketed pinnacles below the Perpendicular crossing tower. The west front has two large flanking three-stage towers. On the rear outer corners of the towers are octagonal stair turrets with panels on the belfry stage. Between the towers is a deep entrance arch of six orders with decorative Purbeck Marble colonnettes and enriched mouldings to the arch. The tympanum of the arch contains an empty niche. ### Hall Church The eastern end of Bristol Cathedral is highly unusual for a number of reasons. Firstly, it was conceived as a "hall church", meaning that the aisles are the same height as the choir. While a feature of German Gothic architecture, this is rare in Britain, and Bristol cathedral is the most significant example. In the 19th century, G. E. Street designed the nave along the same lines. The effect of this elevation means that there are no clerestory windows to light the central space, as is usual in English Medieval churches. The north and south aisles employ a unique manner where the vaults rest on tie beam style bridges supported by pointed arches. All the internal light must come from the aisle windows which are accordingly very large. In the choir, the very large window of the Lady chapel is made to fill the entire upper part of the wall, so that it bathes the vault in daylight, particularly in the morning. Because of the lack of a clerestory, the vault is comparatively low, being only about half the height of that at Westminster Abbey. The interior of the cathedral appears wide and spacious. The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner wrote of the early 14th-century choir of Bristol that "from the point of view of spatial imagination" it is not only superior to anything else in England or Europe but "proves incontrovertibly that English design surpasses that of all other countries" at that date. The choir has broad arches with two wave mouldings carried down the piers which support the ribs of the vaulting. These may have been designed by Thomas Witney or William Joy as they are similar to the work at Wells Cathedral and St Mary Redcliffe. The choir is separated from the eastern Lady Chapel by a 14th-century reredos which was damaged in The reformation and repaired in 1839 when the 17th-century altarpiece was removed. The Lady Chapel was brightly painted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries following existing fragments of colour. To the south east of the choir and Lady Chapel is the Berkeley Chapel and an adjoining antechapel or sacristy, which may have been added in the 14th century, possibly replacing an earlier structure. #### Vaulting Another feature of Bristol Cathedral is the vaulting of its various medieval spaces. The work that was carried out under Abbot Knowle is unique in this regard, with not one, but three unique vaults. In vaulting a roof space using stone ribs and panels of infill, the bearing ribs all spring from columns along the walls. There is commonly a rib called the ridge rib which runs along the apex of the vault. There may be intermediate or "tierceron" ribs, which have their origin at the columns. In Decorated Gothic there are occasionally short lierne ribs connecting the bearing and tierceron ribs at angles, forming stellar patterns. This is the feature that appears at Bristol, at a very early date, and quite unlike the way that "lierne" ribs are used elsewhere. In this case, there is no ridge rib, and the lierne ribs are arranged to enclose a series of panels that extend the whole way along the centre of the choir roof, interacting with the large east window by reflecting the light from the smoothly arching surfaces. From the nave can be seen the intricate tracery of the east window echoed in the rich lierne pattern of the tower vault, which is scarcely higher than the choir, and therefore clearly visible. The two aisles of the choir both also have vaults of unique character, with open transverse arches and ribs above the stone bridges. ### Eastern Lady Chapel The 13th-century East Lady Chapel is built of red sandstone in an Early English style, making it stand out from the rest of the building. It is four bays long and has a vaulted ceiling. The windows are supported by Blue Lias shafts matching those between the bays. Much of the chapel, including the piscina and sedilia, is decorated with stylised foliage, in a style known as "stiff-leaf". ### Nave `Street's design followed the form of the Gothic choir. On a plan or elevation it is not apparent that the work is of a different era. But Street designed an interior that respected the delicate proportions of the ribs and mouldings of the earlier work, but did not imitate their patterns. Street's nave is vaulted with a conservative vault with tierceron ribs, rising at the same pitch as the choir. Street's aisle vaults again echo their counterparts in the mediaeval chancel, using open vaulting above the stone bridges, but the transverse vaults are constructed differently.` #### Fittings The cathedral has two unusual and often-reproduced monuments, the Berkeley memorials. These are set into niches in the wall, and each is surrounded by a canopy of inverted cusped arches. Pearson's screen, completed in 1905, echoes these memorials in its three wide arches with flamboyant cusps. ### West front Unlike many English Gothic cathedrals, Bristol's west facade has a rose window above the central doorway. The details, however, are clearly English, owing much to the Early English Gothic at Wells Cathedral and the Decorated Gothic at York Minster with a French Rayonnant style. ### Chapter House The late Norman chapter house, situated south of the transept, contains some of the first uses of pointed arches in England. It also has a rich sculptural decoration, with a variety of Romanesque abstract motifs. In both of these aspects there are close similarities with the abbey gatehouse, supporting the view that the two structures were built around the same time in the 12th century, as put forward by Street in the 19th century. The approach to the chapter house is through a rib-vaulted ante-room 3 bays wide, whose pointed arches provide a solution to that room's rectangular shape. Carved pointed arches also appear in the decoration of the chapter house itself. Here they arise from the intersections of the interlaced semicircular arcading, which runs continuously around the walls. The chapter house has a quadripartite ribbed vault 7.5 metres (25 ft) high. The ribs, walls and columns display a complex interplay of carved patterns: chevron, spiral, nailhead, lozenge and zigzag. The chapter house has 40 sedilia lining its walls, and may have originally provided seating for more when it was the meeting room for the abbey community. In 1714 it was refurbished to become a library, and its floor was raised by about 1 m (3 ft). Its east end was damaged in the Bristol riots of 1831, requiring considerable restoration, and at that time or later the library furnishings were removed. In 1832, when the floor was lowered again, a Saxon stone panel depicting the Harrowing of Hell was found underneath. The discovery of the stone provides strong evidence that there was a church or shrine on the site before Robert Fitzharding founded the Abbey in 1140. ### Stained glass The east window in the Lady Chapel was largely replaced and restored in the mid 19th century. However, it does contain some 14th-century stained glass pieces, including male heads and heraldic symbols. Some of the early glass is also incorporated into the Tree of Jesse which goes across nine lights. During the restoration led by Street, most of the work on the glass was by Hardman & Co.; these include the rose window and towers at the west end and the Magnificat in the Elder Lady Chapel. Some of the most recent stained glass is by Bristolian Arnold Wathen Robinson following damage during the Bristol Blitz of 1940 and 1941. These included depictions of local Civil Defence during World War II including St. John Ambulance, the British Red Cross and the fire services along with air raid wardens, police officers, the Home Guard and the Women's Voluntary Service. The most recent glass is an abstract expressionist interpretation of the Holy Spirit designed by Keith New in 1965 and installed in the south choir. A Victorian era window under the cathedral's clock, marked "to the glory of God and in memory of Edward Colston" and commemorating that 17th-century Royal African Company magnate and Bristol philanthropist, was ordered to be covered in June 2020 in advance of its eventual removal. The Diocese of Bristol also decided to remove from the cathedral other dedications to Colston after the toppling of the late 19th-century Statue of Edward Colston in the city centre on 7 June 2020, along with the removal of another stained glass window at St Mary Redcliffe. The cathedral dean previously considered removing the memorial window in 2017 but said in a radio broadcast in February it would cost "many, many thousands of pounds". The legacy of Colston became contentious because of his involvement in, and profit from, the transatlantic slave trade in enslaved Africans, and came to a head after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020. ## Decoration, monuments and burials The south transept contains the important late Saxon stone panel of the Harrowing of Hell. It dates from before the Norman Conquest and may have been carved around 1050. Following a fire in 1831 it was found being used as a coffin lid under the Chapter House floor. The high altar stone reredos are by John Loughborough Pearson of 1899. The three rows of choir stalls are mostly from the late 19th century with Flamboyant traceried ends. There are also 28 misericords dating from 1515 to 1526, installed by Robert Elyot, Abbot of St. Augustine's, with carvings largely based on Aesop's Fables. In the Berkeley chapel is a very rare candelabrum of 1450 from the Temple church in Bristol. The monuments within the cathedral include recumbent figures and memorials of several abbots and bishops: Abbot Walter Newbery who died in 1473 and Abbot William Hunt (died 1481) are within 14th-century recesses on the north side of the Lady Chapel, while the recumbent effigy of Abbot John Newland (died 1515) is in a similar recess on the southern side. The coffin lid of Abbot David (died 1234) is in the north transept. In the north choir aisle is a chest tomb to Bishop Bush (died 1558) which includes six fluted Ionic columns with an entablature canopy. Also honoured are: Thomas Westfield, Bishop of Bristol (1642–1644), Thomas Howell (Bishop of Bristol) (1644–1645), Gilbert Ironside the elder, Bishop of Bristol (1661–1671), William Bradshaw (bishop), Bishop of Bristol (1724–1732), Joseph Butler, Bishop of Bristol (1738–1750), John Conybeare, Bishop of Bristol (1750–1755) and Robert Gray (bishop of Bristol) (1827–1834), who is buried in graveyard attached to the cathedral. The Berkeley family as early benefactors are represented by Maurice de Berkeley (died 1281), \*Thomas de Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley (died 1321), Lord Berkeley (died 1326) and Thomas Berkeley (died 1243) who are depicted in military effigies on the south side of the choir aisle, along with the chest tomb of Maurice Berkeley (died 1368). In addition there are notable monuments to local dignitaries of the 17th and 18th century. There is a perpendicular reredos showing figures kneeling at a prayer desk flanked by angels to Robert Codrington (died 1618) and his wife. Phillip Freke (died 1729) is commemorated with a marble wall tablet in the north choir aisle. The oval wall tablet to Rowland Searchfield, English academic and Bishop of Bristol (died 1622) is made of slate. The Newton Chapel, which is between the Chapter House and south choir aisle contains a large dresser tomb of Henry Newton (died 1599) and a recumbent effigy of John Newton (died 1661), as well as a dresser tomb dedicated to Charles Vaughan who died in 1630. Dame Joan Wadham (1533–1603) is buried, with her two husbands Sir Giles Strangways and Sir John Young, in an altar tomb at the entrance to Bristol Cathedral. She was one of the sisters and co-heiresses (through her issue) of Nicholas Wadham (1531–1609) of Merryfield, Ilton Somerset and of Edge, Branscombe Devon, the co-founder with his wife Dorothy Wadham (1534–1618) of Wadham College, Oxford. Dame Joan is represented in effigy lying beneath the armorials of Wadham and those of both her husbands, Giles Strangways MP (1528–1562) of Melbury Sampford, with her the ancestor of the Earls of Ilchester, and John Young MP (1519–1589) with whom she built the Great House Bristol from 1568, of which only the Red Lodge, now the Red Lodge Museum, Bristol and completed by Dame Joan in 1590 after the death of her husband, remains today. Queen Elizabeth I stayed with Joan and Sir John Young at The Great House when she visited Bristol in 1574, and the Red Lodge Museum with its Tudor panelled rooms and wood carvings is only a short walk from the cathedral. The importance of exploration and trade to the city are reflected by a memorial tablet and representation in stained glass of Richard Hakluyt (died 1616) is known for promoting the settlement of North America by the English through his works. He was a prebendary of the cathedral. More recent monuments from the early 18th century to the 20th century include: Mrs Morgan (died 1767) by John Bacon to the design of James Stuart and a bust by Edward Hodges Baily to Robert Southey a Bristolian poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called "Lake Poets", and Poet laureate for 30 years from 1813 to his death in 1843. Baily also created the monument to William Brane Elwyn (died 1841). The obelisk to local actor William Powell (died 1769) was made by James Paine. The memorial to Elizabeth Charlotte Stanhope (died 1816) in the Newton Chapel is by Richard Westmacott. There is a memorial plaque to the education reformer Mary Carpenter (died 1877). The memorial to Emma Crawfuird (died 1823) is by Francis Leggatt Chantrey while the effigy to Francis Pigou (Dean; died 1916) is by Newbury Abbot Trent. The most recent are of the biographer Alfred Ainger (died 1904) and the composer Walford Davies (died 1941). In 1994 a plaque was installed to mark the first 32 women ordained as priests in the Church of England. In 2022 it was replaced with a new plaque that listed the names of these women, rather than only the names of the men who carried out the ceremony. Both plaques were carved in Welsh slate. The plaque is located on the north side of the nave where it meets the transept. ## Dean and Chapter As of 23 April 2022: - Dean – Mandy Ford (since 3 October 2020 installation) - Canon Pastor – Nicola Stanley (formerly Canon Precentor) (since 1 March 2014 installation) - Canon Missioner – Jonnie Parkin (since 22 August 2021 installation) - Diocesan Canon & Bishop's Chaplain – Martin Gainsborough (since 22 May 2019; previously Diocesan Canon, 2016–2019) ## Music ### Organ The organ was originally built in 1685 by Renatus Harris at a cost of £500. This has been removed and repaired many times. However, some of the original work, including the case and pipes, is incorporated into the present instrument, which was built by J. W. Walkers & Sons in 1907, and which is to be found above the stalls on the north side of the choir. It was further restored in 1989. Prior to the building of the main organ, the cathedral had a chair organ, which was built by Robert Taunton in 1662, and before that one built by Thomas Dallam in 1630. ### Organists The earliest known appointment of an organist of Bristol Cathedral is Thomas Denny in 1542. Notable organists have included the writer and composer Percy Buck. The present Organist is Mark Lee and the Assistant Organist Paul Walton. ### Choirs The first choir at Bristol probably dates from the Augustinian foundation of 1140. The present choir consists has twenty-eight choristers, six lay clerks and four choral scholars. The choristers include fourteen boys and fourteen girls, who are educated at Bristol Cathedral Choir School, the first government-funded choir academy in England. Choral evensong is sung daily during term. The Bristol Cathedral Concert Choir (formerly Bristol Cathedral Special Choir) was formed in 1954 and comprised sixty singers who presented large-scale works such as Bach's St Matthew Passion.; it was wound up in 2016. The Bristol Cathedral Consort is a voluntary choir drawn from young people of the city. They sing Evensong twice a month. Bristol Cathedral Chamber Choir was reformed in 2001 and is directed by assistant organist Paul Walton. ## Burials in St Augustine's Abbey - Harding of Bristol - Robert Fitzharding and his wife Eva - Maurice de Berkeley, Baron Berkeley - Maurice de Berkeley, 4th Baron Berkeley - Thomas de Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley - Margaret Mortimer, Baroness Berkeley, wife of Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley - William de Berkeley, 1st Marquess of Berkeley ## In popular culture Bristol Cathedral was used as a location in the 1978 film The Medusa Touch under the guise of a fictional London place of worship called Minster Cathedral. ## Other cathedrals in Bristol Bristol is also home to a Roman Catholic cathedral, Clifton Cathedral. The Church of England parish church of St. Mary Redcliffe is so grand as to be occasionally mistaken for a cathedral by visitors. ## See also - List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom - List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe - Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England - English Gothic architecture - Church of England - Grade I listed buildings in Bristol - Churches in Bristol - List of ecclesiastical restorations and alterations by J. L. Pearson
18,706,640	Tropical Storm Edouard (2008)	1,171,829,971	Atlantic tropical storm in 2008	[ "2008 Atlantic hurricane season", "2008 natural disasters in the United States", "Atlantic tropical storms", "Tropical cyclones in 2008" ]	Tropical Storm Edouard brought coastal and minor inland flooding to Louisiana and Texas in August 2008. The fifth tropical cyclone and fifth named storm of the hurricane season, Edouard developed from a trough in the northern Gulf of Mexico on August 3. After developing into a tropical depression, it gradually strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Edouard on August 4. However, northerly wind shear initially halted any further significant intensification and also caused the storm to struggle to maintain deep convection over the center. Edouard eventually intensified further and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) on August 5. Shortly thereafter, the storm made landfall near Gilchrist, Texas later that day. Edouard quickly weakened and was downgraded to tropical depression by early on August 6, six hours before degenerated into a remnant low pressure area. Due to the relatively weak nature of the storm, impact was generally minor. Rip currents in Alabama and Florida led to five fatalities. The sixth death from the storm was also related to rough seas and occurred near the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana. Storm surge and high tides also caused coastal flooding in the state, especially in Cameron Parish. Relatively strong winds left more than 2,000 without electricity and damaged trees and the roofs of mobile homes. Storm surge caused coastal flooding in eastern Texas, particularly in the Gilchrist area. At least 25 homes sustained damage, while portions of a few major roads, such as Interstate 10, were closed. Minor inland flooding occurred due to heavy rainfall, with a portion of Texas State Highway 36 being temporarily shutdown. Strong winds in the region damaged hundreds of homes, downed trees, and left about 300,000 people without electricity. Overall, damage from Tropical Storm Edouard totaled slightly more than \$550,000 (2008 USD). ## Meteorological history On August 2, 2008, a trough entered the northern Gulf of Mexico, with a low pressure area developing near Apalachicola, Florida. The system maintained scattered deep convection across offshore waters and environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis. The system tracked generally west-southwestward, due to its position south of a subtropical ridge extending from Texas through Florida. On the afternoon of August 3, a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system confirmed the development of a well-defined center of circulation, slightly exposed from a disorganized area of thunderstorms. As a result, the system developed into Tropical Depression Five at 1200 UTC on August 3, while located about 85 miles (140 km) south of the mouth of the Mississippi River. Because the depression was initially located in an area of northerly wind shear and dry air, the National Hurricane Center forecast it to slowly intensify. After a burst in deep convection late on August 3, Hurricane Hunter data indicated flight level winds of 65 miles per hour (105 km/h). At 0000 UTC on August 4, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard. Later that day, convection temporarily decreased around the center, though a brief convective flare up on its east side occurred early on August 5. Due to decreasing westerly wind shear, the center was nearly surrounded by convection that afternoon. Further organization continued and at 1200 UTC on August 5, Edouard attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar (29.4 inHg). Simultaneously, the storm made landfall at the McFaddin and Texas Point National Wildlife Refuges near Gilchrist, Texas at the same intensity. It weakened rapidly after moving inland and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on August 5. Edouard then re-curved northwest over eastern Texas, before degenerating into a remnant low pressure area at 0600 UTC on August 6. The remnant low continued northwestward until dissipating over northern Texas early on August 7. ## Preparations Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in association with Tropical Storm Edouard. At 2100 UTC on August 3, a tropical storm watch was posted from Intracoastal City, Louisiana to Port O'Connor, Texas. Simultaneously, a tropical storm warning was issued from Intracoastal City to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana. The tropical storm watch was upgraded to a hurricane watch early on August 4. Around that time, the tropical storm warning was extended from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Cameron, Louisiana. At 0900 UTC on August 4, the tropical storm warning was revised to reach San Luis Pass, Texas. The hurricane watch was modified from Grand Isle, Louisiana to Sargent, Texas. The tropical storm warning was extended to include the mouth of the Mississippi River to Port O'Connor at 1500 UTC on August 5. At that time, the tropical storm warning was modified again to stretch from San Luis Pass to Cameron. Late on August 5, all tropical cyclones were discontinued. In the Gulf of Mexico, Shell Oil evacuated about 40 workers from drilling operations. BP and Chevron also evacuated workers from platforms in the western and central Gulf, though neither predicted substantial effects on production. A few oil refineries on land were closed, such as one operated by Marathon Oil in Texas City, Texas. Governor of Texas Rick Perry issued a disaster declaration for 17 Texas counties that were threatened by Tropical Storm Edouard. Perry activated up to 1,200 National Guard troops, a 70 member rescue team, six helicopters, and an incident management team that brings food and water to affected areas. Under the order, about 200 buses became available in San Antonio and Houston to help in evacuations. Dow Chemical shut down their plants in Clear Lake and La Porte. The United States Coast Guard also ceased cargo operations to the Galveston-Houston area by late on August 4. Governor of Louisiana Bobby Jindal declared a statewide emergency. In Cameron Parish, Louisiana the Office of Emergency Preparedness ordered a mandatory evacuation, where Sheriff's deputies also erected roadblocks. ## Impact ### Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana Rip currents in Florida and Alabama led to the deaths of five people, three of which occurred in Panama City, Florida. Along the coast, storm surge in Louisiana generally ran 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 m) above normal, although a slightly higher tide was reported near Intracoastal City. Due to the storm surge, part of Louisiana Highway 82 was closed between Holly Beach and Johnson Bayou. Additionally, Interstate 10 was also flooded by storm surge. Minor flooding from the surge traveled up the Calcasieu River to Lake Charles, where water flooded a local yacht club. Low-lying areas of Intracoastal City were flooded, disrupting marine industries. A man fell overboard from a shrimp boat and died in rough seas from Edouard near the mouth of the Mississippi River. This was the only death directly associated with Tropical Storm Edouard. Three locations reported tropical storm force winds, including 46 mph (74 km/h) on Timbalier Island, 54 mph (87 km/h) in Calcasieu Pass, and 48 mph (77 km/h) on Marsh Island. In Cameron, Vermilion, and Calcasieu Parishes, wind gusts were mainly between 40 and 60 mph (64 and 97 km/h), though a gust of 62 mph (100 km/h) was observed at Calcasieu Pass. Winds severely damaged several mobile homes in Cameron, mostly from roofs being torn off. More than 3,000 people were left without electricity in Cameron Calcasieu Parishes combined as winds downed trees and power lines. A few mobile homes in that parish sustained minor wind damage. In Vermilion Parish, a few trees and power lines were downed. Rainfall in Louisiana reached 3.81 inches (97 mm) at Hackberry; at other locations, precipitation was mainly between 1 and 3 inches (25 and 76 mm). Overall, Edouard caused about \$350,000 in damage within the state of Louisiana. ### Texas Rainfall from Edouard peaked at 6.48 inches (165 mm) at Baytown, Texas, near Houston. In central Texas, a burst of thunderstorm activity near the storm's center produced 6.11 inches (155 mm) of rain near Hamilton, Texas; as a result, part of Texas State Highway 36 was closed due to flooding. Elsewhere, 3 to 5 inches (76 to 127 mm) of precipitation was reported. The heavy rainfall was expected to help relieve persistent drought conditions in some locations. Winds gusted to over 50 mph (80 km/h), peaking at over 70 mph (110 km/h). Furthermore, a wind gust of 71 mph (114 km/h) was reported at Texas Point. Due to the high winds, falling trees and power lines left at least 300,000 customers in Southeastern Texas without electricity, most of them in Jefferson County. Hundreds of homes also suffered damage. Storm surge ranged between 2 and 5 feet (0.60–1.5 m) along the coast. In addition, high surf battered the shore. Minor storm surge flooding along portions of the Bolivar Peninsula caused \$95,000 in damage. The coastal flooding forced the closure of and caused \$5,000 in damage to Interstate 10 in Chambers County. Near Baytown, water flooded a few garages. Additionally, at least 27 homes in Gilchrist flooded. Two mobile homes and fifteen single-family homes had 6 inches (150 mm) of water; as much as 18 inches (460 mm) of water was reported in ten other single-family houses. At the McFaddin and Texas Point National Wildlife Refuges, losses in the park totaled to \$100,000. Overall, effects from Tropical Storm Edouard in the state of Texas resulted in approximately \$200,000 in damage. ## See also - List of Texas hurricanes - Other storms of the same name - Hurricane Barry (2019) - took a similar path
13,761,935	French battleship Liberté	1,151,494,446	French lead ship of Liberté-class	[ "1905 ships", "1911 in France", "Liberté-class battleships", "Maritime incidents in 1911", "September 1911 events", "Ships built in France", "Ships sunk by non-combat internal explosions", "Shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea", "Shipwrecks of France" ]	Liberté was a pre-dreadnought battleship built for the French Navy in the mid-1900s. She was the lead ship of the Liberté class, which included three other vessels and was a derivative of the preceding République class, with the primary difference being the inclusion of a heavier secondary battery. Liberté carried a main battery of four 305-millimeter (12 in) guns, like the République, but mounted ten 194 mm (7.6 in) guns for her secondary armament in place of the 164 mm (6.5 in) guns of the earlier vessels. Like many late pre-dreadnought designs, Liberté was completed after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought had entered service, rendering her obsolescent. On entering service, Liberté was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Mediterranean Squadron, based in Toulon. She immediately began the normal peacetime training routine of squadron and fleet maneuvers and cruises to various ports in the Mediterranean. She also participated in several naval reviews for a number of French and foreign dignitaries. In September 1909, the ships of the 2nd Division crossed the Atlantic to the United States to represent France at the Hudson–Fulton Celebration. Liberté's active career was cut short on 25 September 1911 when a fire broke out in one of the ship's propellant magazines and led to a detonation of the charges stored there, destroying the ship in a tremendous explosion that killed 286 of her crew. The blast also damaged several other vessels and killed crewmen on six neighboring ships. An investigation revealed that the standard French propellant, Poudre B, was prone to decomposition that rendered it very unstable; it had likely been the culprit in several other ammunition fires in other ships. The wreck remained in Toulon until 1925, when her destroyed hull was refloated, towed into a drydock, and broken up. ## Design The Liberté-class battleships were originally intended to be part of the République-class battleship, which was to total six ships. After work on the first two ships had begun, the British began construction of the King Edward VII-class battleships. These ships carried a heavy secondary battery of 9.2-inch (230 mm) guns, which prompted the French Naval General Staff to request that the last four Républiques be redesigned to include a heavier secondary battery in response. Ironically, the designer, Louis-Émile Bertin, had proposed such an armament for the République class, but the General Staff had rejected it since the larger guns had a lower rate of fire than the smaller 164 mm (6.5 in) guns that had been selected for the République design. Because the ships were broadly similar apart from their armament, the Libertés are sometimes considered to be a sub-class of the République type. Liberté had an overall length of 135.25 meters (443 ft 9 in), a beam of 24.25 m (79 ft 7 in) and an average draft of 8.2 m (26 ft 11 in). She displaced 14,900 metric tons (14,700 long tons) at full load and was fitted with a ram bow. The battleship was powered by three 4-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by twenty-two Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at 17,500 metric horsepower (17,300 ihp; 12,900 kW) and were intended to give the ship a speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). While Liberté's sea trials data has not survived, each of her sister ships exceeded a speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Coal storage amounted to 1,800 t (1,772 long tons), which provided a maximum range of 8,400 nautical miles (15,600 km; 9,700 mi) at a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). She had a crew of 32 officers and 710 enlisted men. Liberté's main battery consisted of four 305 mm (12 in) Modèle 1893/96 guns mounted in two twin-gun turrets, one forward and one aft of the superstructure. Her secondary armament consisted of ten 194 mm (7.6 in) Modèle 1902 guns; six were mounted in single turrets, and four in casemates in the hull. The single turrets were arranged in pairs, one set abreast the forward funnels, another two amidships, and the third pair abreast the rear funnel. She also carried thirteen 65 mm (2.6 in) Modèle 1902 guns and ten 47 mm (1.9 in) Modèle 1902 guns for defense against torpedo boats. The ship was armed with two 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, which were submerged in the hull on the broadside. The waterline armor belt of the Liberté class was 280 mm (11 in) thick amidships and reduced to 180 mm (7.1 in) at the ends of the ships. It was connected to the two armored decks; the upper deck was 54 mm (2.1 in) thick while the lower deck was 51 mm (2 in) thick, with 70 mm (2.8 in) sloped sides. The main battery guns were protected by up to 360 mm (14.2 in) of armor on the fronts of the turrets, while the secondary turrets had 156 mm (6.1 in) of armor on the faces. The casemates were protected with 174 mm (6.9 in) of steel plate. The conning tower had 266 mm (10.5 in) thick sides. ## Service history Authorized as part of the 1900 Statut Naval (Naval Law), Liberté was laid down at the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire shipyard in Saint-Nazaire in November 1902 and launched on 19 April 1905. On 5 September 1907, Liberté steamed to the Arsenal de Brest in Brest, France, where her armament was installed. She departed Brest on 18 March, bound for the Mediterranean Sea, and after arriving in Toulon, was pronounced complete on 13 April 1908. This was over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought, which rendered the pre-dreadnoughts like Liberté outdated before they were completed. After commissioning, Liberté was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Mediterranean Squadron, along with her sisters Justice (the divisional flagship) and Vérité. In June and July, the Mediterranean and Northern Squadrons conducted their annual maneuvers off Bizerte. The 2nd Division ships visited Bizerte in October. The entire squadron was moored in Villefranche in February 1909 and thereafter conducted training exercises off Corsica, followed by a naval review in Villefranche for President Armand Fallières on 26 April. During this period of training, on 17 March, Liberté and the battleships Justice, Patrie, and République conducted shooting training, using the old ironclad Tempête as a target. Liberté, Démocratie, Patrie, and the armored cruiser Ernest Renan steamed into the Atlantic for training exercises on 2 June; while at sea ten days later, they rendezvoused with République, Justice, and the protected cruiser Galilée at Cádiz, Spain. Training included serving as targets for the fleet's submarines in the Pertuis d'Antioche strait. The ships then steamed north to La Pallice, where they conducted tests with their wireless telegraphy sets and shooting training in Quiberon Bay. From 8 to 15 July, the ships lay at Brest and the next day, they steamed to Le Havre. There, they met the Northern Squadron for another fleet review for Fallières on 17 July. Ten days later, the combined fleet steamed to Cherbourg, where they held another fleet review, this time during the visit of Czar Nicholas II of Russia. On 12 September, Liberté and the other 2nd Division battleships departed Brest, bound for the United States. There they represented France during the Hudson–Fulton Celebration, which marked the 300th anniversary of the European discovery of the Hudson River. The ships arrived back in Toulon on 27 October. The year 1910 passed uneventfully for Liberté, apart from the typical routine of training exercises. Maneuvers were held for the six Liberté and République-class battleships off Sardinia and Algeria from 21 May to 4 June, followed by exercises with the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron from 7 to 18 June. An outbreak of typhoid among the crews of the battleships in early December forced the navy to confine them to Golfe-Juan to contain the fever. By 15 December, the outbreak had subsided. On 16 April 1911, Liberté and the rest of the fleet escorted Vérité, which had aboard Fallières, the Naval Minister Théophile Delcassé, and Charles Dumont, the Minister of Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs, to Bizerte. They arrived two days later and held a fleet review that included two British battleships, two Italian battleships, and a Spanish cruiser on 19 April. The fleet returned to Toulon on 29 April, where Fallières doubled the crews' rations and suspended any punishments to thank the men for their performance. By mid-1911, the French naval command reorganized the Mediterranean Squadron, creating the 1st and 2nd Battle Squadrons; Liberté was assigned to the former. The ships of 1st Squadron and the armored cruisers Ernest Renan and Léon Gambetta went on a cruise in the western Mediterranean in May and June, visiting a number of ports including Cagliari, Bizerte, Bône, Philippeville, Algiers, and Bougie. By 1 August, the battleships of the Danton class had begun to enter service, and they were assigned to the 1st Squadron, displacing the Liberté and République-class ships to the 2nd Squadron. On 4 September, both squadrons held a major fleet review for Fallières off Toulon. The fleet then departed on 11 September for maneuvers off Golfe-Juan and Marseille, returning to Toulon on 16 September. The ships remained there for the next nine days. ### Loss At 05:31 on the morning of 25 September, crewmen in other battleships reported seeing smoke coming from Liberté, originating from her forward starboard casemate. Shortly thereafter, the forward superstructure erupted in flames, but it quickly appeared to observers that the ship's crew was getting the fire under control. At 05:53 a tremendous explosion aboard Liberté rocked the harbor. The ship was badly damaged by the blast, with both central 194 mm turrets thrown overboard, the deck amidships collapsed, and the forward 55 m (180 ft) of the ship completely destroyed. The forward 305 mm turret was blasted apart, and only one of the guns was recovered, having been hurled into the muddy bottom of the harbor. The explosion threw a 37-metric-ton (36-long-ton) chunk of armor plate from the ship into the battleship République moored some 210 m (690 ft) away, which caused significant damage. Splinters from the exploding ship sank a steam pinnace and killed fifteen men aboard the armored cruiser Marseillaise, nine aboard the battleship Saint Louis, six aboard the armored cruiser Léon Gambetta, four aboard the battleship Suffren, and three aboard Démocratie. Liberté's surviving crew immediately fled the ship; 286 were killed in the explosion and 188 were wounded. Fortunately, 143 of the crew, including the ship's commander, had been on leave in Toulon at the time and thus avoided the accident. The navy convened a commission to investigate the incident on 25 September, which was held aboard Justice; the commission was led by Contre-amiral (Rear Admiral) Jean Gaschard and included officers from Justice. They considered the possibility of sabotage, but ruled it out. The investigation determined that the accident was likely caused by excessive heat in the magazines and deemed that the standard procedures for ammunition monitoring were not sufficient. The French Navy had earlier suffered a series of fatal accidents in Toulon, beginning with an explosion aboard a torpedo boat in February 1907 in which nine men were killed. The following month, the battleship Iéna blew up, killing 107 men. An explosion aboard a gunnery training ship killed six in August 1908, and an explosion on a cruiser killed thirteen in September 1910. Six more men were killed aboard the cruiser Gloire just two weeks before Liberté exploded, on 10 September 1911. The culprit was unstable Poudre B, a nitrocellulose-based propellant that was also responsible for the destruction of Iéna, and possibly the other explosions as well. Following the disaster, the navy established new rules, requiring that propellant charges older than four years be discarded. The order was initially limited to the battleship squadrons, but was later extended to the entire fleet. The Navy Minister also rescinded an order instructing gun crews to return propellant charges that had misfired to the magazines; going forward, charges that had been placed in the guns would either have to be fired or discarded. The commission had determined that magazine flooding arrangements were insufficient, but the navy only made modest improvements to the equipment. The wreck of the ship remained in Toulon for several years, though work on clearing or marking navigational hazards began immediately. World War I, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, significantly delayed work on refloating the remnants of the hull. The shattered wreck had begun to sink into the mud by 1920, and so extensive work had to be done to prepare it to be refloated, including sending divers to build cofferdams to seal the hull. On 4 September 1920, the old cruiser Latouche-Tréville was fitted with four and later six compressed air pumps and brought alongside to serve as a barracks for the workers and a floating workshop. A pair of submarines and several smaller craft were also used to aid in the recovery effort. On 21 February 1925, Liberté's hull was pumped with compressed air and refloated, before being towed into a drydock in Toulon, where she was broken up.
4,457,351	Western green mamba	1,145,609,922	Species of snake	[ "Dendroaspis", "Reptiles described in 1844", "Reptiles of West Africa", "Snakes of Africa", "Taxa named by Edward Hallowell (herpetologist)" ]	The western green mamba (Dendroaspis viridis) is a long, thin, and highly venomous snake species of the mamba genus, Dendroaspis. This species was first described in 1844 by American herpetologist Edward Hallowell. The western green mamba is a fairly large and predominantly arboreal species, capable of navigating through trees swiftly and gracefully. It will also descend to ground level to pursue prey such as rodents and other small mammals. The western green mamba is a shy and agile snake that lives mainly in the coastal tropical rainforest, thicket, and woodland regions of western Africa. Its venom is a highly potent mixture of rapid-acting presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins (dendrotoxins), cardiotoxins and fasciculins. Some consider this species not to be a particularly aggressive snake, but others have suggested that they are extremely nervous and are prone to attack aggressively when cornered. Conflict with humans is low compared to some other species found in the region. Bites to people by this species are quite uncommon. Their mortality rate, however, is high; many of the recorded bites have been fatal. Rapid progression of severe, life-threatening symptoms are hallmarks of mamba bites. Bites with envenomation can be rapidly fatal. ## Taxonomy The western green mamba was first described by the American herpetologist and physician Edward Hallowell in 1844 as Leptophis viridis, from a specimen collected in Liberia. The specific name viridis is the Latin adjective "green". In 1852, Hallowell described Dinophis hammondii from two specimens of western green mambas collected in Liberia, naming it for his friend Ogden Hammond of South Carolina. These were later deemed by Belgian-British zoologist George Albert Boulenger to be the same species. The genus was misspelt as Dendraspis by Dumeril in 1856, and generally uncorrected by subsequent authors. In 1936, Dutch herpetologist Leo Brongersma pointed the correct spelling was Dendroaspis. Analysis of the components of the venom of all mambas places the western green mamba as sister species to Jameson's mamba. In addition to being called the western green mamba, this species is also commonly known as the West African green mamba, and formerly Hallowell's green mamba. Analysis of the components of the venom of all mambas places the western green mamba sister to Jameson's mamba (Dendroapsis j. jamesoni and j. kaimosae), as shown in the cladogram below. ## Description The western green mamba has a long and slender body with a long tapering tail. The average length of an adult is between 1.4 metres (4.6 ft) and 2.1 metres (7 ft), with large approaching 2.4 metres (8 ft) long. The long thin head has a distinct canthus above the medium-sized eyes, which have round pupils and yellowish brown irises. When threatened or otherwise aroused, the western green mamba is capable of flattening its neck area into a slight hood. The snake is bright green fading to yellow or orange towards the tail. Its scales have prominent black margins, giving the species a networked pattern. The western green mamba can be mistaken for similar species such as green bushsnakes of the genus Philothamnus or the boomslang (Dispholidus typus). ### Scalation The number and pattern of scales on a snake's body are a key element of identification to species level. The western green mamba has 13 rows of long and thin dorsal scales at midbody, fewer than any similar species. Each is double the length of the ventral scales. There are 211 to 225 ventral scales, 105 to 128 divided subcaudal scales, and a divided anal scale. Its mouth is lined with 7 to 9 supralabial scales above, the fourth and sometimes fifth one located under the eye, and 9–10 sublabial scales below. ## Distribution and habitat The western green mamba is native to West Africa from Gambia and southern Senegal to Benin, including the intervening countries (from west to east) Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Ghana, and Togo. It is common in Togo, found as far north as the Alédjo Wildlife Reserve, though may theoretically be found in Sarakawa and Djamdé forests in the Kara Region. Records from Nigeria are dubious, and reports from the Central African Republic are more likely to be misidentification of Jameson's mamba. Western green mambas live mainly in the coastal tropical rainforest, thicket, and woodland regions of western Africa. The majority of records of the western green mamba are from within the continuous forest, but the Gambia and Guinea-Bissau records are from isolated forests. The species persists in areas where the tree cover has been removed, providing that sufficient hedges and thicket remain. Found in some suitably vegetated suburbs and towns and parklands therein. It is largely confined to areas where rainfall exceeds 1,500 millimetres (60 in). In Togo, however, its range extends into the drier open forests of the north, the Guinean savannas of the west, and the littoral zone. ### Conservation status This species is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (v3.1, 2011). The conservation status of this species was last assessed in July 2012 and published in 2013, and it was classed as such due to a wide distribution, fairly generalist habits, stable population and the lack of major threats. However, its habitat and population is highly fragmented. Despite not being listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the western green mamba is collected and sold internationally, and is one of the more expensive African snake species. ## Behaviour and ecology Mostly diurnal, the western green mamba spends most of its time in the forest canopy, at times at considerable height, though on occasion commonly go to the ground. When it wants to sleep it seeks out tree branches that offer dense cover. It generally retreats if encountered. The oldest recorded western green mamba was a captive specimen that lived 18.7 years. ## Breeding The species lays a clutch of 6 to 14 eggs. ### Diet and predators The western green mamba generally hunts in trees though can also hunt on the ground. It preys on birds and small mammals, including rodents and squirrels. ## Venom The western green mamba is classified as a snake of medical importance in western SubSaharan Africa by the World Health Organization, although bites from this species are rare as it is rarely encountered. When bitten, symptoms rapidly begin to manifest, usually within the first 15 minutes or less. The extraordinary speed with which the venom spreads through tissue and produces rapid manifestations of life-threatening symptoms is unique to mambas. Common symptoms of a bite from a western green mamba include local pain and swelling, although uncommon, local necrosis can be moderate, ataxia, headache, drowsiness, difficulty breathing, vertigo, hypotension (low blood pressure), diarrhea, dizziness, and paralysis. Left untreated, new and more severe symptoms rapidly progress. All symptoms worsen and the victim eventually dies due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles. Bites with envenomation can be rapidly fatal, which can be possible in 30 minutes. Similar to the venom of most other mambas, the western green mamba's contains predominantly three-finger toxin agents. The exception is the black mamba, whose venom lacks the potent alpha-neurotoxin as well. It is thought this may reflect the species' preferred prey—small mammals for the mainly land-dwelling black mamba, versus birds for the other predominantly arboreal mambas. Unlike that of many snake species, the venom of mambas has little phospholipase A2. Overall, the venom of the western green mamba is more potent than that of the eastern green mamba, similar or slightly less potent than that of Jameson's mamba, and much less potent than that of the black mamba. The venom consists mainly of both pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurotoxins, cardiotoxins, and fasciculins. The toxicity of the venom can vary tremendously depending on various factors including diet, geographical location, age-dependent change, and other factors. The SC and IV for this species is 0.79 mg/kg and 0.71 mg/kg, respectively (Christensen and Anderson (1967)). One study determined the LD<sub>50</sub> of the venom administered to mice via the intraperitoneal (IP) route was 0.33 mg/kg. In another test using mice that were administered the western green mamba's venom via the intraperitoneal (IP) route the LD<sub>50</sub> was 0.045 mg/kg. Another experimental IV LD<sub>50</sub> toxicity of 0.5 mg/kg has been reported, with an average wet venom yield of 100 mg. Like other mamba species, western green mamba venom is among the most rapid-acting venom of snakes. ### Treatment The speed of onset of envenomation means that urgent medical attention is needed. Standard first aid treatment for any bite from a suspectedly venomous snake is the application of a pressure bandage, minimisation of the victim's movement, and rapid conveyance to a hospital or clinic. Due to the neurotoxic nature of green mamba venom, an arterial tourniquet may be beneficial. Tetanus toxoid is sometimes administered, though the main treatment is the administration of the appropriate antivenom.
24,652,444	2010 Claxton Shield	1,153,148,155	Baseball competition	[ "2010 in Australian sport", "2010 in baseball", "Claxton Shield", "December 2009 sports events in Australia", "February 2010 sports events in Australia", "January 2010 sports events in Australia", "November 2009 sports events in Australia" ]	The 2010 Claxton Shield was the 76th Claxton Shield tournament, the premier baseball competition in Australia, and was held from 6 November 2009 to 7 February 2010. It was hailed as the precursor to the new Australian Baseball League that would start in the place of the Claxton Shield in late 2010 to early 2011. The Victoria Aces defeated South Australia two games to nil in the championship series to win the tournament; this was the 22nd time the Claxton Shield had been awarded to a Victorian team. The competition was sponsored by Domino's Pizza. At the conclusion of the regular season, the Victoria Aces finished in first place with a 17–7 record, earning home-field advantage for the three-game championship series. South Australia hosted the three-game semi-final series against the New South Wales Patriots. Both teams finished with a 14–10 record. The Perth Heat (12–12) and Queensland Rams (3–21) both failed to qualify for the finals. ## Overview In June 2009, it was announced that the rights to the Claxton Shield had been sold to a new Australian Baseball League (ABL), with ownership split between Major League Baseball's 75 percent share and the 25 percent share owned by the Australian Baseball Federation. The 2010 tournament was considered preparation for the inaugural ABL season starting in 2010–11. It varied from the 2009 Claxton Shield by expanding the season to include ten rounds. Since an uneven number (five) teams were involved, four teams paired off for each round and played a three-game series, while the remaining team took a bye. During the season, each team had two bye rounds and played two rounds against each other team, one at home and one away. In total, the schedule allowed for 24 regular-season games per team before a postseason similar to the 2009 edition: the first-place team directly qualified for the championship series and played against the winner of a playoff series between the second- and third-place teams. During the regular season, games were played on a Friday night and a doubleheader on Saturday; in each doubleheader one of the two games was shortened to seven innings. The exception to this was when Perth played their home games; they played on a Thursday night instead of a doubleheader on Saturday. Each postseason series was scheduled for a Friday, Saturday and Sunday. ## Teams ### Rosters The 2010 series allowed each team to make use of a 19-man active roster. Exceptions were made in two cases that allowed teams' active rosters to expand to 21 players, both times for the same reason. Two games during the season had to be postponed because of poor weather. Both games involved teams meeting for the first time during the season; make-up games were scheduled at the start of the return series between the teams, and this resulted in two four-game series. In both cases, the teams had a 19-man roster for the make-up game, and an expanded 21-man roster for the originally scheduled series. ### Venues The 2010 Claxton Shield was contested between five teams from around Australia. In previous years, many of the teams had played their home games at multiple venues. This season each team held their home games at only one venue. There was one scheduled exception to this at the start of the season: the New South Wales Patriots' final home series against the Perth Heat was held at Gilchrist Oval, whereas all of their other home games were held at Blacktown Baseball Stadium. As a result of poor attendance at Geelong Baseball Park, game one of the fifth-round series between New South Wales and the Victoria Aces was moved to La Trobe University, Melbourne. Although the Geelong games had attracted crowds of no more than 500, the moved game had an attendance of 2,200. Though no further regular season games were moved, the finals series hosted by the Aces was held at La Trobe University as well. The venues are as follows: ## Regular season The regular season was held from 6 November 2009 through to 23 January 2010. All five teams competed in a double round-robin format; playing each other team in two series of three games each, totaling 24 games played each. The top three teams progressed to the finals series. The top team automatically qualified for the championship series, to face the winner of the semi-final series between the second and third placed teams. The Queensland Rams were the first team to be eliminated from contention for the finals, after being swept four games to nil by the Victoria Aces in round 8. The following round saw South Australia clinch a position in the finals, despite finishing the round in second position. It was not until the final round that the last two spots in the finals were decided: the Aces clinched top spot by sweeping the Perth Heat, which combined with the New South Wales Patriots sweep of the Rams eliminated Perth from contention and secured the last finals spot for the Patriots. ### Standings ### Round 1 The New South Wales Patriots and the Victoria Aces hosted the opening round of the 2010 Claxton Shield, against the Queensland Rams and the Perth Heat respectively. New South Wales overcame a loss in their first game to take both games in the doubleheader, while Victoria had a first up win, then split their double header with Perth. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 2 The Perth Heat hosted their first series of the competition, winning their series against the New South Wales Patriots two games to one. South Australia had their first games of the season, hosting and sweeping the Queensland Rams three–nil. The second game of both series featured the first extra innings games of the season, with the respective home teams winning both matches. As a result of their sweep, South Australia (3–0) took the outright lead of the competition, leaving Victoria (2–1) in second, New South Wales and Perth (3–3) tied, and Queensland (1–5) in last position. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 3 The Queensland Rams hosted the Perth Heat, while South Australia travelled to Geelong to face the Victoria Aces. After winning the opening game, Queensland (2–7) dropped both games of the doubleheader to fall further behind the rest of the field. With Perth's (5–4) series win, they moved ahead of New South Wales (3–3) into outright third. South Australia (4–1) and Victoria (3–2) split their series. The final game of their doubleheader suspended in the bottom of the second due to rain with South Australia leading 2–0. At the time the game administrators considered continuing the game from the point of suspension when the teams next met in Round 9, though the game was actually restarted and eventually won by South Australia. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 4 South Australia, closely followed by New South Wales, had the first games called prior to their scheduled end due to a mercy rule. South Australia's 10–run win helped to set up their series win against Queensland in Brisbane, while the Patriot's 13–run win over Victoria snapped a 3–game losing streak and was the significant part of the 20 runs they scored in the two games for the day. South Australia (6–2) extended their tournament lead to a game and a half over New South Wales and Perth (5–4), once again tied. Victoria (4–4) fell to fourth, while Queensland (3–9) remained in last. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 5 As a result of poor attendance at Geelong Baseball Park, game one of the fifth round series between New South Wales and the Victoria was moved to La Trobe University, Melbourne. Having previously attracted crowds of no more than 500, the moved game had an attendance of 2,200, which the home team won 3–2. The series concluded in a doubleheader at Geelong, split between the two teams, giving the Aces the series win. Despite winning the series at Norwood Oval, South Australia suffered their first defeat at home, losing to Perth in the second game of the series. At the end of the round, South Australia (8–3) held a two-game lead over Victoria (6–5). New South Wales and Perth (6–6) remained tied, having dropped to third place, while Queensland (3–9) remained in last position. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 6 For the second time in the season, the Queensland were swept in a series this time by the Heat at Baseball Park. The Patriots hosted South Australia, and after dropping the first game won both games in the doubleheader to win the series, and inflict their first series loss of the season. Despite their series loss, South Australia (9–5) remained in first place. Perth (9–6) moved to second place on the back of their sweep, only one half game behind. Victoria (6–5) dropped to third without playing a game. New South Wales (8–7) fell to fourth, while Queensland (3–12) remained in last place. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 7 \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 8 \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 9 \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Round 10 Going into the final round, the Perth Heat and the Victoria Aces were the two teams that could have taken first place and assured themselves of a home final. In the first game of their series though, the Aces clinched the top spot, and in doing so made the Patriot's chance of overtaking the Heat and making the finals easier. The following two games saw New South Wales beat Queensland to move them into third position, and Perth drop another game to Victoria to allow South Australia to secure second, and a home semi final series. The Patriots secured the last remaining finals berth in the first game of their doubleheader, beating the Rams 16–0 and eliminating the Heat from finals contention. \—Scheduled as a 7–inning game ### Statistical leaders ## Finals series The finals series made use of the same structure as had been used in the 2009 season. The top three teams at the conclusion of the ten rounds of regular season games qualified. The second and third placed teams faced each other in a best-of-three series hosted by the second placed team. The winner of that series then faced the first placed team for a best of three series. South Australia hosted the New South Wales Patriots at Norwood Oval, Adelaide for the semi-final series, while the Victoria Aces hosted the championship series at La Trobe University, Melbourne. In the finals, the home team and away team alternated during each of the series. As a result, South Australia was officially the away team for game two of its series against New South Wales, as was Victoria in game two of the championship series. South Australia came from behind in the semi-final series to win 2–1. New South Wales won game one 1–0 on the back of Timothy Auty's RBI-double, as well as Timothy Cox and Lee Ingram combining for a four-hit shutout. Despite being outhit 10–6, South Australia won game two 3–2. Unusually, the winning run was scored in the top of the ninth inning without a safe hit being recorded. Game three was won by South Australia 1–0, largely through the man of the match performance of Ryan Murphy; he pitched a complete game shutout, and scored the only run of the game on a solo home run to right field. Despite splitting their regular season games 3–3, Victoria swept South Australia in the championship series 2–0. Despite taking an early lead in game one, South Australia was unable to hold on after allowing six runners to reach base resulting in three runs scoring in the fourth inning. Victoria held its 5–3 lead for the rest of the game through the pitching of Russell Spear and finals MVP Matthew Blackmore. In game two, South Australia led for much of the game, but a costly error by Ben Wigmore in the sixth inning, hits from Andrew Russell, Paul Weichard, James Beresford and Matthew Lawman in the ninth, and a run-free pitching performance from Ross Hipke and Russell Spear in the final three innings allowed Victoria to come from behind two nights in a row to win 7–4, and claim the states' 22nd Claxton Shield title. ### Bracket ### Semi-final series #### Game 1 The finals series started off with a pitcher's duel: both teams were held scoreless through the first six innings, with both New South Wales' Timothy Cox and South Australia's Paul Mildren holding their opposition to only three hits in that time. But in the seventh, Patrick Maat led off the inning for the Patriots with a base hit to centre field. He then advanced to second base on Andrew Graham's sacrifice bunt, and scored on Timothy Auty's double. Cox pitched 8 innings, giving up 4 hits, 3 walks, and striking out 9 batters to pick up the win. Lee Ingram came into the game for the ninth inning to close the game, picking up a strike out while retiring three hitters in a row to get the save. #### Game 2 In another tight contest, South Australia snapped a streak of eight losing efforts in a row in finals games to New South Wales, winning 3–2. South Australia opened the scoring in the top of the fifth. Ben Wigmore and Dan Wilson hit back–to–back singles, Mathew Smith grounded out to advance both. With two out, Jason Pospishil errored on Scott Gladstone's hit to second base, allowing both runners to score. Pospshil helped the Patriots to recover immediately in the bottom of the inning, with a single to lead off the inning. He then scored on Mark Holland's double to cut the deficit in half. In the eighth inning, New South Wales evened the game, with David Kandilas's infield hit driving in Patrick Maat. In the ninth however, South Australia regained the lead without a hit: two walks and two hit by pitches allowed Stefan Welch to score. #### Game 3 Like the first two games of the semi-final series, the third and deciding game was also decided by one run. Ryan Murphy was named man of the match, after pitching a two–hit shutout, and hitting a solo home run in the second inning to score the only run in the game. Prior to the game, Murphy had not started on the mound in any game in the season, and had only pitched one and a third innings in one prior appearance. Michael Lysaught almost tied the game in the third inning with a solo home run of his own. Only Dan Wilson's catch from over the fence in right field prevented it. ### Championship series #### Game 1 Baseball returned to La Trobe University for the Victoria Aces' home championship series, after having just the one game there during the regular season. Unlike the semi-final series, scoring started immediately in the championship series, with South Australia scoring in the top of the first inning: Jeremy Cresswell singled and then advanced to third when Stefan Welch reached on a throwing error by catcher Grant Karlsen. Michael Collins and Ryan Murphy each walked in consecutive plate appearances, advancing Cresswell to score the first run. Before the inning could be closed out, Welch scored on a wild pitch to extend South Australia's lead to two. Brad Harman opened the scoring for Victoria in the second inning, with a first pitch solo home run to halve the deficit. Victoria tied the game up at 2–2 through back to back doubles in the third, first from Brett Tamburrino and followed by Andrew Russell to drive Tamburrino in. South Australia briefly regained the lead in the top of the fourth inning: Ben Wigmore lead off the inning with a walk, advanced to second on Mathew Smith's single, and scored on Scott Gladstone's double. Gladstone's RBI-double was the final pitch for Adam Blackley, having scattered 4 hits over 3+1⁄3 innings pitched, striking out 7 and allowing 3 runs, only 1 of which was earned. He was replaced by Matthew Blackmore, who pitched into the ninth inning, allowing only 1 hit and striking out 4 over 5 innings pitched. Neither starting pitcher pitched beyond the fourth inning, as South Australia's Paul Mildren was also replaced after 3+1⁄3 innings, allowing 7 hits and 5 runs (4 earned), and striking out 3. Victoria regained the lead permanently in the bottom of the fourth, and in the process drove Mildren from the game. James Beresford led off the inning with a walk, advanced to third on Matthew Lawman's double and scored on Elliott Biddle's single. Scott Wearne reached second on a throwing error by second baseman Smith, which also allowed Lawman to score. Tamburrino received a walk, followed by Russell being hit by a pitch which forced Biddle to score. The hit batter resulted in Chris Lawson replacing Mildren on the mound. Like the other relievers in the game, Lawson did not allow a run to score over his 2+2⁄3 innings pitched. The 5–3 score at the end of the fourth inning would be maintained for the rest of the game. Russell Spear entered the game in the ninth inning to close the game for Victoria, earning the save. Blackmore was credited with the win, while Mildren was charged with the loss for South Australia. #### Game 2 The second game of the series started in even fashion: both sides were retired in order in the first inning, and each got runners into scoring position without actually scoring in the second. The games' first run came in the third inning, and for the fourth time in the 2010 postseason a run was driven in by a walk. Tristan McDonald led off the inning with a single to center field. He advanced to second on Brett Tamburrino's single to right field, to third when Andrew Russell was hit by a pitch, then scored when Paul Weichard drew a walk. South Australia tied the score again in the fourth inning. Ben Wigmore walked to lead off the inning, and advanced to second when Dan Wilson ground out to first base. Wigmore then scored on Mathew Smith's single. Victoria immediately regained the lead in the top of the fifth inning. Tamburrino singled, and then advanced to third on Russell's own base hit. Weichard hit a deep fly ball to center field, allowing Tamburrino to score on the sacrifice fly. However South Australia took the lead for the first time in the game in the bottom of the inning, when Shane Lindsay—pitching in relief of Adam Bright, who'd struck out 5 and allowed 5 hits, 1 walk and 1 run over 4 innings pitched—walked David Washington and Jeremy Cresswell, before giving up a home run to Michael Collins to take the score to 4–2. After the home run Lindsay, Ross Hipke and Russell Spear would combine to keep South Australia from scoring again in the game. That lead was halved in the sixth through an unearned run. Elliot Biddle got on through an infield hit, and then advanced to third when Ben Wigmore dropped a fly ball in center field off the bat of Hayden Dingle. This allowed Tristan McDonald to drive Wigmore in on a sacrifice fly. Richard Bartlett entered the game to pitch for South Australia in the seventh inning, but was unable to hold on to the one-run lead he was given, allowing the tying run to score in the eighth when he walked McDonald and gave up an RBI-double to Scott Wearne. James Beresford drove in the go-ahead run in the top of the ninth inning in the form of Paul Weichard after he and Andrew Russell hit back to back infield singles. Hayden Beard was brought in by South Australia to try to stop the flow of runs, but gave up a two run-double to Matthew Lawman to take Victoria to a 7–4 lead. Russell Spear entered the game for Victoria as closer for the second night in a row, and despite giving up two hits was able to keep South Australia scoreless to earn a second save. ## Awards At the conclusion of the finals series, the winner of two awards were announced. Matthew Blackmore won both the Pitcher of the Year award and the Finals Series MVP award. At the Baseball Australia Diamond Awards, held on 6 March at the Hotel Grand Chancellor, Adelaide, Wayne Lundgren was announced as the 35th winner of the Helms Award; the Claxton Shield's Most Valuable Player award. Lundgren was the first pitcher to win since 1986. Runners-up by two votes were Paul Mildren and Michael Collins.
18,951,490	American football	1,170,786,490	Team field sport	[ "1869 introductions", "American culture", "American football", "Ball games", "Gridiron football variants", "Sports originating in the United States", "Team sports" ]	American football (referred to simply as football in the United States and Canada), also known as gridiron, is a team sport played by two teams of eleven players on a rectangular field with goalposts at each end. The offense, the team with possession of the oval-shaped football, attempts to advance down the field by running with the ball or passing it, while the defense, the team without possession of the ball, aims to stop the offense's advance and to take control of the ball for themselves. The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs or plays; if they fail, they turn over the football to the defense, but if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs to continue the drive. Points are scored primarily by advancing the ball into the opposing team's end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponent's goalposts for a field goal. The team with the most points at the end of a game wins. American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sports of soccer and rugby. The first American football match was played on November 6, 1869, between two college teams, Rutgers and Princeton, using rules based on the rules of soccer at the time. A set of rule changes drawn up from 1880 onward by Walter Camp, the "Father of American Football", established the snap, the line of scrimmage, eleven-player teams, and the concept of downs. Later rule changes legalized the forward pass, created the neutral zone and specified the size and shape of the football. The sport is closely related to Canadian football, which evolved in parallel with and at the same time as the American game, although its rules were developed independently from those of Camp. Most of the features that distinguish American football from rugby and soccer are also present in Canadian football. The two sports are considered the primary variants of gridiron football. American football is the most popular sport in the United States in terms of broadcast viewership audience. The most popular forms of the game are professional and college football, with the other major levels being high-school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high-school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually. The National Football League, the most popular American professional football league, has the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, ranks among the most-watched club sporting events in the world. The league has an annual revenue of around US\$15 billion, making it the most valuable sports league in the world. Other professional leagues exist worldwide, but the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports like baseball or basketball. ## Etymology and names In the United States, American football is referred to as "football". The term "football" was officially established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season, when the sport first shifted from soccer-style rules to rugby-style rules. Although it could easily have been called "rugby" at this point, Harvard, one of the primary proponents of the rugby-style game, compromised and did not request the name of the sport be changed to "rugby". The terms "gridiron" or "American football" are favored in English-speaking countries where other types of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia. ## History ### Early history American football evolved from the sports of rugby and soccer. Rugby, like American football, is a sport in which two competing teams vie for control of a ball, which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent's goal area to score points. What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6, 1869, between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams. They consisted of 25 players per team and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, with the objective being to advance it into the opponent's goal. Rutgers won the game 6–4. Collegiate play continued for several years with matches played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19, 1873, to create a standard set of rules for use by all schools. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet (122 m × 76 m) were specified. Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball. After playing McGill University using both American (known as "the Boston game") for the first game and Canadian (rugby) rules for the second one, the Harvard players preferred the Canadian style of having only 11 men on the field, running the ball without having to be chased by an opponent, the forward pass, tackling, and using an oblong instead of a round ball. An 1875 Harvard–Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two Princeton athletes who were impressed by it. They introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to "selling refrigerators to Eskimos". Princeton, Harvard, Yale, and Columbia then agreed to intercollegiate play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system. These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879. Yale player Walter Camp, now regarded as the "Father of American Football", secured rule changes in 1880 that reduced the size of each team from 15 to 11 players and instituted the snap to replace the chaotic and inconsistent scrum. While the game between Rutgers and Princeton is commonly considered the first American football game, several years prior in 1862, the Oneida Football Club formed as the oldest known football club in the United States. The team consisted of graduates of Boston's elite preparatory schools and played from 1862 to 1865. ### Evolution of the game The introduction of the snap resulted in an unexpected consequence. Before the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position. However, a group of Princeton players realized that as the snap was uncontested, they could now hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, in a game between Yale and Princeton, both teams used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records. Each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0–0 tie. This "block game" proved extremely unpopular with both teams' spectators and fans. A rule change was necessary to prevent this strategy from taking hold, and a reversion to the scrum was considered. However, Camp successfully proposed a rule in 1882 that limited each team to three downs, or tackles, to advance the ball 5 yards (4.6 m). Failure to advance the ball the required distance within those three downs would result in control of the ball being forfeited to the other team. This change effectively made American football a separate sport from rugby, and the resulting five-yard lines added to the field to measure distances made it resemble a gridiron in appearance. Other major rule changes included a reduction of the field size to 110 by 53+1⁄3 yards (100.6 m × 48.8 m) and the adoption of a scoring system that awarded four points for a touchdown, two for a safety and a goal following a touchdown, and five for a goal from the field. Additionally, tackling below the waist was legalized, and a static line of scrimmage was instituted. Despite these new rules, football remained a violent sport. Dangerous mass-formations like the flying wedge resulted in serious injuries and deaths. A 1905 peak of 19 fatalities nationwide resulted in a threat by President Theodore Roosevelt to abolish the game unless major changes were made. In response, 62 colleges and universities met in New York City to discuss rule changes on December 28, 1905. These proceedings resulted in the formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, later renamed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The legal forward pass was introduced in 1906, although its effect was initially minimal due to the restrictions placed on its use. The idea of a 40-yard-wider field was opposed by Harvard due to the size of the new Harvard Stadium. Other rule changes introduced that year included the reduction of playing time from 70 to 60 minutes and an increase of the distance required for a first down from 5 to 10 yards (4.6 to 9.1 m). To reduce infighting and dirty play between teams, the neutral zone was created along the width of the football before the snap. Scoring was also adjusted: points awarded for field goals were reduced to three in 1909 and points for touchdowns were raised to six in 1912. Also in 1912, the field was shortened to 100 yards (91 m) long, two 10-yard-long (9.1 m) end zones were created, and teams were given four downs instead of three to advance the ball 10 yards (9.1 m). The roughing the passer penalty was implemented in 1914, and eligible players were first allowed to catch the ball anywhere on the field in 1918. ### Professional era On November 12, 1892, Pudge Heffelfinger was paid \$500 () to play a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association in a match against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. This is the first recorded instance of a player being paid to participate in a game of American football, although many athletic clubs in the 1880s offered indirect benefits, such as helping players attain employment, giving out trophies or watches that players could pawn for money, or paying double in expense money. Despite these extra benefits, the game had a strict sense of amateurism at the time, and direct payment to players was frowned upon, if not prohibited outright. Over time, professional play became increasingly common, and with it came rising salaries and unpredictable player movement, as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school. The National Football League (NFL), a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, aimed to solve these problems. This new league's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players, prevention of the use of college players, and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team. By 1922, the NFL had established itself as America's premier professional football league. The dominant form of football at the time was played at the collegiate level. The upstart NFL received a boost to its legitimacy in 1925, however, when an NFL team, the Pottsville Maroons, defeated a team of Notre Dame all-stars in an exhibition game. A greater emphasis on the passing game helped professional football to distinguish itself further from the college game during the late 1930s. Football, in general, became increasingly popular following the 1958 NFL Championship game, a match between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants that is still referred to as the "Greatest Game Ever Played". The game, a 23–17 overtime victory by the Colts, was seen by millions of television viewers and had a major influence on the popularity of the sport. This, along with the innovations introduced by the new American Football League (AFL) in the early 1960s, helped football to become the most popular sport in the United States by the mid-1960s. The rival AFL arose in 1960 and challenged the NFL's dominance. The AFL began in relative obscurity but eventually thrived, with an initial television contract with the ABC television network. The AFL's existence forced the conservative NFL to expand to Dallas and Minnesota in an attempt to destroy the new league. Meanwhile, the AFL introduced many new features to professional football in the United States: official time was kept on a scoreboard clock rather than on a watch in the referee's pocket, as the NFL did; optional two-point conversions by pass or run after touchdowns; names on the jerseys of players; and several others, including expansion of the role of minority players, actively recruited by the league in contrast to the NFL. The AFL also signed several star college players who had also been drafted by NFL teams. Competition for players heated up in 1965, when the AFL New York Jets signed rookie Joe Namath to a then-record \$437,000 contract (equivalent to \$ in ). A five-year, \$40 million NBC television contract followed, which helped to sustain the young league. The bidding war for players ended in 1966 when NFL owners approached the AFL regarding a merger, and the two leagues agreed on one that took full effect in 1970. This agreement provided for a common draft that would take place each year, and it instituted an annual World Championship game to be played between the champions of each league. This championship game began play at the end of the 1966 season. Once the merger was completed, it was no longer a championship game between two leagues and reverted to the NFL championship game, which came to be known as the Super Bowl. College football maintained a tradition of postseason bowl games. Each bowl game was associated with a particular conference and earning a spot in a bowl game was the reward for winning a conference. This arrangement was profitable, but it tended to prevent the two top-ranked teams from meeting in a true national championship game, as they would normally be committed to the bowl games of their respective conferences. Several systems have been used since 1992 to determine a national champion of college football. The first was the Bowl Coalition, in place from 1992 to 1994. This was replaced in 1995 by the Bowl Alliance, which gave way in 1997 to the Bowl Championship Series (BCS). The BCS arrangement proved to be controversial, and was replaced in 2014 by the College Football Playoff (CFP). ## Teams and positions A football game is played between two teams of 11 players each. Playing with more on the field is punishable by a penalty. Teams may substitute any number of their players between downs; this "platoon" system replaced the original system, which featured limited substitution rules, and has resulted in teams utilizing specialized offensive, defensive and special teams units. Individual players in a football game must be designated with a uniform number between 1 and 99. NFL teams are required to number their players by a league-approved numbering system, and any exceptions must be approved by the commissioner. NCAA and NFHS teams are "strongly advised" to number their offensive players according to a league-suggested numbering scheme. Although the sport is played almost exclusively by men, women are eligible to play in high school, college, and professional football. No woman has ever played in the NFL, but women have played in high school and college football games. In 2018, 1,100 of the 225,000 players in Pop Warner Little Scholars youth football were girls, and around 11% of the 5.5 million Americans who report playing tackle football are female according to the Sports and Fitness Industry Association. Women can also serve as officials; Sarah Thomas became the NFL's first female official in 2015. ### Offensive unit The role of the offensive unit is to advance the football down the field with the ultimate goal of scoring a touchdown. The offensive team must line up in a legal formation before they can snap the ball. An offensive formation is considered illegal if there are more than four players in the backfield or fewer than five players numbered 50–79 on the offensive line. Players can line up temporarily in a position whose eligibility is different from what their number permits as long as they report the change immediately to the referee, who then informs the defensive team of the change. Neither team's players, except the center (C), are allowed to line up in or cross the neutral zone until the ball is snapped. Interior offensive linemen are not allowed to move until the snap of the ball. The main backfield positions are the quarterback (QB), halfback/tailback (HB/TB) and fullback (FB). The quarterback is the leader of the offense. Either the quarterback or a coach calls the plays. Quarterbacks typically inform the rest of the offense of the play in the huddle before the team lines up. The quarterback lines up behind the center to take the snap and then hands the ball off, throws it or runs with it. The primary role of the halfback, also known as the running back or tailback, is to carry the ball on running plays. Halfbacks may also serve as receivers. Fullbacks tend to be larger than halfbacks and function primarily as blockers, but they are sometimes used as runners in short-yardage situations and are seldom used in passing situations. The offensive line (OL) consists of several players whose primary function is to block members of the defensive line from tackling the ball carrier on running plays or sacking the quarterback on passing plays. The leader of the offensive line is the center, who is responsible for snapping the ball to the quarterback, blocking, and for making sure that the other linemen do their jobs during the play. On either side of the center are the guards (G), while tackles (T) line up outside the guards. The principal receivers are the wide receivers (WR) and the tight ends (TE). Wide receivers line up on or near the line of scrimmage, split outside the line. The main goal of the wide receiver is to catch passes thrown by the quarterback, but they may also function as decoys or as blockers during running plays. Tight ends line up outside the tackles and function both as receivers and as blockers. ### Defensive unit The role of the defense is to prevent the offense from scoring by tackling the ball carrier or by forcing turnovers (interceptions or fumbles). The defensive line (DL) consists of defensive ends (DE) and defensive tackles (DT). Defensive ends line up on the ends of the line, while defensive tackles line up inside, between the defensive ends. The primary responsibilities of defensive ends and defensive tackles are to stop running plays on the outside and inside, respectively, to pressure the quarterback on passing plays, and to occupy the line so that the linebackers can break through. Linebackers line up behind the defensive line but in front of the defensive backfield. They are divided into two types: middle linebackers (MLB) and outside linebackers (OLB). Linebackers are the defensive leaders and call the defensive plays. Their diverse roles include defending the run, pressuring the quarterback, and guarding backs, wide receivers and tight ends in the passing game. The defensive backfield, often called the secondary, consists of cornerbacks (CB) and safeties (S). Safeties are themselves divided into free safeties (FS) and strong safeties (SS). Cornerbacks line up outside the defensive formation, typically opposite a receiver to be able to cover them. Safeties line up between the cornerbacks but farther back in the secondary. Safeties are the last line of defense and are responsible for stopping deep passing plays as well as running plays. ### Special teams unit The special teams unit is responsible for all kicking plays. The special teams unit of the team in control of the ball tries to execute field goal (FG) attempts, punts and kickoffs, while the opposing team's unit will aim to block or return them. Three positions are specific to the field goal and PAT (point-after-touchdown) unit: the placekicker (K or PK), holder (H) and long snapper (LS). The long snapper's job is to snap the football to the holder, who will catch and position it for the placekicker. There is not usually a holder on kickoffs, because the ball is kicked off a tee; however, a holder may be used in certain situations, such as if wind is preventing the ball from remaining upright on the tee. The player on the receiving team who catches the ball is known as the kickoff returner (KR). The positions specific to punt plays are the punter (P), long snapper, upback and gunner. The long snapper snaps the football directly to the punter, who then drops and kicks it before it hits the ground. Gunners line up split outside the line and race down the field, aiming to tackle the punt returner (PR)—the player who catches the punt. Upbacks line up a short distance behind the line of scrimmage, providing additional protection to the punter. ## Rules ### Scoring In football, the winner is the team that has scored more points at the end of the game. There are multiple ways to score in a football game. The touchdown (TD), worth six points, is the most valuable scoring play in American football. A touchdown is scored when a live ball is advanced into, caught in, or recovered in the opposing team's end zone. The scoring team then attempts a try or conversion, more commonly known as the point(s)-after-touchdown (PAT), which is a single scoring opportunity. A PAT is most commonly attempted from the two- or three-yard line, depending on the level of play. If a PAT is scored by a place kick or drop kick through the goal posts, it is worth one point, typically called the extra point. If it is scored by what would normally be a touchdown it is worth two points, typically called the two-point conversion. In general, the extra point is almost always successful, while the two-point conversion is a much riskier play with a higher probability of failure; accordingly, extra point attempts are far more common than two-point conversion attempts. A field goal (FG), worth three points, is scored when the ball is place kicked or drop kicked through the uprights and over the crossbars of the defense's goalposts. After a PAT attempt or successful field goal, the scoring team must kick the ball off to the other team. A safety is scored when the ball carrier is tackled in his own end zone. Safeties are worth two points, which are awarded to the defense. In addition, the team that conceded the safety must kick the ball to the scoring team via a free kick. ### Field and equipment Football games are played on a rectangular field that measures 120 yards (110 m) long and 53+1⁄3 yards (48.8 m) wide. Lines marked along the ends and sides of the field are known as the end lines and sidelines. Goal lines are marked 10 yards (9.1 m) inward from each end line. Weighted pylons are placed the sidelines on the inside corner of the intersections with the goal lines and end lines. White markings on the field identify the distance from the end zone. Inbound lines, or hash marks, are short parallel lines that mark off 1-yard (0.91 m) increments. Yard lines, which can run the width of the field, are marked every 5 yards (4.6 m). A one-yard-wide line is placed at each end of the field; this line is marked at the center of the two-yard line in professional play and at the three-yard line in college play. Numerals that display the distance from the closest goal line in yards are placed on both sides of the field every ten yards. Goalposts are located at the center of the plane of the two end lines. The crossbar of these posts is 10 feet (3.0 m) above the ground, with vertical uprights at the end of the crossbar 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) apart for professional and collegiate play, and 23 feet 4 inches (7.11 m) apart for high school play. The uprights extend vertically 35 feet (11 m) on professional fields, a minimum of 10 yards (9.1 m) on college fields, and a minimum of 10 feet (3.0 m) on high school fields. Goal posts are padded at the base, and orange ribbons are normally placed at the tip of each upright as indicators of wind strength and direction. The football itself is an oval ball, similar to the balls used in rugby or Australian rules football. At all levels of play, the football is inflated to 12+1⁄2 to 13+1⁄2 pounds per square inch (86 to 93 kPa) and weighs 14 to 15 ounces (400 to 430 g); beyond that, the exact dimensions vary slightly. In professional play the ball has a long axis of 11 to 11+1⁄4 inches (28 to 29 cm), a long circumference of 28 to 28+1⁄2 inches (71 to 72 cm), and a short circumference of 21 to 21+1⁄4 inches (53 to 54 cm). In college and high school play the ball has a long axis of 10+7⁄8 to 11+7⁄16 inches (27.6 to 29.1 cm), a long circumference of 27+3⁄4 to 28+1⁄2 inches (70 to 72 cm), and a short circumference of 20+3⁄4 to 21+1⁄4 inches (53 to 54 cm). ### Duration and time stoppages Football games last for a total of 60 minutes in professional and college play and are divided into two halves of 30 minutes and four quarters of 15 minutes. High school football games are 48 minutes in length with two halves of 24 minutes and four quarters of 12 minutes. The two halves are separated by a halftime period, and the first and third quarters are followed by a short break. Before the game starts, the referee and each team's captain meet at midfield for a coin toss. The visiting team can call either "heads" or "tails"; the winner of the toss chooses whether to receive or kick off the ball or which goal they wish to defend. They can defer their choice until the second half. Unless the winning team decides to defer, the losing team chooses the option the winning team did not select—to receive, kick, or select a goal to defend to begin the second half. Most teams choose to receive or defer, because choosing to kick the ball to start the game allows the other team to choose which goal to defend. Teams switch goals following the first and third quarters. If a down is in progress when a quarter ends, play continues until the down is completed. Games last longer than their defined length due to play stoppages—the average NFL game lasts slightly over three hours. Time in a football game is measured by the game clock. An operator is responsible for starting, stopping and operating the game clock based on the direction of the appropriate official. A separate play clock is used to show the amount of time within which the offense must initiate a play. The play clock is set to 25 seconds after certain administrative stoppages in play and to 40 seconds when play is proceeding without such stoppages. If the offense fails to start a play before the play clock reads "00", a delay of game foul is called on the offense. ### Advancing the ball and downs There are two main ways the offense can advance the ball: running and passing. In a typical play, the center passes the ball backwards and between their legs to the quarterback in a process known as the snap. The quarterback then either hands the ball off to a running back, throws the ball, or runs with it. The play ends when the player with the ball is tackled or goes out-of-bounds or a pass hits the ground without a player having caught it. A forward pass can be legally attempted only if the passer is behind the line of scrimmage; only one forward pass can be attempted per down. As in rugby, players can also pass the ball backwards at any point during a play. In the NFL, a down also ends immediately if the runner's helmet comes off. The offense is given a series of four plays, known as downs. If the offense advances ten or more yards in the four downs, they are awarded a new set of four downs. If they fail to advance ten yards, possession of the football is turned over to the defense. In most situations, if the offense reaches their fourth down they will punt the ball to the other team, which forces them to begin their drive from farther down the field; if they are in field goal range, they might attempt to score a field goal instead. A group of officials, the chain crew, keeps track of both the downs and the distance measurements. On television, a yellow line is electronically superimposed on the field to show the first down line to the viewing audience. ### Kicking There are two categories of kicks in football: scrimmage kicks, which can be executed by the offensive team on any down from behind or on the line of scrimmage, and free kicks. The free kicks are the kickoff, which starts the first and third quarters and overtime and follows a try attempt or a successful field goal; the safety kick follows a safety. On a kickoff, the ball is placed at the 35-yard line of the kicking team in professional and college play and at the 40-yard line in high school play. The ball may be drop kicked or place kicked. If a place kick is chosen, the ball can be placed on the ground or a tee; a holder may be used in either case. On a safety kick, the kicking team kicks the ball from their own 20-yard line. They can punt, drop kick or place kick the ball, but a tee may not be used in professional play. Any member of the receiving team may catch or advance the ball. The ball may be recovered by the kicking team once it has gone at least ten yards and has touched the ground or has been touched by any member of the receiving team. The three types of scrimmage kicks are place kicks, drop kicks, and punts. Only place kicks and drop kicks can score points. The place kick is the standard method used to score points, because the pointy shape of the football makes it difficult to reliably drop kick. Once the ball has been kicked from a scrimmage kick, it can be advanced by the kicking team only if it is caught or recovered behind the line of scrimmage. If it is touched or recovered by the kicking team beyond this line, it becomes dead at the spot where it was touched. The kicking team is prohibited from interfering with the receiver's opportunity to catch the ball. The receiving team has the option of signaling for a fair catch, which prohibits the defense from blocking into or tackling the receiver. The play ends as soon as the ball is caught and the ball may not be advanced. ### Officials and fouls Officials are responsible for enforcing game rules and monitoring the clock. All officials carry a whistle and wear black-and-white striped shirts and black hats except for the referee, whose hat is white. Each carries a weighted yellow flag that is thrown to the ground to signal that a foul has been called. An official who spots multiple fouls will throw their hat as a secondary signal. The seven officials (of a standard seven-man crew; lower levels of play up to the college level use fewer officials) on the field are each tasked with a different set of responsibilities: - The referee is positioned behind and to the side of the offensive backs. The referee is charged with oversight and control of the game and is the authority on the score, the down number, and any rule interpretations in discussions among the other officials. The referee announces all penalties and discusses the infraction with the offending team's captain, monitors for illegal hits against the quarterback, makes requests for first-down measurements, and notifies the head coach whenever a player is ejected. The referee positions themselves to the passing arm side of the quarterback. In most games, the referee is responsible for spotting the football prior to a play from scrimmage. - The umpire is positioned in the defensive backfield, except in the NFL, where the umpire is positioned lateral to the referee on the opposite side of the formation. The umpire watches play along the line of scrimmage to make sure that no more than 11 offensive players are on the field before the snap and that no offensive linemen are illegally downfield on pass plays. The umpire monitors contact between offensive and defensive linemen and calls most of the holding penalties. The umpire records the number of timeouts taken and the winner of the coin toss and the game score, assists the referee in situations involving possession of the ball close to the line of scrimmage, determines whether player equipment is legal, and dries wet balls prior to the snap if a game is played in rain. - The back judge is positioned deep in the defensive backfield, behind the umpire. The back judge ensures that the defensive team has no more than 11 players on the field and determines whether catches are legal, whether field goal or extra point attempts are good, and whether a pass interference violation occurred. The back judge is also responsible for the play clock, the time between each play, when a visible play clock is not used. - The head linesman/down judge is positioned on one end of the line of scrimmage. The head linesman/down judge watches for any line-of-scrimmage and illegal use-of-hands violations and assists the line judge with illegal shift or illegal motion calls. The head linesman/down judge also rules on out-of-bounds calls that happen on their side of the field, oversees the chain crew and marks the forward progress of a runner when a play has been whistled dead. - The side judge is positioned twenty yards downfield of the head linesman. The side judge mainly duplicates the functions of the field judge. On field goal and extra point attempts, the side judge is positioned lateral to the umpire. - The line judge is positioned on the end of the line of scrimmage, opposite the head linesman. They supervise player substitutions, the line of scrimmage during punts, and game timing. The line judge notifies the referee when time has expired at the end of a quarter and notifies the head coach of the home team when five minutes remain for halftime. In the NFL, the line judge also alerts the referee when two minutes remain in the half. If the clock malfunctions or becomes inoperable, the line judge becomes the official timekeeper. - The field judge is positioned twenty yards downfield from the line judge. The field judge monitors and controls the play clock, counts the number of defensive players on the field and watches for offensive pass interference and illegal use-of-hands violations by offensive players. The field judge also makes decisions regarding catches, recoveries, the ball spot when a player goes out of bounds, and illegal touching of fumbled balls that have crossed the line of scrimmage. On field goal and extra point attempts, the field judge is stationed under the upright opposite the back judge. - The center judge is an eighth official used only in the top level of college football. The center judge stands lateral to the referee, the same way the umpire does in the NFL. The center judge is responsible for spotting the football after each play and has many of the same responsibilities as the referee, except announcing penalties. Another set of officials, the chain crew, are responsible for moving the chains. The chains, consisting of two large sticks with a 10-yard-long chain between them, are used to measure for a first down. The chain crew stays on the sidelines during the game, but if requested by the officials they will briefly bring the chains on to the field to measure. A typical chain crew will have at least three people—two members of the chain crew will hold either of the two sticks, while a third will hold the down marker. The down marker, a large stick with a dial on it, is flipped after each play to indicate the current down and is typically moved to the approximate spot of the ball. The chain crew system has been used for over 100 years and is considered to be an accurate measure of distance, rarely subject to criticism from either side. ## Safety and brain health Football is a full-contact sport, and injuries are relatively common. Most injuries occur during training sessions, particularly ones that involve contact between players. To try to prevent injuries, players are required to wear a set of equipment. At a minimum players must wear a football helmet and a set of shoulder pads, but individual leagues may require additional padding such as thigh pads and guards, knee pads, chest protectors, and mouthguards. Most injuries occur in the lower extremities, particularly in the knee, but a significant number also affect the upper extremities. The most common types of injuries are strains, sprains, bruises, fractures, dislocations, and concussions. Repeated concussions (and possibly sub-concussive head impacts) can increase a person's risk in later life for CTE (chronic traumatic encephalopathy) and mental health issues such as dementia, Parkinson's disease, and depression. Concussions are often caused by helmet-to-helmet or upper-body contact between opposing players, although helmets have prevented more serious injuries such as skull fractures. Various programs are aiming to reduce concussions by reducing the frequency of helmet-to-helmet hits; USA Football's "Heads Up Football" program aims to reduce concussions in youth football by teaching coaches and players about the signs of a concussion, the proper way to wear football equipment and ensure it fits, and proper tackling methods that avoid helmet-to-helmet contact. However, a study in the Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine found that Heads Up Football was ineffective; the same study noted that more extensive reforms implemented by Pop Warner Little Scholars and its member teams were effective in significantly reducing concussion rates. A 2018 study performed by the VA Boston Healthcare System and the Boston University School of Medicine found that tackle football before age 12 was correlated with earlier onset of symptoms of CTE, but not with symptom severity. More specifically, each year a player played tackle football under age 12 predicted earlier onset of cognitive, behavioral, and mood problems by an average of two and a half years. ## Leagues and tournaments The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are the most popular football leagues in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 during the 2011 NFL season. The NFL championship game is called the Super Bowl, and is among the biggest events in club sports worldwide. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy. College football is the third-most popular sport in the United States, behind professional baseball and professional football. The NCAA, the largest collegiate organization, is divided into three Divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III. Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions: the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The champions of each level of play are determined through NCAA-sanctioned playoff systems; while the champion of Division I-FBS was historically determined by various polls and ranking systems, the subdivision adopted a four-team playoff system in 2014. High school football is the most popular sport in the United States played by boys; over 1.1 million boys participated in the sport from 2007 to 2008 according to a survey by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). There is a stark contrast in youth football participation between boys and girls. Only one youth football league exists in the United States for girls, the GFL. The NFHS is the largest organization for high school football, with member associations in all 50 states as well as the District of Columbia. USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football, and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football. ### Other professional leagues Several professional football leagues have been formed outside the auspices of the NFL. #### Rival leagues The most successful league to directly compete with the NFL was the American Football League (AFL), which existed from 1960 to 1969. The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five-year, US\$36 million television deal with NBC. AFL teams began signing NFL players to contracts, and the league's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL. The two leagues merged in the 1970 season, and all the AFL teams joined the NFL. An earlier league, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), was in play from 1946 to 1949. After it had dissolved, two AAFC teams, the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers, became members of the NFL; another member, the Baltimore Colts joined the league, but folded after just a year in the NFL. Other attempts to start rival leagues since the AFL merged with the NFL in 1970 have been far less successful, as professional football salaries and the NFL's television contracts began to escalate out of the reach of competitors and the NFL covered more of the larger cities. The World Football League (WFL) played for two seasons, in 1974 and 1975, but faced such severe monetary issues it could not pay its players. In its second and final season the WFL attempted to establish a stable credit rating, but the league disbanded before the season could be completed. The United States Football League (USFL) operated for three seasons from 1983 to 1985. Originally not intended as a rival league, the entry of owners who sought marquee talent and to challenge the NFL led to an escalation in salaries and ensuing financial losses. A subsequent US\$1.5 billion antitrust lawsuit against the NFL was successful in court, but the league was awarded only \$1 in damages, which was automatically tripled to \$3 under antitrust law. #### Complementary national leagues The original XFL was created in 2001 by Vince McMahon and lasted for only one season. Despite television contracts with NBC and UPN, and high expectations, the XFL suffered from low quality of play and poor reception for its use of tawdry professional wrestling gimmicks, which caused initially high ratings and attendance to collapse. The XFL was rebooted in 2020. However, after only five weeks of play, the league's operations slowly came to a close due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and filed for bankruptcy on April 13. The United Football League (UFL) began in 2009 but folded after suspending its 2012 season amid declining interest and lack of major television coverage. The Alliance of American Football lasted less than one season, unable to keep investors. ### International play American football leagues exist throughout the world, but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball. It is not an Olympic sport, but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics. At the international level, Canada, Mexico, and Japan are considered to be second-tier, while Austria, Germany, and France would rank among a third tier. These countries rank far below the United States, which is dominant at the international level. NFL Europa, the developmental league of the NFL, operated from 1991 to 1992 and then from 1995 to 2007. At the time of its closure, NFL Europa had five teams based in Germany and one in the Netherlands. In Germany, the German Football League (GFL) has 16 teams and has operated for over 40 seasons, with the league's championship game, the German Bowl, closing out each season. The league operates in a promotion and relegation structure with German Football League 2 (GFL2), which also has 16 teams. The BIG6 European Football League functions as a continental championship for Europe. The competition is contested between the top six European teams. The United Kingdom also operated several teams within NFL Europe during the League's tenure. The resulting rise in popularity of the sport brought the NFL back to the country in 2007 where they now hold the NFL International Series in London, currently consisting of four regular season games. The continuing interest and growth in both the sport and the series has led to the possible formation of a potential NFL franchise in London An American football league system already exists within the UK, the BAFANL, which has run under various guises since 1983. It currently has 70 teams operating across the tiers of contact football in which teams aim to earn promotion to the Division above, with the Premier Division teams competing to win the Britbowl, the annual British Football Bowl game that has been played since 1985. In 2007 the British Universities American Football League was formed. From 2008, the BUAFL was officially associated with the National Football League (NFL), through its partner organization NFL UK. In 2012, BUAFL's league and teams were absorbed into BUCS after American football became an official BUCS sport. Over the period 2007 to 2014, the BUAFL grew from 42 teams and 2,460 participants to 75 teams and over 4,100 people involved. American football federations are present in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania; a total of 64 national football federations exist as of July 2012. The International Federation of American Football (IFAF), an international governing body composed of continental federations, runs tournaments such as the IFAF World Championship, the IFAF Women's World Championship, the IFAF U-19 World Championship and the Flag Football World Championship. The IFAF also organizes the annual International Bowl game. The IFAF has received provisional recognition from the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Several major obstacles hinder the IFAF goal of achieving status as an Olympic sport. These include the predominant participation of men in international play and the short three-week Olympic schedule. Large team sizes are an additional difficulty, due to the Olympics' set limit of 10,500 athletes and coaches. American football also has an issue with a lack of global visibility. Nigel Melville, the CEO of USA Rugby, noted that "American football is recognized globally as a sport, but it's not played globally." To solve these concerns, major effort has been put into promoting flag football, a modified version of American football, at the international level. ## Popularity and cultural influence ### United States "Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1 million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular single-day sporting event in the United States, and is among the biggest club sporting events in the world in terms of TV viewership. The NFL makes approximately \$10 billion annually. Super Bowl games account for seven of the top eight most-watched broadcasts in American history; Super Bowl XLIX, played on February 1, 2015, was watched by a record 114.4 million Americans. American football also plays a significant role in American culture. The day on which the Super Bowl is held is considered a de facto national holiday, and in parts of the country like Texas, the sport has been compared to a religion. Football is also linked to other holidays; New Year's Day is traditionally the date for several college football bowl games, including the Rose Bowl. However, if New Year's Day is on a Sunday, the bowl games are moved to another date so as not to conflict with the typical NFL Sunday schedule. Thanksgiving football is an American tradition, hosting many high school, college, and professional games. Steve Deace of USA Today wrote that Americans are passionate about football "because it embodies everything we love about American exceptionalism. Merit is rewarded, not punished. Masculinity is celebrated, not feminized. People of various beliefs and backgrounds – a melting pot, if you will – must unify for a common goal for the team to be successful". Implicit rules such as playing through pain and sacrificing for the better of the team are promoted in football culture. The safety of the sport has also sparked national controversy in American popular culture. The 2015 film Concussion aimed to shed light on the sport's safety, specifically in the NFL by having Will Smith portray Dr. Bennet Omalu, a neuropathologist who was the first to discover and publish findings of chronic traumatic encephalopathy or CTE. ### Other countries In Canada, the game has a significant following. According to a 2013 poll, 21% of respondents said they followed the NFL "very closely" or "fairly closely", making it the third-most followed league behind the National Hockey League (NHL) and Canadian Football League (CFL). American football also has a long history in Mexico, which was introduced to the sport in 1896. It was the second-most popular sport in Mexico in the 1950s, with the game being particularly popular in colleges. The Los Angeles Times notes the NFL claims over 16 million fans in Mexico, which places the country third behind the U.S. and Canada. American football is played in Mexico both professionally and as part of the college sports system. A professional league, the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional (LFA), was founded in 2016. Japan was introduced to the sport in 1934 by Paul Rusch, a teacher and Christian missionary who helped to establish football teams at three universities in Tokyo. Play was halted during World War II, but the sport began growing in popularity again after the war. As of 2010, there are more than 400 high school football teams in Japan, with over 15,000 participants, and over 100 teams play in the Kantoh Collegiate Football Association (KCFA). The college champion plays the champion of the X-League (a semi-professional league in which teams are financed by corporations) in the Rice Bowl to determine Japan's national champion. Europe is a major target for the expansion of the game by football organizers. In the United Kingdom in the 1980s, the sport was popular, with the 1986 Super Bowl being watched by over four million people (about 1 out of every 14 Britons). Its popularity faded during the 1990s, coinciding with the establishment of the Premier League—top level of the English football league system. According to BBC America, there is a "social stigma" surrounding American football in the UK, with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself "football" due to the lack of emphasis on kicking. Nonetheless, the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom; the NFL operates a media network in the country, and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London. Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded, with over 4.4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI. The sport is played in European countries like Switzerland, which has American football clubs in every major city, and Germany, where the sport has around 45,000 registered amateur players. In Brazil, football is a growing sport. It was generally unknown there until the 1980s when a small group of players began playing on Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro. The sport grew gradually with 700 amateur players registering within 20 years. Games were played on the beach with modified rules and without the traditional football equipment due to its lack of availability in Brazil. Eventually, a tournament, the Carioca championship, was founded, with the championship Carioca Bowl played to determine a league champion. The country saw its first full-pad game of football in October 2008. According to The Rio Times, the sport is one of the fastest-growing sports in Brazil and is almost as commonly played as soccer on the beaches of Copacabana and Botafogo. Football in Brazil is governed by the Confederação Brasileira de Futebol Americano (CBFA), which had over 5,000 registered players as of November 2013. The sport's increase in popularity has been attributed to games aired on ESPN, which began airing in Brazil in 1992 with Portuguese commentary. The popularity and "easy accessibility" of non-contact versions of the sport in Brazil has led to a rise in participation by female players. According to ESPN, the American football audience in Brazil increased 800% between 2013 and 2016. The network, along with Esporte Interativo, airs games there on cable television. Football is often associated in Brazil as being the sport of supermodel Gisele Bündchen's ex-husband Tom Brady. The NFL has expressed interest in having games in the country, and the Super Bowl has become a widely watched event in Brazil at bars and movie theaters. ## Variations and related sports Canadian football, the predominant form of football in Canada, is closely related to American football—both sports developed from rugby and are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football. Although both games share a similar set of rules, there are several key rule differences: for example, in Canadian football the field measures 150 by 65 yards (137 by 59 m), including two 20-yard end zones (for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards), teams have three downs instead of four, there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven, fair catches are not allowed, and a rouge, worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball out of the defense's end zone. The Canadian Football League (CFL) is the major Canadian league and is the second-most popular sporting league in Canada, behind the National Hockey League. The NFL and CFL had a formal working relationship from 1997 to 2006. The CFL has a strategic partnership with two American football leagues, the German Football League (GFL) and the Liga de Futbol Americano Profesional (LFA). The Canadian rules were developed separately from the American game. Indoor football leagues constitute what The New York Times writer Mike Tanier described as the "most minor of minor leagues." Leagues are unstable, with franchises regularly moving from one league to another or merging with other teams, and teams or entire leagues dissolving completely; games are only attended by a small number of fans, and most players are semi-professional athletes. The Indoor Football League is an example of a prominent indoor league. The Arena Football League, which was founded in 1987 and ceased operations in 2019, was one of the longest-lived indoor football leagues. In 2004, the league was called "America's fifth major sport" by ESPN The Magazine. There are several non-contact variants of football like flag football. In flag football the ballcarrier is not tackled; instead, defenders aim to pull a flag tied around the ballcarrier's waist. Another variant, touch football, simply requires the ballcarrier to be touched to be considered downed. Depending on the rules used, a game of touch football may require the ballcarrier be touched with either one or two hands to be considered downed. ## See also - American football strategy - Comparison of American football and rugby union - Comparison of American football and rugby league - Fantasy football (gridiron) - List of American football films - Lists of American football players - List of American football stadiums by capacity - List of American and Canadian football leagues - Doping in American football
19,082,490	Good Morning (Kanye West song)	1,168,282,491	null	[ "2007 songs", "Animated music videos", "Kanye West songs", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Songs with lyrics by Bernie Taupin", "Songs with music by Elton John", "Songs written by Kanye West" ]	"Good Morning" is the first song from American hip hop recording artist and record producer Kanye West's third studio album Graduation (2007). The song was produced by West and contains samples from the recording "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" by English singer and pianist Elton John. As the opening track, the song serves as an introduction to the musical and lyrical themes of the album. West establishes the academic narrative of it, celebrating his graduation in the realm of hip hop and rapping about his skepticism of higher education over thumping, off-kilter boom bap drums. The composition of "Good Morning" is both light and dark in tone and retains keyboard-laden, electronic instrumentation in addition to being imbued with poignant introspection. The song's atmospheric hip hop production harbors a subdued measure of progressiveness as West incorporates New-Age and ambient elements. His pensive verses are largely built on self-aggrandizing undercut with self-criticism and explore lyrical concerns pertaining to anti-establishment. The song's lyrics express motivational declarations of triumph and contain numerous pop-culture references. "Good Morning" received generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised its production as well as West's wordplay. West performed the song as the opener of the set-list on his worldwide Glow in the Dark Tour (2008). In the years since its release, the song has been covered and remixed by a variety of hip hop artists, record producers and musical groups. Though not released as a single, an animated music video was produced for "Good Morning". The video was directed by Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami, who had designed the album artwork of Graduation and the cover art for the album's singles. The surrealistic visuals of the video take influences from Japanese animé and utilises cel-shaded animation. The narrative is centered around West's anthropomorphic teddy bear mascot Dropout Bear. He overcomes various obstacles while racing through a futuristic city in an effort to reach his college campus in time for his graduation ceremony. The short animated feature was released to widespread critical acclaim and is often cited as one of West's most artistic music videos. It was included in the 'best-of' lists of publications such as Billboard and Complex, and has been showcased in multiple art museums. ## Background "Good Morning" was written and produced by West. Due to being the album's introductory track, the song's original title was "Good Morning (Intro)," but subsequently was changed. Unlike its predecessors, rather than a fake Bernie Mac intro or a Broke-Phi-Broke skit, the album-opener instead begins with vocals from West. Along with West's usage of the vocal samples, one of the most distinctive aspects of the production for "Good Morning" is the significant emphasis on electronics. The opening track signals his progression towards a more electronic soundscape. The song contains samples from the recording "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" by English singer and pianist Elton John. Incidentally, John had professed a desire to work with West during a Rolling Stone interview on August 25, 2006. John imparted that with the assistance from an artist such as West or Pharrell Williams, both of whom he tremendously respects, he wanted to bring his songs and melodies to hip hop beats. It was while he was discussing his forthcoming autobiographical studio album The Captain & the Kid (2006). Being a concept album, it acts as the sequel to his ninth album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy (1975), which contains the song that West samples. Years later, the two artists officially collaborated with one another on West's fifth studio album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010), which John described as "genius." John played the piano and was one of many in a long roster of recording artists who provided background vocals for the fifth track "All of the Lights". "Good Morning" was first heard by music listeners when the digital radio station BBC Radio 1Xtra hosted an exclusive "Audience With Kanye West" venue at the BBC Radio Music Theatre in London on August 13, 2007. West guided a specially selected audience through Graduation, playing the album in its entirety directly from his MacBook Air laptop via a speaker system. The premiere was part of an extensive promotional campaign that West embarked on for his third album during a trip to the United Kingdom. Two weeks later, "Good Morning" was played as an opener when West hosted an album listening session for Graduation in New York City. The late-night album listening session was held at the New World Stages on August 28, 2007. Inside an auditorium, West explained the influences and aspirations that went into the making of his third album. Throughout the night, he played previews of its songs from start-to-finish without interruption, some with video accompaniment to match. When West played "Good Morning," scenes from the film 2001: A Space Odyssey were broadcast on a screen while lights flashed in sequence with the thumping beat of the track. ## Recording "Good Morning" was the first track that West started working on for Graduation. Recording sessions primarily took place at Sony Music Studios in New York City and at The Record Plant in Hollywood, California. The track was then mixed at the Chalice Recording Studios in Hollywood, California. According to former GOOD Music recording artist Tony Williams, West first booked a studio in Detroit, Michigan to begin working on the recording in February 2006. He was in Detroit to perform for a pre-game concert held during VH1's Pepsi Smash Super Bowl Bash festivities of Super Bowl XL, when the Seattle Seahawks played against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Beginning in early 2006, West had overseen the recording and production of Graduation simultaneously with Finding Forever (2007), the seventh studio album of his close friend, fellow Chicago hip hop artist and label affiliate Common. As a result, there was significant overlap in between the studio sessions for the two records. Common was helpful in facilitating the composing process, as West producing songs for his album would sometimes either lead to the making of hip-hop beats or inspire creative ideas which were applied towards his own project. "Good Morning" was a case of the latter in regards to its programmed drums. The track's murky, slightly off-kilter drum-machine beat that West crafted aligns with the J Dilla methodology he channeled and maintained throughout Finding Forever in tribute to the recent passing of the underground hip hop producer. West's newfound fascination with house-music also played a role on his approach to drum programming. He relied more on clipped electro tones for his rhythmic patterns, giving the drum beats more of a punch. In contrast to Finding Forever, West set aside his trademark soul samples in favor of airy synthesizer tones that would carry well when performed in arenas. Like most of the material throughout his third album, West's songwriting on "Good Morning" is characterized by confessional storytelling and simplified lyricism. West shortened his lines for each verse in order to more directly get his lyrical concerns across. As for his rapping, after touring with and studying the live performances of European arena rock bands such as U2 and the Rolling Stones, West decided to simplify some of his rhymes due to not always being able to rock crowds with complex lyrics. He opted for a less intricate lyrical delivery featuring lines built on anthemic sloganeering with a more universal context. This would work in combination with sing-along hooks that tens of thousands of fans could chant in unison at his stadium concerts. "Good Morning" contains additional vocals provided by Australian singer Connie Mitchell of the dance music group Sneaky Sound System, as well as soul singer Tony Williams. West had Connie Mitchell and Tony Williams sing a descending vocal line together over the looped sample. Their celestial unison singing and the floating monophonic vocal loop combine to form a warm background harmony. The oohing vocals from the ethereal backing choir function as a hook which serves to further engender moody atmosphere. The song also includes an interpolation of vocals that were provided by rapper Jay-Z which are spliced into the song's outro. During the closing refrain, Jay-Z briefly recites a line from "The Ruler's Back", the rapper's own opening track for his album, The Blueprint. Similar to Finding Forever, the album's record production had been handled primarily by West. West altered the rhythm of the phrase by omitting a word in order to place more emphasis on the beat. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Jay-Z detailed some backstory in regards to his small contribution. From a creative stance, West was apparently quite enthusiastic about the incorporation of his a capella into the track. Jay-Z explained, "You have to really care about the music ... [Kanye] was bragging about having the a capella. He's like, 'Yo, that's how I spun it, 'cause I had the a capella.' I'm like, wow! The things he cares about! That's not a big thing, but in his mind, 'I had the a capella, so I was able to put that in there without any drums.'" Although he does provide the additional vocals, Graduation marks the first studio album released by West not to feature a full-length guest rap verse from Jay-Z. ## Composition "Good Morning" is an uptempo hip hop track that lasts for a duration of three minutes and 15 seconds. The song's musical and lyrical content is both light and dark in tone. It harbors an atmosphere that is sunny and largely optimistic, but also wary and sentimental. The progressive hip hop song contains elements of electronic and ambient music as well as New-Age keyboards. It has a minimal and downbeat electronic instrumentation which consists of keyboards, muted drums, and background vocals. "Good Morning" begins when West utters controlled "uh" grunts before he unleashes the track's thumping, off-kilter boom bap drums. The song's opening section then initiates an static backbeat derived from echoed-out cowbell hits. Its steady, metronomic cowbell beats punctuate the subversive, trembling bass drum rhythm and generate an insistent laid-back groove. The main accompaniment comes in the form of enigmatic, organ-like electric piano keys layered with a resounding, high-pitched electronic synth-drone. After its sparse introduction, the building arrangement abruptly becomes awash in layers of keyboards at the arrival of the atmospheric refrain. "Good Morning" is simplistic in its gentle chorus, where West repeats the title of the track four times. Following each repetition of the titular phrase are haunting choral chants which are in turn accented by subtle instrumental fills. The echoing synth line from the introduction is accompanied by dreamy synth-chords. The song's hook retains wafting vocal harmonies composed with the use of wordless falsetto vocal samples from the recording "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" by Elton John. West's style of rapping is slick and keenly aggressive during the three eight-bar verses. His straightforward lyrical delivery exhibits a slow-paced, less technical approach to flow. After its third verse, "Good Morning" elevates itself from a refrain to an outro that features the voice of Jay-Z. He utters lyrics from the opening lines of "The Ruler's Back". The musical composition reaches its conclusion with the pairing of Jay-Z's additional vocals to synthesizer parts. Lyrically, "Good Morning" is a triumphant declaration of professional and financial achievement. It continues the education theme which was established by his previous studio albums The College Dropout (2004) and Late Registration (2005). Both of the first two installments of West's planned album tetralogy began with an introductory track that involves a school administrator who labels him a disappointment. By contrast, "Good Morning" starts off the third studio album with West graduating to the next level of success and proceeding towards the next phase of his career. Accordingly, West uses the album-opener of Graduation to deliver an anthemic commencement address. He announces that his record functions as a dissertation, making an analogy in which he likens his music to academia. West compares overcoming life's hindrances to finishing a university most directly when he professes that, "You graduate when you make it up out of the streets." While primarily an uplifting anthem, West's lyrics are ouroboric in nature, being structured on self-aggrandisement undercut with harsh self-criticism. They suggest that every new success or achievement gives him more new reasons to doubt himself. His conflicted, confessional lyricism and delivery is emphasized by way of the disarmingly simple, easygoing quality of the track's beat. The song's pensive verses discuss lyrical concerns related to anti-elitism and anti-establishment. West critiques societal hierarchies produced by the homogenization of the American education system. Alongside motivational declarations of triumph, the lyrics of "Good Morning" are home to energetic, amusing word play laced with numerous pop-culture references. They pertain to actress Rosie Perez, the 1989 Spike Lee film Do the Right Thing, civil rights leader Malcolm X, and the classic 1980s science-fiction film series Back to the Future. West lays bear the forward-thinking theme of the album and critiques his peers when he rhymes, "Good Morning, look at the valedictorian/scared of the future while I hop in the DeLorean." The song also includes an interpolation of the line, "Hustlers, that's if you're still livin', get on down..." from Jay-Z's 2001 album The Blueprint. ## Critical reception "Good Morning" was met with generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics. John Wash for Hot Press called the musical composition "glorious." He elaborates that the track's "dark, neurotic beats may form the backdrop, but the deliciously cheesy sampling lifts the song firmly into the pop spectrum." Entertainment Weeklys Isabella Biedenharn noted, "the smooth, sublime 'Good Morning' is just so fresh and untethered — it's Kanye living in a pure, creative dream-space." Natalie Weiner from Billboard has named "Good Morning" as one of West's most uplifting anthems, saying, "The Elton John sample, combined with Kanye's anti-establishment fervor, will make anyone feel better about their relative lack of diplomas." RapReview's Jesa Padania also considered "Good Morning" to be a strong way to start the studio album and expressed affinity for the song's simple yet soulful hip-hop beat. Chase Hoffberger from The Austin Chronicle gave praise to the innovative manner in which West samples Elton John for the record production. The Observer staff writer Ben Thompson listed "Good Morning" as one of the top five songs from Graduation. The Michigan Daily writer Brian Chen claimed the recording "stands among the best of West's productions, combining gospel howls, synthesizers and strings, all over a bone-crushing bass." Sound & Vision reviewer Jeff Perlah viewed "Good Morning" as a demonstration of how West "continues to bounce hip-hop into exciting new realms that are artful." Rajveer Kathwadia of RWD Magazine cited the track as one of the best songs on Graduation. Although he withholds the belief that it's West's musicality that's a true measurement of his talent, Kathwadia nevertheless commended his improvement as a rapper and marked the Malcolm X lyric as the album's standout line. Likewise, Rolling Stone writer Evan Serpick called the Malcolm X reference a "classic one-liner." Dave Heaton from PopMatters also highlighted West's clever word play, musing, "Bad puns have been the foundation of West's lyrical approach since the beginning, and it works." In a less enthusiastic review, Japie Stoppelenburg of No Ripcord described "Good Morning" as a "concise but slightly blunt effort." Stoppelenburg goes on to say "the track is innocuous and respectably fun, but it never really steps out of its modesty like so many of Kanye's earlier tracks have." In a retrospective article, Brendan Klinkenberg for Complex encapsulated the opening track: > "... 'Good Morning' is [West's] cleanest opener, on his cleanest album; the perfect first step to what would be the capstone to the College trilogy, and the last time he would privilege cohesiveness in his catalogue. In his words, Graduation is his dissertation, and its first track is its thesis. 'Ye would take over the world, watch it crumble around him, then get more artistically daring with each subsequent release—Good Ass Job would never show up, and he would abandon the things that make this song great: it's focused, three-verse structure, gently building beat, and sweet sense of melancholy. 'Ye would go on to burn his influences and talent down for scraps, and began to create weirder, bigger things. One thing he never lost, though, was his ability to start an album." ### Accolades A columnist from Paste bestowed "Good Morning" with much acclaim and ranked it as West's 60th best album track. He declared, "'Good Morning' isn't West just waking himself up to the next level of his evolution, it's West waking up the world to its next legend." Pigeons & Planes placed the opener at number 12 under their list of West's 25 best songs that weren't released as singles. Consequence of Sound listed it at number 18 among their top 20 West songs. To summarize the track's concept, editor Jeremy Larson wrote, "The morning of the commencement, a new day for 'Ye, the processional, the intro. It's all there in "Good Morning," the first taste of what would be the blasted synths and huge sound of Graduation. Jake Boyer of Highsnobiety cited "Good Morning" as the sixth best song on Graduation and West's 28th best overall, writing, "Whether it's facing the sort of life-changing event like the graduation of its lyrics or easing yourself out of a particularly rough patch, this song is here, a healing salve for all wounds." He remarked that the track's sonic cues "[make] good on Kanye's narrative catharsis. Somehow, through all the bullshit, we made it to graduation day, and yes, it sounds this damn triumphant." Portland rapper Aminé, who cites West as a musical influence, stated that the track is one of his favorite songs. He imparted, "'Good Morning' was a song that just made me feel good and I could still turn it on today. It was one of the first times where I started to hear bright, positive, hip-hop." XXL named "Good Morning" one of the 25 best Hip-Hop album intro's of the 21st century in 2019. ## Music video ### Development Even though it was not released as a single, a three-minute animated music video was produced for "Good Morning". West commissioned the video to be directed by Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami. He had been enlisted by West to oversee the art direction of Graduation and was behind the cover art designs for the album and its accompanying singles. The collaboration first came about when West visited Murakami's Kaikai Kiki Co. studio in Roppongi Hills during a brief trip to Tokyo, Japan in the midst of touring the year prior. Regarding his joint collaboration with the artist, West remarked, "Murakami, his work has been stunning to me because pop art is really expressive, representative and expressive and emotional, and it looks like something you can do yourself. [But] you cannot do no Murakami shit yourself. You cannot do this at home. He has this studio out in Japan that has 30 artists working at one time. I love Japanese culture and I was always into art, and Murakmi is a god in the art world." The short animated feature expresses glossy, colorful pastel imagery that take cues from Superflat, a post-modern art movement influenced by Japanese manga and animé which was founded by Murakami. Often called "the Warhol of Japan," Murakami's surrealistic visual art is characterized by cartoonish creatures which appear friendly and cheerful at first glance, but possess dark, twisted undertones. The artistic concept involves a fantastic, grotesque and sometimes dark universe of creatures like "Mr. Dob," "Smiley-Face Flowers," and colorful mushrooms. The three-dimensional art technique blends artistry with Japanese anime and launched Murakami to fame in the 1990s. It also attracted the attention of Marc Jacobs, creative director of Louis Vuitton, who recruited Muramki to revise the traditional LV monogram brand logo for their line of handbags and accessories. The commercially successful venture paved the way for Murakami's artwork to cross over into commerce and other mediums, propelling him into an internationally recognized artist. For the music video, the technicolor album artwork that Murakami designed for Graduation are brought to life through the use of cel-shaded animation. Its narrative also contains numerous visual and thematic references to the sci-fi film Back to the Future. The video was produced by Murakami's production and artist-management company Kaikai Kiki Co., Ltd. in conjunction with Oriental Light and Magic. The latter Japanese studio was responsible for the 3D animation of the Pokémon film franchise as well as the 2001 feature-length animé film, Inuyasha the Movie: Affections Touching Across Time. Meanwhile, the storyline of the music video was written by West, himself a self-professed animé fan. An edited version of the video was first displayed in an F.Y.E. commercial used for promotion of Graduation days before the album's release date. A clip of the animated music video was leaked onto the Internet on November 12, 2007. The music video found its way online by means through a fan's camera after a private screening at the Geffen Contemporary in the Little Tokyo district of Los Angeles, California. West made the full version of the music video available on the iTunes Store on August 25, 2008. ### Synopsis The narrative of the music video centers around Dropout Bear, West's anthropomorphic teddy bear mascot. Dropout Bear first appeared sitting forlornly on an empty set of gymnasium bleachers wearing baggy jeans and a corduroy jacket on the cover art for his debut album, The College Dropout. He later appeared dressed in a collegian outfit—a blazer with a school insignia—on the album cover of West's sophomore release, Late Registration. In the surrealistic video, Dropout Bear acts as the main protagonist while his journey takes place throughout a fictional futuristic metropolis known as Universe City. Dropout Bear contends with a variety of unfortunate setbacks and overcomes a series of trials and tribulations as he races through the city in an effort to reach his college campus in time to attend his graduation ceremony. The story begins on a rainy day with Dropout Bear being woken up by his alarm clock. The album artwork for Graduation, upon which this video is animated from, is seen on a poster behind his bed. Upon realizing that he's late, Dropout Bear jumps out of bed, brushes his teeth, dons a varsity jacket and runs out of his apartment to his car, which is modeled after a DMC DeLorean. When the car's engine dies, Dropout Bear is forced to find an alternative means of transportation. At first, he attempts to hail a taxi cab but it speeds right past him, soaking him with puddle water. He then tries to get aboard a metro rail but just misses it, slamming his face into the door of a subway car right before it pulls away. As he races down sidewalks, Dropout Bear is chased down by a monstrous storm cloud that swallows him whole. He is then transported to a bizarre pocket dimension populated by multi-eyed, living, technicolor mushrooms. Dropout Bear evades lightning bolts and a tornado before falling through a hole and being regurgitated by the storm cloud monster back onto the city streets. At that moment, the raining ceases and the sky clears, revealing a bright, shining sun. Dropout Bear then dons a pair of Venetian Blind shades, having reached the campus of his university. He makes it to his ceremony just in time to stand before his colleagues, a wide variety of anthropomorphic creatures like himself. Dropout Bear sheds his attire to reveal a graduation robe and academic cap and receives his bachelor's degree in hip-hop music from an elderly rabbit. After he accepts his diploma, which reads "Kanye West", the visual narrative comes to a conclusion with Dropout Bear being blasted out of a cannon. He is shot from the university, through the heavens and beyond the stratosphere into space as depicted on the back cover of Graduation. Dropout Bear is last seen riding off into another galaxy with a few of his classmates in the flying DeLorean. The song titles from the Graduation album are seen as they fly past. ### Reception Upon its official release, the "Good Morning" music video reached number-one on the iTunes Store music video chart in the United States just a day later. The short animated feature was met with universal acclaim from fans, critics and media outlets and is often regarded as one of West's best, most artistic videos. Adam Itkoff from The Source complimented the video, stating that West's visual collaboration with Murakami is a testament to the way that his imagination can catalyze illustrious pieces of art. Writing for MSN Music, writer Sam Greszes remarked, "Not only is the song itself great, but the video for "Good Morning" is a technicolor dreamscape full of 3D flair." The Ringer praised the music video for "Good Morning" as West's best music video of all time. Complex magazine cited the animated feature as West's 18th best music video, saying, "Murakami's art is incredible from a still viewpoint, but when presented in the form of his few full-length cartoon features, it practically explodes off the screen." Comparing it to the recent release of West's puppet-themed music video for "Champion," Peter Gicas of E! Online was somewhat wary of the animated short, writing, "Yes, the creativity in both these cases is admirable, especially this latest effort ... It all just makes us a little nervous, though. After all, it's OK for hip-hop stars to show their softer side, but it can also be taken a bit too far." Regina Cho of Vibe found parallels between that of West and the film's protagonists. She explained that: > While many may attribute Kanye's fascination with the film to his similarities with Marty, he also possesses an extremely Doc Brown-like quality—a frenetic nature that prompts him to bounce outrageous ideas around that have the people around him in initial disbelief, but his out-of-the-box propositions often came into fruition as ingenious works of art that were far ahead of their time ... Kanye is notoriously known for making a whole lot of last-minute decisions that will either make or break the anticipated outcome, similar to how Doc Brown's sudden assertions dictated whether or not someone would just stay stuck 30 years in the past forever. On November 11, 2013, the animated music video was included on Pop Art: 13 Awesome Artist-Musician Collaborations, a catalog compiled by Billboard. The publication lists joint ventures that have taken place between acclaimed visual artists and chart-topping musicians over the past decades. Billboard cited West's work with Murakami, which consists of the making of the video in addition to the creation of the album's artwork, as being among 13 pairings in the realms of music and high-art that are amazing moments in true art-pop. Under the same premise, writer Jennifer Wood of Complex magazine ranked Murakami's direction of the music video for "Good Morning" at the eighth position for their list of The 10 Best Art and Music Collaborations of All Time. In honor of his achievement of the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, women's fashion magazine Harper's Bazaar compiled a list of West's nine most essential music videos. The video for "Good Morning" was at number eight on the list, with columnist Madeline Kelly declaring that West is worthy of the recognition and there's no denying his talent. Sharing similar sentiments, MTV staff writer Adam Fleischer placed "Good Morning" at number 14 on the list of West's top 25 most innovative videos. For his contribution, Murakami has benefited significantly from the artistic collaboration with West. Even though his monogram project with the fashion house Louis Vuitton had brought him international mainstream attention five years earlier, Murakami acknowledges the fact that the millennial youth who have gravitated towards his work learned about him through his joint efforts with musicians such as West and Pharrell Williams. They opened up his contemporary artistry to a new generation of young music listeners. According to Spin editor Jeremy Larson, West's collaboration with Murakami for the "Good Morning" music video also struck a chord with Murakami's audience as conflating art and commerce. The short animated feature has since become one of the few music videos ever to be showcased in several prestigious art museums, including the Brooklyn Museum in New York City and the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, California. ### Video clip In addition to the animated music video, a special video clip was created for "Good Morning" prior to the release of Graduation. It was displayed for the very first time as an opener when West hosted a late-night album listening session for Graduation in New York City at the New World Stages on August 28, 2007. West presented the gapless playback session inside an auditorium with an evocative light-show across a stage that featured theatrical smoke machines, laser beams, stage spotlights and other special effects. The elaborate spectacle was synchronized with the music. While the music played, a large screen positioned in the middle of the stage flashed a montage of imagery edited to sync up with "Good Morning". They were scenes taken from the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Similarly with the audio track, West went for a minimalist aesthetic in regards to the sequence of visual cues. The video clip for "Good Morning" was one of seven that were designed by West and Derrick Lee exclusively for the event. Derrick Lee was the editor of the music video for "Flashing Lights" and was able to edit all seven video clips in the span of three days. West later made the video clip available for viewing on his official blog on March 20, 2008. ## Live performances On April 4, 2008, West gave a live performance of "Good Morning" during a six-song setlist at the Brooklyn Museum in New York City. The concert was held in celebration of the opening of the "© MURAKAMI" exhibit by Takashi Murakami. The comprehensive retrospective features over 90 Murakami pieces and artwork that draw from street culture, high-art and traditional Japanese painting, and includes painting, drawings, sculpture, wallpaper, installation and animation. West took to the small stage surrounded by smoke and flashing lights below a large screen emblazoned with Murikami's artwork to perform before a mostly older audience. The very next day, West opened his concert for the World Wide Bape Heads Show during Springroove 2008 at Makuhari Messe in Chiba, Japan with "Good Morning". His live performance was interwoven with visual elements and the setlist centered around songs from Graduation. West performed "Good Morning" every single night as the opener of the set-list of his Glow in the Dark Tour, which began on April 16, 2008, at the KeyArena in Seattle, Washington. West would often begin his elaborate concerts by playing a discordant leitmotif of "Stronger," implying that he'd start the show with a performance of the hit single, only to segue into a live rendition of "Good Morning". The composition is but one of the many, various songs taken from West's first three studio albums that West utilisises for his conceptual concert. In the narrative, West does a live performance of "Good Morning" once he wakes up from hyper-sleep to find himself stranded. After conversing with the disembodied female voice of an onboard computerter named Jane, West performs on a barren, tilted, moonlit stage shrouded in smoke before a large LED screen that depicts scenes from the science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. He wore jeans, a sweater with one missing sleeve, shoulder pads and a red windbreaker tied around his waist. Near the end of the tour's North American leg, with singers and a percussionist/DJ behind him, West performed "Good Morning" during the final night of Lollapalooza on August 3, 2008, in his hometown of Chicago, where he co-headlined the festival with Nine Inch Nails. West provided a live rendition of "Good Morning" during his headlining performance at Virgin Mobile Festival in Baltimore, Maryland on August 10, 2008. Much like his Lollapalooza appearance in Chicago the weekend prior, West and Nine Inch Nails were both scheduled as headliners on different stages at the same time at opposite ends of the park. At the start of the concert, following a brief instrumental, West walked onstage and started performing the song. West was alone on the stage engulfed in smoke and fog in front of a live musical band and background vocalists who added percussive textures and harmony to the track. ## Cover versions and remixes "Good Morning" has been covered and remixed by other hip hop artists, record producers and musical groups. Vitamin String Quartet composed a string-laden cover version of "Good Morning" for the opening song of their tribute album, The String Quartet Tribute to Kanye West. In a similar composition, Rockabye Baby! featured an interpretation of "Good Morning" as the opening track of their tribute album, Rockabye Baby! Lullaby Renditions of Kanye West. Intended for infants, the soothing rendition is a wordless lullaby instrumental, substituting keyboards and drums in favor of xylophones and bells. The rendition was later featured on Good Day, Goodnight, their five-year anniversary 2-CD compilation release. The compilation album contains the most requested songs from their previous releases, including "Good Morning," in addition to several exclusive new tracks. Virginia hip hop duo Clipse used the instrumental of "Good Morning" and included the track on their 2008 mixtape We Got It 4 Cheap, Volume 3. Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times praised Malice and Pusha T for delivering, "almost nothing but witty, well-made stanzas." Likewise, Pitchfork reviewer Ryan Dombal described their song as a "well-chosen introspective pick." A remix for "Good Morning" was produced by The Kickdrums for inclusion on Sky High, a remix mixtape that was mixed and compiled by DJ Benzi and Plain Pat. The mixtape features remixes by various DJs and record producers of songs taken from West's first three studio albums. It was made in anticipation of the release of his fourth studio album 808s & Heartbreak (2008). The remix project was commissioned by West himself the year prior. He handed over a cappellas and other session tapes to DJ Benzi, who then spent his time trying to match different and DJs and producers to certain tracks. Like every of the other tracks, "Good Morning" (The Kickdrums Remix) had at least five revisions recorded before being completely finished. The song's refrain contains guitar-driven production in addition to melancholic crooning. The remix also features a guest verse from then-newly signed GOOD Music recording artist Big Sean. Speech of the alternative hip hop group Arrested Development lyrically references "Good Morning" in the opening lines of "Any Tree But That" on their sixth studio album, Strong (2010). The song was the source of inspiration for the beat and chorus of "Hoodmorning" by Compton rapper The Game. Named after the rapper's signature Twitter phrase, "Hoodmorning" was produced by in-house record producer Mars and The Game released it as the opening track of his twelfth mixtape, Hoodmorning (No Typo): Candy Coronas. Hosted by DJ Skee, the mixtape was made in promotion of the repeatedly delayed release of his fourth studio album The R.E.D. Album (2011). On July 28, 2011, DJ Skee made available an exclusive preview trailer for the mixtape on YouTube. The trailer briefly displays The Game rapping in a recording booth and DJ Skee at his laptop before a mixing console inside the control room of a studio decked with bottles of Corona Extra as "Hoodmorning" plays in the background. Hip hop artist Evidence has used samples of the drums from "Good Morning" to produce the instrumental track "Good Evening". It was for his fourth instrumental hip hop album Green Tape Instrumentals (2013). ## Personnel Information taken from Graduation liner notes. - Kanye West – production - Jay-Z – additional vocals - Tony "Penafire" Williams – additional vocals - Connie Mitchell – additional vocals - Andy Chatterley – keyboards - Andrew Dawson – recording - Anthony Kilhoffer – recording, mix engineer - Bram Tobey – assistant mix engineer - Jason Agel – assistant mix engineer - Nate Hertweck – assistant mix engineer - Matty Green – assistant mix engineer ## Certifications
303,326	Suitcase	1,167,428,961	Form of luggage	[ "Luggage", "Travel gear" ]	A suitcase is a form of luggage. It is a rectangular container with a handle and is typically used to carry one's clothes and other belongings while traveling. The first suitcases appeared in the late 19th century due to the increased popularity of mass tourism at the time and were meant to hold dress suits. They were originally made using heavier materials such as leather or steel, but, beginning in the 1930s, were constructed with more lightweight materials like plastic and cardboard. Before the 1970s, the idea of rolling luggage was shunned by the travel industry, who viewed it as much less masculine than traditional luggage. American entrepreneur Bernard Sadow pitched his version of the wheeled suitcase, for which he was granted a patent in 1972, to various department stores before it was picked up and sold at Macy's stores starting in 1970. It took several years to become the predominant form of suitcase, and Sadow's version was soon superseded by the Rollaboard, a type of wheeled suitcase that was upright rather than flat like Sadow's model and invented in 1987 by American pilot Robert Plath. The addition of wheels to the suitcase has since been called one of the most significant innovations in travel. Smart suitcases with enhanced capabilities such as GPS tracking and device charging were popularized in the 2010s, though explosions of their lithium ion batteries in cargo holds caused them to be banned from being checked by many major airlines in the late 2010s. ## History ### 12th century to late 19th century: Luggage before the suitcase During the Crusades, the first luggage—wheeled containers used to transport weaponry—was developed in 1153. The word "luggage", derived from the verb "lug", was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 1596 to mean "denoting inconveniently heavy baggage". Luggage prior to the invention of the suitcase was mostly wood and leather trunks with an iron base, which were waterproofed using canvas or tree sap. Servants were often made to carry these trunks for their owners, such as for European elites during the Grand Tour in the 18th century, since travel was mostly exclusive to the wealthy. ### Late 19th century to mid-20th century: Beginnings As mass tourism increased in popularity and travel became accessible to non-elites due to railways and cruise ships, the need for more practical luggage increased. In the late 19th century, the first luggage known as "suit cases" or "suit-cases", which were meant to carry dress suits without wrinkling them, came about. The earliest models of suitcases were invented by British businessmen, who used them to carry goods and clothing. They were modeled after trunks and made by stretching leather, rubbery cloth, or wicker over a flat, rigid frame made of wood or steel with leather or brass caps on the corners and a handle on their long side, contrasting them with trunks, which had handles on their two shorter sides. They typically had a compartment for shirts and a hat box on the inside. Suitcases first started being manufactured alongside trunks by luggage companies such as the Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, which would later be renamed Samsonite. They were initially considered a lesser alternative to trunks, as evidenced by North American travel catalogs from the turn of the 20th century advertising trunks much more prominently than suitcases. Lightweight suitcases were mostly marketed at first toward women. In 1938, a weight limit of 40 pounds for checked bags was established in the United States, which led to the heavier leather model of suitcase being supplanted by lighter plastic and cardboard suitcases throughout the 1930s and 1940s. German luggage company Rimowa built the first aluminum suitcase, which it started selling in 1950 with a grooved design inspired by the Junkers Ju 52 airplane. In Europe, porters were responsible for carrying train passengers' suitcases until around the middle of the 20th century, when they became less abundant. ### 1970s to 2000s: Wheeled suitcases Early patents for a wheeled trunk and a wheeled suitcase came in 1887 and 1945, respectively, and a design for a "portable porter", a wheeled device that could be attached to a suitcase, was advertised in British newspapers in the 1940s. However, none of these designs originally caught on. During her second world tour in 1928, American artist Anita Willets-Burnham made the first recorded wheeled suitcase, which had two baby carriage wheels attached to it and a telescoping wooden handle. Until the 1970s, wheeled luggage was seen by the travel industry as a niche invention solely for women. In 1970, Bernard D. Sadow, the then-vice president of Massachusetts luggage company U.S. Luggage, was carrying two heavy 27-inch suitcases at an airport in Puerto Rico on his way back from a family vacation in Aruba when he noticed a worker rolling a heavy machine on a wheeled platform. After remarking to his wife that people needed wheels for their luggage, Sadow returned to his factory in Fall River, Massachusetts and attached casters to a suitcase with a strap that allowed him to tow it behind him. Sadow spent months attempting to sell his wheeled suitcase to various New York City department stores, but was met with resistance. Most department stores, according to him, refused to sell his invention due to a "macho feeling" that men would consider rolling their luggage "wimpy" and that women who travelled would have their husbands around to carry their suitcases for them. After being turned away by Jack Schwartz, a Macy's buyer, a vice president from the company, Jerry Levy, called Sadow back in for a meeting. He instructed Schwartz to buy Sadow's suitcases, and Macy's began selling them in stores in October 1970, advertising them as "The Luggage That Glides" and showcasing them with mannequins; they rose in popularity soon thereafter. That same year, Sadow applied for a patent for "rolling luggage", which had rollers on its bottom wall and a flexible transport strap attached near the top, and was granted it as patent number 3,653,474 in 1972. It stated that, due to airplanes replacing trains as the primary mode of long-distance travel, "Baggage-handling has become perhaps the biggest single difficulty encountered by an air passenger." Macy's competitors came together to break the patent about two years after it was granted to Sadow, allowing them to sell their own wheeled luggage, although Sadow's model was often wobbly and difficult to maneuver. Sadow later died in 2011. #### 1980s to 2000s: Rollaboards and other innovations The Rollaboard or roll-aboard (also referred to as a rollerboard, an eggcorn of the term) is an upright wheeled suitcase with two wheels on the bottom and a telescoping handle invented by Robert Plath, a Northwest Airlines 747 pilot, in 1987. He had the idea while at a hotel during a layover in Scandinavia as he watched passengers struggle to get their bags, which were attached by bungee cords, out of luggage trolleys. He designed the prototype for the Rollaboard in his garage, screwing a hard-shell bag to a luggage trolley, and started to get ideas from other crew members while carrying it around. It marked a shift from Sadow's model, which rolled flat on four wheels. At first, Plath only sold the Rollaboard to fellow pilots and flight attendants, manufacturing and selling 100 of the bags to various crew members in December 1989. In 1991, Plath left Northwest Airlines to start the luggage company Travelpro in Deerfield Beach, Florida, which initially only sold the product to other flight crews. He hired a team of sales representatives in 1992, and in the mid-1990s, Travelpro started selling Rollaboards commercially in retail stores, making it a competitor of Samsonite, then the largest American luggage manufacturer. Plath sold Travelpro in 1999. The Rollaboard was widely imitated by other luggage companies starting around 1993, causing Sadow's design to quickly be almost entirely replaced. Designer Don Ku from Flushing, Queens invented and patented a suitcase with an extendable handle in 1993. In 2004, Samsonite started selling the first "spinner-style" suitcase, which had four wheels and could be moved and spun in any direction. Durability testing for suitcases also became more rigorous around this time as they became lighter. ### 2010s to present: Smart suitcases Smart suitcases–suitcases with built-in technological features–became popular in the 2010s. These features include internal tracking, geolocation, fingerprint scanners, device charging, scales, GPS capabilities, touch switches, remote locking, and computer vision, among others. Companies such as Away, Arlo Skye, and Ovis mostly sell smart luggage. Most smart suitcases are powered by a lithium-ion battery. After a number of Li-ion batteries in smart suitcases exploded and caught fire in the cargo holds of planes, the International Air Transport Association classified the batteries as "dangerous goods". It published recommendations to its approximately 275 members, including United, JetBlue, and Virgin Atlantic, to put restrictions on smart suitcases with nonremovable batteries in May 2017. United States-based airlines including American, Alaska, Delta, and others banned smart luggage with nonremovable batteries from being checked in late 2017 and early 2018, while the United Kingdom's Civil Aviation Authority recommended a similar ban in 2018. Smart suitcase companies such as Bluesmart shut down as a result of these bans. ### Other materials The first suitcases made of polycarbonate were made in 2000 by the German luggage maker Rimowa. Samsonite made a push toward using materials such as vulcanized fibre and polypropylene in suitcases. ## As a symbol and in popular culture Suitcases became culturally significant around the 1920s, when they made appearances in books like the Hardy Boys series and in films like the silent film The Woman in the Suitcase. Daniel A. Gross of Smithsonian described suitcases at the time as "a literary symbol for both mobility and mystery—perhaps filled with gold, photographs, or simply a stranger's possessions". In the mid-20th century, Mexican laborers who worked in the United States would often return home with suitcases as a status symbol to prove that they had become "cosmopolitan men". From the 1900s to the 1960s, hotels placed luggage labels on customers' suitcases to advertise themselves, with illustrations inspired by travel posters of the time. The supposedly feminine nature of the wheeled suitcase was mocked in the 1984 film Romancing the Stone, where Kathleen Turner's character, Joan Wilder, brings her wheeled suitcase to the jungle, which bothers Michael Douglas's character, Jack T. Colton, who is attempting to fend off evil. Soo Youn of National Geographic included the suitcase, specifically the addition of wheels to it, on his list of inventions that changed travel forever, while SmarterTravel's Caroline Costello listed the wheeled suitcase as one of the best travel inventions of all time. Of the wheeled suitcase, Ian Jack wrote for The Guardian that "outside the cheap flight, no other modern development has made travel easier". ## See also - Baggage - Shoulder straps - Trunk - Bag tag
37,234,536	Theory of Literature	1,159,145,452	Book by René Wellek and Austin Warren	[ "1948 non-fiction books", "Books about literary theory", "New Criticism" ]	Theory of Literature is a book on literary scholarship by René Wellek, of the structuralist Prague school, and Austin Warren, a self-described "old New Critic". The two met at the University of Iowa in the late 1930s, and by 1940 had begun writing the book; they wrote collaboratively, in a single voice over a period of three years. Its contents were based on their shared understandings of literature. Originally consisting of twenty chapters – one was cut in later editions – Theory of Literature describes various aspects of literary theory, criticism, and history. After defining various aspects and relationships of literature in general, Wellek and Warren divide analysis of literature based on two approaches: extrinsic, relating to factors outside a work such as the author and society, and intrinsic, relating to factors within such as rhythm and meter. They stress the need to focus on the intrinsic elements of a work as the best way to truly understand it. In doing so they adapt the phenomenology used by Roman Ingarden. Published by Harcourt, Brace, and Company in December 1948, Theory of Literature received mixed reviews from the academic community. It was used to teach literary theory beginning soon after publication and remained in common use into the 1960s. Its success has been credited as introducing European literary scholarship into the US and crystallizing a movement towards intrinsic literary criticism. Theory of Literature saw three editions and has been translated into more than twenty languages. ## Background René Wellek (1903–1995) was an Austrian-born scholar from the structuralist Prague school of linguistics, studying under Vilém Mathesius. Wellek had training in classical literature and was fluent in several European languages, both Romance and Slavic. His theoretical training included the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl, as used in Roman Ingarden's work, and the psychologically influenced linguistics of Karl Bühler. After Nazi Germany occupied Prague in 1939, Wellek fled London – where he had been teaching – for the United States, teaching at the University of Iowa under Norman Foerster. There Wellek met Austin Warren (1899–1986), an American literary scholar who considered himself an "old New Critic". He had written extensively on literary criticism and was raised in, but later saw several limitations to, the New Humanist views promoted by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More. Wellek and Warren were soon in agreement over several aspects of literature, and by 1940 they had begun considering collaboration on a book. Over the next several years they furthered their understandings of European and American literature theory through discussions with Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, and extensive reading of contemporary European writings. ## Writing Owing to several academic commitments, work on Theory of Literature did not begin until 1945, after Wellek and Warren received a stipend from the Rockefeller Foundation over a period of two summers. Wellek and Warren began dividing their responsibilities, at first evenly, but with more work done by Wellek as Warren dealt with the illness, and later loss, of his wife Eleanor in 1946. During this period of writing Wellek transferred to Yale University (1946) and Warren to the University of Michigan (1948), but collaboration continued. The title, according to Wellek and Warren, was "more than ordinarily difficult" to choose. Some titles, such as Theory of Literature and Methodology of Literary Study, were dismissed as too cumbersome. However, in a 1950 review for The Antioch Review, the literary scholar Herbert S. Benjamin wrote that a better title would have been Theory of the Methodology of the Literary Study; he considered the book lacking the theory implied by the chosen title. The original publication of Theory of Literature consists of twenty chapters set in five sections based on thematic similarities; one chapter and section was removed in later editions. Wellek contributed thirteen of the book's chapters, while Warren wrote six; the final chapter was written collaboratively. Although most of the chapters are credited as the work of one man, the two often copyedited and proofread each other's work, at times inserting entire sentences or paragraphs. Each also suggested further references that the other could use in expanding his chapter. In their writing Wellek and Warren attempted to present a single voice despite the dominance of individuals. Their success in presenting such a voice has been debated. Wellek later recalled that people often told him it was difficult to tell who had written which chapter without consulting the book's introduction. However, the literary scholar C. J. van Rees of Tilburg University notes that Wellek's influences are prevalent in chapters authored by Warren. Aldo Scaglione, in a review of the second edition, wrote that "one immediately senses the change of hand" between chapters by different authors. ## Contents ### Section 1: Definitions and Distinctions. The first section, entitled Definitions and Distinctions, consists of five chapters and details how Wellek and Warren define literature. This section also contrasts Wellek and Warren's definition with those of others, such views of literature as everything in print and as only belles-lettres (accepted literary canon). They define literary scholarship as beyond the personal ("super-personal") and contrasted with the literary arts by its more scientific approach. Wellek and Warren suggest that neither a purely objective nor a purely subjective approach would be able to properly describe literature. They note that literary scholarship should not only examine what makes a work or author unique, but also its general characteristics that allow it to be compared to other works. Wellek and Warren limit their definition of literature to pieces of "imaginative literature", which can gain artistic merit from their coherence and complexity. The language in literary works is contrasted from scientific and everyday language by the use of connotative (non-literal) language and expressive content. Studies of literature must be literary and systematic, treating literature as literature and not part of another field. Wellek and Warren discuss several proposed functions of literature, beginning with Horace's proclamation that literature must be "sweet and useful" (dulce et utile; have a coalescing aesthetic and functional role), and extending to literature as a substitute for travel and experience, a vehicle for truth or persuasion, to relieve or incite emotion, or as something without a function. They ultimately describe the main function of literature as being loyal to its own nature. They call for a systematic and integrated study of literature, uniting literary theory, which outlines the basic principles of literature; criticism, which critiques individual works; and history, which outlines the development of literature. Although these aspects have clear distinctions, they are in a dialectical relationship and should not be separated; for example, a theory of literature is impossible without referring to works of literature. They reject Historicist approaches to literary history, which they find reduce literary history to "a series of discrete and hence finally incomprehensible fragments" and emphasize the author's intent too greatly. Instead, Wellek and Warren argue that a work must be seen from the point of view of both its own period and all subsequent periods, as a work's historical meaning is derived from "the history of its criticism by its many readers in many ages." Criticism should not be limited to classical and medieval literature, but also include works by living authors. Wellek and Warren describe the term comparative literature as "troublesome", noting that it has been used for the study of oral literature, the study of the literatures in two or more countries, and the study of a "general", "universal", or "world" literature; this last use, according to the authors, obviates issues present in the other understandings of the term. This understanding of literature as a totality can be used to trace the development of the art, unlimited by differences between languages. Within this comparative literature other supernational literatures, which may be based on language families and schools, are also apparent. There are also national literatures which, although possibly of the same language, will still have thematic differentiations. These are also worthy of study. ### Section 2: Preliminary Operations This section consists of a single chapter regarding the treatment, classification, annotation, and other aspects of working with manuscripts and related documentation. Wellek and Warren describe tasks such as authenticating manuscripts and establishing an author and date as important ones without which "critical analysis and historical understanding would be hopelessly handicapped"; however, these tasks should be preliminary to the "ultimate task of scholarship", analysis, and not a goal in themselves. Wellek and Warren note the importance of identifying forgeries, a task which can be completed in numerous ways: paleography, bibliography, linguistics, and history may all be involved. These forgeries may spark further investigation and literary debates which can result in a better understanding of the period, the writer, or the writer's oevre. The authors identify two levels of operations when dealing with manuscripts: the assembly and preparation of the materials, and the establishment of aspects such as chronology and authorship. At the first level one must locate and identify materials to study, be they written, printed, or oral; such a task may be difficult and depend on factors outside literature in its completion. Written and printed works must then be edited for readability; this task, which requires "lucky guesswork", entails deciphering illegible parts in the material, classifying it, and identifying possible changes made by scribes (and thus bringing the material closer to its "author's own"). Meanwhile, the second level may require greater initiative from the one studying a work; it involves, among other things, selection of what should be published, how it is best arranged in a collection, the establishment of chronology and authorship through internal and external evidence, and the provision of proper annotation and commentary. ### Section 3: The Extrinsic Approach to the Study of Literature The third section consists of five chapters discussing various elements extrinsic to works of literature, such as biography, psychology, social milieu, ideas, and other arts; this is opposed to elements intrinsic to a work, which are explored in Section 4. They write that research into extrinsic elements often results in an attempt to establish some causality between the extrinsic elements and a work. Although "[n]obody can deny that much light has been thrown on literature by a proper knowledge of the conditions under which it has been produced", such studies "can never dispose of problems of description, analysis, and evaluation of an object such as a work of literary art." Wellek and Warren describe three views of a biographical approach, of which only one – the biographical aspects relating to the production of a work – can be of use; this use, however, is limited. They reject the views that works accurately reflect the author's life or that the author's life must be understood in order to understand a particular work. According to Wellek and Warren, works may indeed reflect the author's experiences, but they may also reflect an author's hopes and dreams, or literary tradition and convention, and as such are "not a document for biography". Likewise, an understanding of personal style (what makes a work "Miltonic", "Keatsian", "Shakespearean", or "Virgilian") does not rely on knowledge of the author's life. They conclude that "it seems dangerous to ascribe to [biography] any real critical importance", and that such approaches, if undertaken at all, should be done with a "sense" of the distinctions outlined above. Wellek and Warren consider analysis of characters the only legitimate application of psychological analysis in literary study. Such an analysis, however, they find lacking on its own merits: individual characters do not fit psychological theories of the time they are written. Works which are true to certain psychological theories, meanwhile, are not necessarily better. Thus, they question the value of looking for psychological "truth" in how a work is presented. Additionally they outline and critique psychological theories that have been used to analyze authors and the creative process. Wellek and Warren write that literature is ultimately a social institution as several aspects of it are created or influenced through social conventions and norms. They reject a more specific understanding of social realities in literature. An author, for example, is a social being, raised and shaped by society and is in a dialectic relationship with the audience: the audience provides recognition and an income, and the author shapes audiences' tastes and behavior. Intrinsic elements of the work, and indeed the "realization of certain aesthetic values", can reflect contemporary society and its attitudes. Literature does not, however, "correctly" reflect society or life, and may exhibit little connection. As such, "social truth" should not become an artistic value of its own right, and literature should not be thought of as a "substitute for sociology or politics". Wellek and Warren note arguments that literature is a form of philosophy or, alternatively, that it is devoid of such ideas. They reject extreme versions of these arguments. They write that "a knowledge of the history of philosophy and of general ideas" will be valuable for a researcher. However, they note that philosophical ideas may not have been consciously included in a work. Instead, they agree with the German scholar Rudolf Unger that "literature expresses a general attitude toward life, that poets usually answer, unsystematically, questions which are also themes of philosophy", in a manner that differs over time. They outline attempts at classifying these ideas, including through Weltanschauung ("world view") and Geistesgeschichte ("time spirit"), before showing shortcomings in these systems. They then write that students of literature, an art which may (but need not) parallel philosophical development, should focus on how ideas enter the work. Wellek and Warren argue that a work does not necessarily become better with more philosophical content. Wellek and Warren write that the relationship between literature and other forms of art, such as architecture, sculpture, music, or visual art, is "highly various and complex". For example, literature may inspire the other art forms, or vice versa. A work of literature may also attempt to have the same effect as another art, through visualization, musicality, or other techniques. However, literature remains a separate art form, and effects found within are conveyed imperfectly. The emotions triggered by a work, or the intentions or theories behind it, will likewise not completely parallel those of another art form; individual forms of art have also "evolved" differently. Instead, Wellek and Warren suggest that works of art, like literature, can only be truly understood by looking at the works of art themselves and not their extrinsic aspects. A comparison between literature and another art form, thus, is secondary to establishing "outlines of strictly literary evolution". ### Section 4: The Intrinsic Study of Literature This section, almost twice the size of the others, consists of eight chapters regarding various elements intrinsic to works of literature. Wellek and Warren write that starting an analysis from elements intrinsic to the work is "natural and sensible", given that "only the works themselves justify all our interest" in extrinsic issues. They outline different definitions of literature, including as artifacts, sequences of sounds pronounced when reading, the experiences of the reader or author, or the "sum of all past and possible experiences" (alternatively "the experience common to all the experiences") related to a work. All these understandings they find lacking. Instead they suggest that literature is a "potential cause of experiences" consisting of a system of stratified norms – implicit in the work – which can only be partially realized by the reader; it is neither purely material, mental, nor ideal, nor is it static or bereft of value. Wellek and Warren consider patterns of sound as inherent to the text; these must be analyzed while keeping the meaning (or general emotional tone) in mind. They suggest two different aspects of sound systems: sounds in isolation, and sounds in relations with others. The sounds in isolation are used in a work establish a euphony or orchestration – a sound aesthetic which may be pleasing or harsh – while the relational aspect "may become the basis of rhythm and meter". Regarding euphony, Wellek and Warren discuss issues of classification, rhyme, onomotopeia, and the "physiognomy" of sounds as part of orchestration. Of rhythm they explore varying definitions, applications, typology, and artistic value. They then discuss theories of meter and their shortcomings, noting that the metric foundation differs between languages and stressing that meaning should not be divorced from meter. Language, meanwhile, they describe as "quite literally the material of the literary artist"; although a work is influenced by language, the writer's style, the use of communicative language, may influence language. Rather than use a work to study linguistic history, they recommend examining works through stylistics, which in literature they define as "the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning". Such studies can be done either as a search for a "total meaning" or a "sum of individual traits". Ideally, such a study should "establish some unifying principle, some general aesthetic" in a work or genre, although some may be more difficult than others. As such, they reject stylistic studies which focus mainly on "peculiarities of style" or which are linked to extrinsic elements. For other understandings of meaning, Wellek and Warren suggest a look at the sequence of image, metaphor, symbol, and myth, which they consider making up the "central poetic structure" of a work. In turns, they outline various historical definitions of the terms – which at times overlap – before writing that most of these theories have treated the sequence as "detachable parts of the works in which they appear." This Wellek and Warren refuse, instead arguing that "the meaning and function of literature [i]s centrally present in metaphor and myth". They show that the dominant form of figurative language shifts over time before overviewing two diverging typologies of metaphor, that of Henry W. Wells and Hermann Pongs. They finally discuss several aspects of "practical criticism" based on poetic language and its underlying assumptions. They reject approaches which attempt to understand the author through his or her words or which attempt to understand figurative language alone; instead, it should be studied not in isolation but as "an element in the totality, the integrity, of the literary work". After reiterating their views of the relationship between reality and literature, Wellek and Warren write that narrative fiction takes place in its own "worlds", consisting of five codeterminant elements: narrative structure, characters, setting, world-view, and tone. The latter two are discussed in the following chapter. They define the narrative structure as built around a pattern of dialog and description, and various concepts related to narrative; these include time within a work, narrative points of view and voices, major types, plot, devices, and pacing. This is followed by a discussion of characterization, involving modes, types, and typologies, then setting (the environment in a work). This world can serve as a basis for analysis and judgment of a work. Although they focus on the "world" in narrative fiction, drama shares similar aspects. Wellek and Warren consider genres as influencing "any critical and evaluative ... study". All works of literature can be so classified, although the genres themselves are (presumably) not fixed. After outlining a brief history of the "ultimate" genres as understood by Aristotle (poetry, prose, and drama), they show such an understanding as "scarcely promising of objective results" and overly prescriptive; they also reject several alternative theories of genre. Instead, they suggest that genres should be understood descriptively, as based on the "outer form" (meter, structure) and the "inner form" (attitude, tone, purpose), with the "outer form" emphasized. Wellek and Warren consider genres to be continually shifting, with good writers conforming to but ultimately expanding them. According to Wellek and Warren, evaluation of literary work should be done based on the work's own nature, divorced from an author's practical or scientific intent. They reject evaluation based on extra-literary content, writing instead that literature – like all fine art – will provide an "aesthetic experience" which can be judged. They note various criteria used to identify "good" literature, rejecting Russian formalism's criterion of defamiliarization and similar understandings for one based on the diversity of materials amalgamated within a work. They reject a static hierarchy or generationalist understanding of literary greats. Instead, they suggest that every work's rank changes when a new work is introduced and that values within are "really, or potentially, present in the art object". They note a dialectic relationship between evaluating and critically analyzing literature. This ties genre theory to the history of literature. Wellek and Warren – disapproving of contemporary histories of literature – opine that a history of literature is possible and should be based on elements intrinsic to works. Such a history should describe the development of "[t]he process of interpretation, criticism, and appreciation" or trace the development of works in small and large groups before tying it to universal literature. This "historical evolution" of related yet individual events they tie to "variable schemes of values" which must be "abstracted from history itself." They suggest numerous ways in which this can be accomplished, including identifying the development of values, traits, forms, themes, and motifs. Periodization, they write, should not be based on chronological boundaries, but a "time section dominated by a system of literary norms, standards, and conventions, whose introduction, spread, diversification, integration, and disappearance can be traced" which must be extracted from history, with boundaries marked by both internal and external changes. They close the chapter by stating that existing methods are "clumsy" and that a new ideal and methods of literary history is necessary. ### Section 5: The Academic Situation The final section of the book, removed in later editions, consists of a single chapter regarding the study of literature. Wellek and Warren bemoan that literary students are "offered no wider choice than between the 'historical method' ... and dilettantism", supporting instead a critically oriented literary scholarship. After finding faults with the literary scholarship in England, Germany, France, and Russia, Wellek and Warren suggest that the US is poised to start a new era in scholarship. They note that this opportunity may, however, be lost in a conflict between those advocating change and the inertia (including persons defending the status quo) in American literary studies and institutions. Rather than maintain the system of having scholars specialized in certain time periods and authors, Wellek and Warren push for scholars who have mastered certain approaches and thought patterns, preferably those who are from a literary background. They also recommend "sharper distinction between the teacher and the scholar", allowing some individuals to devote their careers to research and not teaching. They emphasize a need for fluency in several modern languages rather than an understanding of the classical ones; this coincides with their urge to establish departments teaching comparative literature. They recommend the teaching of literary methods and theories in combination with periods and authors, with a retooling of the doctoral dissertation procedures. ## Theoretical borrowings Theory of Literature was influenced by Russian formalism, a school of thought which sought to examine literature (or, more precisely, what formalist-turned-structuralist Roman Jakobson termed literariness) as an autonomous body, and the American New Criticism, which likewise denied external influences. The book borrowed formalism's concepts of an aesthetic function and dominance of different elements of language. Unlike Russian formalism, however, Wellek and Warren's theory recognized the possibility of factors outside the work being studied, although Wellek and Warren continued to emphasize aspects within the work itself. Also unlike their forerunners, Wellek and Warren saw aesthetic value as not the defamiliarization of the mundane, but an interaction among the strata derived from Roman Ingarden's work: the phonological (sound) level at the base, then semantic (meaning), and the "world" created by literature. This last strata they divided into paradigms and "metaphysical qualities", the level which a reader contemplates. They did not, however, accept Ingarden's teachings as a whole, writing that Ingarden "analyze[d] the work of art without reference to values", a system which they found untenable. Wellek and Warren's concept of aesthetics borrowed from the writings of Immanuel Kant, implying that a specific "aesthetic realm" was autonomous within the work and required a certain perspective to properly understand; they emphasize this with a quote from the neo-Kantian philosopher and literary critic Eliseo Vivas, that beauty is a "character of some things ... present only in the thing for those endowed with the capacity and the training through which alone it can be perceived". Meanwhile, their depiction of a dynamic scale of values, as opposed to an anarchical one, is a reimagining of perspectivism, which Wellek and Warren define as "recogniz[ing] that there is one poetry, one literature, comparable in all ages, developing, changing, full of possibilities". They explicitly denounce absolutism and relativism. ## Publication Theory of Literature was published by Harcourt, Brace, and Company in December 1948, with a copyright notice dated 1942, 1947, and 1949. Wellek notes that 1942, often quoted as a year of publication in Europe, is in fact when his article "The Mode of Existence of a Literary Work of Art" was published in The Southern Review; the article was reused as a chapter of Theory of Literature, leading to the inclusion of the year 1942. Several other works by Wellek and Warren had been adapted for Theory of Literature. Translations of Theory of Literature began soon after it was published; by 2010 the work had been translated into more than twenty languages, including Spanish, Korean, Hebrew, and Hindi. Two new editions were issued, first in 1956 then in 1962. These new editions included updated bibliographies and clarified points; the last chapter, "Study of Literature in the Graduate School", was removed beginning in the second edition as Wellek and Warren considered the reforms suggested within already accomplished in several places. By 1976 Wellek was of the opinion that the book required updating, but asked rhetorically "who can master the astonishing and bewildering literature on theory which since [1949] has been produced in many countries?" and noted that he and Warren were busy with their own projects. ## Reception Academic reception of Theory of Literature was mixed. The philologist Helmut Hatzfeld, reviewing shortly after the book's release, described Theory of Literature as "radical in its viewpoint, rich in ideas and bibliographical material, poised in its judgment of other approaches to literature" as well as a "landmark in literary studies." Although Hatzfeld agreed with Wellek and Warren's main points, he thought it lacking in references to theories and literature from the Romance languages and concrete interpretations. William Troy, writing in The Hudson Review, echoed the sentiment, stating that, although the book was "unusually difficult" to read, he felt "unqualified agreement with the main position". He expected that the book would not succeed with "anyone ungifted from birth with some susceptibility to ... 'intrinsic' elements", a group which he believed comprised the majority of those teaching literature in the US. Seymour Betsky, writing in Scrutiny, praised the book's summary and adjudication; he wrote that it was "in its way impressive", a "tour de force" which would "usher in a new era". However, Betsky felt that the book lacked a "controlling purpose" and that it neglected to emphasize the need to differentiate between "the cheap commercial appeal and the genuine" literature. Edward G. Ballard, reviewing for The Journal of Philosophy, found the treatment lacking, with major terms left undefined and much of the book providing synopses of other writers' theories; he conceded, however, that it convincingly showed that "the intellectual study of literature qua literature has just begun". In The Kenyon Review, Vivas wrote that the book's discussion of the relation between literary criticism and scholarship "leaves nothing to be desired", providing a "well balanced" look at the major points; he found that no other such work existed in English at the time. Vivas opined, however, that Wellek and Warren lacked a single, non-contradictory theory to use as a base for their conclusions. Kemp Malone, reviewing for Linguistics, discussed three chapters on elements of literature related to linguistics. He considered these to provide "food for thought" for linguists and suggested that Wellek was well-versed in linguistics for a professor of literature, despite misusing several terms common in the discipline. Newton Arvin, writing in the Partisan Review, found Theory of Literature to excessively indulge in formalism and expressed concern that the idea of literary history may have "gone into the discard once and for all". Benjamin found the book not something new, but a final assertion of the dominance of New Criticism in literary theory, a dominance which he considered untenable. Rather than emphasize theory, he found that Theory of Literature was "ninety-nine parts a 'good offense' against its slain and buried foes" with "exceptionally lucid and authoritative" discussions of literary problems. Scaglione opined that Theory of Literature's plain, imprecise language had introduced numerous inconsistencies within its theoretical framework; he also stated that the book led readers to believe they were approaching an understanding of literature without ever reaching the core essence of the subject. Ingarden, who believed his theories the basis of Wellek and Warren's arguments, considered himself inadequately credited and took offense with the attribution of his ideas to "pure phenomenologists". He also stated that they had misrepresented his views. George Grabowicz, prefacing his translation of Ingarden's The Literary Work of Art, suggested that Theory of Literature was "instrumental" in spreading Ingarden's ideas. ## Legacy At the time of publication Wellek and Warren considered Theory of Literature unparalleled in English-language publications, an attempt to unite literary theory, criticism, history, and scholarship. Although they noted a similarity to existing German and Russian works, the authors considered those earlier works "eclectic" and "doctrinaire", respectively. Ballard writes that Theory of Literature was published during a time of increasing focus on the art of literature, rather than its underlying philosophy. In an academic biography of Wellek, Michael Holquist of the University of Columbia writes that Theory of Literature established Wellek's reputation as a literary scholar for the next three decades. The book proved to be Wellek's only "book-length scholarly manifesto", a format which Holquist credits to Warren's influence. Wellek's other works were essays on literary theory and criticism which, even though bound in a single volume, did not provide a single coherent manifesto. Wellek would continue to use the theories contained in Theory of Literature into the late 1980s. The book was used to teach literary theory at universities beginning not long after publication and remained dominant into the mid-1960s, at which time an increasingly heterogeneous academia questioned the universal value of literature; literary theorist Terry Eagleton finds that, after the 1960s, "it was no longer possible to take for granted what literature was, how to read it, or what social functions it might serve". Steven Mailloux describes Theory of Literature as crystallizing an American movement towards intrinsic literary criticism, as dominated by New Criticism, while van Rees credits the book with popularizing a text-oriented interpretation. Grabowicz writes that its importance for both American and general literary studies is "indisputable". Writing in 1987, Jeremy Hawthorn described the book as an "excellent introductory study", despite extrinsic studies having become more dominant in literary criticism, while Holquist found that the book could still "be usefully invoked" in literary debates of the early 21st century. In an obituary of Wellek, Robert Thomas Jr. credited Theory of Literature with "introduc[ing] European scholarship to the United States" and establishing a framework for comparative literature studies in the United States. The theoretical positions promulgated in Theory of Literature have generally been criticized by later writers. Van Rees, for example, considers Wellek and Warren's distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of literature to be too sharply drawn, leading to the two aspects becoming binary opposites. Holquist notes that this distinction proceeds from a different understanding of literature. He writes that Wellek's school of thought considered literature as a "unified subject" with definite boundaries which could be mastered, while more recent scholarship has rendered "[t]he very identity of literature as an object of study ... no longer clear."
4,374,552	Over (Lindsay Lohan song)	1,172,781,337	2004 single by Lindsay Lohan	[ "2004 singles", "2004 songs", "Casablanca Records singles", "Lindsay Lohan songs", "Music videos directed by Jake Nava", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by John Shanks", "Songs written by John Shanks", "Songs written by Kara DioGuardi", "Songs written by Lindsay Lohan" ]	"Over" is a song by American actress and singer Lindsay Lohan from her debut studio album Speak (2004). The song was written by Kara DioGuardi, John Shanks and Lohan, and produced by the former two. "Over" was released as the second single from Speak on May 29, 2004, in the United States, by Casablanca Records. Lyrically, "Over" is about how her boyfriend will not commit and that their relationship feels "on again, off again". Critically, "Over" received positive reviews from music critics, who called the song "catchy" and praised Lohan's vocal performance. Commercially, "Over" achieved moderate success, reaching top 30 positions in Australia, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the single peaked at number one on Billboards Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart for three weeks. Jake Nava directed the accompanying music video for "Over", which depicts Lohan and her love interest, played by Drew Fuller, being distanced by his parents. Lohan performed "Over" in TV programs such as Good Morning America and The Ellen DeGeneres Show, in addition to online performances. ## Background and composition "Over" was written by Kara DioGuardi, John Shanks and Lohan, and produced by DioGuardi and Shanks, with Shanks playing the bass, guitar, keyboards and doing the mixing, while DioGuardi provided backing vocals. Jeff Rothschild was responsible for Lohan's vocal recording, which occurred at the Henson Recording Studios in Hollywood. He also handled the song's mixing, programming and engineering. Other engineers involved were Dave Audé and Mark Valentine. "Over" is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C minor with Lohan's voice spanning from C<sup>4</sup> to C<sup>5</sup>. According to Spence D. of IGN, "Over" begins like a song by the Cure, complete with a "mournful acoustic guitar" and a "haunting piano-tuned synth". He wrote that since the song was not penned by Robert Smith, "it quickly turns into a slow rocker in which Lohan returns to her 'can't live without you' love torn subject matter". In an 2014 interview on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Lohan told DeGeneres the song was about her break-up with Wilmer Valderrama. ## Critical reception "Over" received positive reviews from critics. While responding negatively to a majority of Speak, John Murphy of MusicOMH cited "Over" as being "actually rather good" and noted similarities between the song and the works of Michelle Branch. Nicholas Fonseca from Entertainment Weekly considered the track a "tween-slumber-party-friendly" which "is perfect for singing into your curling iron in front of the mirror". ## Chart performance "Over" achieved moderate chart success around the globe. In the United States, the single reached number one on Billboard's Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart for three weeks and reached number 39 on the Mainstream Top 40 component chart. In the United Kingdom, the single reached a peak of number 27 on the UK Singles Chart. In Australia, "Over" debuted at its peak of number 27 on the ARIA Charts, falling out of the chart seven weeks later. "Over" also attained the top 30 in Ireland, peaking at number 19. On the European Hot 100 Singles, "Over" managed to reach number 79. ## Music video The accompanying music video for "Over" was directed by Jake Nava in April 2004 in Los Angeles, who also directed the music video for Lohan's previous single "Rumors". The music video was inspired by the 1999 film American Beauty. ### Synopsis In the music video, Lohan is walking home when she sees her love interest, played by Drew Fuller, looking out of a window in his house as his mother sets the table behind him. Then his father comes up to him and they begin to argue. The curtains close and Lohan continues on to her house, next door to her boyfriend's, and runs up to her bedroom. Looking out her window, she sees that he is looking back at her. As noted inside Lohan's bedroom, she is starting to experiment with rebellious adolescence. There are Teletubbies and stuffed pandas, but also posters of bands such as L7, the Dead Kennedys and CBGB. These imagery are intercut with shots of Lohan and her band playing in a garage, a pool party and also her love interest destroying his father's car in the family garage. ### Reception The music video received positive reviews from critics. IGN's Spence D. commented that "you've got a somewhat clichéd, but nonetheless hit-worthy video montage". Justin Moran, while ranking Lohan's best music videos in Paper magazine, stated, > "In the video for angry rock-pop track "Over," Lindsay stares at a neighbor boy from her bedroom window, wears too much black eye makeup, hooks up with said boy in a random trailer and cries... a lot. This video has a completely over-the-top dramatic ending with Lindsay doing donuts with the neighbor boy in a vintage car (amazing), only to be interrupted by his abusive father. Lindsay cries more, breaks through a window with her heel and shatters a lamp on the ground. Yes, Lindsay, yes. We love it when you're angry." ## Live performances In order to promote the single, Lohan appeared on Sessions@AOL on July 15, 2004, where she performed "Over". Her first televised appearance was on Good Morning America, four days later, as a part of the Women Rule Concert Series, where she sang "Over" accompanied by a performance of "Rumors". While she sang "Over" with no problems, her mouth was not moving for a second during the performance of "Rumors", leading the media to accuse her of lip synching. Lohan denied that she was lip synching, claiming that there was a backing track because she had fallen ill recently. Kim Jakwerth, of Casablanca Records, supported this statement by saying, "Yes, on the first song there were background tracks, which were not on the second song." In addition to these performances, she sang the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 16. In January 2005, Lohan performed "Over" and "Speak" at Yahoo's Live@Launch, where she also gave an interview. ## Track listing and formats ## Credits and personnel Credits are taken from the Speak liner notes. Recording - Recorded and mixed at Henson Recording Studios Personnel' - Lindsay Lohan –songwriting, vocals - Kara DioGuardi – songwriting, production, backing vocals - John Shanks – songwriting, production, bass, guitar, keyboards, mixing - Dave Audé – engineering - Jeff Rothschild – drums, engineering, mixing, programming - Mark Valentine – engineering ## Charts ## Release history
33,127,456	Ramy Rabia	1,171,887,268	Egyptian footballer	[ "1993 births", "Al Ahly SC players", "Egypt men's international footballers", "Egypt men's youth international footballers", "Egyptian Premier League players", "Egyptian expatriates in Portugal", "Egyptian men's footballers", "Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal", "Footballers from Cairo", "Living people", "Men's association football defenders", "Sporting CP footballers" ]	Ramy Hisham Abdel Aziz Mostafa Rabia (Arabic: رامي هشام عبد العزيز مصطفى ربيعة; born 20 May 1993) is an Egyptian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Egyptian Premier League club Al Ahly and the Egypt national football team. He began his career with Al Ahly, making his professional debut at the age of seventeen in 2010. Regarded as one of the brightest prospects in Egyptian football, he attracted attention from several clubs before joining Portuguese side Sporting CP in 2014 for a fee of €750,000. However, after one season in which he made only three first team appearances, he rejoined Al Ahly. Rabia has represented Egypt at under-20 level, captaining the side to victory in the 2013 African U-20 Championship. He made his debut for the senior squad in December 2012 during a friendly match against Qatar. ## Early life Rabia was born in Cairo, Egypt on 20 May 1993. ## Club career ### Al Ahly Rabia began his career with Al Ahly, making his debut against Haras El Hodoud under coach Abdul-Aziz Abdul-Shafi at the age of seventeen due to injuries to several first team players. Despite Abduk-Shafi's departure soon after, Rabia continued in the first team under new manager Manuel José de Jesus. After club captain Hossam Ghaly was ruled out with injury, Rabia was chosen as his replacement as a defensive midfielder during the 2013 FIFA Club World Cup in Morocco. He earned praise for his performances during the tournament and the club's subsequent league matches as he helped the club win the Egyptian Premier League title after overcoming a seven point deficit to rivals Zamalek. He attracted attention from several European sides, including Manchester United, Chelsea and Borussia Dortmund. He was offered a trial with French side Lille but was forced to cancel after undergoing surgery for a knee injury suffered during a league match against Smouha. In December 2013, English Premier League club Hull City submitted an offer for Rabia to join the club on a trial period with the possibility of a loan move for the remainder of the 2013–14 season. The club had previously approached Al Ahly prior to the Club World Cup but negotiations had been delayed to allow Rabia to take part in the competition. However, Al Ahly rejected the offer with club director Sayed Adbel-Hafiz stating "We totally refuse the idea of a player going out on loan from Al Ahly to a club that does not know if they will sign him or not." Despite the move being called off, Hull manager Steve Bruce described Rabia as having "a big future ahead of him." During his first spell with Al Ahly, Rabia helped the side win two Egyptian Premier League titles, two CAF Champions League titles and two CAF Super Cups. ### Sporting CP In May 2014, Portuguese side Sporting CP submitted several offers for Rabia, starting at €250,000 and rising to €550,000, which were both rejected by Al Ahly who valued the player at €1.5 million. Al Ahly director Wael Gomaa urged Rabia to focus on his commitments to the club and ignore any transfer approaches. However, a transfer was eventually completed in a deal worth around €750,000 with Al Ahly set to earn 15% of any future transfer. Rabia joined the club on a six-year contract with a €45 million release clause. Following his departure, he released a statement to the club's fans, commenting "Al Ahly is the love of my life." On his arrival at Sporting, Rabia joined the club's reserve side, Sporting CP B. He made his debut for the side in a 3–0 victory over Aves in the Segunda Liga and provided an assist for Lewis Enoh. However, Rabia was forced to undergo surgery on his stomach after his debut to fix a longstanding problem. He had been playing with the injury for a month but stated that he could not "take the pain anymore." After missing five weeks due to the surgery, Rabia returned to the club's reserve side but received criticism from Sporting manager Marco Silva after being deemed at fault for two goals during a 5–0 defeat against Atlético CP. Silva described Rabia as being "in a very delayed stage of his evolution as a player." In January 2015, Rabia made his debut for Sporting's first team in a 1–0 victory over Boavista in the Taça de Portugal, a knockout cup competition, as a late substitute in place of Ryan Gauld. He made his first start for the club in the first leg of the following round, a 3–2 defeat to Belenenses. In total, he made three first team appearances for Sporting during the season, all in the Taça de Portugal. ### Return to Al Ahly After being sent to train with Sporting's reserve side during preseason prior to the 2015–16 season, Rabia announced his intention to leave Sporting either permanently or on loan. In August 2015, he rejoined his former club Al Ahly on a five-year contract. Al Ahly paid €750,000 to resign Rabia, the same amount he was sold for the previous season, with Sporting also set to receive 15% of any future transfer fee. During the 2016–17 season, Rabia struggled to maintain his place in the side after suffering several injury setbacks. He was forced to undergo knee surgery in August 2016, initially expected to keep him out for one month, and needed a second operation on the injury the following month. After recovering from surgery, Rabia made two appearances for Al Ahly before experiencing a further setback after colliding with goalkeeper Ahmed Adel Abdel Moneam in training and suffering ankle ligament damage. His injury troubles continued the following season, suffering a groin injury during an international match in November 2017, missing ten matches. In January 2018, he again suffered a groin injury during a league match against rivals Zamalek and was ruled out for two months. After missing the remainder of the season, Rabia was forced to publicly deny reports that he could be forced to retire due to ongoing injury problems, commenting "I can’t say when I will return, it takes time." ## International career ### Youth teams Rabia represented Egypt at under-20 level, captaining the side to victory in the 2013 African U-20 Championship. He scored the goal that confirmed the squad's qualification for the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup with a header during a 1–0 victory over Algeria and sent the side through to the semi-finals. He led the side to their fourth tournament title and first since 2003 after defeating Ghana in the final. Rabia later represented Egypt at under-23 level, playing in the side's unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2016 Summer Olympics. Despite still being in recovery after undergoing knee surgery, Rabia was named in manager Rabie Yassin's preliminary squad for the Under-20 World Cup. The injury forced Rabia to miss the side's warm up matches prior to the tournament but he returned prior to Egypt's first group match and was appointed captain of the squad, commenting "I only came back a few days before our first game, so I didn’t expect this honor and I know I owe the coach a lot." He featured in all three of Egypt's group matches as they were eliminated after finishing third. ### Senior team Rabia made his debut for the Egypt senior team under coach Bob Bradley on 28 December 2012 during a 2–0 victory over Qatar. On 7 March 2013, Rabia scored his first senior international goal in a friendly match against Qatar, scoring his side's only goal in a 3–1 defeat. He scored another goal in his following appearance, a 2–0 victory over Zambia before scoring his first competitive goal in 2015 during a 3–0 victory over Tanzania during the qualifying rounds of the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations. In October 2017, Rabia was part of the Egyptian side that qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the first time the nation had reached a tournament since 1990, after defeating Congo 2–1. However, his injury problems during the 2017–18 led to him being omitted from Egypt's squad for the tournament. ## Career statistics Scores and results list Egypt's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Rabia goal. ## Honours Al Ahly - Egyptian Premier League: 2010–11, 2013–14, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2022–23 - Egypt Cup: 2016–17, 2019–20, 2021–22 - Egyptian Super Cup: 2012, 2015, 2019 - CAF Champions League: 2012, 2013, 2019–20, 2020-21, 2022–23 - CAF Confederation Cup: 2014 - CAF Super Cup: 2013, 2014, 2021 (May), 2021 (December) - FIFA Club World Cup:Third-Place 2021 FIFA Club World Cup Egypt U20 - African U-20 Championship: 2013
41,222,238	2014 FA Cup final	1,158,983,912	Association football championship match between Arsenal and Hull City in 2014	[ "2013–14 FA Cup", "2014 sports events in London", "Arsenal F.C. matches", "Events at Wembley Stadium", "FA Cup finals", "Hull City A.F.C. matches", "May 2014 sports events in the United Kingdom" ]	The 2014 FA Cup final was an association football match contested by Premier League clubs Arsenal and Hull City at Wembley Stadium in London, England, on 17 May 2014. It was the 133rd FA Cup final overall and the showpiece match of English football's primary cup competition, the Football Association Challenge Cup (FA Cup), organised by the Football Association (FA). Hull made their first appearance in an FA Cup Final, while Arsenal equalled Manchester United's record of 18 final appearances. Each club needed to win five matches to reach the final. Arsenal beat three of their divisional rivals and needed to win a penalty shoot-out to defeat cup holders Wigan Athletic. In contrast, four of Hull's opponents were from the lower divisions; they played one replay in the fifth round against Brighton & Hove Albion. The final was refereed by Lee Probert in front of 89,345 spectators. Hull scored two goals in the opening ten minutes from James Chester and Curtis Davies, but Arsenal came back with goals from Santi Cazorla and Laurent Koscielny to level the match by the end of normal time, necessitating extra time. Aaron Ramsey scored the winner 11 minutes from the end of the additional period. The victory secured a joint-record 11th victory in the competition for Arsenal. Because Arsenal had already qualified for the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League via their league position, Hull qualified for the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League, entering at the third qualifying round. ## Background The FA Cup is an annual knockout tournament involving professional and amateur men's football clubs in the English football league system. It is the world's oldest football competition. The 2014 final was the 133rd to be played since it was first held in 1872. Arsenal were making their 18th appearance in an FA Cup Final, equalling the record set by Manchester United. They had last played in the FA Cup final in 2005, when they defeated Manchester United 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after the match finished goalless. Conversely, this was Hull City's first appearance in an FA Cup Final since the club was founded in 1904. Arsenal's top scorer during the season was Olivier Giroud with 16 goals in the league and 6 in other competitions, followed by Aaron Ramsey with 10 in the league and 6 others. Hull's leading scorer was Matty Fryatt with 6 goals, 4 of which had come in the FA Cup. Arsenal won both of the league matches between the sides during the 2013–14 season. The fixture at Arsenal's home ground, the Emirates Stadium in London, in November 2013 ended 2–0, while the return game at the KC Stadium in Hull the following April saw Arsenal record a 3–0 victory. ## Route to the final ### Arsenal As a Premier League club, Arsenal entered the competition in the third round, where they faced their north London rivals, Tottenham Hotspur, at the Emirates Stadium. Santi Cazorla opened the scoring for Arsenal in the 31st minute when he struck Serge Gnabry's pass first time past Hugo Lloris, the Tottenham goalkeeper. Midway through the second half, Tottenham's Danny Rose hesitated in possession, allowing Tomáš Rosický to win the ball and lift it over Lloris to double Arsenal's lead. With less than 10 minutes remaining, Arsenal's Theo Walcott was taken off the pitch injured on a stretcher; he was later ruled out for more than six months with a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament. The match ended 2–0 and Arsenal progressed to the fourth round. There, they were drawn at home again, this time against Coventry City of League One. Lukas Podolski gave Arsenal a 2–0 lead within the first half-hour, scoring from Mesut Özil's pass before doubling his tally by heading in a pass from Per Mertesacker. Giroud and Cazorla both scored close-range goals in the last 10 minutes of the second half, to give Arsenal a 4–0 victory. For the fifth round, Arsenal were drawn against Liverpool at home, against whom they had lost 5–1 in the Premier League the previous week. Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain opened the scoring in the 16th minute from inside the Liverpool penalty area after Yaya Sanogo's shot was blocked by Steven Gerrard. Podolski doubled their lead two minutes after half-time from 15 yards (14 m), when he converted a cross from Oxlade-Chamberlain. In the 59th minute, Podolski fouled Luis Suárez and Gerrard scored the resulting penalty. Despite dominating the closing stages of the match, Liverpool failed to score again and the match ended 2–1. In the sixth round, Arsenal were again at home where they faced Everton. Özil scored from a Cazorla pass to give Arsenal the lead in the 7th minute, but Everton equalised through Romelu Lukaku from close range in the 32nd. Midway through the second half, Oxlade-Chamberlain was fouled by Gareth Barry to concede a penalty; Mikel Arteta scored on the second attempt after his first successful strike was ruled out as Giroud was deemed to have encroached on the penalty area. Giroud then scored twice in three minutes late on to secure a 4–1 win for Arsenal. In their semi-final at Wembley Stadium, which was a neutral venue, Arsenal were drawn against the defending FA Cup holders, Championship side Wigan Athletic. After a goalless first half, Wigan took the lead after Callum McManaman was brought down in the Arsenal penalty area by Mertesacker and Jordi Gómez converted the subsequent penalty. With eight minutes of the match remaining, Mertesacker scored with a header from a mishit shot by Kieran Gibbs. Regular time ended with the scores level at 1–1, and with no goals in extra time, the match went to a penalty shoot-out. Łukasz Fabiański saved Wigan's first two penalties from Gary Caldwell and Jack Collison and as all subsequent strikes were scored, Arsenal won 4–2 and proceeded to the final. In doing so, Arsenal matched their achievement from the 1949–50 FA Cup, when they reached the final without leaving London. ### Hull City Hull City also entered the 2013–14 FA Cup in the third round, where they were drawn away to Middlesbrough. In the 10th minute, Aaron McLean put Hull ahead when he struck David Meyler's deflected shot past Middlesbrough goalkeeper Dimitrios Konstantopoulos. Midway through the second half, Nick Proschwitz scored from inside the Middlesbrough penalty area to give Hull a 2–0 victory. In the fourth round, Hull's opposition were League Two side Southend United, whom they faced at Roots Hall. The first half ended 0–0 and midway through the second, Fryatt scored after receiving a pass from Meyler. Fryatt doubled his and his side's tally in stoppage time, beating Dan Bentley in the Southend goal with his strike and securing a 2–0 win for Hull. In the next round, Hull were drawn against Championship team Brighton & Hove Albion away at Falmer Stadium. Striker Leonardo Ulloa gave Brighton a first-half lead, scoring in the 30th minute after receiving a pass from Will Buckley. With four minutes of the match remaining, Hull's Yannick Sagbo levelled the score when he struck Sone Aluko's cross through the legs of Peter Brezovan, the Brighton goalkeeper. The match ended 1–1 and a replay was then required at the KC Stadium in Hull to determine the winner of the tie. Curtis Davies gave Hull the lead after 14 minutes with a header that beat defender Jake Forster-Caskey on the goal line, before a deflected free kick from Robert Koren made it 2–0 before half-time. Ulloa halved the deficit with a header midway through the second half, but the match ended 2–1 to Hull. Hull's opponents in the sixth round were Sunderland at home. After a goalless first half, Hull scored three times in the space of nine minutes to secure a 3–0 victory. Davies scored with a header in the 68th minute before Meyler dispossessed Lee Cattermole and made it 2–0 four minutes later. A further mistake from Cattermole allowed Fryatt to score from 12 yards (11 m) in the 77th minute. In the semi-final, Hull's first since 1930, they faced Sheffield United, also at Wembley. Jose Baxter gave Sheffield United the lead in the 19th minute before Sagbo equalised three minutes before half-time. Two minutes later, Stefan Scougall scored from Jamie Murphy's cross to make it 2–1 at half-time. Second-half goals from Fryatt, Tom Huddlestone and Stephen Quinn gave Hull a 4–2 lead before Murphy scored in the 90th minute to reduce Sheffield United's deficit. Three minutes into stoppage time, Meyler added Hull's fifth and ensured his side a 5–3 victory and progression to the final for the first time in their history. ## Match ### Pre-match The referee for the final was Lee Probert, who had previously officiated the 2010 FA Trophy Final and was the fourth official for the 2011 FA Cup Final. He was assisted by Jake Collin and Mick McDonough, while Kevin Friend was the fourth official and Simon Bennett was the reserve assistant referee. Arsenal wore their traditional red-and-white home kit for the final and used the home team dressing room, while their fans were allocated the west end of the stadium. Hull fans occupied the east end and the team played in their amber-and-black home strip. Ticket prices for the final started at £45 and were also available at £65, £85 and £115, with a £10 discount for concessions, as ticket prices remained the same as the previous FA Cup final. Both clubs were allocated 25,000 tickets, with approximately 20,000 tickets being distributed to volunteers "through the football family", which included counties, leagues, local clubs and charities. The financial prize for winning the FA Cup Final was £1.8 million. The traditional pre-match anthem, "Abide with Me", and the national anthem were performed by the winner of the third series of The X Factor, Leona Lewis, accompanied by the Band of the Welsh Guards. Arsenal were without long-term injured attackers Walcott and Gnabry, while Oxlade-Chamberlain and captain Thomas Vermaelen faced late fitness tests. While Vermaelen made the bench, Oxlade-Chamberlain missed the final. Hull strikers Shane Long and Nikica Jelavić were cup-tied, having appeared earlier in the tournament for West Bromwich Albion and Everton respectively. Aluko, Paul McShane, James Chester and Robbie Brady faced fitness tests for Hull; only Chester was deemed fit enough to start the match, Aluko and McShane were on the bench, and Brady missed out altogether. Hull welcomed back goalkeeper Allan McGregor from a kidney injury. Arsenal adopted a 4–2–3–1 formation while Hull lined up as a 3–5–1–1. ### Summary #### First half Hull City kicked off the match at around 5 p.m. on 17 May 2014 in front of 89,345 spectators. In the 4th minute, a corner from Quinn found Huddlestone on the edge of the Arsenal penalty area and his shot was diverted into the goal by Chester to give Hull a 1–0 lead. Three minutes later, Giroud received treatment for an injury before Davies doubled Hull's lead in the 9th minute. Huddlestone struck a free kick from the right-hand side of the pitch into Arsenal's penalty area that the defenders failed to clear. Alex Bruce headed the ball goalbound and Fabiański pushed it against the post before Davies struck it into the goal from close range to make it 2–0. In the 14th minute, Hull were close to scoring their third after Bruce's header from a set piece was cleared off the Arsenal goal line by Gibbs. Two minutes later, Cazorla was fouled by Bruce and won a free kick. From around 27 yards (25 m), Cazorla struck the ball past McGregor and into the Hull net to make it 2–1. Midway through the half, Podolski crossed for Özil, whose run had beaten Bruce, but he missed the ball altogether from close range. In the 25th minute, Özil's shot from the edge of the Hull penalty area was headed clear by Davies. Arsenal increased the pressure and Giroud shot off-target in the 28th minute before Ramsey's strike from a corner was also cleared by Davies. With two minutes of the half remaining, Huddlestone's shot from around 30 yards (27 m) went narrowly over the Arsenal crossbar. After three minutes of stoppage time, the first half was brought to a close with Hull leading 2–1. #### Second half Neither side made any substitutions during the interval and Arsenal kicked off the second half. Five minutes in, Özil ran onto a chipped pass forward and sent in a cross, but none of his teammates were in the penalty area. In the 56th minute, the spectators applauded in memory of the 56 victims of the Bradford City stadium fire of 1985. Two minutes later, Giroud fell in the Hull penalty area under a challenge from Huddlestone, but the referee adjudged it to have been a legitimate tackle and did not award a penalty. In the 60th minute, Huddlestone became the first player of the match to be shown a yellow card for a foul. Soon after, Arsenal made their first change; Podolski was substituted for Sanogo and they altered their formation to play with two strikers. Sanogo missed a chance to score from a header in the 64th minute before Hull replaced Bruce with McShane. In the 68th minute, Cazorla was brought down by Davies in the Hull penalty area, but the referee turned down the appeals for a penalty, before Meyler was booked for a foul on Laurent Koscielny. With 18 minutes of the match remaining, Arsenal equalised to make it 2–2. Sagna won a header from a corner and the ball deflected to Koscielny, who was 3 yards (3 m) from the goal line, where he turned and struck the ball into the net. Three minutes later, Hull made their second substitution, with Aluko coming on for Quinn. In the 79th minute, Arsenal's Gibbs struck a shot over the crossbar from close range. McGregor then saved a shot from Giroud before the Arsenal player was booked for a foul on Aluko. Davies was then shown a yellow card for a foul on Giroud. In the final minute of regular time, Sanogo struck a shot wide of the Hull goal from the edge of the penalty area. In the third of three minutes of stoppage time, Özil passed to Giroud, whose shot was saved by McGregor. The second half ended with the scores level at 2–2, sending the match into extra time. #### Extra time Arsenal dominated the early stages of extra time and had a 93rd-minute shot from Özil blocked by Chester, before Giroud's header struck the Hull crossbar. Midway through the first period of additional time, Ramsey struck a shot from 30 yards (27 m) that was saved by McGregor. In the 99th minute, Ramsey hit the ball into the side netting after exchanging passes with Giroud. With three minutes of the first half remaining, Hull were forced to make their final substitution when Liam Rosenior was injured, and he was replaced by George Boyd. A minute before half-time, Cazorla's curling shot from around 13 yards (12 m) was off target and the first period of extra time ended with the score still level at 2–2. Before the second half began, Arsenal made a double-substitution, with Rosický and Jack Wilshere replacing Özil and Cazorla. In the 109th minute, Giroud backheeled the ball to Ramsey, who struck it into the Hull goal from around 14 yards (13 m) to give Arsenal a 3–2 lead. With six minutes remaining, Sanogo's shot from 15 yards (14 m) was wide of the goal, before a mistake from Mertesacker allowed Aluko to go around Fabiański, but his shot was also wide. In the 118th minute, Giroud went down in the area, once again appealing for a penalty, but Sanogo continued to play and his shot was saved by McGregor. In the final minute, Fabiański saved a shot from Aluko, and the match ended 3–2, with Arsenal winning the FA Cup. ### Details ## Post-match Arsène Wenger, the Arsenal manager, said: "We wanted to make history ... We made history in both ways: how not to start a final and how to come back. I think this is a turning point in the lives of the players". His counterpart Steve Bruce was disappointed, but said: "In terms of effort, endeavour and determination you couldn't fault them to a man. Proud? Of course I am. They were magnificent." He suggested that mistakes had been made by the referee in the build-up to the first two Arsenal goals, saying: "I didn't think the first one was a free-kick and the second goal was a goal-kick not a corner. But it's not the time now to whinge. We are totally disappointed because it could have been one of those memorable FA Cup wins where the underdog goes and wins it." A new version of the FA Cup trophy was cast to be presented, for the first time, to the winners of the 2014 final. Standing 61.5 centimetres (24.2 in) high and weighing 6.3 kilograms (13 lb 14 oz), it was heavier than the previous two versions of the cup, having been made of sterling silver. Commissioned in 2013, it replaced a cup first presented to Liverpool in the 1992 FA Cup Final. The base of the old trophy, which featured the names of past winners, was retained. As winners, Arsenal paraded the trophy from an open top bus on 18 May, following a route from the Emirates Stadium to Islington Town Hall on Upper Street in north London. Arsenal's victory meant they drew level with Manchester United's 11 FA Cup titles, having previously won in 1930, 1936, 1950, 1971, 1979, 1993, 1998, 2002, 2003 and 2005. As Arsenal qualified for the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League via their league position, Hull entered the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League in the third qualifying round. Due to a change in UEFA rules, this was the last season the FA Cup runners-up would enter the Europa League if the winners had already qualified for European competition. Two weeks after the final, Arsenal Ladies won the FA Women's Cup by beating Everton Ladies, giving the club a rare FA Cup double. ## Broadcasting The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both ITV and BT Sport. ITV provided the free-to-air coverage and BT Sport 1 was the pay-TV alternative. ITV held the majority of the viewership – a peak audience of 10.1 million viewers (52.1% viewing share) watched at 7:30 p.m. The ratings were up on the previous year's final, which peaked at 9.4 million (42% share). BT Sport's coverage averaged 250,000 viewers (1.8% share). Coverage of the final began on ITV at 3 p.m. and averaged 5.4 million (50% share).
73,423,965	Eduardo Maldonado	1,173,348,242	Bolivian politician (born 1968)	[ "1968 births", "20th-century Bolivian lawyers", "21st-century Bolivian lawyers", "21st-century Bolivian politicians", "21st-century economists", "Bolivian economists", "Bolivian senators from Potosí", "Bolivian student activists", "Civic Community politicians", "Hunger strikers", "Living people", "Movimiento al Socialismo politicians", "Ombudsmen in Bolivia", "People from Potosí", "Third System Movement politicians", "Tomás Frías Autonomous University alumni" ]	Eduardo Humberto Maldonado Iporre (born 16 November 1968) is a Bolivian economist, lawyer, and politician who served as senator for Potosí from 2010 to 2015. He previously served as ombudsman of Potosí from 1998 to 2009. A graduate of Tomás Frías University, Maldonado developed his leadership skills in the student movement and aligned himself toward socialist values from a young age. He got his career start as Potosí's special representative to the Ombudsman's Office, holding the position for over a decade from the institution's inception in 1998. In 2009, he was elected to represent Potosí in the Senate on behalf of the ruling Movement for Socialism. Once in office, however, Maldonado quickly broke with his caucus over its often hierarchical leadership structure, becoming one of the first members of the 2010–2015 Legislative Assembly to defect from the ruling party. Rather than seek reelection, Maldonado attempted to contest the Potosí mayoralty in 2015 but was barred from running due to a controversial interpretation of residency requirements by the Supreme Electoral Tribunal. The decision prompted him to sue the government before the United Nations Human Rights Committee, which in 2018 ruled that his political rights had been violated by the state. In subsequent years, Maldonado ran to return to parliament in 2019 and was again a candidate for mayor in 2021, failing to achieve either position. ## Early life and career ### Early life and education Eduardo Maldonado was born on 16 November 1968 in Potosí to Eduardo Maldonado Urioste, a journalist, and Lourdes Iporre Peña, a music teacher. On his mother's side, Maldonado is the grandson of Humberto Iporre Salinas, a prominent and prolific twentieth-century composer whose hymn "Potosino Soy" remains a popular fixture of the department's cultural heritage. Maldonado completed his primary and secondary schooling in Potosí's Franciscan school, one of the city's principal academic institutions. He studied law and economics at Tomás Frías University and completed a master's degree in higher education and constitutional law. While a student, Maldonado played prominent roles in his sector's students' unions, commencing as president of his Franciscan school's student center. Maldonado later held membership in the Local University Federation while attending Tomás Frías, during which time he served as first secretary of the organization's interfaculty committee, in addition to chairing the student committees of both the law and economics tracks. ### Ombudsman of Potosí Maldonado began working at the Ombudsman's Office of Bolivia in 1998, the year it was established. Introduced as part of a package of new independent oversight bodies intended to guarantee the rule of law, the institution – headed in its early years by Ana María Romero – was tasked with protecting human and individual rights in the country. Given Potosí's status as one of the three areas most prone to human rights violations, a special branch office was established in the city, with Maldonado appointed to head it. He held the position for over a decade, supervising the regional human rights records of six presidential administrations between 1998 and 2009. ## Chamber of Senators ### Election In previous years, Maldonado had repeatedly rejected offers from establishment political parties to contest elective office or serve in government administration. A committed socialist since youth, he finally accepted a 2009 invitation by the ruling Movement for Socialism (MAS) to run for Senate representing Potosí. Despite their lack of party affiliation, the MAS sought in figures like Maldonado and his former superior Romero to utilize the high level of public prestige associated with the Ombudsman's Office to build bridges with the urban middle class, long weary of the Evo Morales administration. Despite his top billing on the MAS's slate of candidates, Maldonado nonetheless actively campaigned for the position. In a region with a history of political violence, he nearly lost his life while on a campaign stop in the Tinguipaya Municipality after a mob of campesinos allegedly supportive of a rival candidate attacked his group. He ultimately recovered from the ordeal and lived to win the race, part of the MAS's blowout victory in Potosí, in which it swept nearly the entirety of the department's parliamentary delegation. ### Tenure Entering parliament, Maldonado was selected to chair the Senate's Constitution Commission, a position of particular import given the Legislative Assembly's early mission of regulating the implementation of the newly passed 2009 Constitution. For the most part, Maldonado followed the party line when it came to drafting the so-called "structural laws" necessary for this task; he oversaw the quick-fire passage of three out of five such pieces of legislation through the Senate, the penultimate step to significantly reforming the country's election commission, electoral system, and constitutional court in accordance with the new constitution. Beyond that point, however, Maldonado's relationship with MAS leadership quickly deteriorated. In August 2010, he and other members of Potosí's parliamentary delegation began a multi-week hunger strike in protest of the government's lack of attention to regional demands. The department – long one of the poorest in Bolivia – had entered a nineteen-day strike based on eleven grievances they wished addressed, among them increased industrialization, more public works, and the final settlement of Potosí's territorial disputes with Chile and Oruro [es]. Although the administration eventually sealed a deal to end the protests, Maldonado and other legislators' participation remained a sore point among the MAS; Morales labeled them "traitors," party leaders in parliament announced their intent to seek a recall election against them, and yet others demanded their resignations. Maldonado's split with the MAS reached its climax in early October when – amid ongoing negotiations regarding a controversial anti-racism bill – he was booted off of the Senate's Constitution Commission. The removal of a senator mid-term from their commission assignment was unprecedented in Bolivian democratic history and came in response to Maldonado's decision to review sections of the legislation to address freedom of the press concerns presented by media outlets, bucking the orders of Morales, who had requested the law be approved without modifications. Maldonado denounced his ouster as "unfair and incorrect" and accused the ruling party of being anti-democracy and counter-revolutionary. For the duration of his term, Maldonado remained a staunch critic of the ruling party, operating in semi-opposition without formally aligning with the Senate's conservative caucus. His was the first of many defections suffered by the MAS's parliamentary delegation between 2010 and 2015. The dissidents, which came to be collectively known as the "freethinkers," grew to include two more senators – including Maldonado's regional colleague, Carmen García – as well as multiple members of the Chamber of Deputies. ### Commission assignments - Constitution, Human Rights, Legislation, and Electoral System Commission (President: ) - Planning, Economic Policy, and Finance Commission - Planning, Budget, Public Investment, and Comptroller's Office Committee (Secretary: –, –) - Plural Economy, Production, Industry, and Industrialization Commission - Plural Economy, Productive Development, Public Works, and Infrastructure Committee (Secretary: –) - Social Policy, Education, and Health Commission - Housing, Employment Law, Occupational Safety, and Social Welfare Committee (Secretary: –) - International Policy Commission - Foreign and Interparliamentary Relations and International Organizations Committee (Secretary: –) ## Later political career ### 2015 Potosí mayoral campaign Given his split with the MAS, Maldonado was not nominated for reelection in 2014 and forwent seeking a second term as part of a different front. Instead, he set his sights on local politics, looking to contest the Potosí mayoralty in the 2015 subnationals. Starting in October 2014, he formally began the process of collecting the necessary signatures to acquire ballot access for his new party, Popular Power. After accomplishing this, he initiated his campaign, running on a platform of apoliticism and opposition to the "corporatization of politics" by the ruling party. Despite an early entry into the race, Maldonado's campaign was quickly cut short. In January 2015, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal disqualified his candidacy on the grounds that he failed to meet the necessary residency requirements to run. The decision responded to a controversial ruling issued the previous year, which barred nearly all outgoing parliamentarians from running for local office under the argument that their primary residences had been the seat of government in La Paz and not their respective regions. Above all, the ruling affected the political futures of former MAS legislators that had broken with the party, all of whom appealed the court's decision to no avail. In the months following his disqualification, Maldonado denounced his ordeal as politically motivated, accusing the MAS of having acted as "a blue hand dictating the unethical actions of the ... Supreme Electoral Tribunal." Having exhausted all national legal channels to have his candidacy restored, Maldonado took his complaint international, filing two petitions against the state before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the United Nations Human Rights Committee alleging a violation of his political rights. Both bodies agreed to hear the case in 2015, with the latter ruling in 2018 that the Bolivian government had indeed violated Maldonado's rights, for which the state was asked to pay him adequate restitution. Maldonado celebrated the ruling as a "moral victory against the abuse and discretion of those who circumstantially exercise power." ### 2019 general election In the ensuing years, Maldonado refocused his attention on personal projects, such as efforts to convert portions of his family's estate into a museum dedicated to Humberto Iporre, which opened in late 2015. At the same time, he remained active in political spaces. Having previously criticized the MAS for its "ideological turn" away from indigenous rights and in favor of extractive industries, Maldonado founded his own group, the Movement for Indigenous, Democratic, and Environmental Values (VIDA), which counted the presence of other left-wing intellectuals, such as César Escobar – son of the deceased mining unionist Filemón Escobar [es], himself a MAS supporter-turned-critic. For the 2019 elections, Maldonado and Escobar signed an alliance with Civic Community (CC) to support the presidential aspirations of Carlos Mesa. As part of the pact, Maldonado sought to return to the Legislative Assembly, this time contesting a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. He won the race, owing to a significant drop in regional electoral support for the MAS that cycle, which prevented it from entirely sweeping Potosí's parliamentary delegation as it had done in previous elections. Despite the victory, subsequent allegations of electoral fraud caused the results to be annulled, preventing Maldonado from assuming his seat. When the elections were rerun in 2020, he was no longer included on CC's slate of candidates. ### 2021 Potosí mayoral campaign Six years on from his 2015 disqualification, Maldonado sought again to compete for the Potosí mayoralty. Distanced from CC, he registered his candidacy with the Third System Movement (MTS), led by La Paz Governor Félix Patzi, himself a MAS dissident. Although the MTS's electoral presence was practically non-existent outside its native La Paz, the party nonetheless saw significant successes in 2021 by aligning itself with individually popular local candidates, often former or even current-until-then MAS partisans that had first been denied that party's nomination. This strategy, however, largely relied on the personal popularity of those running, and in a crowded field of candidates – including longtime former mayor René Joaquino and civic leader Jhonny Llally – Maldonado failed to stand out, finishing in a distant fifth place. ## Electoral history
13,582,613	Dunder Mifflin Infinity	1,125,064,492	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "Television episodes written by Michael Schur", "The Office (American TV series) episodes in multiple parts", "The Office (American season 4) episodes" ]	"Dunder Mifflin Infinity" is the third and fourth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office, and the show's fifty-sixth and fifty-seventh episode overall. The episode was written by Michael Schur, who also acts in the show, and directed by Craig Zisk. It first aired in the United States on October 4, 2007, on NBC. In this episode, Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) returns to his old office and reveals his plan to bring technology to Dunder Mifflin. Michael Scott (Steve Carell) and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) try to prove that the personal touch is better than technology. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) reveal their relationship to the rest of the office, Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) attempts to reunite with Ryan, and Dwight and Angela Martin's (Angela Kinsey) relationship continues to plummet. ## Plot Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) returns to the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of Dunder Mifflin for the first time since his promotion to the corporate headquarters. Although he sports a much more urbane look and attitude, he garners little respect from his former peers. Ryan introduces "Dunder Mifflin Infinity," his initiative to revitalize the company with new technology. Michael Scott (Steve Carell) is initially excited about the prospect of getting a BlackBerry, but is warned by Creed Bratton (Creed Bratton) that the program is a ploy to get rid of older workers. Creed dyes his hair black with printer ink in an attempt to convince everyone that he is much younger. Michael holds a conference room meeting on the subject of ageism. To show that personal interaction is more effective than new technology, Michael and Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) decide to go out and win back the clients they lost in the past year with gift baskets. Each manager they encounter refuses to consider returning to Dunder Mifflin unless the company improves its technology, such as Dunder Mifflin's website. While driving back to the office, Michael pretends to misinterpret his rental car's GPS directions and intentionally drives into Lake Scranton. He uses this as further proof that new technology is useless because it tried to kill him. After the lake incident, he and Dwight walk back to one of the former clients to awkwardly get back their gift basket, causing a scene. Meanwhile, Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) and Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) are exposed as a couple when Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein) circulates a memo about public displays of affection. Jim secretly informs Pam that Dwight and Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey) are dating, only to discover that she already knew. Meanwhile, Dwight attempts to make amends for the death of Angela's cat Sprinkles by giving her a stray cat he found in his barn, named Garbage. Angela rejects the gift. Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) tries to restart her relationship with Ryan, an effort he ignores until she tells him she is pregnant. After going out to dinner, Ryan learns that Kelly's pregnancy claim was a lie that Kelly used in attempt to get them back together. Back at the office, Ryan asks Pam to create a logo for Dunder Mifflin Infinity. Pam is excited about the opportunity to use her art background, but Ryan uses the logo as an excuse to ask her out, which he does in front of Jim. Pam responds that she is dating Jim, which leaves the new boss thoroughly embarrassed. ## Production The episode was the first episode of the series directed by Craig Zisk. Zisk had previously directed episodes of Nip/Tuck, Weeds, Scrubs, Smallville, and The Single Guy. "Dunder Mifflin Infinity" was written by Michael Schur, who plays Dwight's Amish cousin Mose. For Ryan's new appearance this season, the writers originally had B. J. Novak grow a goatee. Show runner and executive producer Greg Daniels decided to have Novak lose the goatee, because according to Novak "a goatee would make Ryan a flat-out chump. And we wanted it to be more subtle." In addition to his five o'clock shadow, Ryan was also seen wearing black clothes. Novak explained that "We wanted him to dress as obnoxious as possible. As much black as possible." "Dunder Mifflin Infinity" went along with a website that had been created with the same name. The website was part of a game in which fans of The Office would sign up, and become "employees" of different "branches". Members of the site would perform tasks such as design a logo for the company or make Creed look young again. ## Reception "Dunder Mifflin Infinity" received 4.5/11 in the ages 18–49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings. This means that 4.5 percent of all households with an 18- to 49-year-old living in it watched the episode, and eleven percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point. The episode was watched by 8.49 million viewers. "Dunder Mifflin Infinity" received mixed reviews from critics, with Michael driving his car into the lake being particularly panned by critics and viewers. Entertainment Weekly's Christine Fenno commented that she thought "Michael seemed a bit more focused than usual, even competent at moments. And then he drove into a lake." Jack Rodgers, from TV Guide said that his "favorite thing about this episode was the sly parallel that connects the three love stories" and "Michael’s obsession with sticking to his old methods rather than learning to change and embrace technology". Will Leitch of New York criticized the episode, saying that Michael driving into the lake felt more like the actions of a "cartoon character", than "based in reality". Leitch did say that if "we can get Michael out of that lake and back in a conference room with Ryan, we'll have something."
19,734,192	Fraser Forster	1,172,590,449	English footballer (born 1988)	[ "1988 births", "2014 FIFA World Cup players", "Bristol Rovers F.C. players", "Celtic F.C. players", "England men's international footballers", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Hexham", "Living people", "Men's association football goalkeepers", "Newcastle United F.C. players", "Norwich City F.C. players", "People educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne", "Premier League players", "Scottish Premier League players", "Scottish Professional Football League players", "Southampton F.C. players", "Stockport County F.C. players", "Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players", "UEFA Euro 2016 players", "Wallsend Boys Club players" ]	Fraser Gerard Forster (born 17 March 1988) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. Forster started his career with Newcastle United and had brief loan spells with Stockport County and Bristol Rovers. He then spent a successful season on loan at Norwich City, helping the club win the League One title and promotion to the Championship. Forster then joined Celtic on loan for the 2010–11 season, and helped them win the Scottish Cup. He spent a further season on loan there, winning the Scottish Premier League before becoming a permanent squad member in 2012 for a transfer fee of £2.2 million. Forster won many plaudits for his performances at Celtic and holds the Scottish top division record of 1,256 minutes without conceding a goal. In August 2014, he joined Southampton for a reported £10 million. Forster had a generally impressive debut season in the Premier League, but sustained a serious knee injury in March 2015 which ruled him out for the rest of the year. On his return in January 2016, he quickly found form again and went on to set a club record of 708 minutes without conceding a goal. Forster's return aided Southampton's rise from thirteenth in the league to a sixth-place finish, earning them qualification for the following season's UEFA Europa League. Forster was selected for several England squads during 2012 and 2013 before finally making his first international appearance in November 2013. He was named in England's squads for the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016. ## Early life Forster was born in Hexham, Northumberland, the son of Brian Clive Forster QC (who later became a circuit judge), and attended the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle, but did not begin playing as a goalkeeper until he was 13 years old. Before then he had mainly played either rugby union or cricket. Coaches initially thought Forster might be too small to play as a goalkeeper, although he played for local junior team Stocksfield before joining the renowned Wallsend Boys Club. However, he entered a significant growth spurt at 15 years of age and later signed with Newcastle United. ## Club career ### Newcastle United Forster earned his first professional contract with Newcastle United, signing for their Academy in 2005. Forster was Newcastle's third choice goalkeeper in the 2007–08 season while Tim Krul was on loan at Falkirk, and played regularly in the reserves. However, in the six years he was signed to the club, Fraser never made a first-team appearance for Newcastle, mainly due to the fact that he spent most of his time on loan to other clubs, often lasting entire seasons. #### Loan to Stockport County With Krul back for the 2008–09 season and Given back to full fitness, it was the turn of Forster to go on loan. He was loaned out to Stockport County on 2 October 2008, to deputise for regular goalkeeper Owain Fôn Williams while he was away on international duty with Wales. Forster started his first match for Stockport on 7 October in the Football League Trophy second round, where they lost 1–0 away to Bury. He started his first league match for Stockport on 11 October, where his team drew 1–1 away to Southend United. He returned to Newcastle on 1 November, after completing his loan stint at Stockport playing six league matches and keeping three clean sheets. #### Loan to Bristol Rovers Forster, having been on the bench for Newcastle on over 20 occasions in the Premier League, needed regular playing experience and subsequently signed a month-loan deal with Bristol Rovers on 31 July 2009. He kept two clean sheets in the four league matches he played for them. Bristol Rovers asked to extend the loan but Norwich City made a counter offer which was accepted by Newcastle. Manager Paul Trollope was disappointed and commented that the team wanted Forster between the sticks. He stated "Fraser has a great career ahead of him". #### Loan to Norwich City Norwich City manager Paul Lambert was keen to sign Forster who he had seen play for both Stockport and Bristol Rovers. Forster then signed for Norwich City in a one-month loan deal. It was then extended to the end of January 2010 after making an impressive debut against Hartlepool in the 2–0 victory at Victoria Park. Forster received a red card on 26 September 2009 against Gillingham for bringing Curtis Weston down in the penalty area, however this was considered to be a controversial decision. He made a blunder in a 2–1 defeat against Leeds United on 19 October, with a 90th-minute goal kick going straight to Jermaine Beckford who scored. On 20 November 2009, Norwich announced that they had agreed a deal with Newcastle to extend Forster's loan until the end of the 2009–10 season, after impressing the Norwich faithful with his displays, helping the team shoot up the League One table. He was also allowed to play in Norwich City's cup matches. Norwich manager Paul Lambert praised "world class" saves and a terrific contribution to the team. In November 2009, Forster was awarded Norwich City Player of the Month. On 17 April 2010, Norwich secured promotion to the Championship with a hard-fought 1–0 win over Charlton Athletic, with Forster pulling off excellent saves to deny Nicky Bailey and Deon Burton. One week later, Norwich's 2–0 win over Gillingham saw them win the League One title. In recognition of his contribution to Norwich's success, Forster was named the club's Players' Player of the Year 2010 and second in the Supporters' Player of the Year award. An excellent season at Norwich was completed by his award of the Macron Golden Gloves Award for the best record of clean sheets in the league, keeping 18 clean sheets in 38 league appearances and 20 clean sheets in 42 appearances in all competitions. ### Celtic #### 2010–11 (loan) On 24 August 2010, Forster joined Celtic, originally on a season-long loan from Newcastle. Celtic manager Neil Lennon described Forster by saying, "He's a big boy, he's come highly recommended, his age is the only thing going against him because otherwise he's all the qualities you look for." He made his Celtic debut on 29 August 2010 away at Motherwell and kept a clean sheet as Celtic won 1–0. He then went on to play in every match of Celtic's season with the exception of two cup matches. Forster had a successful season with Celtic, winning a runner-up medal in the League Cup and Scottish Premier League. Between them, Forster and fellow goalkeeper Łukasz Załuska kept 23 clean sheets in the league, breaking Celtic's previous clean sheet record from the 2001–02 season. Forster kept 21 of the clean sheets. He capped off his season with a 3–0 victory over Motherwell to help Celtic win the Scottish Cup. In total, he kept 24 clean sheets in 44 matches for Celtic. #### 2011–12 (loan) After appearing for Newcastle in pre-season against Darlington, Orlando City, Leeds United and Fiorentina, as well as being named among the substitutes for the opening match of the Premier League season against Arsenal, Forster rejoined Celtic, on loan for the remainder of the season, on 17 August 2011. He helped Celtic draw 0–0 against FC Sion at home, but then lost 3–1 in the away leg, only for UEFA to reinstate Celtic into the Europa League with 3–0 wins in both legs after Sion were found to have fielded ineligible players. He conceded goals in all of the five group matches he played in. Forster had a successful 2011–12 season with Celtic, winning the Scottish Premier League and helping his team beat the previous season's record of 23 clean sheets. He and Załuska kept 25 clean sheets combined, Forster racking up 21 of them. In December 2011, Hearts were awarded a controversial penalty in the final minute of a league match at Parkhead, with Celtic leading 1–0. Forster, however, pulled off an excellent save from Eggert Jonsson's penalty kick to secure three important points for Celtic. In total, he kept 26 clean sheets from 47 matches that season. #### 2012–13 On 29 June 2012, it was announced that Forster had signed for Celtic on a permanent deal with a fee in the region of £2 million paid to Newcastle United. On signing the four-year deal, Forster stated, "I'm very happy that I'm going to be at Celtic for the next four years at least", and added that "The manager's faith in me means a lot, I've loved my two seasons at Celtic and he's done so much for my confidence." Manager Neil Lennon described Forster as being a "top class keeper" and that he considered him to be an important addition to the squad. On 7 November 2012, Forster produced a resolute performance against Barcelona in the UEFA Champions League group stages, helping Celtic record an historic 2–1 win during the week of the club's 125th anniversary. Due to the calibre of his performance, the Spanish media nicknamed Forster "La Gran Muralla" ("The Great Wall"). Forster continued to impress in domestic matches as well. In January 2013, Motherwell were awarded a soft penalty against Celtic. Bizarrely, referee Steven McLean allowed Tom Hateley to take the penalty kick from in front of the penalty spot. Forster was yellow carded for his protests to McLean, but the goalkeeper went on to produce an excellent one-handed save high to his right. The following month in a league match against Dundee, Forster tipped over a powerful Gary Harkins dipping shot at full-stretch. This save was voted the SPL Save of the Season in May 2013. Forster went to win a second league title with Celtic that season, and completed a league and cup double on 26 May 2013 with a 3–0 win over Hibernian in the Scottish Cup Final. #### 2013–14 Celtic again qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the 2013–14 season, and again played against Barcelona at Parkhead on 1 October 2013, losing 1–0. Despite the defeat, Forster again impressed with several excellent saves, in particular an outstanding double save near the end of the match. Forster also pulled off a crucial save during a 2–1 win on 22 October 2013 over Ajax at Parkhead, saving from Thulani Serero when he seemed to be clean through on goal. Forster's impressive performances for Celtic in the Champions League and involvement with the England international squad led to media reports in October and November 2013 that several clubs, including Manchester United and Manchester City, were considering to make a bid for the goalkeeper. In response to the press speculation, Celtic manager Neil Lennon commented, "It's going to be impossible to keep Fraser, the way he's playing," adding, "Inevitably, I think a huge club will come in and make a huge bid for him." On 2 February 2014, Forster set a new a club-record of 11 league clean sheets in a row, surpassing a record of ten clean sheets set by Charlie Shaw in the 1921–22 season. Forster's achievement was noted abroad, with the Spanish daily sports newspaper Marca awarding him their weekly "El Óscar" accolade to someone in football who has made an outstanding contribution in some way to their team. On 22 February 2014, Forster broke Bobby Clark's Scottish League record of 1,155 minutes without conceding a goal in a league match. Celtic won 2–0 away at Hearts, and Forster racked up his 13th consecutive clean sheet in the league. Forster's clean sheet run finally ended on 1,256 minutes against Aberdeen on 25 February 2014, with Jonny Hayes beating him from 30 yards to open the scoring in a 2–1 win for The Dons. Forster finished the season with another league winner's medal as Celtic clinched their third consecutive Scottish League title, and his form over the year saw him voted into the PFA Scotland Team of the Year alongside teammates Virgil van Dijk and Kris Commons. #### 2014–15 Amidst speculation linking him with a transfer to Southampton, Forster played in Celtic's first four matches in the qualifying rounds for the Champions League. Celtic lost 4–1 away at Legia Warsaw, with Forster saving a penalty kick from Ivica Vrdoljak. Celtic eventually won the tie on away goals, after being awarded a 3–0 win for the second leg at home due to Legia fielding an ineligible player in that match. ### Southampton #### 2014–15 On 8 August 2014, Celtic and Southampton agreed a reported fee of around £10 million for the transfer of Forster to the Premier League club. Southampton officially announced the transfer the next day, after Forster signed a four-year contract with the club. He made his Premier League debut on 17 August in Southampton's first match of the season, a 2–1 defeat away at Liverpool. One week later, Forster kept his first clean sheet for the club in a goalless draw against West Bromwich Albion at home. By mid-October, and after eight Premier League matches, Forster had kept four clean sheets and conceded only five goals, at that time the best defensive record in the Premier League. Forster was at fault for Aston Villa's goal in a 1–1 draw in November; coming out of his penalty box in an attempt to intercept a long clearance but missing the ball and gifting Gabriel Agbonlahor a goal. However, he was defended by manager Ronald Koeman, who stated, "He [Forster] is a great goalkeeper and that doesn't change after this mistake." Another error by Forster a month later in the League Cup led to the only goal in a surprise 1–0 win for Sheffield United. Those two mistakes, however, proved to be exceptions, as Forster's form generally continued to be very impressive. By 7 February 2015, another clean sheet in a 1–0 win away at Queens Park Rangers saw Southampton move up to third place in the League. Fraser again gained plaudits, this time for pulling off a reflex save to tip a Charlie Austin downward header over the crossbar. The match was his 11th clean sheet in the Premier League, the best record among top-flight goalkeepers over the course of the season at that point. On 21 March 2015, in a match against Burnley, Forster suffered a severe knee injury after clearing a back pass and was escorted off the pitch by medics, and replaced by Kelvin Davis. Koeman said Forster's injury was "looking bad" and that the doctors were "not positive". Up to this point, he had been ever-present for Southampton throughout the season and kept the most clean sheets in the League. Four days later, Southampton confirmed Forster's injury to be a broken kneecap and that he would be out for the remainder of the season. #### 2015–16 Although initially expected to be out for up to a year, Forster resumed light training in November 2015. On 6 January 2016, Forster played the full 90 minutes of an Under-21 Premier League Cup match against Chelsea, keeping a clean-sheet. He made his Premier League return on 13 January 2016, playing the full 90 minutes and keeping a clean sheet in Southampton's 2–0 win over Watford. Forster went on to keep clean sheets in his next two appearances, although he had little to do in any of his three matches since returning from injury. Forster's performance at Arsenal on 2 February 2016 in his fourth match was highly impressive and drew plaudits from many. The Gunners dominated the match, and had 11 shots on target as opposed to Southampton's three. Forster pulled off a string of saves in what The Daily Telegraph described as a "genuinely inspired goalkeeping performance". He saved twice from Mesut Özil in the first half, saving his first effort at goal with an outstretched leg then parrying his second shot, a volley from close range, away to safety. In the second half a shot from Alexis Sánchez was saved so spectacularly that Arsenal's Olivier Giroud was seen to turn towards Forster and applaud the save. A double save near the end of the match from Theo Walcott helped Southampton secure a hard-fought 0–0 draw. After the match, Koeman praised his goalkeeper, hailing his performance as "magic" and describing him as "one of the best goalkeepers in the Premier League and maybe in Europe". Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger also acknowledged Forster's showing, saying, "He had a brilliant game." On 13 February, Forster recorded his sixth consecutive clean sheet in a 1–0 win over Swansea City, a run which helped Southampton rise from 13th to 6th place in the Premier League since his return from injury. His clean sheet run lasted a club record 708 minutes until he was beaten by Cesc Fàbregas in a 1–2 home loss to Chelsea on 27 February. Forster's form since his return from injury, and run of clean sheets, saw him win the Premier League Player of the Month award for February. On 13 May, he signed a new contract until 2021. Southampton's 4–1 win over Crystal Palace on 15 May in their final league match of the season saw them finish in sixth place on 63 points, securing entry into the following season's Europa League and their highest ever points tally in the Premier League. #### 2016–17 Although first choice goalkeeper since his arrival at Southampton, it was only after the retirement of Kelvin Davis in the summer of 2016 that Forster was finally handed the traditional goalkeeper's "number 1" shirt at the club. Southampton made a poor start to the season under new manager Claude Puel, taking only one point in their first three league matches, but from mid-September onwards Forster went on a run of six successive clean sheets. This run of clean sheets helped Southampton rise up to eighth in the league. However, both Forster and his team endured a slump in form thereafter. A mis-kick by the goalkeeper against Crystal Palace on 3 December gifted Christian Benteke an easy opportunity to open the scoring in a 3–0 win over Southampton. Southampton suffered an equally heavy defeat on 29 December against Tottenham Hotspur, losing 4–1 in match where ESPN described Forster's distribution as "nothing short of appalling" and held him culpable for at least two of the goals conceded. Forster's poor form continued into January 2017, where it was noted his save/shot ratio was the worst amongst Premier League goalkeepers for the season to date. Despite indifferent form on the part of both Forster and Southampton as a whole, Southampton became the first team in history to reach the League Cup final without conceding a single goal. However, Southampton lost 3–2 to Manchester United in the final on 26 February 2017. Forster had a good match in Southampton's scoreless draw with Liverpool at Anfield on 7 May 2017; saving James Milner's 65th-minute penalty kick, and then pushing Marko Grujic's header over the crossbar in injury time. Although he had an inconsistent year, Forster did end the season with a total of 14 clean sheets, although his side finished eighth in the league and failed to qualify for European football in the following season. #### 2017–18 On 19 July 2017, Forster signed a new five-year contract, and described Southampton as being "a fantastic club to be at". His indifferent form, however, continued into the new season, with mistakes against Manchester United, Newcastle and Brighton all resulting in Southampton dropping points during the early months in the league. Despite these errors, manager Mauricio Pellegrino defended Forster, insisting he is a "really good goalkeeper" and that "the position of the goalkeeper is always exposed in this type of situation but nobody remembers the good situations." Forster was eventually dropped from the team in December 2017, replaced in goal by Alex McCarthy. #### 2018–19 By July 2018, Forster was pushed further down the pecking order at Southampton with the arrival at the club of Angus Gunn from Manchester City as back-up for Alex McCarthy. Forster made his first appearance of the season on 4 May 2019, playing the full 90 minutes of Southampton's 3–0 defeat at West Ham United, his first appearance for the club since December 2017. #### 2019–20 (loan to Celtic) On 22 August 2019, it was being reported that Forster's former club Celtic had agreed a deal with Southampton for a season-long loan. There were three years left on Forster's contract with Southampton, but he had played just once for the club since December 2017. The loan move was confirmed later that evening. Forster was brought straight into the Celtic team, playing in their 3–1 win over Hearts on 25 August 2019. He had little to do until Hearts were awarded a penalty late in the second half. Forster saved Conor Washington's penalty kick, but the Hearts' player scored from the rebound. On 24 October 2019, Forster pulled off a last minute save from a Danilo Cataldi volley in a Europa League group stage match against S.S. Lazio (thus keeping the score to 2−1 to Celtic), following which the Italian newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport called it the "miracle of extended time". On 8 December 2019, Forster played against Rangers in the League Cup Final at Hampden Park. With Rangers controlling the majority of the play throughout the match, Forster was called into action on many occasions. On 14 minutes, Ryan Jack struck a powerful 22-yard shot towards the top right of Celtic's goal, but Forster saved it at full stretch with his left palm. He made several other saves during the first half to keep Celtic level. Into the second half, a low ball was played from the left by Rangers across the Celtic goal; Joe Aribo looked set to tap it in at the far post, but Forster got a foot on it to clear. Rangers were awarded a penalty on 64 minutes: Alfredo Morelos took the kick for Rangers, but Forster dived low to his right to block it with his arms. Celtic won 1–0, and Forster was named Player of the Match. Manager Neil Lennon commented that "I've not seen a goalkeeping performance or goalkeeper like Fraser for a long time. In his first spell here, he did some incredible things and now he's doing it again in his second", adding that several of his saves were "world class". By March 2020, Celtic were 13 points clear in the league and well on the way to a ninth consecutive title: However, all professional football in Scotland was suspended later that month due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. Celtic were confirmed as champions in May 2020 following a league board meeting the previous week where it was agreed that completing the full league campaign was unfeasible. This saw Forster win another league championship medal with Celtic, bringing his total honours to eight winner's medals in his two spells at the club. #### 2020–21 Despite media reports about Forster rejoining Celtic for another spell, he returned to Southampton for the 2020–21 season. On 4 January 2021, after regular goalkeeper Alex McCarthy received a positive COVID-19 test result, Forster was given his first start of the season against defending champions and league leaders at the time Liverpool, and kept a clean sheet in the Saints' 1–0 victory. This was followed by clean sheets in his next three appearances, in the FA Cup against Shrewsbury Town, Arsenal and Wolverhampton Wanderers. Forster finished the 2020–21 season having made 13 appearances for Southampton in all competitions. #### 2021–22 On 25 August 2021, Forster made his first appearance of the season in the EFL Cup, with Southampton beating Newport County 8–0 to secure their biggest away win in their history. Forster started in all of Southampton’s EFL Cup games, until they got knocked out by Chelsea on penalties. Following injuries to both Forster and McCarthy, Southampton signed Willy Caballero on a short term contract. Despite this, once back from injury, Forster made his first Premier League appearance of the season in a 3–2 win against West Ham at the London Stadium on 26 December. On 28 December, Forster kept his place in goal in Southampton’s 1–1 draw with Tottenham. ### Tottenham Hotspur Tottenham signed Forster on 8 June 2022 on a free transfer; he joined the club on 1 July following the expiration of his contract at Southampton. He made his competitive debut for the club on 9 November, in their EFL Cup third round defeat at Nottingham Forest. Forster played his first Premier League game for Tottenham in their 2–2 draw at Brentford on 26 December, deputising for Hugo Lloris, who had played in the 2022 FIFA World Cup final for France just eight days earlier. He made his home debut and kept his first clean sheet for the club in their FA Cup third round win against Portsmouth. In February 2023, Forster was given a run in the team after Lloris picked up a knee ligament injury in Tottenham's win against Manchester City. ## International career On 4 October 2012, Roy Hodgson included Forster in his England squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against San Marino and Poland. On 8 November 2012, Forster was then named in Hodgson's England squad for their upcoming friendly against Sweden. On 14 March 2013, Hodgson again included Forster in his England squad, this time for the 2014 World Cup qualifiers against San Marino and Montenegro. On 27 August 2013, Forster earned his fourth inclusion to the England squad ahead of the World Cup qualifiers with Moldova and Ukraine, joining Joe Hart and John Ruddy in competition for the goalkeeper's position. Forster won his first cap for England on 15 November 2013 in a friendly match against Chile at Wembley Stadium. England lost 2–0 but Forster was "blameless" for both goals, making a "fine diving save" to deny Chile a third. This appearance against Chile saw Forster become only the second person ever to play for England while a Celtic player, after Alan Thompson in 2004. On 12 May 2014, Hodgson named Forster in England's 23-man squad for the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. In England's last warm-up match before the tournament, on 7 June, he replaced Joe Hart for the last 15 minutes of a 0–0 draw with Honduras. Forster travelled to Brazil with the rest of the England squad but did not feature in any of the three matches England played. A knee injury saw Forster miss most of 2015, but his form on returning to playing football in early 2016 earned him a recall to the England squad in March. He played the second half of England's 3–2 friendly win over Germany in Berlin, making an impressive save from a Marco Reus free kick, although later conceded a goal from a Mario Gómez header. Forster played the full 90 minutes three days later on 29 March 2016 in a 2–1 loss against the Netherlands. Both goals conceded were controversial; Danny Rose protesting that the handball that led to the penalty for the Netherlands first goal was not deliberate, while Phil Jagielka appeared to be fouled in the build-up to Luciano Narsingh's winning goal. Despite the defeat, Forster turned in a composed performance and made several excellent saves. On 31 May 2016, Forster was named in England's 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016, although he was once again understudy to Joe Hart and did not play in any of England's four matches at the tournament. Following Euro 2016, Forster remained an unused substitute in subsequent England matches, and was dropped from the squad altogether in August 2017. In November 2019 he spoke about his desire to return to the national team set-up. On 23 March 2022, Forster was once again called up to the England squad for friendly matches against Switzerland and the Ivory Coast. He was a late addition to the squad, replacing Sam Johnstone. In March 2023, almost seven years after his last cap, Forster was called up to the England squad for their Euro 2024 qualifiers against Italy and Ukraine. He was once again a late addition to the squad, replacing the injured Nick Pope. ## Style of play Despite his large build, Forster has a high level of agility; Ian Brown who coached him as a youth at Wallsend said that "he was and is an amazing shot stopper. I've seen him for Southampton save shots he shouldn't, his body bends." In one-on-situations, he appears to make his already large stature even bigger to an onrushing opponent. Forster was, however, criticised in the early part of his time at Celtic for lacking confidence and command, and uncertain when he had the ball at his feet. In time he matured, with his confidence and kicking noticeably improved. His level of concentration was also noted; given Celtic's dominance over the majority of their opponents in Scotland, their goalkeeper often has long periods of inactivity, but when eventually called into action Forster was invariably alert and ready. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International ## Honours Norwich City - Football League One: 2009–10 Celtic - Scottish Premier League/Scottish Premiership: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2019–20 - Scottish Cup: 2010–11, 2012–13 - Scottish League Cup: 2019–20 Southampton - EFL Cup runner-up: 2016–17 Individual - Norwich City Players' Player of the Season: 2009–10 - Norwich City Supporters Player of the Season runner-up: 2009–10 - Celtic Players' Player of the Season: 2012–13, 2013–14 (shared) - Football League Golden Glove Award League One: 2009–10 - Scottish Premier League/Scottish Premiership Most Clean Sheets: 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14 - SPL Save of the Season: 2012–13 - Most consecutive league clean sheets for Celtic – 13 clean sheets - Premier League Player of the Month: February 2016
9,888,317	Gerald Francis Clifford	1,146,989,760	American lawyer, politician and football executive (1889–1952)	[ "1889 births", "1952 deaths", "20th-century American lawyers", "Green Bay Packers executives", "People from Chilton, Wisconsin", "Politicians from Green Bay, Wisconsin", "University of Michigan Law School alumni", "Wisconsin Democrats", "Wisconsin lawyers" ]	Gerald Francis Clifford (June 19, 1889 – February 24, 1952) was an American trial lawyer, politician, and executive officer of the Green Bay Packers. Clifford began his legal career in 1913 after studying law at the University of Michigan. He was an active trial lawyer, specializing in cases regarding search and seizure and Prohibition. He once served as assistant Attorney General of Wisconsin where he became well-known for prosecuting corruption cases. Politically, Clifford was a leader in the Democratic Party of Wisconsin and was once a Wisconsin Democratic nominee for Congress in 1934. In addition to his work in law and politics, he also served as an executive officer and team lawyer for the Green Bay Packers. Clifford assisted the organization in avoiding bankruptcy, reincorporated the team under a new ownership model, and helped prevent the team from moving away from Green Bay, Wisconsin. He is one of The Hungry Five, a group of businessman who were instrumental in the early development of the Packers. Clifford died on February 24, 1952, at the age of 62. In recognition of his contributions, he was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1991. ## Early life Gerald Francis Clifford was born in Chilton, Wisconsin, on June 19, 1889, but grew up in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. During his childhood, Clifford's father Jerry served as the mayor of Iron Mountain, Michigan, for period of time. The family lived in Escanaba, Michigan, during Clifford's teenage years, where he would attend Escanaba High School. After graduation, he traveled across Europe for 18 months while providing a written account of his travels for the local newspaper. Back in America, Clifford attended the University of Michigan and received a law degree in 1912. ## Legal and political career Clifford began his legal practice in 1913 with Patrick Martin, who was the father of John E. Martin, the future Wisconsin Supreme Court Chief Justice. He would remain associated with the Martin law firm for the rest of his career, serving as a senior partner at the time of his death. Clifford ran for public office in 1916, losing an election to become the Wisconsin Attorney General. In 1923, he was appointed as a Brown County, Wisconsin, assistant district attorney and in 1924 was named assistant Attorney General of Wisconsin. He became a well-known trial lawyer who specialized in Prohibition cases and search and seizure law. He also tried many corrupt practices cases during his time as a prosecutor. He handled 26 murder cases as a defense attorney; none of his clients were found guilty of the original charge. Clifford was a leader of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin and a strong supporter of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He served as a delegate to every Democratic National Convention from 1932 until his death. He was the chairman of the Wisconsin 8th District Democratic organizing committee and was part of various campaign committees. In 1934, he ran for public office a second time, losing a Congressional election. Prior to his death, he was mentioned as a possible appointee for a federal judgeship. ## Green Bay Packers Clifford became acquainted with the Green Bay Packers in the early 1920s. He was one of the local Green Bay, Wisconsin, businessmen that Andrew B. Turnbull contacted to help raise money to keep the Packers afloat financially. Around 1929, Clifford began his first official role with the team when he replaced Ray Evrard as the team lawyer. His contributions over the next 20 years were so significant that he became recognized as one of The Hungry Five, a group of Green Bay businessmen who helped guide the early development of the Packers. He would go on to serve on the Packers board of directors from 1929 to 1950 and the executive committee from 1930 to 1950. From 1930 to 1933, he was elected vice president, serving under president Lee Joannes. He was also in charge of the Packers season-ticket drives for areas outside of the Green Bay metropolitan area. As the Packers attorney from 1929 to 1950, he defended the Packers in various lawsuits, including a case in 1933 where a fan fell from the stands. The resulting settlement from the lawsuit forced the Packers into receivership during the early 1930s. He then helped draft and sign the Articles of Incorporation after the franchise was reorganized in 1935 as the Green Bay Packers, Inc. The reorganization and resulting stock sales brought the Packers back from financial difficulties. In 1949 and 1950, he and former Packers president and team physician W. Webber Kelly successfully saved the non-profit status of the Packers organization in a power struggle with head coach Curly Lambeau. Even though they succeeded in maintaining the ownership structure and preventing the Packers from moving to a different city, both men resigned from the board of directors. Webber left in 1949 and Clifford resigned all his positions in 1950. Clifford was inducted into the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1991 in recognition for his contributions as an executive for the team during its early years. ## Personal life Clifford was married to Mae Heney and had two daughters. His hobbies included hunting, fishing, and gardening. He died from influenza, which was made worse by a heart condition, on February 24, 1952, at the age of 62.
49,751,810	History of East Texas State College	1,062,836,699	Early history of Texas A&M University–Commerce	[ "History of Texas A&M University–Commerce" ]	The history of East Texas State College (ETSC) comprises the history of the university now known as Texas A&M University–Commerce from its renaming as East Texas State College by the Texas Legislature in 1957 (in recognition of the school's expansion beyond its original scope of teacher education) to its renaming as East Texas State University by Governor John Connally in 1965. The ETSC era witnessed substantial growth of both student enrollment (from approximately 3,100 students in 1958–59 to 6,810 in fall 1965) and the college's physical plant (a new library, student center, and multiple dormitories were built, and by 1966 the value of the school's buildings exceeded \$22 million). Academic developments during this period were also significant, including the establishment of an honors program in 1961, the authorization to grant doctorates in English and education from 1962, and a continued increase in the percentage of ETSC professors holding Ph.D.s (reaching 58% in 1966, compared to roughly 45% in 1957). ETSC notably integrated on June 6, 1964 when ordered to do so by the Board of Regents, and Velma Waters became the first African American undergraduate student at ETSC, while Charles Garwin became the first African American graduate student and the first to graduate (in January 1966). Homecoming and intramural sports were popular student activities during the ETSC era, while the school's intercollegiate athletics teams continued to have success, especially in men's golf, men's tennis, and men's track and field. Students were still subject to the principle of in loco parentis and its related curfews, dress codes, and strict enforcement of regulations, although they also enjoyed activities ranging from fads and pranks to officially condoned events such as Kappa Delta Pi's spelling bee and an antebellum-themed "Old South Week". 1959 alone also witnessed the lifting of a long-standing ban on national fraternities and sororities and the establishment of the Forum Arts Program that brought "distinguished speakers and cultural attractions" to campus. ## Growth What is now Texas A&M University–Commerce was renamed East Texas State College (ETSC) in 1957, after the Texas Legislature recognized the broadening scope of the institution, in recognition of the school's expansion beyond its original mandate of teacher education. In 1958–59, ETSC's enrollment rose back to 1949 levels (over 3,100 students), before growing rapidly thanks to the baby boom, reaching 3,511 in fall 1961 and 6,810 in fall 1965. The number of degrees issued by the school fluctuated between 700 and 850 during the late 1950s and early 1960s, before rising to 1,562 in 1966–67. This growth occurred despite the rising cost of an education at the college (tuition grew from \$32.50 throughout the 1930s to \$42 in 1948 to \$87 in 1966), although "a college education at ET continued to be a great bargain". In the mid-1960s, a full semester of room and board cost between \$292 and \$319, depending on the dormitory. In 1959, ETSC built the James G. Gee Library, which cost over \$1 million and provided capacity for approximately 200,000 volumes and 60,000 square feet (5,600 m<sup>2</sup>) of floor space. ETSC also launched on an "ambitious" project to build 32 small dormitories in the late 1950s and early 1960s, mostly for married students and single men, although there was still a "severe shortage" of rooms available to single women. This squeeze was resolved, at least in part, by the construction of five new dormitories for the Alpha Delta Pi, Alpha Phi, Chi Omega, Gamma Phi Beta, and Kappa Delta sororities in 1962. Between 1962 and 1964, four additional dormitories, two each for female and male students, opened across Texas State Highway 50 on the west side of campus; the latter two were known as the New West Halls, although they were later renamed Sikes and Berry Halls. Perhaps the crowning achievement of the building program overseen by Gee was a new three-story student center, which included a bookstore, cafeteria, game room, and many meeting rooms, that was completed in 1963. Called by college historian William E. Sawyer the "Great Builder", Gee had increased the value of the school's physical plant from just over \$2 million in 1947 to more than \$22 million when he retired in 1966. In 1961, the college implemented an honors program for top students, giving them the opportunity to take "specially designed core courses" and write an honors thesis under the mentorship of select faculty. Structural changes to the college begun under Gee in the 1940s also continued during the ETSC era, with the Speech program moving from the Department of Journalism and Speech to the Department of Speech and Drama in 1966. In 1964, the college bought approximately 850 acres (340 ha) of ranch land 2 miles (3.2 km) south of campus along Highway 50 that it had previously leased. Another major development occurred in 1962, when ETSC was authorized to grant doctorates by the Texas Commission on Higher Education, initially offering one in English and three in education. The trend of an increasing percentage of ETSC professors holding Ph.D.s continued during this era: it grew from roughly 45% in 1957 to 58% in 1966. On March 30, 1965, Governor John Connally officially renamed the school East Texas State University by signing House Bill 333. ## Integration Against a backdrop of widespread integration and previous refusals of applications from prospective African American students by ETSC and its predecessor East Texas State Teachers College (ETSTC) in the 1950s, by the early 1960s Gee realized that "he could not indefinitely delay the inevitable". In 1962, the staunch conservative and segregationist created a secret ad hoc committee that was charged with planning the peaceful desegregation of ETSC. Noting the difficulties caused by the piecemeal desegregation of the University of Texas at Austin, the committee recommended that, when ETSC finally desegregates, it should do so completely and entirely. On June 6, 1964, the Board of Regents ordered the desegregation of all state colleges within the system, mandating that they admit "all qualified applicants, regardless of race". The decree only applied to ETSC and Sam Houston State College, the last two schools in the system that had not yet integrated. In what history professor Donald E. Reynolds termed "the most statesmanlike address of his entire presidency", Gee informed all college employees of imminent integration at a meeting, stressing his expectation that everyone would comply entirely with the new policy. In his own words, he declared it "my devout wish and fervent prayer that the integration of this college will come about in an orderly manner". Commerce resident Velma Waters became the first African American undergraduate student at ETSC, while Charles Garwin became the first African American graduate student and the first to graduate when he obtained his degree in January 1966. Waters recalled being "shunned by white students" and "victimized by biased white teachers", but she persevered and ultimately earned a bachelor's degree in 1968, by which time there were numerous African American students on campus. ## Athletics Homecoming grew during the 1950s and early 1960s, with each year's festivities featuring a parade, a football game, and a homecoming dance. Intramural sports continued to be among the most popular student activities, and during this era they included women for the first time, although modern women's intercollegiate athletics would not exist at ETSC or its successor East Texas State University (ETSU) until the passage of Title IX in 1972. After the "Golden Fifties" during which the school's football and men's basketball teams achieved unprecedented success, the ETSC Lions enjoyed continued athletic achievements: both men's golf and men's tennis won back-to-back Lone Star Conference championships in 1964 and 1965, while the men's track and field team amassed a total of 14 titles between 1947 and 1966. ## Student life Long a part of the school's history, the principle of in loco parentis continued throughout the ETSC era. Curfews, dress codes, and strict enforcement of student regulations were a fact of life for all students, but they disproportionately affected women. In 1955, "good grooming" was a requirement that consisted, in part, of students exhibiting "no missing buttons, run-down heels, unbrushed clothes, unpolished shoes, neglected nails, or straggling coiffure". When attending classes in 1963, male students were required to wear sports wear or dress suits while their female counterparts had to dress in sports wear or tailored clothes. Nonetheless, an East Texan student newspaper survey conducted in the early 1960s found that female students "overwhelmingly approved of the...regulations which governed their dress and behavior". Social events on campus also continued to evolve during the ETSC years. By 1964, one of the oldest of all school traditions, the Christmas carol service, included choirs from five area schools in addition to the ETSC choir, modern dance, a candlelight service, and an audience sing-along with the college orchestra. The campus was also the scene of many fads and pranks in the late 1950s and early 1960s, ranging from students cramming themselves into Volkswagen Beetles and egging fraternity houses to painting orange polka dots on the F-84G fighter jet on campus and panty raids involving up to 500 students. Other student activities on campus during this period were officially condoned by the administration, including Kappa Delta Pi's spelling bee, Alpha Phi Omega's "Ugly Man on Campus" contest, an antebellum-themed "Old South Week", and a Mexican-themed "Down South Week". President Gee lifted a long-standing ban on national fraternities and sororities in 1959, and within two years almost all of the old men's and women's social clubs had affiliated with national Greek organizations. Of the men's organizations, Artema affiliated with Lambda Chi Alpha, the Cavaliers with Delta Tau Delta, Ogima (the oldest extant men's organization) with Pi Kappa Phi, Paragon with Kappa Alpha, and Tejas with Sigma Phi Epsilon. Of the women's organizations, Kaidishan affiliated with Kappa Delta, Kalir with Alpha Delta Pi, Les Choisites with Alpha Phi, Marpessa with Chi Omega, and Tooanoowe with Gamma Phi Beta. In 1959, ETSC established the Forum Arts Program, which endeavored to bring "distinguished speakers and cultural attractions" to campus, and encouraged students to attend by granting them half a semester hour of credit for participating in the program. Among the luminaries who came to Commerce due to the Forum Arts Program were then-senator Lyndon B. Johnson, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg, writers Pearl S. Buck and Alex Haley, historians Henry Steele Commager and John H. Plumb, the Dallas Symphony Orchestra and San Antonio Symphony, the Ballet Folklórico de México, the José Limón Dance Company, the Preservation Hall Jazz Band of New Orleans, and the artist Hal Holbrook. In 1962, the author Flannery O'Connor spoke at ETSC.
81,993	Luna 2	1,173,807,112	1959 Soviet unmanned space mission to impact the surface of the Moon	[ "1959 in the Soviet Union", "1959 on the Moon", "Impactor spacecraft", "Luna programme", "Spacecraft launched in 1959", "Spacecraft that impacted the Moon" ]	Luna 2 (Russian: Луна 2), originally named the Second Soviet Cosmic Rocket and nicknamed Lunik 2 in contemporaneous media, was the sixth of the Soviet Union's Luna programme spacecraft launched to the Moon, E-1 No.7. It was the first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon, and the first human-made object to make contact with another celestial body. The spacecraft was launched on 12 September 1959 by the Luna 8K72 s/n I1-7B rocket. It followed a direct path to the Moon. In addition to the radio transmitters sending telemetry information back to Earth, the spacecraft released a sodium gas cloud so the spacecraft's movement could be visually observed. On 13 September 1959, it impacted the Moon's surface east of Mare Imbrium near the craters Aristides, Archimedes, and Autolycus. Prior to impact, two sphere-shaped pennants with USSR and the launch date engraved in Cyrillic were detonated, sending pentagonal shields in all directions. Luna 2 did not detect radiation or magnetic belts around the Moon. ## Background Luna 1 and the three spacecraft of Luna programme before it were part of the Ye-1 series of spacecraft with a mass of 156 kilograms (344 lb). Luna missions that failed to successfully launch or achieve good results remained unnamed and were not publicly acknowledged. The first unnamed probe exploded on launch on 23 September 1958. Two more launches were unsuccessfully attempted on 11 October 1958 and 4 December 1958. Luna 1 was the fourth launch attempt and the first partial success of the program. It launched on 2 January 1959 and missed the Moon by 5,965 kilometres (3,706 mi). One mission separated Luna 1 and Luna 2, a launch failure that occurred with an unnamed probe on 18 June 1959. Luna 2 would be the Soviet Union's sixth attempt to impact the Moon. It was the second of the Ye-1a series, modified to carry a heavier payload of 156 kilograms (344 lb) and had a combined mass of 390.2 kilograms (860 lb). Luna 2 was similar in design to Luna 1, a spherical space probe with protruding antennas and instrumentation. The instrumentation was also similar to Luna 1, which included a triaxial fluxgate magnetometer, a piezoelectric detector, a scintillation counter, ion traps and two gas-discharge counters, while the Luna 2 included six gas-discharge counters. There were no propulsion systems on Luna 2 itself. ## Payload Luna 2 carried five different types of instruments to conduct various tests while it was on its way to the Moon. The scintillation counters were used to measure any ionizing radiation and the Cherenkov radiation detectors to measure electromagnetic radiation caused by charged particles. The primary scientific purpose of the Geiger Counter carried on Luna 2 was to determine the electron spectrum of the Van Allen radiation belt. It consisted of three STS-5 gas-discharge counters mounted on the outside of an airtight container. The last instrument on Luna 2 was a three component fluxgate magnetometer. It was similar to that used on Luna 1 but its dynamic range was reduced by a factor of 4 to ±750 gammas (nT) so that the quantisation uncertainty was ±12 gammas. The probe's instrumentation was powered by silver-zinc and mercury-oxide batteries. The spacecraft also carried Soviet pennants which were located on the probe and on the Luna 2 rocket. The two sphere-shaped pennants in the probe had surfaces covered by 72 pentagonal elements in a pattern similar to that later used by association footballs. In the centre was an explosive charge designed to shatter the sphere, sending the pentagonal shields in all directions. Each pentagonal element was made of titanium alloy; the centre regular pentagon had the State Emblem of the Soviet Union with the Cyrillic letters СССР ("USSR") engraved below and was surrounded by five non-regular pentagons which were each engraved with СССР СЕНТЯБРЬ 1959 ("USSR SEPTEMBER 1959"). The third pennant was similar engravings on aluminium strips which were embossed on the last stage of the Luna 2 rocket. The scientists took extra, unspecified precautions in preventing biological contamination of the Moon. ## Mission ### Launch and trajectory A launch was first attempted on 9 September 1959, but the first stage engines failed to reach full thrust, and the launch was aborted while the rocket was on the launch pad. The second attempt occurred on 12 September 1959, and Luna 2 lifted off at 06:39:42 GMT. Once the vehicle reached Earth's escape velocity, the upper stage was detached, allowing the probe to travel on its path to the Moon. Luna 2 pirouetted slowly, making a full rotation every 14 minutes, while sending radio signals at 183.6, 19.993 and 39.986 MHz. The probe started transmitting information back to Earth using three different transmitters. These transmitters provided precise information on its course, allowing scientists to calculate that Luna 2 would hit its mark on the Moon around 00:05 on 14 September (Moscow Time), which was announced on Radio Moscow. Because of claims that information received from Luna 1 was fake, the Russian scientists sent a telex to astronomer Bernard Lovell at Jodrell Bank Observatory at the University of Manchester. Having received the intended time of impact, and the transmission and trajectory details, it was Bernard Lovell who confirmed the mission's success to outside observers. However, the American media were still skeptical of the data until Lovell was able to prove that the radio signal was coming from Luna 2 by showing the Doppler shift from its transmissions. ### Lunar impact Luna 2 took a direct path to the Moon, starting with an initial velocity from Earth of 11.2 kilometres per second (25,000 mph) and impacting on the Moon at about 3.3 kilometres per second (7,400 mph). It hit the Moon about 0° West and 29.1° North of the centre of the visible disk at 00:02:24 (Moscow Time) on 14 September 1959. The probe became the first human-made object to hit another celestial body. To be able to provide a visual from Earth on 13 September, the Luna 2 released a vapour cloud that expanded to a 650 kilometres (400 mi) diameter and was seen by observatories in Alma Ata, Byurakan, Abastumani, Tbilisi, and Stalinabad. This vapour cloud also acted as an experiment to see how the sodium gas would act in a vacuum and zero gravity. The last stage of the rocket that carried Luna 2 also hit the Moon's surface about 30 minutes after Luna 2, but there was uncertainty as to where it landed. Bernard Lovell began tracking the probe about five hours before it impacted the Moon and also recorded the transmission from the probe, which ends abruptly. He played the recording during a phone call to reporters in New York to finally convince most media observers of the mission's authenticity. ## Results The radiation detectors and magnetometer were searching for lunar magnetic and radiation fields similar to the Van Allen radiation belt around Earth, sending information about once every minute until its last transmission which came about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away from the lunar surface. Although it did prove previous measurements of the Van Allen radiation belts that were taken from Luna 1 around the Earth, it was not able to detect any type of radiation belts around the Moon at or beyond the limits of its magnetometer's sensitivity (2–3x10<sup>−4</sup> G). Luna 2 showed time variations in the electron flux and energy spectrum in the Van Allen radiation belt. Using ion traps on board, the satellite made the first direct measurement of solar wind flux from outside the Earth's magnetosphere. On its approach to the lunar surface, the probe did not detect any notable magnetic field to within 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the Moon. It also did not detect a radiation belt around the Moon, but the four ion traps measured an increase in the ion particle flux at an altitude of 8,000 kilometres (5,000 mi), which suggested the presence of an ionosphere. The probe generated scientific data that was printed on 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) of teletype, which were analysed and published in spring 1960. ## Cultural significance According to Donald William Cox, Americans were starting to believe that they were making progress in the Space Race and that although the Soviet Union might have had larger rockets, the United States had better guidance systems, but these beliefs were questioned when the Soviets were able to impact Luna 2 on the Moon. At that time the closest Americans had come to the Moon was about 37,000 kilometres (23,000 mi) with Pioneer 4. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, on his only visit to the United States, gave President Dwight D. Eisenhower a replica of the Soviet pennants that Luna 2 had just placed onto the lunar surface. Luna 2 and its predecessors all came to be used throughout the USSR and around the world as pro-communist propaganda. Donald W. Cox wrote in his 1962 book The Space Race: > Although the Sputniks and Luniks did not themselves provide better cars, refrigerators, color TV sets, and homes for the peasants and laborers of the Soviet Union and her satellite states, they did evoke added inspiration for the earthbound followers of the communist way of life helping to take their minds off shortages of consumer goods. The people were spurred on to work just a little harder for the glorious motherland and to outstrip the west in the less dramatic and more basic things of life, like coal and steel production. ## Legacy Luna 2 was a success for the Soviets, and was the first in a series of missions (lunar impactors) that were intentionally crashed on the Moon. The later U.S.-made Ranger missions ended in similar impacts. Such controlled crashes have remained useful even after the technique of soft landing was mastered. NASA used hard spacecraft impacts to test whether shadowed Moon craters contain ice by analyzing the debris that got thrown out. The pennant presented to Eisenhower is kept at the Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum in Abilene, Kansas, U.S. A copy of the spherical pennant is located at the Kansas Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas. On 1 November 1959, the Soviet Union released two stamps commemorating the spacecraft. They depict the trajectory of the mission. ## See also - Soviet space program - Sinus Lunicus - List of artificial objects on the Moon
2,244,659	You Never Give Me Your Money	1,161,568,262	1969 song by the Beatles	[ "1969 songs", "Song recordings produced by George Martin", "Songs published by Northern Songs", "Songs written by Lennon–McCartney", "The Beatles songs" ]	"You Never Give Me Your Money" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles. It was written by Paul McCartney (and credited to Lennon–McCartney) and documented the financial and personal difficulties facing the band. The song is the first part of the medley on side two of their 1969 album Abbey Road and was recorded in stages between May and August that year. The song was the first one to be recorded for the medley, which was conceived by McCartney and producer George Martin as a finale for the Beatles' career. The backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes, London, but the remainder of overdubs occurred at EMI Studios. Musically, the song is made up of a suite of various segments, ranging from a piano ballad at the beginning through to guitar arpeggios at the end. ## Background The song was written by McCartney when he was staying with his wife Linda in New York in March 1969 shortly after their wedding. This was a break following the Get Back/Let It Be sessions. John Lennon and McCartney were at risk of losing overall control of Northern Songs, the company that published their songs, after ATV Music bought a majority share. McCartney had been largely responsible for the group's direction and projects since the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967, but he began to realise that the group dynamic of the Beatles was unraveling. He was particularly unhappy at the others, who wanted manager Allen Klein to help resolve financial matters. McCartney later said that the song was written with Klein in mind, saying "it's basically a song about no faith in the person". He added that the line "One sweet dream, pack up the bags, get in the limousine" was based on his trips in the country with Linda to get away from the tense atmosphere with the Beatles, though author Walter Everett thought the line was also a nostalgic look at the Beatles' touring years, which had ended in 1966. Realising that Abbey Road could be the group's last album, McCartney and Martin decided to combine various portions of tracks into a medley, which would act as a climactic finale of the group's career. McCartney later said that the idea of a song suite was inspired by Keith West's "Excerpt from A Teenage Opera". Some musical segments of "You Never Give Me Your Money" were reused for the "Golden Slumbers" / "Carry That Weight" portion of the medley, including the opening verses and later guitar arpeggios. Structurally, the music begins with a piano ballad and moves to several other styles, including boogie-woogie piano, arpeggiated guitars and nursery rhyme. Beatles author Ian MacDonald speculates that the guitar arpeggios at the end of the track were influenced by "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" and the middle section of "Here Comes the Sun", and that the overall structure was inspired by Lennon's "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" from the previous year's album The Beatles, which also joined unrelated song fragments together. ## Recording The basic backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes on 6 May 1969. Recording started at 3pm and went on until 4am the next morning. McCartney sang lead and played piano, Lennon played an Epiphone Casino guitar, George Harrison played a Fender Telecaster guitar fed through a Leslie speaker, and Ringo Starr played drums. The group recorded 36 takes, selecting take 30 as the best, which was made into a rough stereo mix. The basic structure of the song as it appeared on Abbey Road had not been worked out at this stage, and the original recording ran onto a loose jam session, ending up as a fast rock-and-roll instrumental towards the end. The track was completed in EMI Studios. McCartney overdubbed a lead vocal onto the basic track on 1 July, and further vocals and sound effects were added on 15 July. On 30 July, a reduction mix was made of the original eight track tape, so further overdubs could be made, and a rough mix of the Abbey Road medley was put together. The cross-fade from "You Never Give Me Your Money" into the next track, "Sun King", proved to be problematic, and the group made several attempts before deciding to merge the songs via an organ note. McCartney completed the instrumental overdubs the next day, on 31 July, by adding a bass guitar part and additional piano overdubs, including some punched-in honky-tonk piano in place of the original. The final recording session occurred on 5 August, when McCartney made a number of tape loops at EMI Studios, including bells, birds, bubbles and chirping crickets. Martin mixed the track into stereo on 13 August, and made 11 attempts at a final mix, combining the tape loops with the cross-fade into "Sun King", replacing the earlier organ note. He made another attempt at a final mix on 21 August, and this was used for the finished master. ## Personnel According to Ian MacDonald: - Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals, piano, bass, wind chimes, tape loops - John Lennon – guitar, backing vocal - George Harrison – guitar, backing vocal - Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine ## Other versions American guitarist George Benson covered the song in a medley with "Golden Slumbers" in his 1970 album The Other Side of Abbey Road. Comedy rock duo Tenacious D covered "You Never Give Me Your Money" in medley with "The End" as a single released on 2 July 2021. The proceeds benefit Doctors Without Borders.
2,072,405	Anticipating	1,166,919,374	null	[ "2001 songs", "2002 singles", "American disco songs", "Britney Spears songs", "Jive Records singles", "Music videos directed by Marty Callner", "Song recordings produced by Brian Kierulf", "Song recordings produced by Josh Schwartz", "Songs written by Brian Kierulf", "Songs written by Britney Spears", "Songs written by Josh Schwartz" ]	"Anticipating" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her eponymous third studio album (2001). It was written by Spears alongside the song's producers Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz. The song was released on June 25, 2002, by Jive Records, as the fourth single from the album, exclusive to France. "Anticipating" is a disco and dance-pop song, influenced by R&B. Lyrically, the song is about friendship and camaraderie between women. It was met with critical praise, with reviewers complimenting its lyrics and comparing it to the 1980s compositions of Madonna, Rick Astley and Janet Jackson's "All for You". "Anticipating" achieved minor commercial success, peaking at number 38 on the French Singles Chart. The song was promoted with a performance in the Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001–2002), where Spears wore a patched denim skirt and danced in front of giant crayon drawings. An accompanying music video, directed by Marty Callner, consisted of the performance from Britney Spears Live from Las Vegas. "Anticipating" was also promoted in a commercial Spears filmed for Toyota Vios. ## Background During the Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000), Spears revealed she felt inspired by hip hop artists such as Jay-Z and the Neptunes and wanted to create a record with a funkier sound. In February 2001, Spears signed a \$7–8 million promotional deal with Pepsi, and released another book co-written with her mother, entitled A Mother's Gift. On the same month, Spears started to record material for her third studio album, with "Anticipating" being recorded at Rusk Sound Studios in Los Angeles, California, the DOJO in Jackson, New Jersey, Sound on Sound Studios and Battery Studios in New York City. The song was written by Spears, Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz while produced by Kierulf and Schwartz. It was also mixed at Battery Studios by Stephen George. Audio engineering was done by Aaron Kaplan, Rich Tapper, Jill Tengan and Charles McCrorey. Nile Rodgers played the guitar. Bass guitar and programming was done by Kierulf. Background vocals were provided by Spears and Jennifer Karr. Her third studio album, Britney, was released in November 2001. In an interview with the Daily Record, Spears commented on the track, saying, "It's just a fun song that I wrote. It's just like being with your girlfriends and just dancing. I think this track also has a very Seventies' feel to it." It was released as the fourth single from the album on June 25, 2002, in France only. In other European countries, Spears' cover of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" was released as the fourth single. ## Composition "Anticipating" is a dance-pop song that lasts for three minutes and 16 seconds. Corey Moss of MTV noted the song also has a 1970s disco sound, while Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe compared it to early Madonna tracks such as "Holiday" (1983). Glenn Gamboa of Newsday compared the song to Janet Jackson's "All for You", calling it "pleasant, shimmering R&B-styled pop". According to the sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is composed in the key of F major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 112 beats per minute. Spears vocal range spans from the low-key of F<sub>3</sub> to the high-note of A<sub>4</sub>. The song has a basic sequence of B(9)–C–Dm7–B(9) as its chord progression. Lyrically, it talks about friendship and camaraderie between women. During the bridge, Spears sings, "Gotta really let me know if you want me / You gotta turn me on and make me feel sexy". During the time of the album's release, her official site stated that "the girl-power anthem 'Anticipating' proves that Britney is, now more than ever, a force to be reckoned with." ## Reception "Anticipating" received general acclaim from music critics. Jane Stevenson of Jam! called "Anticipating" the strongest track in the album. Yale Daily News writer Catherine Halaby called it a "fun, cutesy disco ballad". Nikki Tranker of PopMatters said it "offers Britney's fans something a little different with a simple tune beautifully underlined by a well-executed '70s disco sound". Jim Farber of the New York Daily News while reviewing the Dream Within a Dream Tour named it along with "Stronger", "[two] girl-power anthems". Katie Perone of the Loyola Greyhound said "[it] is a fun, bubbly song that probably would have had great success on Oops!". Barry Walters of Rolling Stone stated the song is "a euphoric Rick Astley flashback, [where] she emotes without framing her vocals in Nickelodeon-schooled theatricality". In a list compiled by Sam Lanksy of PopCrush, "Anticipating" was ranked eight in a list of Spears' best songs. In the album review, David Browne of Entertainment Weekly criticized "Anticipating" along with "Bombastic Love" for "[relying] on enervated formulas". On July 26, 2002, the song entered at number 46 in the French Singles Chart. The following week, it peaked at number 38. "Anticipating" spent a total of 13 weeks on the chart. ## Promotion The song was performed at the Dream Within a Dream Tour. The performance began with a video interlude of Spears talking to her dancers. She then appeared onstage, wearing a patched denim skirt. The set was made of giant coloring book drawings of houses and cars. After the second chorus, she invited the audience to sing along with her. At the end of the song, she briefly talked to the audience before taking off the skirt and top to perform "I'm a Slave 4 U". Shaheem Reid of MTV noted that during the opening night of the tour in Columbus, Ohio, "Britney must've forgotten that the disco-era throwback cut was brand spanking new, because she kept encouraging everyone to sing along to the chorus [...] Although the crowd clapped and bobbed to the beat, Britney had to go this one alone vocally". The music video, directed by Marty Callner, consisted of footage of the tour performance from Britney Spears Live from Las Vegas. Several effects were added, including a glittering ball and the name of the song appearing on the screen. The song was also promoted in a commercial Spears filmed for Toyota Vios. ## Track listings - CD maxi single 1. "Anticipating" – 3:16 2. "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" (Metro remix) – 5:25 3. "Overprotected" (Darkchild remix) – 3:20 - 12" vinyl (the French remixes) 1. "Anticipating" (remix by Alan Braxe) – 4:07 2. "Anticipating" (remix by Alan Braxe) – 1:27 3. "Anticipating" (Antoine Clamaran club mix) – 6:25 4. "Anticipating" (Antoine Clamaran instru mix) – 6:25 5. "Anticipating" (PK'Chu & RLS' sweet & sour mix) – 5:58 6. "Anticipating" (PK'Chu & RLS' hard & sexy mix) – 5:43 7. "Anticipating" (PK'Chy & RLS' hard & sexy dub mix) – 5:43 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Britney's liner notes. Technical - Recorded at Rusk Sound Studios in Los Angeles, California, the DOJO in Jackson, New Jersey, Sound on Sound Studios and Battery Studios in New York City, New York. - Mixed at Battery Studios in New York City, New York. Personnel - Britney Spears – lead vocals, songwriting, piano - Brian Kierulf – songwriting, producer, bass guitar, bass, guitar, programming - Josh Schwartz – songwriting, producer - Jennifer Karr – background vocals - Stephen George – mixing - Nile Rodgers – guitar - Aaron Kaplan – audio engineering - Rich Tapper – audio engineering - Jill Tengan – audio engineering - Charles McCrorey – audio engineering ## Charts
12,542,378	Moupin pika	1,145,158,032	Species of mammal	[ "Fauna of Tibet", "Mammals described in 1871", "Pikas", "Taxonomy articles created by Polbot" ]	The Moupin pika (Ochotona thibetana), also known as Ribetischer Pika, Moupin-Pika, Pika del Tibet, and Manipuri pika, is a species of mammal in the pika family, Ochotonidae. It has many subspecies, some of which may be distinct species. Its summer pelage is dark russet-brown with some light spots on the dorsal side, and ochraceous buff tinged on the belly. In winter it is lighter, with buff to dull brown dorsal pelage. A generalist herbivore, it is found in the mountains of the eastern Tibetan Plateau in China (Gansu, southern Qinghai, Yunnan, and Sichuan), Bhutan, India (Sikkim), and northern Myanmar. Both the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Endangered Species and the Red List of China's Vertebrates classify it as a species of least concern; although one subspecies may be endangered. ## Taxonomy The Moupin pika was first described in 1871 by the French mammalogist and ornithologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards. There are five recognized subspecies according to the Mammals Species of the World: - O. t. nangquenica Zheng et al., 1980 - O. t. osgoodi Anthony, 1922 - O. t. sacraria Thomas, 1923 - O. t. sikimaria Thomas, 1922\* Recently declared a separate species - O. t. thibetana Milne-Edwards, 1871 The Gansu pika (Ochotona cansus) was previously treated as a subspecies of the Moupin pika, but is now considered a separate species based on its skull characteristics—shorter skull and a narrower interorbital region and zygomatic arch—and because intermediate forms do not occur in the extensive zones of sympatry. The Forrest's pika (Ochotona forresti) was also a former subspecies, but it was listed as separate species by Feng and Zheng in 1985. In 1951, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott listed the O. t. osgoodi as a subspecies of the steppe pika (Ochotona pusilla) but in 1978, Corbet, and in 1982, Weston, based on morphometric analysis, included it in the Moupin pika. O. t. sikimaria was assigned to the Gansu pika by Feng and Kao in 1974, and by Feng and Zheng in 1985 because Thomas compared the subspecies to O. c. sorella in his original description. However, based on holotype analysis, O. t. sikimaria was found to have a longer skull and a wider interorbital region and zygomatic arch than the Gansu pika. The subspecies O. n. lama, O. n. aliensis, and O. n. lhasaensis were formerly assigned to the Moupin pika, but they are now considered to belong to the Nubra pika (Ochotona nubrica). O. t. sikimaria may be a treated as a separate species due to its widely separate geography than that of the other Moupin pika. It can be distinguished from other subgroups based on a different protrusion of the skull and variations in its genetic data. O. t. sacraria and O.t. xunhuaensis may also represent separate species, as they appear genetically very distinct from the other Moupin pika. In 1938, Allen synonymized the Qinling pika (Ochotona syrinx) with O.t. huangensis. This assignment was followed by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott in 1951, by Gureev in 1964, and by Weston in 1982. In 1938 Allen, in 1951 Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, and in 1982 Weston synonymized O.t. sacraria with O.t. thibetana, but in 1974, Feng and Kao, and in 1985, Feng and Zheng listed it as a subspecies of the Moupin pika. ## Description A fairly small pika, the Moupin pika measures 14 to 18 cm (5.5 to 7.1 in) in length, and weighs 71 to 136 g (2.5 to 4.8 oz). The skull is 3.6 to 4.2 cm (1.4 to 1.7 in) in length, and is larger than that of the Gansu pika. The frontal bone is flat and low, and has no alveolus above it. The auditory bullae are small, and the posterior processes of the cheek bone are almost parallel. The anterior palatine foramen (funnel-shaped opening in the bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the mouth, immediately behind the incisor teeth where blood vessels and nerves pass) and the palatal foramen are combined. In summer, the dorsal pelage is dark russet-brown overall in color with some light spots and the ventral pelage is ochraceous buff-tinged; however, O.t. xunhuaensis has grayish ventral pelage, and a russet throat collar. It has a buff coloured collar along the middle line of the belly. The winter dorsal pelage is buff to dull brown. It has dark brown ears, measuring 1.7 to 2.3 cm (0.67 to 0.91 in) in length, and having white, narrow borders along its edges. The sole of the feet are furred. The hindfeet are 2.4 to 3.2 cm (0.94 to 1.26 in) long. ## Distribution and habitat The species' range includes the mountains of the eastern Tibetan Plateau in Gansu, southern Qinghai, Yunnan, and Sichuan in China; in Bhutan; in Sikkim in India; and in northern Myanmar. The nominate subspecies O.t. thibetana occurs in southern Qinghai, western Sichuan, southeastern Tibet, and northwestern Yunnan; O.t. nangquenica occurs in Tibet; O.t. sacraria occurs in western Sichuan; O.t. osgoodi occurs in northeastern Myanmar; O.t. sikimaria occurs in Sikkim; and O.t. xunhuaensis occurs in eastern Qinghai. It is found in rocky regions under canopies of Rhododendron and bamboo forests at lower elevations, and in subalpine forests in the higher parts of its distribution. While recorded at altitudes as low as 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level, it favors elevations of 2,400 to 4,100 m (7,900 to 13,500 ft). It has an area of occupancy of 11 to 500 km<sup>2</sup> (4.2 to 193.1 sq mi), with an extant of occurrence of 5,001 to 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,931 to 7,722 sq mi). ## Behavior and ecology The Moupin pika is a diurnal species, but it can be active at night. It is colonial, terrestrial pika that is known to dig burrows. It is a generalist herbivore, and creates haypiles for food storage. The breeding season starts in at least April and continues till July. The female produces litters of one to five young. According to tests, the Moupin pika has been found to contain astroviruses. ## Status and conservation Since 1996, the Moupin pika has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it is a widespread species and its population is not known to be suffering a serious decline. Although its current population trend is unclear, it is common throughout its distribution. It experiences a threat from habitat destruction due to small-scale deforestration of bamboo and Rhododendron woodlands, and grazing by livestock. Due to destruction of habitat, the Sikkim pika may be endangered, but the other forms do not appear to be threatened according to IUCN. The Red List of China's Vertebrates also lists the Moupin pika as a species of least concern. It occurs in the protected areas of the Changshanerhai, Jiuzhaigou, Nujiang, Wanglang, Wawushan, Wolong, and Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserves. However, deforestation may pose a threat throughout its range in southern China. It occurs extremely rarely in northeastern India. It has also been stated that almost all of its habitat in India has been destroyed, locally making it "critically endangered." It is targeted as a pest in southern Gansu.
71,580,941	How to Blow Up a Pipeline (film)	1,172,096,183	2022 film directed by Daniel Goldhaber	[ "2020s American films", "2020s English-language films", "2020s political drama films", "2022 action drama films", "2022 films", "2022 independent films", "American action drama films", "American independent films", "American political drama films", "Climate change films", "Eco-terrorism in fiction", "Films about activists", "Films about terrorism in the United States", "Films about the Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Films based on non-fiction books", "Films set in Long Beach, California", "Films set in Miami", "Films set in Texas", "Films shot in Long Beach, California", "Films shot in New Mexico", "Films shot in North Dakota", "Neon (company) films", "Political action films", "Procedural films" ]	How to Blow Up a Pipeline is a 2022 American action-thriller film directed by Daniel Goldhaber, who co-wrote the screenplay with Ariela Barer and Jordan Sjol. It relies on ideas advanced in Andreas Malm's 2021 book of the same name, published by Verso Books. Malm's nonfiction work examines the history of social justice movements and argues for property destruction as a valid tactic in the pursuit of environmental justice. The film stars Barer, Kristine Froseth, Lukas Gage, Forrest Goodluck, Sasha Lane, Jayme Lawson, Marcus Scribner, Jake Weary and Irene Bedard. Set primarily in West Texas, the film follows a fictional group of eight young individuals who decide to blow up an oil pipeline at two key locations. It explores the moral validity of extreme actions in addressing the climate crisis, the question of terrorism, and the use of property damage and sabotage as activist tactics. The production of the film spanned 19 months, from conception to completion, with principal photography taking place in New Mexico. The film premiered on September 10, 2022, at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in the United States on April 7, 2023. Receiving generally favorable reviews from critics, How to Blow Up a Pipeline was praised for its eco-thriller premise, its exploration of moral and psychological challenges, and the complexity of its antiheroes. However, a few critics expressed concerns regarding the perceived promotion of terrorism and violence in the film's narrative. ## Plot A young woman, Xochitl, cuts the tires of an SUV and leaves a bright yellow one-page manifesto on the window. In Long Beach, California, Xochitl and her friend Theo witness the devastating effects of climate change. Xochitl's mother dies during a heat wave in a city plagued by pollution from oil refineries. Frustrated by the slow progress of their campus divestment campaign, Xochitl expresses a desire for more radical environmental action. Theo is diagnosed with terminal cancer caused by the pollution, adding a sense of urgency to their cause. Theo and Xochitl convince Theo's skeptical girlfriend, Alisha, and a number of other individuals, to plot an act of environmental terrorism. Shawn, a film student who met Xochitl through the divestment movement, introduces the group to Dwayne, a blue-collar Texan with deep resentment towards an oil company that used eminent domain laws to seize his family's ancestral land, depriving him and his pregnant wife of their home. The team also recruits Michael, a Native American self-taught explosives expert from a North Dakota reservation. Completing the group are Rowan and Logan, an adventurous young couple drawn to the cause. United by their shared belief that non-disruptive action is insufficient, the group devises a plan to strategically detonate homemade explosives along an unguarded section of a recently constructed oil pipeline in West Texas. The pipeline is partially built on Dwayne's land; his intimate knowledge of the targeted area helps the group plan the attack. They hope that the destruction of the segment will force the company to shut down its Texas operations for a period of time, causing crude oil prices worldwide to spike due to their indexing to West Texas crude. The group gathers at a remote cabin, where they begin manufacturing explosives and digging up a section of the pipeline. While executing their plan, the group encounters several setbacks and challenges. Members of the crew are distracted by alcohol, Michael accidentally detonates a primer charge during preparation, a surveillance drone monitors their activities, and Alisha fractures her leg when a barrel of explosives falls on her. Rowan and Logan, entrusted to prevent local pollution by shutting off the pipeline flow, find themselves unexpectedly confronted by armed company property inspectors. Logan successfully distracts them while Rowan completes the task. In the process, he sustains a gunshot wound. Despite these challenges, the group successfully blows up the pipeline. Xochitl broadcasts a triumphant message on Instagram calling others to action. Following the explosion, the group scatters and Rowan tends to Logan's injuries, removing bullet fragments from his shoulder. She then discreetly meets with two FBI agents. Xochitl knowingly included Rowan, an FBI informant, in their plan, enabling them to outwit federal and local police by convincing them that only Theo and Xochitl were involved in the sabotage. Rowan secures her freedom (having previously faced legal consequences following her involvement in a similar incident) and receives a substantial reward for her information. Michael, Alisha, Shawn, and Dwayne quickly establish alibis placing them away from the scene. The police find the cabin where the group had manufactured the explosives just moments after Theo and Xochitl detonate a final bomb inside. The duo peacefully surrenders as planned. Theo and Xochitl are sentenced to lengthy prison terms, though Theo dies shortly afterwards. While the other group members remain free, family members suspect their involvement, federal agents monitor their actions, and they reflect on their decisions. Finally, another act of sabotage is shown. Inspired by the West Texas group, a trio of masked individuals plant a bomb in a Miami yacht, leaving behind the same manifesto seen earlier. ## Cast - Ariela Barer as Xochitl - Kristine Froseth as Rowan - Lukas Gage as Logan - Forrest Goodluck as Michael - Sasha Lane as Theo - Jayme Lawson as Alisha - Marcus Scribner as Shawn - Jake Weary as Dwayne - Irene Bedard as Joanna ## Production According to director and producer Daniel Goldhaber, the production of the film spanned 19 months, from conception to completion and premiere. Goldhaber worked alongside a team of seven credited producers. The accelerated timeline was motivated by the urgency of the political conversation surrounding climate change, with the need for immediate action being a key factor. The filmmakers aimed to contribute to the cultural dialogue and believed that a swift production would align with the film's themes and purpose. Additionally, industry timing considerations, such as the opportunity to showcase the film at the Toronto International Film Festival, influenced the decision to complete the project within a short timeframe. The film has been described as small-budget. Published in January 2021, Andreas Malm's work of nonfiction, How to Blow Up a Pipeline, published by Verso Books, deeply influenced Goldhaber, who was grappling with a sense of creative and political helplessness. Joined by Jordan Sjol, Goldhaber partnered with Ariela Barer to co-write the screenplay following her abandonment of another project. The film wholeheartedly embraces the book's central argument, positing that the pressing climate crisis warrants sabotage as a legitimate means of self-defense against the activities of powerful energy entities. The trio completed the script within four months, after two months of research. The filmmakers conducted extensive interviews with climate activists and pipeline experts, incorporating their experiences into the creation of characters like Theo, who was influenced by a friend's leukemia diagnosis attributed to living near a chemical plant. They were also inspired by real-life cases, such as Jessica Reznicek and Ruby Montoya's imprisonment for vandalizing the Dakota Access Pipeline. Casting meetings commenced before the script was finalized. Despite initial challenges in securing financial backing, Goldhaber and Barer successfully obtained support from a financier acquainted with Goldhaber during the Cannes Film Festival. The film was produced and financed by Lyrical Media and Spacemaker Prods., in collaboration with the production company Chrono. Filming spanned 22 days, primarily in New Mexico, with a key sequence filmed in North Dakota on the reservation where actor Forest Goodluck's family lived. Additional scenes were shot in California. The filmmakers opted for 16 mm film to capture the desired quality in daylight exterior scenes, and to give the footage a more cinematic feel. The shooting ratio averaged around 21 or 22 to one. The team collaborated with a government contractor specializing in counterterrorism for realistic depictions of bomb-making scenes, while certain steps were omitted for dramatic purposes. The film's explosion sequence combined practical effects with CGI augmentation. A 150-foot mock-up structure made of industrial cardboard and wood was detonated to create the desired explosive and fire effects. Post-production involved six months of editing. Composer Gavin Brivik flew to the film set to capture music samples, including banging on oil drums in the desert. These sounds became the foundation for the film's opening track. Brivik drew inspiration from early Michael Mann films and musique concrète. The score blends raw oil drum recordings with distorted synths, mirroring the gritty cinematography. Brivik considers the film's score to be one of the most challenging he has ever written. ## Release The film had its world premiere on September 10, 2022, at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was showcased in the Platform Prize program and received critical acclaim. Shortly after the premiere, Neon acquired the distribution rights for North America, with plans for a theatrical release, through negotiations facilitated by CAA Media Finance. Leading up to its debut at the American Film Market in November 2022, Charades, a French distributor, finalized several distribution agreements for the film. The company then successfully sold the rights to multiple territories, including France (Tandem), the United Kingdom (Vertigo Releasing), German-speaking Switzerland, Austria, Italy, and Germany (Plaion), Benelux (The Searchers), Turkey (Fabula), and Latin America (Impacto). The film made its release in the United States on April 7, 2023, and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 21. ### Box office How to Blow Up a Pipeline grossed \$750,010 in the United States with an additional \$174,042 in other territories for a total of \$924,052 worldwide. During its domestic theatrical run, How to Blow Up a Pipeline was shown in theaters for 107 days, equivalent to 15 weeks. At its peak, the film was screened in 530 theaters during the week of April 21, 2023. In its opening week, the film made \$153,475 across 12 theaters, achieving a per-theater average of \$12,789. During its widest release, the per-theater average dropped to \$482. Internationally, the film grossed \$23,955 in Norway, where it reached its peak presence in 52 theaters and ran for 8 weeks. In Turkey, it earned \$1,863, with a peak presence in 3 theaters and a run time of 3 weeks. In the United Kingdom, the film grossed \$106,520, with a peak presence in 144 theaters and a run time of 13 weeks. ## Reception ### Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 94% based on 153 critic reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "An explosive adaptation of Andreas Malm's treatise, How to Blow Up a Pipeline delivers a high-stakes eco-thriller ignited by riveting and complex antiheroes." Metacritic assigned the film a score of 76 out of 100 based on 29 reviews indicating "generally favorable reviews". TheWrap lauded Goldhaber's directorial approach, likening it to Steven Soderbergh's style, and praised the ensemble cast and the film's ability to ignite a sense of urgency in activism. Vulture characterized the film as unapologetically confrontational, wearing its intentions boldly and employing an authentic approach, while Variety commended the film but acknowledged that it may face criticism from climate change deniers. In a review for The New York Times, Peter C. Baker called the film a "cultural landmark" for its uniquely sympathetic portrayal of eco-terrorism. In another review for the newspaper, Ben Kenigsberg wrote that the film had "a degree of suspense and efficiency that are becoming all too rare in the mainstream." However, he criticized it for packaging itself as having a deeper message while avoiding grappling with the characters' ideologies. He also questioned the placement of flashbacks, which he noted seem to serve primarily as plot twists. In his review for RogerEbert.com, Matt Zoller Seitz gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising it as "one of the most original American thrillers in years." Seitz commended the film for its thought-provoking nature and its exploration of the moral and psychological challenges faced by individuals involved in underground activist movements. He highlighted the film's ability to connect various systemic problems and lauded its approach to shedding light on these issues. He also commended the performances of the cast, particularly Jayme Lawson and Forrest Goodluck. In another review for RogerEbert.com, film critic Brian Tallerico praised How to Blow Up a Pipeline as a unique and intense film that breaks away from the polished mainstream. He highlighted the personal passion of director Daniel Goldhaber, and noted that the film effectively transforms the concept of climate change into a thrilling heist narrative, which he believed would resonate with younger viewers. The Washington City Paper noted that the film is not an instruction manual but "a way to illuminate genuine moral objections", and described its cast as "a much more intense, combustible version of The Breakfast Club." A pair of reviews in The Guardian by Wendy Ide and Peter Bradshaw each gave the film four out of five stars; Ide wrote that the film functions as both a "nervy thriller" and "a lightning rod for the mounting anger of climate-conscious audiences", while Bradshaw praised it as a "fiercely watchable thriller" and drew comparisons with Quentin Tarantino's Reservoir Dogs. He also noted the film's departure from traditional heist films, where the pipeline destroyers are portrayed as the "good guys," which he found to be an intriguing genre twist. Clarisse Loughrey of The Independent gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and called it a "radical Marxist thriller that speaks to a generation’s anger." Some writers and critics, including Jesse Kline of The National Post, offered less favorable reviews of the film and its underlying message. Kline specifically criticized the film's perceived attempt to normalize terrorism. He questioned the positive reception given by critics and raised the potential controversy if a similar approach were applied to justifying the actions of Islamist terrorists in a film titled "How to Fly Planes Into a Building." While acknowledging the film's entertainment value in terms of its plot and tension, Kline critiqued its heavy emphasis on what he calls "environmental propaganda" and its promotion of a morally objectionable message that supports vigilante violence and the destruction of private property in the name of the collective good. In his review for National Review, Armond White also criticized the film for promoting violence and terrorism under the guise of "diversity of tactics," viewing it as a cold-blooded portrayal rather than a cautionary tale. White argued that the generally positive reception to the film reflected a self-hatred within Western media. Author Andreas Malm, whose book inspired the film, stated that the film would be able to reach a broader audience than his work, and hoped it would begin a conversation, rather than directly inspiring imitations of the film's plot. ### Concerns raised by authorities The film raised concerns among federal and provincial agencies in North America, fearing it may inspire climate activists to resort to sabotage. A "Take Action" section on the film's official website includes a detailed map of pipeline locations in the United States and Canada. Upon the film's release in the United States, 23 federal and state entities issued a total of 35 warnings. FBI documents obtained by Rolling Stone revealed concerns about the potential for the film to inspire terrorist attacks on energy targets. The alerts mentioned the possibility of attacks or disruptions on critical infrastructure, leading to increased security measures. Law enforcement agencies were advised to monitor individuals attempting to access facilities for photography or video recording. The Alberta Energy Regulator warned that the film should not be taken lightly, urging increased surveillance and security measures by pipeline operators and licensees. The RCMP acknowledged the film's concerning subject in an email with The Globe and Mail, but noted that they determined enforcement actions based on evidence and intelligence. ### Themes The film supports the book's argument that the climate threat justifies sabotage as self-defense against powerful energy interests. Through the protagonists' perspective, the film raises questions about the validity of extreme actions in addressing the urgent climate crisis, as well as the label of terrorism. The film also explores the theme of property damage and sabotage as legitimate activist tactics, particularly in the context of climate change and the destruction of fossil fuel infrastructure. The film challenges the narrative of individual responsibility for climate change and instead focuses on the systemic nature of the issue. The film's setting in West Texas serves as a symbolic reference to Westerns and their depiction of wide-open Americana. By incorporating Western tropes and themes, such as heists and the concept of outsiders reclaiming agency, the movie connects itself to a narrative of resistance in American culture. The film also seeks to represent diverse voices and communities affected by the climate change crisis, highlighting the need for broad access points and different tactics in addressing the issue. It also touches on topics such as the health consequences of living in a toxic environment, property rights violations, indigenous land rights, and the impact of disruptive actions on ordinary citizens. Peter C. Baker of The New York Times highlighted the film's examination of uncertainty and the question of how future generations will judge present actions. He noted the sympathetic treatment of the protagonists and the deliberate creation of a historical feel. Baker underscored the film's emphasis on the moral stakes of decision-making and the unpredictable nature of the future. ## See also - List of environmental films - Eco-terrorism in fiction - Climate fiction
1,580,233	HD 217107	1,170,780,296	Multiple star in the constellation Pisces	[ "Bright Star Catalogue objects", "Durchmusterung objects", "G-type subgiants", "Gould objects", "Henry Draper Catalogue objects", "Hipparcos objects", "Pisces (constellation)", "Planetary systems with two confirmed planets" ]	HD 217107 (6 G. Piscium) is a yellow subgiant star approximately 65 light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Pisces (the Fish). Its mass is very similar to the Sun's, although it is considerably older. Two planets have been discovered orbiting the star: one is extremely close and completes an orbit every seven days, while the other is much more distant, taking fourteen years to complete an orbit. ## Distance, age, and mass HD 217107 is fairly close to the Sun: the Gaia astrometric satellite measured its parallax as 49.8170 Milliarcseconds, which corresponds to a distance of 65.47 light years. Its apparent magnitude is 6.17, making it just barely visible to the naked eye under favourable conditions. Spectroscopic observations show that its spectral type is G7 or G8, which means its temperature is about 5,000 K. Its mass is thought to be roughly the same as the Sun's, although its estimated age of 7.7 billion years is rather older than the Sun's 4.6 billion years, and it is thought to be beginning to evolve away from the main sequence, having consumed almost all the hydrogen in its core in nuclear fusion reactions. ## Planetary system A study of the radial velocity of HD 217107 carried out in 1998 revealed that its motion along the line of sight varied over a 7.1-day cycle. The period and amplitude of this variation indicated that it was caused by a planetary companion in orbit around the star, with a minimum mass slightly greater than that of Jupiter. The companion planet was designated HD 217107 b. While most planets with orbital periods of less than 10 days have almost circular orbits, HD 217107 b has a somewhat eccentric orbit, and its discoverers hypothesized that this could be due to the gravitational influence of a second planet in the system at a distance of several astronomical units (AU). Confirmation of the existence of a second planet followed in 2005, when long term observations of the star's radial velocity variations revealed a variation on a period of about eight years, caused by a planet with a mass at least twice that of Jupiter in a very eccentric orbit with a semimajor axis of about 4.3 AU. The second planet was designated HD 217107 c.
27,462,467	Acors Barns House	1,105,083,534	Historic house in Connecticut, United States	[ "1837 establishments in Connecticut", "Houses completed in 1837", "Houses in New London, Connecticut", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut", "National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut" ]	The Acors Barns House is located at 68 Federal Street at the corner of Meridian Street in New London, Connecticut. Barns was a wealthy merchant in the whaling industry whose company became one of the largest whaling firms in the city. He managed to avoid the collapse of whaling by investing elsewhere; he was the founder of the Bank of Commerce in 1852, and his son and grandson succeeded him as president. Built in 1837, the Acors Barns House is a two-and-one-half story Greek Revival house with a gable roof and clapboarded exterior. The front facade of the house is five bays wide with a Greek Revival portico leading to the main entrance. Additions to the house include a projecting center dormer, and second-story projection over a partially enclosed veranda. The plain exterior is contrasted by interior's elaborate hall ceilings, detailed woodwork and arched marble fireplaces. Journalist David Collins wrote in The Day newspaper that the Acors Barns house is a "fine and rare example" of architecture that is especially important to New London. The Acors Barns House was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on April 22, 1976. ## Acors Barns Born in 1794, Acors Barns was the son of a mariner and lived in Westerly, Rhode Island and Stonington, Connecticut before moving to New London, Connecticut and forming a whaling company with William Williams Jr. in 1827. The company prospered and became one of the largest firms in the city, but Barns avoided the 1849 decline of the whaling industry by investing elsewhere. He invested in the Willimantic and Palmer Railroad before establishing the Bank of Commerce in 1852. Barns died in 1862, but his sons would succeed him a president of the successful bank. ## Design Built in 1837, the Acors Barns House is a two-and-one half story Greek Revival house with a gable roof and clapboarded exterior. The front facade of the house is five bays wide with 6-over-6 sash and the main entrance has a Greek Revival portico supported by fluted Doric columns from top step. The simple single-panel door is surrounded by sidelights. The corners of the building have simple pilasters and four chimneys rising from the top. The rear of the house has a one-story veranda with a shallow hipped roof that is supported by square columns with a simple balustrade. The veranda has large 6-over-9 sash windows that extend almost a full story. In 1975, the area surrounding the property has undergone significant change, but the house is surrounded by trees and shrubs and a wrought iron fence that helps set it apart from the neighborhood. Modifications to the house include the addition of a large pediment-shaped dormer that projects from the center of the main roof and is lighted by a rectangular double window. Part of the veranda was enclosed and the stairs that lead to a formal garden were removed. Above the center of the veranda is a second-story projection that was described as visually compromising the elegance of the rear facade. The plain exterior is contrasted by the elegance of the interior of the house. The house has elaborate hall ceilings, detailed woodwork and arched marble fireplaces. The floor plan is built around the central hall with an offset stairway. The parlor rooms to the right are separated by a wide archway. The two rooms to the left are a dining room and a pantry that has a dumbwaiter to the kitchen in the cellar. The National Historic Register of Places nomination noted that the cellar contained the "remains of the kitchen, washroom and wine cellar". The second floor is made of four chambers and the attic consists of five small rooms. The attic's rooms served as the servants' cubicles. ## Owners The Acors Barns House has gone through several owners over its lifetime. In 1862, the house passed from Acors Barns to his son William H. Barns. In 1893, the second son, Charles Barns acquired the title to the house and transferred it upon his death to Harriet Barns Vincent, the daughter of his sister. Harriet Barns Vincent sold the house to Julia O'Sullivan in 1919. Francis McGuire purchased the house in 1956, and used it to house the offices of his law firm; it would later pass to James McGuire, who in 2013 sold the house to the Community Foundation of Eastern Connecticut for \$325,000. The foundation stated it would continue to preserve the house's historical integrity. ## Importance In the NRHP information about the house, Bruce Clouette writes, "The Barns house physically documents the symbiosis by which the wealthy and the propertyless shared a home. Its value as an artifact is enhanced by the successful reuse which has retained the character of the building." David Collins of The Day wrote, "The Barns house is also especially important to New London because it is such a fine and rare example of the architectural fabric of the big swath of the downtown that was demolished in urban renewal in the 1960s." ## See also - National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut
23,835,557	Harlem riot of 1943	1,106,704,544	1943 period of racial violence and protests in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem	[ "1940s in Manhattan", "1943 crimes in the United States", "1943 in New York City", "1943 riots", "African-American history in New York City", "African-American riots in the United States", "August 1943 events", "Crimes in Manhattan", "Harlem", "Riots and civil disorder in New York City" ]	A race riot took place in Harlem, New York City, on August 1 and 2 of 1943, after a white police officer, James Collins, shot and wounded Robert Bandy, an African American soldier; and rumors circulated that the soldier had been killed. The riot was chiefly directed by Black residents against white-owned property in Harlem. It was one of five riots in the nation that year related to Black and white tensions during World War II. The others took place in Detroit; Beaumont, Texas; Mobile, Alabama; and Los Angeles. In Harlem, Bandy had witnessed a Black woman's arrest for disorderly conduct in a hotel and sought to have her released. According to the police, Bandy hit the officer, who shot the soldier as he was trying to flee from the scene. A crowd of about 3,000 people gathered at police headquarters after a smaller crowd had followed Bandy and the officer to a hospital for treatment. When someone in the crowd at police headquarters incorrectly stated that Bandy had been killed, a riot ensued in the community that lasted for two days and resulted in six deaths and hundreds injured, with nearly 600 arrests. The riot had a pattern mostly of vandalism, theft, and property destruction of white-owned businesses in Harlem, resulting in monetary damages, rather than attacks on persons. New York City Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia ultimately restored order in the borough on August 2 with the recruitment of several thousand officers and volunteer forces to contain the rioters. City units cleaned up and repaired buildings. The mayor also supplied food and goods afterward to compensate for the closed businesses. The underlying causes of the riot stemmed from resentment among Black residents of Harlem of the disparity between the vaunted values of American democracy and the social and economic conditions they were forced to live under, including brutality and discriminatory treatment by the mostly white city police force. They resented the segregation of Black troops serving with the United States, and wartime shortages created more difficult conditions in Harlem housing and supplies. African-Americans suffered discriminatory practices in civil and private employment, and city services, which created tension as they tried to improve their lives. Bandy symbolized the Black soldiers who were segregated in the Army, even as the United States promoted the national fight for 'freedom.' Collins represented the white discrimination and suppression Black residents had to deal with on a daily basis. The riot became a subject of art and literature: it inspired the "theatrical climax" of Ralph Ellison's novel Invisible Man, winner of the 1953 National Book Award, it frames the events recounted in James Baldwin's memoirs Notes of a Native Son, and it appears in artist William Johnson's painting Moon Over Harlem. ## Cause On Sunday, August 1, 1943, a white policeman attempted to arrest an African-American woman for disturbing the peace in the lobby of the Braddock Hotel. By the 1940s, the hotel, which had hosted show business celebrities in the 1920s, had become known for prostitution. The Army designated the area as a "raided premise", and a policeman was stationed in the lobby to prevent crime. Various accounts detail how Marjorie (Margie) Polite, the African-American woman, became confrontational with James Collins, the white policeman. According to one, Polite checked into the hotel on August 1, but was dissatisfied and asked for another room. When she switched rooms and found the replacement did not have the shower and bath she wanted, Polite asked for a refund, which she received. Afterward, however, she asked for return of a \$1 tip (\$ in ) that she gave to an elevator operator. The operator refused; Polite began to protest loudly, which caught the attention of Collins. According to another account, she became drunk at a party in one of the rooms and confronted the officer as she attempted to leave. After Collins told Polite to leave, she became verbally abusive of the officer and Collins arrested her on the grounds of disturbing the peace. Florine Roberts, the mother of Robert Bandy, a Black soldier in the U.S. Army who was also present, observed the incident and asked for Polite's release. The official police report held that the soldier threatened Collins; in the report, Bandy and Mrs. Roberts then attacked Collins. Bandy hit the officer and, while attempting to flee, Collins shot Bandy in the shoulder with his revolver. In an interview with PM, the soldier said that he intervened when the officer pushed Polite. According to Bandy, Collins threw his nightstick at Bandy, which he caught. When Bandy hesitated after Collins asked for its return, Collins shot him. Bandy's wound was superficial, but he was taken to Sydenham Hospital for treatment. Crowds quickly gathered around Bandy as he entered the hospital, and also around the hotel and police headquarters, where a crowd of 3,000 amassed by 9:00 pm. The crowds combined and grew tense, as rumors that an African-American soldier had been shot soon turned to rumors that an African-American soldier had been killed. ## Riot At 10:30 pm, the crowd became violent after an individual threw a bottle off a roof into the crowd aggregated about the hospital. The crowd dispersed into groups containing between 50–100 members. The groups first broke windows of white businesses as they traveled through Harlem: if the mob was told the business was owned by Blacks, they left it alone. If it was owned by whites, the store would be looted and vandalized. Rioters broke streetlights and threw white mannequins onto the ground. In grocery stores, the rioters took war-scarce items, such as coffee and sugar, clothing, and liquor, and furniture stores were also looted. Estimates put the total monetary damage between \$250,000–\$5,000,000, which included 1,485 stores burglarized and 4,495 windows broken. When Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia was informed of the situation at 9:00 pm, he met with police and visited the riot district with Black authority figures such as Max Yergan and Hope Stevens. La Guardia ordered all unoccupied officers into the region: in addition to the 6,000 city and military police, 1,500 volunteers were called on to help control the riot, with an additional 8,000 guardsmen "on standby". Traffic was directed around Harlem to contain the riot. After he returned from the tour, the mayor made the first of a series of radio announcements that urged Harlemites to return home. Soon after, he met with Walter Francis White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People to discuss the appropriate action; White suggested that Black leaders again visit the district to spread the message of order. Just after 2:00 A.M, the mayor instructed all taverns to close. ## Aftermath The riot ended on the night of August 2. Cleanup efforts started that day; the New York City Department of Sanitation worked to clean the area for three days and the New York City Departments of Buildings and Housing boarded windows. The city assigned a police escort for all department workers. The Red Cross gave Harlemites lemonade and crullers, and the mayor organized various hospitals to handle an influx of injured patients. By August 4, traffic had resumed through the borough, and taverns reopened the next day. La Guardia had food delivered to the residents of Harlem, and on August 6, food supplies returned to normal levels. Overall, six people died and nearly 700 were injured. Six hundred men and women were arrested in connection with the riot. ## Underlying issues In a piece for the Berkeley Journal of Sociology, academic L. Alex Swan attributes the riot to a disparity between the promoted values of American democracy and the conditions of Black citizens, in both the North and the South. Swan cites, for example, that the segregation of Blacks in the armed forces continued while the United States fought for "freedom." Charles Lawrence of Fisk University described "resentment of status given Negro members of the armed forces" as "perhaps the greatest single psychological factor in the making of the Harlem riot", as Bandy came to represent Black soldiers and Collins came to represent white suppression. When Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his Four Freedoms speech, calling for freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear for people "everywhere in the world", many African Americans felt they never had such freedoms themselves. They became willing to fight for them domestically. Michael Harrington described the Black resident of Harlem as a "second-class citizen in his own neighborhood". Black soldiers also enlisted from the South, where Blacks suffered under Jim Crow and most had been disenfranchised since the turn of the century, excluded from the political system altogether. After the Harlem Riot of 1935 caused widespread destruction, La Guardia ordered a commission to pinpoint its underlying causes. He appointed the historian E. Franklin Frazier as head of the commission, who wrote that "economic and social forces created a state of emotional tension which sought release upon the slightest provocation". The report listed several "economic and social forces" that worked against Blacks, including discrimination in employment and city services, overcrowding in housing, and police brutality. Specifically, it criticized New York City Police Commissioner Lewis Joseph Valentine and New York City Hospitals Commissioner Sigismund S. Goldwater, both of whom responded with criticisms of the report. Conflicted, La Guardia asked academic Alain LeRoy Locke to analyze both accounts and assess the situation. Locke wrote confidentially to La Guardia that Valentine was blameworthy and listed several areas for immediate improvement, such as health and education. Publicly, Locke published an article in the Survey Graphic which blamed the 1935 riot on the state of affairs in New York that La Guardia inherited. Communally, conditions for Black Harlemites improved by 1943, with better employment in civil services, for instance. Economic problems became exacerbated under wartime conditions; new war and non-war industries and business continued to discriminate against Blacks. Though new projects such as the Harlem River Houses were intended to expand Black housing, by 1943, overall Harlem housing had deteriorated as new construction slowed due to diversion of efforts to the war, and buildings were destroyed in preparation for replacement. Although the state of African-Americans improved relative to society, individuals could not accelerate their own progress. ## Cultural depictions Several authors and artists have depicted the event in their respective works. African-American novelist James Baldwin wrote of the riot, which occurred on the same day as his father's funeral and his 19th birthday, in Notes of a Native Son. "It seemed to me", Baldwin wrote, "that God himself had devised, to mark my father's end, the most sustained and brutally dissonant of codas". In a commentary piece for The New York Times, Langston Hughes called the essay "superb", and particularly quoted Baldwin's observation that "to smash something is the ghetto's chronic need". Hughes wrote "The Ballad of Margie Polite", a poem on the riot published in New York Amsterdam News. According to Laurie Leach in her 2007 article published in Studies in the Literary Imagination, the poem "seems to honor rather than censure Polite for her role as a catalyst" . Ralph Ellison drew upon his experiences covering the riot for the New York Post as inspiration for the "theatrical climax" of Invisible Man, winner of the 1953 National Book Award. Artist William Johnson used images taken from news reports as inspiration for his c. 1943–1944 painting Moon Over Harlem. According to critic Richard Powell, writing in 1991, after "[stripping them] of their melodramatic quality", Johnson "creates in their place a kind of expressive distortion and calculated rawness." Powell notes that the central figure in Moon Over Harlem, an upside-down African American woman harassed by three officers, represents "an oppressed and debased community, whose frustrations and self-destruction prompted an authoritative abuse of power". ## See also - Beaumont race riot of 1943 - Detroit race riot of 1943 - Harlem riot of 1964 - Mass racial violence in the United States - List of incidents of civil unrest in New York City - List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
1,755,361	Ilyushin Il-30	1,084,013,819	1949 bomber aircraft prototype by Ilyushin	[ "1940s Soviet bomber aircraft", "Abandoned military aircraft projects of the Soviet Union", "Ilyushin aircraft", "Twinjets" ]	The Ilyushin Il-30 was a Soviet turbojet-powered tactical bomber designed as a higher-performance, swept wing version of the Ilyushin Il-28, in the late 1940s. Its thin wing and engine nacelles necessitated the use of tandem landing gear, the first Soviet aircraft to do so. It was apparently canceled before the prototype made its first flight, although sources disagree with this. ## Development The Il-30 was a follow-on to the Il-28, although design began on 21 June 1948, before the Il-28 had flown. It was designed to meet a requirement for a jet bomber that could carry 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) to a range of 3,500 km (2,200 mi) with a maximum speed no less than 1,000 km/h (620 mph). The design took that of the Il-28 as a starting point, but had thin, mid-mounted swept wings with a 35° sweep angle, chosen to allow the aircraft to reach its required speed. It was intended to be powered by two new Lyulka TR-3 axial-flow turbojet engines with 45.1 kN (10,140 lbf) thrust each in wing-mounted nacelles. Both the fuselage and the nacelles were area ruled. Thin wings and the 2° anhedral necessary to cure the excessive lateral stability limited the amount of fuel that could be carried and tip tanks were required to meet the range requirement. The slim engine nacelles did not allow the main landing gear to be stowed there as was done in the Il-28. The solution was to house them within the fuselage — the first bicycle landing gear on a Soviet aircraft — with small, twin-wheeled, outriggers mounted underneath the nacelles to stabilize the aircraft on the ground. The aircraft had a crew of four, the pilot, a bombardier, and two gunners. The pilot, bombardier and dorsal gunner shared one pressurized compartment that was subdivided into (firstly) a bombardier's position in the extensively glazed nose, and (secondly) a combined cockpit and dorsal turret (Il-V-12): the pilot and dorsal gunner were effectively placed back-to-back underneath the canopy. The tail gunner had a separate, pressurized turret (Il-K6) at the rear of the aircraft. Defensive armament was six 23 mm (0.91 in) Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 cannon: two fixed firing forward and one pair in each turret. Maximum bomb load was 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) The initial results were favorable, and a full-scale mockup was formally reviewed in March 1949. The prototype was completed by August 1949, but an incident involving the rival swept-wing Tupolev Tu-82 that broke an engine mount during a low-altitude flight led to delays as additional tests were demanded to determine the strength of the wings before the first flight was made. By the following year, the Il-30 program had lost momentum as the Ilyushin OKB was ordered to concentrate its resources on facilitating the service introduction of the Il-28. The Il-30 program was formally terminated by government order on 20 August 1950, and the prototype was eventually scrapped at the beginning of the 1960s. Aviation historian Bill Gunston quotes a maiden flight date of 9 September 1949, but Vaclav Nemecek says 1951. Although the Il-30 never actually flew, it was the subject of much (misinformed) speculation in the West. Some of the common misconceptions were that it had a ventral gun mount and that it was the first Soviet bomber to attain the speed of 1,000 km/h (620 mph). ## Specifications (estimated) ## See also
33,950,261	Java War (1741–1743)	1,143,024,634	Armed struggle against Dutch colonialism	[ "1741 in Asia", "1741 in the Dutch Empire", "1742 in Asia", "1742 in the Dutch Empire", "1743 in Asia", "1743 in the Dutch Empire", "18th century in Indonesia", "Conflicts in 1741", "Conflicts in 1742", "Conflicts in 1743", "Dutch conquest of Indonesia", "History of Java", "Mataram Sultanate", "Military history of Indonesia", "Wars involving the Netherlands" ]	The Java War of 1741 to 1743 was an armed struggle by a joint Chinese and Javanese army against the Dutch East India Company and pro-Dutch Javanese that took place in central and eastern Java. Ending in victory for the Dutch, the war led to the fall of the Sultanate of Mataram and, indirectly, the founding of both the Sunanate of Surakarta and the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. After years of growing anti-Chinese sentiment, Dutch forces massacred 10,000 ethnic Chinese in Batavia (now Jakarta) in October 1740. A group of survivors led by Khe Pandjang fled across the Sundra Strait, eventually heading east for Semarang on the island of Java. Despite being warned of the impending uprising, the head of the Dutch East India Company's military, Bartholomeus Visscher, ignored his advisers and did not prepare reinforcements. As the situation developed, the court of Pakubuwono II, Sunan of Mataram, decided to tentatively support the Chinese while seemingly helping the Dutch. After the first casualties on 1 February 1741 in Pati, Chinese insurgents spread through central Java, joining forces with the Javanese while staging sham battles to convince the Dutch that the Javanese were supporting them. As the deception became increasingly obvious and the Chinese drew closer to Semarang, Visscher became mentally unstable. After capturing Rembang, Tanjung, and Jepara, the joint Chinese and Javanese army besieged Semarang in June 1741. Prince Cakraningrat IV of Madura offered his alliance, and worked from Madura westward, killing any Chinese he and his troops could find and quashing the rebellion in eastern Java. In late 1741, the siege around Semarang was broken as Pakubuwono II's army fled once it became apparent that the Dutch, with their reinforcements, had superior firepower. The Dutch campaign throughout 1742 led Pakubuwono II to surrender and switch sides; as some Javanese princes wished to continue the war, on 6 April Pakubuwono II was disowned by the revolution and his nephew, Raden Mas Garendi, was chosen to be their sultan. As the Dutch recaptured cities through the northern coast of Java, the rebellion led an attack on Pakubuwono II's capital at Kartosuro, forcing the Sunan to flee with his family. Cakraningrat IV retook the city in December 1742, and by early 1743, the last Chinese had surrendered. After the war, the Dutch asserted greater control of Java through a treaty with Pakubuwono II. ## Background After a long period of repression by the Dutch East India Company, ethnic Chinese in Batavia (modern day Jakarta) revolted on 7 October 1740, killing fifty Dutch troops in Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara) and Tanah Abang. This revolt was quashed by Governor-General Adriaan Valckenier, who sent 1,800 troops, together with schutterij (militia) and eleven battalions of conscripts, to the two areas; they imposed a curfew on all Chinese inside the city walls to prevent them from plotting against the Dutch. When a group of 10,000 ethnic Chinese from nearby Tangerang and Bekasi was stopped at the gates the following day, Valckenier called an emergency meeting of the council for 9 October. The day of the meeting, the Dutch and other ethnic groups in Batavia began to kill all ethnic Chinese in the city, resulting in an estimated 10,000 deaths over two weeks. Towards the end of October 1740, survivors of the massacre, led by Khe Pandjang, attempted to flee to Banten but were blocked by 3,000 of its sultan's troops. The survivors then fled east, towards Semarang. Despite being warned of an imminent uprising by Chinese Lieutenant Que Yonko, the military commander for Java, Bartholomeus Visscher, dismissed the threat of the incoming Chinese. A minority in Java, the Chinese began forging alliances with the Javanese, who were the largest ethnic group on the island. Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin. ## 1741 ### Initial conflicts On 1 February 1741, Corporal Claas Lutten was killed in his Pati home by a group of 37 Chinese insurgents armed with swords, spears, and harrows; the group then proceeded to loot his house. The insurgents were soon chased away by a group of Javanese soldiers under the command of the Regent of Kudus. Although most insurgents managed to escape, one was captured and killed, with his head being removed and staked on a pole in the middle of Semarang as a warning for other would-be insurgents. Meanwhile, in nearby Demak and Grobogan ethnic Chinese gathered in large assemblies and chose a new emperor, Singseh, and attempted to found their own nation. The success of the Javanese troops in stopping the insurgents reassured Visscher, despite Yonko's advice otherwise. At the time, Visscher and his troops, numbering 90 able-bodied Dutchmen and 208 Indonesians, were without reinforcements and received conflicting advice from Yonko and his uncle, Captain Que Anko. To secure his position, he sent a request to several local regents and leaders to capture or kill all suspicious looking Chinese; although some complied immediately, as evidenced by Visscher's receiving three heads several days later, others, such as Sunan Pakubuwono II of Mataram, were more cautious, writing that they were uncertain of the ethics of the orders. During a period of contemplation lasting from late 1740 and July 1741, Pakubuwono II and his advisers had been debating the possible benefits of joining the Chinese or holding out and rescuing the Dutch to gain a more favourable relationship. Pakubuwono II later secretly paid 2,000 real to Mas Ibrahim to begin attacks on the Dutch East India Company and its holdings; he also commanded his senior lords Jayaningrat and Citrasoma to be neutral in the conflict, and to let as many Chinese escape as possible. Mertopuro of Grobogan, one of the more vocal advocates of active resistance, was tasked with the instigation of Chinese in his area. Within Pakubuwono II's capital at Kartosuro, he ordered the restoration of the siti inggil kidul (a kind of terrace) outside his court, thus giving him a reason to tell the Dutch that he had no manpower to spare. Despite Visscher receiving intelligence of Pakubuwono II's dealings, he trusted the Sunan due to his previous loyalty to the company. ### Instability of Visscher and early losses When the Chinese forces, numbering up to 1,000 and threatening to cut supply lines to Semarang, arrived in Tanjung in April 1741, Visscher told the regent to deal with them; however, the regent's forces stalled, refusing to move until they received a tribute of high quality rice. After Yonko sent the rice, the regent's men went to Tanjung, stood with the rebels outside of their range, then fired and left. The rebels soon occupied a sugar mill there. In Grobogan, Mertopuro, armed with weapons from the Dutch military command, staged an attack on the Chinese rebels, in which the Javanese troops opened fire on the Chinese before the Dutch came. Once the Dutch arrived, Mertopuro showed bullet wounds in horses—inflicted by his own men—as proof that he had fought. To deal with the increasing pressure being put on by the Chinese, Visscher sent orders to company strongholds throughout the north coast to hire as many native, non-Javanese, mercenaries as could be found; he also ordered the regents of Pati, Jepara, Kudus, and Cekalsewu, then in Semarang for a military meeting, to send troops to cut off the insurgents' escape. The regents, loyal to Pakubuwono II, sent 540 troops to Tanjung, then secretly left for Kartosuro. However, when the troops arrived they feinted an attack, then pulled back to Semarang. When Visscher realised that the regents had disappeared, Pakubuwono II told him that he would send them back with a further 6,000 soldiers, requesting that Visscher secure compensation from the company headquarters in Batavia. News soon spread of thousands of Chinese joining forces with Javanese soldiers in Grobogan, outside of Semarang. On 1 May, Visscher was accosted by Captain Rudolph Carel von Glan, a unit leader, asking why Visscher had done nothing to deal with the uprising. Visscher heatedly replied that it was not Glan's business. The following day, after being questioned by prosecutor Jeronimus Tonnemans Jr., Yonko, and Anko, Visscher became increasingly angry, breaking a table in half and yelling at his Chinese advisers. When Yonko disappeared after the meeting, Anko told Visscher that he had joined the rebelling Chinese. This caused Visscher, who had heavily invested in Yonko and had left a large amount of money with him, to take out his carriage and scream to the residents of Semarang to escape while it was still possible. This continued until he crashed into the city walls. The residents ran away from Semarang in a panic, leaving eight loaded cannons outside the city walls. The following day, Visscher surrendered control of the military to Glan. Not long afterwards, news reached him that Yonko had not joined the insurgents but had been robbed, spending the night at his son's grave in Peterongan in depression. This revitalised Visscher, who retook command of the military on 4 May and ordered everyone to return to their homes. Several days afterwards, four regents – Suradiningrat from Tuban, Martapura from Grobogan, Suradimenggala from Kaliwungu, and Awangga from Kendal – arrived at Semarang, reporting that the 6,000 promised troops were on their way. Despite being advised that he would be in danger if he went against the company, on 11 May Pakubuwono II requested that all coastal regents pledge their allegiance to him. He did the same for the members of his court on 13 May. However, several leaders, including second in line to the throne Prince Ngabehi Loringpasar, Pakubuwono II's elder brother Prince Tepasana, and his mother Queen Amangkurat, were against a revolution; Captain Johannes van Velsen, Dutch resident in Kartasura, reported to Visscher that the Sunan had been persuaded against rebelling. However, Pakubuwono II became increasingly certain that he would join forces with the Chinese. On 23 May, the approximately 1,000 Chinese left Tanjung and headed east, assaulting the 15-man Juwana outpost, as well as the one in Rembang. Although the Dutch resident and five others escaped, the Dutch recorded a high number of casualties, with reports of cannibalism. The resident in Demak, hearing these rumours and with 3,000 Chinese outside the walls, requested permission to withdraw to Semarang. Considering Demak key to the defence of the city, Visscher refused, instead sending 80 to 100 native troops as reinforcements. The resident of Demak was eventually called back to Semarang, leaving the defence of the fort to Mertopuro. Rembang fell on 27 July, with Jepara falling four days later. ### Siege of Semarang and Dutch losses The Chinese from Tanjung soon reached Semarang and laid siege, assisted by the troops previously sent to destroy them. Visscher, fearing that his troops would not be enough, requested reinforcements from Pakubuwono II. Pakubuwono II agreed to send an artillery unit, but it was secretly intended to reinforce the Chinese. With expeditions from the Chinese and Javanese reaching the city walls, in early June Visscher ordered a retaliatory expedition, totalling 46 Europeans and 146 Indonesians and assisted by Javanese troops under the Governor of Semarang Dipati Sastrawijaya. This expedition was sent against the Chinese and Javanese gathering outside the hills of Bergota. Outside the walls, the Javanese soon deserted after spoiling the available artillery provisions, with the other native groups abandoning the expedition upon first contact with the Chinese. After killing several Chinese, the Dutch soldiers returned to the fortress. The following day, the Dutch commandeered all Chinese houses, including that of Anko. When working weapons and ammunition were found in his home, Anko stated that they were remnants from an earlier war in 1718. Not believing Anko, the Dutch arrested him and Yonko, then had them chained and decapitated; Visscher then ordered the execution of all ethnic Chinese. On 14 June, Visscher ordered the Chinese quarters outside the fortress to be razed to the ground. Despite Chinese numerical superiority, they did not attempt a final attack. With more uprisings appearing in eastern Java, the company was approached by Prince Cakraningrat IV of Madura, who offered to ally himself with the Dutch if they would support his bid to establish his own kingdom in the area; Cakraningrat IV, formerly a great warrior for Mataram, had taken offence to being left out of Pakubuwono II's earlier war deliberations and was ready to launch a war of his own against the Sunan's forces. After the Dutch agreed, Cakraningrat IV severed his ties with Mataram, returning his wife (Pakubuwono II's sister), to Kartosuro. Throughout June and July Cakraningrat IV's troops attempted to kill all ethnic Chinese, first starting in Madura then spreading to Tuban, Surabaya, Jipang, and Gresik. By 12 July, all Chinese in the Surabaya and Gresik areas had either escaped or been killed. On 9 July Pakubuwono II ordered the execution of Prince Tepasana and another younger brother, accused of being informants for Velsen; their families, including Tepasana's preteen son Raden Mas Garendi, were exiled. Pakubuwono II soon afterwards openly showed his support for the Chinese rebellion in July with a sneak attack. His troops entered the Dutch garrison in Kartasura, under the pretension of helping to prepare for a Chinese attack, on 20 July. Once inside, the Javanese soldiers opened fire, surprising the Dutch; despite being caught unaware and losing thirty-five men in the initial attack, the Dutch were able to hold out for three weeks. However, after the Chinese joined the battle, the garrison soon fell, with Velsen being executed and other surviving troops being given the choice (or forced) to convert to Islam or be killed. They circumcised the Dutch and the Javanese seized the Dutch children and women as booty after executing the Dutch leader. Meanwhile, Khe Pandjang's troops were driven out of Bekasi and joined with 1,000 soldiers under the command of Captain Ismail to capture Tegal. On 25 July, Visscher's replacement Abraham Roos—sent in late June because Visscher was considered mentally unstable—arrived in Semarang with 170 men, noting that the company only controlled the fortress, European quarters and beachhead. After Roos' arrival, the Dutch government began sending more reinforcements, eventually totalling at least 1,400 Dutch and 1,600 Indonesian soldiers. By November 1741, the company's fortress in Semarang was surrounded by 3,500 Chinese and 20,000 Javanese troops, who were armed with 30 cannons, as opposed to 3,400 Dutch and loyalist troops. With the superior Dutch firepower and tactics causing Pakubuwono II's troops to scatter, the siege was eventually broken and an expedition was able to reclaim Jepara. ## 1742–1743 ### The fall of Kartosuro In early 1742, Pakubuwono II capitulated to the Dutch. In March, a group of seven Dutchmen led by Captain Johan Andries, Baron van Hohendorff, arrived in Kartosuro to set the terms of his surrender. Although at first the Dutch demanded the young crown prince, Prince Loringpasar, the eldest son of Prince Notokusumo, and Prince Pringgalaya as hostages, Loringpasar was replaced by Queen Amangkurat as he was too ill to make the trip. Unwilling to let the Dutch take his son, Notokusumo, then laying siege to Semarang, made a fake attack against the Chinese, in which the sick or injured were sacrificed while the healthy were allowed to escape, in order to give an appearance of loyalty. He then went to Kartosuro to attempt to rescue his son, but was told to clear a path to Demak by the Dutch officials there. After stalling, Notokusumo agreed to do so, first travelling to Semarang. However, upon his arrival in Semarang he was arrested by the new chief of the army, Hugo Verijsel, with Pakubuwono II's blessing. Verijsel then took 300 Dutch soldiers and 500 natives to clear the area around Kartosuro, but was stopped in Salatiga when he and his troops came under attack from the armies of three temenggung; Verijsel retreated to Ampel. For dealing with the Dutch, on 6 April Pakubuwono II was disowned by the still-fighting princes and Chinese insurgents. The rebellion leaders chose Garendi as the new sunan; Garendi took the name Sunan Kuning. On 19 June, it was reported that Notokusumo's troops, now under the command of Kyai Mas Yudanagara, had left for Kartosuro to place Sunan Kuning on the throne. On 30 June, they arrived at Kartosuro together with Khe Pandjang's troops and attacked the city. As Pakubuwono II's troops, numbering close to 2,000, stayed behind to fight, Pakubuwono II, his family, and the Dutch escaped on horseback, finding safety after crossing the Solo River. Pakubuwono II then promised that he would surrender the coastal lands and let the Dutch pick the patih, or chief minister, if the Dutch would help him reclaim his throne. ### Dutch control is restored In early July, Verijsel received 360 Ambonese troops, led by Kraeng Tanate, to aid him in the defence of Semarang. On 21 July, Captain Gerrit Mom arrived from Sulawesi with 800 troops to serve as further reinforcements. Mom and Tanate were then sent to recapture Demak, occupied by 4,000 rebels under the command of the Chinese general Singseh and Javanese general Raden Suryakusuma. The ensuing battle took place over several days and resulted in a Dutch victory. The Dutch troops continued on to Kudus, where an estimated 2,000 Chinese soldiers were awaiting arrivals from Kartosuro. With their numbers reinforced by further troops led by Ngabehi Secanegara from Jepara and Captain Hendrik Brule from Semarang, Mom and Tanate recaptured the city without a fight on 28 August. After the recapture of Demak and Kudus, the remaining regents began to surrender, promised pardon by Pakubuwono II. The Chinese and Javanese rebel coalition, which was beginning to unravel, continued to hold Kartosuro until December 1742, being only chased out of the city when Cakraningrat IV came and retook it. Although the Javanese were allowed to escape unmolested, the Chinese were only able to escape to nearby Prambanan after a "pitched battle" in Asem. Two months later the Chinese, accompanied by noted Javanese leader Pakunegara, made a last stand but were defeated and forced to run to the foothills along the southern coast. A general amnesty was soon declared, and Singseh surrendered in Surabaya. ## Aftermath Although Pakubuwono II was reinstated by the Dutch, in early 1743 he was forced to sign a treaty. Aside from moving his palace to nearby Solo, Pakubuwono II surrendered two of the Javanese leaders. As part of the conditions of the treaty, Pakubuwono II also surrendered the northern coast of Java, Madura, and eastern Java to the Dutch; the treaty also obligated him to pay 8,600 metric tons of rice in tribute every year and forbade the Javanese from sailing outside of Java, Madura, and Bali. Pakubuwono II died in 1749, an unpopular leader whose claim to the throne had only been held through the protection of the Dutch. Further disagreements between the court ministers and leaders after Pakubuwono II's death led to the division of Mataram into two kingdoms, the Sunanate of Surakarta located in Solo under Pakubuwono III and the Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the city of the same name under Mangkubumi. Prince Cakraningrat IV did not receive the land or powers promised, instead being isolated to Madura. Unwilling to accept what he saw as Dutch betrayal, he joined another rebellion in 1745; after his son surrendered to the Dutch, Cakraningrat IV escaped to Banjarmasin in Borneo but was captured and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope in 1746. The Dutch East India Company, although it had gained a large amount of coastal land, was "in an advanced state of exhaustion". According to the noted scholar of Indonesia Merle Calvin Ricklefs, the new Sultan of Yogyakarta Mangkubumi went on to be the Dutch colonial government's "most dangerous enemy of the eighteenth century". In 2015, Indonesian interior minister Tjahjo Kumolo erected a monument to the victims of the 1740 Batavia massacre and the Javanese and Chinese who fought against the Dutch in the Java war in revenge for the massacre.
3,546,032	Ardeshir Tarapore	1,115,330,573	Decorated officer in the Indian Army	[ "1923 births", "1965 deaths", "Gujarati people", "Indian military personnel killed in action", "Military personnel of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965", "Parsi people", "Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra" ]	Lieutenant Colonel Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore, PVC (18 August 1923 – 16 September 1965), was an officer in the Indian Army and a recipient of the Param Vir Chakra, India's highest award for bravery. After completing his schooling in Pune, Tarapore joined the Hyderabad Army, and was commissioned in January 1942. Initially he joined the infantry, but was later transferred to an armoured regiment, the 1st Hyderabad Imperial Service Lancers. During World War II Tarapore saw action in the Middle East. After Hyderabad State was annexed by India in 1948, Tarapore was selected to join the Indian Army. He was commissioned again in April 1951, and was posted to the Poona Horse regiment, 17th Battalion. Later he attended a training course in the United Kingdom on the Centurion tank. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, 17 Horse saw action in the Sialkot sector. Tarapore led the regiment in several tank battles between 11 and 16 September, and was killed in one such battle at Butur-Dograndi on 16 September. Under his leadership the regiment destroyed sixty Pakistani tanks, while the Indians suffered the loss of nine. ## Early life Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore was born on 18 August 1923 in Bombay. Ratanjiba, one of Tarapore's ancestors, was a military leader under Chhatrapati Shivaji. The family name "Tarapore" was the namesake of the village of Tarapur, Maharashtra. It was the leading village of those in the charge of Ratanjiba. Later, Tarapore's grandfather relocated to Hyderabad and started working in the Customs and Excise Department of the Nizam of Hyderabad. His father, B. P. Tarapore, was a scholar of Persian and Urdu languages; he worked for the same Customs and Excise Department. Tarapore joined Sardar Dastur Boys' Boarding School, Pune, at the age of seven. He did not do well at academic subjects, but was a good sportsman. He completed his schooling in 1940, and was the school captain that year. Shortly after he applied for a commission in the Hyderabad Army, and was selected. He completed his initial training at the Officers' Training School (OTS) Golconda and OTS Bangalore. He was commissioned into the 7th Hyderabad Infantry as a second lieutenant on 1 January 1942. ## Military career Popularly known as "Adi", Ardeshir Tarapore was unhappy joining the infantry, as he wanted to join an armoured regiment. When his battalion was being inspected by Major General Syed Ahmed El Edroos, then Commander-in-Chief of the Hyderabad state forces, a live grenade accidentally fell into a bay area during a live-ammunition training exercise. Tarapore quickly picked it up and threw it away. The grenade exploded mid-air inflicting shrapnel wounds to his chest. Major General Edroos witnessed his actions and was impressed. He summoned Tarapore to his office and congratulated him. Tarapore took the opportunity to request a transfer to an armoured regiment. The general agreed and transferred him to the 1st Hyderabad Imperial Service Lancers. During World War II, Tarapore and his unit saw action in the Middle East. As a result of Operation Polo in 1948, Hyderabad merged with the Union of India, and its forces were eventually amalgamated into the Indian Army. Tarapore was selected for the Indian Army and was commissioned as a captain on 1 April 1951. He was first posted on probation for two years to 'B' Squadron of the Poona Horse regiment, 17th Battalion, and later transferred to 'A' Squadron as its second-in-command. India acquired Centurion tanks in the early 1960s and Tarapore was one of the officers selected to attend a training course in the United Kingdom. He was promoted to major on 1 January 1958, and to lieutenant-colonel on 10 June 1965. ### Battle of Chawinda Beginning in April 1965, India and Pakistan engaged in a series of skirmishes across the Line of Control (LOC). In August, Pakistan attempted mass infiltration into Kashmir in Operation Gibraltar. On 5 August, Pakistani soldiers crossed the LOC dressed as Kashmiri locals, heading for various areas within Kashmir. After locals reported the presence of Pakistani troops, the Indian Army captured several disguised Pakistani soldiers and foiled the infiltration operation. On 1 September, Pakistan launched a counterattack, named Operation Grand Slam, to capture vital points that would cut off supply routes to Indian troops. This plan eventually was foiled by the Indian troops. Later on 6 September, Indian forces crossed the Radcliffe Line, marking the official beginning of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Indian I Corps was given the responsibility of capturing the Sialkot sector. Poona Horse was part of the 1st Armoured Division, attached to I Corps. It was tasked to isolate Sialkot from Lahore. On 11 September 1965 Poona Horse launched an attack on Phillora. To surprise the Pakistanis, it was decided to attack Phillora from the rear. As part of the regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Tarapore, was attacking Phillora from Chawinda, it encountered Pakistani armour advancing from Wazirwali. Tarapore held his ground and attacked Phillora under enemy tank and artillery fire. When wounded he refused to be evacuated. His regiment successfully captured Wazirwali on 14 September. On the 16th they advanced to capture Jassoran, supported by 9 Dogra, and Butur-Dograndi, supported by 8 Garhwal. In the latter battle his tank was hit several times. Tarapore was mortally wounded, and succumbed to his injuries. Under his leadership the regiment had destroyed sixty Pakistani tanks, while the Indians had suffered the loss of nine. According to one account, Pakistani tanks held their fire during his cremation. ### Param Vir Chakra Tarapore was posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra, for leading the regiment while injured, and inflicting significant tank losses on the Pakistani side, with an effective date of award of 11 September 1965. The official citation reads: > On 11 September 1965, the Poona Horse regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Ardeshir Burzarji Tarapore was assigned the task of delivering the main armored thrust for capturing Phillora in the Sialkot Sector in Pakistan. As a preliminary to making a surprise attack on Phillora from the rear, the regiment was thrusting between Phillora and Chawinda when it was suddenly counterattacked by the enemy’s heavy Armour from Wazirali. Lieutenant Colonel A. B. Tarapore who was then at the head of his regiment, defied the enemy’s charge, held his ground and gallantly attacked Philloira with one of his squadrons supported by an infantry battalion. Though under continuous enemy tank and artillery fire, Lieutenant Colonel A. B. Tarapore remained unperturbed throughout this action and when wounded refused to be evacuated. Inspired by his leadership, the regiment fiercely attacked the enemy heavy armour destroying approximately 60 enemy tanks at a cost of only 9 tank casualties, and when Lieutenant Colonel A. B Tarapore was mortally wounded the regiment continue to defy the enemy. The valour displayed by Lieutenant Colonel A.B. Tarapore in this heroic action, which lasted six days, was in keeping with the highest traditions of the Indian Army. His wife received the award on Tarapore's behalf from the President of India. Later, as her own health deteriorated, it was handed over to the regiment and preserved in its quarter guard.
13,767,163	All That Is Within Me	1,122,202,158	null	[ "2007 albums", "INO Records albums", "MercyMe albums" ]	All That Is Within Me is the fifth studio album by American Christian rock band MercyMe. Produced by Brown Bannister, it was released on November 20, 2007 through INO Records. The album, intended by the band to be a worship album split between covers and original songs, was recorded following the band's tour with Audio Adrenaline in promotion of their previous studio album Coming Up to Breathe (2006). Although the band intended to write material for a new album during the tour, they had only written one song by the time they entered their recording studio, Cider Mountain Studio in Athol, Idaho. The band wrote so many songs at the studio that they decided not to include any cover songs; all of the songs on the album but were written or co-written by the band. The album was described as being a rock and worship album, being aimed directly at a Christian audience. All That Is Within Me received mostly positive reviews from critics, some of which considered it MercyMe's best record to that point. However, some critics felt the album was too similar to the band's previous works. The album sold 84,000 copies in its first week, debuting at number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and number 15 on the Billboard 200. Three singles were released to radio: "God with Us", which spent eight weeks at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs chart, "You Reign", which peaked at number two on the Christian Songs chart and spent four weeks atop the Billboard Christian AC Songs chart, and "Finally Home", which peaked at number three on the Christian Songs chart and number 16 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. All That Is Within Me has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), signifying shipments of over 500,000 copies. ## Background and recording In 2007, MercyMe went on tour with Audio Adrenaline. According to lead singer Bart Millard, the band had initially intended to record something akin to a "a full-blown Third Day-style worship album, where part of it was cover tunes, and part of it stuff we've written ourselves". Although Millard noted the band had more than enough time to write material, they had a difficult time doing so because they were "having so much fun" during the tour. By May, the deadline was nearing for the band to begin studio recording The band began having jam sessions, and Millard would look over the material later in the day to try and write lyrics to. By the time the band went to the studio, they had only one complete song and some ideas for choruses on other songs. As with Coming Up to Breathe, the band decided not to record the album in Nashville or their hometown of Dallas. They chose Cider Mountain Studio, located on a ranch in rural Idaho, and "drew inspiration and motivation from the 'beautiful' surroundings." Strings were recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London by the London Sessions Orchestra. The band ultimately wrote so many songs while in the studio that they ditched the idea of including any cover material. All of the songs on All That Is Within Me were written by the band, with the exception of "You Reign", which they co-wrote with Steven Curtis Chapman. The final song to be recorded for the album, it resulted from Millard had contacting Chapman over the Internet. He sent Millard some few recordings of songs he had failed to complete while working on his own record. Upon getting to what would become "You Reign", Millard was interested by the verse, and paired it with a chorus that he had previously written but could never write a verse for; the chorus Chapman had originally written for the song became its bridge. ## Composition All That Is Within Me has been described as a rock and worship album. The album presents a "[return] to a church-focused theme" in comparison to the band's previous albums, which had crossover appeal to mainstream radio. Lyrically, it adopts a more "exuberant" and "defiant" tone in comparison to the band's previous albums, which had reflected the "personal tragedies" the band had endured, while the album's production was noted as being "smooth" and "clean". "Goodbye Ordinary" was noted as being similar to the work of the Beatles, incorporating "guitars, a distorted B-3 organ, strings, and horns" and "driving guitar licks". Lyrically, the song urges the listener to "live like there's no tomorrow"; the lyrics were noted as being among the least overtly religious songs on the album, being compared to Switchfoot's "Meant to Live" and Stacie Orrico's "(There's Gotta Be) More to Life". "Time Has Come" is described as being "classic rock" and "modern rock", lyrically focusing on the church as being the children of God. "I Know" features a piano track similar to British alternative rock band Keane, while "God with Us", described as a "six-minute marathon", ponders why God would pay attention to man. "Sanctified" is an adult contemporary song. "You Reign", a worship song, incorporates a gospel choir towards its conclusion. "Grace Tells Us Another Story" lyrically focuses on the love of God, saying that "We've been told the heart is just too far gone to save, but grace tells us another story", and was noted as having a "vaguely Keane-ish Brit-pop quality". "Alright" was noted as being a "sunny pop" song while "My Heart Will Fly" was described as "reflective", asking "Why write the script with such an aching pain? Could there not have been an easier way?". "Finally Home", described as being acoustic and having "country radio's wholesome persona", it relates lyrically to heaven. It begins with Millard reuniting with his father, before shifting to the throne of God. ## Release and promotion All That Is Within Me was released on November 20, 2007. A "Collector's Edition" of the album was released alongside the standard version, including additional content such as acoustic versions of three songs from the album, six live videos, and interviews with the band. It sold 84,000 copies in its first week, the band's best sales week to date. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and number 15 on the Billboard 200. It ranked as the third best-selling Christian album of 2008 in the United States and the 35th best-selling Christian Albums of 2009 in the United States. It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on April 20, 2010, signifying shipments of over 500,000 copies. Three singles were released in promotion of All That Is Within Me. The album's lead single, "God with Us", was released as a digital download on October 25, 2007. It spent eight weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart and ten weeks atop the Billboard Christian AC Songs chart. It ranked at number 12 on the decade-end Christian AC Songs chart and number 19 on the decade-end Christian Songs chart. The album's second single, "You Reign", was released to radio on May 30, 2008. It spent four weeks at number one on the Christian AC Songs chart and peaked at number two on the Christian Songs chart. It ranked at number 35 on the decade-end Christian Songs chart and number 49 on the decade-end Christian AC Songs chart. "Finally Home" was released on December 26, 2008 as the album's third single. It peaked at number two on the Christian AC Songs chart, number three on the Christian Songs chart, and number 16 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. It ranked at number 71 on the decade-end Christian AC Songs chart. ## Critical reception and accolades All That Is Within Me received mostly positive reviews from music critics, some of which considered it to be MercyMe's best record to that point. However, some critics considered the album as being too similar to the band's previous works. Jared Johnson of AllMusic gave the album 4.5 out of 5 stars, saying "regardless of whether the credit goes to the change of scenery or the backs-against-the-wall pressure, it is impossible to deny that this is the group's best effort to date" and praised Millard's vocals as well as the album's "sparkling array of musical styles". Deborah Evans Price of Billboard noted the album's shift toward music geared towards the church, and said "No matter what tag the industry puts on these guys, the bottom line is that they continually make great music with broad-based appeal". Mike Parker of CCM Magazine gave it four out of five stars, called it an "exuberant,defiant, stand-up-and-shake-your-fist at-the-devil, rock & roll worship album" and "MercyMe’s best work to date". Cameron Conant of Charisma praised Millard's vocals as having "a wonderful pop-country style that seems to get better as this album goes along" and saying "All 10 songs on this album prove that it's no accident MercyMe has sold millions of records... It's catchy pop music with a clear gospel message that will resonate with all of MercyMe's fans—a considerable group—and should win them a few new ones, too". Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave All That is Within Me 9 out of 10 stars, calling it "the Texas group's best album for years, crammed as it is with well crafted songs of faith and worship and produced with considerable skill by Brown Bannister". Lauren Summerford of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album 3.5 out of 5 stars, praising it as a strong effort but also saying that it is "nothing out of the ordinary" for the band. Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today gave it 2.5 out of 5 stars, saying it "demonstrates why artists shouldn't be rushed: the album simply doesn't live up to the better moments from MercyMe's previous recordings". Although he praised the band as being one of the best adult contemporary and pop rock bands, he described it as being a "side-step" and having an "overall thrown-together feel". "You Reign" was nominated for Song of the Year at the 40th GMA Dove Awards and for "Best Gospel Song" at the 51st Grammy Awards. ## Track listing (All songs written by MercyMe except for "You Reign", which was written by MercyMe and Steven Curtis Chapman) ## Personnel (Credits from the album liner notes) MercyMe - Bart Millard – lead vocals, backing vocals - Jim Bryson – keyboards, acoustic piano - Barry Graul – guitars - Mike Scheuchzer – guitars - Nathan Cochran – bass - Robby Shaffer – drums Additional performers - Blair Masters – keyboard programming - Eric Darken – percussion - Mike Haynes – trumpet - Carl Marsh – string arrangements and conductor - The London Sessions Orchestra – strings Production and Technical - Brown Bannister – producer, additional engineer - Steve Bishir – recording, string recording, additional engineer, mixing (10) - Aaron Sternke – additional engineer, digital editing - Billy Whittington – additional engineer, digital editing - Chris Phillips – recording assistant - F. Reid Shippen – mixing (1-9) - Buckley Miller – mix assistant (1-9) - Ted Jensen – mastering - Shatrine Krake – art direction, design - Jeremy Cowart – photography - Sheila Curtis – grooming - Amber Lehman – styling - BrickHouse Management – management - Overdubbed at Townsend Sound Studios (Nashville, Tennessee). - Mixed at Sound Stage Studios and Townsend Sound Studios (Nashville, Tennessee). - Mastered at Sterling Sound (New York City, New York). ## Charts and certifications
23,381,834	Burnham Pavilions	1,037,789,764	Public sculptures	[ "2009 sculptures", "Fabric sculptures", "Millennium Park", "Outdoor sculptures in Chicago", "Wooden sculptures in Illinois" ]	The Burnham Pavilions were public sculptures by Zaha Hadid and Ben van Berkel in Millennium Park, which were located in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. Both pavilions were located in the Chase Promenade South. Their purpose was to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Daniel Burnham's Plan of Chicago, and symbolize the city's continued pursuit of the Plan's architectural vision with contemporary architecture and planning. The sculptures were privately funded and reside in Millennium Park. The pavilions were designed to be temporary structures. Both Pavilions were scheduled to be unveiled on June 19, 2009. However, the Pavilion by Hadid endured construction delays and a construction team change, which led to nationwide coverage of the delay in publications such as The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. Only its skeleton was availed to the public on the scheduled date, and the work was completed and unveiled on August 4, 2009. The van Berkel pavilion endured a temporary closure due to unanticipated wear and tear from August 10–14. ## Details In June 2008, there was an announcement that the pavilions would be constructed. The pavilions were commissioned by the Burnham Plan Centennial Committee, a group of civic leaders who collaborated closely with the City of Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs, the Art Institute of Chicago, and Millennium Park Inc. On April 7, 2009, the designs were unveiled for the pavilions set to open on June 19 and to continue on display on the south end of the Chase Promenade until October 31. Delays were caused as a result of manufacturing. This may cause the pavilions to stay on exhibit until November. Additionally, the Hadid Pavilion may be situated in a different part of the park for part of 2010. The choices of Hadid and van Berkel were somewhat controversial because Burnham was a classicist and they are both avant-garde modernists. Additionally, local architects complained that it was a bit of a slight that two European architects were chosen to produce works to serve as the focal points of the Burnham Plan Centennial celebration. The pavilions were scheduled to be a focal point of the centennial celebration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago, which is a yearlong celebration. However, Hadid's Pavilion encountered manufacturer's difficulty in executing Hadid's complex, computer-aided design. ### The Hadid Pavilion The pavilion by Hadid, the first woman to win the Pritzker Prize, is a tensioned fabric shell fitted over a curving aluminum framework exceeding 7,000 pieces. Although the frame is composed of 7,000 individually bent pieces, no two of which are alike, the shell is made up of a mere 24 custom-made panels of fabric. As expected it accommodates a centennial-themed, audio and video presentation on its interior fabric walls. Its opening was originally expected to be delayed until at least mid-July 2009. The themed presentation that portrays Chicago's transformation as a result of Burnham's plan is by London-based, Chicago-trained filmmaker Thomas Gray. It is accompanied by a multi-channel soundtrack created by Chicago's Lou Mallozzi of Experimental Sound Studio. The pavilion is described as resembling a "futuristic camping tent". Hadid conceptualized how tension alters appearance as fabric is pulled taut or twisted, which resulted in the elliptical structure and its strategic light-availing gashes and pod-like openings for visitors to experience. The diagonal lines in the structure are a reflection of Burnham's 1909 city plan, which envisioned a fanned grid of streets emanating diagonally from Chicago's city center out into the suburbs. The project was daunting in its physical complexity. TenFab Design, a tensioned fabric trade-show booth design company from Evanston, Illinois, worked nearly five months with numerous structural engineers on plans before construction could begin. As an example the inclusion of a 400-pound (180 kg) projector challenged the dynamics of the lightweight structure. The centennial committee initiated discussions with TenFab in November 2008 at which time the company requested a six-month design and assembly schedule, but the company was not hired until late February 2009. The expected completion fell behind schedule. In July, construction responsibilities were passed from TenFab Design to a Fabric Images, an Elgin, Illinois-based company, and the anticipated opening was delayed until August 1, and the new contract has penalties for delays beyond that date. As the construction costs of the privately funded project ballooned from \$500,000 to \$650,000 due to the change in materials and contractors, the difference was compensated for by a shift in funds from the advertising budget. The unfinished work was visible for the opening weekend on June 19, but the following Monday it was tented while being completed. Eventually, a canvas stretched across the frame to form a structure that resembled a cocoon. On July 20, the fabric began being formed around the aluminum shell while it remained in the tent, and although construction was expected to be completed on August 1, the opening was not anticipated at that time due to both weekend crowds and the cost of disassembling the tent on the weekend. The weekday opening should allow officials a better opportunity to gauge the wear and tear on the structure by visitors. What eventually amounted to over 1,600 yards (1,500 m) of fabric was stitched and fitted by over a dozen workers. It opened to the public on August 4 as rescheduled. Upon the completion of the temporary exhibition, the pavilion will be deeded to the city to lend or rent out to other cities. It is not designed to withstand snow loads of a Chicago winter. The pavilion is made of aluminum, donated by Marmon/Keystone Industries, a member of the Marmon Group, and a tensile fabric. The current pavilion is not Hadid's original design, which had a greater emphasis an angularity and incorporated hard surfaces of wood and aluminum. When the committee sent the original proposal out for bid "it was way over budget." Hadid eventually submitted a new cost-conscious design of a cloth shell supported by aluminum ribs of different sizes. The pavilion's inner walls were planned to serve as projection surfaces for a film about Chicago by Gray. Hadid had previously been commissioned to a temporary pavilion for the London's Serpentine Gallery in 2000. The pavilion was such a success that the gallery has added annual temporary pavilions every year since. Architects such as Frank Gehry and artists like Olafur Eliasson have attempted to achieve the same success in the subsequent years. She also created a mobile temporary work for Chanel that was displayed in Hong Kong, Tokyo and New York in 2008. Hadid will design the London Aquatics Centre for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the Guangzhou Opera House in China. The Chicago Tribune'''s Pulitzer Prize-winning architecture critic Blair Kamin spoke glowingly of the pavilion upon its August 4, 2009, completion, describing it as "a virtuoso display of structure, space and light" with an "arresting combination of naturalistic forms and alien shapes, plus a dazzling video installation". He notes that pavilion resembles a conch shell with openings like shark's mouths. By daylight the pavilion is enticing, but the use of sunlight limits the multimedia duality to dusk and until the park's closing, when the 7.5 minute video is able to be seen on the pavilion's inner surface. He felt that the pavilion succeeded in enticing the viewer to envision a better future for Chicago in a manner like Burnham did himself. Kamin is very wary of the public's likelihood of damaging the pavilion. His concerns were born out quickly as stanchions were required to curb human nature. ### The van Berkel Pavilion The pavilion by van Berkel of UNStudio, referred to by some as the UNStudio pavilion, is composed of two parallel rectangular planes joined by curving scoops. It is built on a steel frame and has a skin of glossy white plywood that starts off in familiar right angles and that graduates into double curves of bent plywood. It is situated on a raised platform and it hosts a grid of 42 computer-controlled, LED lights on the underside of the roof. The floor slab is cantilevered and is sliced by a ramp entrance making it ADA accessible. The roof, which is described as floating, also has eye-like openings. The pavilion is composed of steel donated by Chicago-based ArcelorMittal and is intended to be de-constructed and recycled. The pavilion did not prove to be durable enough for the interactive environment of Millennium Park. Kamin feels that the Pavilion was designed more for veneration like indoor museum works of art and outdoor sculpture on pedestals. However, skateboarders, avid fireworks spectators and youthful climbers have been part of the multiple causation of the decline of the pavilion that led to its closure during the week of August 10–14. ## Related events The Burnham Plan is credited with guiding the transformation of the city from an industrial center to leading contemporary city. The Wall Street Journal describes the plan as unrivaled in its elegance and ambition for urban planning and describes Chicago as a monumental manifestation of the plan. The unveiling of the Pavilions was part of a June 19 citywide centennial celebration that included concerts by the Grant Park Orchestra, directed by Carlos Kalmar. The concert featured the world premiere of Michael Torke's symphony and chorus work entitled Plans'', that was paired with Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3. The ongoing celebration includes lectures, walking tours and art exhibitions throughout the calendar year. The pavilions are accompanied by exhibit panels that promote the Burnham Plan Centennial celebration and continuing opportunities to pursue the plan's vision for Metropolitan Chicago. The pavilions serve as a focal point for the public's attention to steer them toward the hundreds of exhibits, events, and other activities of the more than 250 Centennial Program Partners in the Chicago metropolitan area. The ground near the pavilions host an interactive touch-screen public kiosk installation geared toward "inventing the future" of the metropolitan Chicago region.
20,411,347	The Gobbledy Gooker	1,172,742,743	Former mascot of the World Wrestling Federation	[ "American mascots", "Bird mascots", "Fictional characters from Connecticut", "Mascots introduced in 1990", "Masked wrestlers", "Professional wrestling gimmicks", "Survivor Series", "Television characters introduced in 1990", "WWE 24/7 Champions" ]	The Gobbledy Gooker is a professional wrestling turkey mascot originally portrayed by Héctor Guerrero. In the weeks leading up to the 1990 Survivor Series, the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) hyped its debut by showcasing a large egg at live shows, causing much speculation among wrestling fans. Guerrero was jeered by fans in attendance when he hatched out of the egg and the character was quickly dropped by the promotion. It subsequently attained a legacy as being one of the worst characters in the history of professional wrestling. After a lengthy hiatus, WWE began sporadically using the character again and several other wrestlers have donned the Gobbledy Gooker costume. Thirty years after its debut, it won the WWE 24/7 Championship at the 2020 Survivor Series. ## Concept and creation The concept for the Gobbledy Gooker was that it would serve as a turkey mascot for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) akin to the San Diego Chicken. In addition to being a mascot, WWF promoter Vince McMahon intended the character to wrestle and sought a skilled performer for the role. After a recommendation from Dusty Rhodes, the WWF began contacting Héctor Guerrero in early 1990. Guerrero landed the role after a successful in-person audition months later and was set to debut at the upcoming Survivor Series event. Survivor Series typically takes place around Thanksgiving and this edition was to take place on Thanksgiving night. In the weeks leading up to the event, the WWF began hyping the new character by displaying a large egg at several shows. This caused rampant speculation about what was in the egg and the most popular theory was that multi-time world champion Ric Flair, who wrestled for the rival promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW), was going to debut in the WWF by hatching from it. Mark Calaway had recently signed with the WWF and feared that the egg was to hype his debut. He ultimately debuted as The Undertaker in an unrelated segment at the same event. ## History ### Héctor Guerrero portrayal (1990, 2001) Announcer Gene Okerlund appeared next to the egg at Survivor Series and speculated that it contained a dinosaur, balloons or perhaps the Playmate of the Month. After these comments, the egg hatched and Guerrero climbed out of it in the costume. He then approached Okerlund for an interview but spoke only by making turkey noises. This prompted Okerlund to call him "the Gobbledy Gooker". As fans in attendance at the Hartford Civic Center started to boo, a rock and roll rendition of "Turkey in the Straw" began to play and Okerlund and Guerrero danced in the ring. Despite the crowd's rejection of the segment, commentator Roddy Piper said that the Gobbledy Gooker had "won the heart of Hartford!" and his broadcast partner Gorilla Monsoon described it as a "big smash". Guerrero continued to tour with the WWF for a few weeks afterward. However, he suffered another gaffe during an appearance at Madison Square Garden; he was unable to see out of the head of the costume, which caused him to fall into the ring after a handspring. Despite initial plans for the Gobbledy Gooker to represent the company as a mascot, it disappeared from the promotion a month after its debut. The character was not seen again until WrestleMania X-Seven in 2001, when Guerrero returned to the persona for one night and wrestled his only match under the moniker during the "Gimmick Battle Royal". He was quickly eliminated by Tugboat. ### Portrayals by others (2008–2020) Since 2008, WWE has sporadically used the character in storylines or skits during Thanksgiving week. The first such appearance was at the 2008 Survivor Series, where The Boogeyman dressed as the Gobbledy Gooker in a skit with The Bella Twins and The Colóns. The next appearance was on the November 23, 2009, episode of Raw, when Maryse Ouellet disguised herself as the Goobledy Gooker to attack Melina Perez. In 2013, WWE released a series of comical YouTube videos called "The Gobbledy Gooker Goes To Work". To celebrate the 25th anniversary of its debut, Xavier Woods of The New Day donned the turkey costume on the November 26, 2015, episode of SmackDown. Later that episode, Jey Uso disguised himself as the Gobbledy Gooker to attack his New Day partners. On the November 21, 2017, edition of 205 Live, Drew Gulak dressed up as the Gobbledy Gooker, referring to himself as "the Gobbledy Gulaker". Gulak reprised his role as the Gobbledy Gooker for the thirtieth anniversary of its debut at 2020 Survivor Series, although his identity was not revealed during the show. During the pre-show, the character won the WWE 24/7 Championship by defeating R-Truth. Later that night, it lost the title to Akira Tozawa, who quickly lost it to R-Truth. The character made another appearance with R-Truth on the following episode of Main Event, where it was attacked by Retribution. ## Legacy The Gobbledy Gooker is remembered by many as one of the biggest flops in the history of the professional wrestling industry. The satirical wrestling website WrestleCrap named its annual booby prize the "Gooker Award" after the character. Furthermore, in The Wrestlecrap Book of Lists!, R. D. Reynolds listed the Gobbledy Gooker as the second worst wrestling character of all time, behind The Red Rooster, while The A.V. Club placed it on a list of wrestling's most regrettable gimmicks. Muscle & Fitness similarly described the character as being the worst dressed wrestler of all time, writing: "having a WWE Superstar compete in a full Turkey suit is perhaps the most ridiculous concept ever". Bleacher Report and 411Mania each ranked the character as having the second worst debut/reveal of all time, second to the Shockmaster (portrayed by Fred Ottman, who also wrestled as Tugboat and eliminated the Gobbledy Gooker at WrestleMania X-Seven). During a 2008 episode of Legends of Wrestling, Dusty Rhodes, who had previously written for WCW and was responsible for creating the Shockmaster, revealed that he and McMahon would joke about which character was worse. WWE describe the debut as an "unmitigated disaster", but add: "Like an Ed Wood movie, The Gooker was such a terrible persona that it eventually endeared itself to the WWE Universe". However, Guerrero has defended the character, stating: "The Gobbledy Gooker is called the biggest flop in professional wrestling history, but it wasn’t meant for the adults. It was for the children. Vince wanted to do something noble, which I take my hat off to and respect." Okerlund addressed Guerrero during his WWE Hall of Fame induction in 2006, saying: "Héctor, we had a lot of fun, but all of this is forgotten". Paul Debendetto of Mental Floss disagreed with Okerlund's assessment, given the character's enduring legacy, writing: "the Gooker lives on. And Héctor wouldn’t have it any other way." ## Championships and accomplishments - Wrestling Observer Newsletter - Worst Gimmick (1990) - WWE - WWE 24/7 Championship (1 time)
23,422,613	U.S. Route 76 in North Carolina	1,160,936,237	Section of highway in North Carolina	[ "Transportation in Brunswick County, North Carolina", "Transportation in Columbus County, North Carolina", "Transportation in New Hanover County, North Carolina", "U.S. Highways in North Carolina", "U.S. Route 76" ]	U.S. Highway 76 (US 76) is a U.S. Highway running from Chattanooga, Tennessee to Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina. In North Carolina the highway runs for 80.4 miles (129.4 km) in the southeastern region of the state. US 76 enters the state from South Carolina south of Fair Bluff in Columbus County. Travelling in an eastward direction, US 76 meets US 74 in Chadbourn. The two highways run concurrently for 50.4 miles (81.1 km) between Chadbourn and Wilmington. US 76 runs concurrently with US 17 along much of its Wilmington routing, until once again meeting US 74. US 76 and US 74 run concurrently for 1.4 miles (2.3 km) until reaching Wrightsville Beach. US 76 reaches its eastern terminus on the south side of Wrightsville Beach, at an intersection with Water Street. As early as 1916, portions of modern-day US 76, between Wilmington and Whiteville were added to the North Carolina state highway system. By 1924, North Carolina Highway 202 (NC 202) was assigned to the routing between South Carolina and Chadbourn. The routing between Chadbourn and Wrightsville Beach became part of NC 20, which continued west to Asheville. While US 76 was an original U.S. highway, it initially ran between Chattanooga, Tennessee and Florence, South Carolina. The remainder of the route between Florence and Wilmington was signed as part of US 17. In 1935, US 17 was rerouted similar to its current routing, and US 76 was extended to Wrightsville Beach over the former routing of US 17. While the majority of the routing has remained roughly the same, much of the highway between Chadbourn and Wilmington has been placed on new freeways. The section of US 76 between Chadbourn and Bolton is considered to be a future section of Interstate 74 (I-74). ## Route description US 76 runs for 80.4 miles (129.4 km) across Columbus, Brunswick, and New Hanover Counties. The majority of US 76 in North Carolina is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways in the United States which serve strategic transportation facilities. There are two exceptions, one along Oleander Drive and Military Cutoff Road between US 421 (Third Street) and US 74 (Eastwood Road) in Wilmington, and another from the C. Heide Trask Bridge in Wrightsville Beach to the eastern terminus of US 76. ### Columbus County US 76 crosses the North Carolina–South Carolina state line between Horry County, South Carolina and Columbus County, North Carolina near Fair Bluff. US 76 continues north for approximately 1.7 miles (2.7 km) before entering into Fair Bluff. Upon reaching the town limits, the highway is named as Main Street. As US 76 approaches the Lumber River, it begins a gradual turn to the northeast which is completed before reaching NC 904. US 76 and NC 904 share a 0.4 miles (640 m) concurrency through downtown Fair Bluff. At Conway Road, NC 904 turns to the southeast and runs toward Tabor City. Exiting Fair Bluff to the east, US 76 runs parallel to a former Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, currently operated by the R.J. Corman Railroad Group. The highway forms the northern limit of the town of Cerro Gordo, providing access to several businesses located off the highway. US 76 intersects the southern terminus of NC 242 at an intersection with Powell Street and the Haynes Gordon Highway. The highway exits the town to the east, crossing over a creek named Cerro Gordo. US 76 continues east through a rural area of Columbus County toward Chadbourn. The highway briefly enters the town limits but is routed to the north of the central business area of Chadbourn. US 76 intersects US 74 Business, US 76 Business, NC 130, and NC 410 at the Joe Brown Highway. US 76 continues east for approximately one mile (one point six kilometres) before merging onto the US 74 freeway toward Wilmington. The US 74 and US 76 interchange near Chadbourn is incomplete, as there is only westbound access to US 76 and an eastbound entrance to US 74 and US 76. US 74 and US 76 begins a concurrency for 50.4 miles (81.1 km). US 74 and US 76 approaches Whiteville from the west and bypasses the city to the north. A partial cloverleaf interchange with US 701 is located north of downtown Whiteville. East of Whiteville, the highway crosses the White Marsh which drains to the Waccamaw River. US 76 meets the eastern termini of US 74 Business and US 76 Business at an interchange between Whiteville and Hallsboro. The exit also provides access to the western terminus of NC 214 which begins to parallels the highway until Bolton. The highway meets Hallsboro Road at a diamond interchange north of Hallsboro. Continuing east, US 76 passes north of Lake Waccamaw. The freeway ends at an at-grade intersection with Chaunceytown Road, northwest of the town of Lake Waccamaw. US 74 and US 76 continue east as a four-lane divided highway, bypassing Bolton to the north. The highway meets NC 211 at an interchange northwest of the downtown area of Bolton. Making a gradual turn to the southeast, the highway meets the eastern terminus of NC 214 at an at-grade intersection. US 74 and US 76 continues east along a rather straight alignment before meeting the southern terminus of NC 11 at an at-grade intersection. After crossing Livingston Creek, US 74 and US 76 enter the community of Delco from the east, running through the central business area. In the southeastern side of Delco, the highway meets NC 87, which runs concurrently with US 74 and US 76 to the east. ### Brunswick County US 76 enters Brunswick County 1.8 miles (2.9 km) east of Delco along with US 74 and NC 87. The highway runs slightly to the southeast, passing through the northern area of Sandy Creek. At the community of Maco, US 74 and US 76 intersects NC 87 (Maco Road) and Northwest Road at an at-grade intersection which marks the eastern end of the NC 87 concurrency. US 74 and US 76 continue to the east and near Malmo, the highway begins to parallel a railroad owned and operated by CSX Transportation. East of Malmo, US 74 and US 76 meets I-140 (Wilmington Bypass) at a partial cloverleaf interchange (I-140 exit 5). US 74 and US 76 have several at-grade intersections east of I-140, providing access to several businesses located alongside the highway. After Mercantile Drive, US 74 and US 76 become a freeway again. A diamond interchange is located 0.4 miles (640 m) to the east, providing access to Lanvale Road and Mount Misery Road. The freeway makes a turn to the southeast, crossing over Village Road and the railroad operated by CSX Transportation. Entering into Leland, the highway runs through a residential area, crossing over Sturgeon Creek and under Old Fayetteville Road. As the freeway approaches US 17, it begins a gradual turn to the northeast. US 74 and US 76 reaches a modified trumpet interchange with US 17 (Ocean Highway) within the gradual curve. US 17 begins to run concurrently with US 74 and US 76 to the east toward Wilmington. The highway then meets NC 133 roughly 0.6 miles (970 m) to the east at a diverging diamond interchange, providing access to the central business area of Leland and Belville. Here, NC 133 begins to run concurrently with US 17, US 74, and US 76 to the east. East of the exit, the freeway widens from four to six lanes, with three lanes in each direction. The freeway crosses the Brunswick River and Alligator Creek before meeting US 421 at a trumpet interchange. US 74 and NC 133 exit the freeway and run concurrently with US 421 to the north while US 421 merges onto the freeway and crosses the Cape Fear River along the Cape Fear Memorial Bridge. ### New Hanover County After crossing the Cape Fear River, US 17, US 76, and US 421 enters into New Hanover County. An exit for Front Street and US 421 Truck is located on the bridge's eastern approach. Immediately following the exit, the highway median widens to match with Wooster Street and Dawson Street in downtown Wilmington. The freeway ends at an at-grade intersection with Third Street where the US 421 concurrency ends and US 17 and US 76 are split onto Dawson Street (eastbound) and Wooster Street (westbound). The dual streets serve a mixture of residential and commercial businesses that are located off the highway. The two streets join back together east of 16th Street and form Oleander Drive. Turning to the southeast, Oleander Drive crosses another railroad owned and operated by CSX Transportation at an at-grade crossing. US 17 and US 76 enters a residential area located between Mimosa Place and Independence Boulevard, and passes north of the Cape Fear Country Club. East of Independence Boulevard, US 76 provides access to multiple commercial businesses including Independence Mall. The road makes a slight curve between 41st Street and 42nd Street, giving US 76 a slightly more eastern orientation. US 17 and US 76 meets US 117 and NC 132 at South College Road. The intersection is considered to be one of the busiest in Wilmington with an average of 70,500 cars crossing daily in 2019. US 17 and US 76 continue east along Oleander Drive, paralleling Wrightsville Avenue to the south. At Greenville Loop Road, the highway turns to the north and crosses the sound on the Trooper Clarence L. Swartz Bridge. At an intersection with Wrightsville Avenue and Airlie Road, the road name changes from Oleander Drive to Military Cuttoff Road. The highway continues north for 0.6 miles (970 m) until reaching US 74 at Eastwood Road. US 76 turns east to follow US 74, while US 17 continues north along Military Cutoff Road. US 74 and US 76 run concurrently for 1.4 miles (2.3 km) toward Wrightsville Beach. The road name switches from Eastwood Road to Wrightsville Avenue at an intersection with Wrightsville Avenue. US 74 and US 76 cross the Intracoastal Waterway on the C. Heide Trask Memorial Bridge, crossing into Wrightsville Beach. The two highways briefly run concurrently along Causeway Drive, before splitting at Salisbury Street. US 76 bears to the right to continue on Causeway Drive, running through a residential area of Wrightsville Beach. The highway crosses over Banks Channel before meeting Waynick Boulevard. US 76 turns south to follow Waynick Boulevard, paralleling Banks Channel on its eastern shore. Waynick Boulevard makes a sharp turn to the east and becomes Sunset Avenue, before ending at Lumina Avenue. US 76 turns to the south to follow Lumina Avenue toward the southern side of Wrightsville Beach. At the end of Lumina Avenue, the highway makes a sharp right turn and briefly heads west along Jack Parker Boulevard. The eastern terminus of US 76 coincides with the end of Jack Parker Boulevard, located at an intersection with Water Street. ## History As early as 1916, a portion of US 76 between Chadbourn and Wilmington was a thoroughfare in southeastern North Carolina. The highway between Chadbourn and the Columbus County-Brunswick County line was an unimproved road while the section in Brunswick County and New Hanover County was an improved highway. Upon the creation of the North Carolina State Highway System in 1921, the highway between Chadbourn and Wrightsville Beach was numbered as part of NC 20. The segment between the South Carolina state line and Chadbourn was numbered as part of NC 202. In 1924, NC 202 was an unimproved road for its entire length. Portions of NC 20 between Chadbourn and Whiteville, as well as between Bolton and Wrightsville Beach were improved roadways. By 1926, the entirety of NC 20 was improved between Chadbourn and Wrightsville Beach. Upon the creation of the United States Numbered Highway System, US 76 was routed between Chattanooga, Tennessee and Florence, South Carolina. US 17 followed NC 20 west of Wilmington to Chadbourn and then followed NC 202 to the South Carolina state line. In South Carolina, US 17 then continued west to Florence where it met US 76. By 1929, US 17/NC 202 was improved west of Chadbourn, creating an improved road between Wilmington and South Carolina. In 1935, US 17 was rerouted to replace US 117 between Wilmington and Myrtle Beach. The route between Florence and Wilmington was subsequently renumbered as US 76. US 76 also replaced NC 20 between Wilmington and Wrightsville Beach. Both NC 20 and NC 202 were decommissioned in 1934, in favor of overlapping US Highways. When first established in 1935, US 76 followed its modern-day routing between the South Carolina state line and Chadbourn. At Chadbourn it met US 74 and both highways followed modern-day US 74 Business and US 76 Business through Chadbourn and Whiteville. US 74 and US 76 then followed NC 214 through the towns of Lake Waccamaw and Bolton. East of Bolton, US 76 followed much of its modern-day routing until Leland. In western Leland, the road followed Fletcher Road and Village Road. After Leland School Road, the highway continued straight onto Post Office Road and then made a turn to the southeast along Lincoln Road. The highway then continued to follow Village Road, crossing the Brunswick River south of the modern-day bridge. US 74 and US 76 turned to the north at modern-day US 421, utilizing the Isabel Holmes Bridge to cross the Northeast Cape Fear River. In Downtown Wilmington US 76 used Third Street, Market Street, and 17th Street until reaching Oleander Street (modern-day Oleander Drive). US 76 followed Oleander Street until Airlie Road, which it followed to Wrightsville Beach. After crossing onto Harbor Island, US 74 and US 76 used Causeway Drive and then followed Lumina Avenue to the north. In 1936, US 74 and US 76 were adjusted in Leland, using a curve along Village Road to avoid an intersection with Lincoln Road and Post Office Road. The abandoned route, roughly 0.14 miles (230 m) became US 74-A. By 1942, US 76 was removed from its routing along Lumina Avenue north of Causeway Drive in Wrightsville Beach. Instead, the highway was routed south, along Waynick Boulevard, Sunset Avenue, and South Lumina Avenue to end on the south side of Wrightsville Beach. Between 1957 and 1962, US 76 was removed from Airlie Road between Oleander Drive and Wrightsville Avenue. The highway was rerouted north along Oleander Drive to Wrightsville Avenue. It then followed Wrightville Avenue to Wrightsville Beach where the road name changed to Causeway Drive. In 1966, US 76 was placed onto split one-way streets along part of its routing in downtown Wilmington. The westbound lanes continued to use 17th Street between Dawson Street and Market Street, while the eastbound lanes were shifted to use 16th Street and Dawson Street. The Cape Fear Memorial Bridge was completed in 1969, providing a second bridge into the city of Wilmington. On September 11, 1969, US 76 was rerouted across the bridge, abandoning its former alignment along US 421 and the Isabel Holmes Bridge. US 76 was then placed along split one-way streets along Dawson Street and Wooster Street before meeting Oleander Drive. This alignment reflects the modern-day routing of US 76 through downtown Wilmington. In March 1975, US 76 was extended for 0.10 miles (160 m) to the south in Wrightsville Beach. This extension brought the highway to its current eastern terminus. In September 1975, US 76 was placed onto several bypasses west of Wilmington. In Brunswick County, US 76 was placed on a bypass of Leland and Belville from 0.61 miles (980 m) west of Mount Misery Road and Lanvale Road to NC 133. In Columbus County, US 76 was placed on its current routing between US 74 Business and US 76 Business north of Chadbourn and US 74. US 76 was then placed along the US 74 and US 76 freeway until Union Valley Road. Union Valley Road was designated as Temporary US 74 and Temporary US 76 between the freeway and modern-day US 74 Business and US 76 Business. The bypass around Whiteville to US 74 Business and US 76 Business was completed in February 1976. In January 1978, US 17, US 74, US 76, and NC 133 were adjusted along the modern-day freeway from NC 133 across the Brunswick River. The freeway around Whiteville was extended east in October 1986, bypassing the towns of Lake Waccamaw and Hallsboro. The freeway was extended further east, bypassing Bolton in July 1993. The former alignment of US 74 and US 76 became part of NC 214. The final readjustment of US 76 occurred in 2003, when it was removed from Wrightsville Avenue between Oleander Drive and Eastwood Road. US 76 was rerouted to continue north along Military Cutoff Road before heading east along Eastwood Road to Wrightsville Beach. Since the 1990s, there have been several attempts to convert at least portions of US 76 to an Interstate Highway. In 2003, North Carolina began exploring the possibility of extending Interstate 20 (I-20) from Florence, South Carolina to Wilmington using the US 76 corridor. The extension was proposed to run along a new route between the South Carolina state line and Chadbourn. In Chadbourn, it would have used US 74 and US 76 to Wilmington. The plan has largely been abandoned by the state, and does not appear on the 2015 Strategic Transportation Corridors of North Carolina. A current proposal is to extend I-74 from Lumberton to Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. I-74 is slated to continue along US 74 and US 76 between Chadbourn and Bolton. Consistent with this plan, several upgrades have taken place along this section of highway. A project to convert an at-grade intersection at NC 211 near Bolton to an interchange was completed in 2012. A \$9.4 million project to replace an at-grade intersection at Hallsboro Road with an interchange began on August 6, 2018. The diamond interchange was completed on June 12, 2020, extending the US 74 and US 76 freeway to the east. ## Future A feasibility study conducted for the eastward extension of Interstate 74 (I-74) in 2005 found two alternatives for the Interstate. Both alternatives followed US 76 from Chadbourn to an area west of Bolton. West of Bolton, I-74 would split from US 74 and US 76 to turn to the south, roughly following NC 211. Consistent with this plan, the North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) plans to build a dumbbell interchange at Chaunceytown Road, north of the town of Lake Waccamaw. The project would also include a flyover for Old Lake Road to the east. Once completed, US 76 will be a continuous freeway between US 74 near Chadbourn and Blacksmith Road north of Bolton. The \$31.7 million project is expected to begin construction in 2022. An additional interchange at NC 87 in Maco has been proposed by the Cape Fear Council of Governments. The project is projected to cost \$11.7 million and would begin construction in 2027. NCDOT and the Wilmington Urban Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (WMPO) are currently planning three projects for US 76 in Wilmington. Project U-5710 would construct an interchange to replace the current at-grade intersection between Military Cutoff Road and Eastwood Road in Wilmington. The new interchange would utilize an extended Drysdale Drive and Commonwealth Drive along with several ramps. While US 76 east would utilize a ramp, US 76 west is expected to utilize the extended Drysdale Drive and a portion of Military Cutoff Road north of the intersection. The project is expected to begin construction in 2023. An additional project (U-5704) would either upgrade the intersection or create an interchange at Oleander Drive and College Road. The project is expected to begin construction in 2030. A third project would improve the intersection between Oleander Drive and Greenville Loop Road/Greenville Avenue. This includes installing dual left-turn lanes at the intersection. Right of way acquisition is expected to begin in 2029. NCDOT is also proposing two potential bridge replacements along US 76 in New Hanover County. A feasibility study to replace the Cape Fear Memorial Bridge in Wilmington identified four potential replacements. Two proposals involve the construction of a new vertical-lift bridge, while two others detail a fixed-span bridge. One vertical-lift bridge proposal involves including a railroad alongside the highway. NCDOT also completed a draft feasibility study to replace the C. Heide Trask Memorial Bridge in Wrightsville Beach. The study details five options, with three drawbridge configurations and two high-rise bridge configurations. All study options seek to improve the adjacent US 74 and US 76 split in Wrightsville Beach. Four options detail replacing the current design with a roundabout, while one would upgrade the current design. The bridge is expected to reach the end of its design lifespan in 2042. ## Major intersections ## See also - Special routes of U.S. Route 76
3,597,669	Times Square Ball	1,170,589,848	Time ball in New York City's Times Square	[ "1907 establishments in New York City", "Culture of New York City", "December events", "Festivals established in 1907", "New Year in the United States", "Recurring events established in 1907", "Times Square", "Winter traditions" ]	The Times Square Ball is a time ball located in New York City's Times Square. Located on the roof of One Times Square, the ball is a prominent part of a New Year's Eve celebration in Times Square commonly referred to as the ball drop, where the ball descends down a specially designed flagpole, beginning at 11:59:00 p.m. ET, and resting at midnight to signal the start of the new year. In recent years, the ball drop has been preceded by live entertainment, including performances by musicians. The event was first organized by Adolph Ochs, owner of The New York Times newspaper, as a successor to a series of New Year's Eve fireworks displays he held at the building to promote its status as the new headquarters of the Times, while the ball itself was designed by Artkraft Strauss. First held on December 31, 1907, to welcome 1908, the ball drop has been held annually since, except in 1942 and 1943 in observance of wartime blackouts. The ball's design has been updated four times to reflect improvements in lighting technology; the original ball was 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter, constructed from wood and iron, and illuminated with 100 incandescent light bulbs. By contrast, the current ball is 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, and uses over 32,000 LED lamps. Since 1999–2000, the ball has featured an outer surface consisting of triangular panels manufactured by Waterford Crystal, which contain inscriptions representing a yearly theme. The event is organized by the Times Square Alliance and Countdown Entertainment, a company led by Jeff Strauss. Since 2009, the ball has been displayed atop One Times Square nearly year-round, while the original, smaller version of the current ball that was used in 2008 has been on display inside the Times Square visitor's center. The prevalence of the Times Square ball drop has inspired similar "drops" at other local New Year's Eve events across the country; while some use balls, some instead drop objects that represent local culture or history. ## Events ### Event organization To facilitate the arrival of attendees, Times Square is closed to traffic beginning in the late afternoon on New Year's Eve. The square is then divided into different viewing sections referred to as "pens", into which attendees are directed sequentially upon arrival. Security is strictly enforced by the New York City Police Department (NYPD), even more so since the 2001–02 edition in the wake of the September 11 attacks. Attendees are required to pass through security checkpoints before they are assigned a pen, and are prohibited from bringing backpacks or alcohol to the event. Security was increased further for its 2017–18 edition due to recent incidents such as the truck attack in New York on October 31, and the 2017 Las Vegas shooting; these included additional patrols of Times Square hotels, rooftop patrol squads and counter-snipers, and the installation of reflective markers on buildings to help officers identify the location of elevated shooters. For 2018–19, the NYPD announced its intent to use a camera-equipped quadcopter to augment the over 1,200 fixed cameras monitoring Times Square, but it was left grounded due to inclement weather. ### Festivities Festivities formally begin in the early evening, with an opening ceremony featuring the raising of the ball at 6:00 p.m. ET along with the playing of Fanfare for the Common Man by The New York Philharmonic. Party favors are distributed to attendees, which have historically included large balloons, hats, and other items branded with the event's corporate sponsors. The lead-up to midnight features a program of entertainment, including musical performances: some of these performances are organized by, and aired by New Year's Eve television specials broadcasting from Times Square. The climax of the festivities is the drop itself, which begins at 11:59:00 p.m. ET. Officially, the drop is activated using a button inside a special control room within One Times Square, synchronized using an National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) time signal received via satellite. Since 1996, the drop has been ceremonially "activated" on-stage by one or more special guests, joined by the current mayor of New York City, by pressing a button on a smaller model of the ball. The guests are selected annually to recognize their community involvement or significance, and have included: - 1996–97: Oseola McCarty - 1997–98: A group of five winners from a school essay contest honoring New York City's centennial - 1998–99: Sang Lan (who was injured during the 1998 Goodwill Games and was being rehabilitated in New York City) - 1999–2000: Mary Ann Hopkins from Doctors Without Borders - 2000–01: Muhammad Ali - 2001–02: Judith Giuliani; Ex-wife of Rudy Giuliani. this was Giuliani's final act as mayor. Michael Bloomberg officially became the new Mayor of New York City upon the beginning of 2002, and took his oath of office shortly after midnight. - 2002–03: Christopher Reeve and Dana Reeve - 2003–04: Cyndi Lauper, joined by Shoshana Johnson—the first black female prisoner of war in the military history of the United States. - 2004–05: United States Secretary of State Colin Powell - 2005–06: Wynton Marsalis - 2006–07: A group of ten United States Armed Forces members - 2007–08: Karolina Wierzchowska, an Iraq War veteran and New York City Police Academy valedictorian - 2008–09: Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton - 2009–10: Twelve students from New York City high schools on the Gold Medal List of the U.S. News & World Report's "America's Best High Schools". - 2010–11: Former Staff sergeant Salvatore Giunta - 2011–12: Lady Gaga - 2012–13: The Rockettes - 2013–14: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Sonia Sotomayor. - 2014–15: Jencarlos Canela, joined by a group of refugees who emigrated to New York City, in partnership with the International Rescue Committee - 2015–16: Humanitarian Hugh Evans - 2016–17: United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon; this was Ban's final act as UN Secretary-General, as António Guterres took office on January 1, 2017. - 2017–18: Tarana Burke, civil rights activist and founder of the \#MeToo movement. - 2018–19: Joel Simon—Executive Director of the Committee to Protect Journalists, and a group of eleven journalists: Karen Attiah, Rebecca Blumenstein, Alisyn Camerota, Vladimir Duthiers, Edward Felsenthal, Lester Holt, Matt Murray, Martha Raddatz, Maria Ressa, Jon Scott, and Karen Toulon. - 2019–20: New York City high school teachers Jared Fox and Aida Rosenbaum —recipients of the 11th annual Sloan Awards for Excellence in Teaching Science and Mathematics, and four of their students. - 2020–21: Chirlane McCray, wife of Mayor Bill de Blasio. - 2021–22: Michael James Scott, Mary Claire King, and Ben Crawford. Due to social distancing measures, the guests did not press the button with the mayor. The event was de Blasio's final act as mayor of New York City. Mayor-elect Eric Adams took his oath of office shortly after midnight. - 2022–23: Eric Adams - 2023–24 TBA The conclusion of the drop is followed by fireworks shot from the roof of One Times Square, along with the playing of the first verse of "Auld Lang Syne" by Guy Lombardo, "Theme from New York, New York" by Frank Sinatra, "America the Beautiful" by Ray Charles, "What a Wonderful World" by Louis Armstrong, and "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World" by Israel Kamakawiwo'ole. Since the 2005–06 edition of the event, the drop has been directly preceded by the playing of John Lennon's song "Imagine" at 11:55 p.m. Until 2009–2010, the original recording was used; since 2010–2011, the song has been performed by the headlining artist; - 2010–11: Taio Cruz - 2011–12: CeeLo Green - 2012–13: Train - 2013–14: Melissa Etheridge - 2014–15: O.A.R. - 2015–16: Jessie J - 2016–17: Rachel Platten - 2017–18: Andy Grammer - 2018–19: Bebe Rexha - 2019–20: X Ambassadors - 2020–21: Andra Day - 2021–22: KT Tunstall - 2022–23: Chelsea Cutler - 2023–24: TBA At least 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) of confetti is dropped in Times Square, directed by Treb Heining (who has been well known for his involvement in designing balloon decorations for Disney Parks, and balloon and confetti drops at other major U.S. events and celebrations, such as the presidential nominating conventions) and thrown by a team of 100 volunteers (referred to internally by Treb as "confetti dispersal engineers") lining the rooftops of eight Times Square buildings. The individual pieces of confetti are meant to be larger than normal confetti in order to achieve an appropriate density for the environment. Some of the pieces are inscribed with messages of hope for the new year; which are submitted via a "Wishing Wall" put up in Times Square in December (where visitors can write them directly on individual pieces of confetti), and via online submissions. ### Cleanup After the conclusion of the festivities and the dispersal of attendees, cleanup is performed overnight to remove confetti and other debris from Times Square. When it is re-opened to the public the following morning, few traces of the previous night's celebration remain: following the 2013–14 drop, the New York City Department of Sanitation estimated that it had cleared over 50 tons of refuse from Times Square in eight hours, using 190 workers from their own crews and the Times Square Alliance. ## History ### Early celebrations, first and second balls (1904–1955) The first New Year's Eve celebration in Times Square was held on December 31, 1904; The New York Times' owner, Adolph Ochs, decided to celebrate the opening of the newspaper's new headquarters, One Times Square, with a New Year's fireworks show on the southern roof of the building to welcome 1905. Close to 200,000 people attended the event, displacing traditional celebrations that had normally been held at Trinity Church. However, following several years of fireworks shows, Ochs wanted a bigger spectacle at the building to draw more attention to the area. The newspaper's chief electrician, Walter F. Palmer, suggested using a time ball, after seeing one used on the Western Union Telegraph Building, near Trinity Church. Ochs hired sign designer Artkraft Strauss to construct a ball for the celebration; it was built from iron and wood, illuminated by a hundred incandescent light bulbs, weighed 700 pounds (320 kg), and measured 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The ball was hoisted on the building's 70 foot flagpole with rope by a team of six men. The ball would begin to drop at 10 seconds before midnight. Once it hit the roof, the ball completed a circuit that lit 5-foot-tall signs on the sides of the building to signal the new year, and triggered a fireworks show. The first ever "ball drop" was held on December 31, 1907, welcoming the year 1908. In 1913, only eight years after it moved to One Times Square, the Times moved its corporate headquarters to 229 West 43rd Street. The Times still maintained ownership of the tower, however, and Strauss continued to organize future editions of the drop. The original ball was replaced with a new design after the 1919–20 event; it shared the physical dimensions with the first ball, but was now constructed solely from iron—decreasing its weight to 400 pounds (180 kg). The ball drop was placed on hiatus for New Year's Eve 1942–43 and 1943–44 due to wartime lighting restrictions during World War II. Instead, a moment of silence was observed one minute before midnight in Times Square, followed by the sound of church bells being played from sound trucks. ### The third ball (1955–1998) The second ball was last used for the 1954-55 event in favor of a third design; which was now 6 feet in diameter, constructed from aluminum, and weighed 150 pounds (68 kg). It was not until 1979 that it became an established practice for the crowd in Times Square to count down the final seconds during the event—a practice that only became common in general on New Year's Eve television specials in the 1960s. For the 1981–82 event, the ball was modified to make it resemble an apple with red bulbs and a green "stem", alluding to New York's nickname, "the Big Apple" for the “I Love New York” marketing campaign. For the 1987–88 event, organizers acknowledged the addition of a leap second earlier that day (leap seconds are appended at midnight UTC, which is five hours before midnight in New York) by extending the drop to 61 seconds, and including a special one-second light show at 12:00:01 a.m.. The original white bulbs returned to the ball for the 1988–89 event, but were replaced by red, white, and blue bulbs for the 1990-91 event to salute the troops of Operation Desert Shield. The third ball was updated again for the 1995–96 event, adding a computerized lighting system with 180 halogen bulbs and 144 strobe lights, and over 12,000 rhinestones. Lighting designer Barry Arnold stated that the changes were "something [that] had to be done to make this event more spectacular as we approach the millennium." The drop itself became computerized through the use of an electric winch synchronized with the National Institute of Standards and Technology's time signal; the first drop with the new system was not without issues, however, as a glitch caused the ball to pause for a short moment halfway through its descent. The following year, John Trowbridge was hired as the drop's new technical director; in 2021, Jeff Strauss told The Wall Street Journal that the drop has never had any technical issues since. After its 44th use in 1999, the third ball was retired and placed on display at the Atlanta headquarters of Jamestown Group, owners of One Times Square. ### Year 2000 celebrations and the fourth ball (1999–2007) On December 28, 1998, during a press conference attended by New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani, organizers announced that the third ball would be retired for the arrival of the new millennium, and replaced by a new design constructed by Waterford Crystal. The year 2000 celebrations introduced more prominent sponsorship to the event; companies such as Discover Card, Korbel Champagne, and Panasonic were announced as official sponsors of the festivities in Times Square. The city also announced that Ron Silver would lead a committee known as "NYC 2000", which was in charge of organizing events across the city for year 2000 celebrations. A full day of festivities was held at Times Square to celebrate the arrival of the year 2000, which included concerts and hourly cultural presentations with parades of puppets designed by Michael Curry, representing countries entering the new year at that hour. Organizers expected a total attendance exceeding two million spectators. The fourth ball, measuring 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter and weighing 1,070 pounds (490 kg), incorporated a total of over 600 halogen bulbs, 504 triangle-shaped crystal panels provided by Waterford, 96 strobe lights, and spinning, pyramid-shaped mirrors. The ball was constructed at Waterford's factory in Ireland, and was then shipped to New York City, where the lighting system and motorized mirrors were installed. Many of the panels were inscribed with "Hope"-themed designs changing yearly, which included "Star of Hope", "Hope for Abundance", "Hope for Healing", "Hope for Courage", "Hope for Unity", "Hope for Wisdom", "Hope for Fellowship", and "Hope for Peace". The 2002 theme "Hope for Healing" was in commemoration of the September 11 terrorist attacks, which had occurred three and a half months earlier. 195 of the ball's panels were engraved with the names of countries and emergency organizations that had taken casualties during the attacks, and the names of the World Trade Center, The Pentagon, and the four flights that were involved in the attacks. In December 2011, the "Hope for Healing" panels were accepted into the permanent collection of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. ### The fifth ball (2008–present) To mark the 100th anniversary of the first ball drop, a new fifth design debuted for the 2007–08 event. Once again manufactured by Waterford Crystal with a diameter of 6 feet (1.8 m), and weighing 1,212 pounds (550 kg), it used 9,576 LED lamps provided by Philips (which can produce 16,777,216 or 2<sup>24</sup> colors), with computerized lighting patterns developed by the New York City-based firm Focus Lighting. Organizers stated that the new ball was also more energy-efficient, and consumed an equivalent amount of electricity to 10 toasters. For 2009, a larger version of the fifth ball was introduced; it is an icosahedral geodesic sphere with a diameter of 12 feet (3.7 m), and weight of 11,875 pounds (5,386 kg). It contains 2,688 panels, and is lit by 32,256 LED lamps. The new ball was designed to be weatherproof, as it would now be displayed atop One Times Square nearly year-round following the celebrations. The 2008 ball was placed on display at the Times Square Visitors Center. Yearly themes for the ball's crystal panels continued; from 2008 to 2013, the ball contained crystal patterns that were part of a Waterford series known as "World of Celebration", which included "Let There Be Light", "Let There Be Joy", "Let There Be Courage", "Let There Be Love", "Let There Be Friendship", and "Let There Be Peace". For 2014, all the ball's panels were replaced, marking a new theme series known as "Greatest Gifts", beginning with "Gift of Imagination". “ The numerical sign indicating the year (which remains atop the tower along with the ball itself) uses Philips LED lamps. The "14" digits for 2014 used Philips Hue multi-color LED lamps, allowing them to have computerized lighting cues. Due to an ongoing renovation of One Times Square, the numerical sign was temporarily removed after New Year's Day 2023. #### Modifications due to the COVID-19 pandemic Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, the 2020–21 festivities were closed to the general public. Attendance was largely limited to the invited families of first responders and other essential workers from the New York City area (billed as "The Heroes of 2020"), along with performers and members of the media. In accordance with New York state health orders, face masks were mandatory, and households were placed within 8 foot (2.4 m) "pens" with social distancing. There was an estimated 80% reduction in NYPD presence at the event in comparison to past years. The VNYE app was released as a digital companion to the event, featuring augmented reality camera filters and a digital recreation of Times Square as a virtual world where users could play minigames, view live streams of New Year's festivities in New York City and elsewhere, and witness a virtual version of the ball drop. For the 2021–22 festivities, public attendance was reinstated, but all attendees over the age of 5 were required to present proof of vaccination for COVID-19 and wear a face mask. If covered by a specific exemption, attendees were alternatively allowed to present proof of a recent negative PCR test from within the past 72 hours. Although Mayor Bill de Blasio originally announced plans for the event to otherwise be held as normal with no restrictions on capacity, the official maximum capacity was ultimately reduced to 15,000 people instead of the usual 58,000 due to concerns regarding Omicron variant. Due to a COVID-19 infection, Trowbridge did not operate the ball drop in-person, but instead directed the event quarantined at a hotel in New Jersey. The Fox network also canceled its planned New Year's Eve special from Times Square, citing concerns relating to Omicron variant. ### Weather at midnight According to National Weather Service records, since 1907–08, the average temperature in nearby Central Park during the ball drop has been 34 °F (1 °C). The warmest ball drops occurred in 1965–66 and 1972–73 when the temperature was 58 °F (14 °C). The coldest ball drop occurred in 1917–18, when the temperature was 1 °F (−17 °C) and the wind chill was −18 °F (−28 °C). Affected by a continent-wide cold wave, the 2017–18 drop was the second-coldest on record, at 9 °F (−13 °C) and −4 °F (−20 °C) after wind chill. The third coldest ball drop occurred during the 1962–63 event, when the temperature was 11 °F (−12 °C) and the wind chill was −17 °F (−27 °C). Snow has fallen seven times, with the earliest being the 1926–27 event, and the most recent being the 2009–10 event, and rain/drizzle has fallen seventeen times, with the earliest being the 1918–19 event, and the most recent being the 2022–23 event. The records for most precipitation and snow for the whole day on New Year’s Eve were both set in 1948, when 1.40 inches (36 mm) of precipitation and 4.0 inches (10 cm) of snow fell. ## Broadcasting As a public event, the festivities and ball drop are often broadcast on television. Since the mid-1990s, a host pool feed has been provided to broadcasters for use in coverage, which for 2016–17 consisted of 21 cameras. Since 2009–10, an official webcast of the ball drop and its associated festivities has been produced, streamed via Livestream.com. The event is covered as part of New Year's Eve television specials on several major U.S. television networks, which usually intersperse on-location coverage from Times Square with entertainment segments, such as musical performances (some of which held live in Times Square as part of the event). By far the most notable of these is Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve; created, produced, and originally hosted by the entertainer Dick Clark until his death in 2012 (with Regis Philbin filling in for its 2004–05 broadcast), and currently hosted by Ryan Seacrest, the program first aired on NBC in 1972 before moving to ABC, where it has been broadcast ever since. New Year's Rockin' Eve has consistently been the most-watched New Year's Eve special in the U.S. annually, peaking at 25.6 million viewers for its 2017–18 edition. Following the death of Dick Clark in April 2012, a crystal engraved with his name was added to the 2013 ball in tribute. As of 2022–23, with Fox having quietly discontinued New Year's specials, and NBC having moved theirs from Times Square to Miami in 2021, CBS was the only major English-language broadcast network to also provide coverage from Times Square, having added coverage of the festivities to the second edition of its recently-introduced special New Year's Eve Live: Nashville's Big Bash. Spanish-language network Univision broadcasts ¡Feliz!, hosted by Raúl de Molina of El Gordo y La Flaca. On cable, CNN carries coverage of the festivities, known as New Year's Eve Live, currently hosted by Anderson Cooper and Andy Cohen (the latter first replacing Kathy Griffin for 2018). Fox News carries All-American New Year, which was most recently hosted by the panel of Fox & Friends Weekend. ### Past broadcasts Beginning in the 1940s, NBC broadcast coverage from Times Square anchored by Ben Grauer on both radio and television. Its coverage was later incorporated into special episodes of The Tonight Show, continuing through Johnny Carson and Jay Leno's tenures on the program. NBC would later introduce a dedicated special, New Year's Eve with Carson Daly (later renamed NBC's New Year's Eve), hosted by former MTV personality Carson Daly, which first began midnight coverage in 2006, and was discontinued in 2022 in favor of the Miley Cyrus-helmed Miley’s New Year’s Eve Party, from Miami. From 1956 to 1976, CBS televised Guy Lombardo's annual New Year's Eve concert with his big band The Royal Canadians, most frequently from the Waldorf-Astoria's ballroom. It featured coverage from Times Square, and the band's signature rendition of "Auld Lang Syne" at midnight. After Lombardo's death in 1977, the special continued with Guy's younger brother Victor Lombardo as host and bandleader, but increasing competition from New Year’s Rockin’ Eve prompted CBS to replace it for 1979–80 with Happy New Year, America. The new special ran in various formats with different hosts (such as Paul Anka, Donny Osmond, Andy Williams, Late Show bandleader Paul Shaffer, and talk show host Montel Williams) until it was discontinued after 1996. Besides coverage during a special episode of Late Show with David Letterman for 1999, and America's Millennium for 2000, CBS would not air any national New Year's Eve specials again until 2021–22, when it first aired New Year's Eve Live: Nashville's Big Bash. Beginning in 1991, Fox occasionally broadcast its New Year's specials from Times Square, with its most recent formats doing so having included New Year's Eve with Steve Harveyfrom 2017 to 2019, and New Year's Eve Toast & Roast, which was hosted by Ken Jeong and Joel McHale from Los Angeles with Kelly Osbourne reporting from Times Square. Fox intended for the special to return for 2021–22, but it was cancelled due to COVID-19 concerns in New York City. The following year, Fox forewent any New Year's Eve programming (barring the aforementioned All-American New Year for sister network Fox News Channel), For 2000, in lieu of New Year's Rockin' Eve, ABC News covered the festivities as part of its day-long telecast, ABC 2000 Today. Hosted by then-chief correspondent Peter Jennings, the broadcast featured coverage of New Year's festivities from around the world as part of an international consortium. Dick Clark would join Jennings to co-anchor coverage from Times Square. MTV had broadcast coverage originating from the network's Times Square studios at One Astor Plaza. For 2011, MTV also held its own ball drop in Seaside Heights, New Jersey, the setting of its popular reality series Jersey Shore, featuring cast member Snooki lowered inside a giant "hamster ball". Originally, MTV planned to hold the drop within its studio in Times Square, but the network was asked by city officials to conduct the drop elsewhere. For 2019, prominent video game streamer Ninja hosted a 12-hour New Year's Eve stream on Twitch from Times Square, featuring matches of Fortnite Battle Royale with himself and special guests from a studio in the Paramount Building. Ninja made an on-stage appearance in Times Square during the festivities outside, which included a failed attempt to lead the crowd in a floss dance (a routine made popular by Fortnite). ## See also - List of objects dropped on New Year's Eve
37,881,714	Street Fighter X Mega Man	1,169,222,609	2012 crossover action-platform video game published by Capcom	[ "2012 video games", "Crossover video games", "Fan games", "Freeware games", "Mega Man spin-off games", "Retro-style video games", "Side-scrolling video games", "Street Fighter games", "Video games developed in Singapore", "Windows games", "Windows-only games" ]	Street Fighter X Mega Man is a crossover platform game created by Singaporean fan developer Seow Zong Hui. Initially developed as a fan game, Street Fighter X Mega Man later received support from Capcom, who assisted in the production of the game. Street Fighter X Mega Man was released as a free download from Capcom Unity on December 17, 2012. It celebrates the 25th anniversary of both Capcom's Mega Man and Street Fighter franchises. Gameplay mimicks the design of classic Mega Man games with Street Fighter characters substituting as important enemies encountered in the game. The game received mixed to positive reviews by critics, with some common complaints relating to technical issues and a lack of a save feature. In response to the complaints, an update was released on January 28, 2013 titled Street Fighter X Mega Man V2, which added a password save feature and other fixes. ## Premise and gameplay Street Fighter X Mega Man mimics the appearance and gameplay style of Mega Man games released on the Nintendo Entertainment System. The game's premise and plot center around its status as a crossover video game and the respective anniversaries of both franchises. Having fought countless Robot Masters over the years, Mega Man is ready to lie back, relax and enjoy his 25th anniversary. Getting wind of this, Ryu and his fellow Street Fighters want one last battle before they let their own anniversary finish. In terms of gameplay, Mega Man uses the same set of moves (the slide and the charge shot) featured in Mega Man 4. Instead of using stages based on Mega Man and using Robot Masters as level bosses, the stages share influences from the Street Fighter franchise stages and characters such as Blanka, Chun-Li, and Ryu take the place of the Robot Masters as the end of level bosses. The Street Fighter characters use their signature moves as attacks; in addition, they have their own Super Meters that build up when they take damage during the boss fights and allow them to launch a powerful attack at Mega Man once filled. Like other Mega Man games, defeating each boss earns Mega Man a new weapon based on the characters' attacks, such as Ryu's Hadouken and Chun-Li's Hyakuretsu Kyaku. After clearing the eight main levels, the player then moves on to face the final set of bosses. Clearing certain conditions allows players to fight hidden bosses Sagat and Akuma at the end of the game. ## Development The game began as the private development of Seow Zong Hui who presented an early build to Christian Svensson, Capcom's Senior VP of consumer software, at EVO 2012. Svensson showed the build to several staff members in the Capcom office (including senior community manager Brett Elston), and Capcom later decided to assist in the development of the game. While Zong Hui continued to develop the game based on his original design, Capcom took over tasks such as funding, marketing, and quality assurance. Capcom decided to distribute the game on PC instead of gaming consoles because Zong Hui did not have a license for console development. Svensson has noted that Capcom will consider console releases in the future, but chose to initially distribute the game on PC to keep the game free for fans and meet its December 17 target release date. Zong Hui noted several concepts that were scrapped during development. Yang was originally planned as a boss character but was ultimately replaced by Chun-Li. His special weapon is still included in the game via cheat codes. Zong Hui also wanted to include alternate costumes for boss characters and a second playable character from the Street Fighter franchise. Following release, there were several complaints about the game crashing, having a vague user interface, and lacking any save system. In response to these complaints, Svensson noted that a patch was being discussed with the development team to address these issues in a future update. An updated version was released on January 28, 2013 under the name, Street Fighter X Mega Man V2. The update boasts an improved user interface, better controller compatibility, bug fixes, a password save system reminiscent of the original Mega Man games on the Nintendo Entertainment System, and an additional boss character. ### Music Chiptune artist Luke Esquivel ("A_Rival") composed the music for the game. Esquivel became involved when he approached Zong Hui via YouTube and requested to being full-time musician for the game in 2009/2010 after comparing his music with Zong Hui's previous musician. When composing the music for Street Fighter X Mega Man, Esquivel combined Mega Man themes with Street Fighter themes on certain songs. In other songs, he would use elements from various Mega Man songs in order not to break the cohesion of the original soundtrack. Esquivel based most of the sounds on the first two Mega Man games, but had also used sounds from Mega Man 3, 4, and 5. Esquivel also added original compositions within several songs including two completely original compositions: "Willy Map Theme" and the beginning of the "Ending" theme. The soundtrack blends popular themes from both franchises together (such as mixing Snake Man's theme from Mega Man 3 with Dhalsim's theme from Street Fighter II). The official soundtrack titled Street Fighter X Mega Man OST was released for free on Esquivel's website on December 18, 2012. An EP with a total of four tracks titled Street Fighter X Mega Man X-tended Vol. 1 was released on February 8, 2013. ## Reception Two days after release, Capcom Senior VP Christian Svensson commented on the official Capcom website, Capcom-Unity, that the game has exceeded his personal expectations in terms of downloads, but no exact numbers have been released. Capcom's Senior Community Manager, Brett Elston, noted that the number of downloads during release was enough to cause significant strain on their servers. By March 3, 2013, the game had been downloaded one million times. Street Fighter X Mega Man has been met with mostly mixed to positive reviews. Game Informer gave the game an 8 out of 10, summarizing that "Street Fighter X Mega Man pales in comparison to the rest of the classic entries, but it’s still a wonderful test of the waters for newcomers and a charming experiment for lifelong fans." Inside Gaming Daily gave the game an 8 out of 10, stating, "Though it’s short and strays away a bit from traditional Mega Man games, Street Fighter X Mega Man is a great play that you honestly have little reason not to experience." IGN gave the game a 7 out of 10, noting that "The end result is a fine game that Mega Man fans will enjoy once or twice, but one without that special something that would allow it to rise to the greatness Mega Man so regularly reached in its heyday." Destructoid echoed similar opinions stating, "Street Fighter X Mega Man is not the best or most polished Mega Man game around, but it's a solid effort by a very dedicated fan." Game Industry News gave it a 3.5 out of 5 with mixed review stating, "It combines two of Capcom's greatest games in history into one nostalgic mash up that is sure to take fans on a trip down memory lane while still feeling fresh. Unfortunately though, the lack of challenge or the ability to continue progress after shutting down the game only hinders Street Fighter X Mega Man from being the perfect jewel it could have been." Edge however gave the game a 5 out of 10, noting "inconsistent level design and limited functionality" as the game's biggest flaws.
37,708,325	Al-Harith ibn Surayj	1,171,601,560	Arab rebel in Khurasan	[ "730s in the Umayyad Caliphate", "740s in the Umayyad Caliphate", "746 deaths", "7th-century births", "8th-century Arab people", "Arab rebels", "Khurasan under the Umayyad Caliphate", "Muslim conquest of Transoxiana", "Rebellions against the Umayyad Caliphate" ]	Al-Harith ibn Surayj (Arabic: أبو حاتم الحارث بن سريج) was an Arab leader of a large-scale social rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in Khurasan and Transoxiana. Harith's rebellion began in 734 and represented the grievances of both the local Arab settlers as well as the native Iranian converts (mawali), who were not recognized as equal to the Arab Muslims, against the Umayyad regime. Harith based his revolt on religious grounds and won over a large part of both the Arab settlers and the native population, but failed twice to capture the provincial capital of Marw. The rebellion was finally suppressed by Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri in 736. Along with a few supporters, Harith escaped capture and allied himself with the heathen Türgesh. Harith accompanied the Türgesh qaghan Suluk in his invasion deep into Arab-held territory, which was decisively beaten back in the Battle of Kharistan in 737. With Türgesh power collapsing thereafter, Harith remained in Transoxiana supported by the native princes. Asad's successor, Nasr ibn Sayyar, campaigned against Harith and his native supporters, but eventually, hoping to use him to bolster his position in the Arab inter-tribal rivalries, Nasr secured for Harith a pardon from the Caliph. Harith returned to Marw in 745. Soon however he raised a sizeable armed force and challenged Nasr's authority, until he was killed in a clash with his ally Juday al-Kirmani in 746. His revolt weakened Arab power in Central Asia and facilitated the beginning of the Abbasid Revolution that would overthrow the Umayyads. ## Biography ### Early life and start of the rebellion Harith was from the Tamim tribe belonging to the north Arab (Mudari) tribal supergroup, and hailed from Basra, where his father, Surayj, lived. He is first mentioned in 729, when he distinguished himself for his bravery and self-sacrifice against the Türgesh, saving the Arab army from annihilation at Baykand near Bukhara. Harith is next mentioned in 733, when he led a protest in Lower Tokharistan against the commandeering of supplies from the province, already plagued by drought and famine, to feed the capital of Khurasan at Marw, by the governor Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri. Junayd had Harith flogged, but after Junayd died in early 734, the discontent erupted into an open rebellion, with Harith at its head. The motives and nature of Harith's rebellion are debated. His public demands were phrased in religious terms, demanding the end of injustice through the "application of the Book and the sunna" by the government. Harith himself is said to have been a member of the obscure pietistic group known as Murji'a, and to have led an ascetic life. In the words of the Arabist Meir J. Kister, he apparently had "a feeling of mission" and aimed to establish a "just government resembling that of the Prophet and the first Caliphs". His movement shared many ideological and symbolic elements with contemporary Shi'ite and Kharijite agitation directed against the Umayyad regime, including the use of black flags hearkening back to the banner of the Prophet and even the demand for theocratic rule by a member of the Prophet's family. Harith's movement was marked by an unusual idealism, however, and it is recorded that his adherents tried to persuade their opponents to join them through moral and religious invocations even during battles. Harith advocated various reforms, the most prominent being the full legal equality of the native non-Arab converts (mawali) with the Arab Muslims, echoing a long-standing demand of the former, in conformity with the precepts of Islam. This had been attempted twice before, by the Caliph Umar II (r. 717–720) and by the governors Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri and Ashras ibn Abdallah al-Sulami, but both times the resulting rise in conversions and concomitant drop in revenue (as the numerous mawali would not have to pay the poll tax) put an end to this, leading to a first rebellion in 728 under Abu al-Sayda Salih ibn Tarif. Many of the groups and individuals associated with this first uprising would also participate in Harith's movement. Harith was seen as a champion of the rights of the ajam (non-Arabs, especially Iranians), many of whom flocked to his banner, but he also had a large following from the disaffected among the Arabs themselves, especially his fellow Tamim and the Azd. Disaffection was widespread among the Khurasani Arabs due to the heavy casualties suffered against the Türgesh at the Battle of the Defile in 731, as well as the dissemination of anti-Umayyad propaganda by proto-Shi'ite groups. This was exacerbated by the resentment felt at the introduction of 20,000 Iraqi troops into the province in the aftermath of the Defile, and the parallel order of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 723–743) to disperse the older Arab settlers from Marw to other settlements so as to improve their defence against the Türgesh. Thus it was that when the news of Junayd's death reached the small town of Andkhuy in Guzgan, one of the remotest Arab outposts, the local Arab garrison followed Harith in rebellion. Junayd's successor, Asim ibn Abdallah al-Hilali, who had just arrived at Marw, tried to placate the rebels and sent emissaries to them, but Harith simply imprisoned them. As the revolt spread through the surrounding countryside, Harith, with a force of 4,000 men, marched on Balkh, the chief city of Tokharistan, held by Nasr ibn Sayyar with 10,000 troops. Although Nasr did not support Harith's movement, such was the level of disaffection among the Khurasanis that he and his men offered little opposition. Balkh was captured by Harith's men with ease, while Nasr and his troops withdrew from the scene and gave their support to neither Harith nor Asim. Soon after that, the Arab garrison at Marw al-Rudh also joined with Harith's forces. The autonomous native Hephthalite princes of Guzgan, Faryab and Talqan also seized the opportunity to join the revolt with their forces, hoping to re-establish their independence and perhaps reduce the Arab power in Khurasan to a dependent principality around Marw. Harith now turned his sights on Marw and set out for the capital, where he also had sympathizers. However, Asim managed to cement the loyalty of the wavering Khurasanis by threatening to abandon the city for Naysabur on the western fringes of Khurasan. There he would rely on the Qaysi tribesmen whose loyalty to the Umayyad regime was known, and ask for reinforcements from Syria. Coupled with the presence of the numerous natives in Harith's army, which lent it the appearance of a foreign army, the local Arab elites chose to rally behind Asim. As it neared Marw, Harith's army had swelled to some 60,000 men, as the mawali flocked to his banner, according to the report of al-Tabari. Asim's force was considerably smaller, and less eager: he had to pay them extra money in order to induce them to fight. Nevertheless, he marched out of Marw and took up positions behind a canal at Zarq, destroying its bridges. As Harith's army approached and repaired the bridges, more than 2,000 Arabs from his ranks deserted to Asim, evidently mistrusting the intentions of the native troops of Harith's army. In the subsequent battle, Asim gained a major victory, as many of Harith's troops drowned in the canal. As a result of this failure, most of the mawali and native princes abandoned Harith, whose army was reduced to a loyal core of some 3,000 men. This forced Harith to accept a peace offer from Asim—who likewise could not count on the continued support of the Khurasani Arabs now that the danger from the natives had passed—and retired to Andkhuy. However, in the next year Harith renewed his revolt and marched again on Marw. Asim could not persuade the Khurasanis to fight for him, and was left with only some 1,000 Syrians and Jazirans from his personal guard. Harith's forces were not much larger either, being reduced to the garrison of Marw al-Rudh. In the ensuing battle at the village of al-Dandanqan near Marw, Asim again emerged victorious, forcing Harith to flee to Marw al-Rudh. Despite his victories, Asim's position was still perilous. He was essentially reduced to Marw and the western, Qaysi regions of Khurasan around Naysabur. In addition, as he explained in a letter to the Caliph, as a Syrian, he faced difficulty in persuading the Khurasanis and even the Iraqi troops to fight under him against one of their own. Asim further requested that Khurasan be placed under the governor of Iraq, Khalid ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, and that Syrian troops be dispatched into the province. In response, Khalid's brother Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, who had already served before as governor of Khurasan, was sent to replace him. News of this, combined probably with pressure from the Khurasanis of Marw, led Asim to again conclude a truce with Harith. According to some accounts, he even agreed to join Harith in demanding from the Caliph the "application of the Book and the sunna", and join him in revolt should the Caliph refuse. Shaban rejects this story altogether, but Blankinship regards it as reliable, although he too considers it a mere tactical ploy to gain time by Asim. ### End of the rebellion, the Türgesh intervention and exile Asad arrived in Khurasan with 20,000 Syrian troops, and immediately took the offensive against Harith. Asad's campaign was costly, but after his first successes the Khurasani Arabs began to flock to him. Asad's success was aided by his long-standing personal relations with the local Arab tribal leaders, as well as by the continuing tribal rivalries: as a Yamani opposed to the Mudari Harith, he could count on the support of his fellow tribesmen—thus most of the Rabi'ah, the traditional enemies of Harith's Tamim tribe, son defected to him. Asad divided his forces, sending the Kufan and Syrian troops under Abd al-Rahman ibn Na'yum towards Marw Rudh, where Harith's main army was located, while he himself with the Basrans and remaining Khurasanis marched on the fortresses of Amul and Zamm. The rebel forces at Amul surrendered and were pardoned, and the garrison of Balkh followed soon after. Harith himself abandoned Marw Rudh and retreated across the Oxus before Abd al-Rahman, finding refuge with the princes of Tokharistan. With their aid, he laid siege to the major crossing point over the Oxus at Tirmidh. In the face of Harith's forces, Asad's troops dared not cross the Oxus but retreated to Balkh. However, the Tirmidh garrison managed to defeat Harith, who was weakened after a quarrel with the king of Khuttal, and who now retired eastwards to the mountains of Badakhshan. Asad followed up this success by persuading the garrison of Zamm to surrender on promises of amnesty and double pay, and by an unsuccessful expedition to recover Samarqand, which had been lost in the aftermath of the Defile. In the next year, 736, Asad's forces cleared the mountains of Upper Tokharistan from the remnants of Harith's supporters. The fortress of Tabushkhan, where many of Harith's followers and relatives had found refuge, was besieged by Juday al-Kirmani. After they surrendered, most of the men were executed, while the rest were sold into slavery. Harith himself on the other hand continued to escape capture. In 737, Asad led his troops again north of the Oxus in a retaliatory campaign against Khuttal, whose ruler had allied himself with both Harith and the Türgesh. While the Arab troops were dispersed ravaging the countryside, the Türgesh qaghan, Suluk, responding to the pleas for help by the Khuttalan king, launched an attack that precipitated a headlong flight back by Asad's army across the Oxus. The Türgesh followed after them and attacked and captured the Arab baggage train on 1 October, before both sides settled for winter quarters. Harith now emerged from hiding and joined the qaghan. Harith now counselled the qaghan to take advantage of the dispersal of the Arab army to its winter quarters, and resume his advance. Following Harith's advice, in early December the qaghan led the Türgesh army, 30,000 strong and comprising contingents from virtually every native ruler of Transoxiana and Upper Tokharistan, south, bypassing Balkh, into Guzgan, hoping to raise the Hephthalite princes of Lower Tokharistan in revolt as well. In this he failed, as the king of Guzgan joined Asad, who was approaching with what forces he could muster. Asad's advance caught the qaghan and Harith off guard: Asad came upon them near Kharistan when they were accompanied by only 4,000 men, the rest having scattered to plunder and forage. In the ensuing Battle of Kharistan, Asad routed the Türgesh. Harith, who fought with distinction, and the qaghan barely escaped themselves and fled north over the Oxus. Asad's victory at Kharistan saved Arab rule in Central Asia. The Türgesh detachments south of the Oxus were largely destroyed piecemeal by Juday al-Kirmani, ending the threat to Khurasan, and the loyalty of the native rulers of Tokharistan was cemented. The qaghan's prestige took a serious hit, which encouraged his domestic rivals, who were backed secretly by the Chinese. In early 738, the tarkhan Kursul assassinated Suluk, whereupon the Türgesh realm collapsed in civil war. Asad too died soon after, and was succeeded by Nasr ibn Sayyar in July 738. Nothing is known of Harith's activities during the next two years, but he evidently remained in northern Transoxiana, based at al-Shash (Tashkent) and in close contact with the Türgesh. In 740 or 741, after having consolidated his authority in Khurasan and carried out tax reforms that eased the social unrest, Nasr ibn Sayyar advanced into the middle Jaxartes valley, making for Shash. His campaign was part of Nasr's efforts to re-establish Arab control over Transoxiana, but, according to H.A.R. Gibb and Kister, the main objective was the expulsion of Harith from Shash, who might still unite the Türgesh and the native princes against the Arabs. In the event, Nasr was prevented from crossing the Jaxartes by an army composed of Türgesh, troops from Shash and Harith's followers, and was forced to withdraw after a negotiated settlement, which among other terms stipulated the removal of Harith and his adherents to the remote town of Farab. ### Return to Khurasan, second rebellion and death Nasr's campaigns and reforms consolidated Muslim rule over Khurasan and much of Transoxiana, but his success was fragile: the native princes resented their loss of autonomy and the increasing assimilation of their people by their Arab conquerors and sent embassies to the Chinese court for aid, while the rivalry between the Mudari and Yamani tribal groups, evident across the Muslim world, still divided the Arabs themselves. On the accession of the pro-Yemenite caliph Yazid III in 744, the Khurasani Yemenites supported Juday al-Kirmani's candidature as governor, and when this did not come about, they rebelled. Consequently, Nasr felt it necessary to bring Harith and his adherents back, to both strengthen his own position—Harith and his followers had a long history of enmity towards al-Kirmani—and remove a potential source for another foreign invasion. Nasr secured a full pardon for Harith and his supporters from Yazid. Their confiscated property was returned, and the Caliph even promised to rule "according to the Book and the sunna". When Harith arrived at Marw in early July 745, however, the situation had changed: Yazid was dead, a full-blown civil war had erupted in Syria, and Nasr ibn Sayyar, although still occupying the position of governor, lacked authority. Although he recognized Marwan II (r. 744–750), most of his own followers did not accept Marwan as Caliph. Harith was quick to distance himself from Nasr: he refused the offer of a district governorship, and distributed the gifts he received among his supporters. Harith vocally denounced Marwan II, and was soon joined by 3,000 of his fellow Tamimis, while his secretary, Jahm ibn Safwan, drummed up further support. Within a short time, he had become a graver threat to Nasr than al-Kirmani. After attempts to negotiate an agreement proved fruitless, Nasr attacked Harith's forces in March 746, and scored a first victory over them, in which Jahm ibn Safwan fell. At this point, al-Kirmani joined forces with Harith, and together they forced Nasr to abandon Marw and withdraw to Naysabur. The two allies entered the capital of Khurasan, but within days fell out and began fighting each other. In these clashes, Harith was killed, leaving al-Kirmani the master of the city. The conflict between Nasr and al-Kirmani continued, but was soon overtaken by events: exploiting the conditions of civil war, the Abbasids under Abu Muslim launched their own anti-Umayyad revolt in Khurasan. Nasr ibn Sayyar tried to conclude an alliance with al-Kirmani, but failed when the latter was murdered by one of Harith's sons in revenge. Abu Muslim managed to exploit the situation to his advantage, and in early 748, his men entered Marw, the first step in a war that would lead to the fall of the Umayyad dynasty and its replacement with the Abbasids two years later.
4,924,254	Assassination of Abraham Lincoln	1,171,919,592	1865 murder in Washington, D.C., US	[ "1865 in American politics", "1865 in Washington, D.C.", "1865 murders in the United States", "April 1865 events", "Assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "Deaths by person in Washington, D.C.", "Events that led to courts-martial", "Murder in Washington, D.C.", "Political violence in the United States", "Politics of the American Civil War", "Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War" ]	On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was assassinated by well-known stage actor John Wilkes Booth while attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. Shot in the head as he watched the play, Lincoln died the following day at 7:22 am in the Petersen House opposite the theater. He was the first president to be assassinated. His funeral and burial were marked by an extended period of national mourning. Near the end of the American Civil War, Lincoln's assassination was part of a larger conspiracy intended by Booth to revive the Confederate cause by eliminating the three most important officials of the federal government. Conspirators Lewis Powell and David Herold were assigned to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward, and George Atzerodt was tasked with killing Vice President Andrew Johnson. Beyond Lincoln's death, the plot failed: Seward was only wounded, and Johnson's would-be attacker became drunk instead of killing the vice president. After a dramatic initial escape, Booth was killed at the end of a 12-day chase. Powell, Herold, Atzerodt, and Mary Surratt were later hanged for their roles in the conspiracy. ## Background ### Abandoned plan to kidnap Lincoln John Wilkes Booth, born in Maryland into a family of prominent stage actors, had by the time of the assassination become a famous actor and national celebrity in his own right. He was also an outspoken Confederate sympathizer; in late 1860 he was initiated in the pro-Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle in Baltimore, Maryland. In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant, commander of the Union armies, suspended the exchange of prisoners of war with the Confederate Army to increase pressure on the manpower-starved South. Booth conceived a plan to kidnap Lincoln in order to blackmail the Union into resuming prisoner exchanges, and recruited Samuel Arnold, George Atzerodt, David Herold, Michael O'Laughlen, Lewis Powell (also known as "Lewis Paine"), and John Surratt to help him. Surratt's mother, Mary Surratt, left her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland, and moved to a house in Washington, D.C., where Booth became a frequent visitor. While Booth and Lincoln were not personally acquainted, Lincoln had seen Booth at Ford's Theatre in 1863. After the assassination, actor Frank Mordaunt wrote that Lincoln, who apparently harbored no suspicions about Booth, admired the actor and had repeatedly invited him (without success) to visit the White House. Booth attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4, 1865, writing in his diary afterwards: "What an excellent chance I had, if I wished, to kill the President on Inauguration day!" On March 17, Booth and the other conspirators planned to abduct Lincoln as he returned from a play at Campbell General Hospital in northwest Washington. But Lincoln did not go to the play, instead attending a ceremony at the National Hotel. Booth was living at the National Hotel at the time and, had he not gone to the hospital for the abortive kidnap attempt, might have been able to attack Lincoln at the hotel. Meanwhile, the Confederacy was collapsing. On April 3, Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, fell to the Union Army. On April 9, General Robert E. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant and his Army of the Potomac after the Battle of Appomattox Court House. Confederate President Jefferson Davis and other Confederate officials had fled. Nevertheless, Booth continued to believe in the Confederate cause and sought a way to salvage it. Booth decided to murder Lincoln. ### Motive There are various theories about Booth's motivations. In a letter to his mother, he wrote of his desire to avenge the South. Doris Kearns Goodwin has endorsed the idea that another factor was Booth's rivalry with his well-known older brother, actor Edwin Booth, who was a loyal Unionist. David S. Reynolds believes that, despite disagreeing with his cause, Booth greatly admired the abolitionist John Brown; Booth's sister Asia Booth Clarke quoted him as saying: "John Brown was a man inspired, the grandest character of the century!" On April 11, Booth attended Lincoln's last speech, in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for emancipated slaves; Booth said, "That means nigger citizenship. ... That is the last speech he will ever give." Enraged, Booth urged Powell to shoot Lincoln on the spot. Whether Booth made this request because he was not armed or considered Powell a better shot than himself (Powell, unlike Booth, had served in the Confederate Army and thus had military experience) is unknown. In any event, Powell refused for fear of the crowd, and Booth was either unable or unwilling to personally attempt to kill the president. However, Booth said to David Herold, "By God, I'll put him through." ### Lincoln's premonitions According to Ward Hill Lamon, three days before his death, Lincoln related a dream in which he wandered the White House searching for the source of mournful sounds: > I kept on until I arrived at the East Room, which I entered. There I met with a sickening surprise. Before me was a catafalque, on which rested a corpse wrapped in funeral vestments. Around it were stationed soldiers who were acting as guards; and there was a throng of people, gazing mournfully upon the corpse, whose face was covered, others weeping pitifully. "Who is dead in the White House?" I demanded of one of the soldiers, "The President," was his answer; "he was killed by an assassin." However, Lincoln went on to tell Lamon that "In this dream it was not me, but some other fellow, that was killed. It seems that this ghostly assassin tried his hand on someone else." Paranormal investigator Joe Nickell writes that dreams of assassination would not be unexpected in the first place, considering the Baltimore Plot and an additional assassination attempt in which a hole was shot through Lincoln's hat. For months Lincoln had looked pale and haggard, but on the morning of the assassination he told people how happy he was. First Lady Mary Lincoln felt such talk could bring bad luck. Lincoln told his cabinet that he had dreamed of being on a "singular and indescribable vessel that was moving with great rapidity toward a dark and indefinite shore", and that he had had the same dream before "nearly every great and important event of the War" such as the Union victories at Antietam, Murfreesboro, Gettysburg and Vicksburg. ## Preparations On April 14, Booth's morning started at midnight. He wrote his mother that all was well but that he was "in haste". In his diary, he wrote that "Our cause being almost lost, something decisive and great must be done". While visiting Ford's Theatre around noon to pick up his mail, Booth learned that Lincoln and Grant were to visit the theater that evening for a performance of Our American Cousin. This provided him with an especially good opportunity to attack Lincoln since, having performed there several times, he knew the theater's layout and was familiar to its staff. Booth went to Mary Surratt's boarding house in Washington, D.C., and asked her to deliver a package to her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland. He also asked her to tell her tenant Louis J. Weichmann to ready the guns and ammunition that Booth had previously stored at the tavern. The conspirators met for the final time at 8:45 pm. Booth assigned Powell to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward at his home, Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson at the Kirkwood Hotel, and Herold to guide Powell (who was unfamiliar with Washington) to the Seward house and then to a rendezvous with Booth in Maryland. Booth was the only well-known member of the conspiracy. Access to the theater's upper floor containing the Presidential Box was restricted, and Booth was the only plotter who could have realistically expected to be admitted there without difficulty. Furthermore, it would have been reasonable (but ultimately incorrect) for the plotters to have assumed that the entrance of the box would itself be guarded. Had it been, Booth would have been the only plotter with a plausible chance of gaining access to the President, or at least to gain entry to the box without being searched for weapons first. Booth planned to shoot Lincoln at point-blank range with his single-shot Philadelphia Deringer pistol and then stab Grant at the theater. They were all to strike simultaneously shortly after ten o'clock. Atzerodt tried to withdraw from the plot, which to this point had involved only kidnapping, not murder, but Booth pressured him to continue. ## Assassination of Lincoln ### Lincoln arrives at the theater Despite what Booth had heard earlier in the day, Grant and his wife, Julia Grant, had declined to accompany the Lincolns, as Mary Lincoln and Julia Grant were not on good terms. Others in succession also declined the Lincolns' invitation, until finally Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancée Clara Harris (daughter of U.S. Senator Ira Harris of New York) accepted. At one point, Mary developed a headache and was inclined to stay home, but Lincoln told her he must attend because newspapers had announced that he would. Lincoln's footman, William H. Crook, advised him not to go, but Lincoln said he had promised his wife. Lincoln told Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax, "I suppose it's time to go though I would rather stay" before assisting Mary into the carriage. The presidential party arrived late and settled into their box (two adjoining boxes with a dividing partition removed). The play was interrupted, and the orchestra played "Hail to the Chief" as the full house of some 1,700 rose in applause. Lincoln sat in a rocking chair that had been selected for him from among the Ford family's personal furnishings. The cast modified a line of the play in honor of Lincoln: when the heroine asked for a seat protected from the draft, the reply – scripted as, "Well, you're not the only one that wants to escape the draft" – was delivered instead as, "The draft has already been stopped by order of the President!" A member of the audience observed that Mary Lincoln often called her husband's attention to aspects of the action onstage, and "seemed to take great pleasure in witnessing his enjoyment." At one point, Mary whispered to Lincoln, who was holding her hand, "What will Miss Harris think of my hanging on to you so?" Lincoln replied, "She won't think anything about it". In following years, these words were traditionally considered Lincoln's last, though N.W. Miner, a family friend, claimed in 1882 that Mary Lincoln told him that Lincoln's last words expressed a wish to visit Jerusalem. ### Booth shoots Lincoln With Crook off duty and Ward Hill Lamon away, policeman John Frederick Parker was assigned to guard the Presidential Box. At intermission he went to a nearby tavern along with Lincoln's valet, Charles Forbes, and Coachman Francis Burke. It was also the same tavern Booth was waiting by having several drinks to prepare his time. It is unclear whether Parker returned to the theater, but he was certainly not at his post when Booth entered the box. In any event, there is no certainty that entry would have been denied to a celebrity such as Booth. Booth had prepared a brace to bar the door after entering the box, indicating that he expected a guard. After spending time at the tavern, Booth entered Ford's Theatre one last time at about 10:10 pm, this time through the theater's front entrance. He passed through the dress circle and went to the door that led to the Presidential Box after showing Charles Forbes his calling card. Navy Surgeon George Brainerd Todd saw Booth arrive: > About 10:25 pm, a man came in and walked slowly along the side on which the "Pres" box was and I heard a man say, "There's Booth" and I turned my head to look at him. He was still walking very slow and was near the box door when he stopped, took a card from his pocket, wrote something on it, and gave it to the usher who took it to the box. In a minute the door was opened and he walked in. Once inside the hallway, Booth barricaded the door by wedging a stick between it and the wall. From here, a second door led to Lincoln's box. There is evidence that, earlier in the day, Booth had bored a peephole in this second door. Booth knew the play Our American Cousin by heart and waited to time his shot at about 10:15 pm, with the laughter at one of the hilarious lines of the play, delivered by actor Harry Hawk: "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal; you sockdologizing old man-trap!". Lincoln was laughing at this line when Booth opened the door, stepped forward, and shot Lincoln from behind with his pistol. The bullet entered Lincoln's skull behind his left ear, passed through his brain, and came to rest near the front of the skull after fracturing both orbital plates. Lincoln slumped over in his chair and then fell backward. Rathbone turned to see Booth standing in gunsmoke less than four feet behind Lincoln; Booth shouted a word that Rathbone thought sounded like "Freedom!" ### Booth escapes Rathbone jumped from his seat and struggled with Booth, who dropped the pistol and drew a knife with which he stabbed Rathbone in the left forearm. Rathbone again grabbed at Booth as he prepared to jump from the box to the stage, a twelve-foot drop; Booth's riding spur became entangled on the Treasury flag decorating the box, and he landed awkwardly on his left foot. As he began crossing the stage, many in the audience thought he was part of the play. Booth held his bloody knife over his head and yelled something to the audience. While it is traditionally held that Booth shouted the Virginia state motto, Sic semper tyrannis! ("Thus always to tyrants") either from the box or the stage, witness accounts conflict. Most recalled hearing Sic semper tyrannis! but others – including Booth himself – said he yelled only Sic semper! (Some did not recall Booth saying anything in Latin.) There is similar uncertainty about what Booth shouted next, in English: either "The South is avenged!", "Revenge for the South!", or "The South shall be free!" (Two witnesses remembered Booth's words as: "I have done it!") Immediately after Booth landed on the stage, Major Joseph B. Stewart climbed over the orchestra pit and footlights and pursued Booth across the stage. The screams of Mary Lincoln and Clara Harris, and Rathbone's cries of, "Stop that man!" prompted others to join the chase as pandemonium broke out. Booth exited the theater through a side door, en route stabbing orchestra leader William Withers, Jr. As he leapt into the saddle of his getaway horse Booth pushed away Joseph Burroughs, who had been holding the horse, striking Burroughs with the handle of his knife. ### Death of Lincoln Charles Leale, a young Union Army surgeon, pushed through the crowd to the door of the Presidential Box, but could not open it until Rathbone, inside, noticed and removed the wooden brace with which Booth had jammed the door shut. Leale found Lincoln seated with his head leaning to his right as Mary held him and sobbed: "His eyes were closed and he was in a profoundly comatose condition, while his breathing was intermittent and exceedingly stertorous." Thinking Lincoln had been stabbed, Leale shifted him to the floor. Meanwhile, another physician, Charles Sabin Taft, was lifted into the box from the stage. After Leale and bystander William Kent cut away Lincoln's collar while unbuttoning his coat and shirt and found no stab wound, Leale located the gunshot wound behind the left ear. He found the bullet too deep to be removed but dislodged a blood clot, after which Lincoln's breathing improved; he learned that regularly removing new clots maintained Lincoln's breathing. After giving Lincoln artificial respiration, Leale allowed actress Laura Keene to cradle the President's head in her lap. He pronounced the wound mortal. Leale, Taft, and another doctor, Albert King, decided that Lincoln must be moved to the nearest house on Tenth Street because a carriage ride to the White House was too dangerous. Carefully, seven men picked up Lincoln and slowly carried him out of the theater, where it was packed with an angry mob. After considering Peter Taltavull's Star Saloon next door, they concluded that they would take Lincoln to one of the houses across the way. It was raining as soldiers carried Lincoln into the street, where a man urged them toward the house of tailor William Petersen. In Petersen's first-floor bedroom, the exceptionally tall Lincoln was laid diagonally on a small bed. After clearing everyone out of the room, including Mrs. Lincoln, the doctors cut away Lincoln's clothes but discovered no other wounds; finding that Lincoln was cold, they applied hot water bottles and mustard plasters while covering his cold body with blankets. Later, more physicians arrived: Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes, Charles Henry Crane, Anderson Ruffin Abbott, and Robert K. Stone (Lincoln's personal physician). All agreed Lincoln could not survive. Barnes probed the wound, locating the bullet and some bone fragments. Throughout the night, as the hemorrhage continued, they removed blood clots to relieve pressure on the brain, and Leale held the comatose president's hand with a firm grip, "to let him know that he was in touch with humanity and had a friend." Lincoln's older son Robert Todd Lincoln arrived at about 11 pm, but twelve-year-old Tad Lincoln, who was watching a play of Aladdin at Grover's Theater when he learned of his father's assassination, was kept away. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton arrived. Stanton insisted that the sobbing Mrs. Lincoln leave the sick room, then for the rest of the night he essentially ran the United States government from the house, including directing the hunt for Booth and the other conspirators. Guards kept the public away, but numerous officials and physicians were admitted to pay their respects. Initially, Lincoln's features were calm and his breathing slow and steady. Later, one of his eyes became swollen and the right side of his face discolored. Maunsell Bradhurst Field wrote in a letter to The New York Times that Lincoln then started "breathing regularly, but with effort, and did not seem to be struggling or suffering." As he neared death, Lincoln's appearance became "perfectly natural" (except for the discoloration around his eyes). Shortly before 7 am Mary was allowed to return to Lincoln's side, and, as Dixon reported, "she again seated herself by the President, kissing him and calling him every endearing name." Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Mary Lincoln was not present. In his last moments, Lincoln's face became calm and his breathing quieter. Field wrote there was "no apparent suffering, no convulsive action, no rattling of the throat ... [only] a mere cessation of breathing". According to Lincoln's secretary John Hay, at the moment of Lincoln's death, "a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features". The assembly knelt for a prayer, after which Stanton said either, "Now he belongs to the ages" or, "Now he belongs to the angels." On Lincoln's death, Vice President Johnson became the 17th president of the United States. The presidential oath of office was administered to Johnson by Chief Justice Salmon Chase sometime between 10 and 11 am. ## Powell attacks Seward Booth had assigned Lewis Powell to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward. On the night of the assassination, Seward was at his home on Lafayette Square, confined to bed and recovering from injuries sustained on April 5 from being thrown from his carriage. Herold guided Powell to Seward's house. Powell carried an 1858 Whitney revolver (a large, heavy, and popular gun during the Civil War) and a Bowie knife. William Bell, Seward's maître d', answered the door when Powell knocked 10:10 pm, as Booth made his way to the Presidential Box at Ford's Theater. Powell told Bell that he had medicine from Seward's physician and that his instructions were to personally show Seward how to take it. Overcoming Bell's skepticism, Powell made his way up the stairs to Seward's third-floor bedroom. At the top of the staircase he was stopped by Seward's son, Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward, to whom he repeated the medicine story; Frederick, suspicious, said his father was asleep. Hearing voices, Seward's daughter Fanny emerged from Seward's room and said, "Fred, Father is awake now" – thus revealing to Powell where Seward was. Powell turned as if to start downstairs but suddenly turned again and drew his revolver. He aimed at Frederick's forehead and pulled the trigger, but the gun misfired, so he bludgeoned Frederick unconscious with it. Bell, yelling "Murder! Murder!", ran outside for help. Fanny opened the door again, and Powell shoved past her to Seward's bed. He stabbed at Seward's face and neck, slicing open his cheek. However, the splint (often mistakenly described as a neck brace) that doctors had fitted to Seward's broken jaw prevented the blade from penetrating his jugular vein. Seward eventually recovered, though with serious scars on his face. Seward's son Augustus and Sergeant George F. Robinson, a soldier assigned to Seward, were alerted by Fanny's screams and received stab wounds in struggling with Powell. As Augustus went for a pistol, Powell ran downstairs toward the door, where he encountered Emerick Hansell, a State Department messenger. Powell stabbed Hansell in the back, then ran outside exclaiming, "I'm mad! I'm mad!" Screams from the house had frightened Herold, who ran off, leaving Powell to find his own way in an unfamiliar city. ## Atzerodt fails to attack Johnson Booth had assigned George Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson, who was staying at the Kirkwood House in Washington. Atzerodt was to go to Johnson's room at 10:15 pm and shoot him. On April 14, Atzerodt rented the room directly above Johnson's; the next day, he arrived there at the appointed time and, carrying a gun and knife, went to the bar downstairs, where he asked the bartender about Johnson's character and behavior. He eventually became drunk and wandered off through the streets, tossing his knife away at some point. He made his way to the Pennsylvania House Hotel by 2 am, where he obtained a room and went to sleep. Earlier in the day, Booth had stopped by the Kirkwood House and left a note for Johnson: "I don't wish to disturb you. Are you at home? J. Wilkes Booth." One theory holds that Booth was trying to find out whether Johnson was expected at the Kirkwood that night; another holds that Booth, concerned that Atzerodt would fail to kill Johnson, intended the note to implicate Johnson in the conspiracy. ## Reactions Lincoln was mourned in both the North and South, and indeed around the world. Numerous foreign governments issued proclamations and declared periods of mourning on April 15. Lincoln was praised in sermons on Easter Sunday, which fell on the day after his death. On April 18, mourners lined up seven abreast for a mile to view Lincoln in his walnut casket in the White House's black-draped East Room. Special trains brought thousands from other cities, some of whom slept on the Capitol's lawn. Hundreds of thousands watched the funeral procession on April 19, and millions more lined the 1,700-mile (2,700 km) route of the train which took Lincoln's remains through New York to Springfield, Illinois, often passing trackside tributes in the form of bands, bonfires, and hymn-singing. Poet Walt Whitman composed "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd", "O Captain! My Captain!", and two other poems, to eulogize Lincoln. Ulysses S. Grant called Lincoln "incontestably the greatest man I ever knew." Robert E. Lee expressed sadness. Southern-born Elizabeth Blair said that "Those of Southern born sympathies know now they have lost a friend willing and more powerful to protect and serve them than they can now ever hope to find again." African-American orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an "unspeakable calamity". British Foreign Secretary Lord Russell called Lincoln's death a "sad calamity." China's chief secretary of state for foreign affairs, Prince Kung, described himself as "inexpressibly shocked and startled". Ecuadorian president Gabriel García Moreno said, "Never should I have thought that the noble country of Washington would be humiliated by such a black and horrible crime; nor should I ever have thought that Mr. Lincoln would come to such a horrible end, after having served his country with such wisdom and glory under so critical circumstances." The government of Liberia issued a proclamation calling Lincoln "not only the ruler of his own people, but a father to millions of a race stricken and oppressed." The government of Haiti condemned the assassination as a "horrid crime". ## Flight and capture of the conspirators ### Booth and Herold Within half an hour of fleeing Ford's Theatre, Booth crossed the Navy Yard Bridge into Maryland. A Union Army sentry named Silas Cobb questioned him about his late-night travel; Booth said that he was going home to the nearby town of Charles. Although it was forbidden for civilians to cross the bridge after 9 pm, the sentry let him through. Herold made it across the same bridge less than an hour later and rendezvoused with Booth. After retrieving weapons and supplies previously stored at Surattsville, Herold and Booth rode to the home of Samuel A. Mudd, a local doctor, who splinted the leg Booth had broken in his escape and later made a pair of crutches for Booth. After a day at Mudd's house, Booth and Herold hired a local man to guide them to Samuel Cox's house. Cox, in turn, took them to Thomas Jones, a Confederate sympathizer who hid Booth and Herold in Zekiah Swamp for five days until they could cross the Potomac River. On the afternoon of April 24, they arrived at the farm of Richard H. Garrett, a tobacco farmer, in King George County, Virginia. Booth told Garrett he was a wounded Confederate soldier. An April 15 letter to Navy Surgeon George Brainerd Todd from his brother tells of the rumors in Washington about Booth: > Today all the city is in mourning nearly every house being in black and I have not seen a smile, no business, and many a strong man I have seen in tears – Some reports say Booth is a prisoner, others that he has made his escape – but from orders received here, I believe he is taken, and during the night will be put on a Monitor for safe keeping – as a mob once raised now would know no end. The hunt for the conspirators quickly became the largest in U.S. history, involving thousands of federal troops and countless civilians. Edwin M. Stanton personally directed the operation, authorizing rewards of \$50,000 () for Booth and \$25,000 each for Herold and John Surratt. Booth and Herold were sleeping at Garrett's farm on April 26 when soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry arrived and surrounded the barn, then threatened to set fire to it. Herold surrendered, but Booth cried out, "I will not be taken alive!" The soldiers set fire to the barn and Booth scrambled for the back door with a rifle and pistol. Sergeant Boston Corbett crept up behind the barn and shot Booth in "the back of the head about an inch below the spot where his [Booth's] shot had entered the head of Mr. Lincoln", severing his spinal cord. Booth was carried out onto the steps of the barn. A soldier poured water into his mouth, which he spat out, unable to swallow. Booth told the soldier, "Tell my mother I die for my country." Unable to move his limbs, he asked a soldier to lift his hands before his face and whispered his last words as he gazed at them: "Useless ... useless." He died on the porch of the Garrett farm two hours later. Corbett was initially arrested for disobeying orders from Stanton that Booth be taken alive if possible, but was later released and was largely considered a hero by the media and the public. ### Others Without Herold to guide him, Powell did not find his way back to the Surratt house until April 17. He told detectives waiting there that he was a ditch-digger hired by Mary Surratt, but she denied knowing him. Both were arrested. George Atzerodt hid at his cousin's farm in Germantown, Maryland, about 25 miles (40 km) northwest of Washington, where he was arrested April 20. The remaining conspirators were arrested by month's end – except for John Surratt, who fled to Quebec where Roman Catholic priests hid him. In September, he boarded a ship to Liverpool, England, staying in the Catholic Church of the Holy Cross there. From there, he moved furtively through Europe until joining the Pontifical Zouaves in the Papal States. A friend from his school days recognized him there in early 1866 and alerted the U.S. government. Surratt was arrested by the Papal authorities but managed to escape under suspicious circumstances. He was finally captured by an agent of the United States in Egypt in November 1866. ## Conspirators' trial and execution Scores of persons were arrested, including many tangential associates of the conspirators and anyone having had even the slightest contact with Booth or Herold during their flight. These included Louis J. Weichmann, a boarder in Mrs. Surratt's house; Booth's brother Junius (in Cincinnati at the time of the assassination); theater owner John T. Ford; James Pumphrey, from whom Booth hired his horse; John M. Lloyd, the innkeeper who rented Mrs. Surratt's Maryland tavern and gave Booth and Herold weapons and supplies the night of April 14; and Samuel Cox and Thomas A. Jones, who helped Booth and Herold cross the Potomac. All were eventually released except: The accused were tried by a military tribunal ordered by Johnson, who had succeeded to the presidency on Lincoln's death: The prosecution was led by U.S. Army Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt, assisted by Congressman John A. Bingham and Major Henry Lawrence Burnett. The use of a military tribunal provoked criticism from former Attorney General Edward Bates and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, who believed that a civil court should have presided, but Attorney General James Speed pointed to the military nature of the conspiracy and the facts that the defendants acted as enemy combatants and that martial law was in force at the time in the District of Columbia. (In 1866, in Ex parte Milligan, the United States Supreme Court banned the use of military tribunals in places where civil courts were operational.) Only a simple majority of the jury was required for a guilty verdict and a two-thirds for a death sentence. There was no route for appeal other than to President Johnson. The seven-week trial included the testimony of 366 witnesses. All of the defendants were found guilty on June 30. Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were sentenced to death by hanging; Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life in prison. Edmund Spangler was sentenced to six years. After sentencing Mary Surratt to hang, five jurors signed a letter recommending clemency, but Johnson refused to stop the execution; he later claimed he never saw the letter. Mary Surratt, Powell, Herold, and Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7. Mary Surratt was the first woman executed by the United States government. O'Laughlen died in prison in 1867. Mudd, Arnold, and Spangler were pardoned in February 1869 by Johnson. Spangler, who died in 1875, always insisted his sole connection to the plot was that Booth asked him to hold his horse. John Surratt stood trial in Washington in 1867. Four residents of Elmira, New York, claimed they had seen him there between April 13 and 15; fifteen others said they either saw him or someone who resembled him, in Washington (or traveling to or from Washington) on the day of the assassination. The jury could not reach a verdict, and John Surratt was released. ## See also
413,146	Clavinet	1,148,194,034	Electric keyboard musical instrument	[ "Amplified instruments", "Electric and electronic keyboard instruments" ]	The Clavinet is an electrically amplified clavichord invented by Ernst Zacharias and manufactured by the Hohner company of Trossingen, West Germany, from 1964 to 1982. The instrument produces sounds with rubber pads, each matching one of the keys and responding to a keystroke by striking a given point on a tensioned string, and was designed to resemble the Renaissance-era clavichord. Although originally intended for home use, the Clavinet became popular on stage, and could be used to create electric guitar sounds on a keyboard. It is strongly associated with Stevie Wonder, who used the instrument extensively, particularly on his 1972 hit "Superstition", and was regularly featured in rock, funk and reggae music throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Modern digital keyboards can emulate the Clavinet sound, but there is also a grass-roots industry of repairers who continue to maintain the instrument. ## Description The Clavinet is an electromechanical instrument that is usually used in conjunction with a keyboard amplifier. Most models have 60 keys ranging from F1 to E6. The sound is produced by a harp of 60 tensioned steel strings placed diagonally below the key surface. Each key pivots on a fulcrum point at the rear, with a spring to return it. Beneath each key, a metal holder grips a small rubber pad. Pressing a key forces the pad to fret the string like a hammer on on a guitar. An electro-magnetic pickup turns the string vibration into an electric current. The feel of a clavinet comes from the impact of the pad striking its anvil point against the string. This makes the keyboard weighted which allows a different volume for each note like a piano and clavichord, along with aftertouch as the string is stretched. The end of each string farthest from the pick-ups passes through a weave of yarn, which damps the vibrating string after a key is released. Each string is tuned by a machine-head positioned along the front of the harp. This harp mechanism is different from the other Hohner keyboard instruments, the Cembalet and Pianet, which have pads plucking metal reeds. Most clavinets have two sets of pickups encased in epoxy in a plastic case, positioned above and below the strings. These are conceptually similar to a neck and bridge pickup on a guitar. The Clavinet has pickup selector switches, and a solid state preamplifier that allows a line level output to be fed to an amplifier. The volume of the preamplifier can be set by a control to the left of the keyboard. ## Background The Clavinet was designed by German engineer Ernst Zacharias. He grew up listening to Bach harpsichord music, which led him to design a comparable modern instrument. He joined Hohner in 1954, at a time when it was struggling with manufacturing after the company factories had been seized by the Nazis during World War II. Zacharias revitalised the company's product range, introducing the Cembalet and Pianet. He was particularly interested in producing an electric clavichord, and discovered that striking a hammer tip across a string mounted on an anvil allowed the player to hit the keys more forcefully and gain greater volume. He was interested in using metal keypads and plastic keys as an alternative to wooden frames and action that had been used on electric pianos such as the Wurlitzer. The first prototype model, the Claviphon, was manufactured in 1961. It used the string harp found on later production models, with a Pianet keyboard. ## Models Seven different models of the Clavinet were produced from 1964 to 1982. Originally, Hohner intended the instrument for home use and for late Medieval, Baroque and early classical music. The changes reflected Hohner's transition from marketing as a home instrument to one that was practical to play on stage. Around 38,000 units were manufactured in total. ### 1960s The Clavinet I was the first model to be introduced in 1964. It is housed in a heavy brown teak veneer box with a bronze front panel stating the model number, covering the tuning pegs on the front. The panel can be removed with two thumb screws in order to tune the instrument with a rectangular case profile. A lockable lid can be folded over the keyboard when the instrument is not being played. The instrument is supported by four wooden legs fitted to the main body by threaded knobs, and secured with a crossbar brace. There is a built-in battery-powered speaker and amplifier, but there also the option to use an external amplifier via a jack socket. The only controls on the Clavinet I are volume and two tablet switches that selected a relevant combination of pickups. A bent rod music stand pegs into two holes on the upper surface. This model was designed and marketed as a home model for Baroque music. Early advertisements from Hohner featured the instrument in such a setting. The Clavinet II had the same basic features as the Clavinet I, which replaced the built-in amplifier and speaker system with a preamplifier. It was the first model to support changing the instrument's tone via rocker switches. The Clavinet C was introduced in 1968. It has a slimmer case than the I or II, and is finished in red vinyl, which was popular with contemporary combo organs at the time. A removable black aluminium panel below the keys provides access to the tuning machines. The upper surface of the keyboard is finished in white, and a slot holds an acrylic panel music rest, with the Hohner logo. Four black tapered tubular steel legs are threaded into mounts on the underside of the case. The legs fit into a box section under the top surface for transport. A removable transport lid fastens over the keyboard and controls. As well as mains power, the instrument could be driven off a 9V battery. A rare variant of the C, known as the Echolette Beat Spinett featured reverse-colour keys like a traditional harpsichord, and an integrated ashtray. The clavinet L was also introduced in 1968. This was a domestic model with a trapezoid-shaped case and three wooden legs. The keyboard has reverse-colour keys, and a clear plastic music stand. It has a built-in amplifier and speaker which run off four 1.5V batteries. This model was designed to resemble a typical Renaissance-era keyboard. ### 1970s The Clavinet D6, introduced in 1971, continued the case style of the C but is covered in black vinyl leathercloth and the upper surface of the instrument is teak veneer, which was cheaper to manufacture. The instrument came with a removable lid used for transporting, which also had space to store the music stand. The D6 allowed a more versatile sound election, which could be selected by six rocker switches to the left of the keyboard. The left four switches are concerned with tone; "Brilliant" and "Treble" activate a high-pass filter, while "Medium" and "Soft" activate a low-pass filter. The two right switches are marked "AB" and "CD" and control which pickups are selected. On the right was a mechanical mute slider. The final E7 and Clavinet Duo models reflected several engineering improvements to make the instrument more suitable for loud stage use, including improved shielding to avoid electrical noise. The E7 was introduced in 1979. It has a black vinyl leather cloth covered case with a rectangular profile with rounded corners and a removable metal lid to protect the keys and control surface for transport. The control panels at the left hand end of the instrument include those found on a D6 along with a sliding volume control. It included support brackets so it could be mounted on the rounded top of a Rhodes Piano, a popular combination of keyboards at the time. A number of D6-labeled instruments were made in the E7-style case and include D6 logos on the control panel and the removable tuning cover. These are known as D6-N models, the "N" denoting "new". The Clavinet Duo model was first produced in 1978. It combined a clavinet with the Hohner Pianet T in one compact, albeit heavy, instrument. A foot switch allows the player to switch between clavinet, pianet, or a mixture or the two. There is also a "split keyboard" mode that allows either instrument to be used in a particular range of notes. There is a stereo output jack, that allows either a mix of the two sounds or each individual sound on one half of the stereo channel. It used a black case in the style of a Clavinet E7. By the time the E7 and Clavinet Duo were being produced, polyphonic synthesizers had become popular, and electromechanical keyboards were beginning to fall out of fashion. The final models were manufactured in 1982. ### Later models After Hohner stopped producing electro-mechanical clavinets, they used the brand name for electronic and digital keyboards. The "Clavinet DP" was applied to a range of digital pianos. Though Zacharias approved of the instrument, they were designed for the home market, and made no attempt to emulate the original. ## Effects The Castle Bar is an aftermarket device invented by Buddy Castle in the mid-1970s that connects the strings to a rotating bridge, which is fixed to a rod on top of the instrument. This makes it possible to bend the pitch, in a similar manner to a tremolo arm on a guitar, by pressing the rod. The Clavinet can then be used in a very different manner, and it makes it a suitable lead instrument. There are upgraded reissues of the device available which are more reliable than the original. The Clavinet is often played through a wah wah pedal or fed through an auto wah box. This is a particularly popular setup when playing funk. Other suitable stomp boxes that can be used with a Clavinet include phaser or chorus. ## Maintenance The early Clavinet I and II models were not designed for stage use, and would easily cause audio feedback if plugged into a loud amplifier. Later models such as the D6 resolved this issue with better string dampening. The pickups are unshielded, which increases the likelihood of picking up interference from nearby lights, switches and transformers. Over time, the rubber hammer tips deteriorated, resulting in the key no longer functioning properly. The strings can last longer than those on a guitar, as they are sealed instrument and not prone to oil and sweat from fingers. The keys are not the same as any other Hohner instrument, and replacement is only possible by taking them from a similar model. In the 1980s and 1990s replacement parts for clavinets became harder to find, as Hohner had ceased to support them, and the price for second hand models dropped. In 1999, Clavinet enthusiast Aaron Kipness established the website clavinet.com, and started manufacturing replacement hammer tips with his stepfather. The website quickly became popular with worldwide orders for replacement parts. Subsequently, Hohner asked Kipness if he would be interest buying all remaining stock. The website encouraged other people to begin manufacture spares, and there is now a cottage industry around keeping the Clavinet in playing condition. A Clavinet in pristine condition can now sell for \$2,000. ## Clones Though some musicians insist on using a real Clavinet, many modern keyboards provide a suitable emulation. The Nord Stage features the various pickup switch combinations, but not the mute slider. Ticky Clav 2 is a software emulation of the instrument, providing all the features found on the original boards. ## Notable users ### Stevie Wonder The Clavinet is strongly associated with Stevie Wonder, particularly his 1972 number-one hit "Superstition", where it provides the main riff and accompaniment to the song. The track features multiple Clavinet C overdubs, and requires Wonder and another keyboardist to play on two Clavinets simultaneously to recreate the arrangement in live performances. Wonder began to use Clavinets in the late 1960s, when he was looking for a keyboard that could play guitar-like sounds. He first used it on "Shoo-Be-Doo-Be-Doo-Da-Day" (1968). As well as "Superstition", other tracks such as "Higher Ground" are led by the Clavinet played through a Mu-Tron III filter pedal, and the album Talking Book makes prominent use of the instrument. The track "Sweet Little Girl" (on 1972's Music of My Mind) features the line "You know your baby loves you, more than I love my Clavinet". By the 1970s, Hohner began to use photos of Wonder in their advertising. He has continued to record and tour with the Clavinet into the 21st century, and has several models. His main stage instrument is a customised D6 with modified preamps and high-quality film capacitors. The D6 is powered by a 9V battery instead of mains power, as it avoids ground loops and associated noise. ### Others In 1975, keyboardist Dave MacRae played the clavinet on Bill Oddie's song "The Funky Gibbon" performed by The Goodies. Oddie recalled that MacRae's playing had a "very Stevie Wonder-type feel to it ... And then I literally started whacking the top of the grand piano. So the actual rhythm-track of 'The Funky Gibbon' has only got me and Dave on it." The Clavinet was used in funk music, often played through a wah-wah pedal. It can be heard on Bill Withers' "Use Me" and Funkadelic's "A Joyful Process". Billy Preston used a Clavinet on several songs, such as his own "Outa-Space" (1972) and the Rolling Stones' "Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo (Heartbreaker)" (1973). Herbie Hancock featured the Clavinet prominently on the albums Head Hunters (1973) and Man-Child (1975), and both he and Chick Corea regularly played the instrument. The first reggae recording to feature the Clavinet was the Termites' "Attractive Girl" (1967). Bob Marley and the Wailers' "Could You Be Loved" (1980) is driven by a Clavinet riff played by Earl Lindo, as is Wonder's Marley-influenced track "Master Blaster (Jammin')", played by Wonder himself. The Band's Garth Hudson played a Clavinet fed through a wah-wah pedal on "Up on Cripple Creek" (1969). Keith Emerson played the instrument on Emerson, Lake & Palmer's cover of "Nut Rocker", heard on 1971's Pictures at an Exhibition. George Duke regularly used a Clavinet when playing with Frank Zappa and solo, using the Castle Bar modification. Peter Hammill used the Clavinet as his main keyboard instrument on Van der Graaf Generator's Godbluff (1975). Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones played a Clavinet on "Trampled Under Foot", as did Daryl Dragon on Captain & Tennille's "Love Will Keep Us Together" (both 1975). Late seventies hit singles to feature a Clavinet include Steely Dan's "Kid Charlemagne" and Fleetwood Mac's "You Make Loving Fun". Lachy Doley uses the Clavinet (with the Castle Bar modification, similar to a guitar's whammy bar) as one of his main instruments. His YouTube videos showing him use the mod's tremolo arm have gone viral. He bought his first Clavinet second-hand aged 17 for \$150; the modification had already been made at the time he bought this. The signal from the Clavinet is fed into a Dunlop Cry Baby wah-wah pedal, then into a Fender Deville amplifier.
1,469,029	F. Lee Bailey	1,171,352,173	American criminal defense attorney (1933–2021)	[ "1933 births", "2021 deaths", "20th-century American lawyers", "21st-century American lawyers", "Boston University School of Law alumni", "Criminal defense lawyers", "Disbarred Florida lawyers", "Disbarred Massachusetts lawyers", "Harvard College alumni", "Military personnel from Massachusetts", "O. J. Simpson murder case", "People from Waltham, Massachusetts", "United States Marine Corps officers", "United States Naval Aviators" ]	Francis Lee Bailey Jr. (June 10, 1933 – June 3, 2021) was an American criminal defense attorney. Bailey's name first came to nationwide attention for his involvement in the second murder trial of Sam Sheppard, a surgeon accused of murdering his wife. He later served as the attorney in a number of other high-profile cases, such as Albert DeSalvo, a suspect in the "Boston Strangler" murders, heiress Patty Hearst's trial for bank robberies committed during her involvement with the Symbionese Liberation Army, and US Army Captain Ernest Medina for the My Lai Massacre. He was a member of the "Dream Team" in the trial of former football player O. J. Simpson, who was accused of murdering Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman. For most of his career, he was licensed in Florida and in Massachusetts, where he was disbarred in 2001 and 2003, respectively, for misconduct while defending marijuana dealer Claude Louis DuBoc. Following his disbarment, he moved to Maine, where he ran a consulting firm. He later sat for the bar exam in the state of Maine, though in 2013 he was denied a law license by the Maine Board of Bar Examiners, a decision Bailey appealed in 2013 where the appellate court overturned the initial licence denial. The Board of Examiners appealed the appellate court decision, in 2014 the original denial was upheld by the Maine Supreme Judicial Court in 2014. ## Early life Bailey was born June 10, 1933, in Waltham, Massachusetts. His mother, Grace (Mitchell), was a teacher and nursery school director, and his father, Francis Lee Bailey Sr., was an advertising salesman. His parents divorced when he was ten. Bailey attended Cardigan Mountain School and then Kimball Union Academy, where he graduated in 1950. He studied at Harvard College but dropped out in 1952 to join the United States Navy and later transferred to the Marine Corps. He was commissioned as an officer and, following flight training, received his naval aviator wings in 1954. He served as a jet fighter pilot, and then began to serve as a squadron legal officer. He briefly returned to Harvard before being admitted to Boston University School of Law in 1957, which accepted his military experience in lieu of the requirement for students to have completed at least three years of undergraduate college courses. While attending Boston University, he achieved the highest grade point average in the school's history. He graduated with an LL.B. in 1960 and was ranked first in his class. ## Notable cases ### Sam Sheppard In 1954, Sam Sheppard was found guilty in the murder of his wife Marilyn in a case that was one of the inspirations for the television series The Fugitive (1963–1967). In the 1960s, Bailey, at the time a resident of Rocky River, Ohio, was hired by Sheppard's brother Stephen to help in Sheppard's appeal. In 1966, Bailey successfully argued before the U.S. Supreme Court that Sheppard had been denied due process, winning a re-trial. A not guilty verdict followed. This case established Bailey's reputation as a skilled defense attorney and was the first of many high-profile cases. ### "Boston Strangler" In 1964, Bailey defended Albert DeSalvo for a series of sexual assaults known as the "Green Man" or "Measuring Man" incidents. Bailey later said that DeSalvo confessed that he had also committed the "Boston Strangler" murders. DeSalvo was found guilty of the assaults, but was never tried for the murders. ### Carl A. Coppolino Carl A. Coppolino was accused of the July 30, 1963, murder of retired Army Col. William Farber, his neighbor and the husband of Marjorie Farber, with whom Coppolino was having an affair. He was also accused of the August 28, 1965, murder of his wife, Carmela Coppolino. The prosecution claimed that Coppolino injected his victims with a paralyzing drug called succinylcholine chloride, which at the time was undetectable due to limited forensic technology. Bailey successfully defended Coppolino in the New Jersey case over the death of Farber in December 1966. However, Coppolino was convicted of murdering his wife in Florida. He was paroled after serving 12 years of his sentence. ### George Edgerly Bailey attended Keeler Polygraph Institute in Chicago, where he became an expert in lie detector tests. It was in this capacity that he was enlisted by the defense in the case of George Edgerly, a mechanic charged with murdering his wife. When Edgerly's attorney was incapacitated by a heart attack, Bailey took over the defense. Edgerly—whose story was one of several that served as the basis for the television series and film The Fugitive—was acquitted. ### Ernest Medina Bailey successfully defended U.S. Army Captain Ernest Medina in his 1971 court-martial for responsibility in the My Lai Massacre during the Vietnam War. Medina was court-martialed for allegedly allowing the men in the company he commanded to murder My Lai non-combatants. Medina claimed that he never gave orders to kill non-combatants, and that his men killed non-combatants of their own volition. Medina also testified that he was unable to stop the massacre because he did not become aware of it until it was too late. Medina additionally denied personally killing any Vietnamese non-combatants at My Lai, with the exception of a young woman whom two soldiers testified that they had found hiding in a ditch. When she emerged with her hands held up, Medina shot her because, as he claimed at his court-martial, he thought she had a grenade. Medina was acquitted, and subsequently left the Army. He later worked at an Enstrom Helicopter Corporation plant in which Bailey had an ownership stake. ### Patty Hearst The prosecution of Patty Hearst, a newspaper heiress who had committed armed bank robberies after being kidnapped by the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), was one of Bailey's defeats. In her autobiography, Hearst described his closing argument as "disjointed" and said that she suspected he had been drinking. During his closing argument, Bailey spilled a glass of water on his pants. Hearst was convicted and sentenced to seven years in prison. She served 22 months before her sentence was commuted by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. She was pardoned by President Bill Clinton in 2001. While Hearst was convicted at trial, Bailey did protect her from a further death-penalty prosecution. On April 28, 1975, members of the SLA had robbed a Crocker Bank branch in Carmichael, California. Hearst drove one of the getaway cars. A customer was killed when one of the robbers' gun discharged. The Symbionese Liberation Army members participating in the robbery were therefore subject to the death penalty under the felony murder rule. Bailey negotiated with prosecutors for Hearst to receive immunity in exchange for her testimony about the Carmichael robbery, thus protecting her from a possible death sentence. ### Claude DuBoc In 1994, while the O. J. Simpson case was being tried, Bailey and Robert Shapiro represented Claude DuBoc, an accused marijuana dealer. In a plea bargain agreement with the U.S. Attorney, DuBoc agreed to turn over his assets to the U.S. government. These included a large block of stock in BioChem, worth approximately \$6 million at the time of the plea deal. When the government sought to collect the stock, it had increased in value to \$20 million. Bailey said he was entitled to the appreciation in payment of his legal fees. Since he had used the stock as collateral for loans, he was unable to turn over the stock to the government. In 1996, Bailey was sent to prison for contempt. After 44 days at the Federal Correctional Institution, Tallahassee, Bailey's brother succeeded in raising the money to enable him to return the stock, and he was freed. ### O. J. Simpson Bailey joined the O. J. Simpson defense team just before the preliminary hearing. Bailey held numerous press conferences to discuss the progress of the case. In a press conference prior to his cross-examination of Mark Fuhrman, Bailey said, "Any lawyer in his right mind who would not be looking forward to cross-examining Mark Fuhrman is an idiot." His famous cross-examination of Fuhrman is considered to be the key to Simpson's acquittal. In front of a predominantly Black jury, Bailey got Fuhrman to claim, "Marine to Marine", he never used the word nigger to describe Blacks at any time during the previous 10 years, a claim the defense team later found evidence to refute. Ultimately, the statement that Bailey drew from the detective forced Fuhrman to plead the Fifth in his next courtroom appearance. Bailey also attracted minor attention for keeping a silver flask on the defense table, which fellow defense attorney Robert Kardashian claimed contained only coffee. Bailey published a book about the Simpson trial shortly before his death, titled The Truth About the O.J. Simpson Trial: By the Architect of the Defense. ### William and Chantal McCorkle British citizen Chantal McCorkle, along with her American husband William, were tried and convicted in 1998 in Florida for her part in a financial fraud. The McCorkles sold kits, advertised in infomercials, purporting to show buyers how to get rich by buying property in foreclosures and government auctions. Among the grounds for their conviction was their representation in the infomercials that they owned luxury automobiles and airplanes (actually rented for the commercials), and their use of purported testimonials from satisfied customers, who were actually paid actors. Chantal, represented by Mark Horwitz, and her husband, represented by Bailey, were each originally sentenced to over 24 years in federal prison under mandatory sentencing laws. After two appeals, the McCorkles' sentences were reduced in 2006 to 18 years. ### Korean Air Lines Flight 007 A strike to Bailey's credibility came when he took on the case of aggrieved families of passengers on Korean Air Lines Flight 007, which was shot down over the Soviet Union in 1983. Though he made several public statements attesting to his commitment to the case, his law firm put in a much smaller number of hours on the case than did the two other law firms working on it. He aggravated other clients by traveling to Libya to discuss defending two men who were charged with blowing up Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, even after undertaking the cause of the relatives of that bombing's victims. To the latter, the expedition to Tripoli was a clear conflict of interest; Bailey denied that he intended to defend the Libyans, though a letter he had written to the U.S. Government suggested otherwise. ### Koscot Interplanetary Koscot Interplanetary and Dare to be Great were multi-level marketing companies owned by Glenn W. Turner. In 1973, Turner, Bailey and eight others were indicted by a federal grand jury on conspiracy and mail fraud charges. The indictment said that Bailey had appeared in a film made for Turner's organization and had appeared with Turner at several rallies. A nine-month trial ended in a hung jury. Charges were then dropped against Bailey. In 1975, Turner pleaded guilty to a single misdemeanor charge of violating securities laws and was given probation. ### "Paul is dead" Bailey was featured in an RKO television special in which he conducted a mock trial, examining various expert witnesses on the subject of the "Paul is dead" rumor referring to Beatle Paul McCartney. One of the experts was Fred LaBour, whose article in The Michigan Daily had been instrumental in the spread of the urban legend. LaBour told Bailey during a pre-show meeting he had made up the whole thing. Bailey responded, "Well, we have an hour of television to do. You're going to have to go along with this." The program aired locally in New York City on November 30, 1969, and was never re-aired. ## Television career In 1967, Bailey became host of the short-lived ABC television series Good Company, a series in which he would interview celebrities in their homes in a format similar to Edward R. Murrow's Person to Person. In 1983, Bailey again became a television host, when he was named the host of a short-lived syndicated television show called Lie Detector. Guests were questioned by Bailey and were then submitted to a polygraph test. ## Personal legal issues and professional status ### Drunk driving case On February 28, 1982, Bailey was arrested for drunk driving in California. He was acquitted, thanks in large part to the defense conducted by Robert Shapiro, who employed Bailey on the O. J. Simpson criminal defense team 12 years later. The drunk driving trial so enraged Bailey that he wrote a book, How to Protect Yourself Against Cops in California and Other Strange Places, which alleged serious abuses by police and argued that driving under the influence of alcohol had become "a number, not a condition". He furthermore asserted that political pressure had motivated police to go after celebrities in particular. ### Disbarment Bailey's high public profile came both as a result of the cases he took on and his own actions. In 2001, he was disbarred in the state of Florida, with reciprocal disbarment in Massachusetts on April 11, 2003. The Florida disbarment was the result of his handling of shares in a pharmaceutical company named Biochem Pharma during his representation of marijuana dealer Claude DuBoc. Bailey had transferred a large portion of DuBoc's assets into his own accounts. The stock, worth about \$5.9 million, was supposed to be included in the forfeiture of assets that DuBoc made as part of a plea bargain. It had been held by Bailey because it would be sold immediately if it came into government possession, but it was expected to rise dramatically in value. Bailey later refused to turn it over, saying that it was payment of his legal fees and not part of DuBoc's asset forfeiture. In addition, Bailey said that the stock was collateral for loans that he had received, and so could not be sold until the loans were repaid. These arguments were rejected by the court; the stock rose in value to about \$20 million, and Bailey then argued that, if he turned over the stock so that it could be sold, he was entitled to keep the difference between what it was valued at when he received it and its new, higher price. After Bailey was imprisoned for six weeks in 1996 for contempt of court, his brother raised the money that enabled Bailey to turn the stock over to the government, and he was released. He was later found guilty of seven counts of attorney misconduct by the Florida Supreme Court, and in 2001 he was disbarred. Massachusetts disbarred Bailey two years later. In early 2003, a judge ordered Bailey to pay \$5 million in taxes and penalties on income connected with the Duboc case. The judge later reversed the decision, although Bailey still had an unpaid tax bill of nearly \$2 million, which he disputed. In March 2005, Bailey filed to regain his law license in Massachusetts but failed. ### Application to practice law in Maine In 2009, Bailey moved to Yarmouth, Maine, where he was a partner in the Bailey & Elliott consulting business with his girlfriend Debbie Elliott. In 2012, Bailey passed the Maine bar examination and applied for a law license; the Maine Board of Bar Examiners voted 5–4 to deny his application. The majority said Bailey had not proved by "clear and convincing evidence that he possesses the requisite honesty and integrity" to practice law. Bailey appealed, petitioning the Maine Supreme Judicial Court to review the denial. In March 2013, a two-day hearing was held by Supreme Judicial Court Justice Donald G. Alexander in which Bailey's suitability to practice law was examined. Justice Alexander filed a 57-page ruling on April 19, 2013, stating that Bailey "was almost fit to practice law, except for an outstanding tax debt of nearly \$2 million". Bailey was allowed to move for reconsideration of the decision "if [he] offer[ed] a plan to repay the nearly \$2 million he owes in back taxes to the federal government". Initially, the government had claimed that Bailey owed \$4 million in back taxes. However, representing himself before the tax court, Bailey was successful in having the amount owed reduced to \$2 million. In June 2013, Bailey's attorney, Peter DeTroy, filed a motion for reconsideration of the decision. After oral arguments were heard on the reconsideration, Justice Alexander granted the motion, stating that "[a] general survey of the state precedent on the debt payment issue suggests that the existence of a debt, by itself, may not result in a finding of lack of good moral character .... Rather, findings of failure of proof of good moral character tend to be based on misconduct regarding effort — or lack of effort — to pay the debt, or misconduct referencing the debt payment obligation in the bar admission process." This cleared the way for Bailey to obtain a Maine law license. However, Maine's Board of Bar Examiners appealed Justice Alexander's decision to the entire Supreme Court, minus Alexander. On April 10, 2014, the Maine Supreme Court voted 4-to-2 to side with the Bar Examiners and reverse Justice Alexander's decision, which continued to prevent Bailey from practicing law in Maine. In 2016, Bailey lived in Maine and operated the Bailey & Elliott consulting business. ## Personal life Bailey was married four times. His first marriage, to Florence Gott, ended in divorce in 1961; his second marriage, to Froma Portley, lasted until their divorce in 1972; his third marriage, to Lynda Hart, lasted from 1972 until their divorce in 1980; and his fourth marriage, to Patricia Shiers, lasted from 1985 until her death in 1999. He had two sons from his first marriage and another son from his second marriage. Bailey moved to Georgia towards the end of his life. After a period of ill health, he died under hospice care in Atlanta on June 3, 2021, aged 87. ## In popular culture Bailey was portrayed by Nathan Lane in the 2016 miniseries The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story. In Ezra Edelman's 2016 documentary O.J.: Made in America, Bailey is featured heavily through interviews and archive footage of the Simpson murder trial, particularly his cross-examination of Mark Fuhrman. In his interview, Bailey continued to assert that Fuhrman deliberately planted the incriminating glove on Simpson's estate in an attempt to frame him. When asked by Edelman what motive Fuhrman would have, Bailey responded that Simpson had married a white woman, which he described as "a capital offense in Fuhrman's eyes". Bailey is portrayed by Luke Kirby in the 2023 film Boston Strangler. ## Publications Non-fiction Fiction Magazine - Gallery, publisher (1972). (In October 1972, Bailey became "the showcase publisher of Gallery, a new magazine based on Playboy and Penthouse, but later dropped out as publisher.) ## See also
11,206,011	Robert Harrill	1,141,299,432	American hermit	[ "1893 births", "1972 deaths", "20th-century squatters", "American hermits", "People from Burke County, North Carolina", "People from Gaffney, South Carolina", "People from New Hanover County, North Carolina", "Squatting in the United States", "Works Progress Administration workers" ]	Robert E. Harrill, or Harrell, (February 2, 1893 – June 4, 1972) was an American man also known as the Fort Fisher Hermit. He became a hermit in 1955, at the age of 62, having hitchhiked to Fort Fisher on the North Carolina coast from Morganton, North Carolina. He had previously been committed to a mental hospital in Morganton, after his marriage failed. Harrill settled in an abandoned World War II bunker set in a salt marsh beside the Cape Fear River in the Fort Fisher State Recreation Area. Harrill fed himself by fishing and scavenging. He and his bunker became a tourist attraction and visitors would listen to him talk about his "School of Common Sense", leaving donations in a frying pan. After living as a hermit for 17 years, he died under mysterious circumstances in 1972, with the official cause of death given as a heart attack. His life has been commemorated with books, films and a theatre production. ## Early life Robert E. Harrill was born in Shelby, North Carolina on 2 February, 1893. He was educated at Boiling Springs High School and then Gardner-Webb Jr. College. His parents were abusive, which led to him spending much of his time in the local woods. He married Katie Hamrick in 1913 and they had five children. The eldest son committed suicide and the family later fell apart in the 1930s due in part to Harrill's mental health problems. He was also known as Robert Harrell. ## Hermit The name "Fort Fisher Hermit" came from Fort Fisher and the Fort Fisher State Recreation Area, where Harrill settled. He arrived in 1955, having left a mental institution in Morganton and then hitchhiking 260 miles (420 km) to the coast. At first Harrill lived in a tent near to the Confederate monument by the fort. He then squatted in an abandoned World War II era bunker set in a salt marsh beside the Cape Fear River. He collected driftwood to furnish his home and was able to gather much of the food that he needed from the marsh. He ate fish, clams and oysters, and planted a vegetable garden to supplement his diet. Harrill learned many of his survival skills from Empie Hewett, a true hermit, who also lived in the salt marshes of the Fort Fisher area. Harrill loved to talk to visitors (who left donations in a frying pan) and his guestbook recorded thousands of entries. ## Attraction Robert Harrill became the second largest tourist attraction in the state of North Carolina, trailing only the USS North Carolina in terms of numbers of visitors. Visitors to Carolina Beach would routinely take time to call on the hermit, and he would talk about his philosophy, which he termed the "School of Common Sense". He told people who came to see him that he was writing a book entitled A Tyrant in Every Home. Alongside the curious, Harrill met drunk youths and developers who wanted to evict him; two men even kidnapped and robbed him. Once, after falling asleep on the beach, Harrill was arrested and charged with vagrancy, defending himself in court. Harrill also attracted a large number of journalists to his bunker interested to write about his lifestyle and beliefs. He explained his popularity in 1968: > Everybody ought to be a hermit for a few minutes to an hour or so every 24 hours, to study, meditate, and commune with their creator ... millions of people want to do just what I'm doing, but since it is much easier thought of than done, they subconsciously elect me to represent them, that's why I'm successful ... ## Death After living as a hermit for 17 years, Harrill died under mysterious circumstances on June 4, 1972. The New Hanover County coroner pronounced the cause of death as a heart attack, yet local rumours suggested Harrill may have been killed after a violent attack by a group of three men, a fisherman alleging that he saw them speeding away in a car. However, there was no autopsy and the case was closed as a natural death. When Harrill's son agreed to a second autopsy in 1984, the body was exhumed but the test results were inconclusive. Harrill was first buried in a cemetery off River Road near Fort Fisher, and then later moved to the Federal Point Cemetery at Dow Road, Carolina Beach. ## Memorial and legacy Harrill's life has been remembered with books, films and a theatre production. A documentary film directed by Rob Hill and narrated by Barry Corbin was released in 2007. It was called The Fort Fisher Hermit: The Life and Death of Robert E. Harrill. Hill filmed 35 hours' worth of material and interviewed 16 people who knew Harrill. Fred Pickler knew Harrill and with Anne Russell co-authored the book Life and Times of the Fort Fisher Hermit, Through the Lens of Fred Pickler. A local theatre company produced The Hermit of Fort Fisher, written by David Wright. It premiered in July 2014 at the Cape Fear Playhouse and had a sold-out run. The Hermit Society was founded to commemorate the life of Harrill; president Michael Edwards wrote The Battle for Independence: The Story of the Fort Fisher Hermit. The society gives out certificates to graduates of the "School of Common Sense". The bunker where Harrill lived is still standing and can be reached by following the Basin Trail at the Fort Fisher State Recreation Area. A plaque on the bunker commemorates his occupation.
70,836,602	Jokero	1,147,320,663	null	[ "2005 singles", "2005 songs", "English-language Romanian songs", "Number-one singles in Romania" ]	"Jokero" is a song by Romanian group Akcent for their fifth studio album French Kiss with Kylie (2006). Marius Nedelcu wrote the song, while Adi Colceru and Adrian Sînă produced it. The song was officially released on 17 December 2005, when it premiered on a Romanian radio station. In February 2006, "Jokero" was announced as one of the competing songs in Selecția Națională 2006, an event used to determine Romania's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. Akcent asked Romanian singer Nico to perform the track with them for the competition. The song came second overall, losing to Mihai Trăistariu's "Tornerò" (2006), though it won the public vote. "Jokero" was received positively by most music critics, who noted its potential to become a hit song. Commercially, the song became the group's first number one in Romania and it reached the top ten in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Sweden. Two music videos were shot for the track. The first, directed by Dragos Buliga which depicts the group's members wandering through a town individually holding a disco ball. The second was recorded to promote the song during Selecția Națională, it features the group and Nico performing in one of TVR's studios. At the MTV Romania Music Awards 2006, the song was nominated for Best Song and Best Dance. ## Background and release Akcent first performed "Jokero" in Istanbul in December 2005 at the end of a presentation about an interior design collection to "test" the public's reaction, with România liberă reporting that the song would be officially released as a single in Romania at the end of the year. It was sent to Romanian radio station SKRadio on 17 December 2005, where it was played for the first time during DJ Fr3cky's show. Akcent recorded the song at Gala Records, while Marius Nedelcu wrote it and Adi Colceru and Adrian Sînă produced it, with the former also handling the mixing. Furthermore, a vocalist named Georgiana provides additional vocals on it. The club track is sung in both English and Spanish. The song's radio edit version lasts for three minutes and 40 seconds, while the album one lasts for four minutes and two seconds. It was described by a România liberă editor as bringing "Ibiza closer to [the group's fans] soul". "Jokero" was released for digital download and streaming in the Benelux states on 16 May 2005 by Roton. It was issued in other territories on 5 July 2006 by Music Company Nordic. ## Selecția Națională 2006 On 16 February 2006, "Jokero" was revealed as one of the songs submitted for Selecția Națională 2006, a competition to select the Romanian entrant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. Although the song was only credited to Akcent upon submission, they announced that they would perform the song alongside Romanian singer Nico, further clarifying that the collaboration was only meant for the Eurovision Song Contest, stating that her addition was to "present the song in a complete formula" and that after the event was over, they will "each continue with their own career". Prior to the event, "Jokero" was deemed a fan favorite as it received most of the votes from the public on a poll posted on TVR's website. The song qualified from the first semi-final, held on 24 February 2006 and it was fifth song performed in the final. A Jurnalul editor gave the semi-final performance a negative review, claiming that Akcent performed "badly" while Nico sang "like from the inside of a barrel". Romanian composer Horia Moculescu expressed a similar opinion, stating that the group has "no chance" at representing Romania at the Eurovision Song Contest as they are "unable" to "perform live". While "Jokero" won the public vote during the final, which amounted to twelve points, it received eight points from the professional jury panel, finishing second behind Mihai Trăistariu's "Tornerò" (2006) in a two-point margin. Following the selection's outcome, the group acknowledged that they sang poorly. Akcent revealed that they were approached by the Moldovan delegation to submit their song for the Moldovan selection after Selecția Națională ended, ultimately deciding not to do so. In an interview with Crișana, they explained that even though they felt "honored" by the proposal, they could not have "taken part for another country" since they are Romanian. ## Reception "Jokero" was received positively by most music critics. Although Moculescu was critical of the group's performance, he called the song "[a] hit". Romanian singer Costi Ioniță declared that "Jokero" had the "best chance of representing Romania in Athens". Libertatea's Petre Dobrescu noted that the song "brought [the group] out in the spotlight" in Western Europe and East Asia. Bianca Dumitru of Adevărul mentioned the song among other Romanian club songs responsible for the "club music madness" from 2006. In retrospect, Florin Grozea, also writing for Adevărul, stated in an article titled "Why Is It Good to Not Get First Place at Eurovision Romania" that the song "contributed to Akcent's international success" alongside "Kylie" (2005). Commercially, "Jokero" became the group's first number one on the Romanian Top 100. It further reached the top ten in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Sweden, and achieved peak positions of 18 and 27 on the Dutch Top 40 and the Dutch Single Top 100, respectively. The song received nominations for Best Song and Best Dance at the MTV Romania Music Awards 2006, but lost to Morandi's "Beijo (Uh La La)" (2005) and DJ Project's "Șoapte" (2005), respectively. ## Promotion Two music videos were shot for the song. The first was directed by Dragos Buliga, who saw the song "acting as a colorful stain" on a "sombre" town. In the video, the members are shown walking with a disco ball throughout a town separately and singing next to it, while interspersed shots of a woman dancing in a room are displayed. At the end of the video, the members are all shown briefly with her in the room, before quickly vanishing. The group filmed another video alongside Nico, in TVR's studios, which acted as promotion for the song for Selecția Națională and was broadcast on TVR during the week of the event. It depicts Akcent and Nico performing in a white studio. "Jokero" was first performed in Istanbul in December 2005 at the end of a presentation about an interior design collection, when the group decided to "test" the audience's reaction to it. As part of "Romania's Day" in New York in May 2006, the group performed the song on Broadway. On the last night of their June 2006 Finnish tour, they performed the track in a disco. "Jokero" was one of the three songs that the group sang at Hity Na Czasie in July 2007, an event hosted by Polish radio station Radio Eska. ## Track listing - Benelux digital download 1. "Jokero (Radio Edit)" – 3:40 2. "Jokero (Crush Remix)" – 4:33 3. "Jokero (Activ & Optick Extended Mix)" – 6:19 4. "Jokero (Cre8 Remix)" – 4:24 5. "Kylie (Crush Thunderdome Remix)" – 5:17 - Dutch CD single 1. "Jokero (Radio Version)" – 3:55 2. "Jokero (Crush Remix)" – 4:33 3. "Jokero (Activ & Optick Extended Mix)" – 6:19 4. "Jokero (Cre8 Remix)" – 4:23 5. "Kylie (Crush Thunderdome Remix)" – 5:16 - Digital download 1. "Jokero (Radio Edit)" – 4:02 2. "Jokero (Cre8 Remix)" – 4:24 3. "Jokero (Almud Remix)" – 5:17 4. "Jokero (Activ Optice Extended Mix)" – 6:19 5. "Jokero (Crush Remix)" – 4:33 - Finnish CD single 1. "Jokero (Radio Version)" – 3:55 2. "Jokero (Cre8 Remix)" – 4:23 3. "Jokero (Activ & Optick Extended Mix)" – 6:19 ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of French Kiss with Kylie. - Akcent – lead vocals - Georgiana – additional vocals - Marius Nedelcu – songwriter - Adrian Sînă – producer - Adi Colceru – producer, mixing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release and radio history
1,220,524	Alfred Gilbert	1,171,664,180	British sculptor	[ "1854 births", "1934 deaths", "19th-century British male artists", "19th-century British sculptors", "20th-century British sculptors", "Academic art", "British alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts", "British emigrants to Belgium", "English goldsmiths", "English male sculptors", "Knights Bachelor", "Members of the Royal Victorian Order", "People educated at Aldenham School", "People educated at Mercers' School", "Royal Academicians", "Sculptors from London" ]	Sir Alfred Gilbert RA (12 August 1854 – 4 November 1934) was an English sculptor. He was born in London and studied sculpture under Joseph Boehm, Matthew Noble, Édouard Lantéri and Pierre-Jules Cavelier. His first work of importance was The Kiss of Victory, followed by the trilogy of Perseus Arming, Icarus and Comedy and Tragedy. His most creative years were from the late 1880s to the mid-1890s, when he produced several celebrated works such as a memorial for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria and the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain. As well as sculpture, Gilbert explored other techniques such as goldsmithing and damascening. He painted watercolours and drew book illustrations. He was made a member of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1892, yet his personal life was beginning to unravel as he took on too many commissions and entered into debt, whilst at the same time his wife's mental health deteriorated. Gilbert received a royal commission for the tomb of Prince Albert Victor in 1892, but was unable to finish it and the number of complaints from other dissatisfied clients grew. By the mid-1900s, Gilbert had been forced to declare himself bankrupt and to resign from the Royal Academy. He moved to Bruges in disgrace and separated from his wife. He later remarried, entering a period when he created few artworks. In the 1920s, his career was rehabilitated with the help of journalist Isabel McAllister. He returned to England and finally completed the tomb of Prince Albert Victor, as well as taking on new commissions such as the Queen Alexandra Memorial. In 1932, Gilbert was reinstated as a member of the Royal Academy and was also knighted. He died in 1934, at the age of 80. Gilbert was a central inspiration for the New Sculpture movement and in the 21st-century is regarded as one of the foremost sculptors of the Victorian age. ## Early life Alfred Gilbert was born 12 August 1854 at 13 Berners Street, near Oxford Street in central London. He was the eldest child of Charlotte Cole and Alfred Gilbert, who were both musicians. Berners Street was at that time an area popular with artists and musicians: there were shops selling stained glass, carvings, printings and bronze artworks; Ford Madox Brown and Edward Hodges Baily had studios; Leigh's Academy (run by James Mathews Leigh) was nearby, later becoming the Thomas J. Heatherley School of Art. Gilbert first attended William Kemshead's Academy for a few months in 1863, which was a naval school near Portsmouth. He then went to the Mercers' School in the City of London, afterwards switching to Aldenham School in Hertfordshire, where his father taught music. Gilbert later commented that "I always hated school". He enjoyed more spending time with his paternal grandfather, who taught him how to woodwork. At Aldenham, Gilbert began to make portraits of his schoolfellows with clay he took from ditches and the headmaster Alfred Leeman was encouraging, to the extent that Gilbert made a full-length seated portrait of him in 1872. Gilbert's father pushed him to become a surgeon, so he applied to the Royal College of Surgeons and was accepted in 1872. He then went for a scholarship at Middlesex Hospital to work as a surgeon and was rejected, allowing him to pursue his true interest of sculpture. Studying first at the Thomas J. Heatherley School from 1872 until 1873, afterwards he went to the Royal Academy Schools from 1873 until 1875. His fellow students included Frank Dicksee, Johnston Forbes-Robertson, John Macallan Swan, Hamo Thornycroft and J. W. Waterhouse. Eager to learn, he also worked in the studios of Sir Joseph Boehm, Matthew Noble, and William Gibbs Rogers. Gilbert later credited Boehm and his assistant Édouard Lantéri as his true teachers. Gilbert travelled to Paris to study at the École des Beaux-Arts under Pierre-Jules Cavelier. He had fallen in love with his first cousin, Alice Jane Gilbert, and they were forced to elope. In Paris they lived first at the Hôtel l'Artesian at Place de la Madeleine and then at 17 rue Humboldt. Gilbert returned to England in April 1878 to be at the deathbed of his younger brother Gordon, who succumbed to tuberculosis at the age of 20. Later that year, Gilbert moved to Rome with his wife and two young children. They lived at 63 Vicolo de'Miracoli, experiencing money problems as Gilbert waited to be paid for commissions whilst also having to pay rent. By 1881, Gilbert was splitting his time between a new studio space at 18 Via San Basilio in Rome and Capri. He returned to England in 1884. ## Career ### Early works Gilbert's first work of importance was The Kiss of Victory (1878–1881), which depicted a Roman soldier dying in the arms of Victory. He moved with his family to Rome in order to create the sculpture in marble, attracted by famed sculptors of the Renaissance such as Cellini, Donatello, Giambologna and Verrocchio. It was exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1882. Perseus Arming (1882) was inspired by a visit to Florence and influenced by Donatello's David and Cellini's Perseus with the Head of Medusa. It was Gilbert's first statue made in bronze. The work was acclaimed and led Frederic Leighton to commission Icarus (1884), which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with Study of a Head (1882–83). Gilbert also created The Enchanted Chair (c. 1885), only to destroy it again. He was commissioned by the Baroness von Fahnenberg to design a mausoleum in Spa, Belgium, Belgium but she died without having signed a final agreement, leading him to sue for compensation. Gilbert later stated to Joseph Hatton that the bronze statues Perseus Arming, Icarus and Comedy and Tragedy (1891–92) formed a trilogy which referenced his own life. Perseus Arming had a huge impact on a new generation of artists, becoming a particular inspiration for the New Sculpture movement, since the method of casting (lost wax) was new to the English milieu and its height of 29 inches was innovative. It was larger than a bibelot, which might decorate a drawing room, yet smaller than a typical sculpture. ### Creative period Having returned to England, Gilbert took a studio in a complex off Fulham Road, where he built a foundry with Thomas Stirling Lee and Edward Onslow Ford. His next major work was again an innovation in terms of size; the Fawcett memorial (1885–87) featured a bronze bust of politician Henry Fawcett above seven small detailed figures of around fifteen inches, which individually represented Fawcett's virtues. The memorial received praise from critics when it was unveiled at Westminster Abbey on 29 January 1887. By then Gilbert had been commissioned to produce another memorial, this time for Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, which was placed in the Great Hall at Winchester Castle. From the late 1880s to the mid-1890s he was in his most creative period. He diversified into goldsmithing and damascening, making an epergne (1887–1890) given to Queen Victoria by officers of the British Army and a chain for the mayor of Preston (1888–1892). Gilbert produced medals, such as the cast bronze portrait of Matthew Ridley Corbet (1881) and the struck bronze medal marking 50 years of the Art Union of London (1887). He also created spoons, cups, dishes and jewellery; many of his designs can be seen in the collection of Stichting van Caloen on display at Loppem Castle in Belgium. Marion Spielmann, a contemporary art critic, wrote in 1901 "his taste is so pure, his genius so exquisitely right, that he may give full rein to his fancy without danger where another man would run riot and come to grief". Gilbert's next work of note was the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain (1886–1893). The philanthropist Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, had died in late 1885 and it was swiftly decided to commemorate his life with two monuments, one at Westminster Abbey and another at Cambridge Circus, at the beginning of Shaftesbury Avenue (which was concurrently named after him). The memorial was commissioned in 1886 and officially opened at Piccadilly Circus in London in 1893. Gilbert had accepted the commission with assurances that he would be given used gunmetal to melt down and reuse, however the government did not supply him with it. He had already produced the casts, so he was forced to buy copper to use instead, which meant that he took a substantial financial hit; the fountain should have cost and in the end the figure was , with Gilbert being forced to make up the difference. It was only because he had been experimenting with different techniques that he was able to cast aluminium, a then new material which he used to create the statue which topped the sculpture. It is commonly believed that the statue depicts Eros, but it is actually his brother Anteros, the avenger of unrequited love. The fountain is now well-regarded and seen as a national treasure, but at the time it was controversial, with opinions on its value mixed. The mainstream media criticised the design of the fountain which led to passing flower girls being drenched in water and hooliganism meant it needed to be guarded for a year. Eight drinking cups on chains had been provided for pedestrians to quench their thirst and Gilbert stated that just one day after the opening, only two cups remained. He referred to the "painful experience of witnessing the utter failure of my intention and design". In this period, Gilbert made statues of Donald Mackay, 11th Lord Reay, and prison reformer John Howard. He produced memorials of the Duke of Clarence and of Lord Arthur Russell, and a memorial font for the son of the 4th Marquess of Bath. He produced busts of Cyril Flower, John R. Clayton (later broken up by the artist), George Frederic Watts, Henry Tate, George Birdwood, Richard Owen and George Grove. He also designed the statue of David Davies of Llandinam which stands in front of the Barry Docks offices. Gilbert was made a member of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1892. He received many other honours, such as Royal Victorian Order of the fourth class (1897). He became a member of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers and in 1889 he won the Grand Prix at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. By the time of Boehm's death in 1890, Gilbert had become England's best known living sculptor. He was a member of the Athenaeum and Garrick clubs in London and was a well-known figure with his cape, sombrero and walking-stick. His friends included the artists Watts, Edward Burne-Jones, Frederic Leighton and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Befriending Princess Louise had brought him into high society and he built a large house for his family with an attached studio in 16 Maida Vale, in north London. Gilbert's generous and extravagant lifestyle was leading him into debt and as his fame grew, his private life began to fall apart. His wife Alice was not at ease in London society and preferred to stay in a rented house in Gomshall, Surrey; soon after the unveiling of the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, she had a breakdown and was committed to an asylum. Without Boehm to advise him, Gilbert found it difficult to track his commissions. He almost never drew up contracts with clients and it was easy for disagreements to arise. In 1892, Gilbert was asked by the Prince (later Edward VII) and Princess of Wales (Alexandra of Denmark) to build the tomb for their recently deceased eldest son Prince Albert Victor in St George's Chapel, Windsor. Prince Albert Victor had been heir to the throne and died of pneumonia resulting from contracting influenza during the 1889–1890 flu pandemic. The tomb has been described by a critic as "the finest single example of late 19th-century sculpture in the British Isles". A recumbent effigy of the prince wearing a Hussar uniform lies above the tomb. Kneeling over him is an angel, holding a heavenly crown. The tomb is surrounded by an elaborate railing, with figures of saints. The perfectionist Gilbert spent too much time and money on the commission. Five of the saint figures were only completed with "a greater roughness and pittedness of texture" after his return to Britain in the 1920s. Another 1892 commission which Gilbert struggled with was the Memorial Tablet to Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, First Earl of Lytton (1892–1902). Lady Lytton wished to remember her husband the politician Edward Bulwer-Lytton with a plaque in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. Having taken on the work, Gilbert never supplied the plaque, despite her frequent visits to his studio. Instead, she was forced to buy the bronze cast at a bankruptcy sale and to ask Edwin Lutyens (her son-in-law) to make a surrounding mould before it was eventually installed at St Paul's in 1903. ### Disgrace By 1898, Gilbert was in debt and the number of complaints from clients asking for completed works was increasing. Instead of finishing the tomb for Prince Albert Victor, which only had seven of the twelve saints around it, Gilbert took another royal commission, namely building the mortuary chapel for Prince Henry of Battenberg. Ultimately, Gilbert was forced to file for bankruptcy in 1901. He sent his family before him to Bruges in Belgium and stayed behind to pack up his studio, destroying many casts in the process. Edward VII offered Gilbert a studio at Windsor Castle where he could complete the tomb project but Gilbert only compounded his problems by asking the royal family for permission to publish photographs of the work in progress in The Art Journal and then proceeding to do so even though he was explicitly asked not to. To make matters worse, the photographs depicted the ivory and bronze statues which had been originally attached to the tomb and subsequently sold off by Gilbert in 1899. They had been replaced by the bronze casts which still sit on the tomb, but the king had paid for the originals and was angered, breaking off all communication with Gilbert. By the mid-1900s, Gilbert was in serious problems. In 1904, he had separated from his wife. Dissatisfied clients had spoken to a gossip magazine called Truth, which released two well-circulated critical articles in 1906. The Duke of Rutland was driven to complain to the president of the Royal Academy (Edward Poynter) about an uncompleted order in 1908 and Gilbert was given the choice either to resign or to be expelled from the Academy. Poynter commented "We have all come to the regretful conclusion that he is hopelessly incorrigible". Gilbert decided to quit, resigning his professorship and also his Royal Victorian Order. Things deteriorated further when he had an affair with a client, Eliza Macloghlin, and she demanded to have the funeral urn she had commissioned, Mr and Mrs Percy Plantagenet Macloghlin (1905–1909), also known as Mors Janua Vitae. Upon not receiving it, she threw stones at the windows of his studio in Bruges and wrote a demented letter to King Edward VII. Her handwriting was similar to Gilbert's and it was believed he had written the screed, making his situation even more dire. When his son Francis went to see Gilbert in 1908, he found him hungry and lacking adequate clothes. In this period, Gilbert completed few works. He was able to finish A Dream of Joy during a Sleep of Sorrow (1908–1913), a bronze chimney piece commissioned by the Wilson family for their home in Leeds, yet instead of supplying an inset portrait of Mrs Wilson as requested, he included a watercolour painting of his second wife, Stéphanie Quaghebeur. ### Rehabilitation During World War I, Gilbert remained in Bruges. Three illustrations for Arthur Conan Doyle's short story "His Last Bow. The War Service of Sherlock Holmes" were published in The Strand Magazine in 1917 and in 1921 three more for "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone". He married his housekeeper Stéphanie Quaghebeur on 1 March 1918 and they moved to Rome together in 1924. In the early 1920s, Gilbert had been largely forgotten about in England and was assumed to have died, since he had fled to Europe decades before. However, he was still receiving a civil list pension and when the journalist Isabel McAllister took an interest in him, she was able to find him easily. McAllister was a fan, commenting in 1932 "One must be entirely loyal to him, and never admit faults to those who ... are always ready to look out for them". She decided to write his biography and campaigned for his re-acceptance in English high society. Writing to King George V and various dignitaries, she promoted Gilbert's talents, arguing it was time for him to finish the tomb of Prince Albert Victor and also that he was the perfect person to take the commission to create a memorial to Queen Alexandra, who had died in 1925. The King was glad to hear news of his old acquaintance and Lady Helena Gleichen became Gilbert's promoter, offering that he could use her studio at St James Palace if the funds could be raised to bring him from Italy. Gilbert returned to England on 26 July 1926 and his mental state concerned Lady Gleichen, since she said he was "broken with nerves, and agitation". Friends rallied around him and Gilbert settled down. The King provided a stipend and was permitted to use studios at St James's Palace and later Kensington Palace. By March 1928, he had finally finished the five statues which completed the tomb of Prince Albert Victor (who had been George's older brother). Already in late 1926, Gilbert had won the commission to make the Queen Alexandra Memorial. This captured his imagination since he saw the major public artwork as his swan song. Furthermore, Alexandra had been a firm friend of his, supporting him financially even when he failed to complete the tomb for her eldest son. After he had fled England for the second time, she had commissioned a portrait from him in 1903 (it is unknown if it was made) and in 1904, she sent him . The sculpted fountain of the memorial blended art nouveau and gothic styles, and was built into the wall of Marlborough House. It was officially unveiled on 8 June 1932, which was announced as Alexandra Rose Day. It depicts three figures representing Faith, Hope, and Charity who are helping a maiden move across the stream of life. Gilbert was knighted the day afterwards and was also readmitted into the Royal Academy. His return to favour was complete. ## Personal life On 3 January 1876, Gilbert eloped to Paris with his first cousin, Alice Jane Gilbert (1847–1916), and they were married the same day. They had five children, namely George (born 9 May 1876), Mary (born 1877), Francis (born 1879), Alfredo (born 1880) and Charlotte Emily (born 1881). Charlotte was to become a notable suffragette under the name Caprina Fahey. Gilbert's wife Alice had a breakdown soon after the official opening of the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in 1893 and spent time in a mental asylum. The family left England again in 1901 and settled in Bruges. The marriage broke down in 1904 and Alice was hospitalised again. She died in 1916. Gilbert remarried in 1918 with his housekeeper Stéphanie Quaghebeur, by which time he had already taken on responsibility for helping to raise her seven children from a previous marriage. They had stopped living together by 1926, with Quaghebeur remaining in Belgium when Gilbert moved back to England again, although he sent her monthly cheques to support the family until his death. At the end of his life, Gilbert was romantically linked with Georgina Becket Terrell. ## Death and legacy Gilbert died on 4 November 1934 at Cromwell Nursing Home in London. He had long been sick and refusing to eat. He was then cremated. At the time of his death, Gilbert was one of the most well-known figures in English society and there were plans to make a film about him. He was then disregarded for decades, until critic Richard Dorment published a biography of Gilbert in 1985, which was followed by a retrospective at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1986. Gilbert is now regarded as one of the foremost sculptors of the Victorian age. In 2017, a bust of Queen Victoria by Gilbert worth £1.2 million was subject to an export ban, having been sold at Sotheby's to a museum based in New York. Eventually, the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge raised the funds to pay £1.01 million to keep the bust in the UK. The work of art was deemed to meet all three of the Waverley Criteria, namely that it was of national artistic importance, it was of outstanding aesthetic value and it was vital for the study of sculpture. The sum was raised through donations and a £267,600 grant from the National Heritage Memorial Fund (NHMF). ## Gallery
21,072,488	It's Alive! (Dexter)	1,161,206,691	null	[ "2007 American television episodes", "Dexter (TV series) episodes" ]	"It's Alive!" is the second season premiere and thirteenth overall episode of the American television drama series Dexter, which first aired on September 30, 2007 on Showtime in the United States. The episode was written by Daniel Cerone and was directed by Tony Goldwyn. In the episode, which takes place five weeks after the first-season finale, Sgt. James Doakes (Erik King) is following Dexter Morgan (Michael C. Hall) at all times, but when he gets his first opportunity Dexter finds himself unable to kill. Meanwhile, his sister Debra (Jennifer Carpenter) returns to work after her ex-fiancé Brian tried to kill her, and his girlfriend Rita Bennett (Julie Benz) refuses to believe that Dexter sent her ex-husband Paul (Mark Pellegrino) to prison in spite of the evidence in front of her. Although Dexter's first season was adapted from Jeff Lindsay's novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter, the show's writers decided not to follow Lindsay's second novel, Dearly Devoted Dexter, in the second season. Filming of the episode began in May in Los Angeles, California, marking the show's permanent move from Miami, Florida, where the show takes place. A small crew flew to Miami to film short pieces of Dexter which were integrated into "It's Alive!" and other episodes, but the bulk of filming took place in San Pedro and Long Beach. With 1.09 million viewers, Dexter became the first Showtime series to attract over a million viewers with a season premiere. The episode received mostly positive reviews. ## Plot Since murdering the Ice Truck Killer five weeks previously, Dexter Morgan has been followed by the suspicious Sgt. James Doakes and thus cannot satisfy his urge to kill. Trying to act "relentlessly normal", he goes bowling almost nightly with his co-workers. Dexter is finally left alone when Doakes gives up and takes a night off; he pursues a blind voodoo priest named Jimmy, but finds himself ultimately unable to kill him. At a crime scene, the victim's mother pleads with Dexter to kill her son's murderer, gang lord "Little Chino". Seeing the woman's young daughter, he is reminded of having witnessed his own mother's brutal death as a child. After leading Doakes to believe that he is bowling for the night, Dexter brings Chino to Jimmy's killing room. However, Chino wakes up in the middle of Dexter's procedure and manages to escape. Meanwhile, Dexter's sister Debra exercises incessantly and is barely able to sleep as she struggles with memories of her ex-fiancé, Brian Moser, trying to kill her. When she returns to work, Sgt. María LaGuerta expresses concern about her emotional stability. However, Debra is determined to resume her life. When she takes Dexter's girlfriend Rita out to a bar, a man recognizes Debra as the fiancé of the Ice Truck Killer. She instinctively punches him when he touches her shoulder, certain that he was trying to grab her. Rita takes her children Astor and Cody to see the imprisoned Paul, who continues to insist that he was framed by Dexter and that his missing shoe would prove his innocence. Rita tells him that there is no shoe, despite having found it over a month ago. She later admits that she found the shoe, but refuses to acknowledge that Dexter is involved. That night, she receives a call from the prison and learns that Paul has been killed by another inmate. Flashbacks show the attempts of a teenaged Dexter to feel his heartbeat. In the present, Dexter and Debra watch a news report showing a team of scuba divers recovering thirty garbage bags from Biscayne Bay, each containing parts of Dexter's mutilated victims. As he watches, his heart races. ## Production The first season of Dexter followed the same storyline of Jeff Lindsay's novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter, the first in the series of novels on which the television show is based, albeit with many additional elements and altered characters. When writing the second season, Daniel Cerone said that the writers "didn't see the opportunity in the second book" to continue on the path that they hoped to go down and chose to depart from Lindsay's second Dexter novel, Dearly Devoted Dexter. Instead, they chose "to turn our biggest card up - "What if Dexter's bodies were discovered?" - and just chart that course throughout the season." According to executive producer Clyde Phillips, they decided to resume the second season storyline five weeks after season one's finale "so all of the emotional resonance of what each [character] went through [...] will continue as if that were the actual passage of time, so they're still dented and rocked by what has happened." Cerone added that "The nice thing with Dexter is it's actually the lack of emotional resonance." Speaking about Dexter's situation at the beginning of the second season, Hall said, "I think his world is pretty rocked. He encountered [his brother], a person he never anticipated encountering, someone who sees him for who he is, accepts him as such, and he really has no choice but to do him in ... he's still reeling from that, and any footing he's able to establish for himself is pretty much immediately pulled out from under him." With filming beginning on May 21, 2007, "It's Alive!" marked the permanent relocation of production from Miami to Los Angeles. Five episodes of the first season were shot on location in Miami, which Cerone said was "a bigger hassle than it was worth". Showtime programming chief Robert Greenblatt said that "It just became impossible, production-wise, to shoot the whole show [in Miami]", because of the overlap between Dexter's production window and Florida's hurricane season, making property insurance costly. A small crew flew to Miami with Hall and filmed, according to producer Sara Colleton, "a lot of pieces—not just Dexter walking in and out of his door or car, but also scenes that we know we'll need and can use", which the writers then worked into the episode and others. For the episode, Biscayne Bay was substituted with a set in Los Angeles, while most on location scenes were filmed in and around San Pedro and Long Beach, California. ## Reception "It's Alive!" brought in 1.09 million viewers in the United States, making Dexter the first Showtime series to attract over a million viewers with a season premiere, while an additional 414,000 people watched the late-night encore. The ratings were 67 percent higher than the series pilot and 40 percent above the first season's average. The episode attracted 471,000 Australian viewers on its first free-to-air broadcast. In the United Kingdom, the episode drew 348,000 viewers, an increase of 50,000 from the pilot. Production sound mixer Patrick Hanson and re-recording sound mixers Elmo Ponsdomenech and Joe Earle, received a Creative Arts Primetime Emmy Award nomination, in the category Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour), but lost to the sound mixers of the Lost episode "Meet Kevin Johnson". Stewart Schill, the editor of "It's Alive!", received an Eddie Award nomination for Best Edited One-Hour Series for Non-Commercial Television. However, the eventual recipient of the award was Sidney Wolinsky, for The Sopranos. The episode was positively received. Writing for Variety, Brian Lowry called the second season's opening "a bloody winner" and said that Hall's performance "remains a towering achievement". IGN's Eric Goldman thought that the episode's biggest problem was "having to follow up such a great first season", but called "It's Alive!" "a solid episode". He praised Dexter's flashbacks and Dexter and Debra's storylines, though he said that Doakes' following Dexter was "ridiculous" and that LaGuerta's overhearing Lt. Esmee Pascal's private conversation was "a bit contrived". Keith McDuffee of TV Squad "love[d] the flashbacks to a young Dexter and living Harry". Regarding the episode's end, he wrote that "just as Dexter's heart beats out of his chest, as does ours." Paula Paige, writing for TV Guide, said that the episode "made for some exciting, heart-pounding fear" and called the discovery of Dexter's corpses "a fantastic storyline". She commended Benz for "develop[ing] her character, Rita, into a person instead of just the shell of one she appeared to be". Blogcritics' Ray Ellis commented, "If ['It's Alive!'] is any indication, Dexter's second season looks to delve deeper into the psyches of its characters. It certainly sets up a number of plot complexities [...] and new devices that offer a myriad of new developments." The A.V. Club critic Scott Tobias stated that "the writers have done a solid job setting the table for season two".
48,971,728	Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards buses	1,169,690,352	Bus routes in Queens, New York	[ "Bus routes in Queens, New York", "MTA Regional Bus routes", "Transportation in Rockaway, Queens" ]	The Q11, Q21, Q52, and Q53 bus routes constitute a public transit corridor running along Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards in Queens, New York City. The corridor extends primarily along the length of the two boulevards through "mainland" Queens, a distance of 6 miles (9.7 km) between Elmhurst and the Jamaica Bay shore in Howard Beach. The Q52 and Q53 buses, which provide Select Bus Service along the corridor, continue south across Jamaica Bay to the Rockaway peninsula, one of the few public transit options between the peninsula and the rest of the city. The Q11 and Q21 were formerly privately operated by Green Bus Lines, and the Q53 was formerly operated by Triboro Coach, under subsidized franchises with the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT). The Q11 and Q21 started service along the corridor in 1918 and 1923, respectively. These routes came under the control of Green Bus Lines in the 1930s when the borough's bus system was divided into four lettered "zones", with "Zone C" including Woodhaven, Richmond Hill, Ozone Park, Howard Beach, and the Rockaways operated by Green Lines. An additional route along the corridor, the Q53, was added in 1950, to replace the Long Island Rail Road's Rockaway Beach Branch service to the Rockaways, which was shut down due to a trestle fire. This service was operated by Triboro Coach. In 2006, all three routes had their operations taken over by the MTA Bus Company brand of MTA Regional Bus Operations. The Q53 originally was a premium fare service, with a long nonstop segment from Rego Park to Broad Channel, as it was a replacement service for rail. Soon after the MTA's takeover of the route, it was converted to be a limited-stop service, with six stops along the corridor. Subsequently, the Q21 was extended up Woodhaven Boulevard, and its southern terminus in the Rockaways was switched. Increased ridership resulted in the creation of the Q21 Limited; this was soon replaced by the Q52 Limited, which replaced Q21 service south of Howard Beach. Since 2008, the Woodhaven-Cross Bay corridor has undergone studies for Select Bus Service (SBS) implementation, which has converted the Q52 and Q53 into bus rapid transit routes. However, the project was delayed by controversy over proposed changes to the corridor, including left-turn bans and the proposed installation of bus lanes in the corridor's median. The first phase of the project began service on November 12, 2017. ## Route description The Q11, Q21, Q52, and Q53 all share a route along most of Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards, between Queens Boulevard in Elmhurst and Pitkin Avenue in Ozone Park. The Q11 and Q21 provide local service, while the Q52 and Q53 provide limited-stop service and extend into the Rockaways, an isolated peninsula in the south-west of Long Island which is popular as a summer retreat. The Q11 and Q21 originally corresponded to the northern (Woodhaven) and southern (Cross Bay) portions of the Boulevard respectively, while the Q53 originally made no stops along the corridor. The corridor parallels the former Rockaway Beach Branch of the Long Island Rail Road, whose northern half remains inactive and whose southern half was reactivated for rapid transit service as the IND Rockaway Line of the New York City Subway. Service on the line to the Rockaways across Jamaica Bay was halted due to the 1950 fire on the Jamaica Bay trestle, and the LIRR sold the line to New York City due to its bankruptcy. The LIRR maintained service on the northern half of the line until 1962 while the NYCTA began operating subway service on the southern half in 1956. Except for the Q53, all buses along the corridor end northbound service at Queens and Woodhaven Boulevards, at the Woodhaven Boulevard subway station of the IND Queens Boulevard Line and at the foot of Queens Center mall. Buses reenter service in a dedicated bus stop area on Hoffman Drive adjacent to the south side of Queens Boulevard. The Q53 serves these stops on its through service to or from Woodside. ### Q11 The Q11 begins at Queens Boulevard, and runs down the entire length of Woodhaven Boulevard and a short portion of Cross Bay Boulevard to Pitkin Avenue. The route then turns east along Pitkin, then south along several local streets through the eastern portion of Howard Beach, running near Aqueduct Racetrack and the Howard Beach–JFK Airport station of the subway and AirTrain JFK. At 160th Avenue, the route splits into two branches; a western branch to Old Howard Beach and an eastern branch to Hamilton Beach (the two neighborhoods are separated by Hawtree Creek). Both terminate near the southern coast of their respective neighborhoods at 165th Avenue. Select weekday rush hour trips short-turn at Pitkin Avenue. During late night hours, all Q11 trips terminate at Pitkin Avenue; prior to 2010, 24-hour service had been provided to Old Howard Beach and Hamilton Beach. The original Q11 route served both Old Howard Beach and Hamilton Beach as a single branch. After running to 165th Avenue in Old Howard Beach, it crossed a bridge over Hawtree Creek, which has since been removed, then ran north in Hamilton Beach to 102nd Street and Russell Street. ### Q21 The Q21 begins at Queens Boulevard, and provides local service along the entire length of Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards in "mainland" Queens. Between Conduit Avenue and 157th Avenue near the Belt Parkway, the Q21 turns west and runs on several local streets to provide service to the neighborhood of Lindenwood; the routing is labeled as "via Lindenwood". The route terminates near the Jamaica Bay shore at 164th Avenue in Howard Beach. The Q21 runs less frequently than the Q11, and does not operate overnight. Before being transferred from Green Bus Lines to the MTA Bus Company (MTA), the Q21's northern terminus was at Liberty Avenue, and the route provided service between "mainland" Queens and the Rockaways via the Q53 routing, terminating at the current Flight 587 memorial at the Rockaway Beach Boardwalk. In 2008, the route was extended north along Woodhaven Boulevard. In January 2012, the Q21 was rerouted to Arverne and a limited-stop branch was added. This limited-stop service became the Q52 in July 2012, and the Q21 was subsequently truncated to Howard Beach. On weekday afternoons during the school year, select Q21 buses operate "school tripper" service from Rockaway Park. These trips begin at Beach 104th Street at the Scholars' Academy (I.S. 323) and across from Beach Channel Educational Campus, and operate along the former Q21 route through the Rockaways and Broad Channel. This service was provided by the Q52 until it was converted into Select Bus Service in 2017 (see below). The Q21 previously had an additional branch called the Q21A, which provided service between Brooklyn and the Rockaways. This route began at the New Lots Avenue subway station in the New Lots subsection of East New York, Brooklyn. It ran east along Linden Boulevard, then south along Cross Bay Boulevard to the Rockaways. Unlike the Q21, the Q21A traveled east to Far Rockaway at the Mott Avenue subway station, a total distance of 13 miles (21 km). The route initially used Beach Channel Drive east of the Cross Bay Bridge, later using Rockaway Beach Boulevard/Edgemere Avenue (adjacent to the Rockaway Freeway). A second branch, the Q21B, ran from New Lots Avenue non-stop to Beach 98th Street at the Rockaways' Playland amusement park. It then made stops in Rockaway Park and Neponsit before terminating at the beaches of Jacob Riis Park on the western portion of the peninsula. This route only operated during the summer months of 1936. ### Q52 SBS The Q21 Limited service was split off into a separate route, the Q52, in July 2012. It begins at Queens Boulevard and runs down the entire length of Woodhaven and Cross Bay Bouevards through "mainland" Queens, making limited stops. It then crosses the Joseph P. Addabbo Memorial Bridge onto the island of Broad Channel within the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge, where it makes several stops. It then crosses the Cross Bay Veterans Memorial Bridge onto the Rockaway peninsula in the neighborhood of Hammels, where it turns east onto Rockaway Beach Boulevard. The Q52 continues down the boulevard, turning left on Beach 62nd Street, right on Arverne Boulevard, and left on Beach 54th Street, terminating at Beach Channel Drive in Edgemere. Elmhurst-bound buses originating from that stop would use Beach Channel Drive before turning left on Beach 59th Street, right on Rockaway Beach Boulevard, and via its normal route through Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards. Prior to April 2017, southbound Q52s terminated at Beach 69th Street in Arverne, reentering service two blocks east at the Beach 67th Street station. This route, along with the Q53, was converted to a Select Bus Service route on November 12, 2017. The route makes fewer stops than the limited-stop service, uses articulated buses, and travels on the corridor's bus lanes for a large section of its route, speeding travel times. As part of the conversion, it has been proposed to extend the Q52 east to Far Rockaway, along a similar route to the former Q21A. ### Q53 SBS The Q53 SBS is the longest of the four routes, running a distance of 14 miles (23 km). It begins in Woodside, at the 61st Street subway station of the IRT Flushing Line and the Woodside LIRR station. The route then runs east along Roosevelt Avenue and Broadway, before joining the other three routes at Woodhaven Boulevard and Queens Boulevard and following the Q52's Select Bus Service-stop service pattern through mainland Queens and Broad Channel. After crossing Jamaica Bay and entering the Rockaway peninsula, the Q53 turns west on Rockaway Beach Boulevard and terminates at the Beach 116th Street subway station of the IND Rockaway Line in Rockaway Park. Created as a replacement for Rockaway Beach Branch service in the 1950s, the Q53 was originally labeled an express service. It made stops at the Woodside LIRR station, Roosevelt Avenue/74th Street subway station, Grand Avenue station, and 63rd Drive subway station (near the former Rego Park LIRR station) before running non-stop to Broad Channel and the Rockaways. Under the MTA, limited-stop service along Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevard was added in 2006, with service in Elmhurst added in 2009, and overnight service was added in 2013. The Q53, originally being operated by Triboro Coach operated from the LaGuardia Depot in East Elmhurst. However, after its takeover by the MTA, it was transferred to College Point Depot, a former Queens Surface Corporation facility due to construction at the LaGuardia Depot. It returned to LaGuardia Depot, in exchange for the Q23 on January 8, 2017. #### Select Bus Service stops ### Express bus service In addition to local and limited-stop service, four bus routes () provide express bus service to Manhattan via the Woodhaven and Cross Bay corridor. The QM16 and QM17 provide service to the Rockaway Peninsula and Broad Channel, beginning in Neponsit (west) and Far Rockaway (east) respectively. They then make stops along Cross Bay Boulevard into Howard Beach, before running non-stop to Manhattan north of the Belt Parkway. The QM15 begins at Cross Bay Boulevard and 157th Avenue (with select runs beginning in eastern Howard Beach near Aqueduct Racetrack), and runs the Lindenwood route of the Q21 before making stops along the rest of the corridor. The BM5, which originates in Starrett City, Brooklyn, also serves the corridor north of Conduit Avenue. All four routes proceed onto the Long Island Expressway at the interchange near Queens Boulevard in Elmhurst. ### Other bus routes The follows the Q21's route via Cross Bay Boulevard and Lindenwood between 164th Avenue and Rockaway Boulevard. It then proceeds east on Rockaway Boulevard and several local streets towards the 165th Street Bus Terminal in Downtown Jamaica, which is the terminus for many routes formerly operated by Green Bus Lines, also known as Green Lines. ## History ### Early years: Q11 and Q21 routes The Q11 began service in 1918 under Liberty Bus Transportation, also known as New York City Department of Plant & Structures Route 64, between Woodhaven and Howard/Hamilton Beach. The Q21 began service in 1923. In 1926, it became a route of the Queens Auto Traction Corporation, running between Jamaica Avenue, at the Woodhaven Boulevard station of the BMT Jamaica Line, and Beach 95th Street, at the foot of the bridge from Broad Channel. By the early 1930s, the Q21 became a franchise of Green Bus Lines, and was extended to Rockaway Park. In 1934, the Q21A franchise between East New York and the Rockaways was awarded to Green Lines. On June 15, 1936, the Q21B began service between Brooklyn and Riis Park. That year, Green Lines took over the operations of Liberty Bus, and the borough's bus system was divided into four lettered "zones", with each zone being served exclusively by one bus company. Green Lines was awarded the rights to all of "Zone C" in southern Queens, which included Woodhaven, Richmond Hill, Ozone Park, Howard Beach, and the Rockaways. Following the summer season, the Q21B continued operating until November 1936 when it was discontinued due to lack of profitability. The Q11 began operations under Green Lines on November 15, 1936. By January 1937, residents of the western Rockaways (at the time called the "West End") petitioned Green Lines for several extensions of service. This included the restoration of the Q21B route, and the extension of the normal Q21 route west from Beach 116th Street to Beach 149th Street via Newport Avenue. When the Marine Parkway Bridge between Brooklyn and the western Rockaways was opened in June 1937, the Q21B was replaced with the . In 1948, Green Lines applied for an extension of the Q21A to the Euclid Avenue subway station which opened that November; this was rejected by the New York City Board of Transportation in December. However, the rerouting to Euclid Avenue station did occur, and the route ran along Pitkin Avenue between Euclid Avenue and Cross Bay Boulevard until its discontinuation. ### Addition of Q53, extension of Q21, and MTA Bus takeover On May 8, 1950, a major fire occurred on the wooden trestle of the LIRR Rockaway Beach Branch over Jamaica Bay, ending direct rail service to the Rockaway peninsula. On June 25, Triboro Coach, which was owned by Green Lines' shareholders, began operating replacement bus service from the Woodside LIRR station to Rockaway Park on a temporary grant from the city. The Q53 officially began service on June 28, 1956, two days after IND Rockaway Line service commenced on the parallel Rockaway Beach Branch. It later gained popularity as a route from mainland Queens to Rockaway Beach and Rockaways' Playland during summer months, as did the Q21 and Q21A. On January 9, 2006, the MTA Bus Company took over the operations of the Green Lines routes as part of the city's takeover of all the remaining privately operated bus routes. On February 20, 2006, the city took over the operations of Triboro Coach. Shortly after the takeover, in April 2006, the Q53 nonstop express was converted to a standard limited-stop service, with the MTA adding six stops along Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards. In January 2007, the Q53 was routed away from the 63rd Drive subway station, running the entire length of Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards. On August 31, 2008, the Q21 was extended north along Woodhaven Boulevard. These service changes led to an increase in ridership along the corridor. Due to the shift in ridership patterns, late night service on the Q11 after midnight was truncated to Pitkin Avenue on September 12, 2010. Q21 service was also adjusted to run for longer during the evenings. ### Split of Q21 and Q52 On January 8, 2012, the Q21 was rerouted from Rockaway Park to Arverne near the Beach 67th Street station, to serve the growing "Arverne by the Sea" urban renewal development. A limited-stop branch of the Q21 was also created, running during weekday rush hours and bypassing the Lindenwood section of the route. On July 1 of that year, several major changes took place along the corridor. The Q21 limited branch was converted into the Q52 Limited and expanded to seven days a week, while the Q21 local was truncated to Howard Beach. Overnight service on the Q11 to Hamilton Beach after 10:00 PM was eliminated. In addition, two additional limited stops for the Q52 and Q53 were added along Cross Bay Boulevard in Howard Beach, closing a gap in service previously filled by the Q21. For a short period of time after Hurricane Sandy in late 2012 and 2013, additional service was provided on the Q52 route. Several 60-foot (18 m) articulated buses, utilized on the , were temporarily transferred for use on the Q52 route. Some articulated buses were still running on the Q52 as of 2014. In addition, the Q11, Q21, and Q52 fleet was transferred to JFK Depot after Far Rockaway Depot was damaged, but the route used buses with the JFK Depot sticker. On September 8, 2013, overnight service was added to the Q53 due to increasing ridership on the route. On April 9, 2017, the Q52 was extended from Beach 69th Street and Rockaway Beach Boulevard to Beach 54th Street and Beach Channel Drive in Edgemere to better serve housing in both Arverne and Edgemere. ### Select Bus Service #### Planning In 2004, the Woodhaven-Cross Bay corridor was one of twelve Queens bus corridors studied under the city's bus rapid transit (BRT) study, which was meant to determine the feasibility of having dedicated lanes and rebuilt stops to speed up service on BRT corridors. Beginning on January 4, 2008, the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) conducted an 18-month study on Woodhaven Boulevard as part of the city's Congested Corridors Project to improve congested and dangerous roadways. One of the short-term recommendations of the study was to implement bus rapid transit along the corridor. In June 2010, the Woodhaven-Cross Bay corridor was added to the list of potential corridors for Phase II of Select Bus Service (SBS), the MTA's brand of BRT service. #### Construction Preliminary designs began in 2013 and were released in March 2014. The first dedicated MTA bus lanes were installed in August 2015, on the north end of Woodhaven Boulevard between Dry Harbor Road and Metropolitan Avenue. At this time, the Q52 and Q53 SBS routes were scheduled to begin service in fall 2017, with the remaining bus lanes and street improvements to be implemented in stages afterwards. In September 2017, the NYCDOT announced that the segment of Woodhaven Boulevard between Union Turnpike and 81st Road would also get dedicated bus lanes. As part of that segment's bus lane implementation, the NYCDOT would remove the medians separating service-road and main-road traffic in each direction, as well as expand the median separating the two directions of traffic. #### Implementation SBS was implemented on the corridor on November 12, 2017. In the Rockaways and in Broad Channel, due to less dense land uses, and due to lower utilization of stops, several existing Q52 and Q53 stops were consolidated or discontinued. Q22 local service continued to serve the stops in the Rockaways, while the low volume stops at Cross Bay Boulevard and 5th Road were discontinued. A new stop at Rockaway Beach Boulevard and Beach 84th Street replaced stops at Beach 81st Street and Beach 86th Street on the Q52. In Broad Channel two stops were relocated: the northbound stop at Cross Bay Boulevard and East 9th Road was moved north to Noel Road to be symmetrical with the southbound stop, and the southbound stop at West 15th Road was moved south to West 17th Road to be symmetrical with the northbound stop, and to be adjacent to a crosswalk. Stops on Woodhaven Boulevard were modified as well: the stop at Atlantic Avenue was moved north to 91st Avenue, allowing Q52 and Q53 service to travel on the overpass over Atlantic Avenue using the bus lane, as opposed to using the slow service road. Two SBS stops were added–at 101st Avenue and Woodhaven Boulevard, and at Pitkin Avenue and Cross Bay Boulevard–to provide transfers to the Q8 and Q11, respectively. Stations on Woodhaven Boulevard at Jamaica Avenue, 91st Avenue and 101st Avenue, and at Cross Bay Boulevard at Liberty Avenue (northbound) and Rockaway Boulevard (southbound) are new stations that were built in the median by the NYCDOT. Q11 and Q21 service on Woodhaven Boulevard were modified in conjunction with the implementation of SBS. The bus stops at 63rd Avenue and 64th Road in both directions, and the northbound stop at 67th Drive were discontinued in order to even out the spacing of bus stops. The southbound stop at 68th Avenue was moved to Yellowstone Boulevard to be near a crosswalk, the Park Lane South stops was moved to 85th Road, and the southbound Doxey Place stop was moved to Gold Road. #### Opposition The implementation of SBS on the Woodhaven/Cross Bay corridor has been supported by transit advocates and bus riders, particularly those in the Rockaways. However, many residents of the communities north of the Rockaways, particularly car users and business owners, have opposed the Select Bus Service project. Much of the opposition has been due to the implementation of bus lanes down the center of the boulevard, which could cause increased traffic congestion. The plan in April 2015 would have prohibited left-turns at twelve intersections. In January 2016, City Council Member Eric Ulrich, a Republican representing Ozone Park, came out against the plan as among other things, it prohibited left turns at Jamaica Avenue. He had been in favor of bus rapid transit along Woodhaven Boulevard, as he stated in a 2014 opinion editorial. The plan was modified in May 2016 in an effort to accommodate Ulrich's objections. It included restrictions on left-turns at only five intersections, including none at Jamaica Avenue. The left-turn restrictions were put into the plan to speed up travel times by eliminating the signal time allocated to split phasing—a traffic-signal setup where traffic in one direction has a green light, while the other directions of traffic have a red light, in order to allow drivers at the green light to turn left without conflicts from oncoming traffic. The restrictions also reduce conflicts between turning vehicles and pedestrians. Instead of banning left turns at Jamaica Avenue, the left turn bays would be re-engineered around the BMT Jamaica Line subway columns to decrease blind spots and collisions. Local community members were also opposed to the plan due to the reduction of traffic lanes along the boulevard's service roads from two lanes to a single lane. ### Bus redesign In December 2019, the MTA released a draft redesign of the Queens bus network. As part of the redesign, the Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards corridor would have contained a "high-density" route, the QT52 (following the Q52 SBS), with the Q53 being discontinued. The Q11 and Q21 would have been rearranged into two "neighborhood" routes, but with a different arrangement. The QT83 would have made local stops on Woodhaven and Cross Bay Boulevards, while the QT88A/B would have combined the branches of the Q11 and Q21. The redesign was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, and the original draft plan was dropped due to negative feedback. A revised plan was released in March 2022. As part of the new plan, the Q11 would be shortened, running from Howard Beach/Hamilton Beach to the Rockaway Boulevard station, would not serve the Woodhaven/Cross Bay corridor at all and have overnight service eliminated. The Q21 would be extended north in Elmhurst to the 82nd Street–Jackson Heights station, replacing the Q29 bus, which would be discontinued; in Howard Beach, the Q21 would run along 84th Street instead of Cross Bay Boulevard. The Q21 would also gain overnight service. The Q52 SBS and Q53 SBS would both be preserved, but both would terminate at Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue/74th Street instead (representing an extension of the Q52 SBS and a truncation of the Q53 SBS), have a stop added at Eliot Avenue (Southbound Q53 SBS would skip this stop) and some of their bus stops would be moved to be realigned closer to major cross streets. ## In popular culture The 1977 song "Rockaway Beach" by Forest Hills-based band the Ramones references the bus ride to the Rockaways on the Q53. It includes the lines: > > Bus ride is too slow they blast out the disco on the radio
13,404	Hong Kong	1,173,527,597	City and special administrative region of China	[ "1842 establishments in Asia", "Chinese-speaking countries and territories", "English-speaking countries and territories", "Former British colonies and protectorates in Asia", "Former Japanese colonies", "Hong Kong", "Metropolitan areas of China", "Pearl River Delta", "People's Republic of China", "Populated coastal places in Hong Kong", "Populated places established in 1842", "Port cities and towns in China", "South China Sea", "Special administrative regions of China", "States and territories established in 1997" ]	Hong Kong (US: /ˈhɒŋkɒŋ/ or UK: /hɒŋˈkɒŋ/; Chinese: 香港, Cantonese: ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and a special administrative region in China. With 7.4 million residents of various nationalities in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated territories in the world. Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing Empire ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was briefly occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The whole territory was transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of "one country, two systems". Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages, the territory is now one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the world's fourth-ranked global financial centre, ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world. Home to the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals. Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, severe income inequality exists among the population. Despite having the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world, housing in Hong Kong has been well-documented to experience a chronic persistent shortage. Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.952, ranking fourth in the world. The city has the second highest life expectancy in the world, and a public transport rate exceeding 90%. ## Etymology The name of the territory, first romanised as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780, originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese (or Tanka Cantonese) phrase hēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour". "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed. Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed. The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810. The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name. Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC). ## History ### Prehistory and Imperial China Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung, Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating. During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans. Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yueh people. As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period. Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements. The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue. The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse and recaptured by China after the Han conquest. During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen by the Yuan Dynasty. By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty. The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513. Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s, Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549. Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557. After the Qing conquest, maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the Great Clearance, turning the region into a wasteland. The Kangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684. Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton. Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade. ### British colony In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade, triggering a British military response and the First Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi. British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841. However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement. After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony. Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War. The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in the Convention of Peking. By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future. The colony was further expanded in 1898 when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education. Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike. At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port. The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940. The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before the British resumed control on 30 August 1945. Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949. Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s. With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme, Independent Commission Against Corruption, and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation. Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro-Republic of China and pro-Chinese Communist Party protests. In the 1967 Hong Kong riots, pro-PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by the Royal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings. Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub. ### Chinese special administrative region The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979. Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to transfer the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the transfer. The impending transfer triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life. Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996. The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule. Hong Kong was transferred to China on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule. Immediately after the transfer, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak and a housing surplus. This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn. Political debates after the transfer of sovereignty have centred around the region's democratic development and the Chinese central government's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover, the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law. The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing chief executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution. Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy. In June 2019, mass protests erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests are the largest in Hong Kong's history, with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents. The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed the National Anthem Ordinance, which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China". The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the Hong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region. Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introduced amendments to Hong Kong's electoral system, which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointed Candidate Eligibility Review Committee. In May 2023, the Legislative Council introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils as well, and a District Council Eligibility Review Committee was similarly established to vet candidates. ## Government and politics Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government. The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty, resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony. Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution. The regional government is composed of three branches: - Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law, can force reconsideration of legislation, and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials. Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation, and has authority to dissolve the legislature. In states of emergency or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order. - Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting chief executive. - Judiciary: The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law. Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission. The chief executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the chief executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1500 business, community, and government leaders. The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected from geographical constituencies, thirty-five represent functional constituencies (FC), and forty are chosen by an election committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government. Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups, and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting district council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections. All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting. Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election. These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups. The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections. Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government. Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction. Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule. Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence. However, mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR. Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system. Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region. The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau, and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality. Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls. Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority. The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence. Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces, the regional government may request assistance from the garrison. Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service, and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers. The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations. The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies. The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations. The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the central government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland. The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China. ### Administrative divisions The territory is divided into 18 districts, each represented by a district council. These advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy. As of 2019, there are a total of 479 district council seats, 452 of which are directly elected. Rural committee chairmen, representing outlying villages and towns, fill the 27 non-elected seats. In May 2023, the government proposed reforms to the District Council electoral system which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88, and total seats from 479 to 470. A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by the District Council Eligibility Review Committee was also proposed. The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023. ### Political reforms and sociopolitical issues Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the legislature since the transfer of sovereignty. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected. Although universal suffrage for the chief executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68, the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body. The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions. Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment. Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners. Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory. Sex trafficking in Hong Kong is an issue. Local and foreign women and girls are often forced into prostitution in brothels, homes, and businesses in the city. The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty. It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately. However, in response to large-scale protests in 2019 and 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law. The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law. The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration. In October 2020, Hong Kong police arrested seven pro-democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained. Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law. In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong's electoral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism". ## Geography Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River. The territory's 1,110.18 km<sup>2</sup> (428.64 sq mi) area (2,754.97 km<sup>2</sup> if the maritime area is included) consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km<sup>2</sup> (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km<sup>2</sup> (14 sq mi) is water. The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level. Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories. Much of this is built on reclaimed land; 70 km<sup>2</sup> (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea. Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland. About 40% of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves. The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species. ### Climate Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of the Tropic of Cancer. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy. When there is snowfall, which is extremely rare, it is usually at high elevations. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year. Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017, and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016. ### Architecture Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 482 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft), and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world. The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land. Single-family detached homes are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas. The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and are among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region. Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower. Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises. However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong. Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex, and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts. The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure. The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda). Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants. Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style. ## Demographics The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,413,070 in 2021. The overwhelming majority (91.6%) is Han Chinese, most of whom are Taishanese, Teochew, Hakka, and other Cantonese peoples. The remaining 8.4% are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily Filipinos, Indonesians, and South Asians. However, most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short-term workers. According to a 2021 thematic report by the Hong Kong government, after excluding foreign domestic helpers, the real number of non-Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 301,344, or 4% of Hong Kong's population. About half the population have some form of British nationality, a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have British National (Overseas) status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory. The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality, automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the transfer of sovereignty. Headline population density exceeds 7,060 people/km<sup>2</sup>, and is the fourth-highest in the world. The predominant language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 93.7% of the population, 88.2% as a first language and 5.5% as a second language. Slightly over half the population (58.7%) speaks English, the other official language; 4.6% are native speakers, and 54.1% speak English as a second language. Code-switching, mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population. Post-handover governments have promoted Mandarin, which is currently about as prevalent as English; 54.2% of the population speak Mandarin, with 2.3% native speakers and 51.9% as a second language. Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than the simplified characters used in the mainland. Among the religious population, the traditional "three teachings" of China, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, have the most adherents (20%), followed by Christianity (12%) and Islam (4%). Followers of other religions, including Sikhism, Hinduism, and Judaism, generally originate from regions where their religion predominates. Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.3 years for males and 87.2 years for females in 2022, one of the highest in the world. Cancer, pneumonia, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death. The universal public healthcare system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government. The city has a severe amount of income inequality, which has risen since the transfer of sovereignty, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people. Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2016, the wage gap remained high; the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income. The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people, as well as the third-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world. Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity, median income for the top 10% of earners is 44 times that of the bottom 10%. ## Economy One of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports, Hong Kong has a market economy focused on services, characterised by low taxation, minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market. It is the world's 35th-largest economy, with a nominal GDP of approximately US\$373 billion. Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation's economic freedom index between 1995 and 2021. However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy ... [making Hong Kong] almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing". Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on the UN Human Development Index. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of HK\$30.4 trillion (US\$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018. Hong Kong is ranked as the 14th most innovative territory in the Global Innovation Index in 2022, and 3rd in the Global Financial Centres Index. The city is sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor", a nickname derived from Silicon Valley in California. Hong Kong hosts several high tech and innovation companies, including several multinational companies. Hong Kong is the ninth- and eight-largest trading entity in exports and imports respectively (2021), trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product. Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic. The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port and the busiest airport for international cargo. The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States. Hong Kong is a key part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice. Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties. Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87. The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy. Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption of cross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions. The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment. A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions. Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the transfer of sovereignty. Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value, up from 5% in 1997. As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015. The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia. The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region. Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges. The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi-denominated bonds, and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading. In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market. The Hong Kong dollar, the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world. Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density, the city has the most expensive housing market in the world. The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little industrial policy and implemented almost no trade controls. Under the doctrine of "positive non-interventionism", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth. While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s, late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including export-credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer. Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP. In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK\$258 billion (US\$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the 14th most popular destination for international tourists. It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau). The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates. However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong. In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023. ## Infrastructure ### Transport Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of daily trips are made on public transport, the highest percentage in the world. The Octopus card, a contactless smart payment card, is widely accepted on railways, trams, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores. The Peak Tram, Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888. The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, including the Mid-Levels escalator (the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system). Hong Kong Tramways covers a portion of Hong Kong Island. The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 93 metro stations throughout the territory. With a daily ridership of almost five million, the system serves 41% of all public transit passengers in the city and has an on-time rate of 99.9%. Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line, and longer-distance inter-city trains to Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom station. Connecting service to the national high-speed rail system is provided at West Kowloon railway station. Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong. Automobiles drive on the left (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire. Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles. More than 18,000 taxicabs, easily identifiable by their bright colour, are licensed to carry riders in the territory. Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory, with smaller public light buses (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly. Highways, organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System, connect all major areas of the territory. The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary. Hong Kong International Airport is the territory's primary airport. Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based Cathay Pacific (flag carrier), Hong Kong Airlines, low-cost airline HK Express and cargo airline Air Hong Kong. It is the eighth-busiest airport by passenger traffic pre-COVID and handles the most air-cargo traffic in the world. Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield, under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club. The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers. Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller kai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements. Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available. Junks, once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism. The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis. ### Utilities Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally. The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum. The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China. Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory. Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed, and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels. With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. The Dongjiang River in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water, and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater. Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater, greatly reducing freshwater use. Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections over fibre-optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent, contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest). Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous; there are more than 18 million mobile-phone accounts, more than double the territory's population. ## Culture Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law. Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century. Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits. Residents' sense of local identity has markedly increased post-handover: The majority of the population (52%) identifies as "Hongkongers", while 11% describe themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population purport mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong". Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour, filial piety, and a preference for sons, are prevalent. Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual. Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business. Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits, and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4; the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese. ### Cuisine Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on Cantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes. Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible. There are five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh. Dim sum, as part of yum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee, cha siu bao, siu yuk, egg tarts, and mango pudding. Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea. ### Cinema Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade. By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong. When Bruce Lee's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow, As Tears Go By, and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular. Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine, To Live, and Chungking Express. The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan, Donnie Yen, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East". At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017. ### Music Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu, it is also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop. Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui, Anita Mui, Leslie Cheung, and Alan Tam; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience. The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts. Despite a general decline since late in the decade, Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such as Eason Chan, Joey Yung, and Twins are popular in and beyond the territory. Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education. The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed of classical Chinese instruments, is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community. Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of China, March of the Volunteers. The song Glory to Hong Kong has been used by protestors as an unofficial anthem of the city. ### Sport and recreation Despite its small area, the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities. The city has hosted numerous major sporting events, including the 2009 East Asian Games, the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian events, and the 2007 Premier League Asia Trophy. The territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens, Hong Kong Marathon, Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup, and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup. Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned nine medals. Lee Lai-shan won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020. Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games. No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations, the city's last appearance in the latter was in 1994. Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993. The Hong Kong Jockey Club, the territory's largest taxpayer, has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue. Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football. ## Education Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled after that of the United Kingdom, particularly the English system. Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education, generally at age 18. At the end of secondary schooling, all students take a public examination and are awarded the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education upon successful completion. Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher. Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%. The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty. Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under the Direct Subsidy Scheme; international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages. ### Medium of instruction At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as the medium of instruction, with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English and Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education. English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors. ### Tertiary education Hong Kong has eleven universities. The University of Hong Kong (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911. The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction. Along with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) and City University of Hong Kong (CityU), both granted university status in 1994, are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide. The Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) was granted university status in 1994 and is a liberal arts institution. Lingnan University, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly Open University of Hong Kong), Hong Kong Shue Yan University and Hang Seng University of Hong Kong all attained full university status in subsequent years. ## Media Most of the newsapapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one is the South China Morning Post, with The Standard serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent are Ming Pao and Oriental Daily News. Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-owned Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po. Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, including The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, The New York Times International Edition, USA Today, Yomiuri Shimbun, and The Nikkei. Three free-to-air television broadcasters operate in the territory; TVB, HKTVE, and Hong Kong Open TV air eight digital channels. TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share. Pay TV services operated by Cable TV Hong Kong and PCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences. RTHK is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and three television channels. Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population. Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including the Great Firewall, yet local control applies. ## See also - Index of articles related to Hong Kong - Outline of Hong Kong
62,060,265	Dorothy Spiers	1,141,759,812	English actuary	[ "1897 births", "1977 deaths", "20th-century British businesspeople", "British actuaries", "British women in business", "People educated at the City of London School for Girls", "People from the London Borough of Hackney" ]	Dorothy Beatrice Spiers (née Davis; 25 May 1897 − 2 September 1977) was a British actuary. She was the first woman to qualify as an actuary in the United Kingdom. After studying mathematics at Newnham College, Cambridge, she worked for the Guardian Assurance Company. She passed the actuarial exams at the Institute of Actuaries in 1923. From the 1940s to 1954, Spiers worked part-time as an actuary for the Guardian Assurance Company, and Eagle Star Insurance. She was also the national treasurer of the League of Jewish Women. Spiers died on 2 September 1977 in Brent, Middlesex. ## Early life and education Dorothy Beatrice Davis was born on 25 May 1897 in Hackney, London, England, to Samuel and Sarah Davis (née Samuel). She was the second of three daughters. Her father Samuel was the headmaster of the Jewish Free School. Her early education was at the Wilton Road School and the City of London School for Girls. She studied mathematics at Newnham College, Cambridge. ## Career After graduation in 1918, Davis worked for the Guardian Assurance Company. While working there, she studied for the actuarial examinations at the Institute of Actuaries, enrolling at the institute in 1920. The institute had unanimously approved the admission of women at their general meeting in the previous year. She passed the exams in 1923 and therefore became the first woman to qualify as an actuary in the UK. Three years later, Davis became the first woman to open the discussion at a sessional meeting of the Institute of Actuaries. After she had made her contribution, the male actuary who followed commented that "those of them who had advocated the admission of women to the Institute had every reason to congratulate themselves". ## Personal and later life She married Henry Michael Spiers, an industrial chemist, in 1931. Henry had wanted to marry her earlier, but the Guardian Assurance Company at the time had a policy of not employing married women, so she had declined his proposal. After their marriage, she became a housewife, and the couple had two sons. She worked at the Continuous Mortality Investigation division of the Institute of Actuaries between 1932 and 1938. From the 1940s to 1954, Spiers returned to actuarial work on a part-time basis at the Guardian Assurance Company and Eagle Star Insurance. Outside of her actuarial career, she was a member of the council of the League of Jewish Women, and also its national treasurer. She died on 2 September 1977 at the Central Middlesex Hospital in Brent, Middlesex at the age of 80.
3,145,228	1983 Pacific typhoon season	1,153,705,654	Typhoon season in 1983 in the Pacific Ocean	[ "1983 Pacific typhoon season", "Articles which contain graphical timelines", "Tropical cyclones in 1983" ]	The 1983 Pacific typhoon season was the latest start for a Pacific typhoon season on record. It has no official bounds, but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Tropical storms formed in the entire west Pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center. Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA. This can often result in the same storm having two names. The season had a late start, as the first system did not form until early June for the first time since 1973. The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid-December. A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific, of which 23 became tropical storms. Of the 26 tropical cyclones, one formed in June, three formed in July, six formed in August, three formed in September, seven formed in October, five formed in November, and two formed in December. Twelve storms reached typhoon intensity, of which four reached super typhoon strength. Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall, with six moving through the Philippines, six striking China, six moving into Vietnam, and three moving in Japan. Vera, Wayne, Kim, and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season. Forrest became the fastest-developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific Ocean, with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals (2.7 inHg) in a 24‐hour period. ## Season summary The season had a late start, as the first system did not form until late June for the first time since 1973. The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid-December. A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific, of which 23 became tropical storms. Of the 26 tropical cyclones, one formed in June, three formed in July, six formed in August, three formed in September, seven formed in October, five formed in November, and two formed in December. Ten storms reached typhoon intensity, of which four reached super typhoon strength. The activity of the season was reflected with an ACE of 220 units. Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall, with six moving through the Philippines, six striking China, six moving into Vietnam, and three moving in Japan. Tropical cyclones accounted for 24 percent of the annual rainfall in Hong Kong this season. Wayne formed east of the Philippines, becoming the first super typhoon of the season before striking mainland China on July 25. Abby was a long-lived system, forming near Guam and remaining an intense typhoon for a number of days before recurving into Japan as a weakening tropical storm on August 17. Ellen was a strong typhoon which tracked from the International Dateline westward near the northern Philippines and mainland China by September 9. Forrest formed well east of the Philippines in late September, becoming the fastest-developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific Ocean, with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals (2.7 inHg) in a 24‐hour period. Marge was an intense typhoon which recurved well off the coast of Asia during the first week of November. Orchid was a long-lived and erratic tropical cyclone which moved slowly just east of the Philippines during late November, absorbing Percy along the way. Vera, Wayne, Kim, and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season. ## Systems ### Tropical Storm Sarah When Tropical Storm Sarah formed in the South China Sea on June 24, it became the latest start of a western Pacific season since 1973. The initial tropical disturbance formed south of Guam on June 16. By June 19, a low level circulation formed as the system moved westward. As a tropical disturbance, the low crossed the Philippines with light winds. The system finally organized into a tropical depression and then a tropical storm on June 25. Sarah moved west-northwestward across the South China Sea, striking Central Vietnam before dissipating on June 26. Damage across the Philippines totaled 2.77 billion Philippine Pesos (1983 pesos), or US\$249.3 million (1983 dollars). ### Typhoon Tip (Auring) A tropical disturbance first noted east of the Philippines, the system moved through the archipelago as a tropical depression before strengthening briefly to a typhoon in the South China Sea. A combination of northeasterly vertical wind shear and proximity to land weakened the cyclone to a tropical storm before its landfall on Hai-nan and struck Chan Chiang, China as a tropical depression. Winds peaked at 34 knots (63 km/h) at Tate's Cairn in Hong Kong. ### Typhoon Vera (Bebeng) The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on July 12, east of the Philippines. It headed westward, strengthening to a tropical storm that night and a typhoon on the 13th. Vera made landfall on the 14th as an 85 mph (137 km/h) typhoon in the Philippines, weakened over the islands, and restrengthened over the South China Sea to a 100 mph (160 km/h) typhoon. Damage totaled US\$9 million in the Philippines. In Hong Kong, winds peaked at 60 knots (110 km/h) at Tate's Cairn. Vera struck Hainan Island on the 17th, crossed the Gulf of Tonkin, and made landfall near Haiphong, Vietnam on the 18th. Vera brought torrential flooding, resulting in the deaths of 106 people. ### Typhoon Wayne (Katring) Becoming a tropical depression east of the Philippines, Wayne strengthened rapidly to become a tropical storm on July 22, a typhoon on July 23, and a super typhoon around midday on July 24 before moving south of Taiwan into mainland China on July 25 and dissipating. In the Philippines, 20 perished due to flash flooding. Wayne was the fifth most intense tropical cyclone to impact Fujian between 1960 and 2005. Heavy rainfall led to severe flooding in Fujian and Guangdong. The total death toll reached 105. ### Typhoon Abby (Diding) First noted southeast of Guam on July 31, this system slowly matured into the season's second super typhoon as it moved west-northwest over the following nine days. Intensification was most rapid as it was slowly recurving northward on August 7 and August 8. After peaking early on August 9, Abby slowly weakened as it interacted with the main belt of the Westerlies. It managed to remain a major typhoon, with winds at or above 100 knots (190 km/h), for a week. Abby finally weakened back into a tropical storm on August 17 just before its landfall at Hamamatsu, Japan. By late that night, Abby completed the transition to an extratropical cyclone after moving through central Japan. Two perished from Abby in Japan. Its deluge led to numerous landslides and the destruction of 19 bridges. Commercial traffic by land, sea, and air was also paralyzed by the cyclone. ### Tropical Storm Carmen (Etang) Originating in the monsoon trough in the South China Sea in early August, a low level circulation was first spotted about 370 km east of Vietnam on August 8. Slow development ensued, and the system became a tropical depression during the night of August 12. Tracking slowly north-northeast, Carmen began to accelerate to the east-northeast towards the Luzon Strait, steered by Abby. This acceleration was likely a redevelopment of the low-pressure area downshear. The system became a tropical storm early morning of August 14 as it continued to close the distance to Abby. By late morning on August 15, absorption into Abby was complete. ### Severe Tropical Storm Ben An area of strong thunderstorms formed east of Abby, developing a low level center on August 12 on the western side of the thunderstorm activity, due to westerly vertical wind shear from nearby Abby. It developed into a tropical storm that night and moved northwest due to Abby's influence on the steering across the western Pacific at that time. Turning to the west, Ben moved along the southern coast of Honshū and made landfall west of Hamamatsu. Due to land interaction and increasing upper level westerly wind shear, Ben became an exposed low level circulation on August 14 in the Sea of Japan, eventually dissipating late on August 15. ### Tropical Storm Dom (Gening) On August 17, a tropical disturbance was noted west of Guam. Slow development ensued, and the system became a tropical storm late on August 19. As a deep cyclone near Japan linked up with the monsoon trough, the cyclone turned sharply northeast on August 20. Persisitently sheared by strong northeasterly flow aloft initially, once Dom recurved its convection was left completely behind, weakening the system to a tropical depression on August 21. Thunderstorms began to redevelop near the center, and by midday on August 23 Dom was a tropical storm once more. At this point Dom was moving erratically as the trough near Japan moved off to the east, and by August 24 Dom turned back to the north-northwest. By August 25 strong winds aloft weakened Dom once more, and the cyclone dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 26. ### Tropical Depression 09W This system formed well north of the normal climatological position to the west of Dom, as the monsoon trough was similarly displaced. It was first noted on August 25, but showed no further development. Thunderstorms were located about 300 miles (480 km) south of the center, but since the central pressure was under 1000 mb, it was considered a tropical depression while an exposed low level swirl. The system did develop some central convection, and moved northward into South Korea, bringing showers to the region, and dissipated late on August 27. ### Typhoon Ellen (Herming) It was first noted as a tropical disturbance east of the International Dateline on August 26, and became a tropical storm soon after crossing in the dateline on the morning of August 29. A strong high pressure ridge offshore Japan led to no further development over the next 5 days, and the cyclone began to track south of west. Dropping down to a weak tropical depression late on September 1, conditions aloft finally improved and the cyclone strengthened into a typhoon on September 3 as it tracked west-northwest. Approaching Luzon late on September 5, Ellen intensified rapidly into a strong typhoon before the terrain began to weaken the cyclone. Its final landfall was at Macau on the morning of September 9 as a minor typhoon. Hong Kong experienced extensive damage, with six killed and 277 injured. Winds gusted to 134 knots (248 km/h) at Stanley. Twenty-two ships ran aground in the harbor. Rainfall totaled 231.8 millimetres (9.13 in) at Hong Kong's Royal Observatory. The second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong, and the first during a typhoon passage, occurred during Ellen. Ellen was Hong Kong's worst typhoon since Typhoon Hope of 1979. By late on the 9th, Ellen was rapidly dissipating in mainland China. ### Tropical Depression 02C ### Typhoon Forrest (Ising) Super Typhoon Forrest developed in the Western Pacific Ocean in September over the open ocean. It was the fastest-developing tropical cyclone on record, with a pressure drop of 100 mbar in a 24‐hour period, reaching a minimum pressure of 876 millibars (25.9 inHg) at peak intensity. A tornado struck Inza Island, destroying 26 homes and injuring 26 people, as the cyclone passed by Okinawa. Forrest struck Japan as a tropical storm on the 28th. Kadena Air Force base reported winds gusting to 74 knots (137 km/h) and rainfall totaling 300 millimetres (12 in) during Forrest's passage. Up to 483 millimetres (19.0 in) of rainfall fell across Japan, damaging 46,000 homes. Overall, the storm caused 21 casualties and moderate damage. ### Typhoon Georgia (Luding) A large area of thunderstorm activity formed west of the Philippines. Rapidly organizing on September 28, Georgia became a tropical storm by the next morning. Moving westward, it tracked across Hainan Island to the south of China. Wind gusts reached 60 knots (110 km/h) both at Tate's Cairn and Kowloon Tsai Hill in Hong Kong. Ultimately the storm made its final landfall in Hà Nam Ninh, Vietnam before dissipating while entering Laos. Georgia killed 26, damaged 7000 buildings, and led to a loss of 247,000 acres (1,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of rice. The 13 to 14 inches (330 to 360 mm) of rainfall it brought to Vietnam relieved drought conditions. ### Tropical Depression Mameng This system was recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory, the JMA and the PAGASA. A tropical depression formed in the South China Sea near Xisha Dao on October 2, and moved northwest, dissipating near Hanoi a couple days later. ### Tropical Storm Herbert (Neneng) The initial disturbance was first spotted 250 miles (402 km) east of Mindanao. Moving westward for the next few days without development, the system moved into the South China Sea. The system became a tropical storm on October 7 to due significantly increased low-level southwesterlies spinning up its circulation. The cyclone then moved west-northwest, striking Nha Trang, Vietnam. The convective pattern was slow to fade as it drifted westward across Indochina over the next few days. Forty perished during this tropical cyclone. ### Severe Tropical Storm Ida (Oniang) An inverted trough appeared near Saipan on October 6, which appears to be linked with pre-existing convection within an upper-level cyclone, which appeared as early as October 3. By late on the 6th, a closed circulation formed. Continuing to develop, the system became a tropical depression on the morning of October 8 as it moved northwest. Becoming a typhoon on October 10 as it was recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies, the cyclone passed only 150 km southeast of Honshū. Since it was a small cyclone, no damage occurred within Japan. By late on October 11, Ida evolved into an extratropical cyclone which moved eastward through the northern Pacific. ### Severe Tropical Storm Joe (Pepang) One of three consecutive tropical cyclones to form in the South China Sea, the initial disturbance was first noted well south of Guam on October 6. The system moved westward, and developed a closed wind circulation by midday on October 9. A new center formed to the south, which complicated the system's development. Remaining poorly organized in the Philippine Sea due to northerly vertical wind shear, the tropical depression crossed central Luzon. Now in the South China Sea, the system became better organized and developed into a tropical storm and typhoon as it moved northwest. Soon after becoming a typhoon, Joe moved into southern China about 190 kilometres (120 mi) west of Hong Kong and quickly dissipated inland. Wind gusts reached 78 knots (144 km/h) at Tai O, while rainfall amounts of 183.9 millimetres (7.24 in) fell at Tate's Cairn. ### Tropical Storm Kim (Rosing) Tropical Storm Kim, which formed in the South China Sea on October 14, hit southeastern Vietnam late on October 16. It weakened over land, but retained its circulation, and redeveloped into a tropical depression on October 19 in the northeastern Bay of Bengal in the North Indian Ocean. Kim continued northwestward, and dissipated on October 20 over Myanmar. Even though Tropical Storm Kim was a weak storm, its heavy rains caused serious flash flooding and mudslides in Vietnam and Thailand. In Thailand, already deluged by an earlier tropical storm, there was moderate flooding in Bangkok. Elsewhere, over 300 boats and 3,000 homes and buildings were destroyed and the storm severely damaged much of the rice harvest. Kim caused 200 fatalities and extensive crop damage from heavy rainfall. ### Severe Tropical Storm Lex (Sisang) First noted near the Marshall Islands on October 14, the tropical disturbance moved westward for the next couple of days without and further development. An upper-level ridge built over the system on October 16 while near Truk, which encouraged slow development. The system developed a weak surface circulation which progressed across the central Philippines. Once it entered the South China Sea, development increased and it became a tropical depression, then tropical storm, on October 22. Transcribing a cyclonic loop, Lex continued to intensify and was a typhoon by October 25. Moving close to Hainan Island, Lex weakened to a tropical storm while entering the Gulf of Tonkin. Winds gusted to 48 knots (89 km/h) at Waglan Island. The cyclone made landfall near Đồng Hới, Vietnam on October 26 as a moderate tropical storm, and then rapidly weakened after moving inland. At least 200 fishermen were killed, with 81 of the total from the oil drilling ship Glomar Java Sea which sank during the storm. ### Tropical Depression Trining ### Typhoon Marge (Uring) This system began as a tropical disturbance with a weak circulation near 7N 172E. Becoming the fourth super typhoon of the season, Marge stairstepped west-northwest east of the Philippines before recurving east of Japan. During recurvature, its forward motion reached 54 knots (100 km/h), becoming one of the fastest known tropical cyclones on record. ### Tropical Storm Norris This system was spawned just ahead of a frontal boundary extending from the extratropical cyclone formerly known as Marge. A midget tropical storm, Norris quickly evolved on November 8 and recurved ahead of the frontal boundary well east of Asia, primarily threatening shipping in the western Pacific. Within three days of formation, Norris had been absorbed by the advancing cold front. ### Typhoon Orchid (Warling) A tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression on November 14 over the open West Pacific. It tracked southwestward then westward, slowly organizing into a tropical storm on the 17th. Orchid's motion became erratic, and it drifted northward, always remaining within 850 nautical miles (1,570 km) of Typhoon Percy, a slow-moving typhoon in the South China Sea. Orchid reached her peak of 145 mph (233 km/h) winds on the 23rd, before vertical shear caused it to weaken. The storm turned southward, where it dissipated on the 27th. A total of 167 fatalities occurred when the Philippine vessel MV Dona Cassandra capsized due to high waves off the coast of Mindanao. A total of 219 people survived the shipwreck, including 98 that were rescued. In addition, 89 persons were injured, 18 at sea. At the time of the shipwreck, the boat had 387 passengers and 36 crew members. Onshore the Philippines, three people were killed and thousands were displaced. ### Typhoon Percy (Yayang) Located not too distant to the southwest of Orchid, Percy thrived in a divergent region created by Orchid's outflow pattern beginning on November 17. Rapid development occurred on the morning of November 19 while in the South China Sea, and the system meandered due to the weakness in steering created by Orchid to its northeast. The cyclone managed 160 kilometres (99 mi) of movement through November 23. Briefly becoming a typhoon, eventually Percy became entrained in Orchid's inflow band and began to be sheared by Orchid's opposing outflow pattern. Other than moving through the Philippines while in the initial tropical depression phase, Percy affected no other land masses. ### Severe Tropical Storm Ruth (Ading) This system began along the near equatorial trough southeast of Guam on November 15. Moving slowly westward, there was little additional development until November 19. Thunderstorm activity significantly increased in coverage along a 1,670 kilometres (1,040 mi) east–west axis, with a center forming near 5N 147E. The system moved slowly northwest until November 23. Orchid acted to limit its development by robbing inflow from this disturbance. On the 23rd it became a tropical depression before executing an anticyclonic loop. Upper-level conditions became hostile soon afterwards, and the depression weakened. Into November 27 the system moved erratically and went through cycles of convective development and shearing. When Orchid weakened into a tropical depression, Ruth began to develop rapidly and became a tropical storm early on November 28. A frontal zone on its northwest side led to an intense gale in that quadrant, which led to the upgrade. The cyclone nearly became a typhoon later that day before vertical wind shear returned, introduced by a fresh cold outbreak from Asia. The cyclone degenerated to an exposed low-level swirl on November 30. ### Tropical Storm Sperry (Barang) The initial disturbance formed along the near equatorial trough after Ruth dissipated. On November 30 a surface circulation formed 740 kilometres (460 mi) south of Guam. By December 1, the system appeared to be forming into a tropical cyclone but its thunderstorm activity shifted over 900 kilometres (560 mi) to the northwest of the center. Taking a day to recover, the system attempted to reorganize and became a tropical storm early on December 3. Southerly vertical wind shear limited its development for much of its life cycle. Turning eastward, it reached its maximum intensity late on the 3rd before shearing apart on December 4. Early on December 5, the system degenerated into a weak area of low pressure. ### Severe Tropical Storm Thelma (Krising) This system formed east of the Caroline Islands on December 11 near 4N 170E. Over the next couple days, an upper cyclone to its north shifted westward, which helped lead to increased outflow and a low-level circulation. It moved rapidly westward for the next 60 hours as a poorly defined low despite increasing convective organization. By late morning on December 16, it became a tropical storm. The system tracked along a smooth parabola east of the Philippines becoming a moderately strong tropical storm. Intense vertical wind shear struck the cyclone as it moved northeast at a clip up to 27 knots (50 km/h), and the system rapidly weakened. ### Tropical Depression Dadang ## Storm names ### International During the season 23 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, when it was determined that they had become tropical storms. These names were contributed to a revised list from 1979. ### Philippines The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility. PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility. Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient, names are taken from an auxiliary list, the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts. Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1987 season. This is the same list used for the 1979 season. PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet, with names of Filipino female names ending with "ng" (A, B, K, D, etc.). Names that were not assigned/going to use are marked in . ## Season effects This table will list all the storms that developed in the northwestern Pacific Ocean west of the International Date Line and north of the equator during 1983. It will include their intensity, duration, name, areas affected, deaths, missing persons (in parentheses), and damage totals. Classification and intensity values will be based on estimations conducted by the JMA. All damage figures will be in 1983 USD. Damages and deaths from a storm will include when the storm was a precursor wave or an extratropical low. \\|- \\| TD \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| South China \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| TD \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Sarah \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Tip (Auring) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, South China \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Vera (Bebeng) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Philippines, South China, Vietnam \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Wayne (Katring) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, South China \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Abby (Diding) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Japan \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Gil \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Wake Island \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Carmen (Etang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Ben \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Japan \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Dom (Gening) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| TD \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| South China \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| 09W \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Ryukyu Islands, Korean Peninsula \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Ellen (Herming) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Philippines, Taiwan, Southeast China \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| 02C \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Marshall Islands \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Forrest (Ising) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Mariana Islands, East China, South Korea, Japan \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Georgia (Luding) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, South China, Vietnam, Laos \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Mameng \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, Vietnam, Laos \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Herbert (Neneng) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Ida (Oniang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Mariana Islands, Japan \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Joe (Pepang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, South China \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Kim (Rosing) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand \\|\\| \\|\\| \> \\|\\| \\|- \\| Lex (Sisang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, South China, Vietnam, Laos \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \> \\|\\| \\|- \\| Trining \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines, Vietnam \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Marge (Uring) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Mariana Islands \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Norris \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Orchid (Warling) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands, Philippines \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Percy (Yayang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Vietnam, Philippines \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Ruth (Ading) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Sperry (Barang) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Thelma (Krising) \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Caroline Islands \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Dadang \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| Philippines \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- ## See also - List of Pacific typhoon seasons - 1983 Pacific hurricane season - 1983 Atlantic hurricane season - 1983 North Indian Ocean cyclone season - Australian cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84 - South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84 - South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1982–83, 1983–84
8,836,909	Captain Jack (Billy Joel song)	1,173,774,457	Song by Billy Joel	[ "1973 songs", "American hard rock songs", "Art rock songs", "Billy Joel songs", "LGBT-related songs", "Masturbation in fiction", "Song recordings produced by Michael Stewart (musician)", "Songs about drugs", "Songs about heroin", "Songs written by Billy Joel" ]	"Captain Jack" is a song by Billy Joel featured on his 1973 album Piano Man as its closing track with a live version on his 1981 album Songs in the Attic. It is considered by some to be the most important and pivotal of his early compositions because his performance of the song at an April 15, 1972, live radio concert at Sigma Studios on WMMR in Philadelphia, and the subsequent airplay this live version received on the station, brought him to the attention of major record labels, including Columbia, with whom he would sign a recording contract in 1973. ## Composition Joel wrote "Captain Jack" in late 1971, while sitting in his apartment in Oyster Bay, Long Island, looking out the window, trying to find inspiration for a song. Across the street was a housing project, and he observed suburban teenagers going into the project and obtaining heroin from a dealer known as "Captain Jack". "It's about coming out of the New York suburbs," Joel told John Kalodner in 1974. "But in my travels I have seen a lot of the same suburb all over the country. The song is sort of brutal, but sometimes it is good to be brutal and offend people—it keeps them on their toes." The song, according to Joel, is an anti-drug song. He says, "What's so horrible about an affluent young white teenager's life that he's got to shoot heroin? It's really a song about what I consider to be a pathetic loser kind of lifestyle. I've been accused of, 'Oh, this song promotes drug use and masturbation.' No, no, no. Listen to the song. This guy is a loser." In writing about the song in the liner notes of his Songs in the Attic album, Joel once again emphasized the point: "...so many friends shoveled under the Long Island dirt. The miracle of modern chemistry killed them if Vietnam didn't." ## Pre-release To promote his debut album, Cold Spring Harbor, Joel undertook a tour that lasted through most of the spring and into the early summer of 1972. One of the people who noticed and liked the LP was the music director of Philadelphia radio station WMMR-FM, Dennis Wilen. He arranged to have Joel perform a concert for radio-station listeners who won tickets. On Saturday night, April 15, 1972, Joel performed an hour-long concert in front of these contest winners at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia. Joel and his touring band from 1971 to 1972 (Larry Russell on bass guitar, Al Hertzberg on lead guitar, Rhys Clark on drums) performed 12 songs, seven from Cold Spring Harbor and five songs he had not yet recorded. Some of the songs were later recorded for the Piano Man LP, including "The Ballad of Billy the Kid", "Travelin' Prayer", and "Captain Jack". "Captain Jack" was immediately embraced by WMMR's audience. For the next year and a half, the station kept its live version of the song in regular rotation. Listeners called in, wanting to know where they could find the song and on what album it appeared. The song was such a big hit in Philadelphia that several New York radio stations got their own tape copies and began to play it as well. Though Columbia Records' then-president, Clive Davis, first noticed Joel at the Mar y Sol festival in Puerto Rico on Easter Sunday, April 2, 1972, the constant airplay of Joel's unreleased song kept the label's attention. Columbia Records did their best to track Joel down. After turning down a record deal from Atlantic Records, Joel signed with Columbia in the spring of 1973. ## Release and reaction "Captain Jack" was one of the 10 songs recorded in Los Angeles for Joel's Columbia debut, Piano Man. It quickly became a staple of FM rock stations after the album's release in November 1973. This, along with "Piano Man", "The Entertainer", and "New York State of Mind", were the songs that Joel was best known for before the release of The Stranger in 1977. Reception for the song was mostly positive. Jack Breschard of Rolling Stone called it one of Joel's "best efforts". Ira Mayer called it Joel's "signature piece," and Stephen Holden said the song, a "centerpiece" of the album, "compelled attention for [its] despairing portraits of urban fringe life, despite [the] underlying shallowness." Holden also believed that the song had a Bob Dylan feel to it. "As with so many rock stars, one of his most important early influences was Bob Dylan–in fact, 'Piano Man' and 'Captain Jack,' two of his more ambitious early tunes, as well as the more recent and better 'She's Always a Woman,' are practically keyboard parodies of Dylan critiques," Holden says. Author Hank Bordowitz called "Captain Jack" "as bleak a portrait of growing up in the affluent suburbs as anything before L.A. punk hit nearly a decade later". Stuart Levine of Variety called the song "lyrically expansive" and "dark." Ron Rosenbaum of Slate, in a very negative review of Joel's work, criticized "Captain Jack," summarizing the song as, "Loser dresses up in poseur clothes and masturbates and shoots up heroin and is an all-around phony in the eyes of the songwriter who is so, so superior to him." Joel made his first television appearance in the wake of the release of Piano Man, on the syndicated Don Kirshner's Rock Concert program, in a performance recorded live in Chicago in March 1974. "Captain Jack" was one of the three songs that were broadcast. In keeping with U.S. broadcast television standards of the time, Joel was forced to alter the lyrics slightly. Instead of singing the line "You just sit at home and masturbate", he sang, "You just sit at home and la la la". Kirshner recalled, "I knew he was going to be a big star, and so did he." By 1980, "Captain Jack" had mostly disappeared from Joel's concert setlists. Nevertheless, he always played it in Philadelphia, because he never forgot the role the song and the city played in his early career. A version recorded at The Spectrum in July 1980 was used on his live album, Songs in the Attic. Joel wrote, "'Captain Jack' plays with much more power and conviction when a roaring Philadelphia audience sets off a kind of internal explosion and the adrenaline screams through our veins ... When we play 'Captain Jack', we are actually committing an act of pure brutality." Timothy White of Rolling Stone did not like this version, calling it "grating". The song entered the news again in 2000 when it was mistakenly used during Hillary Clinton's announcement that she would be campaigning for U.S. Senate. According to an NPR report on worst campaign songs, a staffer notes that the playing of "Captain Jack" was a mistake. It was played from the Billy Joel compilation CD Greatest Hits Volume 1, and the song intended to be played was "New York State of Mind", which was track five on the CD. The Clinton staffer inadvertently played track two, which was "Captain Jack". Her presumed opponent, Rudolph Giuliani, who ended up not running for the Senate, criticized the song's use because of its alleged glorification of drugs. Giuliani even read the lyrics to the song in a live press conference. Joel replied in a statement, "There are a lot of important issues facing the voters in this Senate race. Is a politician's interpretation of a song I wrote nearly 30 years ago an issue to the voters of New York state? I do not think so." The song was also featured in the 2018 movie Game Night. In a 2019 interview marking his 70th birthday, Joel commented on why he rarely plays the song anymore: "He didn’t age well. Captain Jack’s been demoted to Private Jack. In the verses, there’s only two chords, and it goes on and on, and it’s kind of a dreary song if you think of the lyrics. The kid is sitting home jerkin’ off. His father's dead in the swimming pool. He lives this dull suburban existence until he gets high. One of the last times I was singing the song, I said, 'This is really depressing.' The only relief you get is when the chorus kicks in. When I'm doing the song, I feel kinda dreary and I don't like doing the song anymore, although we'll probably do it again."
32,797,871	Lift Off (song)	1,172,664,924	null	[ "2011 singles", "2011 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Def Jam Recordings singles", "Jay-Z songs", "Kanye West songs", "Roc Nation singles", "Roc-A-Fella Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Don Jazzy", "Song recordings produced by Jeff Bhasker", "Song recordings produced by Kanye West", "Song recordings produced by Q-Tip (musician)", "Songs written by Bruno Mars", "Songs written by Jay-Z", "Songs written by Jeff Bhasker", "Songs written by Kanye West", "Songs written by Seal (musician)" ]	"Lift Off" is a song by American rappers Jay-Z and Kanye West featuring the former's wife and American singer Beyoncé. It was written by Kanye West, Jay-Z, Jeff Bhasker, Mike Dean, Bruno Mars and Seal, while production was handled by West, Bhasker, Mike Dean, Pharrell, Q-Tip, and Don Jazzy for Jay-Z's and West's collaboration album, Watch the Throne (2011). The song was rumored to be released as the lead single from the album containing additional vocals by Bruno Mars. However, Mars never appeared on the song and it was sent to urban contemporary radio on August 23, 2011. Musically, "Lift Off" is a pop song which uses baroque strings. It contains a chorus sung by Beyoncé, while other verses are sung by West and Jay-Z in a rap style. Instrumentally, the song is completed with synthesizers, martial drums and horns. "Lift Off" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics who generally highlighted the song and praised its hook as well as Beyoncé's vocals, though some criticized the vocals by West and Jay-Z. The song peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and number twenty one on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Lift Off" was performed live by Jay-Z and Kanye West during their tour in promotion of Watch the Throne titled Watch the Throne Tour (2011–12). The song's instrumental was used as the outro at the end of Jay-Z and Beyoncé's On the Run Tour (2014) and Beyoncé performed her part of the song during her Renaissance World Tour (2023). ## Background and composition "Lift Off" was written by Kanye West, Jay-Z, Jeff Bhasker, Mike Dean, Bruno Mars and Seal, while production was handled by West, Bhasker, Mike Dean, Pharrell, Q-Tip and Don Jazzy. The song was recorded in Sydney, Australia. In early May 2011, it was rumored that Bruno Mars recorded vocals for the song along with Beyoncé and it was reported that the song would be released as the lead single from the album. However, Mars never appeared on the song and Beyoncé sang several lines during the chorus instead. In February, 2011, Kanye West and Jay-Z held a party at the AMNH's Hayden Planetarium. During the party, "Lift Off" was one of the previewed songs. It was described as a "standout track" on the album by a writer for Vulture. "Lift Off" is a pop song mainly in 6/8 time, which features baroque strings and a chorus sung by Beyoncé, accompanied with synthesizers. The song contains horns and martial drums as Beyoncé sings, "We gon' take it to the moon/ Take it to the stars." Throughout the song West's vocals are enhanced by Auto-Tune in some places. Seal provides backing vocals in the song, which according to Jon Caramanica of The New York Times were "impossible-to-notice". In the song, Beyoncé sings about having "so many scars" and "taking this whole thing to the stars." Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter found an "old NASA movie sample and Kanye showing off his tattoos and inflexible singing voice." Simon Price of The Independent found neurofunk influences on "Lift Off". The NASA sample is from the Apollo 11 launch as spoken by Jack King. A writer of The Guardian compared the synthesizers in the song with the song "The Final Countdown" (1986) by Swedish rock band Europe. "Lift Off" was sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on August 23, 2011. According to several media, the song was very popular on Twitter and across the Internet, becoming a trending topic. Billboard magazine claimed that Jay-Z suggested a music video for it could appear. ## Critical reception "Lift Off" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Before the song was released, MTV News' Alvin Blanco heard a preview of the song and described it as "resounding... sounds like it was tailor-made to be performed in large stadiums." Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song "is rescued by Beyoncé, who whips the chorus with a belt so powerful you'd think it insulted her mother." Slant Magazine's Matthew Cole also praised the song writing, "'Lift Off' is a study in stylized blockbuster excess, with West's best fanfare since Encore eventually being drowned out by a simulated rocket launch that will sound awesome in your car stereo provided it doesn't cause your subwoofers to bust your windows." Rob Harvilla of Spin found a "hook so ridiculous ('We gon take it to the moon / Take it to the stars!') that only Beyoncé could sell it." Michaelangelo Matos of The Guardian praised the song calling it "bombastic". Digital Spy's Robert Copsey put "Lift Off" on his list of "Tracks to download" from the album. Evening Standard's John Aizlewood called the song "rocket-propelled". Rolling Stone's Matthew Perpetua commented: "Beyoncé joins the boys for a synth-heavy banger that takes off like a rocket and eventually arrives at a spacey, blissful resolution. It all but demands a sci-fi music video featuring Beyoncé as a sexy astronaut." David Amidon of PopMatters praised the hook of the song but said that it contained Jay-Z's "most disturbingly maudlin delivery" since the song "Pray" from American Gangster (2007). Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praised the song, calling it an "uptempo Watch the Throne highlight". Another writer for Billboard, Erika Ramírez, wrote: "Although it feels misplaced in between tracks 1 and 3, the 'stadium status' track is one to look forward to in seeing performed on the WTT tour." Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the song isn't "as Glee-ready as 'Empire State of Mind'." Andy Hutchins writing for The Village Voice said that "'Lift Off' isn't a hit" by concluding "Beyonce dominates; Kanye sounds half-invested at best; and Jay's presence is limited to four bars, one a Dale Earnhardt reference." Dan Aquilante of New York Post commented that the song was "slightly vapid but destined for radio... an optimistic piece in which Beyoncé... hits the booster rockets repeatedly". IGN's Chad Grischow wrote "the song is actually the least compelling of the album, sounding far more interesting when the heavy bass thump finally strips away late for a great piano melody and bongo fuelled beat." Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle said that Beyoncé's vocals were "confident" throughout the "grand, athletic and anthemic" song. The song also received some negative reviews. In his review of Watch the Throne, Andy Kellman of AllMusic wrote, "The lowest point is 'Lift Off', a bombastic mess; West's stillborn, sung vocal clashes against a triumphant hook from Beyoncé, while the behind-the-scenes cast... overcook a regal and rugged, yet ultimately muddled, production". Jayson Rodriguez of XXL said that "'Lift Off' feels too airy on a project this heavy". Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot described Beyoncé's vocals as "disengaged". Calling the song a "letdown", Tyrone S. Reid of Seattle Post-Intelligencer wrote that "even with Beyoncé supplying the hook, 'Lift Off' is dismal". ## Live performances "Lift Off" was included in the set list of the Watch the Throne Tour (2011–12) by Jay-Z and Kanye West. David Peisner of Spin magazine noted that the rappers didn't sing their lines during the performance, but ad-libbed over the backing track. The Orange County Register's Ben Wener noted that the song was "annoyingly abbreviated: [it] barely registered a blip toward the end". "Lift Off" was also part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay-Z's co-headlining On the Run Tour (2014) where it was played as the tour's outro following the finale. West performed the song for one of his "Sunday Service" concerts on March 10, 2019. Beyoncé included the song as part of her setlist for the Renaissance World Tour in 2023. ## Chart performance Before its release as a single, the song charted at number eighty one on the Australian Singles Chart for the week of August 15, 2011, and peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart. "Lift Off" became the forty third best-selling single in South Korea in 2011. On the chart issue dated August 20, 2011 "Lift Off" debuted at number forty eight on the UK Singles Chart. It did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number twenty on the August 27, 2011 issue of the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which acts as a twenty five-song extension to the Hot 100. ## Usage in media In July 2012, American rapper J. Cole sampled "Lift Off" on his song "The Cure". ## Credits and personnel - Produced by Kanye West, Jeff Bhasker and Mike Dean - Co-produced by Pharrell and Q-Tip - Additional production by Don Jazzy - Orchestral engineering: Pawel Sek - Recorded by Noah Goldstein at Barford Estate, Sydney - Additional programming by LMFAO, Anthony Kilhoffer and Hit-Boy - Mixed by Mike Dean, LMFAO and Anthony Kilhoffer at (The Mercer) Hotel, New York - Additional vocals: Seal, Mr Hudson, Don Jazzy, Bankulli and Ricardo Lewis - Additional creative input: Vincent "Dj Magnum" Biessy ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history
28,326,250	Benjamin N. Duke House	1,171,024,707	Historic house in Manhattan, New York	[ "Beaux-Arts architecture in New York City", "Duke family residences", "Fifth Avenue", "Gilded Age mansions", "Houses completed in 1899", "Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "Upper East Side" ]	The Benjamin N. Duke House, also the Duke–Semans Mansion and the Benjamin N. and Sarah Duke House, is a mansion at 1009 Fifth Avenue, at the southeast corner with 82nd Street, on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. It was built between 1899 and 1901 and was designed by the firm of Welch, Smith & Provot. The house, along with three other mansions on the same block, was built speculatively by developers William W. Hall and Thomas M. Hall. The Benjamin N. Duke House is one of a few remaining private mansions along Fifth Avenue. It is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The house, located across from the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Fifth Avenue building, consists of seven stories and a basement. The exterior of the house is built in the Beaux-Arts style, while the interior was originally designed in the French Renaissance style. The ground floor is clad in limestone, while the facade of the upper floors is made of brick; the mansion is capped by a copper mansard roof. The facade is divided vertically into six bays on 82nd Street and three bays on Fifth Avenue. The main entrance on 82nd Street leads to a stairway that rises through the building. Originally, the dining room, music room, parlor and kitchen were on the second floor, while the other stories contained bedrooms. The house was divided into three apartments in the 1990s, and it had 12 bedrooms and 14 bathrooms by the 2010s. American Tobacco Company chairman Benjamin N. Duke acquired the house in April 1901 and moved there in 1907. Benjamin's brother James bought the house in 1907 and moved to the James B. Duke House in 1912. The mansion then served as the residence of Benjamin Duke's son Angier Buchanan Duke until 1919, when Angier's sister Mary Lillian Duke and her husband A. J. Drexel Biddle Jr. moved in. After Mary's death in 1960, her daughter Mary Semans took over the house with her family. The building became a city landmark in 1974 after the Semans family refused to sell the building to developers; it was renovated in the 1980s and again in the 1990s. Semans sold the house in 2006 to businessman Tamir Sapir. Mexican telecom magnate Carlos Slim bought the house in 2010 and tried to resell it in 2015 and 2023. ## Site The Benjamin N. Duke House is at 1009 Fifth Avenue in the Upper East Side neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It is on the southeast corner of 82nd Street and Fifth Avenue. The rectangular land lot covers 2,717 sq ft (252.4 m<sup>2</sup>), with a frontage of 27.17 ft (8.28 m) on Fifth Avenue to the west and 100 ft (30 m) on 82nd Street to the north. Directly to the north, the building is adjacent to a 15-story apartment building at 1010 Fifth Avenue, which was completed in 1925. A townhouse at 2 East 82nd Street abuts the building to the east. To the south are two apartment buildings: 1001 Fifth Avenue, designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee in 1979, as well as 998 Fifth Avenue, designed by McKim, Mead & White and opened in 1910. The main entrance of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Fifth Avenue building is directly across Fifth Avenue to the west, adjoining Central Park. Historically, the house was part of Fifth Avenue's "Millionaires' Row", a grouping of mansions owned by some of the United States' wealthiest people. Historically, the Benjamin N. Duke House was one of four adjacent mansions at 1006 through 1009 Fifth Avenue that were developed by William W. and Thomas M. Hall and completed in 1901. Welch, Smith & Provot was hired to design all four mansions, as well as the adjacent townhouse at 2 East 82nd Street. Among the notable occupants of the other houses was the National Audubon Society, which moved into 1006 Fifth Avenue in 1938. The houses at 1006 and 1007 Fifth Avenue were demolished in 1972 to make way for an apartment building, and the house at 1008 Fifth Avenue was also demolished in 1977. ## Architecture The house was built between 1899 and 1901 to designs by the firm of Welch, Smith & Provot, composed of Alexander M. Welch, Bowen Bancroft Smith, and George Provot. Welch, Smith & Provot. who worked nearly exclusively for William W. and Thomas M. Hall, designed many buildings on the Upper East Side in the early 20th century. The house was built in the Beaux-Arts style with a French Renaissance interior, decorated mainly with Louis XV style furniture. P. A. Fiebiger created much of the house's metalwork. ### Facade The main portion of the house rises five stories from the street and is capped by a two-story mansard roof. The 82nd Street elevation of the facade, to the north, is vertically divided into six bays of openings; the facade is further split into a five-bay-wide main section and a one-bay-wide eastern wing. There are three bays of openings on the west, facing Fifth Avenue. Both the Fifth Avenue elevation and the third-westernmost bay on the 82nd Street elevation are curved outward in a manner resembling the Baroque style. The house is separated from either street by a recessed areaway, which is delineated by a cast iron railing along the sidewalk. The basement and first floor are clad with rusticated blocks of limestone. The facade of the upper floors is made of brick, with limestone quoins at each corner, as well as large pieces of limestone trim. The roof is clad with red tile and is topped by copper cresting; metal finials extend from the top of the roof. The mansard roof may have been influenced by the Beaux-Arts style; the house is designed with further elements of the Beaux-Arts style, including cartouches on the facade and wrought-iron window guards. The copper cresting on the roof, which was mass-produced when the house was built, had to be replaced with a custom-made replica in the 1980s. The modern-day house has six metal finials, each weighing 250 lb (110 kg) and measuring 9 ft (2.7 m) tall. There are also two outdoor terraces, including one on the roof. #### 82nd Street The main portion of the 82nd Street elevation consists of the westernmost five bays of that elevation. The third bay from the west, a curved central bay, is flanked by two-bay-wide pavilions that project slightly from the facade. The house's main entrance is in the center bay, underneath a metal-and-glass marquee at the ground story. The doors are made of wrought iron and glass and are flanked by engaged columns and narrow windows on either side. Above the first floor, the center bay consists of a three-story-high window frame made of limestone. On the second story, there are four windows in the center bay; there is a lintel and cartouche above the two center windows and a cartouche above each of the outer windows. The center bay has a rectangular window on the third floor and a segmentally-arched window with cartouche on the fourth floor. Both the third- and fourth-floor windows of the third bay have iron window guards. A balustrade runs above the fourth floor of the third bay. On the ground story, the side pavilions (comprising the first, second, fourth, and fifth bays from west) have rectangular windows flanked by brackets. These brackets support balconies on the second floor, behind which are French windows; there are triangular pediments above each of the second-story French windows. Within the side pavilions, the windows on the third and fourth floor of each bay are connected by limestone frames, and there are iron window guards in front of the windows. Above the fourth story, brackets hold up a horizontal band course protruding from the facade. There are rectangular windows at the fifth story, as well as limestone belt courses that run across the facade. An ornate cornice, with modillions, runs across the facade just above the fifth floor, with a stone balustrade above the cornice. Dormers with segmentally-arched cartouches protrude from the mansard roof. The wing at the eastern end of the 82nd Street facade is one bay wide and is clad with rusticated limestone blocks at its base. An oriel window, which resembles a conservatory, projects from the facade at the second story. There is a fluted corbel below the oriel window, as well as floral ornament around the window. Similarly to the other bays, the third floor contains a rectangular window, and the fourth floor includes a segmental arch with a cartouche just above it. Above the fourth floor, the facade of the eastern wing is recessed behind a balustrade. #### Fifth Avenue On Fifth Avenue, all three bays are curved outward and are placed within a limestone frame. As with the 82nd Street elevation, the basement and first floors are clad with rusticated limestone; the outer portions of the facade above the first floor are made of red brick. There are limestone balustrades in front of the second-floor windows, as well as garlands on the spandrel panel between the second- and third-story windows. The third- and fourth-story windows all have iron window guards, and the third-story windows are additionally topped by brackets. As with the center bay of the 82nd Street elevation, there is a balustrade above the fourth floor and a cornice above the fifth floor. ### Features The house is variously cited as covering 19,000 sq ft (1,800 m<sup>2</sup>) or 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m<sup>2</sup>); according to The Wall Street Journal, the house covers 19,628 sq ft (1,823.5 m<sup>2</sup>). The space is split across eight levels, including a basement. #### Original design The structure originally had either seven or eight bedrooms, as well as ten bathrooms. There were also eleven fireplaces and three elevators. The interior of the house was originally decorated in the French Neoclassical style. The original decorations included sconces, moldings, and wood paneling, which were largely preserved in later years. The first through third floors largely retain their original layout. The main entrance on 82nd Street leads to an outer vestibule clad with marble; a set of doors leads to a stair hall and other ground-level spaces. Within the stair hall is a curved staircase to the second floor, which has an iron railing. The staircase runs the entire height of the building, linking with each story. The staircase opens directly into a music room on the second floor. The music room has arched doorways on its west and east walls, which respectively lead to a parlor and a dining room. The music room's south wall contains an elevator and another doorway, both of which are topped by panels with motifs depicting musical instruments. The dining room, to the east of the music room, is decorated with roundels with putti; vines painted using a trompe-l'œil technique; simple paneling on the walls; and a marble fireplace mantel. There is a kitchen to the east of the dining room. The parlor, west of the music room has wall paneling ornamented by classical moldings, urns, and cartouches, as well as a white fireplace mantel topped by a frieze with guilloché moldings. In addition, the parlor windows facing Fifth Avenue feature ornate frames with brackets, which support entablatures above the windows. On the upper floors, the stairway connects with a landing that is flanked by two main rooms to the west and the east. The master bedroom is to the east of the third-floor landing, while a library room is to the west. The doorways in the master bedroom are decorated with foliate and guilloché moldings, and the master bedroom also has a marble fireplace mantel. A plainly designed bedroom is to the east of the master bedroom, within the house's easternmost wing. The western part of the third floor is occupied by a rococo-style library with a red-marble mantel, as well as bookcase built into the walls. #### Modifications Karl Bock redesigned the house in the 1920s, when many of the original Victorian designs were simplified. Bock further renovated some of the spaces in the 1930s and 1940s. These included an oval bathroom with mirrors and black marble on the walls; another bathroom with blue glass tiles and a modern-style sink; and a dressing room with ribbon-striped sycamore. The modern-day interior also is decorated with "gold-leaf trimmed fixtures and intricate friezes". By the mid-1980s, two offices occupied the western and eastern portions of the ground floor. The Dukes occupied an apartment on the second and third floors, while they rented out another apartment on the fourth and fifth floors; in addition, there were servants' rooms on the sixth floor. In 1995, the original residence was divided into three apartments, as well as a 250 sq ft (23 m<sup>2</sup>) room for the Duke family on the ground floor. The first four stories became a four-story apartment, measuring 9,800 sq ft (910 m<sup>2</sup>). Another apartment, spanning one story was on the fifth floor. An additional floor was created by raising the mansard roof, accommodating a third apartment on the sixth and seventh floors. By the 2010s, the house had 12 bedrooms and 14 bathrooms. ## History Before William W. and Thomas M. Hall had developed the mansions at 1006–1009 Fifth Avenue, the site at the southeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 82nd Street was undeveloped. In July 1899, the Halls hired Welch, Smith & Provot to design three five-story mansions at the southeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 82nd Street at a cost of \$255,000 (). The New York City Department of Buildings granted the developers a single work permit for the three houses, occupying the lots at 1007–1009 Fifth Avenue. All three houses were completed in 1901 and were speculative developments. ### Duke ownership #### Benjamin and James Duke The Halls sold the houses at 1007 through 1009 Fifth Avenue in April 1901. Kate F. Timmerman and William A. Hall had respectively acquired the adjacent houses at 1007 and 1008 Fifth Avenue, while William H. Gelshenen occupied 1006 Fifth Avenue. Contemporary sources initially reported that tobacco businessman James Buchanan Duke had acquired the house at 1009 Fifth Avenue, facing 82nd Street. In June 1901, William W. Hall finalized his sale of 1009 Fifth Avenue to James's brother Benjamin Newton Duke, the chairman of the American Tobacco Company, which Benjamin and James Duke had cofounded. Benjamin and his wife Sarah Duke are recorded as having owned the house during the early 1900s. It is not known why Benjamin Duke did not develop his own house, as he was worth \$60 million at the time (equal to \$ billion in ). Nonetheless, the house was originally unoccupied; Benjamin is recorded as having lived at a hotel, Hoffman House, until 1907. In late 1906, James met cotton heiress Nanaline Holt Inman at a party in his brother's house. James married Nanaline eight months later, in July 1907, and bought a plot at the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 78th Street, where he intended to build a mansion. That November, James acquired the house at 1009 Fifth Avenue from his brother. James is recorded as having lived in the house by early 1908, when he gave testimony from his bedroom as part of an antitrust lawsuit that that the federal government had brought against the American Tobacco Company. Benjamin Duke moved to the Plaza Hotel in 1909. By the 1910 United States census, James and Nanaline lived there, along with Nanaline's mother Florence Holt and nine servants. James's mansion at Fifth Avenue and 78th Street, the James B. Duke House, was completed in 1912. The same year, Benjamin built his own house at Fifth Avenue and 89th Street on the future site of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. The banker Moses Taylor, who worked for the firm Kean, Taylor & Co., leased the house in December 1913 for \$30,000 per year (). The mansion became the residence of one of Benjamin Duke's sons, Angier Buchanan Duke, and Angier's wife Cordelia Biddle, of the wealthy Biddle family. Angier and Cordelia's son Angier Biddle Duke was born at the house in 1915. #### Biddle family By the early 1920s, the house was occupied by Angier's sister Mary Lillian Duke Biddle and her husband A. J. Drexel Biddle Jr.. Sources disagree over whether the Biddles moved into the house in 1919 or 1922. The couple had two children: their daughter Mary Duke Biddle II (later Mary Semans) was born in 1920, while their son Nicholas B. D. Biddle was born in 1921. They split their time between 1009 Fifth Avenue and an estate in Irvington, New York. Mary Lillian Duke was responsible for renovating the house's interior, removing some plasterwork, adding black marble decorations in one bathroom, and adding brass and wrought-iron railings to one of the staircases. These decorations were designed by Karl Bock, whose additions were largely supplemented the original French-style decorations. By the mid-1920s, many of Fifth Avenue's former mansions were rapidly being replaced with apartment buildings, although the Biddles' mansion remained intact. The Biddles divorced in 1931, upon which Mary Lillian Duke retained ownership of the house. The younger Mary and her brother Nicholas continued to live at 1009 Fifth Avenue with their mother. During the 1930s, the elder Mary hosted several events at the house, including a 1936 "musicale" with many high-society guests. Bock continued to make alterations to the house throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Mary Lillian Duke bought an estate in Durham, North Carolina, in 1935 and began spending increasing amounts of time there. By 1950, she lived in Durham for six months of the year, splitting her remaining time between 1009 Fifth Avenue and another estate in Florida. The facade was repainted gray in the 1950s. Mary Lillian Duke continued to own 1009 Fifth Avenue until her death in 1960. Mary Duke Biddle II and her husband, doctor James Semans, assumed ownership of the house after the elder Mary had died. By then, 1009 Fifth Avenue was one of five remaining single-family mansions on the Millionaires' Row section of Fifth Avenue. During the early 1960s, the upper stories were split into a separate apartment. #### Preservation In the early 1970s, Sol Goldman and Donald Zucker announced plans to demolish the houses at 1006–1008 Fifth Avenue and 2 East 82nd Street, replacing them with a 25-story apartment house. Mary Semans not only refused to sell her family's house but was also petitioning the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) to designate the building as a landmark. At the time, Semans occupied two floors, while New York University's Hall of Fame occupied the ground story. Semans reportedly rejected sales offers of over \$1 million for her family's house. A local group, the Neighborhood Association to Preserve Fifth Avenue Houses, received an injunction in September 1972, preventing 1006 and 1007 Fifth Avenue from being demolished. The New York Supreme Court overturned the injunction two days later, and the buildings were immediately razed. By 1973, the LPC was considering designating 998, 1008, and 1009 Fifth Avenue and 2 East 82nd Street as city landmarks. Although the Neighborhood Association had wanted the LPC to host a public hearing for the entire city block, the LPC was only considering these four buildings as individual city landmarks. The American Institute of Architects and priest Louis Gigante were among those who supported the designations. The LPC designated 998 and 1009 Fifth Avenue as city landmarks on February 19, 1974, preventing major changes to these buildings without the LPC's permission. However, the LPC declined to designate the other two structures, which Goldman and Zucker owned; in particular, 1008 Fifth Avenue was ineligible for landmark designation because it had been heavily modified. Richard Peck of The New York Times wrote that the house's landmark designation only covered a single site and "has not preserved the block against a high‐rise of two‐and‐a‐half‐room apartment units". The Neighborhood Association sued the LPC in March 1975, claiming that the agency had refused to consider designating the stretch of 82nd Street between Fifth and Madison Avenues, including 1009 Fifth Avenue, as a New York City historic district. That year, a state judge ruled that the LPC was required to at least host public hearings for the proposed district. The LPC finally began considering designating 1009 Fifth Avenue as part of the Metropolitan Museum Historic District in early 1977; it was larger than the proposed 82nd Street historic district. As negotiations for the Metropolitan Museum district proceeded, the neighboring house at 1008 Fifth Avenue was demolished in March 1975. That September, the LPC designated 1009 Fifth Avenue as part of the Metropolitan Museum Historic District, a collection of 19th- and early 20th-century mansions around Fifth Avenue between 78th and 86th Streets. Ultimately, Goldman and Zucker's original plan fell through, and Peter Kalikow leased the apartment-house site. #### Renovations The house underwent a two-year restoration in the 1980s to designs by Gerald Allen, who restored the exterior based on drawings in the collection of Columbia University's Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library. Joseph Fiebiger, whose grandfather had created the original wrought-iron decorations, was hired to rebuild the corroded copper roof. Between six and eight employees of the Fiebiger company worked on the project for two years. The firm created 48 molds of pieces on the existing roof, then manufactured custom replacement pieces in its workshop; it had to buy a custom hydraulic press to mold the copper pieces. The Fiebiger company also installed six wrought-iron finials as a gift to the Duke family. The balustrades on the facade were also replaced. The contractors used a biodegradable paint remover on the facade, and they treated the wrought-iron window guards with polyurethane, epoxy, and an organic zinc mixture to prevent the iron from rusting. The Semans family then restored the interiors using photographs that were stored in the attic of one of the Duke family's houses in North Carolina. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. Mary Semans placed her family's house for sale in 1991 but wished to retain part of the house as a pied-à-terre. At this point, Semans mostly lived in North Carolina. Bradford Gannett of Coldwell Banker, who had been hired to sell the house, said he was negotiating with foundations or wealthy individuals involved with the arts, who could preserve the house if he could not find a seller. Semans also began negotiating to sell some of the house's unused air rights to Kalikow, who had been forced to seal up several apartments in the townhouse at 2 East 82nd Street to obtain 15,000 sq ft (1,400 m<sup>2</sup>) of additional space in the apartment building at 1001 Fifth Avenue. The sale of the air rights would allow Kalikow to unseal the apartments at 2 East 82nd Street. Semans ultimately withdrew her offer to sell the house. By 1995, the Duke family was renovating the house into luxury condominium apartments. At the time, the descendants of Benjamin Duke only occupied a single room in the house. The project also included renovating the basement into doctors' offices, raising the roof to create a seventh story, and splitting the interior into three floors. As part of this project, the plumbing and heating systems were also refurbished. Although the condominium conversion was ultimately canceled, some of the space was rented out. The four-story apartment was rented for \$50,000 a month. ### Sales #### Sapir ownership Mary Semans placed the mansion for sale in 2005, as none of her descendants lived in the city. The mansion, which was described as the last intact mansion on Fifth Avenue, was listed for \$50 million, making it the second most expensive residence in New York City at the time. Semans said of any potential buyer, "The only thing I would like is that they keep the house sort of the way it is now". One of the three brokers, Sharon Baum of the Corcoran Group, marketed the house as a single-family residence, though potential buyers could also divide the house into multiple condos. Because of its high asking price, the house's brokers only offered tours to potential buyers after checking their bank accounts. The brokers experienced difficulties in showing the house to prospective buyers, as the brokers needed permission from the two existing tenants, and they could not show the building when staff members were on vacation. By August 2005, sixteen millionaires had visited the property, and three had made bids. Among the bidders were rock musician Lenny Kravitz, who wished to acquire the Duke–Semans Mansion as a headquarters for his company Kravitz Design. In total, 40 prospective buyers toured the house before it was sold. Tamir Sapir, an American businessman and former taxi driver, paid \$40 million for the building in January 2006. This was the highest amount ever paid for a townhouse in Manhattan at the time. At the time, Sapir planned to move his collection of sculptures to the upper floors. He had also planned to live in the penthouse with his partner and their daughter, who was then two years old. Sapir ultimately never moved his sculpture collection to the house, and a proposal to convert the house to luxury apartments also failed. #### Slim ownership Sapir placed the mansion for sale in January 2010 for \$50 million, and Paula Del Nunzio of brokerage firm Brown Harris Stevens was hired to market the building under an exclusive listing agreement. Sapir finalized his sale of the building in July 2010; sources initially reported that a Russian businessman had bought the house. Mexican telecom magnate Carlos Slim, at the time the richest person in the world, was reported as the buyer, having paid \$44 million. At the time, it was the fourth-most-expensive townhouse ever sold in New York City. Brown Harris Stevens sued Sapir for breach of contract in August 2010, claiming that Sapir had tried to avoid paying a broker's commission to Del Nunzio by secretly negotiating directly with Slim, then waiting until Del Nunzio's contract had expired before finalizing the sale. Brown Harris Stevens alleged that, when Sapir sold the house to Slim, he had already agreed to sell the house to a client of Del Nunzio for \$37 million. The lawsuit was settled in December 2010. In May 2015, Sotheby's placed 1009 Fifth Avenue for sale at an asking price of \$80 million, nearly twice the amount Slim had paid for it. The house became one of the most expensive public listings in New York City. Slim canceled the sale in early 2016 after no one expressed interest in buying the house. He placed the house for sale again in January 2023. ## Critical reception Soon after the house was completed, Montgomery Schuyler criticized mansions on Fifth Avenue in general, saying: "We hold these truths to be self-evident that, when a man goes into 'six figures' for his dwelling house, he ought not to make its upperworks of sheet metal. That is a cheap pretence which nothing can distinguish from vulgarity." By contrast, Richard Peck of The New York Times wrote in 1974 that 1009 Fifth Avenue was "quintessential Fifth Avenue Beaux Arts". Christopher Gray, writing for the same newspaper in 1995, said that the house's modern-style rooms were "among the most unusual interiors on Fifth Avenue". The New York Observer wrote in 2015 that the building was "a Beaux-Arts confection eight stories tall with a corner orientation that offers that most rare of townhouse qualities—good light". ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 59th to 110th Streets - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 59th to 110th Streets
44,378,110	The Boat Race 1903	1,081,468,136	null	[ "1903 in English sport", "1903 sports events in London", "April 1903 sports events", "The Boat Race" ]	The 60th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1903. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race was umpired for the first time by former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman, whose misfiring starter pistol caused confusion at the start, allowing Cambridge to gain an advantage. They went on to win by six lengths in a time of 19 minutes 33 seconds. The victory took the overall record to 33–26 in Oxford's favour. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1902 race by five lengths, while Oxford led overall with 33 victories to Cambridge's 25 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). Oxford's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races and C. K. Philips who had represented the Dark Blues four times between 1895 and 1898. Cambridge were coached by Charles John Bristowe who had represented the Light Blues in the 1886 and 1887 races and Claude Goldie who had rowed in the 1898 and 1899 races. The Light Blues were later coached by William Dudley Ward. The umpire for the first time was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884, 1885 and 1886 races. During the build-up to the race, Oxford suffered a series of misfortunes, including a bout of influenza which caused several changes in their crew. Centred on the group of Blues returning from the previous year, Cambridge were able to produce "a very fast crew". ## Crews The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 3.5 lb (77.6 kg), 4 pounds (1.8 kg) more per rower than their opponents. Oxford's crew contained four rowers with Boat Race experience, including A. de L. Long who was rowing in his third consecutive event. Cambridge saw six rowers return from the 1902 crew, including W. H. Chapman, H. B. Grylls, C. W. H. Taylor and R. H. Nelson, all of whom were taking part in their third Boat Race. Only Oxford's Devereux Milburn was registered as a non-British rower. An American, he attended The Hill School in Pennsylvania before graduating from Harvard University. ## Race Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge. On a strong tide, umpire Pitman attempted to start the race at 3:35 p.m. After he shouted "Are you ready?", Cambridge squared their blades and were dragged away from their stakeboat, and rowed on despite Pitman failing to correctly discharge the starter pistol. Worse, he failed to notice the departing Light Blues who were already one third of a length ahead before Oxford got on their way. Somewhat dismayed by the disadvantageous start, author and the number seven for this year's race George Drinkwater stated they "rowed like a beaten crew from the first stroke." With a lead of nearly three lengths by Hammersmith Bridge, Cambridge pushed on to hold a four-and-a-half length lead at Barnes Bridge, and passed the finishing post six lengths ahead, in a time of 19 minutes 33 seconds. It was their second consecutive win and their fourth in five years, and took the overall record in the event to 33–26 in Oxford's favour.
71,462,956	Atalie Unkalunt	1,168,801,206	Cherokee singer, activist, and designer	[ "1895 births", "1954 deaths", "20th-century American women writers", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century Native American artists", "20th-century Native American women", "20th-century Native American writers", "American interior designers", "American singers", "Boston University alumni", "Cherokee Nation artists", "Cherokee Nation musicians", "Cherokee Nation writers", "Native American activists", "New England Conservatory alumni", "People from Adair County, Oklahoma" ]	Atalie Unkalunt (June 12, 1895 – November 6, 1954) was a Cherokee singer, interior designer, activist, and writer. Her English name Iva J. Rider appears on the final rolls of the Cherokee Nation. Born in Indian Territory, she attended government-run Indian schools and then graduated from high school in Muskogee, Oklahoma. She furthered her education at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. After a thirteen-month engagement with the YMCA as a stenographer and entertainer for World War I troops in France, she returned to the United States in 1919 and continued her music studies. By 1921, she was living in New York City and performing a mixture of operatic arias, contemporary songs, and Native music. Her attempts to become an opera performer were not successful. She was more accepted as a so-called "Indian princess", primarily singing the works of white composers involved in the Indianist movement. Concerned with the preservation of Native American culture, Unkalunt founded the Society of the First Sons and Daughters of America in 1922. The organization allowed only tribally-affiliated Native Americans to join as full members and worked to promote Native culture and legislation which would be beneficial to Native communities. In conjunction with the society, she established a theater which featured productions written by and acted by Native people and an artists' workshop which assisted Native artists to develop and market their crafts. Among her many activities, she worked as an interior designer, wrote articles for newspapers and magazines, published a book, and researched traditional Native songs. In 1942, Unkalunt moved to Washington, D.C., and worked for the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. In the 1950s, she spent time researching Cherokee claims against the Indian Claims Commission. ## Early life and education Atalie Unkalunt, which translates from Cherokee to Sunshine Rider in English, was known as Josie Rider to her white friends. She was born on June 12, 1895, on a farm near Stilwell, in the Going Snake District of the Cherokee Nation Indian Territory to Josephine (née Pace) and Thomas Lafayette Rider (Dom-Ges-Ke Un Ka Lunt). Thomas was a politician and served in the first, second, and fourth Oklahoma State House of Representatives for Adair County and in the seventh and eighth state legislatures as a Senator. Thomas and his children, Ola, Mary Angeline, Ruth Belle, Phoeba Montana, Mittie Earl, Roscoe Conklin, Milton Clark, Iva Josephine, Cherokee Augusta, and Anna Monetta Rider, are shown on the final Dawes Rolls for the Cherokee Nation, except the oldest and youngest, using their English names. He was the son of Mary Ann (née Bigby) and Charles Austin Augustus Rider, who walked the Trail of Tears, and maternal grandson of Margaret Catherine (née Adair) and Thomas Wilson Bigby. Josephine was a white woman, originally from Cherokee County, Georgia, whose family had fled Georgia during the American Civil War. She was known for her singing voice, which impacted Unkalunt's choice of career. Unkalunt attended government-run Indian schools, and graduated from Central High School, in Muskogee, Oklahoma. She then studied at the Thomas School for Girls in San Antonio, Texas, graduating in 1914. In 1915, she studied piano and voice in Muskogee with Mrs. Claude L. Steele before going to Chicago to take a course in music expression. After completing the course, she went to San Francisco and starred as the Indian female lead in a film, The Dying Race (1916), for the American Film Company. In late 1916, she enrolled at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts, studying under Millie Ryan, Clarence B. Shirley, and Charles White. She trained in literature under Dalla Lore Sharp, at Boston University, also studying ethics, logic, and psychology; at the same time she attended the Emerson School of Oratory. She completed her studies in 1918, and then went to New York to train with the YMCA for services during World War I. Stationed in France, Unkalunt worked as a secretary and entertainer for the troops for thirteen months and sent dispatches back for the local press. ## Career ### Classical music pursuits (1921–1924) Returning stateside, Unkalunt moved to New York City in 1921, and began training with Millie Ryan. She performed at private functions, sang on the radio, and toured throughout the country as a soprano, performing three seasons as a soloist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Lake Placid, New York and with Victor Herbert's orchestra. Her repertoire included arias from operas, such as Carmen, Madama Butterfly, and Natoma, popular music like "Dear Eyes" by Frank H. Grey and "Thy Voice Is Like a Silver Flute" by J. H. Larway, as well as Native songs performed in costume and accompanied by a hand drum. She was billed as a prima donna, an "Indian princess", and one of the foremost Native American sopranos in the country. A promotional pamphlet from 1924 stated that her voice "carried the perfume of roses on the wings of song". A reviewer for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle said she "sang in a clear, rich voice, sympathetic and well sustained". Beginning in March 1922, and continuing until late 1923, newspaper articles reported that Unkalunt was to create the role of Nitana, in the opera of the same name, composed by Umberto Vesci, an Italian immigrant to the United States. The libretto was written by Augustus Post and copyrighted in 1916. According to Katie A. Callam, the first academic to write about Unkalunt's life, the stereotypical story depicted a nondescript but exotic Native village, which was the home of "a noble Native warrior and an innocent Indian maiden", who became caught between the warrior and the "swaggering and paternalistic white colonizing hero". After spending time in the white settlement, Nitana returned to her people in time to stop the warrior Waguntah from killing the colonist Barton and accepted the fate that the white settlers would cause the eventual demise of Native people. The wide press coverage provided her career with substantial publicity and resulted in her portrait being painted by Remington Schuyler, and featured on the September 1923 cover of the national magazine Farm & Fireside. For unknown reasons, the opera was not realized. When Nitana fell through, Unkalunt began to write her own libretto for a Native American opera for which Herbert agreed to compose music, but the work was unfinished at his 1924 death. After that project also failed, Unkalunt recognized that there was little chance of her singing opera in the United States. Her performances were subsequently composed of Native and Indianist music, rather than opera. With Unkalunt's desire for Native American music to be preserved and brought to a wider audience, she had to work within the confines of public expectation and stereotypes, limiting her freedom of expression and sometimes "playing Indian" to draw in white audiences. Native cultures were seen to be dying in the period (as in the title of Unkalunt's 1916 film) and the tendency was for white composers to apply Western harmonic systems to Native melodies in an attempt to preserve the music. To be able to make a living as a performer, Unkalunt's best path as an indigenous woman was to perform these types of Indianist compositions. ### Ainslie scandal (1924–1928) At the end of 1924, Unkalunt became embroiled in a lawsuit with Lucie Benedict, the daughter of the well-to-do art dealer, George H. Ainslie. Benedict alleged that Unkalunt had stolen from her father some silk material, furnishings, and clothing, originally valued at \$355 but reported in court to be worn and threadbare items worth about \$10. Newspapers reported that Ainslie and his wife had met the singer during a meeting of the Greenwich Village Historical Society, held in his gallery to promote Native American art. After his wife died, Ainslie befriended Unkalunt and arranged for artist friends to paint her portrait and complete a sculpture of her. When his attention became romantic, although Unkalunt refused his advances, Benedict sought to terminate her father's infatuation by accusing the singer of theft. Unkalunt testified that Ainslie was upset by her rejection and in order to hurt her backed his daughter's claims. Unkalunt was acquitted in November 1924, after Benedict admitted to planting some of the stolen items in her rooms. Unkalunt then counter-sued Ainslie for defamation, the expenses incurred in her defense, and the loss of wages, as forty of her scheduled concerts had canceled because of the accusations. She had testified at her trial that she was earning a living working as a secretary for the Tidewater Oil Company, as an assistant to a real estate agent, from writing, and from a benefactor. In 1925, Ainsley won a change of venue in the case from Westchester County to Manhattan, which prompted Unkalunt to appeal the change. The case had still not been heard in 1928, when Unkalunt filed bankruptcy declaring an unliquidated claim of \$250,000 from the pending lawsuit as the majority of her available assets. ### Cultural preservation and activism (1921–1942) Simultaneously with her arrival in New York City, Unkalunt began working for the New York City Board of Education. She presented songs and Native legends to over three hundred and fifty public schools between 1921 and 1923. She also lectured for the United States Department of the Interior, giving presentations on Native culture. In 1922, she founded an organization known as the Society of the First Sons and Daughters of America. The society allowed only persons who were authentically Native Americans to be full members. It accepted associate members who were allies and its purpose was to foster an appreciation for cultural expression and to influence lawmaking which would be of benefit to "Amerinds", a phrase Unkalunt coined to call American Indians. She believed that her mixed-race status allowed her to be a bridge between two cultures, saying, "I have the strength and stoicism of the Indian, but the drive of the whites...and therefore [am] able to fight for what I want". Callam describes Unkalunt as a "one-woman force promoting Native rights, particularly related to the arts". She published articles in newspapers across the country promoting Native women, and fighting against government restrictions of practicing Native religions and dance rituals. For eight years in the 1930s she operated the Indian Council Lodge in a theater on West 58th Street. The council was a private theater troupe, which included actors such as Chief Yowlachie and presented programs both written and performed by Native people. The theater group was operated in conjunction with the First Sons and Daughters of America, which had a membership of nearly three thousand in 1933. Unkalunt gave lectures and sang performances to women's clubs and community organizations throughout the United States. She participated in the Wisconsin Dells Indian Pageant from 1924 to 1936 and various inter-racial music festivals. She also organized Indian Day celebrations and Native dances. She broadcast musical recitals and educational programs about Native cultures via shortwave radio to Australia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, South Africa, and several locations in South America, as well as on WJZ in Newark, New Jersey and WRC in Washington, D.C. In 1929, Unkalunt and other Native performers were invited to sing at the White House for the inauguration of President Herbert Hoover and his vice president Charles Curtis, a member of the Kaw Nation. She performed again at the White House in 1934. In her performances, Unkalunt strove to present both Indianist materials and more authentic native melodies. Among songs she sang were popular works by Charles Wakefield Cadman, like "From the Land of the Sky-Blue Water" and "Her Shadow"; by Thurlow Lieurance, such as "By the Weeping Waters", "Love Song", "Lullaby", "O'er an Indian Cradle", and "Rainbow Land", among others; and by Carlos Troyer, including "A Lover's Wooing" and "Invocation to the Sun God", as well as tunes by other composers. Because these works were often significantly altered to suit modern tastes, Unkalunt researched more traditional works at repositories like the Smithsonian Institution and added them to her repertoire. She rarely performed Cherokee songs, which Callam speculated might have been a tactic to protect her culture. ### Interior designer, painter, and author (1928–1942) In the late 1920s, Unkalunt began to make her living from interior design and by 1931, it was her primary means of making a living. She began to explore fabric art in 1927 and a series of her designs was exhibited at the New York City Art Alliance gallery. A manufacturing company produced several silk designs and a carpet manufacturer used some of her designs to weave floor coverings, expanding her interests into interior design. Unkalunt turned the second-story above her garage into a workshop to allow Native artists to produce textiles, carpets, furniture and other handicrafts. She exhibited some of her artwork at Douthitt Gallery operated by John F. Douthitt and the Rehn Gallery owned by Frank Knox Morton Rehn Jr., both in New York City. In 1928, Unkalunt designed the offices of WMCA radio station, which occupied the entire tenth floor of the Hammerstein Theatre Building. The walls featured murals such as "Spirit of the Wind" and "The Storm Clouds", works representing flight to symbolize radio's broadcasting over air. Mirrors and furnishings also used symbols drawn from Native culture. She was hired by Vice President Curtis in 1929 to decorate his private study in his suite at the Mayflower Hotel, which served as his official residence in Washington. In 1931, she redecorated the home of Rosamund Vanderbilt [wikidata], following Aztecan tribal motifs. Unkalunt published a collection of poetry and legends in The Earth Speaks, which was released in 1939. A review in The Tennessean described that the book conveyed legends regarding the origin of the world, and various aspects of nature. She related the voices of the earth, including the wild roar of water in a river gorge, the songs of birds and buzz of insects, and music in summer breezes and falling rain. William S. Gailmor, reviewing the work for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, said the book combined reality and myth to portray the magic of nature and the ability of plants, flowers, and herbs to provide both beauty and medicine. He stated that her "feeling for the earth was lyrical". Historian Grant Foreman noted in his review that she had presented legends in poetic form and illustrated them with her own drawings. ### Later life (1942–1954) In 1942, Unkalunt moved to Washington, D.C., at the request of Nelson Rockefeller to take up a post in the science and education department of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. She continued to produce content for newspapers and magazines, sang at women's and community group gatherings, and participated in programs sponsored by the State Department for Voice of America. In the early 1950s, she became interested in the work of the Indian Claims Commission and began researching in government archives to advance the work of attorneys working on Cherokee claims for breaches in treaty provisions. Her organization, the First Sons and Daughters of America, continued to work on Native issues, and in 1951 had a membership of 2,400. ## Death and legacy Unkalunt died on November 6, 1954, at her home at 1410 M Street NW, Washington, D.C., after a heart attack. She was buried three days later at Cedar Hill Cemetery, in nearby Suitland, Maryland. At the time of her death, she was remembered as an authority on Native American folklore. In 1957, Umkalunt's nephew, Major T. L. Rider, donated a collection of her stage costumes and artifacts to the Indian Museum in Ponca City, Oklahoma. Among those items were her sand-painted piano, buckskin costumes, and beaded accessories. Seventy-five images of Unkalunt, which had been donated to the C.H. Nash Museum at Chucalissa by Mrs. Dale Hall, were given by Chucalissa to the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation in 1978. The Heye collections were merged into the holdings of the Smithsonian Institution in 1990 and became part of the National Museum of the American Indian, which had been founded in 1989. Despite her prominence in life and her connection with other noted Native performers and leaders, Unkalunt's history was not studied by academics until the 21st century. ## Works
899,880	Sea surface temperature	1,172,206,141	Water temperature close to the ocean's surface	[ "Aquatic ecology", "Articles containing video clips", "Marine meteorology", "Meteorological phenomena", "Oceanography", "Thermodynamic cycles" ]	Sea surface temperature (SST), or ocean surface temperature, is the ocean temperature close to the surface. The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used, but it is between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the sea surface. Air masses in the Earth's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore. Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass. Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth's oceans. Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake, due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres (100 ft) of the ocean. SST changes diurnally, like the air above it, but to a lesser degree. There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days. In addition, ocean currents, such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), can affect SST's on multi-decadal time scales, and a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation, which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world's oceans. Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling, which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer. Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of South America. Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above, such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog. It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites. It is very likely that global mean sea surface temperature increased by 0.88°C between 1850-1900 and 2011-2020 due to global warming, with most of that warming (0.60°C) occurring between 1980 and 2020. Land surface temperatures have increased faster than ocean temperatures as the ocean absorbs about 92% of excess heat generated by climate change. ## Definitions Sea surface temperature (SST), or ocean surface temperature, is the water temperature close to the ocean's surface. The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used, but it is between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the sea surface. The definition proposed by IPCC for sea surface temperature does not specify the number of metres but focuses more on measurement techniques: Sea surface temperature is "the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. [...] Satellite measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of a millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with the bulk temperature." The temperature further below that is called ocean temperature or deeper ocean temperature. Ocean temperatures (more than 20 metres below the surface) also vary by region and time, and they contribute to variations in ocean heat content and ocean stratification. The increase of both ocean surface temperature and deeper ocean temperature is an important effect of climate change on oceans. ### Extent of "surface" The extent of the ocean surface down into the ocean is influenced by the amount of mixing that takes place between the surface water and the deeper water. This depends on the temperature: in the tropics the warm surface layer of about 100 m is quite stable and does not mix much with deeper water, while near the poles winter cooling and storms makes the surface layer denser and it mixes to great depth and then stratifies again in summer. This is why there is no simple single depth for ocean surface. The photic depth of the ocean is typically about 100 m and is related to this heated surface layer. It can be up to around 200 m deep in the open ocean. ## Variations and changes ### Local variations The SST has a diurnal range, just like the Earth's atmosphere above, though to a lesser degree due to its greater thermal inertia. On calm days, the temperature can vary by 6 °C (10 °F). The temperature of the ocean at depth lags the Earth's atmosphere temperature by 15 days per 10 metres (33 ft), which means for locations like the Aral Sea, temperatures near its bottom reach a maximum in December and a minimum in May and June. Near the coastline, some offshore and longshore winds move the warm waters near the surface offshore, and replace them with cooler water from below in the process known as Ekman transport. This pattern generally increases nutrients for marine life in the region, and can have a profound effect in some regions where the bottom waters are particularly nutrient-rich. Offshore of river deltas, freshwater flows over the top of the denser seawater, which allows it to heat faster due to limited vertical mixing. Remotely sensed SST can be used to detect the surface temperature signature due to tropical cyclones. In general, an SST cooling is observed after the passing of a hurricane, primarily as the result of mixed layer deepening and surface heat losses. In the wake of several day long Saharan dust outbreaks across the adjacent northern Atlantic Ocean, sea surface temperatures are reduced 0.2 C to 0.4 C (0.3 to 0.7 F). Other sources of short-term SST fluctuation include extratropical cyclones, rapid influxes of glacial fresh water and concentrated phytoplankton blooms due to seasonal cycles or agricultural run-off. The tropical ocean has been warming faster than other regions since 1950, with the greatest rates of warming in the tropical Indian Ocean, western Pacific Ocean, and western boundary currents of the subtropical gyres. However, the eastern Pacific Ocean, subtropical North Atlantic Ocean, and Southern Ocean have warmed more slowly than the global average or have experienced cooling since the 1950s. #### Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is an important driver of North Atlantic SST and Northern Hemisphere climate, but the mechanisms controlling AMO variability remain poorly understood. Atmospheric internal variability, changes in ocean circulation, or anthropogenic drivers may control the multidecadal temperature variability associated with AMO. These changes in North Atlantic SST may influence winds in the subtropical North Pacific and produce warmer SSTs in the western Pacific Ocean. ### Regional variations El Niño is defined by prolonged differences in Pacific Ocean surface temperatures when compared with the average value. The accepted definition is a warming or cooling of at least 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean. Typically, this anomaly happens at irregular intervals of 2–7 years and lasts nine months to two years. The average period length is 5 years. When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "episodes". The sign of an El Niño in the sea surface temperature pattern is when warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. El Niño's warm rush of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the Humboldt Current. When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive ocean warming and the reduction in Easterly Trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious. Among scientists, there is medium confidence that the tropical Pacific will transition to a mean pattern resembling that of El Niño on centennial time scale, but there is still high uncertainty in tropical Pacific SST projections because it is difficult to capture El Niño variability in climate models. ### Recent increase due to climate change Overall, scientists project that all regions of the oceans will warm by 2050, but models disagree for SST changes expected in the subpolar North Atlantic, the equatorial Pacific, and the Southern Ocean. The future global mean SST increase for the period 1995-2014 to 2081-2100 is 0.86°C under the most modest greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, and up to 2.89°C under the most severe emissions scenarios. ## Measurement There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter that can potentially yield different results because different things are actually being measured. Away from the immediate sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement. This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths, especially during the daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal thermocline). Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer. ### Thermometers SST was one of the first oceanographic variables to be measured. Benjamin Franklin suspended a mercury thermometer from a ship while travelling between the United States and Europe in his survey of the Gulf Stream in the late eighteenth century. SST was later measured by dipping a thermometer into a bucket of water that was manually drawn from the sea surface. The first automated technique for determining SST was accomplished by measuring the temperature of water in the intake port of large ships, which was underway by 1963. These observations have a warm bias of around 0.6 °C (1 °F) due to the heat of the engine room. Fixed weather buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres (9.8 ft). Measurements of SST have had inconsistencies over the last 130 years due to the way they were taken. In the nineteenth century, measurements were taken in a bucket off a ship. However, there was a slight variation in temperature because of the differences in buckets. Samples were collected in either a wood or an uninsulated canvas bucket, but the canvas bucket cooled quicker than the wood bucket. The sudden change in temperature between 1940 and 1941 was the result of an undocumented change in procedure. The samples were taken near the engine intake because it was too dangerous to use lights to take measurements over the side of the ship at night. Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design, and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies. These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution. A large network of coastal buoys in U.S. waters is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC). Between 1985 and 1994, an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon. ### Weather satellites Weather satellites have been available to determine sea surface temperature information since 1967, with the first global composites created during 1970. Since 1982, satellites have been increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its spatial and temporal variation to be viewed more fully. Satellite measurements of SST are in reasonable agreement with in situ temperature measurements. The satellite measurement is made by sensing the ocean radiation in two or more wavelengths within the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum or other parts of the spectrum which can then be empirically related to SST. These wavelengths are chosen because they are: 1. within the peak of the blackbody radiation expected from the Earth, and 2. able to transmit adequately well through the atmosphere The satellite-measured SST provides both a synoptic view of the ocean and a high frequency of repeat views, allowing the examination of basin-wide upper ocean dynamics not possible with ships or buoys. NASA's (National Aeronautic and Space Administration) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) SST satellites have been providing global SST data since 2000, available with a one-day lag. NOAA's GOES (Geostationary Orbiting Earth Satellites) satellites are geo-stationary above the Western Hemisphere which enables to them to deliver SST data on an hourly basis with only a few hours of lag time. There are several difficulties with satellite-based absolute SST measurements. First, in infrared remote sensing methodology the radiation emanates from the top "skin" of the ocean, approximately the top 0.01 mm or less, which may not represent the bulk temperature of the upper meter of ocean due primarily to effects of solar surface heating during the daytime, reflected radiation, as well as sensible heat loss and surface evaporation. All these factors make it somewhat difficult to compare satellite data to measurements from buoys or shipboard methods, complicating ground truth efforts. Secondly, the satellite cannot look through clouds, creating a cool bias in satellite-derived SSTs within cloudy areas. However, passive microwave techniques can accurately measure SST and penetrate cloud cover. Within atmospheric sounder channels on weather satellites, which peak just above the ocean's surface, knowledge of the sea surface temperature is important to their calibration. ## Importance to the Earth's atmosphere Sea surface temperature affects the behavior of the Earth's atmosphere above, so their initialization into atmospheric models is important. While sea surface temperature is important for tropical cyclogenesis, it is also important in determining the formation of sea fog and sea breezes. Heat from underlying warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances as short as 35 kilometres (22 mi) to 40 kilometres (25 mi). For example, southwest of Northern Hemisphere extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow (or sea effect) bands. Those bands bring strong localized precipitation, often in the form of snow, since large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences—larger than 13 °C (23 °F)—between the water surface and the air above. Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the taller the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes. ### Tropical cyclones Ocean temperature of at least 26.5°C (79.7°F) spanning through at minimum a 50-metre depth is one of the precursors needed to maintain a tropical cyclone (a type of mesocyclone). These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems. This value is well above 16.1 °C (60.9 °F), the long term global average surface temperature of the oceans. However, this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of disturbed weather presents average conditions. Tropical cyclones have intensified when SSTs were slightly below this standard temperature. Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met. For example, cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude (e.g., at the 500 hPa level, or 5.9 km) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures, as a certain lapse rate is required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection. In a moist atmosphere, this lapse rate is 6.5 °C/km, while in an atmosphere with less than 100% relative humidity, the required lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km. At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this height, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A wet-bulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of −13.2 °C (8.2 °F) is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26.5 °C (79.7 °F), and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa. Inside a cold cyclone, 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C (−22 °F), which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres. This also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the troposphere, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres. At heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature (as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F). One example of a tropical cyclone maintaining itself over cooler waters was Epsilon late in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. ## See also - Global surface temperature - The Blob (Pacific Ocean) - Sea level rise - Halocline refers to a salinity difference often altered by temperature-dependent factors - Ocean heat content - Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) - Salinity - Satellite temperature measurements - Instrumental temperature record
33,778,624	Typhoon Agnes (1981)	1,172,194,547	Pacific typhoon in 1981	[ "1981 Pacific typhoon season", "1981 in South Korea", "Tropical cyclones in 1981", "Typhoons", "Typhoons in China", "Typhoons in Japan", "Typhoons in South Korea", "Typhoons in Taiwan" ]	Typhoon Agnes, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pining, produced among the heaviest rains recorded during the 20th century in South Korea, with 710 mm (28 in) falling over a two-day span. The storm originated as a tropical depression near Guam on August 25, 1981. Moving along a west-northwest to northwest track, the system gradually strengthened as deep convection organized around it. The depression was assigned the name Agnes on August 27 following the development of gale-force winds. Further intensification to typhoon-status occurred by August 29. Agnes attained its peak intensity on August 31 over the East China Sea as a Category 2-equivalent on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 175 km/h (109 mph). Subsequent interaction with a mid-latitude trough induced an extratropical transition as the cyclone slowed and turned north. The system had lost most of its tropical characteristics by September 1, with the majority of convection sheared northeast over South Korea and Japan. Agnes later accelerated northeast and completed its transition on September 3. The remnants continued along this course, impacting northern Japan and the Kamchatka Peninsula before last being noted on September 6 near the International Date Line. Throughout the course of Agnes' existence, several countries were affected by torrential rains and typhoon-force winds. Hardest hit was South Korea where record-breaking rains triggered widespread flooding. More than 12,000 structures were damaged or destroyed by the storm and 191,000 acres (77,000 hectares) of farmland was inundated. A total of 113 people died in the country while damage reached \$134 million. Taiwan saw similarly destructive rains which left 32 people dead or missing. A further 14 people died in mainland China where coastal flooding from the typhoon's slow movement coincided with the spring tide, resulting in the greatest storm surge since 1949 along the Yangtze estuary and Hangzhou Bay. Much of Japan saw rains from the storm, though no significant damage or loss of life took place in the country. ## Meteorological history On August 23, 1981, following several days of tranquil weather, a tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT) began building westward from the International Date Line, near Wake Island. Over the following 36 hours, an expansive area of convection developed southwest of the organizing TUTT. On August 25, surface observations on Guam in the Mariana Islands indicated the presence of a low-pressure system. Coinciding with this, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) declared the formation of a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC. Weather reconnaissance missions throughout the day indicated a 1006 mbar (hPa; 29.71 inHg) center west of Guam, prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert. Following improvement in the convective structure, the JTWC began warning on the cyclone as Tropical Depression 18W at 18:00 UTC, at which time the depression was situated roughly 665 km (413 mi) west-northwest of Guam. Tracking west-northwest and later northwest around the southwestern edge of a subtropical ridge, steady intensification of the cyclone ensued. Early on August 27, a reconnaissance plane measured a central pressure of 994 mbar (994 hPa; 29.4 inHg) and flight-level winds of 85 km/h (53 mph), indicating the system had become a tropical storm. In light of this, the JTWC assigned the name Agnes to the storm. Additionally due to its proximity to the Philippines, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration dubbed the system with the local name Pining. Strengthening occurred at a climatological rate, with Agnes attaining typhoon-status on August 29. A large, banding eye-feature developed within the core of Agnes as it approached the Ryukyu Islands of southwestern Japan. The storm passed 170 km (110 mi) south of Okinawa around 06:00 UTC on August 30 and emerged over the East China Sea. Early on August 31, Agnes achieved its peak strength with winds of 175 km/h (109 mph) and an estimated central pressure of 947 mbar (hPa; 27.96 inHg). This ranked it as a Category 2-equivalent on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The JMA estimated the system to have been slightly weaker, with ten-minute sustained winds of 150 km/h (93 mph) and a pressure of 950 mbar (hPa; 28.05 inHg). As the storm moved over the East China Sea on September 1, Agnes began to interact with a mid-latitude trough situated south of South Korea and began a prolonged extratropical transition. Increasing wind shear exposed the center of the typhoon and displaced convection to the north and east. Subsequent slowing of the cyclone's forward speed as it turned northward resulted in an extended period of heavy rain for much of South Korea. The JTWC estimated Agnes to have become predominantly extratropical by the end of September 1, coinciding with the system weakening below typhoon intensity. The JMA, however, maintained the storm as a tropical system as it began moving northwest. The diminishing cyclone moved over the Korea Strait on September 3 and completed its extratropical transition that afternoon. Accelerating over the Sea of Japan, the remnant storm deepened slightly before striking the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 4 with an estimated pressure of 976 mbar (hPa; 28.82 inHg). After moving over the Sea of Okhotsk, Agnes impacted the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia on September 5. The system then moved over the open waters of the North Pacific and was last noted near the International Date Line on September 6. ## Impact ### Japan On August 30, Typhoon Agnes moved through the southern Ryukyu Islands, bringing strong winds and heavy rain to the region. Several islands received more than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain, and a peak value of 304 mm (12.0 in) was measured on Ishigaki Island. Despite passing through as a typhoon, only Tokashiki received winds of such intensity with a peak gust of 122 km/h (76 mph). A few other islands reported winds greater than 90 km/h (56 mph). After moving over the Sea of Japan, the storm's remnants brought heavy rains to much of Japan the day after a 6.6 M<sub>w</sub> earthquake rocked eastern parts of the country. Air and sea transportation across the Korean Strait was cancelled for September 3. Landslides were reported across Kyushu, though no casualties occurred. On Shin-Kamigotō, Nagasaki, rain fell at rates of 69 mm (2.7 in) per hour on September 3 as Agnes passed to the north. Rainfall in the mainland peaked at 208 mm (8.2 in) on Chausuyama in Aichi Prefecture. ### China and Taiwan Though Agnes did not directly impact Taiwan, prolonged southwesterly flow associated with the typhoon brought torrential rains to the island. Flooding in southern Taiwan was considered the worst in 30 years; 32 people were killed or left missing. More than 510 mm (20 in) of rain fell in the cities of Chiayi, Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Pingtung. Flood waters, reaching depths of 2.0 m (6.6 ft), inundated 238,256 acres (96,419 hectares) of farmland and destroyed 140 homes. An estimated 3,000 people were left homeless. Significant water rise occurred along Yangtze estuary and Hangzhou Bay in mainland China as Agnes remained just east of the area for 36 hours and the coincidence of the spring tide. A peak storm surge of 1.6 m (5.2 ft) was measured in the region with continuous onshore flow, the highest since 1949; conversely, in areas with continuous offshore flow, water levels fell by 20 cm (7.9 in). Model simulations of the event estimated that a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) surge affected the Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone in Shanghai. Offshore, 300 vessels sank while the resulting inland floods killed 14 people. Authorities in Shanghai mobilized 100,000 personnel to limit the extent of the floods as 200 sections of seawall collapsed. According to local newspapers, 59,700 acres (24,200 hectares) of farmland flooded and 4,280 homes were damaged. Losses were estimated in the millions of dollars. High winds downed many trees across the region and debris littered the streets of Shanghai. United States President Jimmy Carter, wrapping up an inspection of the Chinese Navy, was scheduled to take a cruise out of the Huangpu River; however, the typhoon forced the vessel to remain at port. ### South Korea Between September 1 and 3, torrential rains affected much of South Korea, with the heaviest falling well-ahead of the storm itself. Regarded as the heaviest on record in the 20th century, at least 710 mm (28 in) fell over a two-day span in the country, resulting in tremendous flash flooding and landslides. This surpassed the previous two-day record of 570 mm (22.3 in) measured in 1928 in Seoul. A record-breaking 24‐hour rainfall of 547.4 mm (21.55 in) was also measured; however, this was later greatly surpassed by Typhoon Rusa in 2002 which produced 870.5 mm (34.27 in) during the same time span. The coastal counties of Jangheung, Haenam, and Goheung all saw approximately half of their annual precipitation, between 394 and 548 mm (15.5 and 21.6 in), in one day's time. In addition to the rains, winds up to 144 km/h (89 mph) were measured. Communications with severed with towns along the southwestern coastline as roads and rail lines were washed away. Thousands of residents sought refuge by moving to higher ground. The Korean relief center reported that 762 homes were destroyed and another 11,700 flooded due to the storm. Other reports indicated that upwards of 5,900 homes were destroyed. More than 191,000 acres (77,000 hectares) of farmland was washed out. Throughout South Korea, 113 people died. Most of the deaths resulted from landslides, swollen rivers, and collapsed embankments. Total damage in the country amounted to \$134 million, with agriculture accounting for at least \$24 million. Additionally, 28,000 people were left homeless. The disaster relief agency Hope Bridge provided 7.5 billion won (\$10.2 million) in aid to areas affected by the storm. ## See also - 1981 Pacific typhoon season - Typhoon Maemi – The strongest recorded typhoon to strike South Korea - List of wettest tropical cyclones by country - Typhoon Rusa – Surpassed Agnes as the wettest tropical cyclone in South Korea in 2002 - Tropical Storm Nakri (2014) – The wettest-known tropical cyclone in South Korea as of 2014
71,394,923	Through the Darkest of Times	1,161,026,643	2020 video game	[ "2020 video games", "Android (operating system) games", "HandyGames games", "IOS games", "MacOS games", "Nintendo Switch games", "PlayStation 4 games", "Single-player video games", "Stadia games", "Turn-based strategy video games", "Video games about Nazi Germany", "Windows games", "Xbox One games" ]	Through the Darkest of Times is a strategy video game developed by Paintbucket Games and published by HandyGames. It was released on Microsoft Windows and macOS through Steam on 30 January 2020 after three years of development and was later released on other platforms. The game follows a resistance group in Nazi Germany from Adolf Hitler's rise in power in 1933 to the end of World War II and manages each member through weekly missions and acts of sabotage. Through the Darkest of Times was developed by Jörg Friedrich and Sebastian Schulz. It was the first game to be published in Germany that allowed Nazi symbols, including the swastika. It received mixed critical reception, with the storytelling being held in high regard and the simple strategy being heavily criticized. A sequel was announced in August 2022 for Nintendo Switch, titled The Darkest Files. ## Gameplay Through the Darkest of Times is a single-player strategy video game. The player begins as a resistance leader of a randomized background in 1933 Germany, when Hitler is initially appointed as Chancellor. Members of the resistance group complete missions to disrupt the Nazi regime, with some involving sabotaging equipment, spreading leaflets, and painting walls with messages. Certain missions are made easier or harder based on attributes and backgrounds of each resistance member, or what items are required. Depending on the risk, suspicion, or traits of resistance members, missions may have higher risk of failure, or result in arrest or death by the Gestapo. Other missions may not unlock until prerequisite ones are completed, with a few larger objectives requiring multiple prerequisite steps to complete. The game takes place over four chapters, with the chapters lasting twenty weeks in its own time period within the Nazi regime. Each week represents one turn and round of missions. Supplies, supporters, and morale are reset at the beginning of each chapter. Historically accurate newspaper clippings are presented at the start of each turn, with made-up titles. Between different turns and at the start of chapters, scenes and dialogue trees are given to the player, featuring major historical events or interactions with everyday citizens. The choices made do not change the actual outcome of any major events surrounding Nazi Germany, but may influence later events in the game. The initial objective is to survive until the end of World War II and resist against the Nazi regime as much as possible. Subsequent plays allow for alternative historical events to take place. ## Development and release The developers of Paintbucket Games, Jörg Friedrich and Sebastian Schulz, initially met at Yager Development and began planning a historical game in 2017. The game was announced in April 2018 with funding from Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg and publishing agreements between Paintbucket Games and HandyGames were confirmed on 29 October 2018. Through the Darkest of Times is the first game published in Germany that is allowed to depict the swastika, after industry regulator USK lifted its previous restrictions on Nazi imagery within games (derived from statute StGB § 86a). Paintbucket Games received approval after submitting a demo to the USK at Gamescom on 17 August 2018. Its art style was inspired by 1920s German expressionism. Adaptations for iOS, Android, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and PlayStation 4 were released over the course of 2020. The Android release was open for pre-registration as early as April 2020, and both it and the iOS version were released on 7 May 2020. The adaptations for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One were released on 13 August 2020. Stadia released a version of Through the Darkest of Times on 1 June 2022. ## Reception Through the Darkest of Times received mixed reviews from critics, and has been compared to games like This War of Mine and Papers, Please. The storytelling was overall highly regarded, but critics felt that the story was too rigid, and that the strategy choices did not impact the story enough. Its low replay value was also heavily criticized, with gameplay being characterized by reviewers as repetitive. Peter Morics writing for Screen Rant enjoyed the randomized aspects of characters, but found the lack of choice in gender and occupation to be less than ideal. He complimented the art style, saying "the art style complements the anxious, strained world of your resistance leader marvelously." When it was announced, Rick Lane, from PC Gamer, felt that the art style was distasteful and said it "looks like something from a Russian cartoonist’s nightmares." Luke Kemp, also from PC Gamer, criticized the comparisons and especially noted the references to Donald Trump, saying "it really isn't necessary". Simon Parkin of The Guardian wrote that the newspapers given to the player at the start of each turn have "meticulous historical accuracy" but that the game sometimes "clumsily" made comparisons to modern day events and that there was an "inevitable simplification" of the effects of activism. TheGamer reviewer Tanner Fox found the simplicity of the strategy as lacking from what "most would expect from a full PC release" and commented that the game would be better suited as a mobile game. Other reviewers noted low replay value, citing repetitive results and dialogues. The interluding events were criticized as having little impact to the main story, and David Wildgoose from GameSpot lamented the lack of integration between storytelling and strategy choices within the game, saying that "there's a frustrating lack of specificity". A debate sparked across Germany over the decision to allow Nazi symbols by the USK. Franziska Giffey, former Minister of Family Affairs, initially criticized its usage, saying "You don't play with swastikas," but later posted on Facebook in support of the USK's decision. Klaus-Peter Sick, a historian, rebutted by saying "One doesn't become a Nazi just by seeing a swastika". Through the Darkest of Times was nominated for the category of Games for Impact in The Game Awards 2020. ## Sequel A sequel, titled The Darkest Files, was announced on 16 August 2022 by Paintbucket Games, with an expected release date of 2023 on Nintendo Switch.
28,846,680	Geastrum welwitschii	1,102,101,099	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi of Europe", "Geastrum", "Inedible fungi" ]	Geastrum welwitschii is a species of fungus in the earthstar family. When young and unopened, the fruit bodies resemble small spheres lying in the soil. As the mushroom matures, the thick leathery outer layer of tissue (the peridium) splits star-like to form a number of fleshy arms, which curve downward to reveal the inner spore sac that contains the fertile tissue known as the gleba. The spore sac has a narrow grooved opening at the top where the spores are released. Fully expanded, the fruit bodies are up to 35 mm (1.4 in) wide and 58 mm (2.3 in) tall. First collected from Spain in the mid-19th century, the fungus is distributed in Europe, North America, and Bermuda. ## Taxonomy The fungus was first collected in Spain by the Austrian explorer and botanist Friedrich Welwitsch. British mycologist Miles Joseph Berkeley obtained the specimens and thought them to be Geastrum fimbriatum. He sent a specimen to the French mycologist Camille Montagne in 1856, who named it Geaster Welwitschii (Geaster is an orthographical variant of Geastrum). Patricio Ponce de León in his 1968 world monograph of Geastrum, considered the species a fornicate variety of G. javanicum, and described it as Geastrum javanicum var. welwitschii; this is now a synonym. According to Stanek's infrageneric (ranks below the level of genus) concept of the genus Geastrum, G. welwitschii is classified in the section Basimyceliata, which includes species in which the outer part of the mycelial layer do not incorporate sand and encrusting debris. It is further classified in the subsection Laevistomata because its peristome (an opening at the top of the spore sac) is even to fibrillose (with fibrils). ## Description The mature fruit body of G. welwitschii is small to medium-sized, with a fornicate spore sac, meaning that the spore sac is raised into the air as the rays press down. Unlike some other earthstar fungi, the mycelial layer does not encrust debris as the fruit body develops. The peristome is even, and has an indistinct boundary. The young fruit bodies just prior to opening are found near the surface of the ground, and are rounded, with or without an umbo, and attached to the substrate with a basal mycelial tuft or cord. The expanded fruit body is small to medium-sized. The fornicate exoperidium (outer peridium) has the upper, arched part (fibrous and pseudoparenchymatous layers) split to about the half-way point or more into 4–7 rays. The mycelial cup is free (only attached at its base), with 4–7 more or less well-developed lobes corresponding to the 4–7 rays. The width of the fruit body is about 20–35 mm (0.8–1.4 in), and in height about 40–58 mm (1.6–2.3 in) (including the 15–20 mm high mycelial cup). The diameter of the exoperidium is about 39–72 mm (1.5–2.8 in). The pseudoparenchymatous layer (a layer of thin-walled, usually angular, randomly arranged cells that are tightly packed) is initially beige, later brownish, in age dark brown, cracked and if moist reddish brown. The fibrous layer is beige-colored, with its outer side free from the mycelial layer except at the tips of the rays. The mycelial layer has a beige brown to somewhat yellowish-brown, felted to tufted outer surface, darkening to reddish-brown if moist. It is not encrusted with debris, but some debris and sand may adhere. The inner side is smooth, dull to somewhat glossy, and hazelnut brown. The spore sac is stalked, and roughly spherical, with a diameter of about 8–20 mm (0.31–0.79 in). The stalk is short but distinct, up to 1.5 mm (0.059 in) high, light beige in color, and sometimes indistinctly developed. The endoperidium (inner peridium) is more or less smooth to the unaided eye, but densely protruding light to grayish-brown hyphal tips are present. The peristome is indistinctly delimited (without distinct boundaries), and the mouth area fibrillose. The columella is not well-developed, and broadly club-shaped to columnar; in cross-section it is whitish to pale beige. The mature gleba is brown and powdery. The spores of Geastrum welwitschii are roughly spherical, sometimes contain an oil droplet, and measure 4.5–5.5 μm in diameter. Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that the spore surface is covered with column-like processes, up to 0.45 μm high, that may be more or less confluent. ## Similar species Geastrum welwitschii is morphologically similar to G. fornicatum in having fornicate, mostly 3–6 rays, of exoperidia and a cup-shaped mycelial layer. Geastrum welwitschii is distinguished from G. fornicatum by its epigeal mycelial cup with a felted or tufted outer surface. Geastrum welwitschii also has similar morphological characters to G. minimum in having small fruit bodies, whitish spore sacs, and fibrillose peristomes. However G. welwitschii is differentiated from G. minimum by its fornicate, mostly 3–6, rays of the exoperidia, and the mycelial layer that easily loosens from the fibrous layer to form a mycelial cup. G. welwitschii is distinguished from G. entomophilum by its dark and sessile endoperidium, and smaller spores (2.8–3.5 μm). According to mycologists Hemmes and Desjardin, the most common earthstar in the coastal Casuarina forests of Hawaii is a species "closely allied" with G. welwitschii, which they name Geastrum aff. welwitschii. It differs from the main species in its much coarser pyramidal warts on the exoperidial surface, a sessile and sac-shaped endoperidial body, and smaller spores. They likened the roughened outer surface of the exoperidium to lychee fruit. ## Habitat and distribution The fungus is saprobic, and grows on the ground, in leaf litter, or on decomposing wood. It has been collected in Spain, South Carolina, Florida, and Bermuda.
2,671,855	Florence Merriam Bailey	1,159,289,827	American ornithologist	[ "1863 births", "1948 deaths", "American nature writers", "American ornithologists", "American women scientists", "Smith College alumni", "Stanford University alumni", "Women ornithologists", "Writers from New York (state)" ]	Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey (August 8, 1863 – September 22, 1948) was an American ornithologist, birdwatcher, and nature writer. Between 1890 and 1939, she published a series of field guides on North American bird life. These guides were often written with amateur birdwatchers in mind, leading to the popularity of the birding movement. With little formal education as a child, Merriam developed an interest in the natural sciences from her explorations of the Adirondack Mountains, near where she grew up, and the scientific interests of her family members, including her older brother Clinton Hart Merriam. Her nature writing and activism started at Smith College in 1882, where she was enrolled as a special student. She was later awarded a degree at age 58, due to her subsequent activism and writing. While there, she and Fannie Hardy Eckstrom created a chapter of the Audubon Society to educate their classmates on ornithology and dissuade them from wearing hats with feathers. By the time Merriam left Smith in 1886, one-third of the student body was involved in the Society. In 1890, Merriam turned a series of bird profiles that she had published in Audubon Magazine into a book, Birds Through a Looking-Glass. Unlike other ornithological works, which studied trapped birds in indoor settings, Merriam's writing encouraged the natural, outdoor study of live birds. Her later works, such as Birds of Village and Field, were more technical than her early writings, but they retained their focus on ecology. In 1899, Merriam married Vernon Orlando Bailey, a member of the U.S. Biological Survey. Between 1902 and 1919, she wrote over 50 articles for periodicals like The Condor based on her observations. Her magnum opus was Birds of New Mexico, which she completed at the request of the U.S. Biological Survey after Wells Cooke's death. Originally, she and Cooke were listed as co-authors, but Merriam successfully petitioned the Survey to name her the sole author due to the magnitude of her contributions. Merriam and her husband lived in Washington, D.C., where she taught birdwatching classes at the National Zoological Park. She was both the first woman elected as a Fellow of the American Ornithologists' Union and awarded the Brewster Medal. After her husband's death in 1942, Merriam mostly retreated from public life until her death at the age of 85. Parus gambeli baileyae, a subspecies of mountain chickadee, is named in her honor. ## Early life and education Florence Augusta Merriam was born on August 8, 1863, in Locust Grove, New York, the youngest of four children born to Clinton Levi and Caroline (née Hart) Merriam. Her father had been a mercantilist and banker in Utica and New York City before settling in Locust Grove, shortly before his daughter was born. Between 1871 and 1875, Clinton Merriam served as the United States Congressman from Lewis County, New York, as a member of the Republican Party. Caroline Merriam, meanwhile, was a graduate of Rutgers Female College and the daughter of Levi Hart, a county court judge and New York State Assembly member from Collinsville. Many members of the Merriam family took an interest in the natural sciences. While at Rutgers, Caroline had developed an interest in astronomy, which she shared with her husband and children by allowing them to look at constellations and eclipses through a telescope. Merriam once referred to her paternal aunt, Helen Bagg, as "our family botanist". Her father, meanwhile, developed an interest in nature when, in 1870, he traveled to California on the first transcontinental railroad. Clinton was interested in glaciation as it related to his travels in the Yosemite Valley, and he engaged in a lengthy written correspondence with the naturalist John Muir over this topic. The Merriam family estate, named Homewood, was situated near the Adirondack Mountains, with ample opportunities to explore local wildlife. Merriam would take walks around the estate with her father and older brother, developing her knowledge of the region's species. Her primary interest was in birds, whose habits, songs, and species she learned to identify by watching them from her dining room window. When she was nine years old, Merriam accompanied her father and her older brother, Clinton Hart Merriam, on their camping trip to Florida. C. Hart, as he went by in his adult life, was also interested in the natural sciences, spending his adolescence studying birds and performing taxidermy on the animals he trapped on the family property. Their father's time in Congress gave them connections to the naturalist scene in Washington, D.C.: the elder Merriam was able to arrange a meeting with Spencer Fullerton Baird, then the assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to employ C. Hart as an ornithologist on a Yellowstone expedition in 1872. Most of Merriam's early education was at home, which she described as based in the scientific and natural interests of her family members. Her first formal education took place in Syracuse, New York, where Merriam was sent for medical treatment due to general ill health. She lived with her physician's family for a year and attended the local public school there. After that experience, Merriam attended school in New York City, where her family spent the winters, and at Mrs. Piatt's private school in Utica. ## College and early activism At the insistence of her older brothers, Merriam enrolled in 1882 at the newly-founded Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. The poor health that had beleaguered her throughout her childhood and prevented her from much formal education meant that she could only enroll as a special student. This prevented her from the advanced study of liberal arts, but also allowed her to take courses in which she was personally interested rather than following a prescribed course of study. At the time of her enrollment, Smith lacked a science course, and so most of her class work was in writing, literature, geology, ethics, comparative religions, philosophy, music, and art. By the end of her college tenure, however, she had concentrated in science and wrote a senior thesis on evolution. By September 1885, as she entered her final year at Smith, Merriam had an obsession with birds that began at the encouragement of family friend Ernest Thompson Seton. C. Hart, who at that time had become the chief of the U.S. Biological Survey and one of the founders of the American Ornithologists' Union, nominated her as the first female associate of the Union. The following January, Merriam, who had befriended Fannie Hardy Eckstrom, was aghast to find that her friend was following a popular fashion of the time by wearing bird feathers in her hat. As more of their classmates took up the practice, Merriam began advocating both on and off campus for the protection of birds and alterations to the millinery industry. In 1886, Merriam published a series of newspaper articles in New York, New Hampshire, and Washington, D.C., arguing for an end to bird feather hat decorations. On February 11, 1886, the naturalist George Bird Grinnell wrote an editorial proposing the formation of an "Audubon Society" for the protection of wild birds. One month after Grinnell made this call, Merriam and Hardy, who by this point had stopped wearing feathered hats, created one of the first local chapters of the Audubon Society at Smith College. About 75 students and faculty members attended the first meeting of the organization, and by March 17, 1886, the Smith College Audubon Society had adopted a constitution, officers, and a field committee. That year, Merriam published an article in Audubon Magazine about the aims of the club, which encouraged field study by asking students to observe "how the birds look, what they have to say, how they spend their time, what sort of houses they build, and what are their family secrets". Merriam was of the belief that rather than outright telling her classmates to stop wearing feathered hats, it was more effective to take them on nature walks, which would cause them to form an attachment to local wildlife and stop the practice of their own accord. As part of this process, she recruited John Burroughs to come to campus and take the students on a nature walk. Shortly after Burrough's May 1886 visit, one-third of the student population at Smith had denounced the use of fashionable bird feathers and had joined the local Audubon Society. Burroughs, meanwhile, returned to campus every year to lead a bird walk, even after Merriam had left Smith. When Merriam left Smith in June 1886, the Audubon Society had become popular, while her classmates continued to communicate through class letters with major life updates. As a special student, Merriam did not earn a degree after her four years of college, but the institution eventually presented her with a bachelor's degree in 1921, when she was 58 years old. Merriam's movement to protect birds from the millinery industry progressed after she left Smith: the Lacey Act of 1900 prohibited the trade of illegally acquired wildlife, while the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 made the protection of migratory birds a federal law. ## Nature writing and activism ### Early writing and travels After leaving Smith in 1886, Merriam, still unmarried, was caught between her desires to advance her nature writing and to contribute to the world socially. Her first articles on bird lore in Audubon Magazine appeared in 1887, and when she was not writing, Merriam joined her mother's volunteer work at social action clubs for working women and girls. In 1891, she spent one month in Chicago at a summer school for working girls founded as a branch of Jane Addams's Hull House, teaching a class on birds. The following summer, she worked in New York City at one of Grace Hoadley Dodge's social clubs. Both Merriam and her mother suffered from poor health, possibly caused by tuberculosis, which led the family to take vacations in regions with climates that were supposed to ease illness, such as the West Coast, Lake Placid, New York City, and Florida. In 1889, Merriam and her family traveled to San Diego County, at the homestead of her uncle Gustavus, in the hopes of improving the health of Merriam and her mother. In addition to easing her illness, the months-long stay in Southern California gave Merriam an interest in the Western United States and the avian life found there. During this time, Audubon Magazine had ceased publication, and Merriam decided to collect the fifty common birds whose profiles she had written for the magazine and collect them into a book. Birds Through an Opera-Glass, published in 1890 by Houghton Mifflin in Boston, was a collection of her Audubon profiles and 20 additional birds, also including appendices to help observers classify birds and additional reference materials for those who wished to continue their study. Birds Through an Opera-Glass and Merriam's other work deviated from the ornithological studies of her contemporaries: rather than examining the bodies of trapped or killed birds in indoor settings, Merriam believed in observing wildlife outdoors in their natural environments, frequently through a pair of binoculars. The profiles in Birds Through an Opera-Glass ranged from half a page to five or six pages long and contained physical descriptions of the birds' appearance, song, nests, and habits, often accompanied by illustrations or musical notation. Author Scott Weidensaul has referred to Birds Through an Opera-Glass as "in a sense, the first field guide to American birds". While scientific ornithology was a male-dominated field, the birdwatching phenomenon that grew more popular in Merriam's time was more popular among women, as it allowed for amateur study. Despite her publication, Merriam and the other female members of the American Ornithologists' Union were relegated to a "visibly subordinate level" compared to the male members. This did not change until 1901, when Merriam, Mabel Osgood Wright, Harriet Mann Miller, and a few other women achieved the rank of "elective member". Merriam was good friends with Miller, who had encouraged her writing early in her career and who had told her techniques to remain unnoticed by the birds she was observing. In 1893, Merriam joined Miller in Utah, and she wrote about her experiences the following year in a book titled My Summer in a Mormon Village. Primarily a travel narrative, Merriam also included descriptions of nature and calls to stop killing birds for sport. Her view of the members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints that she encountered was regarded as complimentary for the time, although her brother had heavily edited the manuscript. After leaving Utah, Merriam spent six months in California at Stanford University, which had been founded and was presided over by her brother's friend David Starr Jordan. There, she befriended the botanist Alice Eastwood. Merriam remained in California through August 1894, wanting to spend the summer months observing the bird life. During the spring months, she stayed at her uncle's ranch in the Twin Oaks Valley, writing what became A-Birding on a Bronco. Illustrated by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, then a student at Cornell University, A-Birding on a Bronco describes both Merriam's observations of the birds in California as well as her relationship with Canello, the white horse that she rode on her expeditions. ### Washington, D.C., and partnership with her husband When she was not travelling, Merriam lived in Washington, D.C., on the third floor of her brother's house with his wife and children. She returned there in full after a final trip to the San Francisco Mountains near Flagstaff, Arizona, and promptly became involved in local scientific organizations. Merriam was a member of the Women's National Science Club, helped found the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia, and worked with Miller on the American Ornithologists' Union's Committee on the Protection of North American Birds. In 1898, Merriam received her first invitation to join her brother on a field expedition, serving as an assistant for a group that studied the natural life in Mount Shasta, California. She continued to write heavily, and her articles during this period were reprinted as How Birds Affect the Farm and Garden in 1896 and Birds of Village and Field in 1898. The latter work, subtitled A Bird Book for Beginners, was more technical than her previous books. Covering 212 birds, each entry began with the species' Latin name, physical characteristics, and geographical distribution. In addition to whole-bird drawings, there are also illustrations of specific body parts such as beaks, wings, and feet. Birdsong is written phonetically rather than as musical notation. Merriam also takes an increased ecological focus, describing both the birds' diets and how those diets affect agriculture. She also provides advice for how to construct structures that would protect birds from cats and hunters that would kill them. On December 16, 1899, Merriam married Vernon Orlando Bailey, her brother's friend and a fellow member of the U.S. Biological Survey. C. Hart Merriam had become acquainted with Bailey when the latter was an adolescent in Minnesota. Bailey had written to Merriam, the author of Mammals of the Adirondacks, asking for help in identifying specimens that he had collected. In 1887, C. Hart, who had been appointed the head of the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, appointed Bailey as a field agent for the U.S. Biological Survey at a wage of \$40 per month. Merriam's husband's employment allowed her to incorporate the data, charts, and illustrations that the Biological Survey had conducted into her future works. The Baileys first traveled together in April 1900, when they took a carriage from Corpus Christi to Brownsville, Texas. They continued to travel together over the next 30 years, with Merriam writing as her husband conducted field studies for the Biological Survey. The most ambitious of these works was her 1902 Handbook of Birds of the Western United States, the companion volume to Frank M. Chapman's Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. The field notes that Merriam took in her travels were turned into over 50 articles appearing in periodicals such as The Auk and The Condor. Between 1902 and 1919, a work by Merriam appeared in almost every volume of The Condor. Many of these focused on the prairie wildlife in North Dakota, where her husband spent the summers from 1909 to 1916. Her notes from this region were turned into 17 papers for The Condor. In 1917, the government asked the Baileys to create a visitor guide for the wildlife of Glacier National Park. Vernon contributed the sections on mammal life, while Florence wrote about the birds. Around this time, Edward William Nelson, chief of the U.S. Biological Survey, approached Merriam with a request. Wells Cooke had been in the midst of writing a survey on bird life in New Mexico before his unexpected death in 1916, and Nelson wanted Merriam to complete his work. While the manuscript for Birds of New Mexico was completed in 1919, many publishers were reluctant to take on the costs of producing an 800-page work with maps and illustrations, and the work was not released until 1928, when the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish agreed to print and distribute the work. Originally, the Biological Survey requested that both Cooke and Merriam be listed as authors, which Merriam resisted. Ultimately, her revisions to even Cooke's original work were seen as a significant enough contribution that she was listed as the sole author, with Cooke credited in the introduction. Two years later, Vernon Bailey published a companion piece to his wife's work, titled Mammals of New Mexico. ## Later life and death When they were not traveling, the Baileys resided in Washington, D.C., spending their final years at a house on 1834 Kalorama Road. Visitors recalled their home as ornately decorated with memorabilia gathered on their travels. The centerpiece of their home was a portrait of the Bengal tiger living then at the National Zoological Park. Painted by wildlife artist Charles R. Knight, Merriam bequeathed the painting to the Smithsonian Institution upon her death, and it now resides in the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Their Washington home was the subject of many dinner parties for naturalists, including Alice Eastwood, Clarence Birdseye, and fellow naturalist couple Olaus and Margaret Murie. The Baileys never had children together: Merriam had married late, and her pregnancies had ended in miscarriage, but she loved children and worked with them through various regional and national associations, including the Boy Scouts of America, the Playground and Recreation Association of America, the National Housing Association, the National Child Labor Committee, and the Working Boys' Home in Washington. Merriam was also a devoted aunt to her grand-nieces Floddie and Deirdre, helping the former to enroll in George Washington University when she could not attend Smith. Part of Merriam's mission was to educate children on wildlife preservation and observation. She hoped that the introduction of nature study into elementary and secondary classrooms would help children to learn about bird study and protection in school settings, which would encourage them to continue environmental study. Outside of the public school classroom, Merriam began teaching birding courses at the National Zoo in 1903. Her first class attracted only 15 students, but by 1913, over a dozen teachers were instructing over 100 students. Although Birds of New Mexico seemed poised to be Merriam's magnum opus, she continued writing into the 1930s. The National Park Service published her last substantial work, Among the Birds of Grand Canyon National Park, in 1939, when Merriam was 76 years old. She also received a number of honors, beginning in 1929, when the American Ornithologists' Union elected Merriam their first female Fellow. Two years later, she became the first woman to receive the Brewster Medal, awarded biennially to the writer of the most important ornithological work on birds of the Western Hemisphere. In 1933, the University of New Mexico awarded Merriam an honorary doctorate. Vernon Bailey retired from the U.S. Biological Survey in 1933 after 46 years of service, believing that it was time for a younger man to take over the position. After her husband's retirement, Merriam resigned from the Committee on Bird Protection and the couple attempted to retire in Twin Oaks. This was short-lived, as Florence was unhappy in their desert home, and they soon returned to Washington. Vernon and Florence took their final trip together in 1941, traveling to Upstate New York to see the aurora borealis. Vernon Bailey died in June 1942, after which Florence lived quietly. On September 22, 1948, at the age of 85, Merriam died of myocardial degeneration in her Washington home. She was buried in Locust Grove. ## Legacy Many of Merriam's works were designed not for scientists but for amateur birdwatchers, and works such as Birds of Village and Field became popular guides for birders. Her works often incorporated the studies of both professional ornithologists like Frank M. Chapman, Robert Ridgway, and Theodore Sherman Palmer, but they also used the observations of amateurs who observed birds on their property and in their neighborhoods. Her works were designed to invest the public in appreciating wildlife, and in turn birdwatching became a popular hobby. Science writer Paul Henry Oehser referred to Merriam as "one of the most literary ornithologists of her time", while Robert Welker classified her with Miller, Mabel Osgood Wright, and Neltje Blanchan as the four most important female authors of bird books in the nineteenth century. Parus gambeli baileyae, a subspecies of mountain chickadee from the mountains of Southern California, is named after Merriam. Joseph Grinnell identified the species in 1908, giving it the common name Mrs. Bailey's Chickadee as well as its scientific name. Merriam thanked Grinnell for the recognition, writing to him in a letter, "Parus has always been one of my favorite birds". Additionally, one of Merriam's apprentices, Pat Jenks, discovered an unmapped volcanic formation in Mexico while surveying lands that were sacred to Indigenous peoples of the Americas. He named the formation Bailey Crater in honor of Merriam, but as the site did not lie within United States borders, the name was never officially registered. ## Selected publications Publication information derived from Harriet Kofalk's No Woman Tenderfoot: Florence Merriam Bailey, Pioneer Naturalist. ### Books ### Book chapters
1,719,583	John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower	1,173,048,340	English Tory politician and peer (1694–1752)	[ "1694 births", "1754 deaths", "18th-century English politicians", "Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain", "Leveson-Gower family", "Lord-Lieutenants of Staffordshire", "Lords Privy Seal", "Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain", "People educated at Adams' Grammar School" ]	John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower, PC (10 August 1694 – 25 December 1754) was an English Tory politician and peer who twice served as Lord Privy Seal from 1742 to 1743 and 1744 to 1754. Leveson-Gower also served in the Parliament of Great Britain, where he sat in the House of Lords as a leading member of the Tories, prior to switching his political affiliation and serving in various Whig-led government ministries until his death in 1754. Born in London into the prominent Leveson-Gower family, Leveson-Gower was educated at Westminster School and the University of Oxford. After his father died in 1709, he assumed his peerage as Baron Gower and before taking his seat in the House of Lords. Leveson-Gower proceeded to acquire a political power base consisting of four parliamentary boroughs under his de facto control: Newcastle-under-Lyme, Stafford, Lichfield, and Cheadle. In 1742, Leveson-Gower started serving in the Carteret ministry as Lord Privy Seal. Though he resigned the next year, in 1744 Leveson-Gower again served in the same position as part of the Whig-led Broad Bottom ministry. He soon became a devoted supporter of Henry Pelham and his brother the Duke of Newcastle. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, he remained loyal to the Hanoverians, which led George II to grant him the title of Earl Gower. During the 1747 British general election, seven parliamentary constituencies which were under Leveson-Gower's control were contested by rival Tory candidates. Despite spending large sums of money from his vast financial estate, he only managed to retain two constituencies, Stafford and Lichfield. Leveson-Gower subsequently twice rejected calls to resign in 1751 and 1754, before dying in office on 25 December 1754 at his London townhouse. ## Early life John Leveson-Gower was born on 10 August 1694 in London, England into the aristocratic Leveson-Gower family. His father was John Leveson-Gower, a politician who sat in the House of Commons until he was elevated to the English peerage in 1703 as the Baron Gower; he also served as the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Leveson-Gower's mother was Lady Catherine Manners, the eldest daughter of the 1st Duke of Rutland. Leveson-Gower was educated at Westminster School before graduating from Christ Church, Oxford after entering the college in 1710. During his youth, though he was a Jacobite sympathiser, Leveson-Gower remained uninvolved in politics, being more interested in fox hunting and horse racing. However, beginning in 1720 he turned his attention to political affairs, making efforts to bring parliamentary seats in Staffordshire under his control. By the late 1720s, Leveson-Gower had managed to secure a base of parliamentary support, which consisted of four constituencies: Newcastle-under-Lyme, Stafford, Lichfield and Cheadle (he served as the town mayor of Cheadle in 1721). After Leveson-Gower's father died in 1709, Leveson-Gower inherited his peerage and soon took his seat in the British House of Lords, eventually emerging as a leading figure in the Tory faction. ## Political career In 1740, Leveson-Gower was appointed as a Lord Justice; after the Tory-led Walpole ministry collapsed in 1742, he was appointed to the position of Lord Privy Seal, succeeding John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey and being the lone Tory politician to be promoted to such high office after the collapse. He was also appointed to the Privy Council of Great Britain on 12 May 1742 by the Carteret ministry, which was a Whig-dominated administration. Leveson-Gower's alliance with a rival political party, described by historians as "a move of considerable party political importance", soon collapsed as he resigned from his position on December 1743. However, he was reappointed as Lord Privy Seal in 1744 as part of the Broad Bottom ministry, a coalition government led by Henry Pelham and his brother Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, which stayed in power for a decade. When the Jacobite rising of 1745 broke out, Leveson-Gower personally assured George II of Great Britain of his loyalty, raising one of the fifteen new British military regiments formed to oppose the Jacobite invasion of England; in recognition of these actions, he was granted the titles of Viscount Trentham and Earl Gower by George II on 8 July 1746. However, Leveson-Gower's regiment proved unwilling to face any possibility of fighting, refusing to move beyond the nearest tavern when his son-in-law Sir Richard Wrottesley, 7th Baronet raised a Yeomanry unit and joined them. In 1748, he was again appointed as a Lord Justice, being appointed again in 1750 and 1752. Leveson-Gower's continuing support of a Whig-led ministry led to increasing backlash amongst his fellow Tories and English Jacobites, who perceived John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford as having "corrupted" him; in a letter to the 4th Duke of Bedford, Leveson-Gower complained that he was being "persecuted by the gout and Jacobitism". In 1747, a protest by a group of English Jacobites at the Lichfield horse races forced Leveson-Gower to refrain from leaving his house for a time. Despite mounting levels of public and private criticism, he refused to resign from his position as Lord Privy Seal, an action which led English lexicographer and prominent Tory Dr. Samuel Johnson to include Leveson-Gower in his seminal 1755 work A Dictionary of the English Language under the definition of renegado, though this was later removed by Johnson's printer. By the early 1750s, Leveson-Gower had solidified his political loyalty to the Pelham brothers, joining a group of British parliamentarians (dominated by members of the Whig party) known as the "Pelhamites". ## Later life and death During the 1747 British general election, Leveson-Gower's parliamentary support base, which included seven constituencies in Staffordshire and Westminster, came under heavy threat by rival political candidates. Though he had succeeded to the position of Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire in 1742, which gave him a large advantage in determining the outcome of parliamentary elections, all seven constituencies were contested by Tory politicians with extensive backing. Despite suffering from gout, Leveson-Gower chose to defend his support base, focusing on the constituencies of Stafford and Lichfield; this was despite the fact that, as George Anson noted in a letter to the 4th Duke of Bedford, "everything has been done that could be thought of against Lord Gower's interest". Leveson-Gower complained that he was being opposed in the elections "by... men that I have lived in the strictest friendship with the best part of my life". When the results of the elections were announced, Leveson-Gower discovered that, despite his extensive campaigning efforts, he had lost five out of the seven constituencies of his support base; the two he had retained, Stafford and Lichfield, were due in Henry Pelham's opinion "almost entirely to the Whigs". According to Wisker, the "considerable" cost of campaigning during the general election sapped a significant portion of Leveson-Gower's financial estate. In June 1751, Leveson-Gower refused to join his third son Granville (by now a member of parliament) and the 4th Duke of Bedford in resigning from their positions as a show of support to John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, who had been dismissed from his position as First Lord of the Admiralty by the 1st Duke of Newcastle. When Henry Pelham died in March 1754, leading to the Broad Bottom ministry's collapse, he again refused to resign from his position. On 25 December 1754, he died at his London townhouse at 6 Upper Brook Street. After his death, Leveson-Gower's titles were inherited by Granville, while his position as Lord Privy Seal was succeeded by Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough. His death was recorded in a letter written by English writer, bluestocking and artist Mary Delany on December 28, who noted, as per mourning customs, that women who mourned Leveson-Gower's passing wore only grey or white clothing for a week. ## Personal life, family and legacy After his father's death, Leveson-Gower inherited Trentham Estate from him. In 1730, he erected Trentham Hall, an English country house, on the property, basing it on the design of Buckingham House. When Granville inherited the estate at Trentham from Leveson-Gower, which included the country house, he substantially altered it based on designs supplied by architect Henry Holland from 1775 to 1778. It was further altered from 1833 to 1842 by George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2nd Duke of Sutherland, who employed Sir Charles Barry to carry out the renovations. Leveson-Gower's political career was supported by his vast personal estate, which partially consisted of investments in Britain's rapidly growing industrial production sector and ownership of shares in eight other estates, including those of fellow British peers Willem van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle and William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath. However, the sizeable costs of electoral campaigning combined with family expenses took a heavy toll on his estate, and by Leveson-Gower's death in 1754, he owed outstanding debts to the tune of £37,861 along with roughly £36,000 in legacies. Over the course of his life, Leveson-Gower married thrice. On 13 March 1712, he married Lady Evelyn Pierrepont, the first daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull. They had eleven children, including Granville and Gertrude, before she died on 26 June 1727. After her death, Leveson-Gower remarried to Penelope Stonhouse on 31 October 1733, though she soon died on 19 August 1734. Leveson-Gower's third and last wife was Lady Mary Tufton, whom he married on 16 May 1736. She bore two of his sons, surviving his death and dying on 9 February 1785. Granville, who chose to follow his father into a career in politics, also served as Lord Privy Seal, succeeding to the position in 1755 after the 3rd Duke of Marlborough and holding it until 1757. He would go on to be granted the title of Marquess of Stafford in 1786 by King George III and serve as a leading Tory politician. Leveson-Gower's sixth son John served in the Royal Navy and participated in several naval battles with the French Navy during the American War of Independence before entering Parliament and sitting in the House of Commons until his death in 1792. ## See also - Elizabeth Wrottesley (granddaughter)
14,232,920	Hello Pappy scandal	1,170,109,086	2007 Philippines game show controversy	[ "2007 in Philippine television", "ABS-CBN", "Entertainment scandals", "Match fixing", "Television controversies in the Philippines" ]	The Hello Pappy scandal, alluding to the nickname of television personality Willie Revillame and the Hello Garci scandal, was a scandal surrounding an incident during the August 20, 2007, episode of the Filipino variety show Wowowee, broadcast by ABS-CBN. During the episode, a technical error occurred during the final jackpot round of the show's "Wilyonaryo" segment which raised allegations within the media that the segment was, or could have been, rigged by the producers. The incident prompted an investigation by the country's Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and was also the catalyst of an on-air feud between Revillame and Joey de Leon, a personality from the rival GMA Network. ABS-CBN, who claimed that the incident was the result of a "design flaw" that had been fixed, was fined ₱290,000 by the DTI for violating the Consumers Act. ## Development During the August 20, 2007, episode of the ABS-CBN program Wowowee, a contestant named Weng participated in the "Wilyonaryo" segment of the show. In the earlier rounds, she had won ₱37,000. For the jackpot portion of the game, out of the twelve "wheels" used in the game, she was randomly given a white-colored wheel. Weng now had to choose between two big prizes: the ₱100,000 that Wowowee host Willie Revillame was offering her, or whatever was inside the white wheel, which, according to the rules, could be a jackpot prize of ₱2,000,000 (US\$45,000), a jackpot prize of ₱1,000,000 (US\$22,500), a jackpot prize of ₱500,000 (US\$11,250), a house and lot, or nothing at all (which would be signified by the numeral zero). At first, Weng decided to go with what was inside the white wheel. However, after being prodded by the hosts to take the money instead, she decided to forgo the possible jackpot prize revealed in the white wheel and instead take home the ₱100,000 for this round, plus the ₱37,000 from an earlier round. After this, Revillame pulled a dark film from the window embedded in the wheel to reveal what prize the contestant had lost by choosing to take home the ₱137,000. Pulling the dark film revealed the numeral zero. This meant that if she had chosen the white wheel instead, she would have gone home with only ₱37,000. After the decision, Revillame went on to reveal where the other prizes—the ₱2,000,000 cash prize, the ₱1,000,000 cash prize, the ₱500,000 cash prize, and the house and lot—were hidden. He said that the symbol for the ₱2,000,000 cash prize—the numeral "2"—was in the window of the violet wheel. Revillame was handed the violet wheel and he reached behind it, supposedly to pull the dark film in order to reveal the numeral "2." However, when he pulled the film, the numeral "0" appeared instead. Revillame appeared to fiddle with the back of the wheel and then he pulled out two films: one dark film (supposedly the "cover" film) and another film bearing the numeral "2". As he held those two films in his hand, the numeral "0" was still visible in the window of the violet wheel. Although ABS-CBN officials stated that this occurrence with the then-new game was a "mechanical glitch" and an honest mistake, controversy erupted as many critics asked whether the mistake was a sign that the show—or at least this portion of the show—could be or was rigged. ## Reactions and criticisms The scandal grew after Joey de Leon, one of the hosts of Eat Bulaga!—a rival variety show broadcast by GMA Network—began making comments about the incident, ending an edition of his Manila Bulletin entertainment column with the statement, "Teasing is not bad. Cheating is ... on TV." On the August 29, 2007, episode of Wowowee, Revillame addressed de Leon and insisted that he had not been cheating. Without mentioning Revillame or Wowowee by name, de Leon rebutted Revillame's statement the following day in a fifteen-minute-long monologue on Eat Bulaga!, advising him to "explain before you complain." He also accused Revillame of resorting to personal attacks in order to dodge questions about the incident. De Leon clarified that he was not directly accusing Willie or the Wowowee staff of cheating; noting that the only information he got about the incident was through video postings on YouTube and text messages he had received about the incident. On August 30, 2007, Senator Mar Roxas, chair of the Senate's trade and commerce committee, announced that he would propose an inquiry into the alleged game rigging after getting information from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and concerned parties. De Leon had jokingly called upon lawmakers to stop probing the Hello Garci scandal, and to start probing the "Hello Pappy" scandal during his speech the previous day. The "Wilyonaryo" game was also later discontinued from Wowowee. The Movie and Television Review and Classification Board became increasingly concerned about the scandal due to the escalating on-air feuds between Revillame and de Leonasking Revillame to make an on-air apology about his remarks towards de Leon on the September 4 episode of Wowowee. ### Explanation by ABS-CBN In response to the incident, ABS-CBN Vice President Bong Osorio stated that a rectified "design flaw" was the cause of the incident, further remarking that "[we] have no intention to manipulate results, but rather to add excitement and suspense." Osorio also stated that a game show can experience "glitches" during development, and re-enforced that all game shows broadcast by the network were operated in accordance with ABS-CBN's corporate values of honesty and integrity. ### DTI probe, administrative fine and appeal On October 13, 2008, the DTI ordered ABS-CBN to pay an administrative fine of ₱290,000, ruling that the "Wilyonaryo" segment violated the Consumers Act of the Philippines, ruling that, “A reasonable assessment of the existing game mechanics and procedures reveals that the game show segment allowed for reasonable likelihood of error and provided the host and organizers significant latitude in controlling the outcome of the contest.” ABS-CBN later released a statement that they would file an appeal on the decision. ## See also - PhilSports Stadium stampede, a previous incident caused by an episode of Wowowee
17,586,244	Pedra Branca dispute	1,141,513,204	Territorial dispute between Malaysia and Singapore from 1979 to 2008	[ "2008 in Malaysia", "2008 in Singapore", "2008 in case law", "2008 in international relations", "International Court of Justice cases", "Malaysia–Singapore border", "Malaysia–Singapore relations", "Pedra Branca, Singapore", "Territorial disputes of Malaysia", "Territorial disputes of Singapore" ]	The Pedra Branca dispute was a territorial dispute between Singapore and Malaysia over several islets at the eastern entrance to the Singapore Strait, namely Pedra Branca (previously called Pulau Batu Puteh and now Batu Puteh by Malaysia), Middle Rocks and South Ledge. The dispute began in 1979 and was largely resolved by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 2008, which opined that Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore and Middle Rocks belonged to Malaysia. Sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located. In early 1980, Singapore lodged a formal protest with Malaysia in response to a map published by Malaysia in 1979 claiming Pedra Branca. In 1989 Singapore proposed submitting the dispute to the ICJ. Malaysia agreed to this in 1994. In 1993, Singapore also claimed the nearby islets Middle Rocks and South Ledge. In 1998 the two countries agreed on the text of a Special Agreement that was needed to submit the dispute to the ICJ. The Special Agreement was signed in February 2003, and the ICJ formally notified of the Agreement in July that year. The hearing before the ICJ was held over three weeks in November 2007 under the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia v. Singapore). Singapore argued that Pedra Branca was terra nullius, and that there was no evidence the island had ever been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate. In the event the Court did not accept this argument, Singapore contended that sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore due to the consistent exercise of authority over the island by Singapore and its predecessor, the United Kingdom. The actions taken included selecting Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and constructing the lighthouse, requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits, installing a military rebroadcast station on the island, and studying the feasibility of reclaiming land around the island. Malaysia had remained silent in the face of these activities. In addition, it had confirmed in a 1953 letter that Johor did not claim ownership of the island, and had published official reports and maps indicating that it regarded Pedra Branca as Singapore territory. Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be regarded as dependencies of Pedra Branca. Malaysia's case was that Johor had original title to Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge. Johor had not ceded Pedra Branca to the United Kingdom, but had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it. The actions of the United Kingdom and Singapore in respect of the Horsburgh Lighthouse and the waters surrounding the island were not actions of the island's sovereign. Further, the 1953 letter had been unauthorised and the official reports and maps it had issued were either irrelevant or inconclusive. On 23 May 2008, the Court ruled that Pedra Branca is under Singapore's sovereignty, while Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia. As regards South Ledge, the Court noted that it falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by mainland Malaysia, Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks. As it is a maritime feature visible only at low tide, it belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located. Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks, and to determine the ownership of South Ledge. ## Dispute Pedra Branca is a small granite outcrop located 25 nautical miles (46 km; 29 mi) east of Singapore and 7.7 nautical miles (14.3 km; 8.9 mi) south of Johor, Malaysia, where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea. There are two maritime features near the island: Middle Rocks, 0.6 nautical miles (1.1 km; 0.69 mi) south of Pedra Branca, which consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres (820 ft) apart; and South Ledge, 2.2 nautical miles (4.1 km; 2.5 mi) south-south-west of Pedra Branca, which is visible only at low tide. Singapore has been administering Pedra Branca since Horsburgh Lighthouse was built on the island by its predecessor, the United Kingdom, between 1850 and 1851. Singapore was ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and Temenggung Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah of Johor to the British East India Company under a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 (the Crawfurd Treaty), and became part of the Straits Settlements in 1826. At the time when the lighthouse on the island was constructed, the Straits Settlements were under British rule through the Government of India. On 21 December 1979, the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters. Singapore rejected this "claim" in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected. In the late 1980s, Attorney-General of Singapore Tan Boon Teik was despatched by the Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew to disclose the documentary evidence which Singapore had to the Malaysian Attorney-General, to demonstrate the strength of Singapore's case. However, the dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994. In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised. Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). ## Procedural matters Singapore first suggested submitting the territorial dispute to the ICJ in 1989. The suggestion was accepted by Malaysia in 1994. In 1998, the text of a Special Agreement to bring the matter before the ICJ was agreed, and the Agreement was signed by the two countries at Putrajaya, Malaysia, on 6 February 2003. It was notified to the Court in July 2003. The case was assigned the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia v. Singapore). Following directions issued by the Court, the parties exchanged memorials on 25 March 2004, counter-memorials on 25 January 2005, and replies on 25 November 2005. As the parties informed the Court by a letter dated 23 January 2006 that rejoinders were unnecessary, the written proceedings were closed. The Court determined by drawing lots that Singapore would present its case first. Public hearings were held between 6 and 23 November 2007, with Singapore presenting its case from 6 to 9 November, and Malaysia doing the same from 13 to 16 November 2007. Each country was then given two days to respond, with 19 and 20 November allocated to Singapore, and 22 and 23 November allocated to Malaysia. The persons who spoke for the parties were: - For Singapore: - Tommy Koh, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Singapore); Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore (acting as Singapore's Agent); - Chao Hick Tin, Attorney-General of Singapore (Counsel and Advocate); - Chan Sek Keong, Chief Justice of Singapore (Counsel and Advocate); - Alain Pellet, Professor at the Paris X University Nanterre; member and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commission; associate member of the Institut de Droit International (Counsel and Advocate); - Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A.; member of the English Bar; Chairman of the UN International Law Commission; Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford; member of the Institut de Droit International; Distinguished Fellow, All Souls College, Oxford (Counsel and Advocate); - Rodman R. Bundy, avocat à la Cour d'Appel de Paris; member of the New York State Bar Association; Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris (Counsel and Advocate); - Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la Cour d'Appel de Paris; member of the Rome Bar; Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris (Counsel and Advocate); and - S. Jayakumar, Deputy Prime Minister; Co-ordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Law; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore (Counsel and Advocate). - For Malaysia: - Abdul Kadir Mohamad, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia; Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime Minister (Malaysia's Agent); - Farida Ariffin, Ambassador of Malaysia to the Netherlands (Co-Agent); - Abdul Gani Patail, Attorney-General of Malaysia (Counsel); - Elihu Lauterpacht, C.B.E., Q.C., Honorary Professor of International Law, University of Cambridge; member of the Institut de Droit International; member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (Counsel); - James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of International Law, University of Cambridge; member of the Institut de Droit International (Counsel); - Nicolaas Jan Schrijver, Professor of Public International Law, Leiden University; associate member of the Institut de Droit International (Counsel); - Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva; associate member of the Institut de Droit International (Counsel); and - Penelope Nevill, college lecturer, Downing College, Cambridge. The case was presided over by ICJ Vice-President Judge Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh, alongside 13 other judges and two ad hoc judges appointed by the two countries. The judges were Raymond Ranjeva from Madagascar, Shi Jiuyong from the People's Republic of China, Abdul G. Koroma from Sierra Leone, Gonzalo Parra Aranguren from Venezuela, Thomas Buergenthal from the United States, Hisashi Owada from Japan, Bruno Simma from Germany, Peter Tomka from Slovakia, Ronny Abraham from France, Kenneth Keith from New Zealand, Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor from Mexico, Mohamed Bennouna from Morocco and Leonid Skotnikov from Russia. As the Bench of the Court did not include any judges of the nationality of either party, the parties exercised their right to choose judges ad hoc to sit in the case. Singapore appointed Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao from India, and Malaysia Christopher John Robert Dugard from South Africa. ## Singapore's case ### Pedra Branca terra nullius Singapore argued that in 1847 Pedra Branca was terra nullius (Latin for "land belonging to no one") as it had never been the subject of a prior claim or manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity. It denied Malaysia's claim that the island had been under Johor's sovereignty. It contended there was no evidence that the Johor Sultanate had claimed or exercised authority over Pedra Branca between 1512 and 1641. This period began with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese in 1512, who continued to harass the Johor Sultanate during this time, as did the Aceh Sultanate. Similarly, there was no evidence of Johor's sovereignty over Pedra Branca between 1641 and 1699, when Johor's power and influence were at their height; between 1699 and 1784 when the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699 without a clear heir led to instability, during which many vassals broke away from the Sultanate; and between 1784 and 1824 when, according to a 1949 annual report of the Johor government, the Sultanate was in a "state of dissolution" by the beginning of the 19th century. To support its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca, Singapore contended that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory. Thus, the only reliable way to determine whether a particular territory belonged to a ruler was to find out whether the inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler. This was difficult to do with respect to Pedra Branca since it was isolated and uninhabited, and Malaysia had not provided clear evidence of a direct claim to or actual exercise of sovereign authority over the island. In addition, Singapore claimed that the old Johor Sultanate, which controlled a maritime Malay empire from a capital on the Johor River, was not the same as the new Johor Sultanate occupying only the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula that came into existence after the signing of the Anglo–Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. In its view, the Anglo–Dutch Treaty did not divide up the Singapore Strait, in which Pedra Branca is situated, between the new Johor Sultanate under the British sphere of influence and the Riau-Lingga Sultanate under Dutch influence. Instead, both Britain and the Netherlands could access the Strait freely. Therefore, there was a legal vacuum with regard to sovereignty over the island, enabling the British to lawfully take possession of it between 1847 and 1851. Following the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor in 1812, his two sons Hussein and Abdul Rahman vied for the throne of the Johor Sultanate. The United Kingdom recognised the elder son Hussein, who was based in Singapore, as the rightful heir, while the Netherlands recognised the younger son Abdul Rahman who was based in Riau (now Bintan, Indonesia). A year after the Anglo–Dutch Treaty, Abdul Rahman sent a letter dated 25 June 1825 to Hussein. In it he stated that, "in complete agreement with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their Majesties, the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain", he donated to his older brother "[t]he part of the lands assigned to [Great Britain]": > Your territory, thus, extends over Johor and Pahang on the mainland or on the Malay Peninsula. The territory of Your Brother [Abdul Rahman] extends out over the islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Karimon and all other islands. Whatsoever may be in the sea, this is the territory of Your Brother, and whatever is situated on the mainland is yours. On the basis of this letter, Singapore argued that Abdul Rahman had only donated the mainland territories to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea. Pedra Branca therefore never became a part of Johor. ### Lawful taking of ownership In the event that the Court rejected the argument that Pedra Branca was terra nullius in 1847, Singapore contended that the selection of Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and the construction of the lighthouse between 1847 and 1851 constituted a taking of possession of the island à titre de souverain (with the title of a sovereign). The British Crown obtained title over the island in accordance with legal principles governing the acquisition of territory at that time. This title was maintained by the United Kingdom and its lawful successor, the Republic of Singapore. Singapore claimed that it and its predecessor the United Kingdom had demonstrated a consistent exercise of authority over the island through various acts since 1847. For instance, during the ceremony for the laying of the foundation stone of the lighthouse on 24 May 1850, Pedra Branca was described as a "dependency of Singapore" in the presence of the Governor of the Straits Settlements – the most senior British official in Singapore – and other British and foreign officials. The attribution of sovereignty was widely reported in local newspapers, but drew no response from the Johor authorities. Other significant acts included the following: - Singapore had investigated shipwrecks in the waters around the island between 1920 and 1979. - It had exercised exclusive control over the use of the island and visits to the island, including requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island for scientific surveys to obtain permits. - It had displayed British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse. Furthermore, it had acceded to a request by Malaysia in 1968 to remove the Singapore flag from another island, Pulau Pisang, which is under Malaysian sovereignty. Malaysia had made no such request in respect of Pedra Branca. - On 30 May 1977, the Port of Singapore Authority (PSA) allowed the Republic of Singapore Navy to install a military rebroadcast station on the island. - On the direction of the Government of Singapore, in 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1978 the PSA studied the feasibility of reclaiming 5,000 square metres (54,000 sq ft) of land around the island. Tenders for the project were sought through newspaper advertisements, though eventually the project was not proceeded with. In addition, Singapore had on two occasions claimed the sea around Pedra Branca as its territorial waters. The first occasion was in July 1952 when the Chief Surveyor expressed the opinion that Singapore should claim a 3-mile (4.8 km) limit around the island. Subsequently, in 1967, the Singapore Government's Marine Department also stated in an official memorandum to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Singapore) that the waters within three miles of Pedra Branca might be considered Singapore territorial waters. ### Malaysia's inaction and acceptance of Singapore's sovereignty It was also Singapore's case that for over 130 years since 1847, Malaysia had been silent over Singapore's activities and exercise of sovereignty over Pedra Branca. No other state had challenged Singapore's claims, and Singapore had made them without having to seek approval from any other state. During the hearing, Ambassador-at-Large Tommy Koh highlighted this by saying: > A key feature of this case is the constant stream of Singapore's acts of administration in relation to Pedra Branca, contrasted with the complete absence of Malaysian activities on Pedra Branca or within its territorial waters, and with Malaysia's silence in the face of all these state activities of Singapore ... Such silence on Malaysia's part is significant and must be taken to mean that Malaysia never regarded Pedra Branca as her territory. On 12 June 1953, when Singapore was a Crown Colony, its Colonial Secretary J. D. Higham wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca. He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty they had entered into with the East India Company. However, the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it, and "[t]his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony". He therefore asked if "there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of". The Acting State Secretary of Johor, M. Seth bin Saaid, replied on 21 September that "the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca". Singapore contended that this reply confirmed Singapore's sovereignty over the island and that Johor had no title, historic or otherwise, to it. The Colony of Singapore became a self-governing state in 1959, and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Two years later, in 1965, Singapore became a fully independent republic. In 1959, in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca, Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a "Singapore" station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses. The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966, the year after Singapore left the Federation. In 1967, when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately, Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse. In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962, 1965, 1970, 1974 and 1975, the island was indicated with the word "(SINGAPORE)" or "(SINGAPURA)" under it. The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore's sovereignty. On the other hand, the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang, an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse. At a news conference in May 1980 attended by Malaysia's former Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn and Singapore's then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, the Malaysian leader admitted that the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca was "not very clear" to Malaysia. On 19 November 2007, Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar responded to Malaysia's claim that Singapore was attempting to subvert the status quo by claiming sovereignty of Pedra Branca. He stated that Singapore was "an honest, law-abiding state that has never and will never do anything to endanger navigational safety, security arrangements or the Singapore Strait's environment," and that it was Malaysia that had sought to alter the status quo by publishing the map that incited the dispute, which had altered maritime boundaries with seven neighbouring countries. This was evidenced by a telegram that the Malaysian Government had sent to its overseas missions in December 1979, notifying them that the map would "affect" Brunei, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Singapore and Vietnam. ### Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge one entity Singapore took the position that Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be considered a single group of maritime features as Middle Rocks and South Ledge were dependencies of Pedra Branca. It relied, among others, on the Island of Palmas Case (1932): "As regards a group of islands, it is possible that a group may under certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit, and that the fate of the principal part may involve the rest." It argued that the three maritime features were geomorphologically the same, as rock samples showed that they were all composed of a light, coarse-grained biotite granite. Additionally, Malaysia had not shown any exercise of sovereignty over the uninhabited reefs of Middle Rocks and South Ledge while Singapore had consistently exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters. Since sovereignty over Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore, so did sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge as they were within Pedra Branca's territorial waters. ## Malaysia's case ### Pedra Branca not terra nullius Malaysia's case was that it had original title to Pedra Branca "from time immemorial". The island could not at any relevant time have been terra nullius as it is and had always been part of Johor, which is now a state of Malaysia. Nothing that the United Kingdom or Singapore had done had displaced its sovereignty over it. Contrary to what Singapore had claimed, there had been no break between the old Sultanate of Johor and the new Johor Sultanate ruled by Sultan Hussein that came into existence after the signing of the 1824 Anglo–Dutch Treaty. The Treaty had the effect of leaving the islands south of the Singapore Strait within the Dutch sphere of influence (the Riau–Lingga Sultanate), while the territory and islands in the Strait and to its north were within the British sphere of influence (the new Johor Sultanate). A few months after the conclusion of the Anglo–Dutch Treaty, the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor entered into the Crawfurd Treaty with the East India Company on 2 August 1824. Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty stated: > Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussein Mahomed Shah and Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India Company, their heirs and successors for ever, the Island of Singapore situated in the Straits of Malacca, together with the adjacent seas, straits, and islets, to the extent of ten geographical miles, from the coast of the said main island of Singapore. Since Johor could not have ceded Singapore island and the islets in its vicinity to the British if it lacked title to them, this was evidence that the United Kingdom recognised the prior and continuing sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate over all islands in and around the Singapore Strait. Malaysia challenged Singapore's contention that Pedra Branca never became part of the new Johor Sultanate because 25 June 1825 letter from Sultan Abdul Rahman of Riau–Lingga to Sultan Hussain showed that Abdul Rahman had only donated territories on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea. Malaysia submitted Abdul Rahman's statement that his territory "extends out over the islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Karimon and all other islands" had to be read in the context of Article XII of the 1824 Anglo–Dutch Treaty, which guaranteed that no "British Establishment" would be made "on the Carimon Isles, or on the Island of Bantam, Bintang, Lingin, or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore". Three of the islands mentioned by Abdul Rahman – Bintan, Karimun and Lingga – were islands that the British had agreed were not within their sphere of influence, while the other two – Bulan and Galang – lay south of the Singapore Strait. Therefore, the phrase "all other islands" in Abdul Rahman's letter referred only to islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence. The letter was simply formal recognition that Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over Johor. The Johor Sultanate's title to the island was also confirmed by ties of loyalty that existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut, a nomadic sea people who in the past had inhabited the maritime areas of the Singapore Strait, carrying out fishing and piracy, and had visited Pedra Branca quite frequently. This was evidenced by three 19th-century letters written by British officials, including one dated November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson, the Government Surveyor of Singapore, which had reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built. Thomson noted that they "frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people." Malaysia rejected Singapore's argument that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory. It stated that authority in states throughout the world is based on a combination of control over people and territory, and that this applies to the Malay States as it does to any other state. Since the Johor Sultanate was established in the 16th century, it always had rulers who were recognised as such and who thus commanded people's allegiance and therefore controlled the territory where those people lived. ### Actions of United Kingdom and Singapore those of lighthouse operator Malaysia averred that the actions of the United Kingdom and its successor Singapore in constructing and maintaining Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca were actions of the operator of the lighthouse and not the sovereign of the island. Johor had at no time ceded the island to the United Kingdom, but instead had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it. Captain James Horsburgh, a Scottish hydrographer to the British East India Company who had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East Indies, China, New Holland, the Cape of Good Hope and other intermediate ports, died in May 1836. Merchants and mariners felt that the building of one or more lighthouses would be a fitting tribute to him, and in as early as November 1836 Pedra Branca was proposed as one of the preferred sites. By 1844, preference had been expressed for Romania Outer Island, or Peak Rock. Some time in November 1844, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, William John Butterworth, wrote to the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor regarding the matter. His letters have not been found, but English translations of the replies, dated 25 November 1844, exist. The Sultan said: > I have received my friend's letter, and in reply desire to acquaint my friend, that I perfectly understand his wishes, and I am exceedingly pleased at the intention expressed therein, as it (a Light House) will enable Traders and others to enter and leave this Port with greater Confidence. The Temenggung responded thus: > I have duly received my friend's communication, and understand the contents. My friend is desirous of erecting a Light House near Point Romania. I can have no possible objection to such a measure, indeed I am much pleased that such an undertaking is in contemplation. I wish to be guided in all matters by the Government, so much so, that the [East India] company are at full liberty to put up a Light House there, or any spot deemed eligible. > > Myself and family for many years have derived support from Singapore, our dependence is wholly on the English Government, and we hope to merit the protection of, and be favoured by the Company on all occasions consistent with propriety. Three days later, on 28 November 1844, the Governor wrote to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the lighthouse be sited on Peak Rock. Among other things, he said that "[t]his Rock is part of the Territories of the Rajah of Johore, who with the Tamongong ... have willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company", and enclosed the replies received from the Sultan and Temenggung. Nonetheless, Malaysia argued that the Sultan and Temenggung's letters amounted to no more than permission to the United Kingdom to build and operate a lighthouse on Peak Rock or some other suitable location. On 13 November, Malaysia's Agent, Ambassador-at-Large Abdul Kadir Mohamad, alleged that Singapore was trying to "subvert" a 150-year-old arrangement under which Singapore operated Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca, which was Malaysia's territory. He also suggested that if permitted to do so, Singapore would upset the peace and stability of the area where the island is located. He said that if Singapore reclaimed land around Pedra Branca, "[q]uite apart from the possible effects on the environment and navigation in the Strait, this could lead to potentially serious changes to the security arrangements in the eastern entrance of the Strait". According to Malaysian Attorney-General Abdul Gani Patail, Singapore had first raised the issue of sovereignty over Pedra Branca on 13 April 1978 during a meeting between officials, saying it had "incontrovertible legal evidence" of its sovereignty over the island though it had never produced any documents in support. Prior to that, the sovereignty of the island had never been disputed. The 1980 statement by the then Malaysian Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn concerning the "unclear" position of the island had also been premised on these documents which former Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had claimed were in Singapore's possession. The statement was therefore merely a friendly and respectful statement of a visiting prime minister at a press conference which had no probative value in court. All Hussein Onn had meant was that the matter required further discussion between the two countries. #### 1953 letter by Acting State Secretary of Johor unauthorised Concerning the letter of 21 September 1953 in which the Acting State Secretary of Johor informed the Colonial Secretary of Singapore that "the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca", Malaysia submitted that the Colonial Secretary's enquiry of 12 June 1953 about the status of Pedra Branca showed that the Singapore authorities had no conviction that the island was part of its territory. Further, the Acting State Secretary "was definitely not authorized" and did not have "the legal capacity to write the 1953 letter, or to renounce, disclaim, or confirm title of any part of the territories of Johor". Under two treaties of 21 January 1948, the Johor Agreement between the British Crown and the Sultan of Johor and the Federation of Malaya Agreement between the British Crown and nine Malay States including Johor, Johor transferred all its rights, power and jurisdiction on matters relating to defence and external affairs to the United Kingdom. These powers were exercisable by the Federal High Commissioner appointed by the United Kingdom and not by the Johor State Secretary. The Acting State Secretary had improperly taken it upon himself to reply to the Colonial Secretary's letter and had not submitted a copy of it to the Chief Secretary of Johor. There was no evidence that the Chief Secretary or the High Commissioner was aware of its contents. #### Singapore's actions in respect of Pedra Branca not as sovereign Regarding Singapore's contentions that it had exercised sovereign authority over Pedra Branca in various ways, Malaysia responded as indicated below: - Investigation of shipwrecks in vicinity of Pedra Branca. Singapore had duties to investigate hazards to navigational safety and to publish information about such hazards in its capacity as a lighthouse operator, and under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea. Therefore, by investigating and reporting on shipwrecks and maritime hazards within Pedra Branca's territorial waters Singapore had acted in accordance with best practice and not à titre de souverain. The circumstances of the particular investigations also meant that Singapore's ability to carry them out was not based on its sovereignty over the island. - Display of British and Singapore ensigns on island. Ensigns, associated with maritime matters, are marks of nationality and not sovereignty. Singapore had also not demonstrated any sovereign intent in the flying of the British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse. The Pulau Pisang incident was not an acknowledgement by Malaysia of Singapore's sovereignty over Pedra Branca; it had been a matter of domestic political sensibility – Pulau Pisang is much larger than Pedra Branca and has a small local population. - Installation of military communications equipment and plans to reclaim land. Malaysia alleged that Singapore's installation of military communications equipment on Pedra Branca was done secretly, and that it had only learned about this when it received Singapore's memorial in the case. As regards Singapore's plans to reclaim land around the island, Malaysia said it could not have reacted to some of the documents as they had been secret. #### Meteorological reports irrelevant; maps inconclusive In response to Singapore's contention in respect of meteorological reports published by Malaysia that had indicated Pedra Branca as a Singapore station, Malaysia said the fact that it recognised Horsburgh Lighthouse as a Singapore rainfall station did not amount an acknowledgement of sovereignty. The six maps that it had published between 1962 and 1975 which had printed the word "(SINGAPORE)" or "(SINGAPURA)" beneath the island were inconclusive. This was because the annotating could be assessed differently, the maps contained disclaimers stating they could not be considered an authority on the delimitation of international or other boundaries, and maps do not create title and cannot amount to admissions unless incorporated into treaties or used in inter-state negotiations. ### Middle Rocks and South Ledge belong to Malaysia Malaysia contended that Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge were not a single identifiable entity. The historical record showed that the three maritime features were never formally described as a single island with appurtenant islands, or as a group of islands. Middle Rocks and South Ledge were therefore under Johor sovereignty at the time of the 1824 Anglo–Dutch Treaty and fell within the British sphere of influence under the Treaty. Malaysia had exercised consistent acts of sovereignty over them within the limits of their character. For instance, in 1968 the Malaysian Government used and granted petroleum concessions which extended to the area of Middle Rocks and South Ledge. Also, an internal confidential document dated 16 July 1968 entitled "Letter of Promulgation" by the Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy included charts showing that Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge were within Malaysia's territorial waters, and the features were included within Malaysian fisheries waters in the Fisheries Act 1985. Singapore had neither protested against these manifestations of sovereignty, nor advanced any claims over Middle Rocks and South Ledge in 1980 when it began claiming that Pedra Branca belonged to it. ## Controversies ### Reliability of Malaysia's photograph of Pedra Branca In the course of the hearing, to demonstrate Pedra Branca's proximity to the Johor mainland, Malaysia produced a photograph taken of Pedra Branca with Point Romania and a hill named Mount Berbukit, both in Johor, in the background. However, on 19 November 2007 Singapore produced another photograph taken using a camera that approximated what the human eye sees, and pointed out that in it Mount Berbukit appeared much smaller. It alleged that Malaysia's photograph had been taken using a telephoto lens, which had exaggerated the height of Mount Berbukit by about seven times. Singapore's then Attorney-General Chao Hick Tin said that the photograph had been "an attempt to convey a subliminal message of proximity between Pedra Branca and the coast of Johor", but it was not an accurate reflection of what visitors to Pedra Branca would see if they were looking towards Johor. Malaysia claimed its photograph was obtained from an online blog, Singapore called the blog "most unusual", noting that it had been created only a month earlier; that the photograph had only been uploaded on 2 November, four days before the oral proceedings in the case had commenced; and that there was no information on the blogger's identity. In its rebuttal on 24 November, Malaysia said that the difference between the photographs was "all a question of perspective" and that the matter was not worth discussing. ### Missing 1844 letters A key thrust of Malaysia's case was that the British had received explicit permission from Johor to build a lighthouse on Pedra Branca, which proved that the British had recognised Johor's sovereignty over the island. It submitted that this was evidenced by the November 1844 letters that Governor Butterworth had written to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor regarding the construction of the lighthouse. Malaysia said it had written to Singapore asking for copies of the letters, because if the letters still existed they were probably in Singapore's archives in a file entitled "Letters to Native Rulers". However, Singapore had never replied. Singapore's response was that it did not have copies of the letters. Its archives were incomplete, and searches for them in other archives had been in vain. Furthermore, the letters were more likely to be in Malaysia's possession as the Governor had sent them to the Johor rulers. In his rebuttal of Malaysia's case on 19 November 2007, Singapore's Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Law S. Jayakumar expressed disappointment with Malaysia's insinuation that Singapore had concealed the letters from the Court, which he termed "most disturbing", "baseless" and "distracting". Malaysia did not mention the matter further in its rebuttal on 24 November. ## ICJ decision The ICJ rendered its decision on 23 May 2008. It held by 12 votes to four that sovereignty over Pedra Branca belongs to Singapore. It further held, by 15 votes to one, that sovereignty over Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia, and sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located. ### Pedra Branca originally under sovereignty of Johor Sultanate The Court agreed with Malaysia that the Johor Sultanate had original title to Pedra Branca, rejecting Singapore's argument that the island was terra nullius. It found it was not disputed that Johor had established itself as a sovereign state with a certain territorial domain in Southeast Asia since it came into existence in 1512. As Pedra Branca had always been known as a navigational hazard in the Singapore Strait, which was a vital channel for international navigation in east–west trade between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, it was inconceivable that the island had remained undiscovered by the local community. It was therefore reasonable to infer that Pedra Branca lay within the general geographical scope of the Johor Sultanate. Further, during the existence of the old Johor Sultanate, there was no evidence of any competing claims over the islands in the Singapore Strait. It also agreed with Malaysia's submission that descriptions of the relationship between the Sultan of Johor and the Orang Laut in 19th-century official British reports proved that the Sultan exercised sovereign authority over the Orang Laut. Since the Orang Laut made the islands in the Singapore Strait their habitat, this confirmed the "ancient original title" of the Johor Sultanate to those islands, including Pedra Branca. As regards Singapore's argument that the traditional concept of Malay sovereignty was based on control over people rather than territory, the Court observed that sovereignty comprises control over both persons and territory. However, it was not necessary to deal with the point further as it had already found that Johor had territorial sovereignty over Pedra Branca. The purpose of the 1824 Anglo–Dutch Treaty was to finally settle the disputes that had arisen between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands relating to their territorial possessions and commercial interests in the East Indies. It was thus most unlikely that the parties had left the maritime features in the Singapore Straits outside their spheres of influence, as Singapore had contended. Under Article XII of the Treaty, Britain had agreed that "no British Establishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles, or on the Island of Bantam, Bintang, Lingin, or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore ..." The islands and islets within the Straits therefore fell within the British sphere of influence. This included Pedra Branca, which remained part of the territorial domain of the new Johor Sultanate. That this was the British understanding of the Treaty was confirmed by a letter dated 4 March 1825 from the Government of India to John Crawfurd, the British Resident in Singapore, which read: "[O]ur acquisition of these Islets [under the Crawfurd Treaty] is not at variance with the obligations of the Treaty concluded at London in March last [the 1824 Anglo–Dutch Treaty] as they are all situated North of the Southern limits of the Straights of Singapore ..." [Emphasis added.] Therefore, Britain's position was that every island north of the southern limits of the Singapore Strait fell within its sphere of influence. The Court's reading of the Anglo–Dutch Treaty was reinforced by letter of 25 June 1825 from Sultan Abdul Rahman to his brother Sultan Hussain, which did not have the effect Singapore attributed to it. Contrary to Malaysia's submission, the Court found that the Crawfurd Treaty did not show that Britain recognised Johor's sovereignty over all the islands in and around the Singapore Strait. Article II only referred to the cession by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor of "the Island of Singapore ... together with the adjacent seas, straits, and islets to the extent of ten geographical miles" to the British, and could not be read as an acknowledgement by the United Kingdom that Johor sovereignty over any other territory. ### Sovereignty over Pedra Branca passed to Singapore The ICJ noted that under certain circumstances, sovereignty over territory may pass due to the failure of the state which has sovereignty to respond to the other state's conduct à titre de souverain, that is, concrete manifestations of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other state. Because there was no written agreement relating to Horsburgh Lighthouse and Pedra Branca, the Court was unable to determine whether the November 1844 replies by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor to Governor Butterworth's query amounted to a cession of the place that would be chosen for the site of the lighthouse or was merely a permission to build, maintain and operate a lighthouse there. Although the Governor had indicated in his 28 November 1844 letter to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the replies amounted to a gratuitous cession to the East India Company, this understanding was not communicated to the Sultan and Temenggung. Similarly, the fact that Britain had not informed Johor about its decision to site the lighthouse on Pedra Branca might be seen either as recognition that Britain only had consent to build and operate it, or that Johor no longer had rights over the island. On the evidence adduced, the Court was unable to reach a conclusion on the issue. It also did not draw any conclusions about the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse, stating only that it saw the events as "bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the authorities in Johor and Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh". It noted, though, that apart from a two-day visit by the Temenggung and his followers to the island in early June 1850, Johor had no involvement in the project. The Court declined to accept Malaysia's argument that the Singapore Colonial Secretary's query about the status of Pedra Branca in 1953 indicated that the United Kingdom had no conviction that the island was part of its territory. It felt the letter of inquiry showed the Singapore authorities were not clear about events that had occurred over a century earlier and that they were unsure their records were complete, which was understandable in the circumstances. It also disagreed that the Acting State Secretary of Johor, who had stated in his letter of reply that Johor did not claim ownership of the island, had acted without authority. The Johor Agreement was irrelevant – as the Colonial Secretary was a representative of the United Kingdom government which was not a foreign state in relation to Johor at the time, there was no question of the United Kingdom having to consent to Johor issuing the reply. The Federation of Malaya Agreement also did not assist Malaysia because the action of responding to a request for information was not an "exercise" of "executive authority". Further, since Malaysia had not invoked this argument in its negotiations with Singapore and in the ICJ proceedings until late in the oral phase, Singapore was entitled to presume that the Acting State Secretary had acted within his authority. The meaning of the reply was clear – as of 1953, Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca, and thus the Singapore authorities had no reason to doubt that the island belonged to the United Kingdom. The Court regarded as conduct à titre de souverain Singapore's investigation of six shipwrecks in the vicinity of Pedra Branca between 1920 and 1993, its exclusive control over visits to the island, the installation of the military rebroadcast station on the island in 1977, and the proposed reclamation of land around it. Malaysia was correct in asserting that the flying of an ensign was not normally a manifestation of sovereignty, and that the difference in size between Pulau Pisang and Pedra Branca had to be recognised. Nonetheless, some weight could be given to the fact that Malaysia had not requested for the Singapore ensign flying at Horsburgh Lighthouse to be taken down. The fact that Malaysia had referred to the lighthouse as a Singapore station in the 1959 and 1966 meteorological reports and had omitted it from the 1967 Malaysian report favoured Singapore's case. The maps published by Malaysia between 1962 and 1975 tended to confirm that it considered Pedra Branca to fall under Singapore sovereignty. The "(SINGAPORE)" or "(SINGAPURA)" annotations on the maps in respect of the island were clear and supported Singapore's case. The maps gave a good indication of Malaysia's official position on the matter, and could amount to an admission. Finally, Malaysia could not rely on the disclaimers on the maps as the present matter did not concern a boundary but a distinct island. In any case, the maps were statements of geographical fact, particularly since Malaysia had itself produced and disseminated it against its own interest. In view of the above, the Court held that by 1980 sovereignty over Pedra Branca had passed from Malaysia to Singapore. ### Sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge None of the conduct by the United Kingdom and Singapore that led to the ICJ to conclude that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca applied to Middle Rocks. Since Johor held the ancient original title to Middle Rocks, the Court held that this title remains with Malaysia as the successor to the Johor Sultanate. South Ledge falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malaysia, Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks. Although in the Special Agreement and in their final submissions Malaysia and Singapore had asked the Court to decide which state had sovereignty over Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge, the Court had not been mandated to delimit the extent of the territorial waters of the two states in the area in question. Therefore, it simply held that South Ledge, as a low-tide elevation, belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located. ## Reactions and further developments ### Reactions On 23 May 2008, Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim described the ICJ decision as creating a "win-win" situation and that both countries would "forge ahead" in their bilateral relationship. Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak called the judgment a "balanced decision" as Malaysia had been "partly successful" in its territorial claims. Interviewed by journalists at The Hague, Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar said: "We are pleased with the judgment because the court has awarded sovereignty over Pedra Branca, which is the main feature in dispute, to Singapore." Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong said he was pleased with the result, and commented that bringing the dispute to the ICJ was "a good way for [Malaysia and Singapore] to resolve disagreements or problems while maintaining good relations with each other". #### Malaysia On the day the ICJ released its judgment, Rais Yatim asserted that since South Ledge was within the territorial waters of Middle Rocks, "Malaysia appears to be the sovereign holder". A week later, the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ("Island") for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as "Batu Puteh" or "Pedra Branca". The ICJ's decision is final and not subject to appeal. Nevertheless, in June 2008 Rais Yatim stated that Malaysia had renewed its search for the letter written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca. He noted that the rules of the ICJ allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced. In response, Singapore's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city-state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with. Several Malaysian Members of Parliament have urged the Federal Government to assert sovereignty over Pulau Pisang which also has a lighthouse on it that is operated by Singapore, or to take over administration of the lighthouse. Concerns were also expressed for Pulau Merambong near the western boundary of Malaysia and Singapore. The Menteri Besar of Johor, Abdul Ghani Othman, assured the public that Pulau Pisang belongs to Johor under a 1900 agreement between Sultan Ibrahim of Johor and British administrators in colonial Singapore. Nonetheless, Malaysian agencies have taken up efforts to stake claims over a hundred islands, reefs, rocks and other features in the South China Sea, Malacca Straits, and off Sabahan waters that Malaysia could lose to China, Indonesia and Vietnam. Two of these islands are Pulau Unarang off eastern Sabah near the Indonesian border, and Pulau Perak to the west of Penang. At the opening of Johor's 12th State Assembly in June 2008, Sultan Iskandar of Johor pledged to reclaim the island "whatever it takes". Speaking impromptu at the end of a prepared speech, the Sultan said in Malay: "Let us be reminded that I do not forget Pulau Batu Puteh. Pulau Batu Puteh is not Singapore's, but it belongs to Johor. It does not matter how long it may take, I will find the way to get back the island, which belongs to Johor." The Menteri Besar of Johor said the state government had "clearly heard" what the Sultan said, but did not elaborate. On 3 September 2008, Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, a Kelantan prince and MP from the state, sent a letter to Rais Yatim claiming that Johor's interests had not been raised before the ICJ. He alleged that the seas surrounding Pedra Branca had always been in Johor's hands and had never been surrendered to the British or to Singapore, and by accepting the ICJ decision and participating in technical discussions with Singapore the Malaysian government had infringed Johor's constitutional rights. Responding, Rais said the letter seemed designed for "political mileage" and that Johor had been fully involved in the proceedings. He told the Straits Times, "Everybody has his opinion on such matters but I, as Foreign Minister, have to abide by the dictate of the law. I have to see the letter first but it's rather late in the day to express disappointment." #### Singapore On 21 July 2008, in response to questions from Singapore Members of Parliament about Pedra Branca, the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Balaji Sadasivan stated that the maritime territory around the island included a territorial sea of up to 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) and an Exclusive Economic Zone. This was condemned by Malaysia's Foreign Minister Rais Yatim as "against the spirit of ASEAN and the legal structure" as the claim was "unacceptable and unreasonable and contradicts the principles of international law". In response, a Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman said that Singapore first stated its claim to a territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone on 15 September 1980, and reiterated this claim on 23 May 2008 following the ICJ's judgment. Both statements had made clear that if the limits of Singapore's territorial sea or Exclusive Economic Zone overlapped with the claims of neighbouring countries, Singapore would negotiate with those countries to arrive at agreed delimitations in accordance with international law. In August 2008, Rais said Malaysia took the view that Singapore was not entitled to claim an Exclusive Economic Zone around Pedra Branca as it considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island, that is, land inhabited by humans that had economic activity. At the launch of S. Jayakumar and Tommy Koh's book Pedra Branca: The Road to the World Court on 19 December 2008, Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong commented: "The Pedra Branca case is likely to be a unique event in the history of Singapore as it is unlikely that Singapore will ever again need to seek confirmation of her title to territory under international law." ### Resolution of outstanding issues Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks, and to determine the ownership of South Ledge. Following a meeting on 3 June 2008, the Committee agreed that a technical sub-committee would be established to oversee the conduct of joint survey works to prepare the way for talks on maritime issues in and around the area. If any incident occurred in and around the waters of Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge, either side would provide humanitarian assistance to the vessels involved. Finally, both Malaysian and Singaporean fishermen could continue traditional fishing activities in those waters. In September 2008, the Joint Technical Committee reported that its Sub-Committee on Joint Survey Works was finalising technical preparations for a hydrographic survey that would provide data for future delimitation discussions. A Sub-Committee on Maritime and Airspace Management and Fisheries had also been formed, and after a meeting on 20 August 2008 it decided that traditional fishing activities by both countries should continue in waters beyond 0.5 nautical miles (0.9 km; 0.6 mi) off Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge. ### Application requesting interpretation of 2008 judgment and subsequent withdrawal On 2 February 2017, Malaysia applied to the ICJ pursuant to Article 61 of the Statute of the ICJ for the revision of the 2008 judgment on the basis of three documents it had obtained from The National Archives of the UK between August 2016 and January 2017. The documents were internal correspondence of Singapore's colonial government in 1958, an incident report submitted by a British naval officer in the same year, and a 1960s map of naval operations bearing annotations. The Malaysian Government said that these documents indicated that "officials at the highest levels in the British colonial and Singaporean administration appreciated that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh did not form part of Singapore's sovereign territory" during the relevant period. Therefore, "the Court would have been bound to reach a different conclusion on the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had it been aware of this new evidence". However, according to Shahriman Lockman, a senior analyst at Malaysia's Institute of Strategic and International Studies, "there's very little precedent for revisions to ICJ judgments". Reports suggest that the timing of the application coincides with the upcoming elections in Malaysia, as the ruling Barisan Nasional Coalition, which is currently under pressure over the IMDB scandal, could "use the renewed legal fight over Pedra Branca as a means to show it was 'best placed to display strong leadership in the country's foreign policy so as to safeguard Malaysia's sovereignty'". Singapore's Foreign Ministry said that a team including Attorney-General Lucien Wong, and Chan Sek Keong, S. Jayakumar and Tommy Koh (who had represented Singapore at the original ICJ hearing), had been appointed to study and respond to the claim. On 5 February 2017, Law and Home Affairs Minister K. Shanmugam commented that on a cursory examination of the documents without detailed legal advice, he did not see how the documents would make any difference to the ICJ's judgment. On 2 March, Foreign Minister Dr Vivian Balakrishnan said in Parliament that the Singapore legal team has studied Malaysia's application carefully, including the three documents relied on by Malaysia to support its application, and strongly believes that the documents relied on by Malaysia do not satisfy the criteria under Article 61. Singapore has until 14 June to submit to the ICJ its comprehensive and compelling rebuttal to Malaysia's application. On 30 June 2017, Malaysia applied to the ICJ to request for an interpretation of the ICJ's 2008 judgment. This application is "separate and autonomous" from the 2 February application for the revision of the same judgment. The application invokes Article 60 of the Statute of the Court and Article 98 of the Rules of the Court. According to Malaysian Attorney-General Mohamed Apandi Ali, Malaysia and Singapore set up a Joint Technical Committee (JTC) for the implementation of the 2008 ICJ judgment. According to Malaysia, the JTC reached an impasse in November 2013, as both parties had been unable to agree over the meaning of the 2008 judgement as it concerns the South Ledge and the waters surrounding Pedra Branca. Explaining Malaysia's position, Malaysian Attourney-General Apandi said: "Malaysia considers that it is necessary to request an interpretation of the 2008 judgement from the ICJ as it would serve as a basis for the maintenance of orderly and peaceful relations between the parties in the management of their respective maritime zones and airspace in the future". Singapore's Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) noted in a press statement that ICJ's judgement was "final and without appeal", as well as "clear and unambiguous". As a result, MFA said: "Malaysia's request for the ICJ to interpret the judgement is puzzling. Singapore will therefore oppose Malaysia's application for interpretation, which we consider to be both unnecessary and without merit". Malaysia's new government withdrew their application for the review on 30 May 2018, a move which was welcomed by Singapore's MFA as the 10-year period had lapsed, putting the matter to rest. ## See also - Foreign relations of Malaysia - Foreign relations of Singapore - List of International Court of Justice cases - Malaysia–Singapore border
30,038,700	Patroclus (admiral)	1,102,746,664	Macedonian admiral	[ "3rd-century BC Macedonians", "Ancient Greek admirals", "Priests of the Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great", "Ptolemaic admirals", "Ptolemaic generals" ]	Patroclus (Ancient Greek: Πάτροκλος), also spelled Patroklos, was a leading official and admiral of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. He is best known for his activity during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), when he commanded the navy sent to Greece by Ptolemy II. His early career is obscure, but it must have been distinguished enough for him to rise to the chief priesthood of Alexander and the Theoi Adelphoi in 271/270 BC. After the outbreak of the Chremonidean War, he led a diplomatic and military expedition to the Aegean Sea that expanded Ptolemaic control by establishing bases at Crete, Ceos, Thera, Attica and the Argolid. From these bases he tried, without much success, to aid the Athenians against Antigonus II Gonatas, King of Macedon. He may have been the defeated Ptolemaic commander at the Battle of Cos, which marked the end of Ptolemaic thalassocracy. ## Early life and career Patroclus' early life is obscure; nothing is known of his family apart from the name of his father, Patron. He certainly held various offices in the service of Ptolemy II, in which he must have distinguished himself for his ability and loyalty, particularly to Ptolemy's sister and second wife, Arsinoe II, before being appointed to the prestigious post of eponymous priest of the deified Alexander the Great and the Sibling Gods (Theoi Adelphoi, the deified Ptolemy II and Arsinoe) in 271/270 BC. His appointment to that office has been seen by some scholars as either a reward, or an incentive, for his execution of the poet Sotades, who in his compositions denounced the incestuous marriage between Ptolemy II and Arsinoe. Sotades was imprisoned in Alexandria, but managed to escape to the "island of Kaunos", until Patroclus captured him and ordered him to be placed in a leaden box and dropped him into the sea. ## Chremonidean War The Chremonidean War, which broke out in late 268 BC, provides the stage for the better known part of Patroclus' career. Patroclus has frequently been called nauarchos (admiral) by modern studies, beginning with the British classicist William Woodthorpe Tarn, who in the early 20th century conceived the Ptolemaic nauarchos as having been an office of almost viceregal authority, held by men like Philocles, the king of Sidon, for terms of ten years each. As the French historian Marcel Launey has shown, the title is applied to Patroclus only once in ancient sources, by the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias; all contemporary or later literary and epigraphical sources refer to him as strategos (general), which must have been his actual title. Indeed, according to the German classicist Hans Hauben, his Macedonian origin seems to argue for a previous career in the army rather than in the navy. The actual extent of Patroclus' authority is a matter of dispute in current scholarship, but it is clear that he enjoyed broad powers over the other Ptolemaic commanders and their allies in the Aegean Sea. In early 267 BC, he headed a large Ptolemaic embassy to Crete, with the aim of securing his master's influence there, as well as bases for operations in the Aegean Sea. Patroclus is attested by name in two cities, Itanus and Olus. He was honoured with the proxenia and the title of benefactor by both cities, as well as with the citizenship of Itanus—a rare honour. In Olus, his fellow envoys are also attested: Callicrates of Samos, his predecessor as eponymous priest, and seven others. According to Launey's interpretation, it was at that point that Patroclus went to "the island of Kaudos", as he emends Kaunos, where he executed Sotades. Launey's emendation has long been accepted by most scholars, but the problems of chronology and geography render "a definitive solution impossible", according to Hauben. Epigraphical evidence suggests that Patroclus then visited Ceos. He made Ioulis, one of the four cities of the island, his headquarters, and apparently refounded the city of Koressos, naming it after Queen Arsinoe. A garrison was installed on the island, under the epistates Hieron of Syracuse. While there, Patroclus received a request from the citizens of Thera who were troubled by internal strife. He selected a board of five judges from Ioulis, to put the affairs of Thera in order. Patroclus also appointed an epistates, Apollodorus, probably also from Ioulis, but his exact role, i.e., whether his role was temporary, linked with the mission of the judges, or as commander of a permanent garrison on the island, is unclear. At about the same time, Patroclus expanded his ring of naval bases around the Greek mainland, occupying Methana in the Argolid, which he also renamed Arsinoe. As the Athenian port of Piraeus was probably still in the hands of an Antigonid Macedonian garrison, he also fortified an uninhabited island off the coast of Attica, named after him "Isle of Patroclus". At about this time, Patroclus dedicated a phiale to the panhellenic sanctuary at Delos. These moves served to tighten Ptolemaic control over the Aegean, but his active intervention in the war was unsuccessful. In 266 BC, Patroclus with his troops tried to aid the Athenians. The literary references to the subsequent events are limited to brief statements by Pausanias, which indicate that the Ptolemaic troops proved ineffective. Patroclus requested the assistance of the Spartan king Areus I, excusing his inability to take the offensive alone with the comment that his men were native Egyptians and sailors. As Hans Hauben comments, this comment may reveal more about "a certain Greek (and Macedonian) milieu" and its "visceral contempt for native Egyptians", rather than have any basis in facts. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence on the island of Patroklos and other fortified sites in Attica suggest that Patroclus' involvement was more extensive than implied by Pausanias: coins, pottery shards, and remnants of fortifications point to a Ptolemaic presence not only on the southeastern shores of Attica, such as the peninsula of Koroni or a coastal fort in the deme of Atene, but further inland as well, in Ilioupoli and Mount Hymettus, and on the southwestern shores, at Vouliagmeni. This presence implies an attempt to neutralize the fortress of Sounion on the extreme south of Attica, which was probably also under Antigonid control, as well as an effort to supply Athens overland, bypassing the Antigonid-controlled Piraeus. In the event, although the Spartan army may have come as close as Kamatero, they could not advance further, and withdrew. Patroclus' envisaged two-pronged attack on the Antigonid army did not materialize. Epigraphical evidence from the coastal Athenian outpost of Rhamnous, which was being harassed by the Antigonid army and pirates collaborating with them, or simply taking advantage of the general chaos, also attests to the fact that Athenian and Ptolemaic attempts to safeguard Attica were not wholly effective. In 265/4 BC, Areus once again tried to cross the Isthmus of Corinth and aid the beleaguered Athenians, but the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas concentrated his forces against him and defeated the Spartans, with Areus himself among the dead. Despite the presence of Patroclus and his fleet, it appears that Ptolemy II hesitated to fully commit himself to the conflict. The reasons for this reluctance are unclear, but it appears that, especially in the last years of the war, Ptolemaic involvement was limited to financial support for the Greek city-states and naval assistance. The end of Ptolemaic involvement may be related to the Battle of Cos, whose chronology is much disputed by modern scholars. Almost nothing is known about the events of the battle, except that Antigonus II Gonatas, although outnumbered, led his fleet to defeat Ptolemy's unnamed commanders. A surviving anecdote where Patroclus taunted the Macedonian king for his lack of mastery over the sea has been interpreted by some scholars, such as Hans Hauben, as indicating that Cos belongs to the Chremonidean War and was fought around 262/1 BC, with Patroclus in command of the Ptolemaic fleet. Others, however, place the battle around 255 BC, at the time of the Second Syrian War. Whatever the actual events, it is clear that Cos marked the end of absolute Ptolemaic thalassocracy in the Aegean. ## Island of Patroclus He built a fortification on a small island close to Athens, and for this the island was called Island of Patroclus (Πατρόκλου νῆσος).
30,408,469	Ponce de Leon Springs (Atlanta)	1,172,405,044	Former mineral springs in Atlanta, Georgia	[ "Buildings and structures in Atlanta", "Demolished buildings and structures in Atlanta", "Old Fourth Ward", "Parks in Atlanta", "Springs of Georgia (U.S. state)" ]	Ponce de Leon Springs was a mineral spring in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States. The spring was a popular tourist destination from the mid-1800s through the early 1900s. Around the turn of the century, the land surrounding the spring was developed into an amusement park. By the 1920s, the amusement park was demolished, and the area was developed for industrial and, later, commercial properties. Residents of Atlanta had known of the spring, which was located about 2 miles (3.2 km) northeast of downtown Atlanta, since the early 1800s, though it was not until the mid-1800s that they became a popular tourist area as a local destination spa. The mineral content of the water was thought to provide health benefits to drinkers, and the spring was named in reference to the legend of Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León's search for the Fountain of Youth. By the 1870s, there was a streetcar line extending from downtown to the spring, following a route that would later become Ponce de Leon Avenue, one of the city's busiest thoroughfares. In the early 1900s, the spring was sold to developers who created an amusement park on the site, nicknaming it "the Coney Island of Atlanta". By the 1920s, the amusement park's popularity began to wane and the land was eventually sold to Sears, Roebuck and Co., who built their regional distribution and retail headquarters on the site. Today, the building is Ponce City Market, a mixed-use development, and some of the original land that was home to the spring has been developed into the Historic Fourth Ward Park. ## History ### Early history In the United States in the 1800s, numerous mineral spas were developed around naturally occurring mineral springs. These locations, such as Saratoga Springs in New York and White Sulphur Springs in Virginia, were very popular tourist locations as destination spas, while the mineral water produced at the springs was sought out for its perceived health effects. In the U.S. state of Georgia, there were eleven such mineral springs that had been commercially developed prior to the American Civil War, though many of those resorts were destroyed during that conflict. In Atlanta, Georgia, around the mid-1800s, there were several natural springs that provided the city's residents with fresh drinking water and leisure areas, such as the Atlanta Mineral Spring. Another spring located in the Atlanta metropolitan area was the Ponce de Leon Springs. This spring was located northeast of the city, about 1 mile (1.6 km) outside of the city limits and 2 miles (3.2 km) away from Downtown Atlanta. The area was a low-lying vale where two creeks met, and the spring itself was surrounded by a grove of beech trees. Not far from the area to the southeast was another well-known spring called Angier Spring. People in the area had known of the Ponce de Leon Springs since at least the early 1800s. Between 1818 and 1820, John Young, a cattle rancher from the area, built a house near the spring, and by the 1830s, the spring was being used as a source of drinking water for some local residents. The water originated from a source rock of gneiss and biotite, with the water being chalybeate. The water was considered medicinal and good for health because of its mineral quality. As a result, in the 1860s, Henry L. Wilson, a retired physician from Atlanta, named the spring the Ponce de Leon Springs as a reference to the legend of Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León and his search for the Fountain of Youth. ### Popularity as a trolley park By the 1860s, the spring was under the private ownership of John Armistead. Around this time, the spring started to become a major source of Atlanta's water supply after Yancey Springs, another freshwater spring in the city, had been filled in in 1868 to make way for a new railroad in the city. By 1870, Ponce de Leon Springs had also become a popular day trip destination for Atlanta citizens. With the spring's popularity well-established, Armistead began bottling the water and established a residential water delivery service by 1871. That same year, the Atlanta and Richmond Air-Line Railway constructed a railroad near the spring, which was located at the foot of its embankment. This railroad would later come under the ownership of Southern Railway. In 1872, an amphitheater with a dance pavilion was constructed near the spring, and that same year, a local businessman established an omnibus service to the spring, with a one-way fare of \$0.50. The service ran between the spring and Kimball House in downtown and helped to increase tourism to the spring. At the time, it was one of only a handful of public parks in the area, alongside Oglethorpe Park, Oakland Cemetery, and a small park near Atlanta City Hall. Around this same time, Richard Peters, a co-owner of the Atlanta Street Railway, took notice of the increasing popularity of the spring and had a route created to the location. This route, a part of the railway's Nine-Mile Circle, was an extension of their Peachtree Street line and followed a path that would later become known as Ponce de Leon Avenue, one of the most traveled thoroughfares in the city. The line opened in June 1874 and charged a fare of \$0.10, which was twice the amount the railway charged for their other routes. This increased price was due to the remote location of the spring, which was in a sparsely populated area, and the line only ran for six months out of the year, as few people visited the spring during the winter. Additionally, the railway had had to construct a bridge across Clear Creek to reach the spring. By 1884, another rail company, the Gate City Street Railroad, had also established a line to take people from downtown to the spring. In 1875, an article in The Atlanta Constitution called the spring "Atlanta's Charming Suburban Resort". By this time, a bath house had also been built at the spring, and there were numerous vendors selling fruit and ice cream to the visitors. A ten-pin bowling alley was added by 1879, the same year that the spring was discussed in the national publication Harper's New Monthly Magazine, and by 1881, the spring was receiving several thousand visitors annually. The popularity of the spring during this time was part of a larger nationwide trend of trolley parks that had become popular in large cities throughout the United States. ### Purchase by the Atlanta Street Railway In May 1886, Armistead, who still owned the land, began to charge visitors \$0.05 to drink water from the spring. Armistead's decision was met with resistance from the Atlanta Street Railway, whose management worried that customer frustration over the charge could hurt their business. However, the following year, the railway purchased the land from Armistead. In January 1888, the railway leased the land to N. C. Bosche, a local businessman who planned to convert the area into a beer garden, though this plan never came to fruition. Two years later, in 1890, W. A. Hemphill, the president of the railway, hired Julius Hartman, a local landscape designer, to renovate the area. Hartman had previously worked on developing Little Switzerland, an amusement park near Grant Park that would later be known as the White City. Hartman proposed enhancing the natural beauty of the area by adding walking paths and by creating a 4-acre (1.6 ha) large artificial lake called Ponce de Leon Lake. This lake, as well as a smaller pond called Pairs Pond, were created in mid-1890. Around the same time that the railway company had purchased the land, African Americans began to be denied entry to the area. Throughout the early 1880s and before, the parkland had previously been open to both African Americans and white Americans, though they were required to use separate venues while at the park. However, by 1887, black people who were taking the streetcar to the spring were told by police that they would not be allowed to enter the land. ### Amusement park In January 1903, 47 acres (19 ha) of land surrounding the spring was purchased by a company that would eventually be known as the Ponce de Leon Amusement Company, which intended to develop the land as an amusement park. Construction began the following month and saw the creation of several new buildings, a theater, a carousel, and a casino. The owners also brought in many other amusement rides and attractions similar to those found at the resort areas of Coney Island, New York, and Atlantic City, New Jersey, such as a ping pong parlor, a gravity railroad, a Ferris wheel, and a penny arcade, among others. The new area soon became known as "the Coney Island of Atlanta". The park was scheduled to open for its inaugural season in May 1903, but this opening was postponed by about a month. The casino opened on June 1 with a performance of The Lady Slavey operetta, and the park as a whole opened to several thousand visitors several days later on June 6. Like with the spring area before it, this amusement park enforced a policy of racial segregation, only allowing African Americans entry if they were servants for white guests. In 1906, the park was purchased by the Ponce de Leon Park Association, which was run by casino lessee Jack Wells as president, Joseph Whitehead as treasurer, and Hugh L. Cardoza as secretary and manager. The association invested \$50,000 into renovations for the park (), which added new attractions and ushered in the park's heyday. In 1907, the lake was filled in and a ballpark, Ponce de Leon Park, was built on the location. This ballpark served as the home venue for the Atlanta Crackers, the city's Minor League Baseball team, who debuted at the park on May 23 of that year before 8,000 spectators. The ballpark would later also serve as the home venue for the Atlanta Black Crackers, the city's Negro league baseball team. ### Later land use While the spring and accompanying amusement park remained a popular retreat throughout the early 1900s, by the 1910s, the area around the spring began to see substantial development. In 1914, the Ford Motor Company built a headquarters for their operations in the southeastern United States near the spring. This building served as a factory, showroom, and office for the company until they sold the building to the United States Department of War in 1942. By the early 1920s, the amusement park had fallen out of fashion and, in 1924, Sears, Roebuck and Co. purchased the land that contained the spring and the amusement park in order to construct their new retail and distribution headquarters for the southeast. In 1966, following the construction of Atlanta Stadium, the ballpark was demolished. Following its demolition, the area was converted into commercial real estate and is currently home to Midtown Place, an outdoor shopping mall. In 1990, Sears sold this building to the government of Atlanta, which operated the building for several years as "City Hall East". In 2011, the building was sold by the city to developers who converted it into a mixed-use development called Ponce City Market. Additionally, as of 2016, the Ford building has been converted into an apartment complex called the Ford Factory Lofts. Also in the 2000s, a significant amount of land just south of Ponce City Market in what had previously been the spring area was converted into the Historic Fourth Ward Park, while the railroad right of way that ran next to the spring area has undergone redevelopment as part of the BeltLine, a series of shared-use paths and urban green spaces that surround the city. ## See also - List of springs
12,733,023	Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel	1,061,460,091	null	[ "2008 debut albums", "4AD albums", "Bradford Cox albums", "Kranky albums" ]	Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel is the first studio album by Atlas Sound, the solo project of Deerhunter frontman Bradford Cox. The album was released in North America by Kranky on February 19, 2008 and in Europe by 4AD on May 5, 2008. The tracks of Let the Blind Lead were constructed with computer-generated and recorded instruments in music software Ableton Live. Described as being stream-of-consciousness in nature by Cox, each song was created over the span of several hours; in addition, the music and lyrics were written and sung on the spot. For its release, the tracks were arranged in the order in which they were recorded; Cox described the album as a whole as having a "dynamic arc" to it. The North American cover art is a modified photograph of a painting of a doctor treating a sick boy. The face of the child is obscured by a camera flash, although Cox feels that this gives the picture a "romantic" element. The lyrics of Let the Blind Lead are autobiographical in nature, reflecting life experiences of Cox. These include abuses he received as a child, past drug addictions, and the time he spent hospitalized as a teenager due to his genetic disorder Marfan syndrome. Several songs concern his best friend Lockett Pundt, the guitarist for Deerhunter, whom the album is dedicated to. "Winter Vacation" is a reflection on the first time the two met, while in "Ativan", Cox examines his relationship with Pundt. Let the Blind Lead was generally well-received by critics; some praised Cox's emotional lyrics, while others criticized his music for lacking substance. The record charted at number 32 on Billboard magazine's Top Heatseekers chart for one week. ## Production The music of Atlas Sound utilizes computer-based MIDI instruments, created and recorded in musical software Ableton Live; the program allows Cox "to turn pretty much any sound into a MIDI-controllable keyboard", according to him. Effects that were not already built into the program were seldom used. Brian Foote of the band Nudge assisted Cox in the production of Let the Blind Lead, by showing him the basics of the software, and aiding in the selection of equipment that would be used on the record. Cox described the process of recording the album as being stream-of-consciousness: "with Atlas Sound, the songs are being written as they're recorded." In addition, all of the lyrics on the album were created as they were being recorded on the first take. The album's title is derived from a dream Cox had in which he saw a group of protesters, one of whom was holding up a sign reading "Let the blind lead those who can see but cannot feel". Upon waking, Cox wrote down the phrase on a notebook beside his bed. He described the concept to Out magazine as being "like you are able to see, but you might not know the right direction to go in. But somebody who can’t see might—just by instinct—lead you that way." The arrangement of the tracks on Let the Blind Lead is chronological, presented in the order in which they were recorded. ### Artwork The North American album cover artwork originates from a medical journal Cox discovered in a thrift store. A painting in the journal depicts a doctor treating an ill boy, "while his mom looks on, concerned", as described by Cox. In photographing the painting, the face of the boy was obscured by the flash of the camera. While it "kind of took away from the photo" according to him, the picture became "somehow...romantic, the idea that there was so much emotion in the face that it got whited out." Cox described the boy as being "the saddest boy...lovesick and emaciated", adding, "I related to that boy so much that I literally, in the thrift store, almost started crying." The European album artwork was created by v23, a group that designs cover art for label 4AD. ## Style ### Music Let the Blind Lead has been characterized as ambient, psychedelic, and pop music, similar in style to Cox's previous work with Deerhunter, such as the band's 2007 album Cryptograms. Cox is drawn to ambient music due to its ambiguous, repetitive, and "emotive" nature. He considers himself inspired in part by the style and "sonic picture" of girl groups and doo-wop music. Instruments heard on the record include the guitar, drums, glockenspiel, mbira, and Ghanaian bells. Cox also considers his voice an instrument of its own. While moving toward using less layering effects on the vocal tracks in his music, because he does not consider himself a songwriter, Cox prefers to use such effects to make his voice more instrumental and ambiguous in nature. He has said he is "always more interested in the parts that are like vocalists, wordless vocals: the harmonizing, the oohs when the vocals become like an instrument." To create tracks on Let the Blind Lead, Cox continually adds elements to a song until he "feel[s] like it's getting crowded...When it sounds done, it's done. And if it seems like it's missing something, I'll go back and add something." Most of his music is the product of several hours' work, rather than that of a few days. To Pitchfork Media Cox said that, with each song, "The genesis is usually a beat." Cox considers the music of Let the Blind Lead to have a "dynamic arc": the first half of the record contains "more accessible songs. I was very depressed in the middle, and it created this kind of black hole of misery. Then I tried to bring it up again at the end." Cox intended for his music to be "therapeutic", for both himself and his audience. In addition, he wanted the album to have a healing element, and be something "somebody could listen to all the way through and feel like they went through a bad period of time and came out of it." Pauline Oliveros, a composer who runs an organization that studies music therapy, was described by Cox as having "a big influence" on him and his ideas of therapeutic music. He considers music "the only art form I know of that has such an immediate effect on the human psyche", and found the time he first met and talked with Oliveros as being "like meeting a hero of mine." The album's opening track, "A Ghost Story", contains a sample of a young boy telling a ghost story, obtained by Cox from an internet audio archive of free music samples. Cox found the sample "moving", and used it to create an intro that would set the tone for the rest of the album. Said Cox, "I wanted to create a haunted record, you know? Kind of filled with ghosts. I thought it just set up the album nicely." He summarized the song as consisting of "basically just a cassette and effected hammer dulcimers." The sounds of "Small Horror" were intended to represent "banging depression." Cox described the song as being "the most depressing song" on Let the Blind Lead, and as being "concrete" musically. Instrumental track "Ready Set Glow" is supposed to "create the impression of passing out and falling back into a bed of strobe lights." Another instrumental song, "After Class", is a "sonic rearrangement" of a track produced by Deerhunter for the 2008 compilation album Living Bridge. The self-titled final song of Let the Blind Lead, another instrumental track, was intended to bring the album full circle, having it start and end on an "ambient note". Lockett Pundt, a recurring focus of the album's lyrics, created a guitar loop which was the basis for the song "Cold as Ice". ### Lyrics While Cox was working with Deerhunter to produce Cryptograms, it was considered Kranky policy to not print the lyrics of an album in its liner notes. This was a rule enforced by label owner Joel Leoschke, who believed the practice "demystifi[ed] the experience of a rock record." Despite largely agreeing with this sentiment, Cox chose to print the lyrics of Let the Blind Lead, in part because he wanted to "see what they looked like," having ad-libbed the words of every song on their first take. In an interview with Pitchfork Media, Cox described the lyrical origins of each song on Let the Blind Lead; they are largely autobiographical in nature, reflecting life experiences of his. The song "Recent Bedroom" conveys an experience Cox had when his aunt died: "She was in her bedroom, and everybody knew she was about to pass away, and she went out, she faded out, and everybody just started crying." Although he was "overwhelmed" by her death, it did not bring him to tears like the rest of his family. This event is expressed in the song by the lines "I walked outside, I could not cry / I don’t know, I don’t know why". Cox’s inability to cry stemmed from his having been "very involved in drugs" at the time, which he believes eliminated his "childhood instinct...to cry." The song attempts to communicate an emotional vacancy and sense of detachment characterized by "moving from childhood to adolescence". "River Card" is based on a Puerto Rican short story entitled "There’s a Little Coloured Boy at the Bottom of the River". The story tells of a boy who falls in love with his reflection in a river, believing it is another person, similar to the Greek myth of Narcissus. Cox attempted to capture "this childhood homoerotic energy...I remember experiencing and relating to." In the conclusion of the story, the boy jumps into the water and drowns, thus making "River Card" "a song about a dead child." The lyrical contents of "Quarantined" were inspired by a Russian article Cox read about children born with AIDS, confined in hospitals due to the "various lifestyles and mistakes" of their parents. Cox, who has a genetic condition known as Marfan syndrome, related the article to his own experiences with children's hospitals. Having had many chest and back surgeries when he was sixteen, he "got real used to children's hospitals", finding them "kind of haunted, weird places." "On Guard" is described as "a sad song", the lyrics of which illustrate having to age and dealing with the "newfound anxiety" that comes with meeting new people. Cox explains that this anxiety stems from lacking "the energy to represent yourself to people. You’re always on guard." The lyrical content of "Cold as Ice" is based on a relationship Cox had with a girl named Alice. Having fallen in love with her in the fifth grade, he proposed to marry her on the school's playground. Alice rejected Cox, calling the ring he had given her "a cheap piece of crap." Years later, Cox worked with Alice at a Subway restaurant. Occasionally, "for no reason", she would ask him to watch her change into her uniform in the restaurant's refrigerator, which he described as having been as "cold as ice". Cox suspects that "she was trying to torture me or something." The song "Bite Marks" is about "sadomasochism and boy prostitution." In the song, Cox references an experience he had when he was kissing a man who bit him "really, really hard" on his shoulder, leaving bite marks "for like two weeks." This experience, along with other abuses he received as a child, formed the lyrical basis of the song. A recurring source of lyrical subject matter in Let the Blind Lead is Cox's best friend, Deerhunter guitarist Lockett Pundt, whom the album is dedicated to. "Winter Vacation" concerns the first time the two met. Seeing him at a bus stop while vacationing in Savannah, Georgia, Cox was "attracted to him, but not in some kind of like, just physical way." Seeing "his melancholy, his sitting alone, staring at the ground", he "fell in love" with him. Cox and his family later drove to a beach; "Winter Vacation" relates to Cox’s memory of the beach, being "infected with that new love" found after meeting Pundt. The words of "Scraping Past" are about "moving on...And wondering if somebody is going to come with you or...stay behind." This uncertainty is characterized by several lines Cox considers "pop song clichés", referencing "rain that comes and goes." In the song, Cox asks Pundt, "Are you going to come with me, or are you staying here?" In "Ativan" Cox examines his addiction to the drug of the same name, as well as his relationship with Pundt. "It talks a lot about how things have changed between me and Lockett's relationship and how he's met a girl and...our friendship is never gonna change, but it's difficult sometimes." Cox asserts that he would "rather just take whatever drugs it takes to go to sleep and sleep through it...I'm not prepared to face it yet." ## Reception On Metacritic, Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel has received an average critic score of 81 out of 100, based on 23 reviews, indicating "Universal Acclaim". Upon release, the album received Pitchfork Media's "Best New Music" accolade, and was later placed 26th on the publication's 50 Best Albums of 2008. For one week, the album peaked at number 32 on Billboard magazine's Top Heatseekers chart. Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media praised the album in his review, writing that it "works best as a swirling, disorienting whole," and "those drawn to his lovesick, evolving audio presence have...an entire world to explore." Dominic Umile of PopMatters found the album's "lovesickness and confessions" to be "as tenderly delivered as its hazy atmospherics are", and, in their "bare authenticity...far more compelling in repeat indulgences than Deerhunter’s explorations." Tiny Mix Tapes rewarded the album 4/5 stars, saying that, while each song has a "distinctive quality" allowing it to stand on its own, by backing out to view the album as a whole, the "individual elements unify...mak[ing] a greater holistic product." Wilson McBee of Slant Magazine was more negative towards the album, writing that "Let the Blind Lead presents an intriguing mixture of sounds, but rarely does Cox whip them into anything very exciting." In his review, he likened the album to a "tempered" version of Deerhunter's Cryptograms. Under the Radar magazine wrote that many of the tracks of Let the Blind Lead "never materialize into anything more substantial than vapor." Sean O'Neal of The Onion's The A.V. Club said that, considering the number of free songs Cox has released on his blog, a full-length album "seems almost beside the point." He wrote that the record's songs suggest the work of "a bedroom-pop auteur who doesn't know when to quit tweaking". Allmusic writer Marisa Brown found that, with Let the Blind Lead, "as with Deerhunter, Cox has the tendency to try too hard to be profound (take the title -- or the title track -- for example), wanting so badly to say something important that he sounds trite and forced, and untrustworthy." Jonathen Cohen wrote in his review for Magnet that "Cox’s narratives make little sense", noting "much of the time, he’s not even singing so much as wailing wordlessly". In an interview with John Norris of MTV News, Cox said of the reception to Let the Blind Lead: "The response to this Atlas Sound record...the general response was very, very positive, but very, very much rooted in the concept that this is an emotional album. This is an album that has a lot of feeling behind it, and it's very naked...That might in fact be [the case], but the reason it is that way is because it was done stream-of-consciously. [sic] [...] I'm not calculated. I don't mind sentimentality, as long as it's not calculated." ## Track listing All songs were written by Bradford Cox. 1. "A Ghost Story" – 2:44 2. "Recent Bedroom" – 3:46 3. "River Card" – 3:20 4. "Quarantined" – 4:20 5. "On Guard" – 3:40 6. "Winter Vacation" – 4:00 7. "Cold As Ice" – 3:33 1. "Scraping Past" – 4:30 2. "Small Horror" – 2:54 3. "Ready, Set, Glow" – 2:58 4. "Bite Marks" – 4:18 5. "After Class" – 3:29 6. "Ativan" – 2:51 7. "Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel" – 3:45 ### Bonus disc Included with the European release by 4AD. This collection of tracks was also released digitally by Kranky as Another Bedroom EP. 1. "Another Bedroom" – 5:41 2. "It Rained" – 3:05 3. "Stained Glass Swan" – 2:58 4. "The Abandoned Closet" – 2:16 5. "Spring Break" – 4:57 6. "ABC Glasgow" – 5:02 ## Personnel - Bradford Cox – engineering, mixing - Brian Foote – mixing - Craig S. McCaffrey – layout assistance - Bob Weston – mastering ## Release history
8,605,591	Anton Schmid	1,173,565,632	Austrian Soldier, born 1900	[ "1900 births", "1942 deaths", "20th-century Austrian people", "Austrian Righteous Among the Nations", "Austrian Roman Catholics", "Austrian military personnel of World War II", "Austrian people executed by Nazi Germany", "Austrian people of Moravian-German descent", "Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I", "Burials at Antakalnis Cemetery", "Catholic Righteous Among the Nations", "Electricians", "Executed German Resistance members", "German Army soldiers of World War II", "Military personnel from Vienna", "Nazi-era German officials who resisted the Holocaust", "People executed by Nazi Germany by firing squad", "People executed for treason against Germany", "People from Brigittenau", "Roman Catholics in the German Resistance" ]	Anton Schmid (9 January 1900 – 13 April 1942) was an Austrian recruit in the Wehrmacht who saved Jews during the Holocaust in Lithuania. A devout but apolitical Roman Catholic and an electrician by profession, Schmid was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I and later into the Wehrmacht during World War II. Put in charge of an office to return stranded German soldiers to their units in late August 1941, he began to help Jews after being approached by two pleading for his intercession. Schmid hid Jews in his apartment, obtained work permits to save Jews from the Ponary massacre, transferred Jews in Wehrmacht trucks to safer locations, and aided the Vilna Ghetto underground. It is estimated that he saved as many as 300 Jews before his arrest in January 1942. Schmid was court-martialed for actively protecting Jews, sentenced to death, and shot on 13 April 1942. After the war, Schmid was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem for his efforts to help Jews and was seen as a symbol of the few Germans who defied their government's extermination program. His reception was more conflicted in Germany and Austria, where he was still viewed as a traitor. The first official commemoration of him in Germany did not occur until 2000, but he is now hailed as an example of civil courage for Bundeswehr soldiers to follow. ## Early life Anton Schmid was born in Vienna, then Austria-Hungary, on 9 January 1900. His father was a baker, and both of his parents were devout Roman Catholics from Nikolsburg, Moravia (now Mikulov, Czech Republic). They had Schmid baptized and educated him in a Catholic elementary school. After graduation, he apprenticed as an electrician. Schmid was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1918 and survived intense battles during the retreat from Italy in the final months of World War I. He became an electrician and opened a small radio shop on , Brigittenau, Vienna where he employed two Jews. Allegedly, as a young man he was in love with a Jewish girl. Schmid, who was married and had one daughter, did not belong to any organizations besides the Catholic Church. Little else is known about Schmid's life before World War II. After the German annexation of Austria in 1938, Schmid made a citizen's arrest of a man who broke the window of a Jewish neighbor and helped some Jewish friends escape into nearby Czechoslovakia. After the outbreak of war upon the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, he was drafted into the German army, but was not expected to serve on the front lines due to his age. According to German historian Wolfram Wette, he was a "civilian in uniform" who did not conform to military culture. Wette describes him as a non-ideological humanitarian whose opposition to Nazism stemmed purely from his respect for human life. According to , one of the Jews whom Schmid rescued, he was a "simple sergeant" and "a socially awkward man in thought and speech" who did not read newspapers or books. ## Rescue actions in Vilnius At first he was stationed in Poland and Belarus. In late August 1941, after the invasion of the Soviet Union, he was transferred to the Landeswehr Battalion 898 in Vilnius, then part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland German occupation zone. Schmid was reassigned to an office called Feldkommandantur 814, whose personnel were charged with collecting German soldiers who had been separated from their units and reassigning them. Although Sgt. Schmid interrogated the soldiers strictly, he sympathized with them—many were in fact suffering from combat fatigue—and avoided charging them with offenses under German military law such as desertion or cowardice in the face of the enemy, which would have resulted in court martial and the death penalty. During the first week of September 1941 alone, 3,700 Jews of Vilnius were rounded up and murdered, most at the Ponary killing pits outside of town. Schmid could see the collection point outside the window and witnessed scenes of great brutality. The first Jew whom he helped was Max Salinger, a Polish Jew from Bielsko Biala fluent in Polish and German; most likely Salinger approached Schmid. Schmid gave Salinger the paybook of Private Max Huppert, a Wehrmacht soldier who had been killed, and employed him as a typist in the office. Salinger survived the war. The second Jew whom Schmid rescued was a 23-year-old Lithuanian Jewish woman named Luisa Emaitisaite. Emaitisaite had managed to dodge the roundups one day but was caught outside the ghetto after curfew, which was punishable by death. Hiding in a doorway, she saw Schmid walking past and begged for his help. Schmid hid her in his apartment temporarily and later hired her for the office, where her knowledge of several languages and stenography was helpful. Her work permit protected her and she also survived the war. These examples show that Schmid did not set out to help Jews, but instead that his rescue actions were driven by their appeals for help. As part of the Wehrmacht policy of economic exploitation of conquered territories, a section was added for carpentry and upholstery, which Schmid directed. Due to the lack of willing, skilled Lithuanian workers, many Jews were employed. In October 1941, many permits were cancelled with a view to murdering many of the Jews in the ghetto. Schmid's office, with 150 Jewish workers at the time, was only allocated 15 permits, which covered 60 Jews including holders and family members. The Jews called these certificates "leave from death papers" because they usually prevented the police and SS from rounding up and murdering the holders. The other 90 Jews begged Schmid to drive them in Wehrmacht trucks to the nearby town of Lida, Belarus, where they believed that they would be safer. Schmid did so, temporarily saving them from death at Ponary, and made several trips to Lida with other Jews. Later, Schmid managed to obtain more of these life-saving permits and eventually employed 103 Jews in various jobs. According to testimony, Schmid treated his workers—both Jews and Soviet prisoners of war—humanely and even managed to rescue some who had been taken to Lukiškės Prison for execution. From November 1941 until his arrest in January, Schmid hid Hermann Adler, a Bratislava-born Jewish resistance member, and his wife Anita under false papers in Schmid's apartment in Vilnius. Adler introduced Schmid to key figures in the Vilna Ghetto resistance movement, including Mordechai Tenenbaum, the leader of the 1943 Białystok Ghetto uprising, and Chaika Grossman. Schmid's apartment was used as a meeting place for Jewish partisans; during a meeting on New Year's Eve 1941, Tenenbaum made Schmid an honorary member of the Vilna Zionist Organization. Schmid, Adler, and Tenenbaum devised a plan to rescue Jews from the Vilna Ghetto by transporting them to Białystok, Lida, and Grodno, considered to be safer. Under the pretext that he was moving necessary Jewish workers to the places where they were most needed, he transported some 300 Jews from Vilna. Although Schmid did aid the Jewish resistance movement where he could, the partisans in the Vilna Ghetto did not have weapons at this time, so Schmid did not help armed Jewish rebels. Because of his aid to the Jewish resistance movement, Schmid was arrested at the end of January 1942 and imprisoned at Stefanska Prison in Vilnius. He was sentenced to death on 25 February and executed on 13 April. The trial record did not survive, so researchers are unsure who denounced him or exactly what offenses he was charged with. In his final letter to his family, Schmid wrote, "I have just acted as a human and I did not want to hurt anyone." He was one of only three Wehrmacht soldiers who were executed for helping Jews. By the summer of 1942, his office no longer employed any Jews. It is unknown how many Jews he managed to save, but the number has variously been estimated at 250 or 300. ## Commemoration and legacy ### Austria According to Schmid's widow, many of her neighbors called her late husband a traitor and someone smashed her windows. Austria did not recognize Schmid as a victim of Nazism until the late 1950s, which denied his widow and daughter financial support to which they would otherwise have been entitled. However, Salinger traveled to Vienna after the war and told Stefanie Schmid of what her husband had done, and attempted to support her financially. In 1965, Simon Wiesenthal obtained Stefanie Schmid's address from a friend in Tel Aviv. The Simon Wiesenthal Center arranged for Schmid to travel to Vilnius with her daughter and son-in-law despite Communist travel restrictions and funded a new gravestone with the inscription "Here Rests A Man Who Thought It Was More Important To Help His Fellow Man Than To Live". On 11 December 1990, a memorial plaque was erected outside his home in Vienna and unveiled by Mayor Helmut Zilk. A street in Vienna was named after him in March 2003, and Kurier described him as "Austria's Oskar Schindler". In January 2020, the Rossauer Barracks has been renamed to Bernardis-Schmid-Kaserne. ### Israel A report on Schmid's New Year's Eve meeting with Jewish resistance members was carried by Jewish courier Lonka Koziebrodzka to the Warsaw Ghetto and preserved in the Ringelblum Archive. Already Schmid was described as one of the חֲסִידֵי אֻמּוֹת הָעוֹלָם (khasidei umót ha'olám, "Righteous Among the Nations"). The first published account of Schmid's rescue was in the prose poem Gesänge aus der Stadt des Todes ("Songs from the City of Death"), published in 1945 in Switzerland by Hermann Adler, who dedicated chapter eight to Schmid. Adler stated that the Jews in the ghetto said Kaddish for Schmid. According to Schoeps, Adler describes Schmid's rescue activities "in the manner of a saintly legend". Testimony about him from Tenenbaum and Yitzhak Zuckerman was included in the Scrolls of Fire. Abba Kovner, a former member of the Vilna Ghetto resistance, testified about Schmid at the trial of Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann. It was from Schmid that Kovner first heard of Eichmann; Schmid told Kovner that he had heard a rumor that "there is one dog called Eichmann and he arranges everything". Kovner emphasized that Schmid had offered his help selflessly, without accepting any payment. In 1964, Yad Vashem, the official Israeli memorial to the Holocaust, awarded Schmid recognition as Righteous among the Nations for his efforts to save Jewish lives during the Holocaust. His widow traveled to Jerusalem for the ceremony and planted a tree in the Garden of the Righteous. Schmid was one of the first Germans or Austrians to be bestowed with this honor. Many Jews, including Simon Wiesenthal, have described Schmid as "like a saint". ### Germany The Bundeswehr first official commemoration of a German soldier who had risked his life to save Jews during the Holocaust occurred on 8 May 2000, when it renamed a military base in Rendsburg "Feldwebel-Schmid-Kaserne [de]" in honor of his courage. Schmid's name replaced that of General Günther Rüdel, a German officer who fought in both world wars and sat as an honorary judge in Nazi People's Courts, which delivered summary verdicts ordering the execution of thousands of people following the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. However, later research found that Rüdel had only overseen one trial and advocated for acquittal. The renaming represented a sea change in German attitudes towards the Wehrmacht role in the war that coincided with the opening of a controversial exhibition focusing on Wehrmacht criminality. By invitation of German Federal Minister of Defense Rudolf Scharping, President Heinz Fischer attended the barracks naming ceremony as President of the National Council of Austria in Rendsburg. Scharping praised Schmid's "bravery and courage" and stated that he is a new example for the German soldier of today. In an indication of how disobedience to Nazi authorities was still a sensitive subject in Germany, he added that: "We are not free to choose our history, but we can choose the examples we take from that history." The commanding officer protested the removal of Rüdel's name and refused to attend. American historian Fritz Stern wrote that honoring Schmid "strengthens our democratic spirit" and is a repudiation of postwar attitudes in which German resistance was taboo. The barracks was closed down in 2010. On 22 June 2016, the Bundeswehr barracks in Blankenburg (Harz) were named after Schmid. According to Schoeps, Schmid is "probably the most remarkable" of all the Wehrmacht rescuers in Vilnius, because he not only helped Jewish refugees but furthered Jewish resistance. Other Wehrmacht rescuers, such as Major Karl Plagge, worked within the system to save Jews. Wolfram Wette described Schmid as "one of the gold grains hidden under the heap of rubble" in the history of Nazi Germany, as there were so few Germans willing to risk their lives to help Jews. According to Wette, Schmid brings a "message of courageous humanity" that can serve as a guide for Germany's present and future. Schmid was profiled in a Canton of Lucerne publication focusing on people who have exhibited civil courage.
157,696	Raynald of Châtillon	1,171,879,777	Crusader and military leader (1125–1187)	[ "1120s births", "1187 deaths", "12th-century French people", "12th-century Princes of Antioch", "Christians of the Second Crusade", "French Roman Catholics", "House of Châtillon", "Lords of Oultrejordain", "Medieval French knights", "People from Loiret", "Prisoners and detainees of the Ayyubid Sultanate" ]	Raynald of Châtillon (French: Renaud; c. 1125 – 4 July 1187), also known as Reynald or Reginald, was a knight of French origin who became Prince of Antioch from 1153 to 1160 or 1161 and Lord of Oultrejordain from 1175 until his death. The second son of a French noble family, he joined the Second Crusade in 1147, and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a mercenary. Six years later, he married Constance, Princess of Antioch, in spite of her subjects' opposition. Always in need of funds, Raynald tortured Aimery of Limoges, Latin Patriarch of Antioch who had refused to pay a subsidy to him. Raynald launched a plundering raid in Cyprus in 1156, causing great destruction in Byzantine territory. Four years later, the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos forced him to beg for his mercy. Raynald was raiding the valley of the river Euphrates in 1160 or 1161 when the governor of Aleppo captured him at Marash. He was released for a large ransom in 1176 but he did not return to Antioch, because his wife had meanwhile died. He married Stephanie of Milly, the wealthy heiress of Oultrejordain. Since Baldwin IV of Jerusalem also granted Hebron to him, Raynald was one of the wealthiest barons in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. After Baldwin, who suffered from leprosy, made him regent in 1177, Raynald led the crusader army that defeated Saladin, the Muslim ruler of Egypt and Syria, at the Battle of Montgisard. In control of the caravan routes between Egypt and Syria, he was the only Christian leader to pursue an offensive policy against Saladin, making plundering raids against the caravans travelling near his domains. After Raynald's newly built fleet plundered the coast of the Red Sea, threatening the route of the Muslim pilgrims towards Mecca in early 1183, Saladin pledged that he would never forgive him. Raynald was a firm supporter of Baldwin IV's sister, Sybilla, and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, during conflicts regarding the succession of the king. Sibylla and Guy were able to seize the throne in 1186 due to Raynald's co-operation with her uncle, Joscelin III of Courtenay. Raynald attacked a caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria in late 1186 or early 1187, claiming that the truce between Saladin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem did not bind him. After he refused to pay a compensation, Saladin invaded the kingdom and annihilated the crusader army in the Battle of Hattin. Raynald was captured on the battlefield. Saladin personally beheaded him for his brigandage and other crimes after he refused to convert to Islam. Most historians have regarded Raynald as an irresponsible adventurer whose lust for booty caused the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. On the other hand, Bernard Hamilton says that he was the only crusader leader who tried to prevent Saladin from unifying the nearby Muslim states. ## Early years Raynald was the younger son of Hervé II, Lord of Donzy. In older historiography, Raynald was described as the son of Geoffrey, Count of Gien, but in 1989 Jean Richard demonstrated Raynald's kinship with the lords of Donzy. They were influential noblemen in the Duchy of Burgundy, claiming the Palladii (a Roman aristocratic family) as their ancestors. Raynald was born around 1123 or 1125. He received the lordship of Châtillon-sur-Loire, but a part of his patrimony was "violently and unjustly confiscated", according to one of his letters. He came to the Kingdom of Jerusalem before 1153 when he was mentioned as a mercenary fighting in the army of Baldwin III of Jerusalem. According to modern historians, he had joined the crusade of Louis VII of France. Louis departed from France in June 1147. The 12th-century historian William of Tyre, who was Raynald's opponent, claimed that Raynald was "almost a common soldier". Louis VII left the Holy Land for France in the summer of 1149, but Raynald stayed behind in Palestine. Raymond, Prince of Antioch, and thousands of his soldiers fell in the Battle of Inab on 28 June 1148, leaving the principality almost undefended. Baldwin III of Jerusalem (who was the cousin of Raymond's widow, Constance, the ruling Princess of Antioch) came to Antioch at the head of his army at least three times during the following years. To secure the defence of the principality, Baldwin tried to persuade her to remarry, but she did not accept his candidates. She also refused John Roger, whom the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, proposed for her husband. Raynald accompanied Baldwin to Antioch in 1151 and settled in the principality, according to the historian Steven Runciman. It is certain that Raynald fought in Baldwin's army during the siege of Ascalon in early 1153. He may have already been engaged to Constance of Antioch (as Runciman suggests), or their betrothal took place during Raynald's visit to the principality before the end of the siege (as the historian Malcolm Barber proposes). They kept their betrothal a secret until Baldwin gave his permission to their marriage. ## Prince of Antioch After Baldwin granted his consent, Constance married Raynald. He was installed prince in or shortly before May 1153. In that month, he confirmed the privileges of the Venetian merchants. The contemporaneous historian William of Tyre recorded that his subjects were astonished that their "famous, powerful and well-born" princess condescended to "marry a kind of mercenary knight". The wealthy Latin Patriarch of Antioch, Aimery of Limoges, was Raynald's principal opponent. He even refused to pay a subsidy to him. In retaliation, Raynald captured and tortured Aimery, forcing him to sit naked and covered with honey in the sun, before imprisoning him. Aimery was only released on Baldwin III's demand, but he soon left his see for Jerusalem. Emperor Manuel sent his envoys to Antioch, proposing to recognize Raynald as the new prince if he launched a campaign against the Armenians of Cilicia, who had risen up against Byzantine rule. Manuel also promised that he would compensate Raynald for the expenses of the campaign. After Raynald defeated the Armenians at Alexandretta in 1155, the Knights Templar seized the region of the Syrian Gates that the Armenians had recently captured. Although the sources are unclear, Runciman and Barber agree that it was Raynald who granted the territory to them. Always in need of funds, Raynald urged Manuel to send the promised subsidy to him, but Manuel failed to pay the money. Raynald made an alliance with Thoros II of Cilicia. They attacked Cyprus, subjecting the Byzantine island to a three-week orgy of violence in early 1156. They only left Cyprus on the rumour of an imperial fleet approaching the island, but only after they had forced all Cypriots to ransom themselves, with the exception of the wealthiest individuals (including Emperor Manuel's nephew, John Doukas Komnenos), whom they carried off to Antioch. Taking advantage of the presence of Thierry, Count of Flanders, and his army in the Holy Land and an earthquake that destroyed most towns of Northern Syria, Baldwin III of Jerusalem invaded the Muslim territories in the valley of the Orontes River in the autumn of 1157. Raynald joined the royal army, and they laid siege to Shaizar. Shaizar was held by Assassins, but it had been ruled by the Muslim Munqidhites who paid an annual tribute to Raynald. Before the capitulation of the garrison, Baldwin decided to grant the fortress to Thierry of Flanders, but Raynald demanded that the count should pay homage to him for the town. After Thierry sharply refused to swear fealty to an upstart, the crusaders abandoned the siege. They marched on Harenc (present-day Harem, Syria), which had been an Antiochene fortress before Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo, captured it in 1150. After the crusaders captured Harenc in February 1158, Raynald granted it to the Flemish Raynald of Saint-Valery. Emperor Manuel unexpectedly invaded Cilicia, forcing Thoros II to seek refuge in the mountains in December 1158. Raynald hurried to Mamistra to voluntarily make his submission to the emperor. On Manuel's demand, he and his retainers walked barefoot and bareheaded through the streets of the town to the imperial tent where he prostrated himself, begging for mercy. William of Tyre stated that "the glory of the Latin world was put to shame" on this occasion, because envoys from the nearby Muslim and Christian rulers were also present at Raynald's humiliation. Manuel only forgave him after Raynald agreed to accept a Greek Patriarch in Antioch. Raynald also had to promise that he would allow a Byzantine garrison to stay in the citadel whenever it was required and would send a troop to fight in the Byzantine army. Before long, Baldwin III of Jerusalem persuaded Manuel to consent to the return of the Latin patriarch, Aimery, to Antioch, instead of installing a Greek patriarch. When the emperor entered Antioch with much pomp and ceremony on 12 April 1159, Raynald held the bridle of Manuel's horse. Manuel left the town eight days later. Raynald made a plundering raid in the valley of the river Euphrates at Marash to seize cattle, horses and camels from the local peasants in November 1160 or 1161. Majd al-Din, governor of Aleppo, attacked Raynald and his retinue on the way back to Antioch. Raynald tried to fight, but the Muslim warriors unhorsed and captured him. He was sent to Aleppo where he was put in jail. ## Captivity and release Almost nothing is known about Raynald's life while he was kept in jail for fifteen years. He shared his prison with Joscelin III of Courtenay, the titular Count of Edessa, who had been captured a couple of months before. In Raynald's absence, Constance wanted to rule alone, but Baldwin III of Jerusalem made Patriarch Aimery regent for her fifteen-year-old son (Raynald's stepson), Bohemond III of Antioch. Constance died around 1163, shortly after her son reached the age of majority. Her death deprived Raynald of his claim to Antioch. However, he had become an important personality, with prominent family connections, as his stepdaughter, Maria of Antioch, married Manuel I Komnenos in 1161, and his own daughter, Agnes, became the wife of Béla III of Hungary. When Gümüshtekin, governor of Aleppo, one of the last independent Muslim rulers in Syria before Saladin, had conquered almost all neighboring states, he released Raynald, along with Joscelin of Courtenay and all other Christians prisoners in 1176. Raynald's ransom, fixed at 120,000 gold dinars, reflected his prestige. It was most probably paid by Manuel I Komnenos, according to Barber and Bernard Hamilton. Raynald came to Jerusalem with Joscelin before 1 September 1176 where he became a close ally of Joscelin's sister, Agnes of Courtenay. She was the mother of the young Baldwin IV of Jerusalem, who suffered from leprosy. Hugo Etherianis, who lived in Constantinople after around 1165, mentioned in the preface of his About the Procession of the Holy Spirit that he had asked "Prince Raynald" to deliver a copy of the work to Aimery of Limoges. According to historian Bernard Hamilton, these words suggest that Raynald led the embassy that Baldwin IV sent to Constantinople to confirm an alliance between Jerusalem and the Byzantine Empire against Egypt. ## Lord of Oultrejordain ### First years Raynald married Stephanie of Milly, the lady of Oultrejordain, and Baldwin IV also granted him Hebron. The first extant charter styling Raynald as "Lord of Hebron and Montréal" was issued in November 1177. He owed service of 60 knights to the Crown, showing that he had become one of the wealthiest barons of the realm. From his castles at Kerak and Montréal, he controlled the routes between the two main parts of Saladin's empire, Syria and Egypt. Raynald and Baldwin IV's brother-in-law, William of Montferrat, jointly granted large estates to Rodrigo Álvarez, the founder of the Order of Mountjoy, to strengthen the defence of the southern and eastern frontier of the kingdom. After William of Montferrat died in June 1177, the king made Raynald regent. Baldwin IV's cousin, Philip I, Count of Flanders, came to the Holy Land at the head of a crusader army in early August 1177. The king offered him the regency, but Philip refused the offer, saying that he did not want to stay in the kingdom. Philip declared that he was "willing to take orders" from anybody, but he protested when Baldwin confirmed Raynald's position as "regent of the kingdom and of the armies". Philip left the kingdom a month after his arrival. Saladin invaded the region of Ascalon, but the royal army launched an attack on him in the Battle of Montgisard on 25 November, leading to his defeat. William of Tyre and Ernoul attributed the victory to the king, but Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad and other Muslim authors recorded that Raynald was the supreme commander. Saladin himself referred to the battle as a "major defeat which God mended with the famous battle of Hattin", according to Baha ad-Din. Raynald was the first among the witnesses to sign most royal charters between 1177 and 1180, showing that he was the king's most influential official during this period. Raynald became one of the principal supporters of Guy of Lusignan, who married the king's elder sister, Sybilla, in early 1180, although many barons of the realm had opposed the marriage. The king's half sister, Isabella (whose stepfather, Balian of Ibelin was Guy of Lusignan's opponent) was engaged to Raynald's stepson, Humphrey IV of Toron, in autumn 1180. Baldwin IV dispatched Raynald, along with Heraclius, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, to mediate a reconciliation between Bohemond III of Antioch and Patriarch Aimery in early 1181. Roupen III, Lord of Cilician Armenia, married Raynald's stepdaughter, Isabella of Toron. ### Fights against Saladin Raynald was the only Christian leader who fought against Saladin in the 1180s. The contemporaneous Ernoul mentioned two raids that Raynald made against caravans travelling between Egypt and Syria, breaking the truce. Modern historians debate whether Raynald's desire for booty inspired these military actions, or were deliberate maneuvers to prevent Saladin from annexing new territories. Saladin tried to seize Aleppo after As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, the Zengid emir of the town, died on 18 November 1181. Raynald stormed into Saladin's territory, reaching as far as Tabuk on the route between Damascus and Mecca in late 1181. Saladin's nephew, Farrukh Shah, invaded Oultrejourdain instead of attacking Aleppo to compel Raynald to return from the Arabian desert. Before long, Raynald seized a caravan and imprisoned its members. On Saladin's protest, Baldwin IV ordered Raynald to free them, but Raynald did not obey him. His defiance annoyed the king, enabling Raymond III of Tripoli's partisans to reconcile him with the monarch. Raymond's return to the royal court put an end to Raynald's paramount position. He accepted the new situation and cooperated with the king and Raymond during the fights against Saladin in summer 1182. Saladin revived the Egyptian naval force and tried to capture Beirut, but his ships were forced to retreat. Raynald ordered the building of five ships which were carried to the Gulf of Aqaba at the northern end of the Red Sea in February 1183. Raynald laid siege to the Egyptian fortress on Ile de Graye. Part of his fleet made a plundering raid along the coasts, threatening the security of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Raynald left Ile de Graye, but his fleet continued the siege. Saladin's brother, Al-Adil, the governor of Egypt, dispatched a fleet to the Red Sea. The Egyptians relieved Ile de Graye and destroyed the Christian fleet. Raynald's soldiers were executed, and Saladin took an oath that he would never forgive him. Though Raynald's naval expedition "showed a remarkable degree of initiative", according to historian Bernard Hamilton, most modern historians agree that it contributed to the unification of Syria and Egypt under Saladin's rule. Saladin captured Aleppo in June 1183, completing the encirclement of the crusader states. Baldwin IV, who had become seriously ill, made Guy of Lusignan bailli (or regent) in October 1183. Within a month, Baldwin dismissed Guy, and had Guy's five-year-old stepson, Baldwin V, crowned king. Raynald was not present at the child's coronation, because he attended the wedding of his stepson, Humphrey, and Baldwin IV's sister, Isabella, in Kerak. Saladin unexpectedly invaded Oultrejordain, forcing the local inhabitants to seek refuge in Kerak. After Saladin broke into the town, Raynald only managed to escape to the fortress because one of his retainers had hindered the attackers from seizing the bridge between the town and the castle. Saladin laid siege to Kerak. According to Ernoul, Raynald's wife sent dishes from the wedding to Saladin, persuading him to stop bombarding the tower where her son and his wife stayed. After envoys from Kerak informed Baldwin IV of the siege, the royal army left Jerusalem for Kerak under the command of the king and Raymond III of Tripoli. Saladin abandoned the siege before their arrival on 4 December. On Saladin's order, Izz al-Din Usama had a fortress built at Ajloun, near the northern border of Raynald's domains. ### Kingmaker Baldwin IV died in early 1185. His successor, the child Baldwin V died in late summer 1186. The High Court of Jerusalem had ruled that neither Baldwin V's mother, Sybilla (who was Guy of Lusignan's wife), nor her sister, Isabella (who was the wife of Raynald's stepson), could be crowned without the decision of the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the kings of France and England about Baldwin V's lawful successor. However, Sybilla's uncle, Joscelin III of Courtenay, took control of Jerusalem with the support of Raynald and other influential prelates and royal officials. Raynald urged the townspeople to accept Sybilla as the lawful monarch, according to the Estoire de Eracles. The bailli, Raymond III of Tripoli, and his supporters tried to prevent her coronation and reminded her partisans of the decision of the High Court. Ignoring their protest, Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, accompanied Sybilla to the Holy Sepulchre, where she was crowned. She also arranged the coronation of her husband, although he was unpopular even among her supporters. Her opponents tried to persuade Raynald's stepson, Humphrey, to claim the crown on his wife's behalf, but Humphrey deserted them and swore fealty to Sybilla and Guy. Raynald headed the list of secular witnesses in four royal charters issued between 21 October 1186 and 7 March 1187, showing that he had become a principal figure in the new king's court. Ali ibn al-Athir and other Muslim historians recorded that Raynald made a truce with Saladin in 1186. This "seems unlikely to be true", according to historian Bernard Hamilton, because the truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin covered Raynald's domains. In late 1186 or early 1187, a rich caravan travelled through Oultrejordain from Egypt to Syria. Ali ibn al-Athir mentioned that a group of armed men accompanied the caravan. Raynald seized the caravan, possibly because he regarded the presence of soldiers as a breach of the truce, according to Hamilton. He took all the merchants and their families prisoner, seized a large amount of booty, and refused to receive envoys from Saladin demanding compensation. Saladin sent his envoys to Guy of Lusignan, who accepted his demands. However, Raynald refused to obey the king, stating that "he was lord of his land, just as Guy was lord of his, and he had no truces with the Saracens". Saladin proclaimed a jihad (or holy war) against the kingdom, taking an oath that he would personally kill Raynald for breaking the truce. > Prince Reynald, lord of Kerak, was one of the greatest and wickedest of the Franks, the most hostile to the Muslims and the most dangerous to them. Aware of this, Saladin targeted him with blockades time after time and raided his territory occasion after occasion. As a result he was abashed and humbled and asked Saladin for a truce, which was granted. The truce was made and duly sworn to. Caravans then went back and forth between Syria and Egypt. [In the year 582 AH], a large caravan, rich in goods and with many men, accompanied by a good number of soldiers, passed by him. The accursed one treacheously seized every last man and made their goods, animals and weapons his booty. Those he made captive he consigned to his prisons. Saladin sent blaming him, deploring his treacherous action and threatening him if he did not release the captives and the goods, but he would not agree to do that and persisted in his refusal. Saladin vowed that, if ever had him in his power, he would kill him. ## Capture and execution The Estoire de Eracles wrongly claimed that Saladin's sister was also among the prisoners taken by Raynald when he seized the caravan. Actually, she returned from Mecca to Damascus in a subsequent pilgrim-caravan in March 1187. To protect her against an attack by Raynald, Saladin escorted the pilgrims while they were travelling near Oultrejordain. Saladin stormed into Oultrejordain on 26 April and pillaged Raynald's domains for a month. Thereafter, Saladin marched to Ashtara, where the troops coming from all parts of his realm assembled. The Christian forces assembled at Sepphoris. Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort persuaded Guy of Lusignan to take the initiative and attack Saladin's army, although Raymond III of Tripoli had tried to persuade the king to avoid a direct fight with it. During the debate, Raynald accused Raymond of Tripoli of co-operating with the enemy. Saladin inflicted a crushing defeat on the crusaders in the Battle of Hattin on 4 July. Most commanders of the Christian army were captured on the battlefield. Guy of Lusignan and Raynald were among the prisoners who were brought before Saladin. Saladin handed a cup of iced rose water to Guy. After drinking from the cup, the king handed it to Raynald. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani (who was present) recorded that Raynald drank from the cup. Since customary law prescribed that a man who gave food or drink to a prisoner could not murder him, Saladin stated that it was Guy who had given the cup to Raynald. Saladin called Raynald to his tent. He accused him of many crimes (including brigandage and blasphemy), offering him to choose between conversion to Islam or death, according to Imad ad-Din and Ibn al-Athir. After Raynald flatly refused to convert, Saladin took a sword and struck Raynald with it. As Raynald fell to the ground, Saladin beheaded him. The reliability of the reports of Saladin's offer to Raynald is subject to a scholarly debate, because the Muslim authors who recorded them may have only wanted to improve Saladin's image. Ernoul's chronicle and the Estoire de Eracles recounted the events ending with Raynald's execution in almost the same language as the Muslim authors. However, according to Ernoul's chronicle, Raynald refused to drink from the cup that Guy of Lusignan handed to him. According to Ernoul, Raynald's head was struck off by Saladin's mamluks and it was brought to Damascus to be "dragged along the ground to show the Saracens, whom the prince had wronged, that vengeance had been exacted". Baha ad-Din also wrote that Raynald's fate shocked Guy of Lusignan, but Saladin soon comforted him, stating that "A king does not kill a king, but that man's perfidy and insolence went too far". ## Family Raynald's first wife, Constance of Antioch (born in 1128), was the only daughter of Bohemond II of Antioch and Alice of Jerusalem. Constance succeeded her father in Antioch in 1130. She was given in marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136. Years after his death, Raynald married the widowed Constance and seized Antioch. Their daughter, Agnes, moved to Constantinople in early 1170 to marry Kaisar Alexios-Béla, the younger brother of Stephen III of Hungary, who lived in the Byzantine Empire. Agnes was renamed Anna in Constantinople. Her husband succeeded his brother as Béla III of Hungary in 1172. She followed her husband to Hungary, where she gave birth to seven children before she died around 1184. Raynald and Constance's second daughter, Alice, became the third wife of Azzo VI of Este in 1204. Raynald also had a son, Baldwin, from Constance, according to historian Bernard Hamilton, but Runciman says that Baldwin was Constance's son from her first husband. Baldwin moved to Constantinople in the early 1160s. He died fighting at the head of a Byzantine cavalry regiment in the Battle of Myriokephalon on 17 September 1176. Raynald's second wife, Stephanie of Milly, was the younger daughter of Philip of Milly, Lord of Nablus, and Isabella of Oultrejourdain. She was born around 1145. Her first husband, Humphrey III of Toron, died around 1173. She inherited Oultrejourdain from her niece, Beatrice Brisbarre, shortly before she married Miles of Plancy in early 1174. Miles of Plancy was murdered in October 1174. ## Assessment Most information on Raynald's life was recorded by Muslim authors who were hostile to him. Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad described him as a "monstrous infidel and terrible oppressor" in his biography of Saladin. Saladin compared Raynald with the king of Ethiopia who had tried to destroy Mecca in 570 and was called the "Elephant" in the Surah Fil of the Quran. Most Christian authors who wrote of Raynald in the 12th and 13th centuries were influenced by Raynald's political opponent, William of Tyre. The author of the Estoire of Eracles stated that Raynald's attack against a caravan at the turn of 1186 and 1187 was the "reason of the loss of the Kingdom of Jerusalem". Modern historians have usually also treated Raynald as a "maverick who did more harm to the Christian than to the [Muslim] cause". Runciman describes him as a marauder who could not resist the temptation presented by the rich caravans passing through Oultrejordain. Runciman argues that Raynald attacked a caravan during the 1180 truce because he "could not understand a policy that ran counter to his wishes". According to Barber, Raynald's behavior during the reign of Guy of Lusignan shows that the kingdom had broken up into "a collection of semi-autonomous fiefdoms" by that time. Some Christian authors regarded Raynald as a martyr for the faith. Peter of Blois dedicated a book (entitled Passion of Prince Raynald of Antioch) to him shortly after his death. Among modern historians, Bernard Hamilton describes Raynald as "an experienced and responsible crusader leader" who made several attempts to prevent Saladin from uniting the Muslim realms along the borders of the crusader states.
1,364,451	Mount Morning	1,167,772,555	Volcano in Victoria Land, Antarctica	[ "Central volcanoes", "Hillary Coast", "Pleistocene shield volcanoes", "Polygenetic shield volcanoes", "Scott Coast", "Shield volcanoes of Antarctica", "Volcanoes of Victoria Land", "Volcanoes of the Ross Dependency" ]	Mount Morning is a shield volcano at the foot of the Transantarctic Mountains in Victoria Land, Antarctica. It lies 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Ross Island. Mount Morning rises to an elevation of 2,723 metres (8,934 ft) and is almost entirely mantled with snow and ice. A 4.1 by 4.9 kilometres (2.5 mi × 3.0 mi) wide summit caldera lies at the top of the volcano and several ice-free ridges such as Hurricane Ridge and Riviera Ridge emanate from the summit. A number of parasitic vents mainly in the form of cinder cones dot the mountain. The volcano was initially active during the Miocene and erupted in two separate stages with a hiatus in between. The older stage has a different chemical composition than the recent one and is heavily eroded by glaciers. The most recent parasitic vents were active about 20,000 years ago and the volcano could erupt again. ## Geography and geomorphology Mount Morning lies in Victoria Land, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Ross Island and at the foot of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Koettlitz Glacier runs along the northwestern foot of Mount Morning and separates it from the Royal Society Range 25 kilometres (16 mi) away. Mount Discovery lies next to Mount Morning and is separated from it by the Discovery Glacier. The volcano was originally described in the early to middle 20th century, before more detailed analyses took place in the 1970s, 1980s and 2000s. The volcano rises to 2,723 metres (8,934 ft) above sea level and is capped by a 4.1 by 4.9 kilometres (2.5 mi × 3.0 mi) wide caldera that may be the source of a glacier at its northeastern end. Mount Morning has been defined as a 30 by 36 kilometres (19 mi × 22 mi) large shield volcano that consists of a central volcano overlying an older volcanic complex. With a volume of 1,785 cubic kilometres (428 cu mi) it is one of the largest volcanoes in the region. Fissure vents have produced at least 185 parasitic vents on the slopes of Mount Morning. They are cinder cones, fissure ridges, lava domes and volcanic necks, and their diameters range from a few metres to a few hundred metres. Many of the vents form alignments, some cone craters overlap or the vents themselves have linear shapes. These linear patterns define northeast–southwest trends, with a minor northwest–southeast alignment. Lava flows emanate from cones and make up the present-day surface of the volcano. Mount Morning is almost entirely covered with snow and ice except where it is ablated by southerly winds. Outcrops of volcanic rocks form the north-northeastern Riviera Ridge and northeastern Hurricane Ridge on the northern flank, Mason Spur on the southern flank and on Helms Bluff on the eastern flank. Gandalf Ridge is a promontory formed by northward-tilted debris and penetrated by Dikes. It is located at the foot of Hurricane Ridge, and Pinnacle Valley is located on the Riviera Ridge. Dikes, lava domes, lava flows and pyroclastic deposits are found in outcrops. Mason Spur also contains breccias from pillow lavas, while Gandalf Ridge features a diamictite and a cross-cutting fault. Mason Spurr was considered by Martin et al. 2021 to be a separate volcano from Mount Morning. Owing to the lack of running water, the main edifice (unlike Mason Spur) is uneroded and parasitic vents have a young appearance. Glacial erosion has eroded some parts of the volcano, leaving volcanic necks in Pinnacle Valley, has etched glacial striations into exposed volcanic rocks and deposited glacial till. The Vereyken Glacier descends the northeastern slopes of Mount Morning between Hurricane Ridge and Riviera Ridge. Moraines occur on these two ridges and moraines dating to the Wisconsin glaciation have been reported. Glaciers descending from Mount Morning feed the Koettlitz Glacier. Several lakes are found on the volcano and at its foot, including Lake Morning at the end of the Riviera Ridge and Lake Discovery at the foot of the Hurricane and Gandalf ridges. ## Geology The West Antarctic Rift is a major geological feature in Antarctica and one of Earth's largest continental rifts. It is a region of active crustal extension and spreading, which may be ongoing today. Volcanic activity occurs at the rift and includes the McMurdo Volcanic Group, a 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) long chain of volcanoes in Victoria Land. This volcanic group has erupted alkaline lavas during the course of the Cenozoic. It is subdivided into three provinces, the Hallett, the Melbourne and the Erebus province; Mount Morning is the southernmost volcano of the Erebus province. Mount Morning rises from a Paleozoic basement, the Koettlitz Group which crops out close to Gandalf Ridge in the form of granite and metasedimentary rocks. Based on rocks erupted by Mount Morning, the crust appears to be thin and has a calc-alkaline composition. Tectonic sutures in this basement may have allowed magma to ascend to the surface in the Mount Morning region. ### Composition Basanite is the dominant rock of outcrops, with phonolite less common and picrobasalt and tephrite rare. Outcrops of older rocks include mugearite, rhyolite and trachyte. Textures range from porphyritic to seriate. Various phenocrysts are found within the volcanic rocks, including aegirine, augite, clinopyroxene, alkali feldspar, kaersutite, nepheline, olivine, plagioclase, quartz and sanidine. Aegirine, aenigmatite, amphibole, augite, clinopyroxene, alkali feldspar, glass, iron oxide-titanium oxide, nepheline, plagioclase and quartz make up the groundmass. The volcanic rocks contain xenoliths consisting of syenite and of rocks from older stages of Mount Morning activity. Spinel peridotite and less commonly clinopyroxenite, dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite, norite, pyroxenite and websterite have been reported as xenoliths. The early volcanic rocks of Mount Morning are comparable to mildly alkaline rocks from Mount Melbourne, while the more alkaline late volcanic rocks resemble these from Mount Erebus. The older rocks define the "Mason Spurr lineage" while the younger ones are referred to as the "Riviera Ridge lineage". Basaltic rocks are concentrated on the lower slopes, while phonolite is mainly found in the upper sector of Mount Morning. The composition changes between the early and late volcanic activity of Mount Morning may be due to alteration in crustal magma processes. ## Eruption history Mount Morning has been active during the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene. Argon-argon dating and potassium-argon dating have been used to infer the duration of volcanic activity at Mount Morning. Gandalf Ridge has yielded ages of 18.7±0.3-15.5±0.5 million years, Pinnacle Valley 15.2±0.2-13.0±0.3 million years, Mason Spur 12.8±0.4-11.4±0.2 million years, rocks below the summit of 6.13±0.20-\~1.00 million years and 4.51±0.31-0.02 million years on other formations. Some of these eruptions may have deposited volcanic ash over the McMurdo Sound area and in the Transantarctic Mountains. Even older activity at Mount Morning may be recorded in volcanic deposits from Cape Roberts which go back to 24.1 million years ago. This is a long lifespan for a volcano by Antarctic standards, and may be due to tectonic factors that kept magma generation focused on Mount Morning for a long time. Loading by glaciers may have influenced volcanic activity at Mount Morning. Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two phases separated by a hiatus, an early phase lasting between 11.4±0.2-18.7±0.3 million years ago and a late phase from 6.13±0.02 million years ago to almost present-day. These phases are also known as the phase I or the Mason Spur Lineage, and as the phase II or the Riviera Ridge Lineage. The early phase produced mildly alkaline volcanic rocks, the late phase which makes up most of the outcrops strongly alkaline rocks. The early phase has produced ignimbrites from a caldera at Mason Spur, an otherwise rare type of volcanoes in Antarctica. The older rocks have undergone significant glaciation, while the younger ones are largely uneroded and make up the present-day edifice. Volcanic activity mostly occurred under the atmosphere, with the exception of some lavas that may have been erupted in a subaqueous environment and hyaloclastites which have been used to infer that glaciers existed there 15.4 million years ago. Volcanic activity was focused along geologic lineaments on Mount Morning, which were reused during more recent eruptions. Eruptions took place at Mount Morning about 20,000 years ago, forming well-preserved cinder cones. In the 1960s thermal anomalies were observed at Gandalf Ridge, implying that the volcano may still be active, although ground surveys did not detect fumarolic activity. Thus, Mount Morning was considered dormant by Martin, Cooper and Dunlap 2010 and might be the source of tephra layers found in the area. ## History and name The volcano was discovered by the Discovery Expedition in 1901-1904 and named after a relief ship that took part in the expedition. ## See also - Barlow Rocks - List of volcanoes in Antarctica
8,012,688	Knesset Eliyahoo	1,171,890,095	Synagogue in Mumbai, India	[ "1884 establishments in India", "Orthodox Judaism in India", "Orthodox synagogues", "Sephardi Jewish culture in India", "Sephardi synagogues", "Synagogues completed in 1884", "Synagogues in Mumbai" ]	The Knesset Eliyahoo, also Knesset Eliyahu, is an Orthodox Jewish synagogue located in downtown Mumbai, India. It is the city's second oldest Sephardic synagogue. It was established in 1884 by Jacob Elias Sassoon, son of Eliyahoo David Sassoon and grandson of David Sassoon; the latter had immigrated from Baghdad to India in 1832 due to persecution and had settled in Mumbai, then known as Bombay. It is maintained by the Jacob Sassoon Trust. The building's significance is attributed to its Jewish traditions as well as Indian and English colonial influences. It was designed by the British architectural firm Gostling & Morris of Bombay. The basement part of the edifice is built in stone masonry and the superstructure is built in brick masonry. The exterior facade of the synagogue is painted turquoise. The sanctuary within the interior of the building is in western direction, towards Jerusalem. ## Location Knesset Eliyahoo, an Orthodox Jewish synagogue, the second oldest Sephardic, is located in Colaba at 55, Dr. V.B. Gandhi Marg, Fort, Mumbai. The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, and Oberoi Trident are nearby. ## Background Prior to the arrival of Baghdadi Jews in India, the Jews residing in Bombay — the name then used for Mumbai — had settled in the towns of India, living peacefully with other communities in India. Harry D. Wall, in an interview to the New York Times, has said that among the Jews who now remain in Mumbai are a group of Jews known as Bene Jews or Bene Israel who were reportedly descendants of seven tribes of Israel who, in the 2nd century BC, were shipwrecked on India's Konkan coast while escaping persecution in the Galilee. They found that living in India, amidst a cosmopolitan community consisting of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and, much later, Muslims, was a very cordial environment, totally free of anti-Semitic feelings. The Jewish merchant community, which played a significant role in the commercial development of then Bombay (now Mumbai), consisted of Jews from Iraq, Syria, and other Middle Eastern countries who immigrated in the late 18th century under the threat of persecution. They found the environment conducive to continuing their trade and settled in the city, becoming prosperous in business ventures such as textile mills and international trading. In 1784, the British government took over the East India Company. With this change, many business opportunities emerged in India, and Bombay in particular, encouraging immigrants to set up businesses. In 1790, one such business magnate was Shalom ben Ovadiah HaCohen, a Baghdadi Jew who had migrated from Aleppo (Halab), in Syria to Bombay; other Jewish businessmen from Baghdad, Basra, and Yemen followed him. ## History In 1832, David Sassoon immigrated to Bombay and established himself as a magistrate of the cotton industry. He built the Magen David Synagogue in Byculla. Mumbai in 1864; this was in addition to the older Magen Hasidim synagogue. His son, Albert Sassoon, transformed the weaving industry in Bombay. To cater to the increasing need of the Baghdadi Jews, Knesset Eliyahoo synagogue was constructed on a premium piece of land in the hub of Bombay's commercial area by Jacob Sassoon, grandson of David Sassoon, commemorating his father, Eliyahoo Sassoon. It was established in 1884. More Jews came from Bukhara, Persia, and, following the Farhud pogrom in Iraq in 1941, many more immigrants shifted to Bombay. They all used to assemble in the Knesset Eliyahoo synagogue in large numbers during festival days and on Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur. On many such occasions, in view of the large crowd of devotees, overflow prayer services were held in the neighbouring Cawasjee Jehangir Public Hall. In 1985, President Giani Zail Singh visited the site to honour the centennial of the synagogue's construction. India Post issued a commemorative stamp in honour of the centennial. The first-ever terrorist attack on Jews in Mumbai occurred on 26 November 2008. Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg, who had conducted Sabbath services on the previous day and also held religious discourses at the Knesset Eliyahoo, was killed, along with his wife and a few other Jews at the Nariman House, a community center operated by Chabad. This sowed fear among the Jewish community members residing in Mumbai, and also forged a closer bond between the city's Baghdadi and Bene Israel Jews. ## Architecture and fittings Designed by the British architectural firm Gostling & Morris of Bombay, the building's base is of stone masonry while the superstructure is of brick masonry. The external frontage of the synagogue is painted turquoise, and the synagogue is popularly known as the Blue Synagogue of Mumbai. The synagogue was not originally blue. The synagogue was returned to its original colour of white, with bright indigo boarders during a restoration process in 2018 - 19 carried out by conservation architect Abha Narain Lambah. The inner space contains ornamented pillars, and the sanctuary faces west towards Jerusalem. The bimah (reader's platform) is bordered on both sides by ornately carved marble, over which is placed a tall, stained-glass arch that reaches the ceiling. Women worshippers sit in an upstairs gallery. The synagogue contains a number of Torah scrolls, along with silver-cased sefarim (religious books) belonging to the Sassoon family. On the ground floor, there are meeting and school rooms, and a mikveh (immersion pool). The staircase, windows, timber balconies, ceiling, walls, and roof are in need of restoration. ## Gallery ## See also - Synagogues in India
99,856	New Jersey Route 29	1,169,037,316	Highway in New Jersey	[ "Limited-access roads in New Jersey", "National Scenic Byways", "State highways in New Jersey", "Transportation in Hunterdon County, New Jersey", "Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey" ]	Route 29 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Signed north-south, it runs 34.76 mi (55.94 km) from an interchange with Interstate 295 (I-295) in Hamilton Township in Mercer County, where the road continues east as I-195, northwest to Route 12 (Bridge Street / Race Street) in Frenchtown, Hunterdon County. Between the southern terminus and I-295 in Ewing Township, the route is a mix of freeway and expressway that runs along the Delaware River through Trenton. This section includes a truck-restricted tunnel that was built along the river near historic houses and Riverview Cemetery. North of I-295, Route 29 turns into a scenic and mostly two-lane highway. North of the South Trenton Tunnel, it is designated the Delaware River Scenic Byway, a New Jersey Scenic Byway and National Scenic Byway, that follows the Delaware River in mostly rural sections of Mercer County and Hunterdon County. The obsolete Delaware & Raritan Canal usually stands between the river and the highway. Most sections of this portion of Route 29 are completely shaded due to the tree canopy. Route 29 also has a spur, Route 129, which connects Route 29 to U.S. Route 1 (US 1) in Trenton. Route 29 was initially designated in 1927 to run from downtown Trenton northeast to Newark, following present-day Route 179 and US 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and US 22 between Somerville and Newark. The route between Lambertville and Frenchtown was originally Route 29A. In 1953, Route 29 was shifted to follow the alignment of Route 29A to avoid the concurrencies with the U.S. Routes. Route 29 between South Warren Street in Trenton and I-95 (now I-295) in Ewing Township was upgraded to a four-lane expressway, with a portion of freeway, in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1995, the southern freeway part of Route 29 between I-195/I-295 and Route 129 in Hamilton Township was completed. This freeway section was linked to the rest of Route 29 by a tunnel completed in 2002. A realignment of Route 29 in Lambertville by the 2000s made the route concurrent with the entire length of 0.26-mile-long (0.42 km) Route 165. ## Route description ### Mercer County Route 29 begins at a modified cloverleaf interchange with I-195 and I-295 in Hamilton Township, and it serves as the western continuation of I-195, heading to the northwest as a six-lane freeway. The route has an interchange with Route 129, a spur of Route 29 which connects to US 1, with a northbound exit and southbound entrance. At this interchange, the route passes over NJ Transit's River Line. Route 29 narrows to four lanes past this interchange and crosses into Trenton. The route comes to a southbound exit and entrance for Lamberton Road. At this point, Route 29 becomes the Delaware River Scenic Byway, a state scenic byway that was also designated a National Scenic Byway in 2009. Route 29 runs along the bank of the Delaware River and enters a truck-restricted tunnel that passes by historic houses and Riverview Cemetery. Within this tunnel, Route 29 features a southbound exit and northbound entrance for Lalor Street. The route emerges from the tunnel as the John Fitch Parkway and passes east of Trenton Thunder Ballpark, the home ballpark of the Trenton Thunder baseball team. The road comes to a traffic light at Thunder Road/Cass Street where it widens back to six lanes. Route 29 meets South Warren Street at another traffic light. The median widens and it passes under the Morrisville–Trenton Railroad Bridge, which carries Amtrak's Northeast Corridor over the Delaware River. Route 29 passes under the Trenton–Morrisville Toll Bridge, which carries US 1 over the Delaware River. Access to US 1 southbound is provided by ramps from Route 29 while access to Route 29 from northbound US 1 is provided by South Warren Street. Route 29 passes under the Lower Trenton Bridge and the median narrows again. It interchanges with Market Street, which provides access to Route 33, and then features an interchange with Memorial Drive which provides access to the New Jersey State House with a northbound exit and southbound entrance. Route 29 crosses the Assunpink Creek and features an interchange which provides access to South Warren Street with exits in both directions but only a northbound entrance. Route 29 continues to a cloverleaf interchange with Calhoun Street (County Route 653, CR 653), which provides access to the Calhoun Street Bridge over the Delaware River. Riverside Avenue exits as a frontage road paralleling the northbound lanes of Route 29 before the road features a northbound exit for Hermitage Avenue. Route 29 comes to a partial interchange with Parkside Avenue, with a northbound exit and southbound entrance, and then features a northbound exit for South Eastfield Avenue. The freeway portion of Route 29 ends at the intersection with Lee Avenue and it continues northwest along the Delaware River as a four-lane expressway. The route meets the southern terminus of CR 579 (Sullivan Way). The median widens again and then narrows as the route meets the southern terminus of Route 175, a former alignment of Route 29 that currently serves as a frontage road. Route 29 crosses into Ewing Township and becomes the Daniel Bray Highway. It passes under the West Trenton Railroad Bridge, which carries CSX's Trenton Subdivision and SEPTA's West Trenton Line over the Delaware River. Route 29 intersects Route 175 again and then comes to a complex interchange with I-295, with the ramps within the median of Route 29, just to the east of the Scudder Falls Bridge. Upon crossing the Delaware and Raritan Canal, Route 29 narrows down to a two-lane undivided road called River Road. It continues along the Delaware River, next to the Delaware and Raritan Canal, which runs between Route 29 and the river. The route intersects the northern terminus of Route 175. Farther north, Route 29 enters Hopewell Township and continues into a more rural setting shaded with trees. Route 29 heads to Washington Crossing State Park, where it intersects CR 546, which heads east on Washington Crossing-Pennington Road, and the approach to the Washington Crossing Bridge, which continues into Pennsylvania and connects to Pennsylvania Route 532 (PA 532). Route 29 continues north along the Delaware River through Titusville, passing by Washington Crossing State Park. ### Hunterdon County Route 29 crosses into West Amwell Township in Hunterdon County. It enters Lambertville, where Route 29 becomes a four-lane divided highway. At the intersection of South Main Street, Route 29 becomes concurrent with Route 165. The route becomes an undivided highway again and meets the western terminus of CR 518 (Brunswick Street). It meets Route 179 (Bridge Street), where Route 165 ends and Route 29 turns west for a one-block wrong-way concurrency with the two-lane, undivided Route 179, lasting to the intersection of Main Street, where Route 29 turns north on Main Street. Route 29 follows Main Street north through Lambertville, crossing into Delaware Township. It comes to an interchange with US 202 just east of the New Hope–Lambertville Toll Bridge, with access to northbound US 202 and from southbound US 202 provided by way of Alexauken Creek Road. Route 29 continues along the Delaware River and enters Stockton. The route intersects Bridge Street, which crosses the Delaware River on the Centre Bridge–Stockton Bridge and continues into Pennsylvania as PA 263. Shortly after that intersection, Route 29 intersects the southern terminus of CR 523 (Stockton-Flemington Road). Route 29 crosses back into Delaware Township, where it meets the southern terminus of CR 519 (Kingwood-Stockton Road). Route 29 makes a sharp left turn and heads west along the river as a rural road, crossing into Kingwood Township, where the name of the road changes from Main Street to Daniel Bray Highway. Here, it intersects with CR 651 (Byram-Kingwood Road). The route bends to the north and continues along the Delaware River for several miles, crossing into Frenchtown, where the route becomes Trenton Road. Upon entering Frenchtown, an end shield for northbound Route 29 is posted to mark the end of state maintenance, which officially ends at the Washington Street intersection, where maintenance is transferred to the county. Despite this, Route 29 officially continues farther north along Trenton Road to its northern terminus at Route 12 (Bridge Street/Race Street), a short distance east of Route 12’s western terminus at the Uhlerstown–Frenchtown Bridge. The southern terminus of CR 513 is located a block north of the northern terminus of Route 29 along Route 12. ## History The current route was originally legislated in 1911 as part of the Delaware River Drive, a named state highway that was proposed to run from along the Delaware River from Trenton to the New York border in Montague Township. Route 29 was originally defined in 1927 to run from Trenton to Newark. The original route ran from downtown Trenton along State Street and Sanhican Drive. From there, it followed its current alignment to Lambertville, where it followed present-day Route 179 to Ringoes to present-day CR 514, which it followed to Woods Tavern. The route turned north on US 206 (also designated Route 31) and followed that route to Somerville, where it followed US 22 to Newark. The current alignment of Route 29 from Lambertville to Route 12 in Frenchtown was designated Route 29A in 1927. The alignment of Route 29 between Ringoes and Somerville was eventually shifted to follow present-day US 202, which was also Route 30 (now Route 31) between Ringoes and Flemington and Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville. In 1938, Route 29B was planned as an extension of Route 29A from Frenchtown to Route 28 (now Route 122) in Alpha. While this road was never built, much of the alignment north of Milford is served by CR 519. In 1948, a spur route, Route S29, was created, running along US 202 (Bridge Street) in Lambertville to the New Hope–Lambertville Bridge. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 29 was redefined to continue north from Lambertville to Frenchtown on Route 29A, and the Route 29 designation between Lambertville and Newark was removed in favor of US 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and US 22 between Somerville and Newark. The section of former Route 29 between Route 29A and Route S29 became Route 165. Plans for a limited-access route along the Route 29 corridor go back to 1932, when a parkway was proposed along the Delaware River between Trenton and Lambertville; this proposal never materialized. Plans to construct a freeway from Hamilton Township to I-95 (now I-295) in Ewing Township were resurrected in the early 1950s. This road was built between 1954 and 1957 from South Warren Street in Trenton to present-day I-295 in Ewing Township. From just south of Calhoun Street north to I-295, Route 29 utilized the right-of-way of what remained of the Trenton Water Power Canal, a 19th century waterway utilized by the mills of Trenton for water power. The freeway's construction resulted in the filling of the canal, and also took up much of Trenton’s available waterfront along the Delaware River. The former alignment of Route 29 in the northern part of Trenton and in Ewing Township became Route 175. Between 1990 and 1995, the Route 29 freeway was built between the I-195/I-295 interchange and Route 129 in Hamilton Township. A two-lane street, Lamberton Road, connected the two freeway sections. Plans were then made to fill the gap between the two freeway sections in Trenton. Construction began in 1997 on the Route 29 freeway between Route 129 and the Morrisville–Trenton Railroad Bridge. The road was to include two traffic lights at Cass Street and South Warren Street and a tunnel which was to be built as a covered roadway on the bank of the Delaware River. The tunnel was originally scheduled to be complete by 2001 but was delayed after the Army Corps of Engineers discovered many environmental violations that occurred with construction of the tunnel. The roof was put in place in October 2001 and the tunnel officially opened to traffic on March 2, 2002. A restriction to trucks over 13 tons was put in place and made permanent in November 2002. By the 2000s, the state gave the part of Route 29 (South Main Street) between Route 165 and Route 179 in Lambertville to the city, and Route 29 was rerouted to use all of Route 165 and one block of Route 179. Prior to this, South Main Street had been turned one-way southbound. Route 165, which is only signed on overhead street signs, still exists, though it is fully concurrent with Route 29. A part of Route 29 was designated in 1959 as the John Fitch Parkway, honoring inventor John Fitch, "beginning with the bridge crossing over the Assunpink Creek at the conjunction of Factory Street with John Fitch Way in the city of Trenton and including the traffic circle surrounding the War Memorial building and the freeway extending in a westerly direction therefrom, along the bank of the Delaware river, to the city line of the city of Trenton..." During the 1960s the War Memorial and the surrounding circle were bypassed by a realignment of Route 29 closer to the Delaware River. In 1960, the New Jersey Legislature designated the portion of Route 29 north of Trenton as the Daniel Bray Highway to commemorate American Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Bray, a native of Kingwood Township. ## Major intersections ## See also - Pennsylvania Route 32, parallel route on the opposite side of the Delaware River
1,919,759	Jack Harkness	1,167,761,851	Fictional character in the TV series Doctor Who and Torchwood	[ "Crossover characters in television", "Doctor Who companions", "Fiction about resurrection", "Fictional LGBT characters in literature", "Fictional LGBT characters in television", "Fictional World War I veterans", "Fictional World War II veterans", "Fictional bisexual men", "Fictional characters from the 6th millennium", "Fictional characters who committed familicide", "Fictional characters with accelerated healing", "Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities", "Fictional characters with immortality", "Fictional characters with slowed ageing", "Fictional con artists", "Fictional gunfighters in television", "Fictional military captains", "Fictional pansexuals", "Fictional secret agents and spies in television", "LGBT characters in comics", "Male characters in television", "Television characters introduced in 2005", "Torchwood characters" ]	Captain Jack Harkness is a fictional character played by John Barrowman in Doctor Who and its spin-off series, Torchwood. The character first appears in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Empty Child" and subsequently features in the remaining episodes of the first series (2005) as a companion to the series' protagonist, the Doctor. Subsequent to this, Jack became the central character in the adult-themed Torchwood, which aired from 2006 to 2011. Barrowman reprised the role for appearances in Doctor Who in its third, fourth, and twelfth series, as well as specials "The End of Time", and "Revolution of the Daleks". In contrast to The Doctor, Jack is more of a conventional action hero, as well as outwardly flirtatious and capable of acts which The Doctor would view as less than noble. In the programme's narrative, Jack begins as a time traveller and con man from the 51st century, who comes to travel with the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston) and his companion Rose Tyler (Billie Piper). As a consequence of his death and resurrection in the Series 1 finale, "The Parting of the Ways", Jack becomes immortal and is stranded on 19th-century Earth. There he becomes a member of Torchwood, a British organization dedicated to combating alien threats. He spends over a century waiting to reunite with the Doctor, over which time he becomes the leader of the Torchwood branch in Cardiff. He later reunites with the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and Thirteenth Doctor (Jodie Whittaker) for further stints on Doctor Who. Aspects of the character's backstory—both prior to meeting the Doctor, and during his many decades living on Earth—are gradually revealed over Torchwood (and to a lesser extent, Doctor Who) through the use of flashback scenes and expository dialogue. Jack was the first openly non-heterosexual character in the history of televised Doctor Who. The popularity of the character amongst multiple audiences directly influenced the development of the spin-off series Torchwood. The character became a figure of the British public consciousness, rapidly gaining fame for actor Barrowman. As an ongoing depiction of bisexuality in mainstream British television, the character became a role model for young gay and bisexual people in the UK. Jack is featured in various Doctor Who and Torchwood books and has action figures created in his likeness. ## Appearances ### Television Jack Harkness first appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who two-part story, "The Empty Child" and "The Doctor Dances", when Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), a companion of the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), meets him during the London Blitz. Although posing as an American volunteering in the Royal Air Force, Jack is actually a former "Time Agent" from the 51st century who left the agency after inexplicably losing two years of his memory. Now working as a con man, Jack is responsible for unwittingly releasing a plague in London in 1941. After the Doctor cures the plague, Jack redeems himself by taking an unexploded bomb into his ship; the Doctor and Rose rescue him moments before it explodes. He subsequently travels with the Doctor and Rose in the Doctor's time-travelling spacecraft, the TARDIS. During his time with the Doctor, Jack matures into a hero, and in his final 2005 appearance, he sacrifices himself fighting the evil alien Daleks. Rose brings him back to life while suffused with the power of the time vortex, but when the power leaves her she doesn't remember doing it. She and the Doctor subsequently leave Jack behind on Satellite 5. Jack returned in 2006 as a character of the spin-off series Torchwood, in which he is a member of the Cardiff-based Torchwood Three in combating alien threats and monitoring a spacetime rift which runs through Cardiff. Jack is re-introduced as a changed man, reluctantly immortal, having spent years on Earth waiting to reunite with the Doctor. Jack recruits policewoman Gwen Cooper (Eve Myles) to the team of experts after she discovers them; there are hints of romantic feelings between the two, but Gwen has a boyfriend and Jack enters a sexual relationship with the team's general factotum Ianto Jones (Gareth David-Lloyd). Despite having worked with him for some time, his present-day colleagues know very little about him; over the course of the series they discover that he cannot die. Jack was once a prisoner of war, and was an interrogator who used torture. In the Torchwood Series 1 finale "End of Days", Jack returns to the TARDIS. This immediately leads into the 2007 Doctor Who episode "Utopia", where he joins the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and his companion Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman). Jack explains he returned from Satellite 5 to the present day by travelling to 1869 via vortex manipulator, and lived through the 20th century waiting for the Doctor. By the series finale, having spent a year in an alternative timeline enslaved by The Master (John Simm), Jack opts to return to his team in Cardiff. Before departing, Jack speculates about his immortality and reminisces about his youth on the Boeshane Peninsula, revealing that his nickname had been the "Face of Boe", suggesting that he may one day become the non-humanoid recurring character of the same name, voiced by Struan Rodger. In Torchwoods second series (2008), Jack returns with a lighter attitude, and finds his team have continued working in his absence. They are also more insistent to learn of his past, especially after meeting his former partner, the unscrupulous Captain John Hart (James Marsters). The episode "Adam" explores Jack's childhood in the Boeshane Peninsula, revealing through flashback sequences how his father Franklin (Demetri Goritsas) died and young Jack (Jack Montgomery) lost his younger brother Gray (Ethan Brooke) during an alien invasion. Flashbacks in the series' penultimate episode "Fragments" depict Jack's capture by Torchwood in the late 19th century. Initially their prisoner, Jack is coerced into becoming a freelance agent for the organization, and eventually becomes leader of Torchwood Three at midnight on 1 January 2000. The series finale features the return of Captain John and Jack's brother Gray (Lachlan Nieboer), who, after a lifetime of torture by aliens, wants revenge on Jack. While Jack manages to repair his friendship with Captain John to some degree, he is forced to place his brother in cryogenic stasis after Gray kills his teammates Toshiko Sato (Naoko Mori) and Owen Harper (Burn Gorman). Jack subsequently appears alongside the casts of Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures in the two-part crossover finale of the 2008 Doctor Who series, "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End". Jack is summoned along with other former companions of the Doctor to assist him in defeating the mad scientist Davros (Julian Bleach) and his creation, the Daleks. Jack parts company from the Doctor once again, having helped save the universe from destruction. Torchwoods third series (2009) is a five-part serial entitled Children of Earth. Aliens known as the 4-5-6 announce they are coming to Earth. Civil servant John Frobisher (Peter Capaldi) orders the destruction of Torchwood to cover a conspiracy; in 1965, the British government had authorized Jack to sacrifice twelve children to the 4-5-6, which is shown in flashbacks. Jack is blown apart in an explosion, but painfully reconstitutes from an incomplete pile of body parts; Gwen and Ianto escape and later rescue Jack from a concrete grave. Jack's daughter Alice (Lucy Cohu) and grandson Steven (Bear McCausland) are taken into custody by the assassins. The 4-5-6 demand ten percent of the world's children. Although he handed over twelve children in 1965, Jack refuses to give up any this time around. The 4-5-6 release a fatal virus; Ianto dies in Jack's arms. To create the signal that will destroy the 4-5-6, Jack sacrifices Steven. Six months later, having lost his lover, his grandson and his daughter, he bids farewell to Gwen and is transported aboard an alien ship to leave Earth for parts unknown. In the closing scenes of 2010 Doctor Who special "The End of Time", the critically injured Doctor gives each companion a farewell before his impending regeneration. Finding Jack in an exotic alien bar, he leaves him a note containing the name of Titanic crew member Alonso Frame (Russell Tovey), sitting on Jack's left side; the two proceed to flirt. The fourth series, Miracle Day (2011), an American co-production, sees Jack return to Earth to investigate a phenomenon where humans can no longer die; Jack discovers that he has become mortal. Investigating their connection to the so-called "miracle", CIA agent Rex Matheson (Mekhi Phifer) renditions Jack and Gwen to America, but joins the team along with CIA colleague Esther Drummond (Alexa Havins) after conspirators within the CIA betray them. Jack's investigations into the miracle repeatedly turn up dead-ends, indicating a decades-old conspiracy to manipulate the global economy, as well as political institutions, for unknown purposes. Flashbacks in "Immortal Sins" depict Jack's relationship with Italian thief Angelo Colasanto (Daniele Favilli) in late 1920s New York City, ending in heartbreak after Jack is killed, bled and tortured repeatedly by the local community. In the present day, Angelo's granddaughter Olivia (Nana Visitor) explains that the descendants of three local businessmen who wished to purchase Jack's powers—"the Three Families"—are responsible for the miracle, using Jack's blood in conjunction with what they call "the Blessing". In "The Gathering", the team ultimately track down the Families and the Blessing, which is revealed to be an antipodal geological formation connected to the Earth's morphic field running from Shanghai and Buenos Aires; the team divide, attempting to reach both access points. To end the miracle, in "The Blood Line", Jack has Gwen kill him so that his mortal blood can reset the human morphic field; Gwen kills him with a bullet through the chest, while Rex—who transfused himself with Jack's blood to keep it safe—allows the Blessing to drain him too, in Buenos Aires. Rex survives, and with the morphic field restored, Jack resurrects. At Esther's funeral however, they discover that Rex has acquired self-healing abilities just like Jack's. After a ten-year absence from the show, Jack returned in the twelfth series of Doctor Who in the episode "Fugitive of the Judoon" (2020), where he attempts to contact the Doctor (Jodie Whittaker). Using a stolen alien craft, he transports the Doctor's companions Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh), Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole) and Yasmin Khan (Mandip Gill), mistaking each of them for the Doctor. Learning of their identity and the Doctor's recent regeneration into a woman, he returns them to Earth, passing them a warning to give to the Doctor about the "lone Cyberman", before he teleports away after the ship's onboard nanogenes attack him. He returned in the 2021 New Year's episode "Revolution of the Daleks", in which he breaks the Doctor out of a Judoon prison, recovering his vortex manipulator in the process. Later, alongside the Doctor's companions, they repel a new Dalek invasion of Earth. Jack then chooses to stay on Earth and reconnect with Gwen Cooper. ### Literature Jack features in the BBC Books "New Series Adventures" Doctor Who novels The Deviant Strain, The Stealers of Dreams, and Only Human. These novels take place between episodes of the 2005 series of Doctor Who. In The Stealers of Dreams, Jack refers to the Face of Boe as a famous figure in his home era; the producers of the series had not conceptualized the possibility of a Jack and Boe connection until mid-way into the production of the 2007 series. The first wave of BBC Books Torchwood novels, Another Life, Border Princes, and Slow Decay (published January 2007), are set between episodes of the first series of Torchwood. The novels Trace Memory, The Twilight Streets, and Something in the Water (published March 2008), are set during the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood. The Twilight Streets suggests Jack was a freelance Torchwood agent in the 1940s, who disagreed with their methods but was persuaded by the love of an ex-boyfriend, Greg. The novel also explained that during the events of the Doctor Who episode "Boom Town" (which was set in Cardiff), Jack placed a lockdown on Torchwood activity so as not to create a paradox involving his past self. Trace Memory similarly depicts Jack as a freelance Torchwood agent, living and working in the late 1960s. Pack Animals, SkyPoint, and Almost Perfect (October 2008), are made up of more second series adventures, apart from Almost Perfect which is set after Series Two finale "Exit Wounds". Into the Silence, Bay of the Dead, and The House that Jack Built (May 2009), similarly are set between the second and third series of the show. The House that Jack Built focuses partly on Jack's life in 1906. Risk Assessment, The Undertaker's Gift, and Consequences (October 2009), are likewise set between "Exit Wounds" and Children of Earth. `First published in January 2008, the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips, in which Jack also appears. One such comic, written in 2009 by John Barrowman and sister Carole E. Barrowman, "Captain Jack and the Selkie", expands on Captain Jack's characterisation. Barrowman comments that "We’d already agreed to tell a story that showed a side of Jack and a part of his history that hadn’t been explored too much in other media. I wanted to give fans something original about Jack." Torchwood Magazine also ran with the ten-part Rift War! storyline from April to December 2008. The first Torchwood comic "Jetsam" was later collected along with Rift War! in a graphic novel.` The Torchwood Archives, published after the second series in 2008, is a companion book written by Gary Russell which gives an "insider's look" into the life of Jack and the Torchwood team. The book collects and re-publishes ancillary material which appeared on the Torchwood website in the first two seasons, and provides new material such as rough dates for things like Jack's marriage as relayed by the book's fictional narrator. The book is composed of fictitious archive notes, personnel forms, photographs, newspaper clippings and staff memos, and offers revelations about the character which would later be confirmed by the television series. For example, Archives first mention Jack's lover Lucia Moretti, who is mentioned in Children of Earth. In a similar vein to The Torchwood Archives but from a real-world perspective, Gary Russell's The Torchwood Encyclopedia (2009) expands on "every fact and figure" for Jack and the Torchwood world. The character is also mentioned Dave Stone's 2006 Judge Dredd novel Psykogeddon, where a Mega-City News announcer relays a disclaimer from pornographer Jason Kane – a character Stone created for the 1996 Doctor Who novel Death and Diplomacy – stating that any similarity between Kane and "the notorious Cursed Earth brigand 'Captain' Jack Harkness is a purely unfortunate coincidence". Jack makes a brief appearance in the 2021 Doctor Who novel The Ruby's Curse by Alex Kingston. ### Online media During the first series of Torchwood, the Torchwood website, located at torchwood.org.uk, recounted some adventures by Captain Jack through an alternate reality game made up of electronic literature in the form of fictional intercepted blogs, newspaper cutouts and confidential letters and IM conversations between members of the Torchwood Three crew. Written by James Goss, the first series' website sheds some light on Jack's backstory in the years he worked for Torchwood. For the second series in 2008, a second interactive Torchwood online game was devised, scripted by series writer Phil Ford, and as with the 2006 website contained some information on Jack's unseen adventures. The BBC America Torchwood also has a 'Captain's Blog' section which relays Jack's accounts of the events of each episode. The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature for the first two series in hardback form, including the Captain's Blog section of the BBC America website. During Series Four of Doctor Who, the BBC's website also included a section called "Captain Jack's Monster Files" featuring weekly webcast videos narrated by John Barrowman in character as Captain Jack giving "top secret" facts collected by Torchwood about Doctor Who monsters, such as the Slitheen. A Christmas special 2008 Monster File features Barrowman in new footage as Jack, as does the Cybermen edition added following the airing of "The Next Doctor" on Christmas Day. For Dr Fiona Hobden, the Monster Files' mock-documentary format give an "additional twist" to the interplay between history and fiction. Because Captain Jack narrates, "the story unfolds in the tradition of contemporary historical documentary, the docudrama"; in the Monster File for "The Fires of Pompeii", Harkness' commentary moves the 'reality' of the episode away from the explosion of Vesuvius and the human experience, and to the story itself. From Series Five onwards, the Monster Files are instead presented by River Song (Alex Kingston). Jack also appears in the web-based motion comic series Torchwood: Web of Lies (2011), which ties into Miracle Day. The story depicts a series two-set adventure where Jack is kidnapped by unknown assailants and pursued by Gwen. Investigations by a woman named Holly (voice of Eliza Dushku) establish that Jack was kidnapped by the Three Families so they could acquire entire vats of his blood, which she destroys. ### Audio drama In addition to the paperback novels, Jack also appears in Torchwood audio books, the first four being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori, Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman, released February 2008, In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster and narrated by Eve Myles, released September 2008, and The Sin Eaters written by Brian Minchin and narrated by Gareth David-Lloyd, released September 2008. Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama, "Lost Souls" which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman, Eve Myles, Gareth David-Lloyd and Freema Agyeman. Set after the events of the 2008 series, Jack and his team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva, as part of Radio 4's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on. The special radio episode's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite, as well as the team's mourning of Toshiko and Owen's recent deaths. Between 1 and 3 July, Radio 4 aired three further audio dramas in The Afternoon Play slot, bridging the gap between Series 2 and 3. "Golden Age" introduced Jack's ex-lover Duchess Eleanor (Jasmine Hyde), the leader of Torchwood India, which Jack closed down in 1924. "The Dead Line" features another ex-girlfriend of Jack's, Stella Courtney (Doña Croll). 2011 audio drama series The Lost Files was released to tie in with Miracle Day. "The Devil and Miss Carew" and "Submission" are set in the same period as the previous audio dramas. "House of the Dead", however, reveals itself in its final act to be set six months after Ianto's death; Jack visited the House of the Dead to make contact with Ianto, who is unaware that he is dead. Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time. Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto, but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff spacetime rift forever with Jack's device. In 2015, BBC Worldwide granted a licence for Big Finish Productions to produce Torchwood audio plays. Barrowman was the first Torchwood cast member to reprise his role and has appeared in numerous releases, including semi-regular appearances in the monthly range, an ongoing series set after the events of Miracle Day and various special releases. Captain Jack was set to appear in Absent Friends - marking the fiftieth Torchwood monthly range release - which would have seen him reunited with the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant). However, while this story was recorded, its release was cancelled in May 2021. In 2017, Big Finish Productions released a solo audio series for the character - The Lives of Captain Jack - containing four plays depicting adventures in Jack's life. Including the year he spent on a devastated Earth following The Parting of the Ways; his romantic encounter with Alonso Frame, briefly alluded to in The End of Time; a friendship he developed with Jackie Tyler (Camille Coduri) during the time he waited on Earth for the Doctor to return; and a story from his days as a Time Agent before he adopted the name Jack Harkness, revealing how he lost two years of memory along with his real name: Javic Piotr Thane. A second volume of The Lives of Captain Jack was released in 2019 which saw Jack filling in for a recuperating Sixth Doctor (Colin Baker) and working as a chauffeur for newsreader Trinity Wells (Lachele Carl). In 2020, following Jack's return to television in Fugitive of the Judoon but recorded prior to broadcast, a third volume reunited him with Jackie, depicted an ageing Jack in the distant future and explored his encounters - and romance - with River Song (Alex Kingston). ## Characterisation ### Concept and creation `In naming the character, executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies drew inspiration from the Marvel Comics character Agatha Harkness, a character whose surname Davies had previously used in naming lead characters in Century Falls and The Grand. Davies states that reusing names (such as Tyler, Smith, Harper, Harkness and Jones) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page. Jack's original appearances in Doctor Who were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero, and John Barrowman consciously minded this in his portrayal of the character. Following on that arc, the character's debut episode would leave his morality as ambiguous, publicity materials asking, "Is he a force for good or ill?"` Actor John Barrowman himself was a key factor in the conception of Captain Jack. Barrowman says that at the time of his initial casting, Davies and co-executive producer, Julie Gardner had explained to him that they "basically wrote the character around [John]". Davies had singled out Barrowman for the part. On meeting him, Barrowman tried out the character using his native Scottish accent, his normal American accent, and an English accent; Davies decided it "made it bigger if it was an American accent". Barrowman recounts Davies as having been searching for an actor with a "matinée idol quality", telling him that "the only one in the whole of Britain who could do it was you". A number of television critics have compared Barrowman's performances as Captain Jack to those of Hollywood actor Tom Cruise. The character's introduction served to posit him as a secondary hero and a rival to the series protagonist, the Doctor, simultaneously paralleling the Doctor's detached alien nature with Jack's humanity and "heart". John Barrowman describes the character in his initial appearance as "an intergalactic conman" and also a "rogue Time Agent" which he defines as "part of a kind of space CIA" and alludes to the moral ambiguity of having "done something in his past" and not knowing "whether it is good or bad because his memory has been erased". Writer Stephen James Walker notes similarities have been found between Jack and Angel (David Boreanaz), the heroic vampire from America's Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel; Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal pointed out that "Back alley fights, knowledge of the paranormal and an unwanted task of defending the helpless are only a few of the correlations between the two characters." Jack has also been compared to the title character of America's Xena: Warrior Princess, which featured lesbian subtext between Xena (Lucy Lawless) and her close friend Gabrielle (Renee O'Connor). Polina Skibinskaya, writing for AfterElton.com, an American gay men's website, notes both are "complex characters" haunted by their past misdeeds. Furthermore, like Xena, Jack is "a gay basher’s worst nightmare: a queer weapon-wielding, ass-kicking superhero gleefully chewing his way through awesome fight scenes". One academic article refers to Jack as "an indestructible Captain Scarlet figure". In a comparative contrast, where the Doctor is a pacifist, Jack is more inclined to see violent means to reach similar ends. The BBC News website refers to Jack's role within Doctor Who as "[continuing] what began with Ian Chesterton and continued later with Harry Sullivan". Whereas in the classic series the female "companions" were sometimes exploited and sexualised for the entertainment of predominantly male audiences, the producers could reverse this dynamic with Jack, citing an equal need amongst modern audiences to "look at good looking men". John Barrowman linked the larger number of women watching the show as a key factor in this. Jack is bisexual, and is the first televised Doctor Who character to be openly anything other than heterosexual. In Jack's first appearance, the Doctor suggests that Jack's orientation is more common in the 51st century, when humankind will deal with multiple alien species and becomes more sexually flexible. Within Doctor Who'''s narrative, Jack's sexual orientation is not specifically labelled as that could "make it an issue". On creating Jack, Davies comments "I thought: 'It's time you introduce bisexuals properly into mainstream television,'" with a focus on making Jack fun and swashbuckling as opposed to negative and angsty. Davies also expresses that he didn't make the character bisexual "from any principle", but rather because "it would be interesting from a narrative point of view." The bisexuality-related labels "pansexual" and "omnisexual" are also frequently applied to the character. Writer Steven Moffat suggests that questions of sexual orientation do not even enter into Jack's mind; Moffat also comments "It felt right that the James Bond of the future would bed anyone." Within Torchwood, the character refers to sexual orientation classifications as "quaint". In an interview with the Chicago Tribune, John Barrowman explained that "[He]'s bisexual, but in the realm of the show, we call him omnisexual, because on the show, [the characters] also have sex with aliens who take human form, and sex with male-male, women-women, all sorts of combinations." The term is also used once, in-universe, in the novel The House that Jack Built, when Ianto comments to a woman's remark about Jack, "He prefers the term 'omnisexual'." ### Costume While in his first several Doctor Who appearances, Jack did not have a set costume, Torchwood established a continual look for Jack which recalled that of his first Doctor Who appearance. The design has been described as "an iconic piece of sci-fi culture". A writer for Wired attributes much of Jack's appeal to the coat: "I think it has lots to do with that coat he always wears. Coats are cool, just like fezzes and bow ties and Stetsons. The only difference is that Captain Jack doesn't ever tell you his coat is cool. It just is." In fact, in her essay "Fashioning Masculinity and Desire", Sarah Gilligan attributes Torchwood's popularity—as well as that of the character—to the costume. She credits the greatcoat with helping to fashion the character's masculinity, and argues that Jack's costume creates its own discourse "through which costume drama and Post Heritage cinema's escapism flows". During Jack's initial appearances in Doctor Who, Russell T Davies held a "half-hearted" theory that Jack would dress specific to the time period he was in, to contrast the Doctor who dresses the same wherever and whenever he goes. He is introduced wearing a greatcoat in World War II-set episodes, but changes to modern day jeans in contemporary episode "Boom Town" and black leather in futuristic episodes. Davies admits that this was a "bit of a lame idea" and decided that Jack "never looked better than when he was in his World War II outfit". From the pilot of Torchwood onwards, Harkness once again wears period military clothes from the second World War, including braces and an officer's wool greatcoat in every appearance. Costume designer Ray Holman commented in a Torchwood Magazine interview that "We always wanted to keep the World War Two hero look for him, so all his outfits have a 1940s flavour." Because the character was expected to "be running around a lot", Holman redesigned his RAF greatcoat from Doctor Who to make it more fluid and less "weighty". Jack's other costumes are "loosely wartime based", such as the trousers are "getting more and more styled to suit his figure". Holman explains that there are actually five Captain Jack coats used on the show. The "hero version" is used for most scenes, while there is also a wetcoat made with pre-shrunk fabric, running coat which is slightly shorter to prevent heels getting caught, and two "stunt coats" that had been "hero coats" in the first series." Davies feels the military uniform reinforces the idea that the character "likes his Captain Jack Harkness identity". Julie Gardner describes the coat as "epic and classic and dramatic", while director Brian Kelly believes it gives Jack "a sweep and a presence". For Miracle Day, Davies commissioned new costume designer Shawna Trpcic (previously costume designer for Angel, Firefly and Dollhouse) to create a new greatcoat design. This was partially motivated by Los Angeles' warmer climate; shooting in Wales had necessitated Barrowman be fit in much warmer clothing. The new coat is custom made by Italian designers, and is actually cashmere-blend wool where the previous one had been cotton. Trpcic says that she "just wanted to modernise it, give it a more modern fit, but leave the drape and keep it cape-like". Trpcic felt prepared for the job of redesigning the coat because of her prior work on Firefly, tailoring for Nathan Fillion's Captain Malcolm Reynolds: "I'm kind of used to iconic captain's coats and the importance of staying loyal to what the fans expect and to what we need". Journalist Maureen Ryan commented that the new coat is "greatly improved" and the redesign "gives the coat the kind of movement and swagger Jack brings with him on every adventure". ### Development The character is described as both "lethally charming ... good looking and utterly captivating", as well as "flirtatious, cunning, clever and a bit of an action man". Within Doctor Who, Jack's personality is relatively light-hearted, although this changes in Torchwood's first series, where he becomes a darker character. In Torchwoods first series, Jack has been shaped by his ongoing search for the Doctor and also by his role as a leader, in which he is predominantly more aloof. In Torchwood, he would occasionally inquire or muse about the afterlife and religion, sympathising with a man's desire to die. Returning in Doctor Who Series Three, Jack indicates he now maintains a less suicidal outlook than before. In the second series of Torchwood, Jack became a much more light-hearted character once again, after appearances in Doctor Who where he was reunited with the Doctor. In the third series of Torchwood, the audience sees some of Jack's "darker side", as well as "the secrets that Jack has, the pressures, drama and the trauma he's carrying on his shoulders". Lynnette Porter comments on Jack's relation to scholar Lord Raglan's theses on 'the hero' in fiction. Because Jack is immortal and always comes back from the dead, Porter argues that Jack cannot literally fulfil the "physical death aspect" of Raglan's criteria for a hero. However, Jack instead has several symbolic deaths. For instance, in the last scene of Children of Earth. Porter observes that camera angles emphasise Jack's profile as solitary man atop a hill in Cardiff, departing. This scene of "going away for good" against the backdrop of the city he has long protected, hints at the death of the Captain Jack persona; in Porter's words, "the immortal captain "dies" at the top of a hill in Wales at the conclusion of the "epic" miniseries", "epic" traditionally being the genre of heroism. The American political blog Daily Kos states Jack "can certainly be characterised as a Byronic hero, a tragic figure with a streak of melancholy, heroic yet misunderstood, bold yet rash. Most importantly, his sexuality is one single aspect of a much more complex, flawed character." G. Todd Davis examines the ways in which Jack conforms to the Byronic hero character trope. Physically, he identifies Jack as dark-haired and strikingly handsome, with masculine physique; he is intelligent and aware of it, to the point of a superiority complex; he demands unquestioning loyalty, has guilty secrets in his past, and is self-sacrificing. For this, Davis lists Jack alongside Milton's Satan from Paradise Lost, Shelley's Prometheus, and also Angel from Buffy, amongst others. As a show, Torchwood is highly intertextual. The consequence of this is that many sides of Jack are shown across various media. One commentator feels that this emphasises Jack's pivotal place in the development and change of modern science fiction heroes. The character's unexpected popularity with a multitude of audiences, would later shape his appearances both as a traditional "action hero" and as a positive role model for younger viewers. Barrowman also remarks that "The beauty of Captain Jack, and one of the reasons why I think, as an actor, I've landed on my feet, is that he's popular with one audience in Torchwood and with another in Doctor Who." #### Moral ambiguity In several instances in Torchwood, Jack displays no qualms about killing a person of any species, which within Doctor Who, allows Jack's character to act in ways the lead character cannot. Barrowman remarks, "He'll do things the Doctor won't do ... [such as] fight. Jack will kill. And the Doctor, in a way, knows that, so he lets Jack do it. I'd say Jack's the companion-hero." A flashback in the third series of Torchwood shows Captain Jack sacrificing twelve children to aliens in order to save millions of lives. Davies feels that the third series of Torchwood is a "tale of retribution and perhaps redemption" for Captain Jack, who experiences "maximum damage" when his lover Ianto is killed. Davies chose to have Ianto die so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his grandson in order to destroy the same aliens. When reuniting with the Doctor in the 2007 series of Doctor Who, he is told "don't you dare" when pointing a gun, and scolded when contemplating snapping the Master's neck. Witnessing the murder of his colleague Owen in Torchwood, Jack shoots his killer in the forehead, killing him in an act of swift revenge. Whilst the Doctor scolds Jack for joining the Torchwood Institute (an organisation he perceives as xenophobic and aggressive), Jack maintains that he reformed the Institute in the Doctor's image; Jack himself had initially been critical of the moral failings of a 19th-century Torchwood. Actor Gareth David-Lloyd describes the 19th century Torchwood as "quite ruthless and quite evil" and "on the other side" from Jack and the Doctor. Through Jack, whose perspective is widened by his experiences in other planets and times, the organisation was able to grow less jingoistic. One academic article, which compares Torchwood to the American drama series 24, opines that Jack's attitudes make the show's ethos largely antithetical to that of 24. Because Jack explores the "complexity of negotiating differing worldviews, cultural values, beliefs, and moral codes" through a framework established by the Doctor, to "value life, support democratic principles and egalitarianism, and protect those who cannot protect themselves", consequently "The world of Torchwood is depicted, not as the dichotomous "us" (or United States) and "other" of Jack Bauer's 24, but as the omnipolitical, omnisexual, omnicultural world of Jack Harkness." Porter finds, however, that like Bauer, Jack saves the world using similarly morally grey means when he tortures Beth the sleeper agent, in "Sleeper", in order to avert an interplanetary attack. Although science fiction heroes have, Porter argues, "grown greyer over time", Jack represents as of Children of Earth a culmination of this trend, resulting in a full "devolution/deconstruction of the traditional hero". In Children of Earth, Jack has to sacrifice his own grandson to save the world. Barrowman was concerned that the storyline could have made the character unpopular. He believes however that Jack was given the tough decision on how to save humanity; the actor says "when I read all of the stuff he had to do, I had to look at it from the point of view of 'I'm Jack Harkness and I'm right'." For Lynnette Porter, Jack's actions in the serial make him "a benchmark for [morally] grey heroes"; some audiences may even view him, in light of his actions, as "villainous or downright monstrous." Although Jack ultimately saves the majority of the world's children and finds a way to foil the monstrous 456, the situation in which he is placed forces him to make a morally difficult (and to some viewers, reprehensible) decision. Such, Porter argues, is the mark of a grey hero. Davies stated in an interview with SFX that he "loved" the uproarious reaction to Jack's actions, defending the character in saying "He saved every single child in the world! If you would fail to do that then you’re the monster, frankly. It’s this extraordinary treatment that only science fiction heroes get." When Jack is departing Earth, the music playing is titled "Redemption", signifying that his departure is also perhaps his redeeming act in the serial. #### Face of Boe Russell T Davies referred to a scene in "Last of the Time Lords" as promoting a theory that Jack may one day become recurring character "the Face of Boe" – a large, mysterious disembodied head in a glass case, the oldest creature in the known universe – as a consequence of Jack's immortality and slow aging (surpassed by Ashildr / Me). The Face of Boe first appeared in the 2005 episode "The End of the World", watching the final destruction of the long-abandoned Earth by the expansion of the Sun in the Earth year 5,000,000,000; Boe appears in two other episodes, "New Earth" (2006) and "Gridlock" (2007), and is mentioned in other episodes, such as his being "the oldest living creature in the Isop Galaxy" as of the Earth year 200,100, per "Bad Wolf" (2005). Barrowman described himself and David Tennant as being "so excited" to the extent where they "jumped up screaming" when they read Jack's line regarding the Face of Boe, remarking "It was probably the most excitable moment we had during the shooting of that series." The Face of Boe had originally been a throwaway line in a script for "The End of the World"; because creating the character seemed expensive, the Face of Boe was nearly discarded and replaced. However, special effects designer Neil Gorton loved the idea and pushed to make sure the character lived. Davies loved Gorton's design and to his surprise, the character was written into future episodes and became pivotal in the third series. In a spin-off novel, The Stealer of Dreams (2005), Captain Jack makes a reference to the Face of Boe as a famous figure. Davies conceived the idea that the two characters might be connected midway through the production of the 2007 series. Barrowman states that when fans ask him if Jack is really the Face of Boe, he tells them he believes he is and states that he and Davies hold it to be true "in [their] little world"; the link is "unconfirmed" within the text of the show. As to how Jack becomes the Face, Barrowman feels the answer doesn't matter as it is intentionally mysterious. Barrowman likes the characters being connected because it means in spite of how the Doctor initially treats Jack, "Boe becomes his confidante and the one the Doctor returns to for advice and information" which he feels is a "wonderful twist of events". However, Davies chooses not to confirm (within the story's narrative) whether or not Jack really is the Face of Boe, stating "the moment it became very true or very false, the joke dies". He has refused the publication of spin-off novels and comic books that have tried to definitively link the two. In relationship to Miracle Day, where Jack becomes mortal, critics approached Barrowman and Davies about the implications of such a move for Jack's potential future as the Face of Boe. Barrowman stated that the open-ended rules of the science fiction genre meant that Jack could still become the Face of Boe even after Miracle Day. By contrast, Davies was keen to emphasise that the possibility of Jack becoming the Face of Boe remained "conjecture", and that the possibility remained that Jack would not survive Miracle Day, adding "You know how I love killing people off." ### Relationships #### Ianto In a Doctor Who Magazine interview, Barrowman described Jack's love for Ianto as "lustful", and explained "I don't think he'd settle down with Ianto. He might do, but he'd let Ianto know that he [Jack] has to play around on the side". The Torchwood Series Two premiere sees Jack ask Ianto out on a date, after finding out Gwen is engaged. John Barrowman and Gareth David-Lloyd opined in an interview at Comic-Con to fan questions that Jack's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack's empathy, and helped to ground him. John Barrowman said in an interview that Ianto "brings out the "human" in [Jack]" and "brings out more ... empathy because he’s actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody ... [which] makes him warm to other people ... [and] makes him more approachable." In the same interview, Gareth David-Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that "I think Ianto’s always made him care and that is really the heart of the show." However, Stephen James Walker feels that Jack's relationship with Ianto is one-sided; Ianto seems to feel the relationship is "serious and committed", but while dancing with Gwen in "Something Borrowed", Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a "recreational activity", and considers it "obvious Jack only has eyes and thoughts for Gwen". The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Ianto confides in Gwen that he knows that to Jack he is "just a shag", though discloses that the relationship means more to him. In the same novel, however, he also refers to himself in front of Jack as his "boyfriend". When Ianto expounds these same insecurities to Jack in the radio play "The Dead Line" (just prior to Children of Earth), however, Jack insists "You will never be just a blip in time, Ianto Jones. Not to me." Just as Jack and Ianto's relationship is developing, Ianto dies, in Children of Earth (2009). While some fans felt "cheated" at not seeing the relationship develop further, Davies explains his intention was to heighten the tragedy by it also being a loss of potential, stating "You grieve over everything they could have been. Everything you hoped for them." For dramatic purposes within the story, Davies explains that Ianto's death was necessary so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his own grandson. Gareth David-Lloyd feels that the lack of resolution for the love story is "part of the tragedy". Lynnette Porter feels that Ianto's demise is intended as a watershed moment where Jack loses his effectiveness as a hero. At least for a time, a grieving Jack loses his focus and gives up; within a few months, Jack flees Earth and his role as the expected hero. Some fans were displeased by Ianto's death scene and the end of the relationship, and some even accused one the writers of "deliberately egging on the shippers'". Subsequent to Ianto's death, in "The End of Time" (2010), the Doctor sets up Jack with a new romantic interest, Alonso Frame (Tovey). Fans of Ianto, who felt cheated by the character's death, disliked this development. GayNZ.com compared the situation to Buffy fans' reaction to Willow's relationship with Kennedy (Iyari Limon) in Buffy's seventh season, following Tara's death in the show's sixth. Ianto makes a post-death appearance in 2011 audio drama "The House of the Dead". Encountering Ianto's spirit at a haunted location in Wales, Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye. Without Ianto in his life, Jack wishes to be swept up into the Cardiff spacetime rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide. Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead, however, despite the possibility of resurrection. As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the rift, the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time. #### Gwen Barrowman states in a behind-the-scenes featurette that Gwen brings a "little bit of soul" back to Jack, following her recruitment. In a 2007 interview, Eve Myles, who plays Gwen, describes the relationship between Jack and Gwen as a "palpable love" and opines that "with Jack and Gwen, it’s the real thing and they’re going to make you wait for that." The first two series suggest the possibility of romantic and sexual tension behind Jack and Gwen's working relationship, with Stephen James Walker drawing on the firing range sequence in series one episode "Ghost Machine" as a key example, as well as the scene where Jack discovers that Gwen has become engaged to Rhys in "Kiss Kiss, Bang Bang", the series two opener. AfterElton.com's Locksley Hall conjectures that Jack is attracted to Gwen because of "her warmth, her sense of justice, her very ordinariness and lack of glamour", whilst Eve Myles explains Gwen's attraction to Jack by stating: "the most monogamous woman in the world would probably go for him – it'd be hard not to". Valerie Estelle Frankel describes Jack as a "compelling trickster", who acts out Gwen's private desires with his "outrageous flirting". She suggests that Jack (unlike Rhys) is not mature enough to occupy the role of "steady prince" for Gwen, whilst Barrowman feels that if Jack were to settle down with her, "he'd have to commit completely"; this is why he does not act on his feelings, because though Gwen would let him flirt with other people, he could "never afford to do anything more". Gareth David-Lloyd, who played Ianto, feels that for Jack, "there’s two different sorts of love going on there", and that Jack feels for Gwen and Ianto in different ways, although both have helped him become less emotionally isolated. Lynnette Porter feels that part of the reason Jack leaves Earth at the conclusion of Children of Earth is Gwen's idealisation of Jack, which is so intense that he cannot stand to look at her in the wake of Ianto's death. Gwen hopes that she is reason enough for Jack to stay on Earth, but Jack is ready to give up any hero worship because he feels unworthy. A press release for Torchwood Series Four states that Jack is brought back to Earth because of his "unstated love" for Gwen, who in turn still feels for Jack and misses the exciting life she once led beside him. Whilst Miracle Day lead writer Russell T Davies states in response to a question posed by AfterElton that he "hates" the idea of romantic tension between Gwen and Jack, executive producer Julie Gardner answers by stating "They love each other. Of course they do." Myles believes that in series four, Gwen and Jack have a "love-hate-love relationship" resembling in different ways a sibling relationship, a marital relationship and also "the strongest friendship". Episode seven of Miracle Day features a scene where Jack threatens Gwen with violence after she states she would have him killed to save her daughter. Writer Jane Espenson explains that the two characters have different needs and that this means they inevitably "clash like steel blades". Simon Brew of Den of Geek praises the dynamic between Gwen and Jack in series four, describing them as "a terrific double act" and states that "Torchwood is at, or near, its best when the two of them are working in tandem". #### Other Discussing whether his character could ever find "The One", John Barrowman asserts that Jack "likes everybody, and his love for each person is different". Barrowman believes that Jack does harbour romantic feelings toward the Doctor, but "would never take that beyond infatuation" and "would never let the Doctor know". Barrowman claims that Jack also "fancies" fellow companion Martha Jones, admiring her "tenacity" and willingness to "spat with him", and describes Jack's love for Toshiko and Owen as "fatherly", stating "He was guiding them. That's why it was so devastating for him to lose them." The second series of Torchwood also introduced Jack's ex-lover, Captain John. Head writer Chris Chibnall introduced John to act as a "proper nemesis, somebody to really test [Jack], to push him, and to reveal something about Jack's character". In the use of Captain John as a literary foil, Chibnall comments "you see the way Jack could have gone, and probably did, for a little while" which underlines how "Jack, in his experiences with the Doctor and Torchwood, made a very conscious decision to move away from that behaviour." In their academic publication, Queer TV, Glyn Davis and Gary Needham discuss Jack's role within Torchwood as a post-gay, romantic hero. Noting Torchwoods central gay themes, they comment that "it is through the character of Captain Jack that Torchwood is able to mine its queerness." Discussing Jack's brief romance with his namesake, the real Captain Jack (Matt Rippy), academic critics have noted that "The Captain Jacks both share the same name and are quite similar in physical appearance, thus literalising the homo-ness of the situation. Through the time-travel device this points to a narcissistic self-fascination, the old cliché that homosexuality is the love for sameness." Other relationships which have been described or alluded to (both in the television series and other media) include ex-girlfriends Estelle Cole, Duchess Eleanor, Stella Courtney, and Lucia Moretti, ex-boyfriends and Angelo Colasanto, as well as an unnamed ex-wife. Describing the patterns of his relationships throughout the series, Davis and Needham draw the conclusion that "while Captain Jack desires both men and women, his long-term love affairs and onscreen kisses are mostly with men in the past and present." Davies himself laments that this one of the pitfalls of writing a bisexual character, commenting "The trap you fall into with bisexual men is only having them sleep with men." Commenting on the show's postmodern attitude towards bisexuality, or in what Russell T Davies calls "omnisexuality", they continue to remark that "His character brushes against definitions of queer sexuality in that he resists any sort of classification based on sexual orientation." They also comment on the subtexts of particular episodes, such as gay time-travel romance episode "Captain Jack Harkness", and within that the relevance of time-travelling Jack Harkness to tackle the question of forbidden gay attraction in what is post-Brokeback television. In Understanding TV Texts by Phil Wickham, Wickham opines that Captain Jack explicitly "brings to the fore" with his "brazen bisexuality", "something we have to come to expect [from Russell T Davies] as viewers of his work". Fans expressed fear that an Americanized fourth series of the show would mean the show would no longer portray Jack's bisexuality, but Davies assured interviewers that Jack's interests in both men and women would be honoured. ## Critical reception and impact Following the character's initial introduction in the revived series 1 of Doctor Who, the character became incredibly popular with fans, to the extent that Russell T Davies and Julie Gardner created a spin-off series, Torchwood, primarily centred around the character. The Times described the undeniable success of the character as having propelled actor John Barrowman to "National Treasure status". For his role as Captain Jack, John Barrowman was nominated for Best Actor at the 2007 BAFTA Cymru Awards, and again for Children of Earth at the 2010 TV Choice Awards, against Eleventh Doctor actor Matt Smith. Harkness was also listed number nine in TV Squad's "Ten Most mysterious characters on television", behind the Tenth Doctor, who was listed number three. John Barrowman, who is himself gay, has ranked in the Independent on Sunday Pink List, a list of the most influential gay people in Britain, in 2007, 2008, and 2009 with the Independent commenting that "Proof of his popularity came with the continued runaway success of his bisexual Captain Jack Harkness on Russell T Davies's Torchwood". Part of Jack's mystique was his sex appeal, swashbuckling heroism and sexual appetite. In anticipation of the character's return to Doctor Who in series 3 after a successful run in the first series of Torchwood, mainstream media hailed his return. Captain Jack has gone on to become a recognisable figure in the British public consciousness, and has attracted some parody. These parodies frequently echo criticisms both of the character and of Barrowman's portrayal. The character of Jack Harkness has been parodied several times on the satirical impressionist television show Dead Ringers. Played by Jon Culshaw, the show pokes fun at his bisexuality and apparent campness, as well his melodramatic personality in Torchwood. In one sketch, he walks bizarrely towards the camera, kissing a policeman as he passes him. In another sketch, he can be seen having a threesome with two Cybermen, a race of cyborgs from Doctor Who. Satirical technology columnist Verity Stob wrote a parody of Torchwood Season One in the style of Dylan Thomas's radio play Under Milk Wood, called Under Torch Wood. This parody described Captain Jack as "the insomniac bicon; snug as a hobbit, pretty as a choirboy, immortal as carbon dioxide, wooden as a horse." Barrowman's ubiquity, however, has even provoked criticism of the character. Jim Shelley of the Daily Mirror, in his review of Children of Earth, said "Unlike David Tennant's Doctor, Barrowman's endless appearances on friendly drivel like Tonight's the Night, The Kids Are All Right and Any Dream Will Do, is so over-exposed, 'Captain Jack' is about as intriguing or alien as a Weetabix and twice as irritating. Unlike Tennant, as an actor he is just not good enough." Television journalist Charlie Brooker, in his Screenwipe review of 2009 criticised Barrowman, with focus on his acting. "Harkness is of course a man of mystery. You can't tell what he's thinking just by looking at his face... no matter how hard Barrowman tries." The character's recognisability extends outside the UK. In a Halloween episode of the 2008 series of American drama Knight Rider, character Billy Morgan (Paul Campbell) dresses up as Captain Jack, whom he refers to as "the time-travelling bisexual". Jack represents a new character archetype, which other writers have begun to draw from. For example, comic book writer Peter David reflects that in writing Marvel Comics character Shatterstar, he "to some degree... key[s] his personality off Captain Jack Harkness" insofar as he is "swashbuckling, enthusiastic and sexually curious about anything with a pulse". In 2009, Barrowman's variety show Tonight's the Night broadcast a specially written humorous Doctor Who scene scripted by Russell T Davies. In the scene, Barrowman appears initially as Captain Jack confronting an alien on board the TARDIS who claims to be the Doctor. However, David Tennant appears as himself and John Barrowman is revealed as playing Captain Jack in the TARDIS set. Action figures have also been created in the actor's likeness, which Barrowman says was a "longtime dream". > I do watch a lot of television science fiction, and it is a particularly sexless world. With a lot of the material from America, I think gay, lesbian and bisexual characters are massively underrepresented, especially in science fiction, and I'm just not prepared to put up with that. It's a very macho, testosterone-driven genre on the whole, very much written by straight men. I think Torchwood possibly has television's first bisexual male hero, with a very fluid sexuality for the rest of the cast as well. We're a beacon in the darkness. Starting in 2013, Jack's sexuality has made him the subject of an internet meme for discussing the ethics of sexual encounters with nonhuman characters. Known as the Harkness Test, it spread rapidly throughout the internet, where it was applied to other fandoms such as those of Pokémon and My Little Pony. In the media, Jack is described as both the "first openly gay companion" and as a "hunky bisexual". Jack's notability is largely due to his mainstream representation of a bisexual man in science fiction television, for whom sexual identity is "matter-of-fact", and not an issue. The ordinariness with which Jack's orientation is regarded within Doctor Who embodies part of a political statement about changing societal views of homosexuality. The distinct flexibility of Jack's sexuality contributed directly towards the character's popularity and public interest. The overtness of Jack's sexuality broke new grounds, the labels "pansexual" and "omnisexual" being applied to the character on occasion. In "The Parting of the Ways", Jack kissed both Rose and the Doctor on the lips, the latter being the first same-sex kiss in the history of the program. Despite the boldness of the first lesbian, gay or bisexual character in the series' run, there has been very little uproar about the character, although there was some controversy at the time of Jack's introduction. Speculating, Barrowman tries to link Jack's popularity with this portrayal, noting "I think audiences just get Jack because he's honest ... to finally see a character who doesn't care who he flirts with, I think is a bit refreshing." The presence of the character in prime time television sparked discussion of the nature of bisexuality in a number of outlets where normally it is dismissed or overlooked. Channel4.com cites Jack as a positive role model for gay and bisexual teenagers, where little had been present for this audience in years gone by and subsequently leading to a greater culture of tolerance. Dr Meg-John Barker writes for the Journal of Bisexuality that although "the b word does not actually get used during the show", Jack is one of the first positive and clearly bisexual characters on British television. They do point out however that Jack retains some elements of bisexual stereotyping, particularly in his "flamboyant" promiscuity. Jack has also been cited in America to contrast the portrayals of non-heterosexual characters in mainstream television in the US and the UK. Gary Scott Thompson, producer of the 2008 revival of Knight Rider, said, "If I could use Jack in Torchwood as a role model—I would absolutely use him as a role model—I love his conflictedness about ... everybody". Readers of AfterElton.com voted Jack the tenth best gay or bisexual television character of all time, the poll itself ultimately being won by Brian Kinney, a character from the North American version of Queer as Folk which was developed by Ron Cowen and Daniel Lipman from the British series created by Russell T Davies. The website praised Jack—one of only two bisexual characters on the list of 25—for being having both "tough" and "tender" sides to his personality, as seen in the Torchwood episode "Captain Jack Harkness". Amongst science fiction characters, Jack also topped another AfterElton rundown of top characters, beating Hellblazer's John Constantine for the top spot, commenting upon Jack's representation of a "'post-gay' approach to sexual themes" and awarding him a full 10/10 for cultural significance. For the AfterElton 2008 Visibility Awards, Jack won the award for Favourite TV Character. The website commented that "unlike virtually every other TV sci-fi character, lead or supporting, Captain Jack is also openly bisexual. Ironically, this "small" change served to help make the science fiction genre, long the ultimate bastion of straight men, accessible not just to LGBT people, but also straight women, who also enjoy the show’s alternative take on sexuality." The third award won for Torchwood, after Favourite TV Drama and Character, was won by Jack and Ianto for Best Couple, for which the editor commented "Torchwood'' is revolutionary not just because the producers dare to put openly bisexual (or in Jack's case "omnisexual") characters in the formerly sacrosanct setting of sci-fi; it's also that it presents these bisexual characters in such an amazingly matter-of-fact way. There's no apologi[s]ing, no minimi[s]ing, and no morali[s]ing—just good, old-fashioned romance and adventure."
3,790,398	Megamaser	1,171,686,006	Astrophysical maser, source of stimulated spectral line emission	[ "Astronomical objects discovered in 1982", "Astronomical radio sources", "Radio astronomy" ]	A megamaser is a type of astrophysical maser, which is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission. Megamasers are distinguished from other astrophysical masers by their large isotropic luminosity. Megamasers have typical luminosities of 10<sup>3</sup> solar luminosities (), which is 100 million times brighter than masers in the Milky Way, hence the prefix mega. Likewise, the term kilomaser is used to describe masers outside the Milky Way that have luminosities of order , or thousands of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way, gigamaser is used to describe masers billions of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way, and extragalactic maser encompasses all masers found outside the Milky Way. Most known extragalactic masers are megamasers, and the majority of megamasers are hydroxyl (OH) megamasers, meaning the spectral line being amplified is one due to a transition in the hydroxyl molecule. There are known megamasers for three other molecules: water (H<sub>2</sub>O), formaldehyde (H<sub>2</sub>CO), and methine (CH). Water megamasers were the first type of megamaser discovered. The first water megamaser was found in 1979 in NGC 4945, a galaxy in the nearby Centaurus A/M83 Group. The first hydroxyl megamaser was found in 1982 in Arp 220, which is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy to the Milky Way. All subsequent OH megamasers that have been discovered are also in luminous infrared galaxies, and there are a small number of OH kilomasers hosted in galaxies with lower infrared luminosities. Most luminous infrared galaxies have recently merged or interacted with another galaxy, and are undergoing a burst of star formation. Many of the characteristics of the emission in hydroxyl megamasers are distinct from that of hydroxyl masers within the Milky Way, including the amplification of background radiation and the ratio of hydroxyl lines at different frequencies. The population inversion in hydroxyl molecules is produced by far infrared radiation that results from absorption and re-emission of light from forming stars by surrounding interstellar dust. Zeeman splitting of hydroxyl megamaser lines may be used to measure magnetic fields in the masing regions, and this application represents the first detection of Zeeman splitting in a galaxy other than the Milky Way. Water megamasers and kilomasers are found primarily associated with active galactic nuclei, while galactic and weaker extragalactic water masers are found in star forming regions. Despite different environments, the circumstances that produce extragalactic water masers do not seem to be very different from those that produce galactic water masers. Observations of water megamasers have been used to make accurate measurements of distances to galaxies in order to provide constraints on the Hubble constant. ## Background ### Masers The word maser derives from the acronym MASER, which stands for "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". The maser is a predecessor to lasers, which operate at optical wavelengths, and is named by the replacement of "microwave" with "light". Given a system of atoms or molecules, each with different energy states, an atom or molecule may absorb a photon and move to a higher energy level, or the photon may stimulate emission of another photon of the same energy and cause a transition to a lower energy level. Producing a maser requires population inversion, which is when a system has more members in a higher energy level relative to a lower energy level. In such a situation, more photons will be produced by stimulated emission than will be absorbed. Such a system is not in thermal equilibrium, and as such requires special conditions to occur. Specifically, it must have some energy source that can pump the atoms or molecules to the excited state. Once population inversion occurs, a photon with a photon energy corresponding to the energy difference between two states can then produce stimulated emission of another photon of the same energy. The atom or molecule will drop to the lower energy level, and there will be two photons of the same energy, where before there was only one. The repetition of this process is what leads to amplification, and since all of the photons are the same energy, the light produced is monochromatic. ### Astrophysical masers Masers and lasers built on Earth and masers that occur in space both require population inversion in order to operate, but the conditions under which population inversion occurs are very different in the two cases. Masers in laboratories have systems with high densities, which limits the transitions that may be used for masing, and requires using a resonant cavity in order to bounce light back and forth many times. Astrophysical masers are at low densities, and naturally have very long path lengths. At low densities, being out of thermal equilibrium is more easily achieved because thermal equilibrium is maintained by collisions, meaning population inversion can occur. Long path lengths provide photons traveling through the medium many opportunities to stimulate emission, and produce amplification of a background source of radiation. These factors accumulate to "make interstellar space a natural environment for maser operation." Astrophysical masers may be pumped either radiatively or collisionally. In radiative pumping, infrared photons with higher energies than the maser transition photons preferentially excite atoms and molecules to the upper state in the maser in order to produce population inversion. In collisional pumping, this population inversion is instead produced by collisions that excite molecules to energy levels above that of the upper maser level, and then the molecule decays to the upper maser level by emitting photons. ## History In 1965, twelve years after the first maser was built in a laboratory, a hydroxyl (OH) maser was discovered in the plane of the Milky Way. Masers of other molecules were discovered in the Milky Way in the following years, including water (H<sub>2</sub>O), silicon monoxide (SiO), and methanol (CH<sub>3</sub>OH). The typical isotropic luminosity for these galactic masers is . The first evidence for extragalactic masing was detection of the hydroxyl molecule in NGC 253 in 1973, and was roughly ten times more luminous than galactic masers. In 1982, the first megamaser was discovered in the ultraluminous infrared galaxy Arp 220. The luminosity of the source, assuming it emits isotropically, is roughly . This luminosity is roughly one hundred million times stronger than the typical maser found in the Milky Way, and so the maser source in Arp 220 was called a megamaser. At this time, extragalactic water (H<sub>2</sub>O) masers were already known. In 1984, water maser emission was discovered in NGC 4258 and NGC 1068 that was of comparable strength to the hydroxyl maser in Arp 220, and are as such considered water megamasers. Over the next decade, megamasers were also discovered for formaldehyde (H<sub>2</sub>CO) and methine (CH). Galactic formaldehyde masers are relatively rare, and more formaldehyde megamasers are known than are galactic formaldehyde masers. Methine masers, on the other hand, are quite common in the Milky Way. Both types of megamaser were found in galaxies in which hydroxyl had been detected. Methine is seen in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption, while formaldehyde is found in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption as well as those with hydroxyl megamaser emission. As of 2007, 109 hydroxyl megamaser sources were known, up to a redshift of $z \approx 0.27$. Over 100 extragalactic water masers are known, and of these, 65 are bright enough to be considered megamasers. ## General requirements Regardless of the masing molecule, there are a few requirements that must be met for a strong maser source to exist. One requirement is a radio continuum background source to provide the radiation amplified by the maser, as all maser transitions take place at radio wavelengths. The masing molecule must have a pumping mechanism to create the population inversion, and sufficient density and path length for significant amplification to take place. These combine to constrain when and where megamaser emission for a given molecule will take place. The specific conditions for each molecule known to produce megamasers are different, as exemplified by the fact that there is no known galaxy that hosts both of the two most common megamaser species, hydroxyl and water. As such, the different molecules with known megamasers will be addressed individually. ## Hydroxyl megamasers Arp 220 hosts the first megamaser discovered, is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy, and has been studied in great detail at many wavelengths. For this reason, it is the prototype of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies, and is often used as a guide for interpreting other hydroxyl megamasers and their hosts. ### Hosts and environment Hydroxyl megamasers are found in the nuclear region of a class of galaxies called luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs), with far infrared luminosities in excess of one hundred billion solar luminosities, or L<sub>FIR</sub> \> , and ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs), with L<sub>FIR</sub> \> are favored. These infrared luminosities are very large, but in many cases LIRGs are not particularly luminous in visible light. For instance, the ratio of infrared luminosity to luminosity in blue light is roughly 80 for Arp 220, the first source in which a megamaser was observed. The majority of the LIRGs show evidence of interaction with other galaxies or having recently experienced a galaxy merger, and the same holds true for the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers. Megamaser hosts are rich in molecular gas compared to spiral galaxies, with molecular hydrogen masses in excess of one billion solar masses, or H<sub>2</sub> \> . Mergers help funnel molecular gas to the nuclear region of the LIRG, producing high molecular densities and stimulating high star formation rates characteristic of LIRGs. The starlight in turn heats dust, which re-radiates in the far infrared and produces the high L<sub>FIR</sub> observed in hydroxyl megamaser hosts. The dust temperatures derived from far infrared fluxes are warm relative to spirals, ranging from 40–90 K. The far infrared luminosity and dust temperature of a LIRG both affect the likelihood of hosting an hydroxyl megamaser, through correlations between the dust temperature and far infrared luminosity, so it is unclear from observations alone what the role of each is in producing hydroxyl megamasers. LIRGs with warmer dust are more likely to host hydroxyl megamasers, as are ULIRGs, with L<sub>FIR</sub> \> . At least one out of three ULIRGs hosts an hydroxyl megamaser, as compared with roughly one out of six LIRGs. Early observations of hydroxyl megamasers indicated a correlation between the isotropic hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity, with L<sub>OH</sub> $\propto$ L<sub>FIR</sub><sup>2</sup>. As more hydroxyl megamasers were discovered, and care was taken to account for the Malmquist bias, this observed relationship was found to be flatter, with L<sub>OH</sub> $\propto$ L<sub>FIR</sub><sup>1.2$\pm$0.1</sup>. Early spectral classification of the nuclei of the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers indicated that the properties of LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers cannot be distinguished from the overall population of LIRGs. Roughly one third of megamaser hosts are classified as starburst galaxies, one quarter are classified as Seyfert 2 galaxies, and the remainder are classified as low-ionization nuclear emission-line regions, or LINERs. The optical properties of hydroxyl megamaser hosts and non-hosts are not significantly different. Recent infrared observations using the Spitzer Space Telescope are, however, able to distinguish hydroxyl megamaser hosts galaxies from non-masing LIRGs, as 10–25% of hydroxyl megamaser hosts show evidence for an active galactic nucleus, compared to 50–95% for non-masing LIRGs. The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers may be distinguished from the general population of LIRGs by their molecular gas content. The majority of molecular gas is molecular hydrogen, and typical hydroxyl megamaser hosts have molecular gas densities greater than 1000 cm<sup>−3</sup>. These densities are among the highest mean densities of molecular gas among LIRGs. The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers also have high fractions of dense gas relative to typical LIRGs. The dense gas fraction is measured by the ratio of the luminosity produced by hydrogen cyanide (HCN) relative to the luminosity of carbon monoxide (CO). ### Line characteristics The emission of hydroxyl megamasers occurs predominantly in the so-called "main lines" at 1665 and 1667 MHz. The hydroxyl molecule also has two "satellite lines" that emit at 1612 and 1720 MHz, but few hydroxyl megamasers have had satellite lines detected. Emission in all known hydroxyl megamasers is stronger in the 1667 MHz line; typical ratios of the flux in the 1667 MHz line to the 1665 MHz line, called the hyperfine ratio, range from a minimum of 2 to greater than 20. For hydroxyl emitting in thermodynamic equilibrium, this ratio will range from 1.8 to 1, depending upon the optical depth, so line ratios greater than 2 are indicative of a population out of thermal equilibrium. This may be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers in star-forming regions, where the 1665 MHz line is typically strongest, and hydroxyl masers around evolved stars, in which the 1612 MHz line is often strongest, and of the main lines, 1667 MHz emission is frequently stronger than 1612 MHz. The total width of emission at a given frequency is typically many hundreds of kilometers per second, and individual features that make up the total emission profile have widths ranging from tens to hundreds of kilometers per second. These may also be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers, which typically have linewidths of order a kilometer per second or narrower, and are spread over a velocity of a few to tens of kilometers per second. The radiation amplified by hydroxyl masers is the radio continuum of its host. This continuum is primarily composed of synchrotron radiation produced by Type II supernovae. Amplification of this background is low, with amplification factors, or gains, ranging from a few percent to a few hundred percent, and sources with larger hyperfine ratios typically exhibiting larger gains. Sources with higher gains typically have narrower emission lines. This is expected if the pre-gain linewidths are all roughly the same, as line centers are amplified more than the wings, leading to line narrowing. A few hydroxyl megamasers, including Arp 220, have been observed with very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), which allows sources to be studied at higher angular resolution. VLBI observations indicate that hydroxyl megamaser emission is composed of two components, one diffuse and one compact. The diffuse component displays gains of less than a factor of one and linewidths of order hundreds of kilometers per second. These characteristics are similar to those seen with single dish observations of hydroxyl megamasers that are unable to resolve individual masing components. The compact components have high gains, ranging from tens to hundreds, high ratios of flux at 1667 MHz to flux at 1665 MHz, and linewidths are of order a few kilometers per second. These general features have been explained by a narrow circumnuclear ring of material from which the diffuse emission arises, and individual masing clouds with sizes of order one parsec that give rise to the compact emission. The hydroxyl masers observed in the Milky Way more closely resemble the compact hydroxyl megamaser components. There are, however, some regions of extended galactic maser emission from other molecules that resemble the diffuse component of hydroxyl megamasers. ### Pumping mechanism The observed relationship between the luminosity of the hydroxyl line and the far infrared suggests that hydroxyl megamasers are radiatively pumped. Initial VLBI measurements of nearby hydroxyl megamasers seemed to present a problem with this model for compact emission components of hydroxyl megamasers, as they required a very high fraction of infrared photons to be absorbed by hydroxyl and lead to a maser photon being emitted, making collisional excitation a more plausible pumping mechanism. However, a model of maser emission with a clumpy masing medium appear to be able to reproduce the observed properties of compact and diffuse hydroxyl emission. A recent detailed treatment finds that photons with a wavelength of 53 micrometres are the primary pump for main line maser emission, and applies to all hydroxyl masers. In order to provide enough photons at this wavelength, the interstellar dust that reprocesses stellar radiation to infrared wavelengths must have a temperature of at least 45 kelvins. Recent observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope confirm this basic picture, but there are still some discrepancies between details of the model and observations of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies such as the required dust opacity for megamaser emission. ### Applications Hydroxyl megamasers occur in the nuclear regions of LIRGs, and appear to be a marker in the stage of the formation of galaxies. As hydroxyl emission is not subject to extinction by interstellar dust in its host LIRG, hydroxyl masers may be useful probes of the conditions where star formation in LIRGs takes place. At redshifts of z \~ 2, there are LIRG-like galaxies more luminous than the ones in the nearby universe. The observed relationship between the hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity suggests that hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies may be tens to hundreds of times more luminous than observed hydroxyl megamasers. Detection of hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies would allow precise determination of the redshift, and aid understanding of star formation in these objects. The first detection of the Zeeman effect in another galaxy was made through observations of hydroxyl megamasers. The Zeeman effect is the splitting of a spectral line due to the presence of a magnetic field, and the size of the splitting is linearly proportional to the line-of-sight magnetic field strength. Zeeman splitting has been detected in five hydroxyl megamasers, and the typical strength of a detected field is of order a few milligauss, similar to the field strengths measured in galactic hydroxyl masers. ## Water megamasers Whereas hydroxyl megamasers seem to be fundamentally distinct in some ways from galactic hydroxyl masers, water megamasers do not seem to require conditions too dissimilar from galactic water masers. Water masers stronger than galactic water masers, some of which are strong enough to be classified "mega" masers, may be described by the same luminosity function as galactic water masers. Some extragalactic water masers occur in star forming regions, like galactic water masers, while stronger water masers are found in the circumnuclear regions around active galactic nuclei (AGN). The isotropic luminosities of these span a range of order one to a few hundred , and are found in nearby galaxies like Messier 51 () and more distant galaxies like NGC 4258 (). ### Line characteristics and pumping mechanism Water maser emission is observed primarily at 22 GHz, due to a transition between rotational energy levels in the water molecule. The upper state is at an energy corresponding to 643 kelvins about the ground state, and populating this upper maser level requires number densities of molecular hydrogen of order 10<sup>8</sup> cm<sup>−3</sup> or greater and temperatures of at least 300 kelvins. The water molecule comes into thermal equilibrium at molecular hydrogen number densities of roughly 10<sup>11</sup> cm<sup>−3</sup>, so this places an upper limit on the number density in a water masing region. Water masers emission has been successfully modelled by masers occurring behind shock waves propagating through dense regions in the interstellar medium. These shocks produce the high number densities and temperatures (relative to typical conditions in the interstellar medium) required for maser emission, and are successful in explaining observed masers. ### Applications Water megamasers may be used to provide accurate distance determinations to distant galaxies. Assuming a Keplerian orbit, measuring the centripetal acceleration and velocity of water maser spots yields the physical diameter subtended by the maser spots. By then comparing the physical radius to the angular diameter measured on the sky, the distance to the maser may be determined. This method is effective with water megamasers because they occur in a small region around an AGN, and have narrow linewidths. This method of measuring distances is being used to provide an independent measure of the Hubble constant that does not rely upon use of standard candles. The method is limited, however, by the small number of water megamasers known at distances within the Hubble flow. This distance measurement also provides a measurement of the mass of the central object, which in this case is a supermassive black hole. Black hole mass measurements using water megamasers is the most accurate method of mass determination for black holes in galaxies other than the Milky Way. The black hole masses that are measured are consistent with the M–sigma relation, an empirical correlation between stellar velocity dispersion in galactic bulges and the mass of the central supermassive black hole.
603,432	Modern Tales	1,163,607,342	Webcomic subscription service	[ "Internet properties disestablished in 2013", "Internet properties established in 2002", "Webcomic syndicates" ]	Modern Tales was a webcomics publisher active from 2002 to 2012, best known for being one of the first profitable subscription models for digital content. Joey Manley was the website's publisher and original editor. The site featured a roster of approximately 30 professional webcomic artists. Shaenon Garrity, one of the site's original artists, took over as the publication's editor in 2006. Other Modern Tales artists included Gene Luen Yang, James Kochalka, Dorothy Gambrell, Harvey Pekar and Will Eisner. In the first four years of Modern Tales' run, its most recent webcomic pages and strips were free, and the site's archives were available by subscription. The website's archives eventually became free to read as well, as online advertisement rates improved. Modern Tales did solid business and Manley spun off a number of similar subscription services, including Serializer.net, Girlamatic, and Kochalka's American Elf, which together became known as the "Modern Tales family". ## Concept Working in San Francisco for Streaming Media in the early 2000s, Joey Manley became interested in the possibilities for artists on the web. To introduce himself to the webcomic community, he started a podcast called Digital Comics Talk and a review website Talk About Comics. In 2001, Manley conceptualized a for-profit subscription-based webcomic collective where readers can pay a monthly or annual fee to get access to a library of webcomic archives. He hoped the subscription model would allow artists to work together to increase each other's visibility and profits. Manley began to recruit artists, many of whom he had met through his podcast. Shaenon Garrity described the webcomics showcased on Modern Tales as "ambitious, offbeat, and often visually experimental." The publication was named in the spirit of old pulp magazines, such as Amazing Stories and Weird Tales. The most recent update of each webcomic on Modern Tales was freely available, and readers could pay US\$2.95 per month or \$29.95 per year to get access to the website's archive. ## History Modern Tales launched on March 2, 2002, with a roster of major emerging artists and cartoonists. Its launch line-up included Lark Pien, Jason Shiga, Jesse Hamm, Gene Luen Yang, James Kochalka, and Dorothy Gambrell. Established heavy hitters like Harvey Pekar and Will Eisner contributed later, but Modern Tales was generally a showcase for new artists. The website grew rapidly in its first week: while Manley predicted his website would accrue around 150 subscribers in its first year, Modern Tales actually earned over 700 subscribers in its first week. Manley attributed this to high cost of bandwidth and the relatively low number of high-quality webcomics available at the time. As time went on and the number of high-quality free webcomics increased, the subscriber count of Modern Tales went stagnant. By August 2003, Modern Tales' back catalogue featured over 4,000 webcomic pages. The website ran a section, curated by Gary Chaloner, featuring 20 Australian cartoonists to aid them in connecting with a global audience. In 2004, Manley published the Modern Tales' "2003 Yearbook", titled Tallscreen Edition, through BookSurge. This is a 130-page full-color printed book featuring works from all of Joey Manley's webcomic subscription services. In January 2006, Manley launched a secondary, advertisement-driven version of Modern Tales, edited by blogger and critic Eric Burns. Manley decided to establish this free version of Modern Tales in response to changes in economic circumstances that drive website models. In an interview with The Comics Reporter, Manley stated that "the Modern Tales brand isn't really sustainable in the current environment," and that he saw a need to append free webcomics to his subscription services. Narbonic-creator Shaenon Garrity took over as editor of Modern Tales in August 2006, and worked on reviving its long-form webcomic section and implementing the Project Wonderful advertisement system. As the subscription model became less and less popular, Manley eventually made the website entirely free. ### Spin-off sites Manley spun off several other websites based on Modern Tales' subscription model, including Serializer.net, Girlamatic, AdventureStrips.com and Graphic Smash. Each of these sites had a different editorial focus from that of Modern Tales, such as alternative comics and action comics. Manley also published two single-webcomic subscription sites under the Modern Tales umbrella: Kochalka's American Elf and Lea Hernandez' Rumble Girls. The entire group of subscription sites Manley published were known as the "Modern Tales family." Manley launched the free hosting provider Webcomics Nation in 2005 as he took note of the changing Web economy. Whereas Modern Tales and its family was constructed in the style of traditional editorial magazines, Webcomics Nation was set up more as a service-bureau business. ### Closure As Modern Tales declined in readership, it was shut down in 2012. The remaining family of subscription services closed down in April 2013, and Manley died in November 2013 of pneumonia. ## Success and impact Manley's stated goal when he launched Modern Tales was for subscription revenue alone to provide a living wage for artists within five years, and the services did do solid business. Due to Modern Tales' revenue-sharing model, the most viewed webcomics like Garrity's Narbonic generated the most income and, in the best years, Garrity could have lived solely off her Modern Tales earnings had she lived somewhere less expensive than the San Francisco Bay Area. Six months after the site's launch, Donna Barr was "impressed" that she was regularly making US\$100 per month from Modern Tales. Other Modern Tales artists made comparatively little; in 2005, Hernandez described her income from Modern Tales as "gas money", and Dave Roman said he typically made less than US\$100 per year on the website. Before his comic was canceled, cartoonist Jason Shiga was able to make US\$70 per strip when he was published in a weekly Bay Area newspaper, but he only made US\$4 per strip on Modern Tales in 2003. Some artists on Manley's other sites, such as Kochalka with his American Elf, were able to make more money than the most profitable artists on the original Modern Tales site. Manley said in July 2003 that Modern Tales was attracting between 10,000 and 15,000 individual visitors daily, and that 3,500 people had signed up for a subscription. In an interview with Alameda Times-Star, Manley said "We're not Disney, obviously, but we have proven that people will pay for Web comics." Throughout 2005 and 2006, Modern Tales had around 2,100 subscribers, which was the most of Manley's four subscription services. The entire Modern Tales family grossed around US\$100,000 per year, though this had to be split among nearly 100 cartoonists as well as the Web hosting company. Modern Tales was cited by Comic Book Resources as one of the first workable and profitable subscription models for webcomics. The viability of Modern Tales inspired Marvel Comics and DC Comics to develop their own digital comic websites. The Sunday Times of Britain criticized the website in 2006 for its unintuitive homepage and slow page loading.
8,792,296	Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose	1,170,107,201	null	[ "1995 American television episodes", "Emmy Award-winning episodes", "Television episodes about death", "Television episodes about precognition", "Television episodes directed by David Nutter", "Television episodes set in Minnesota", "The X-Files (season 3) episodes" ]	"Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" is the fourth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. Directed by David Nutter and written by Darin Morgan, the installment serves as a "Monster-of-the-Week" story, that is, a stand-alone plot unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X-Files. Originally aired by the Fox network on October 13, 1995, "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" received a Nielsen rating of 10.2 and was seen by 15.38 million viewers. The episode received critical acclaim, and several writers have named it among the best in the series. The episode won both an Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series as well as an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson), who work on cases linked to the paranormal called X-Files. While Mulder is a believer in phenomena conventionally classed as paranormal, the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work. As they work together over time, the two have developed mutual professional respect and a deep friendship. In this episode, Mulder and Scully investigate a series of murders of psychics and fortune tellers. The two are assisted by Clyde Bruckman (Peter Boyle), an enigmatic and reluctant individual who possesses the ability to foresee how people are going to die. Morgan wished to write an episode of The X-Files wherein one of the characters commits suicide at the end. Although Morgan was initially afraid to add humor to his script, he created a compromise by making the episode as dark as possible. Several of the characters' names are references to silent film-era actors and screenwriters. Notably, the episode features a prediction by Bruckman—that Agent Scully will not die—that is later bookended by the sixth-season episode "Tithonus". ## Plot In a liquor store in St. Paul, Minnesota, Clyde Bruckman (Peter Boyle), a life insurance salesman, purchases a bottle of scotch, a tabloid newspaper, and a lottery ticket and leaves. In the street, he almost bumps into an inconspicuous man (Stuart Charno), who heads to a palm reader named Madame Zelma (Karin Konoval). After seeking his fortune, the inconspicuous man attacks and kills her. A few days later, the eyes and entrails of a tea leaf reader, who was also a doll collector, are found in her apartment, with the rest of her body being missing. FBI agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) arrive at the scene of that murder to help the local cops, who have recruited the help of a psychic, the eccentric Stupendous Yappi (Jaap Broeker). Although the psychic delivers extremely vague clues, the cops are thoroughly impressed; both Scully and Mulder, however, are not. Meanwhile, after Bruckman takes the trash out for his neighbor, he discovers the body of Madame Zelma outside in his dumpster. When interviewed by Mulder and Scully, he reveals details about the crime that he could not have known from the media accounts, which causes Mulder to believe that Bruckman has psychic ability. Mulder insists that Bruckman join them in a visit to the crime scene at the doll collector's apartment. Thanks to seemingly psychically gained information from Bruckman, her body is soon found in a nearby lake. At the police station, Mulder tests Bruckman's ability by having him handle various objects to see what they "tell" him. It becomes apparent that Bruckman's only real psychic talent is an ability to see details of people's deaths. Scully arrives with a key chain bearing the insignia of an investment company that uses astrology to make financial predictions, taken from the doll collector's body—the same key chain was found on two of the other dead fortunetellers. Bruckman knows that the firm is owned by one Claude Dukenfield, not through a psychic revelation but because he coincidentally sold the man an insurance policy recently. He says that Mulder and Scully will not be able to talk to Dukenfield though, because he has been murdered. Mulder and Scully drive Bruckman to a wooded spot where Bruckman has said they will find Dukenfield's body. As they tromp through the woods, Bruckman explains how he gained his ability following the deaths of Buddy Holly and The Big Bopper in a plane crash. Bruckman cannot pinpoint the exact spot where the body is, however, so they return to the parked car, where they see a lifeless hand sticking out of the wet mud underneath. Traces of silk fibers are subsequently found on Dukenfield similar to fibers found on previous victims—they are later analyzed and found to be from lace. At his home Bruckman has gotten a note from the killer saying he is going to die when they first meet, and telling him to say "hi" to the FBI agents. The killer apparently also has some psychic ability—the postmark is dated before Bruckman joined the murder investigation. Bruckman describes Mulder's death as the killer sees it: getting his throat slit by the killer after stepping in a pie in a kitchen. However Bruckman tells Mulder he's not able to see what happens afterwards. Meanwhile, the inconspicuous man consults a tarot card reader (Alex Diakun), who says that the killer seeks answers from "a man with special wisdom" and that his confusion will soon abruptly end "with the arrival of a woman—a blonde or a brunette, possibly a redhead." When there is just one card left unturned, the killer says that it is not meant for him but for the reader, and turns it over to reveal the "death" card. Since the killer knows Bruckman's home address, the agents bring him to a hotel where they take turns guarding him. While Scully does not believe in Bruckman's power, the two develop a fast friendship. Scully asks Bruckman if he can see his own end. He replies that he can see their end—that they will end up in bed together, in a very special moment neither of them will ever forget. This reinforces her skepticism. Bruckman asks Scully why she is not interested in knowing how she will die. Scully finally asks him to tell her, to which Bruckman replies, "You don't." A detective named Havez (Dwight McFee) takes over as Bruckman's guard when Mulder and Scully are called to investigate yet another new murder victim: the tarot card reader. As they leave they bump into a bellhop who is delivering food to Bruckman's room. The bellhop is actually the killer, and when he enters the room (while Havez is in the washroom), he is delighted to discover that Bruckman has been brought right to where he works. As he is about to kill Bruckman, Havez re-enters and the killer attacks and kills him instead. Meanwhile, Scully finds the same silk fiber at the new crime scene, and realizing that the bellhop had it on his tray, deduces that he is the murderer. They rush back to the hotel. Mulder chases the killer to the basement kitchen and the scene plays out as described in Bruckman's earlier premonition, but when the killer attacks Mulder, Scully arrives in the nick of time and shoots him—what Bruckman had seen was the dying killer's last thoughts, not Mulder's death. Unable to find Bruckman in the hotel, Mulder and Scully return to Bruckman's apartment to find that Bruckman has committed suicide; Scully sees a plastic bag has been tied around his head, and that he is clutching a bottle of pills in his hand. Scully sits on Bruckman's bed holding his hand, deeply moved, just as he had predicted. That night Scully sees a commercial for the Stupendous Yappi on TV, causing her to throw her phone at it. ## Production ### Conception and writing This episode was the second of four episodes written for the series by Darin Morgan during its initial run. Morgan had previously written the second season episode "Humbug", which was a stylistic break from the series' norm, being more overtly humorous. After working on said episode, Morgan worried that he had written the script the "wrong" way, and so he decided to write a more traditional X-Files story the next time he wrote an episode. To get inspiration, Morgan watched the first-season episode "Beyond the Sea", which features an unreliable criminal who claims to have psychic powers. Morgan was struck by the story and its tone, and sought to write a script that emulated its overall feel. Initially, Morgan was leery about focusing too much on humor, so he decided to make his episode very dark; in the end, however, he decided to lighten some of the mood by adding in some jokes. The tone of the episode was also affected by Morgan suffering from depression, which led to him developing a plot in which the main character kills himself in the end. The episode focuses heavily on free will and fatalistic determinism—topics that Morgan was drawn to due to his frustration with the task of plotting episode stories. Morgan later explained that the way Bruckman and the killer interact was "really easy to plot, but [makes] the story seem complicated." While working on the script, Morgan realized that while Mulder is supposed to be intelligent, were he to talk to a "normal person" in real life, he would come across as paranoid or insane. The writer was thus inspired to "shake up Mulder's image" in the episode by making him fallible and foolish. This approach is illustrated by how Mulder views Bruckman "only as a phenomenon" and not as a person, whereas Scully views the titular character as a human, first and foremost. Bruckman's cryptic prediction that Scully would not die "sent fans into a frenzy" due to its implications. Morgan claimed that Bruckman knew full well how Scully would die, but decided to withhold the information simply because he liked her. However, many interpreted the line to mean that Scully could not actually die and was, in essence, immortal. Frank Spotnitz later argued that this sub-plot was bookended by the sixth-season episode "Tithonus," which showed Scully starting to die, only to have her come back, fulfilling Bruckman's prophecy. Spotnitz later called this ending "very satisfying." However, in 2011, Spotnitz seemed to suggest that Scully was, in fact, immortal. This interpretation was seemingly verified by series creator Chris Carter in a 2014 reddit AMA. In the tenth season episode Mulder and Scully Meet the Were-Monster, also written by Morgan, Scully herself references this interpretation, joking "You forget, I'm immortal" when Mulder chides her for taking an unnecessary risk. Bruckman's quip about Fox Mulder dying by autoerotic asphyxiation was inspired both by the previous references in the series to Mulder's enjoyment of pornography, as well as a book that Morgan had read about homicide investigations. Morgan later noted that while Bruckman's line may have been prophetic, he added it simply to be funny. Many of the names used in the episode reference or allude to notable figures during the silent film era. The name "Clyde Bruckman", for instance, is a direct reference to a writer and director of silent comedies who committed suicide in 1955. Detective Havez and Detective Cline references the writer Jean Havez and the director Eddie Cline, respectively. The names of one of the victims, Claude Dukenfield, was the real name of W. C. Fields. The name of the hotel in this episode, "Le Damfino", references the boat in the Buster Keaton movie The Boat. ### Casting and filming The titular character—who was based on Morgan's "depressive" father—was originally written with Bob Newhart in mind, but Peter Boyle was later cast. Although Chris Carter preferred to hire lesser-known individuals for the show, he believed Boyle to be "such a gifted character actor" that he made an exception. The character of the Stupendous Yappi, whom Morgan described as a cross between Uri Geller and the Amazing Kreskin, was specifically written for Jaap Broeker, David Duchovny's stand-in. The character later appeared again in the episode "Jose Chung's From Outer Space". Stuart Charno—credited as Stu Charno in the episode—played the killer in this episode; he is the husband of former series writer Sara Charno. "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" was filmed in British Columbia, as was the rest of the show's third season. Visual effects producer Mat Beck and Toby Lindala created the elaborate dream sequence in which Bruckman's body decomposes. To create the effect, the design team rigged up a dummy with skeleton made out of copper wiring. The team then covered this frame with gelatinous skin and heated the wiring; this melted the skin, creating the illusion that the body was disintegrating. The entire sequence comprised eight discrete segments, some of which featured Boyle in makeup, some the dummy, and some a CGI skeleton. Because episode director David Nutter was working under a number of constraints, Morgan was effectively allowed to serve "as a producer", and after filming for the episode was completed, Morgan worked closely with the series' editor to produce the final cut. This version was originally 10 minutes over the time limit, resulting in multiple scenes featuring Bruckman and Scully being excised from the episode. ## Reception "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" originally aired on the Fox network on October 13, 1995. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10.2, with an 18 share, meaning that roughly 10.2 percent of all television-equipped households, and 18 percent of households watching television, were tuned in to the episode. The episode was watched by 15.38 million viewers. The success of the episode led to it earning two Primetime Emmy Awards—writer Darin Morgan won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series, while Peter Boyle won the Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" has been critically lauded. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, gave the episode a full five stars and called it "a little slice of genius". The two applauded the episode's rich humor, as well as its exploration of extremely dark themes in a lighthearted way. Shearman and Pearson concluded that "the troubled questions Morgan poses here" about free will and death "are best answered by the writing of the episode itself ... an episode like this isn't random—it's finely wrought, and thoughtful, and compassionate, and is a triumph of individualism." Author Phil Farrand rated the episode as his third favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X-Files. Both Paul Cornell and Keith Topping, in the book Extreme Possibilities, applauded the episode; Cornell called it "an extraordinary piece of work" and altogether gorgeous", whereas Topping labelled it a "little gem". Conversely, Martin Day, in the same book, wrote a negative review, calling it "duller than a dull thing with dull knobs", despite noting that it was "clever and well-acted". Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode four stars out of four and called it "one of those rare episodes where everything comes together—funny, bizarre, absurd, ironic, and sad." She applauded Boyle's acting, noting that he "gives a performance that simply takes over the TV screen", and argued that "only actors as strong as Duchovny and Anderson, with their blissfully deadpan delivery, could withstand such a titanic presence, but withstand it they do." Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a rare "A+", writing, "Boyle gets lots of help from another superlative, laugh-a-minute script [which] nicely captures one of the overarching themes of the show: fate and man's isolation." Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an "A" and wrote positively of the ending, writing that, "for an episode that ends with a likable character killing himself, 'Bruckman' isn't what I'd call a downer." He called the entry his "favorite episode of The X-Files because it's funny, suspenseful, does well by Scully and Mulder, and creates some indelible characters." Since its original airing, critics have listed "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" among the best X-Files episodes. TV Guide called it the tenth greatest episode in television history. Review website IGN named it the best standalone X-Files episode of the entire series, writing that the episode " is a distinctive episode of the series, mixing a healthy amount of humor [...] with some very nasty business [...] In just 44 minutes, Boyle creates a fully formed character who makes a big impact in his one and only appearance." Topless Robot named it the ninth-funniest episode of the series. Starpulse listed it as the third-best X-Files episode. Charlie Jane Anders and Javier Grillo-Marxuach of io9 included it on the list of "10 TV Episodes that Changed Television". Tom Kessenich, in Examination: An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6–9 of the X-Files, named the episode the seventh-best installment of the series, noting that it features "a wonderful blend of humor, drama, and pathos, something The X-Files did better than just about any other show this past decade." The cast and crew of the series have expressed their enjoyment of the installment. Duchovny considers "Clyde Bruckman's Final Repose" to be one of his favorite episodes of the third season. Nutter highlighted it as one of the most enjoyable entries that he had worked on. He also noted that, "the writing was so tight and so crisp and so fresh that I think, as a director, the only thing you have to do is create the atmosphere, set up the characters, set up the shots and you are basically invisible. Then you step back and just let it happen." Series writer and producer Frank Spotnitz stated that the episode worked on many levels and that it is his favorite of the episodes written for the show by Morgan. In 2016, Ira Madison of Vulture.com named it the best episode of the series and "one of the best episodes of television ever", stating that the episode "takes every element that made the series so iconic and throws them all into one heartbreaking installment".
1,685,238	Chinese ironclad Zhenyuan	1,163,980,578	Chinese Dingyuan-class ironclad battleship	[ "1882 ships", "Battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy", "Captured ships", "Dingyuan-class ironclads", "Russo-Japanese War battleships of Japan", "Ships built in Stettin" ]	Zhenyuan (Chinese: 鎮遠; pinyin: Zhènyuǎn; Wade–Giles: Chen Yuen) was an ironclad battleship built for the Chinese Beiyang Fleet. She was the second and final member of the Dingyuan class, which included one other vessel, Dingyuan, both of which were built in Germany in the early 1880s. Delivery of the two ironclads was delayed by the Sino-French War of 1884–1885. The ships were armed with a main battery of four 12 in (305 mm) guns in a pair of gun turrets, making them the most powerful warships in East Asian waters at the time. In the 1880s and early 1890s, the Beiyang Fleet conducted a routine of training exercises and cruises abroad, with emphasis placed on visits to Japan to intimidate the country. The latter resulted in the Nagasaki Incident in 1886 and contributed to a rise in hostility between the two countries that culminated in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. She saw action at the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September, where the Japanese Combined Fleet sank much of the Beiyang Fleet, though both Zhenyuan and Dingyuan survived despite numerous hits. The survivors then retreated to Port Arthur for repairs, but after that city was threatened by the Japanese army, fled to Weihaiwei. While entering the port, Zhenyuan struck an uncharted rock and was badly damaged; she was used as a stationary artillery battery during the Battle of Weihaiwei in February 1895, but Japanese forces captured the city's fortifications, which forced the Chinese to surrender the fleet. Zhenyuan was seized as a war prize, repaired, and commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Navy as Chin Yen. She frequently toured Japan in the late 1890s and early 1900s to celebrate Japan's victory over China. Obsolescent by the time of the Russo-Japanese War, she nevertheless saw action at the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904 and the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905. She also supported the invasion of Sakhalin in July 1905. After the war, Chin Yen became a training ship, serving in that role until 1911, thereafter being sold to ship breakers in 1912. ## Design Following the direct intervention of the imperialist European powers in the mid-19th century, including the First and Second Opium Wars, where their superior steam-powered fleets overwhelmed the small Imperial Chinese Navy that still relied on traditional junks, the Chinese began a naval construction program in the 1880s to meet these threats more effectively. They enlisted British and German assistance, and two Dingyuan-class ironclads were ordered from Germany. Zhenyuan was 308 ft (94 m) long overall, with a beam of 59 ft (18 m) and a draft of 20 ft (6.1 m). She displaced 7,220 long tons (7,340 t) normally and up to 7,670 long tons (7,790 t) at full load. She was powered by a pair of compound steam engines that each drove a screw propeller. Steam was provided by eight coal-fired fire-tube boilers that were ducted into a pair of funnels amidships. She was capable of a top speed of 15.7 knots (29.1 km/h; 18.1 mph) from 7,500 indicated horsepower (5,600 kW). Her crew consisted of 350 officers and enlisted men. The ship carried a main battery of four 12 in (305 mm) 20-caliber breech-loading guns in two twin-gun turrets that were placed en echelon forward. These were supported by a secondary battery of two 5.9 in (150 mm) guns in a pair of single turrets, one at the bow and the other at the stern. For defense against torpedo boats, she carried a pair of 3-pounder, 47 mm (1.9 in) Hotchkiss revolver cannon and eight 37 mm (1.5 in) Maxim-Nordenfelt quick-firing guns in casemates. She was also equipped with three 14 in (356 mm) or 15 in (381 mm) torpedo tubes. She was protected by compound armor that was 14 in for the armor belt, which covered the central part of the ship were the ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces were located. An armor deck that was 3 in (76 mm) thick provided horizontal protection. Her conning tower was covered with 8 in (203 mm) of armor plate on the sides. The barbettes for the gun turrets were 12–14 in thick. A strake of armor that was 8 in thick protected the casemate guns. ### Modifications Upon her acquisition by Japan in 1895, the ship was significantly modernized, including new fire-control directors for the main battery and more powerful secondary and tertiary batteries. The Japanese had initially considered replacing the main battery guns, but the project proved to be beyond the capabilities of Japanese shipyards at the time. The old, slow-firing 5.9 in guns were replaced with 6 in (152 mm) quick-firing guns; the forward turret was retained, but the stern mount was replaced with an open mount with a gun shield. Two more of the guns were installed abreast of the main mast, both in the same shielded mount as the stern gun. The Dingyuan-class ships suffered from trim problems as a result of their heavy main battery turrets being placed forward, which caused them to nose down and ship water; it also hampered their steering ability. The addition of the 6-inch guns further aft helped to counterbalance the weight of the main battery, significantly improving both defects. The light battery was revised to a pair of 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight of the Hotchkiss 3-pounders, all in individual mounts. Displacement and other dimensions remained the same, but by that time, the propulsion system was only capable of producing 6,200 ihp (4,600 kW) for a speed of 14.5 knots (26.9 km/h; 16.7 mph). Her crew was reduced significantly, despite the addition of the 6-inch guns, to 250 officers and enlisted men. ## Service history ### Chinese service Zhenyuan was ordered in 1881 and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin, Germany in March 1882; her name means "striking from afar" in Chinese. Work proceeded quickly and she was launched on 28 November 1882, though fitting-out work continued into early 1884. She was completed in April that year, but the outbreak of the Sino-French War in August prevented both Dingyuan-class ships from being delivered until 1885. Both vessels were manned by German crews, sailing on 3 July 1885 under the German flag in company with the also German-built protected cruiser Jiyuan. The three ships arrived in Tianjin in November, where they were transferred to Chinese control. Li Hongzhang, the Viceroy of Zhili and director of China's naval construction program, inspected the vessels following their arrival. The two ironclads were then commissioned into the Beiyang Fleet, which was based in Port Arthur. The ships steamed south to Shanghai for the winter of 1885–1886. In the 1880s, the Beiyang Fleet was occupied with an annual routine of winter training cruises to the South China Sea, often in company with the Nanyang Fleet. This cruise typically involved visits to Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong provinces, and sometimes went as far south as stops in Southeast Asia. The rest of the year was spent in northern waters off Zhili, Shandong, and Fengtian provinces, conducting training exercises. Training cruises to foreign ports were conducted in the mid-1880s and early 1890s, both to train navigational skills on voyages far from shore and to show the flag. Discipline aboard the ships of the Beiyang Fleet was poor, which contributed to a low state of readiness of the ships. During this period, the fleet was commanded by Admiral Ding Ruchang, while Zhenyuan was captained by Lin Taizeng, who was promoted to the rank of rear admiral shortly after taking command in 1885. Lin served as Ding's deputy through 1894. At the time, China lacked dry docks large enough to handle Zhenyuan and Dingyuan, forcing the navy to rely on shipyards in Japan or in British Hong Kong for periodic maintenance. The two Dingyuan-class ships began their training routine in April 1886 in joint maneuvers with the units of the Nanyang Fleet, which culminated in a naval review in Port Arthur. They received the British vessels of the China Station from 19 to 20 May. Zhenyuan, Dingyuan, and four cruisers began the first of their overseas cruises in August 1886, which included stops in Hong Kong, Busan and Wonsan in Korea, Vladivostok, Russia, and Nagasaki, Japan. While at the latter port in August, Chinese crewmen became involved in an altercation with Japanese locals that resulted in the deaths of eight Chinese sailors and two Japanese policemen, with forty-two Chinese and twenty-nine Japanese injured. The so-called Nagasaki Incident was characterized by the Japanese press as an attempt by China to intimidate Japan, leading to calls for naval expansion to counter the Beiyang Fleet. The Japanese government ordered three Matsushima-class protected cruisers in response. The Japanese also refused to allow the Chinese ironclads to return for repairs in their shipyards, hampering the ability of the Beiyang Fleet to keep the vessels operational. The year 1887 passed less eventfully, with the ships spending the bulk of the year in the Bohai Sea. Late in the year, another group of four European-built cruisers arrived, further strengthening the fleet and necessitating extensive maneuvers in 1888 to familiarize the crews with the rest of the fleet. The Beiyang Fleet adopted the same black, white, and buff paint scheme used by the Royal Navy at the time, repainting their vessels at some point in 1888. In 1889, the fleet was divided into two divisions; Dingyuan and several cruisers were sent on a tour of Korean ports while Zhenyuan and the rest of the fleet remained in the Bohai Sea for exercises. The two divisions rendezvoused in Shanghai in December, thereafter proceeding to Hong Kong for Zhenyuan and Dingyuan to be drydocked. They then cruised off Korea, where Zhenyuan ran aground in November 1890, forcing another return to Hong Kong for repairs. Another visit to Japan came in June and July 1891, the first since the Nagasaki Incident; the fleet stopped in Kobe on 30 June and Yokohama on 14 July. At the latter port, a large Japanese delegation of senior military commanders and members of the imperial family received the ships. Another voyage to Japan took place the following year. Coupled with the Nagasaki Incident, these voyages contributed to the growing tensions between China and Japan, since Hongzhang intended them to make clear Chinese naval strength at a time the Japanese fleet was small and poorly developed. At the core of the dispute was control over Korea, which since the Convention of Tientsin of 1884, was treated as a co-protectorate of China and Japan. #### First Sino-Japanese War In early 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution broke out in Korea, prompting China to send an expedition of 28,000 to suppress the rebels. Japan viewed this as a violation of the Tientsin Convention and deployed 8,000 troops in response, leading to the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War on 1 August. The Chinese fleet was no match for the new Combined Fleet of Japan, as years of insufficient naval budgets had not allowed Hongzhang to update the vessels—funds he had planned to use to add new quick-firing guns to Zhenyuan and Dingyuan were instead appropriated for the 60th birthday of the Dowager Empress Cixi—and the Chinese lacked effective commanders and sufficiently trained crews. At the time, the American soldier of fortune Philo McGiffen served as the ship's executive officer to advise Lin. And to add to China's disadvantages during the war, the Japanese had broken the Chinese diplomatic codes in 1888, giving them access to China's internal communications. As the Chinese made preparations in August for action, they removed the gun shields from the main battery turrets. Experience at the Battle of Pungdo had revealed the thin shields created numerous splinters when struck by enemy fire, and these fragments had inflicted numerous casualties to the gun crews of the cruiser Jiyuan at Pungdo. The crews also placed bags of coal around the gun batteries as a form of improvised armor. The ships were repainted light gray to make them more difficult to observe at sea. The ships of the Beiyang Fleet then steamed to Taku to take on supplies, thereafter doing little for the next month. ##### Battle of the Yalu River Ding took the fleet on a sweep into the Korea Bay on 12 September to clear the way for a convoy of troopships scheduled to deliver reinforcements to Korea. While on the way to the bay, he received faulty reports indicating the presence of Japanese warships off the Shandong Peninsula, prompting him to change course to search for them. Finding no enemy vessels, he took the fleet to Weihaiwei (modern Weihai), and on 15 September, the fleet rendezvoused with the convoy to cover its approach to the mouth of the Yalu River, where the transports deposited the men and supplies on 16 September. During the unloading process, Zhenyuan and the bulk of the fleet remained underway to provide distant support and avoid presenting themselves as stationary targets to Japanese torpedo boats known to be in the area. While the Chinese were on the way back to Port Arthur, the Combined Fleet under Vice Admiral Itō Sukeyuki intercepted them on 17 September, leading to the Battle of the Yalu River. The poorly trained Beiyang Fleet sailed in a disorganized line abreast formation, while the Japanese approached them from the south in line ahead; the Chinese ships steamed at around 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) and the Japanese at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Itō turned his ships to port to pass in front of the oncoming Beiyang Fleet. Dingyuan opened fire first, at about 12:20, at the extreme range of 5,300 yd (4,800 m), far in excess of what fire-control equipment was capable of accurately directing at the time. The blast effect from Dingyuan's initial salvo destroyed her own bridge, collapsing it and trapping Ding and his staff for the duration of the action, depriving the Beiyang Fleet of central control. The rest of the Chinese fleet quickly followed Dingyuan, but failed to score any hits as their opponents passed in front. The Japanese ships returned fire at 12:25, having divided into two squadrons and turned back to starboard to encircle the Chinese. Concentrating their fire on the cruisers on the Chinese right flank, they quickly destroyed the Chinese cruisers Yangwei and Chaoyong. The battle quickly devolved into a melee at close range, and the Chinese cruisers Zhiyuan and Jingyuan were sunk. In return, the Chinese warships inflicted serious damage on the old ironclad Hiei, which had been unable to keep pace with the rest of Itō's fleet, and was eventually forced to disengage and flee. Zhenyuan and Dingyuan hit the auxiliary cruiser Saikyō Maru with four 12-inch shells and inflicted significant damage. Zhenyuan's heavy citadel armor proved to be impervious to the Japanese shellfire directed against it, though the large-caliber Canet guns mounted on the Matsushima-class cruisers proved to be nearly useless and the other Japanese cruisers were engaged with their Chinese counterparts. At 15:30, Zhenyuan scored a hit with her main battery on the Japanese flagship Matsushima, striking her forward barbette. The shell disabled the forward main gun, set the ship on fire, disabled four of Matsushima's secondary guns, and inflicted heavy casualties. Itō was forced to shift his flag as a result. Zhenyuan caught fire several times during the action, but her crew was able to quickly suppress the fires. By around 17:00, both sides were low on ammunition and the Chinese began to reform their surviving vessels into line-ahead formation. The Japanese eventually broke off at around 17:30 and withdrew. The battered Beiyang Fleet, by then reduced to the two Dingyuan-class ships and four smaller vessels, limped back to Port Arthur, arriving there the next day. In the course of the action, Zhenyuan had expended all of her 5.9-inch ammunition and most of her 12-inch shells, having just twenty-four solid steel shells remaining. She had taken some 220 hits, but none penetrated her belt and only a small number pierced the deck. Repairs to the damaged ships began immediately, and fresh supplies and ammunition were sent to ready the vessels for action. By late October, the Japanese Army had begun to approach the port, forcing the Chinese to withdraw the Beiyang Fleet across the Bohai Strait to Weihaiwei on 20 October. Zhenyuan remained in Port Arthur while the rest of the fleet left so that repairs could continue to be made, but by early November, the Japanese were poised to seize the port, prompting her to join the rest of the fleet at Weihaiwei. ##### Battle of Weihaiwei While approaching Weihaiwei on 14 November, Zhenyuan struck a reef as the ship attempted to maneuver around the obstacles that had been erected off the harbor entrance to prevent a Japanese attack. The grounding tore a hole that was 20 ft (6.1 m) long and caused significant flooding, including the port engine room. The vessel remained stuck on the reef for three weeks, listing to port with her main deck awash. The salvage team eventually towed her off the reef and brought the ship into the anchorage at Weihaiwei, where she was run aground to avoid sinking. Divers were sent from Shanghai to patch the hole with concrete. Lin took responsibility for the accident and committed suicide the following day with an overdose of opium. Captain Yang Yung-Lin took his place as the ship's commander. Weihaiwei lacked the dry dock facilities necessary to properly repair Zhenyuan, and the concrete patch, which was completed by January 1895, left her only partially seaworthy, so she was left moored in port. The grounding contributed to a significant decline in morale among the crews of the fleet, since the loss of a fully operational ironclad seriously degraded their ability to resist a Japanese attack. The Japanese Army had advanced to Weihaiwei by the end of January 1895, launching a major attack on the port on the 30th to begin the Battle of Weihaiwei. They quickly captured the fortifications on the eastern side of the city, which forced the Chinese ships to withdraw to the western portion of the harbor, where they would be out of range for the guns in the fortress. Though Zhenyuan was unable to get underway, her guns could still be used to support the garrison and disrupt Japanese movements ashore. On 1 February, she fired 119 shells to help repel the Japanese troops. Japanese torpedo boats broke into the harbor on the night of 4/5 February and torpedoed Dingyuan, disabling her and prompting Ding to shift his flag to Zhenyuan. The next night, the torpedo boats made another assault on the Chinese fleet, but they missed Zhenyuan and instead sank a cruiser, a training ship, and an auxiliary vessel. On 9 February, Zhenyuan scored a hit on the cruiser Itsukushima, though the shell failed to detonate. By that time, the Japanese inflicted serious damage on Dingyuan, leading to Ding's decision to scuttle the ship, which provoked many of the senior officers of the Beiyang Fleet to commit suicide, including Yang on 12 February. The next day, the Chinese surrendered, and a party from the Combined Fleet entered the port on 17 February to inspect the vessels in the harbor. They found Zhenyuan to be in salvageable condition, as the only damage to the hull was from the grounding incident. Seized as a war prize, the ship would be repaired and commissioned into the Japanese fleet. ### Japanese service The Japanese refloated the ship and Saikyō Maru, having been repaired after the Battle of the Yalu River, towed her to Port Arthur. There, she was commissioned into the Japanese Navy on 16 March and renamed Chin Yen, the Japanese version of her original name. She then was dry-docked for temporary repairs that lasted from April to June. During this process, a team inspected the damage that had been inflicted during the war for lessons that could be incorporated into future Japanese warships. The primary observation was that side armor should be strengthened instead of deck armor, given the short battle ranges of the day, since close-range direct fire, with its flat trajectory, would most likely strike the side of a ship, rather than pass over the belt. On 5 July, Chin Yen, the largest vessel in the Japanese fleet and its only capital ship, got underway for a tour of Japan. She first visited Nagasaki from 10 to 16 July, before passing through the Seto Inland Sea, where she stopped in Hiroshima, Kure, and Kobe. She arrived in Yokohama on 28 July and was then assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District for a substantial rebuilding as well as permanent repairs to her wartime damage. The main battery could not be updated apart from the installation of fire-control directors, but the secondary battery was substantially improved. The Meiji Emperor visited the ship at Yokosuka on 25 November 1896, after which Chin Yen embarked on a tour of Japan to celebrate the country's victory over China. With the Fuji class of modern pre-dreadnought battleships nearing completion, Chin Yen was classified as a second class battleship, though she remained in service with the Combined Fleet until 21 March 1898, when she became the flagship of the Reserve Fleet. By that time, both Fuji-class ships had entered service, replacing her as the largest and most powerful vessels in the fleet. Over the next several years, Chin Yen was occupied with cruises in Japanese waters and visits to numerous ports in the country. During the Boxer Uprising in China, she served with the forces of the Eight Nation Alliance during the Battle of Tientsin, helping to break the siege of the city. #### Russo-Japanese War Competition over control of Korea brought Japan into a second conflict, now with the Russian Empire in 1904. The Russo-Japanese War began on 8 February with a surprise torpedo-boat attack on the Russian First Pacific Squadron that occupied Port Arthur. Now obsolete, Chin Yen was assigned to the 5th Squadron of 3rd Fleet, the flagship of Vice Admiral Kataoka Shichirō, along with the three Matsushima-class cruisers. The ships had departed from Sasebo near Nagasaki to join the rest of the fleet in preparation for war already on 6 February. Chin Yen helped to enforce the blockade of the Russian fleet in Port Arthur, which led to the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August, where she saw action as part of the Main Force under Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō. The battle resulted from a Russian attempt to break the blockade. During the action, which resulted in the Russians being forced back into port, Chin Yen scored several hits on Russian ships in exchange for suffering two hits that did not inflict serious damage. After resuming the blockade, the Japanese fleet also conducted bombardments of Russian positions in the area. On 6 March, Chin Yen and several other ships shelled Vladivostok, where another Russian squadron was located. In a forty-minute bombardment, the Japanese vessels failed to inflict any serious damage. The ship next saw action at the Battle of Tsushima on 27–28 May 1905; the Russians had assembled a Second Pacific Squadron from vessels of the Baltic Fleet to relieve the ships in Port Arthur and sent it on a very long voyage to Asia. Tōgō intercepted the Russians in the Tsushima Strait and Chin Yen and the rest of 5th Squadron had formed the rear of his line of battle, tasked with engaging their Russian counterparts. The ships sank the supply ship Kamchatka and badly damaged the battleship Knyaz Suvorov. The next morning, the 5th Squadron ships helped to clear the area of any remaining Russian warships still in action and escorted the seven warships that had surrendered to Japanese ports, where they would be taken as war prizes. Chin Yen and the rest of 5th Squadron then proceeded to Tsushima, where they arrived on 20 June. From there, Chin Yen was detached for a refit in Kure and was then reassigned to the Ōminato Guard District in northern Honshu. The ship got underway on 4 July as part of an amphibious assault force that landed on Sakhalin three days later. After the end of the war on 5 September, Chin Yen went to Port Arthur to escort the armored cruiser Bayan, which had been scuttled there during the war and then raised by a Japanese salvage team. A fleet review was held on 23 October to celebrate Japan's victory, which was to be Chin Yen's last activity as part of the active fleet. The review began with a parade of captured Russian warships, followed by Chin Yen and other former Chinese vessels as part of a display of the spoils the Japanese Navy had seized in the two wars. #### Later career Chin Yen was reclassified as a first-class coastal defense ship on 11 December. For the next five and a half years, she was used as a training ship for naval cadets and non-commissioned officers. During this period, the ship also took part in training maneuvers with the fleet, as she did in a series of major exercises in October and November 1908 that concluded with a fleet review for the emperor. She was finally decommissioned in April 1911; her training duties were taken by her old opponent Itsukushima. Chin Yen was employed as a target ship for the new armored cruiser Kurama in late 1911 and was later sold to ship breakers in April 1912. The funds raised were used to cover part of the cost of the grand hall at the Naval Academy Etajima in Hiroshima. Two of the ship's anchors were removed in 1896 during the reconstruction to be preserved in Ueno Park in Tokyo as a monument to Japan's victory. This was a cause of public outrage in China. After Japan's defeat in World War II, the Chinese nationalist government insisted on their return, which was granted by the American occupation authority. The anchors left Tokyo on 1 May 1947 and arrived in Shanghai in October. They were installed at the naval academy in Qingdao and after the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, they were moved to the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution in Beijing.
19,993,313	Homer the Whopper	1,172,682,437	null	[ "2009 American television episodes", "The Simpsons (season 21) episodes" ]	"Homer the Whopper" is the twenty-first season premiere of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 27, 2009. In the episode, Comic Book Guy creates a new superhero called Everyman who takes powers from other superheroes. Homer is cast as the lead in the film adaptation. To get Homer into shape, the movie studio hires a celebrity fitness trainer, Lyle McCarthy, to help him. Homer gets into great shape and is really excited, but when McCarthy leaves to train another client, he starts over-eating again and ultimately this leads to the film's failure. The episode was written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg, who are "obsessed" fans of the show, and directed by Lance Kramer. "Homer The Whopper" was intended to be a commentary on how Hollywood treats superhero films. Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy, making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it; Ricky Gervais was the first. "Homer the Whopper" has received mixed reviews from television critics and acquired a Nielsen rating of 4.3 in its original broadcast. ## Plot Bart and Milhouse persuade Comic Book Guy to publish Everyman, a comic he has created and written in which the titular hero can absorb the superpowers of any character whose comic book he touches. It becomes an instant hit, and many Hollywood studios become interested in making it into a film. Comic Book Guy signs a movie deal, on the condition that he gets to choose the star. He considers Homer to be perfect for the role, as he envisions Everyman as a middle-aged fat man. However, the studio executives hire fitness trainer Lyle McCarthy to get Homer into shape, knowing that audiences prefer to see physically fit actors in superhero roles. One month later, Homer has become fit under Lyle's training regimen and the film begins production. Lyle soon leaves Homer to begin working with a different client, though, and Homer reverts to his old habits of laziness and overeating and quickly regains all the weight he lost. The film begins to go over budget, and Comic Book Guy and the executives fear that it will not be successful. The final version includes shots of Homer in both his fit and overweight states, confusing the audience and ruining their enjoyment. Although the premiere is a disaster, the executives offer to let Comic Book Guy direct a sequel as long as he gives the film a good review. Comic Book Guy is pleased at first, but soon changes his mind and posts a scathing online review. The film becomes a box office bomb, and a law is passed to prevent any future film adaptations of Everyman from being made. ## Production Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg, writers of the film Superbad, are "obsessed" fans of The Simpsons. After learning that The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks was a fan of Superbad, they decided to ask the producers of the show if they could write an episode. In 2006, Ricky Gervais, co-creator of The Office, received credit for writing the season 17 episode "Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife". Rogen and Goldberg "thought if [Gervais] got to write one, maybe [they] could try." They were invited to The Simpsons writers room, where they pitched several episode ideas. One was accepted, and they wrote an outline with the help of some feedback from the regular writers. Rogen commented that he and Goldberg wanted to show with the episode how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films. He said that "the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy." Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet, when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role. Show runner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the "Radioactive Man" episode. Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film. Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives "are trying to think up an idea that hasn't been done really is what they are doing these days [in real life]." The table read took place in August 2008, and production on the episode began soon after that. Rogen later said that "we sat down for a read-through and three hours later I'm in a studio improv-ing with Homer Simpson, it was the single greatest day of my life." Rogen also voiced the character of Lyle McCarthy, making him the second guest star after Gervais to both write an episode and appear in it. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening also makes an appearance in the episode. ## Reception In its original American broadcast in the United States on September 27, 2009, "Homer The Whopper" was watched in 8.31 million homes and acquired a 4.3 Nielsen rating/12 share. Since airing, "Homer the Whopper" has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics. Steve Fritz of Newsarama called the episode "amazing" and commented that the "overall comic book theme was perfect." Reviewers for TV Guide cited Matt Groening's cameo, the dinner table scene, Homer trying to lose weight at the Kwik-E-Mart, and the opening scene where Bart questions Comic Book Guy about Spider-Man as the highlights of the episode. Robert Canning of IGN was positive about "Homer The Whopper", giving it an 8.6/10 rating. He commented that the first act of the episode was the strongest, while the others were weaker. Canning believed the reason for this was that the viewers have already seen Homer "struggle with his weight countless times, and Rogen's trainer, though funny much of the time, will likely never be remembered as a classic guest role." He added, however, that Rogen and Goldberg are able to find "a few new angles with the weight jokes, so it's not a complete loss." Overall, Canning thought "Homer The Whopper" was a good start to the twenty-first season, and although the plot may not be very original, the writers added "freshness to the proceedings." The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff did not think the script was as good as Gervais', but commented that Rogen and Goldberg "managed to make a mostly amusing season premiere." She added that she thought the Hollywood satirizing featured in this episode had been overused on the show, but "the specificity of what the [episode] was making fun of—trainers who help stars slim down (in this case, helping Homer slim down)—went a long way toward making the episode palatable." VanDerWerff concluded that while the episode "didn't try anything new [...], [she] had fun with it all the same, ultimately giving the episode a B."
53,549,972	HMS Retriever (1917)	1,104,737,287	British R-class destroyer	[ "1917 ships", "R-class destroyers (1916)", "Ships built by John I. Thornycroft & Company", "Ships built in Southampton", "World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Retriever was a Thornycroft-built R-class destroyer which served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. Launched in 1917, the vessel formed part of the Harwich Force and took part in operations off the coast of Ostend in support of the bombardment of the town in June that year. During August the following year, the vessel attempted to deploy a seaplane from a towed lighter, but a lack of wind meant the operation was unsuccessful. The vessel was also jointly credited with the destruction of the submarine SM UB-54 that year, although this has been disputed. After the war, the ship was placed in reserve and was sold to be broken up in 1927. ## Design and development Retriever was one of three R-class destroyers ordered by the British Admiralty from Thornycroft of Woolston, Southampton, in July 1915 as part of the Sixth War Construction Programme. The ships differed from the six preceding Thornycroft M-class built by the yard, in having all geared turbines and the aft gun being raised on a bandstand. Like other Thornycroft-built vessels, they differed from the rest of the R class in having flat sided funnels. Retriever had a long overall of 274 feet 3 inches (84 m), with a beam of 27 ft 3 in (8.31 m) and a draught of 9 ft (2.7 m). Displacement was 1,035 long tons (1,052 t) normal and 1,208 long tons (1,227 t) at deep load.Three Yarrow boilers fed steam to two sets of Brown-Curtis geared steam turbines rated at 27,000 shaft horsepower (20,000 kW) and driving two shafts, giving a design speed of 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). Three funnels were fitted. A total of 296 long tons (301 t) of fuel oil was carried, giving a design range of 3,450 nautical miles (6,390 km; 3,970 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). Armament consisted of three single 4-inch (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline, with one on the forecastle, one aft on a raised bandstand and one between the second and third funnels. A single 2-pounder 40 mm (2 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft gun was carried, along with four 21-inch (533 mm) torpedoes in two twin rotating mounts. ## Construction and career Retriever was laid down in January 1916 and launched on 15 January 1917. On being completed in March 1917, the ship joined the Harwich Force, serving as part of the Tenth Destroyer Flotilla until the end of the war. On 4 June the vessel formed part of a flotilla led by the light cruiser HMS Undaunted that escorted the Erebus class monitors Erebus and Terror in their bombardment of Ostend. The flotilla was tasked with patrolling Schouwen Bank, but encountered no opposition. Between 16 and 17 October, the destroyer was again called upon to be part of an even larger force of 84 warships sent out to search for a German fleet based around a minelayer, although once again Retriever saw no action. The following year, the ship was credited with the destruction of the submarine SM UB-54 with depth charges on 12 March 1918 with Sturgeon and Thruster but this has been disputed. Retriever was subsequently equipped to tow a lighter which carried a seaplane, but a lack of wind meant that operations were curtailed at the first attempt to launch the aircraft on 10 August. Placed in reserve after the Armistice, Retriever was allocated to the Home Fleet, serving under the dreadnought battleship King George V. However, in 1923, the Navy decided to scrap many of the older destroyers in preparation for the introduction of newer and larger vessels. The destroyer was sold for breaking up on 26 July 1927 to Hughes Bolckow of Blyth. ## Pennant numbers
1,269,279	Earl Campbell	1,170,804,715	American football player (born 1955)	[ "1955 births", "20th-century African-American sportspeople", "21st-century African-American people", "African-American players of American football", "All-American college football players", "American Conference Pro Bowl players", "American football running backs", "College Football Hall of Fame inductees", "Heisman Trophy winners", "Houston Oilers players", "Living people", "National Football League Most Valuable Player Award winners", "National Football League Offensive Player of the Year Award winners", "National Football League Offensive Rookie of the Year Award winners", "National Football League first-overall draft picks", "National Football League players with retired numbers", "New Orleans Saints players", "Players of American football from Austin, Texas", "Players of American football from Tyler, Texas", "Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees", "Texas Longhorns football players" ]	Earl Christian Campbell (born March 29, 1955), nicknamed "the Tyler Rose", is an American former professional football player who played as a running back in the National Football League (NFL) for the Houston Oilers and New Orleans Saints. Known for his aggressive, punishing running style and ability to break tackles, Campbell gained recognition as one of the best power running backs in NFL history. Campbell played college football for the Texas Longhorns, where he won the Heisman Trophy and earned unanimous All-America honors in his senior season, as well as numerous other accolades. Campbell was drafted first overall by the Oilers in 1978 and had an immediate impact in the league, earning NFL Rookie of the Year honors. Campbell was also named the NFL's Offensive Player of the Year in each of his first three seasons, during which he averaged nearly 1,700 rushing yards per season. Campbell won the AP NFL Most Valuable Player Award in 1979 after leading the league in rushing yards and touchdowns. With head coach Bum Phillips, Campbell's emergence in Houston coincided with the Luv Ya Blue era, a period of sustained success in which the Oilers made three straight playoff appearances. Campbell became the centerpiece of Houston's offense during the late 1970s and early 1980s. He was traded to the Saints six games into the 1984 season, where he spent his final season and a half before retiring. Campbell was inducted into both the College Football Hall of Fame (1990) and Pro Football Hall of Fame (1991). In 2019, he was named to the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team. Campbell’s jersey number is retired by the University of Texas and the Tennessee Titans. ## Early life and high school Earl Christian Campbell was born to Ann and Bert "B.C." Campbell, on March 29, 1955, in Tyler, Texas, leading to the nickname, "the Tyler Rose" later in his career. He was the sixth of 11 siblings. Bert Campbell died when Earl was 11 years old. Campbell began playing football in fifth grade as a kicker, but moved to linebacker in sixth grade after watching Dick Butkus, whom he modeled his playing style after. Ann Campbell attempted to persuade Earl not to play football in high school. "I dis-encouraged Earl," she said. "But he always loved football." In 1973, Campbell led the Corky Nelson–coached John Tyler High School to the Texas 4A State Championship (4A then was the largest classification in the state). That season, Campbell was named Mr. Football USA as he was adjudged the national high school player of the year. While heavily recruited, Campbell narrowed his choices to Houston, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and Baylor. After in-home visits from Barry Switzer from Oklahoma and Darrell Royal from Texas, Campbell ultimately chose Texas. Switzer, who unsuccessfully recruited Campbell, said in his 1989 book that Campbell was the only player he ever saw who could have gone straight from high school to the NFL and immediately become a star. ## College career Campbell attended the University of Texas at Austin, where he played college football for the Texas Longhorns from 1974 to 1977. As a freshman in 1974, Campbell played in all 11 games and had 162 carries for 928 yards and six touchdowns on 162 attempts. In 1975, Campbell was a first-team All-America selection at fullback by the American Football Coaches Association after leading the Southwest Conference with 1,118 rushing yards, 13 rushing touchdowns, and 78 points scored. Leg injuries kept Campbell out of four games during his junior season, and he rushed for 653 yards and three touchdowns in seven games as Texas finished with a 5–5–1 record. Campbell led the nation in rushing as a senior in 1977, with 1,744 yards and 19 touchdowns. In the third game of the season, against the Rice Owls, Campbell scored four touchdowns during a 72–15 blowout in which Texas kicker Russell Erxleben set an NCAA record with a 67-yard field goal. In his final regular-season game, Campbell rushed for a career-high 222 yards in a 57–28 victory over rival Texas A&M, and the Longhorns finished the regular season undefeated. After clinching the Southwest Conference championship, the top-ranked Longhorns then faced No. 5 Notre Dame, led by quarterback Joe Montana, in the Cotton Bowl Classic. Campbell carried 29 times for 116 yards in the game, but Notre Dame was victorious, 38–10, and claimed the national championship. Texas was ranked fourth in the final AP Poll. Campbell was awarded the Heisman Memorial Trophy as the most outstanding college player after the season, becoming the University of Texas' first winner of the award. He also became the first recipient of the Davey O'Brien Memorial Trophy which was awarded to the outstanding player in the Southwest Conference. The Sporting News and United Press International each named Campbell the college football player of the year. He was a unanimous All-American, being named to the first team by every major selector. Campbell finished his college career with 4,443 rushing yards and 40 rushing touchdowns in 40 games through four seasons. ### College rushing statistics ## Professional career ### Houston Oilers Campbell was the first overall draft pick in the 1978 NFL Draft, selected by the Houston Oilers, who signed him to a six-year, \$1.4 million contract. The Oilers obtained the pick from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers by trading tight end Jimmie Giles, their first and second round picks in the 1978 Draft, and their third and fifth round picks in the 1979 Draft. "This is a commitment to excellence," said Oilers head coach Bum Phillips. "It takes a great running back to have a winning football team and this kid is a great running back." After rushing for a league-leading and rookie record 1,450 yards, Campbell was named the Offensive Rookie of the Year by the Sporting News and Associated Press (AP). He was also named the AFC Offensive Player of the Year by United Press International (UPI), NFL Offensive Player of the Year by the AP, and the NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) by the Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA) and Pro Football Writers of America (PFWA). Campbell's emergence contributed to the start of the Luv Ya Blue era in Houston. With quarterback Dan Pastorini nursing a mid-season shoulder injury, Campbell carried the Oilers to a five-game winning streak in 1979, which concluded with a 30–24 victory over the Dallas Cowboys on Thanksgiving Day, in which he rushed for 195 yards and two touchdowns. He finished the season with 1,697 rushing yards and 19 touchdowns, leading the league in both categories. Campbell also set NFL records with 11 100-yard rushing games, seven consecutive 100-yard games, and 368 carries. He was named NFL MVP by the AP, NEA, and PFWA. Campbell also repeated as the AP Offensive Player of the Year, and won the Bert Bell Award as the league's most outstanding player. With his aggressive running style which favored running over players instead of around them, questions began to arise over how long Campbell could stay healthy. "He runs with a lot of reckless abandon," said Ron Johnson, a former running back whose own career was cut short. "You can run like that in college. But you can't do that for 10 years and hope to survive." Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris said, "Knocking over people can look very good but you can't do it forever. Sometimes it's going to be somebody else who knocks you over ... so the most important thing I think isn't to get a few extra yards every time but to make sure you're healthy enough to play." Bum Phillips, though, favored Campbell's running style. "I've been looking for a back like Earl," he said. "I'm not going to change his style. Why would I? You don't want a guy who gets hit and then flops on the ground. Earl does the same thing other backs do, only better." After an 11–5 regular-season record in 1979, the Oilers defeated the Denver Broncos in the wild-card round for their first home playoff win since 1960. Houston then won the divisional round game against the San Diego Chargers despite both Pastorini and Campbell missing the game due to injuries. With both back in the lineup, however, the Oilers lost the conference championship game the following week against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Campbell was held to just 15 yards on 17 carries against Pittsburgh's "Steel Curtain" defense. Campbell had his most productive rushing yardage season in 1980, with 1,934 yards in 15 games—an average of 128.9 yards per game. He finished 70 yards short of breaking O. J. Simpson's single-season rushing yards record set in 1973. Campbell again led the league in rushing yards and touchdowns, and broke his own record for carries, with 373. Over 60 percent of Campbell’s yards came in the fourth quarter. "That's when the tough get going," said Campbell. He had four games of over 200 rushing yards, a single-season record that still stands as of the end of the 2016 season. Campbell also threw a 57-yard touchdown pass to receiver Billy "White Shoes" Johnson against the Steelers for his only career completion out of three attempts. The Oilers again finished with an 11–5 regular-season record, but lost in the Wild Card Round to the Oakland Raiders. For the third straight year, Campbell was awarded the Jim Thorpe Trophy by the Newspaper Enterprise Association as the league's MVP, and named the Offensive Player of the Year by the AP. Bum Phillips was fired three days after Houston's loss in the wild-card game, and defensive coordinator Ed Biles was given the head coaching job. In 1981, the Oilers finished 7–9 and failed to make the playoffs for the first time with Campbell on the roster. Campbell also did not claim the rushing yards title for the first time in his career as he finished fifth in yards with 1,376 and seventh in touchdowns with 10. The highlight of the season was back-to-back rushing performances of over 180 yards, against the Cincinnati Bengals during Week 5 and against the Seattle Seahawks in Week 6. His 39 carries against the Seahawks set an Oilers single-game record. Campbell was invited to his fourth Pro Bowl, but failed to make an All-Pro roster. A players' strike in 1982 shortened the season to nine games and the Oilers finished with a 1–8 record. Campbell had just two touchdowns and 538 rushing yards, an average of 59.8 yards per game—far below his average of 104.1 per game over the previous four seasons. Campbell's production improved greatly in 1983 as he had 1,301 yards and 12 touchdowns, and was invited to his fifth Pro Bowl. However, the Oilers finished the season tied for the worst record in the league at 2–14. Unhappy after he was pulled in the second half against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 10, Campbell demanded to be traded. He completed the season with the team but remained adamant with his demand in the off-season. "I'm tired of hearing every week how I'm too dumb, washed up, too dumb to read holes, can't block, can't catch the football," said Campbell. The team's back-to-back dismal seasons also added to his frustration. In 1984, under new head coach Hugh Campbell, Houston started the season with six straight losses. After rushing for 278 yards total in the first six games of 1984, Campbell was traded to the New Orleans Saints, reuniting him with Bum Phillips. ### New Orleans Saints The Saints received Campbell in exchange for their first-round draft pick in 1985, with which Houston selected cornerback Richard Johnson. The trade came as a surprise in New Orleans; the team already had the young George Rogers, the 1981 No. 1 overall draft pick and that year's Rookie of the Year and rushing champion. With Campbell and Rogers, the Saints now had two Heisman Trophy winners in the backfield. In his first game with New Orleans, Campbell carried five times for 19 yards, and continued to have a diminished role in the offense throughout the rest of the season. He rushed for a total of 468 yards and four touchdowns in 1984, and failed to record a 100-yard game during the season. Campbell’s final 100-yard game was his only one in 1985: a 160-yard outburst against the Minnesota Vikings in which he scored his only touchdown of the season. Campbell finished the year with 643 rushing yards on 158 carries. ### Retirement After considering a return for one more season to reach 10,000 career rushing yards, Campbell retired during the 1986 preseason, feeling that the beating he had taken during his career had taken too much of a toll. "I'm a man; I'm not a little boy," said Campbell. "I believe this is the best thing—not only for myself, but for the Saints." He finished his career having rushed 2,187 times for 9,407 yards and 74 touchdowns to go along with 121 receptions for 806 yards in the regular season. ## NFL career statistics ### Regular season ### Postseason ## Legacy and honors Campbell is widely acknowledged as one of the best power running backs in NFL history, and was highly regarded by his peers. "Every time you hit him you lower your own IQ," said Redskins linebacker Pete Wysocki. Cornerback Lester Hayes of the Raiders said, "Earl Campbell was put on this earth to play football." Cliff Harris, safety for the Cowboys, recalled Campbell as "the hardest-hitting running back I ever played against. He didn't have the elusiveness of an O. J. Simpson. But when you finished a game against Earl, you had to sit in a tub with Epsom salts." Bum Phillips, when asked if Campbell was in a class by himself, quipped, "I dunno. But if he ain't, it don't take long to call the roll." Campbell is considered one of the greatest running backs in Texas Longhorns and college football history. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1990, along with fellow Heisman winner Jim Plunkett of Stanford. Campbell became the first Texas Longhorns football player to have his jersey retired by the university, his number 20 being retired in 1979. In 2000, an internet poll of Longhorns fans voted Campbell to Texas' All-Century team. He received the most votes, beating out recently graduated Ricky Williams. On July 27, 1991, Campbell was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Others inducted in the 1991 class were John Hannah, Stan Jones, Tex Schramm, and Jan Stenerud. He was introduced at the ceremony by Bum Phillips. Campbell's jersey number 34 was retired by the Oilers in 1987. He was inducted as one of six charter members into the Titans Hall of Fame in 1999, although Campbell declined an invitation to the induction ceremony, stating, "I was a Houston Oiler, not a Tennessee Titan." In 1999, Campbell was ranked number 33 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 greatest football players, the highest-ranked player for the Houston Oilers franchise. In 2010, NFL Network ranked Campbell the 55th greatest player of all time in The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players, and he was ranked by the sportswriter Max Bertellotti of the Turner Sports Network as the number 3 "power back" of all time, behind Jim Brown and John Riggins. Campbell was honored at halftime against Ohio State on September 9, 2006, including the unveiling of a 9-foot (2.7 m) bronze statue of Campbell in the southwest corner of Royal-Memorial Stadium. The same year, he was featured on the cover of Dave Campbell's Texas Football'', an honor that eluded him during his playing days. In 2019, Campbell was one of twelve running backs selected to the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team. On January 13, 2020, Campbell was honored during the College Football Playoff National Championship for the 150th anniversary of college football. ESPN named him the 7th best college football player of all time. Campbell was declared an official State Hero in 1981 by the Texas legislature, an honor previously bestowed upon only Stephen F. Austin, Sam Houston and Davy Crockett. A section of roadway in Tyler, Texas extending from Loop 323 to SH155 was named the Earl Campbell Parkway at its opening in 2012. In 2013, the Earl Campbell Tyler Rose Award, an award given to the best offensive player in NCAA Division I with Texas ties, was named in Campbell's honor. ## Personal life While at the University of Texas, Campbell was a member of the honorary men's service organization, the Texas Cowboys. As of 2016, he still actively participates in University of Texas athletics, serving as special assistant to the football team. In 1990, Campbell founded Earl Campbell Meat Products, Inc. which manufactures and sells Earl Campbell's Smoked Sausage and other food products and barbecue sauce. Campbell and his associates also opened a restaurant in 1999 on Sixth Street in Austin called Earl Campbell's Lone Star BBQ, which closed in 2001. Campbell has two sons: Christian and Tyler. Christian played high school football with Drew Brees, the nephew of his father's former Longhorns teammate Marty Akins, at Westlake High and ran track for the University of Houston. Tyler was a running back for Pasadena City College and San Diego State but was forced to give up the sport due to multiple sclerosis (MS). He returned to Texas after graduation and divides his time between the family business and raising awareness of MS with his father. ### Health Campbell has experienced various physical ailments in his later life. By 2001, at age 46, Campbell could barely close his fist due to arthritis in his hands. He developed foot drop due to nerve damage in his legs, and has difficulty bending his back and knees. Campbell was diagnosed with spinal stenosis in 2009. Because of his difficulty walking, Campbell uses a cane or a walker, and a wheelchair for longer distances. At first, he maintained the ailments were genetic, but said in 2012, "I think some of it came from playing football, playing the way I did." In 2009, Campbell became addicted to painkillers prescribed for his spinal stenosis, taking as many as ten OxyContin pills a day with Budweiser. He went through rehabilitation and broke his addiction the same year, and since publicizing the incident in 2013, has spoken out about the dangers of substance abuse. ## See also - List of Texas Longhorns football All-Americans - List of NCAA major college football yearly rushing leaders - List of NCAA major college football yearly scoring leaders - List of first overall National Football League draft picks - List of Tennessee Titans first-round draft picks
35,905,090	Naayak	1,172,039,936	2013 film directed by V. V. Vinayak	[ "2010s Telugu-language films", "2010s masala films", "2013 films", "Fictional portrayals of the Andhra Pradesh Police", "Fictional portrayals of the West Bengal Police", "Films about lookalikes", "Films directed by V. V. Vinayak", "Films scored by Thaman S", "Films set in Hyderabad, India", "Films set in Kolkata", "Films set in Uttar Pradesh", "Films shot at Ramoji Film City", "Films shot in Hyderabad, India", "Films shot in Iceland", "Films shot in Kolkata", "Films shot in Slovenia", "Indian action comedy films", "Telugu films remade in other languages" ]	Naayak () is a 2013 Indian Telugu-language action thriller film directed by V. V. Vinayak who co-wrote the film with Akula Siva. The film was produced by DVV Danayya and presented by S. Radha Krishna under the banner Universal Media. The film stars Ram Charan, Amala Paul and Kajal Aggarwal in the supporting roles. S. Thaman composed the film's score and soundtrack. Chota K. Naidu was the cinematographer and Gautham Raju was the film's editor. Production began on 9 November 2011 and principal photography began on 7 February 2012. The film was extensively shot in Hyderabad and Kolkata, while a couple of the songs were shot in Dubai, Iceland, and Slovenia, making it as the first Indian film to be shot in Slovenia. Filming ended on 29 December 2012. Naayak was released on 9 January 2013 on 1589 screens worldwide, during the season of the Makara Sankranti, where it received generally positive reviews from critics and emerged as the fifth highest-grossing Telugu film of 2013. ## Plot Central Minister Rawat's brother Taxi Seth and his henchmen are killed by a person named Siddharth Naayak in order to save his friends. Rawat orders a CBI officer to catch the fugitive in order to have him executed. Meanwhile, Siddharth's doppelganger Charan alias "Cherry" works a software engineer in CgTrix, Hyderabad. Cherry's uncle Jilebi, who is the CEO of CgTrix, unexpectedly runs into trouble by angering the local gangster named Babji. Cherry saves Jilebi from Babji by manipulating him, where he becomes romantically interested in Babji's sister Madhu. After Cherry saves several children from a group of human traffickers led by Dassu, Madhu reciprocates his love. Meanwhile, Siddharth sneaks into the police headquarters and kills the DGP of West Bengal, with a gun, where the CBI officer confusingly believes that Cherry killed DGP, although Siddharth is the real culprit. With Jilebi, the CBI officer goes to Kumbh Mela in pursuit of Cherry. As Rawat is offering holy rituals, the CBI officer catches Cherry and holds him, but Siddharth stabs Rawat with a trishula. However, the CBI Officer attacks him with a taser and arrests him, thereby releasing Cherry. Later on the way back, Cherry learns about Siddharth's past. Past: Siddharth visits his sister's house in Kolkata after passing IIT in Delhi and lives with his sister, brother-in-law and fiancèe Nandini. Siddharth's brother-in-law, who is a doctor, attends a case of a minor who was injected with steroids by Rawat's second brother Badvel and then forced into prostitution. When Siddharth's brother-in-law complains to the police, he is unaware that the police officer is in cahoots with Badvel, who later kills him. Enraged in revenge, Siddharth kills Badvel and his men, where he becomes a public sensation overnight. One night, Rawat, Taxi Seth and their men tries to kill Siddharth, but Siddharth fights them and warns Rawat and Taxi Seth. Siddharth becomes the reigning leader of West Bengal and a terror to Rawat and the Kolkata underworld, where he also seizes Rawat's property and distributes it to the public. Enraged, Rawat kills the Minister, and frames on Siddharth, who gets stabbed and thrown into the Ganges. Rawat becomes the Central Minister within a week, while Siddharth survives and plans to finish Rawat. Present: After learning this, Cherry decides to help him and goes to the CBI prison where Siddharth is in custody. The two hatches a plan to get Siddharth exonerated. Siddharth and Cherry arrive at the court and both starts an argument, leading to some confusion. The judge orders the CBI to find out the real identities of the two persons within 10 days. During that time, Siddharth manages to bring Madhu and her family to Kolkata, thus uniting Cherry and Madhu. The next day, Rawat calls Siddarth to come to his place to save the kidnapped school children, but Cherry eavesdrops on the conversation and goes to Rawat's place ahead of Siddharth, where he is severely attacked by Rawat. Siddharth reaches the place after watching a MMS sent by Rawat, where he saves Cherry and finally kills Rawat, with a bomb. The case is dismissed due to lack of evidence, and Siddharth is acquiated. After this, Siddharth and Cherry unite with their respective lovers. ## Cast ## Production ### Development At the end of April 2011, V. V. Vinayak held story discussions for his next film, featuring Ram Charan as the protagonist and written by Akula Siva. By then, Vinayak was busy in giving final touches to his film Badrinath (2011), and Ram Charan was participating in the shooting of Racha (2012), directed by Sampath Nandi. After completing all of the promotional activities for Badrinath, Vinayak and Siva started working on the film's script in early July 2011. DVV Danayya was confirmed to produce the film under the banner Universal Media, and pre-production on the film was expected to be launched in August, followed by filming starting in September 2011. The film's script was approved by Ram Charan's father, and it was announced that actor Chiranjeevi would be part of the cast; Kona Venkat was brought in to assist with the film's screenplay. The project was confirmed in late October 2011. The film was officially launched on 9 November 2011, at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad. S. Thaman was announced as the music director, marking his first collaboration with both Vinayak and Charan; Chota K. Naidu and Gautham Raju were announced as the film's cinematographer and editor, respectively. The film's title was announced as Naayak, with the caption "The Leader", on 13 August 2012. Weeks before the film's release, a few Girijan students protested that the term "Naayak" referred to a certain tribal group, and they demanded a change of the title. While censoring the film, the Central Board of Film Certification looked into the group's objection about the title. They found that there was no derogatory reference to either the name Naayak or the caste of tribes, either visually or in the audio part of the film, and cleared the use of the title. ### Casting Kajal Aggarwal was considered for one of the two female leads in the film in early October 2011, later signing on to the film, which marked her second collaboration with Ram Charan after Magadheera (2009). Ram Charan confirmed that he would be seen in a dual role in the film. Hansika Motwani was rumoured as the second female lead, however this was denied by Danayya, who added that she was never considered for that role, and Kajal was the only actress who had been signed up until that point. In late February 2012, Amala Paul was selected as the second female lead, which she confirmed to Sify saying "Mynaa meets Magadheera". It was reported that Shruti Haasan would perform an item number in the film, which she later denied. Chiranjeevi and N. T. Rama Rao Jr. were rumoured to make cameo appearance in the film. Charmee Kaur confirmed in late December 2012 that she would perform an item number along with Ram Charan. Posani Krishna Murali and Jaya Prakash Reddy were seen in comic roles. ### Filming Principal photography began on 7 February 2012. By April 2012, the film was shot at various locales in Hyderabad. A few action sequences were shot at night, for which Ram Charan trained for several days; he performed several of the stunt sequences himself without using a body double. Filming was suspended for almost three weeks when Ram Charan was injured during filming Racha (2012). Vinayak intended to complete shooting Ram Charan's solo portions and then start the schedule with Kajal; Ram Charan and Amala Paul would take part in the final part of the planned schedule. The next portion of the schedule started in Dubai, where a song, "Laila O Laila", with Ram Charan and Kajal was shot. Ram Charan later said "It was a week before my wedding and I had just returned from my bachelor's party. I landed directly in Dubai to shoot the song. I had to wear shades to hide the fatigue" and added "I was told that I wouldn't need much rehearsals, but was zapped when I saw the choreographer take me through the routine. I was like 'can we please slow the beat or something?' I couldn't settle for anything less than the best and went ahead and completed the song in seven days." After its completion, some key scenes and songs were shot in Europe involving the three leads. Subsequent to the marriage ceremony, Ram Charan resumed his work on Naayak in late June 2012, after shooting for a Tata DoCoMo commercial. The song "Subhalekha Raasukunna" was shot in Iceland on 22 August 2012. It was originally planned to be shot using Ram Charan and Kajal, but it was filmed using Amala Paul instead, as Kajal had a scheduling conflict. After the completion of that song, two more songs were shot using Ram Charan and Kajal. After returning from Iceland, filming continued in the Old City in Hyderabad. On 7 October 2012, scenes featuring Ram Charan and Amala Paul were shot at the Cineplanet Multiplex near Kompally. The next part of the schedule started in Kolkata from 12 October 2012. Some action episodes involving Ram Charan, Dev Gill, and others, and a few continuity scenes were shot. An entire day was spent shooting a few action episodes with Ram Charan at Chhotelal Ghat near the Mullickghat flower market, since Vinayak insisted on perfection. This portion of the schedule ended on 22 October 2012. The team returned to Hyderabad and filming continued in a set erected at Sarathi Studios. By mid November 2012, a majority of the filming was complete, with final completion expected in December 2012. The last portion of the schedule began on 4 December 2012, during which the remaining climax action episodes scenes and a song were planned to be shot until 18 December 2012. Amala Paul joined the filming of the climax on 7 December 2012, after returning from the sets of Thalaivaa (2013). The song "Nellorae" was shot using Ram Charan and Charmee at Ramoji Film City on 24 December 2012, and after its completion, filming came to an end on 29 December 2012. The filming phase lasted for approximately 9 months, and the film was the first Indian film to be shot in Slovenia. Ram Charan completed his part of dubbing in late December 2012. ## Themes and influences The film features a protagonist in a dual role, revolving around their lifestyles and the circumstances when they meet. A reviewer from Sify felt that the film's script was inspired from V. V. Vinayak's previous works like Tagore (2003), Lakshmi (2006), Krishna (2008) and Adhurs (2009), as well as from S. S. Rajamouli's past works like Simhadri (2003) and Chhatrapati (2005) and S. Shankar's Tamil film Sivaji (2007). Akula Siva said that the dialogue in the film had a philosophical touch despite being humorous and added, "The hero is elevated on par with divinity in the introduction; such glorification is imperative, if the hero doesn't have that power and courage he cannot fight so many people". ## Music S. Thaman composed the film's soundtrack and background music, marking his first collaboration with both V. V. Vinayak and Ram Charan. In April 2012, it was reported that Thaman was composing the film's songs with a focus on romantic songs featuring the two female leads. The song "Subhalekha Rasukunna", originally composed by Ilaiyaraaja for the soundtrack of the 1990 Telugu film Kondaveeti Donga, was remixed for this film in mid-July 2012 without any alterations in the tune and lyrics written by Veturi. The lyrics of the remaining five songs were penned by Chandrabose, Bhaskarabhatla, and Sahithi. All the songs were arranged by Thaman and were recorded at Studio N.Y.S.A. in Mumbai and Studio T.A.A.L. in Hyderabad. Aditya Music acquired the audio rights for an undisclosed high price. The audio teasers were unveiled in mid-December 2012, and the official track list featuring six songs was unveiled on 14 December 2012. The film's soundtrack was launched on 17 December 2012, during a promotional event at Ramanaidu Studios. Pawan Kalyan attended the function as the chief guest along with the film's principal cast & crew. Oneindia Entertainment placed "Nellorae" in fourth place on the list of top 10 item numbers of the year in 2013. ## Release Naayak was planned to be released on 12 January 2013, coinciding with Sankranthi weekend. Later the film's release was rumoured to be delayed due to Danayya's financial hardships. There were reports that were rumoured with a new release date as 11 January 2013, It was later announced the new release date as 9 January 2013, denying the previous reports as rumours. The film was awarded an 'A' certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification on 4 January 2013. Six cuts were suggested by the board to delete politically charged dialogue, and few other lines that included the names of the Andhra Pradesh Governors, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. The board also requested a few words being altered in the song "Nellorae", and the display of a statutory warning on drinking and smoking wherever they occur in the film. The film was shown on 110 screens in Hyderabad, breaking the previous records set by Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu (2012) and Businessman (2012), which were released in 105 and 103 theatres, respectively. Universal Media, in association with Praneeth Media, released the film on more than 100 screens in the United States, including 70 digital prints and sixteen 35 mm prints, which was a first for a Telugu film in an overseas market. The makers said that the film would be released in more than 1200 theatres in Andhra Pradesh. ### Marketing On the eve of Valentine's Day, first look stills of the film were released to the media. A few stills featuring Ram Charan were unveiled on 18 August 2012, which featured him sporting a new look. Two first look posters, confirming the film's title and its spelling, were unveiled on 26 November 2012. The film's first teaser was unveiled on 14 December 2012. Allu Arjun and S. S. Rajamouli unveiled the trailers at Shilpakala Vedika during the soundtrack launch. ### Distribution By early November 2012, the film's trade came to an end in all areas except Guntur. Bharath Pictures acquired the film's Nellore distribution rights, while Shobu acquired the rights for the Ceded (Rayalaseema) area. Shakti Films acquired the theatrical rights for the Krishna District, and Siri Media obtained the film's Nizam region rights. V. Rao, Challa Shankar Rao and Tulasi Films acquired the screening rights in Visakhapatnam, East Godavari district, and West Godavari district. Abhirami Movies acquired the film's Tamil Nadu distribution rights. Errabus acquired the screening rights for the United Kingdom and Europe. Gayathri Films bought the Karnataka distribution rights for ₹41 million, the highest price offered for any Telugu film in Karnataka up to that time. Universal Media distributed the film in the United States. Producer Dil Raju acquired the film's distribution rights in the Nizam region in mid-December 2012. ### Dubbed versions The film was dubbed and released in Tamil and Malayalam under the same title and in Hindi as Double Attack (2014). ### Home media The satellite rights for the Hindi dubbed version were sold for a record price of ₹3.5 crore. Gemini TV paid an advance of ₹2.6 crore for the satellite rights of the original version, and fully acquired them after the film's release for an additional ₹7.5 crore. The DVD and Blu-ray were marketed by Sri Balaji Videos and were released on 3 April 2013. ## Reception ### Box office Naayak grossed ₹34 crore at the worldwide box office on its opening day, and ₹26 crore on its second day, taking its two-day total to ₹60 crore. The film collected a total of ₹29.5 crore in its first week. As of late April 2014, the film stood in fifth place of the top 10 Telugu films with the highest first week gross. In its second week of release, the film's gross suffered due to the competition from the release of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu, slipping to the second spot in the charts. It witnessed more than a 50% drop in its business, collecting approximately ₹8 crore during the second weekend, and a total of ₹45 crore in 10 days. By the end of its second week, the film had added approximately ₹5.5 crore, for a 16-day total of ₹50.5 crore net. The film grossed ₹60 crore in its lifetime worldwide, and became the third most successful film of 2013, after Attarintiki Daredi and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu. Its distributor share of ₹46.5 crore made it Ram Charan's third film to cross the ₹40 crore mark. It was fifth on the list of top 10 all-time highest-grossing movies at the Andhra Pradesh box office, as of November 2013. It also ranked tenth on the list of top 20 hit Telugu movies of all time at the box office, as of May 2014. #### India The film averaged 90% occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes in India on its opening day, collecting ₹8.55 crore at the Andhra Pradesh box office and ₹2.7 crore throughout the rest of India. With an average of 66% across the globe, it collected ₹13.49 crore at the Andhra Pradesh box office, and ₹3.55 crore in the rest of India on its second day. In six days, it collected a total ₹23.46 crore net at Andhra Pradesh box office, and ₹2.5 crore in the rest of India. The film completed a successful 50-day run in several centres across Andhra Pradesh on 27 February 2013. The film collected a distributor share of ₹38.95 crore net at Andhra Pradesh box office in its lifetime, placing it sixth on the list of all-time highest grossing Telugu films, as of November 2013. #### Overseas The film collected ₹45 lakh in overseas receipts on its opening day, which increased to ₹65 lakh on its second day. However, the film's trade was severely affected by Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu, dropping 70% at the overseas box office, with a three-day total of ₹92 lakh, compared to Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3 day opening day total of ₹1.13 crore. The film collected ₹2.11 crore in six days at the overseas box office. The film did good business by the end of its second weekend at the USA box office, ranking third in the charts by collecting ₹2.53 crore, despite of the adverse effect of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu which was in first place. Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola stood in second place, although its per screen average was lower than that of Naayak. The film suffered a big setback after the release of Race 2 and Vishwaroopam, dropping to sixth place while collecting ₹2.65 crore in 23 days. ### Critical response The film received mixed reviews from critics. Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu wrote, "... the writing is humorous, lively and consistent. What more, the film works mainly on its dialogues and a brisk screenplay and has all the potential to rake in moolah at the box office," and added, "Vinayak, having read the pulse well, comes out with Naayak that is a throwback to many of his earlier films but with correct dose of humour added, to cover the flaws. By the time you sense something wrong, he cleverly comes up with another funny scene. This way the film progresses and winds up before it gets too heavy, and voila there are smiles everywhere". Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis wrote, "We’ll say that even if the film is about the age-old formula of the hero bashing the bad guys and coming up trumps, Naayak is an entertaining film that you won’t regret watching," and rated the film 3.5 out of 5. AS Sashidhar of The Times of India termed the film a "pot boiling paisa vasool entertainer" and rated the film 3.5 out of 5. Oneindia Entertainment stated, "V. V. Vinayak may not have given a great screenplay, but he has had a high entertainment quotient with his narration. His mass appearance has doubled up Ram Charan's performance. Naayak is a perfect Sankranthi entertainer," and rated the film 3 out of 5. Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com wrote, "The first half of the film moves at a breezy pace while the interval brings in the twist. In the second half there's mostly stomach-churning violence which is pretty repulsive. Technically the film is top-notch. V V Vinayak delivers a hardcore commercial entertainer for the festival. If you can watch Naayak without analysing it, you will find it fun," and rated the film 3 out of 5. IndiaGlitz summarised, "Vinayak proves to be a director who knows how to play gimmicks with a formula story in hand and a narration baptized in masala. Naayak is for all those who love to watch an entertainer filled with doses of heroism and comedy, and also good music," and added that the film is "commercial to the hilt". In contrast, a reviewer from Sify stated, "Director V V Vinayak, has chosen a routine story which has nothing new to offer. He chose a simple story and weaved an entertaining screenplay around it. Vinayak concentrated more on the presentation of the movie rather than the subject. The story and screenplay is predictable after the interesting interval bang" and called the film "Average". Another reviewer from Sify rated the film 3 out of 5 and stated, "Nayak, a regular commercial potboiler, starts off as a regular mass movie and ends up the same way. Nayak team should have concentrated on the story more. A rehashed film that can be watched once". B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle wrote, "Even though Ram Charan impresses in the role of a brooding young IT employee who is determined to smash evil forces, the final outcome is more comic than serious. Vinayak tends to repackage scenes from his earlier movies. Akula Siva pens strong punch lines to enthral Ram Charan fans". ## Accolades
27,540,353	Shelby Corcoran	1,171,417,220	Fictional character from the Fox series Glee	[ "American female characters in television", "Fictional directors", "Fictional schoolteachers", "Fictional singers", "Glee (TV series) characters", "Television characters introduced in 2010" ]	Shelby Corcoran is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy-drama series Glee. Portrayed by actress Idina Menzel, Shelby was introduced in the fourteenth episode of the show as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline, a rival show choir to New Directions, the show's primary musical group. Fans had lobbied for Menzel to be cast as Rachel Berry's (Lea Michele) biological mother, due to the strong physical resemblance between Menzel and Michele. After it is revealed that Shelby is, in fact, Rachel's biological mother, Shelby discloses that she had signed a contract that stated that she could not seek out her daughter until she was eighteen. She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter, they should just be grateful that they have met, and maintain a distance. In the season one finale, Shelby adopts Quinn and Puck's newborn daughter, Beth. She leaves Vocal Adrenaline before the beginning of the next school year. Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season, having been recruited to lead a second glee club at McKinley High by Sugar Motta's father when Sugar is refused entry into New Directions. Shelby offers to include both Quinn and Puck in Beth's life. Struggling at being a mother, she forms a romantic bond with eighteen-year-old student Puck, leading to a sexual relationship before she tells him that their relationship is a mistake and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode. While Menzel's musical performances on the show have been lauded, Shelby's storylines were characterized as rushed, incomprehensible and polarizing by contemporary reviewers. ## Storylines Shelby Corcoran is introduced in the fourteenth episode of the series as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline, a rival show choir to New Directions, the show's primary musical group. New Directions' director, Will (Matthew Morrison), on a visit to Carmel High School, meets Shelby and they end up at his apartment making out, but Will is unable to continue and tells her about his relationship problems. Shelby suggests that as Will had been with Terri (Jessalyn Gilsig) since he was fifteen and has immediately moved on to a new relationship, he ought to take some time out for himself. She later observes as New Directions' star singer, Rachel Berry (Lea Michele), and Vocal Adrenaline's Jesse St. James (Jonathan Groff) kiss, and exchanges knowing looks with Jesse. In "Dream On", Rachel confides in Jesse of her lifelong dream to discover the identity of her mother. While they are searching through boxes of records from her basement, Jesse takes a cassette tape from his jacket and pretends that it came from the box. The tape is labeled as a message from mother to daughter. Rachel refuses to listen to the tape, stating that she is not ready. Jesse later meets with Shelby, who reveals that she is Rachel's biological mother and surrogate, but a contractual agreement with Rachel's two fathers prevents her from meeting with Rachel until she is 18. She implores Jesse to convince Rachel to listen to the tape. Back at Rachel's house, Jesse starts the tape playing as Rachel enters her bedroom, then leaves her to listen to it. On the tape, Shelby sings "I Dreamed a Dream", leading to a duet with Rachel in a dream sequence, ending with Rachel back in her room in tears. While subsequently spying on a Vocal Adrenaline rehearsal, Rachel realizes that Shelby is her biological mother. After Shelby and Rachel meet, Will meets with Shelby, concerned that she is not as invested in forging a relationship as Rachel is. Shelby confesses that she can no longer have children, but wishes she could have her baby back, rather than the now fully grown Rachel, whom she feels does not need her. She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter, they should just be grateful that they have met, and maintain their distance. Rachel hugs her goodbye, and they duet on an acoustic version of "Poker Face". In "Journey to Regionals", the show's first-season finale, Rachel asks Shelby to help coach New Directions, but Shelby tells Rachel that she's tired of coaching glee clubs, and is stepping down as Vocal Adrenaline's coach to settle down and start a family. Shelby adopts Quinn's (Dianna Agron) baby, whom she names Beth at Puck's (Mark Salling) request. Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season, "I Am Unicorn", having been headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta's (Vanessa Lengies) wealthy and doting father. Shelby reaches out to Rachel, Puck and Quinn. She lets Puck see Beth, but rejects Quinn's desire to do likewise due to Quinn's bad-girl attitude, appearance and behavior. Quinn quickly resumes her normal appearance, but reveals to Puck she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby, and intends to pursue full custody. After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn's true intentions, Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth's life. Shelby tells Puck that she is struggling at being a mother; as the episode ends, they kiss. Puck falls in love with her, but Shelby tells him in "Mash Off" that the kiss was a mistake. She compounds the mistake in "I Kissed a Girl" when she sleeps with him, and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode, "Hold On to Sixteen". In the season four "Sweet Dreams" episode, which establishes that she is living in New York with Beth and is running a day care business, she tells Rachel to be original in her choice of music at her audition for the role of Fanny Brice in the upcoming Broadway revival of Funny Girl. ## Development During its initial run of episodes, Glee fans lobbied for the Broadway actress (Idina Menzel) to be cast as the biological mother of Rachel Berry, due to the strong resemblance between her and Michele. Series creator Ryan Murphy commented to the media that he had met with Menzel, by December 2009, the break in the first season, but had not yet decided upon a role for her. The actress was ultimately cast as the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline, with Murphy comparing her character to Faye Dunaway's character, Diana Christensen, in Network. Menzel makes her first appearance in "Hell-O". On July 15, 2011, it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season "for a major arc that could span as many as 10-12 episodes". Murphy was quoted as saying, "I'm really excited [...] that Idina is joining the family again. We missed her last year and we're happy that she is coming back." The article also noted that her character, Shelby, would be "returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher". Menzel herself said that she would "be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season", which she was "very excited about". ## Critical reception Upon the character's introduction, Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that she was "praying" that Shelby would turn out to be Rachel's biological mother, noting the stark resemblance between the two actresses. The A.V. Club author Emily VanDerWerff deemed the make-out sequence between Shelby and Will nonsensical, but wrote that Menzel brought "such an air of authority to what she's doing that the scene still plays." The revelation that Shelby is Rachel's biological mother, in the "Dream On" episode, was greeted as poignant and realistic by VanDerWeff, and as "great" and humanizing by Entertainment Weekly's Tim Stack. Respers France was so impressed with the storyline that she was initially concerned it may be a dream sequence, and Eric Goldman of IGN found it the episode's strongest attribute. Both James Poniewozik of Time and VanDerWerff praised the Rachel/Shelby storyline in "Theatricality". The former commended Michele and Menzel for conveying "straight emotion" and the latter asserted that the storyline was "very well-handled, another emotional story that the series is mostly nailing the execution of". In contrast, BuddyTV editor Henrik Batallones criticized the storyline, suggesting that it was rushed and would have been better stretched out across the remainder of the season. VanDerWerff wrote that he did not "completely buy" Shelby's "sudden" decision to adopt Beth in "Journey to Regionals". Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News dismissed the fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley as "mind-bogglingly idiotic". Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times found the idea incomprehensible, and Vanity Fair's Brett Berk wrote, "Given Will's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker's dozen, this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University." Vicki Hyman of The Star-Ledger characterized the notion of "Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up" to take a part-time job in Lima as "ridiculous", and the whole scenario as "more than a little bizarre". Puck and Shelby's kiss in the "Pot o' Gold" episode was characterized as "creepy" and "super awkward" by AOLTV's Crystal Bell, as either "super creepy" or "romantic" by BuddyTV's John Kubicek, and as "groan-inducing" in the "You're actually going to go there?" vein by IGN journalist Robert Canning. Critics were polarized by Puck and Shelby's sexual encounter in the "I Kissed a Girl" episode. Kubicek declared that "the dumbest storyline Glee has ever done gets even dumber," MTV contributor Kevin Sullivan called it "the most divisive plot line of the season", and Bell asked, "Instead of these super creepy scenes between Puck and Shelby, can we please get more screen time for Shelby and Rachel?" ## Musical performances Michele and Menzel's "I Dreamed a Dream" duet attracted critical praise. Aly Semigran of MTV proclaimed that the performance represented "what musical theater lovers' dreams are made of." At the time, Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the number as one of the most poignant duets the series had done, and concluded that "the vulnerability they conveyed is stunning in its simplicity and perfection." Respers France said that the two outdid themselves, Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle praised Menzel's "awesome voice", and Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Menzel and Michele together? Singing? Die with me. Again, soundtrack please". VanDerWerff spoke of "absolute perfection", while Blair Baldwin of Zap2it acclaimed it as "an ideal pairing of wicked-great vocalists," and as the show's best musical sequence since its inception. The acoustic performance of Lady Gaga's "Poker Face", in the "Theatricality" episode, sung by Rachel and Shelby was met with mixed reviews. Menzel opined that the sexual meaning of the song is different in the context of the show, calling it "actually very simple and truthful." Both Mary Hanrahan of Broadway World and Kevin Coll of Fused Film noted that it was well done, but badly matched with the mother–daughter scene and storyline. Despite considering the track's lyricism "a tad weird" in a mother–daughter context, Stack gave the performance an "A+", named it one of his "all-time favorite Glee moments", and called their vocal performance "incredible", as did Hankinson, who additionally applauded the duet's "beautiful" arrangement and favored it as the installment's best musical number. VanDerWeff said the "incredibly bizarre" selection "worked because Menzel and Michele sold it". The duet of "Somewhere", in the "I Am Unicorn" episode, featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented. Both Anthony Benigno, writing for The Faster Times, and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet, "Poker Face", from season one. Benigno gave the performance a "B+", while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an "A−" and praised their "powerful, evocative voices". Rolling Stone's Erica Futterman was not impressed and characterized it as "Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way", and Amy Lee of The Huffington Post named it "pretty bland". Flandez, however, hailed the duet as "pitch-perfect" and "so sublime it makes you catch your breath". The mash-up of "You and I" by Lady Gaga and another "You and I" by Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle, in the "Mash Off" episode, performed by Menzel and Morrison was well received by critics. Berk said that the mash-up "almost worked", while Los Angeles Times writer L'Oreal Thompson praised the vocals of Menzel: "It's official. Shelby sings Gaga as good as, if not better than, Gaga sings Gaga." Slezak awarded the performance a "B" grade, and opined: "I loved the audacity of mashing up Lady Gaga with an Eddie Rabbit–Crystal Gayle chestnut, and the results had the sheen of '70s a.m. radio fare. Shelby's voice was almost too crystal clear for the Gaga half of the composition." Futterman said that Menzel "can kill a Gaga ballad", and while she "outshines" Morrison, he "complements her nicely". Entertainment Weekly journalist Abby West gave the mash-up a "B+", called it "really well-done" and said it was "elevated" by Menzel's voice. Sullivan wanted Menzel to interpret more songs by Lady Gaga. Votta, however, described the sequence as "horrendous".
68,479	Eurovision Song Contest 1959	1,170,847,933	International song competition	[ "1959 in France", "1959 in music", "Eurovision Song Contest 1959", "Eurovision Song Contest by year", "Events in Cannes", "March 1959 events in Europe", "Music festivals in France" ]	The Eurovision Song Contest 1959 was the fourth edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest, held on Wednesday 11 March 1959 at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès in Cannes, France, and hosted by French television presenter Jacqueline Joubert. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF), the contest, originally known as the Grand Prix Eurovision de la Chanson Européenne 1959 (EEnglish: Grand Prix of the Eurovision Song Contest 1959), was held in France following the country's victory at the with the song "Dors, mon amour", performed by André Claveau. In total eleven countries participated in the contest, with making its first appearance and the returning after their absence the previous year. , however, decided not to participate after competing in all former editions. The winner was the with the song "Een beetje", performed by Teddy Scholten, composed by Dick Schallies and written by Willy van Hemert. This was the Netherlands' second victory in the contest, having also won in , and also marked the first time a country had won the contest more than once. Van Hemert also became the first individual to win twice, having also written the first Dutch winning song from 1957, "Net als toen". The United Kingdom placed second, marking the first of a record sixteen times that the country would go on to finish as contest runners-up, while placed third. ## Location The event took place in Cannes, France, following the nation's victory at the in Hilversum, Netherlands, with the song "Dors, mon amour", performed by André Claveau. The selected venue was the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès, built in 1949 to host the Cannes Film Festival and located on the Promenade de la Croisette along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the growth in the film festival a new building bearing the same name was opened in 1982, with the original building renamed as the Palais Croisette. A garden space with plants from Southern France was installed in front of the building for the contest, and the flags of the participating nations were raised on the roof. The audience comprised 1500 invited guests. This marked the second occasion in which the previous year's winning country organised the event, and the first time in which the winning country was given first choice at hosting the following year's event, as the rights to host the 1958 contest were only awarded to the Netherlands after all other countries declined. ## Participating countries A total of eleven countries competed in the contest, with making its first appearance and the returning after a one year absence. The United Kingdom's absence from the 1958 contest is generally reported to have been due to the country's poor result in 1957, but their return coincided with the international success of "Nel blu, dipinto di blu", the Italian entry from the previous year's contest, and the appointment of Eric Maschwitz as Head of Light Entertainment at the BBC. Beginning with this event the United Kingdom holds the record for the longest string of consecutive appearances in the Eurovision Song Contest, appearing in every subsequent contest final as of 2023. was absent from the event, having participated in all previous contests, and appears to have decided against participating late in the preparations for the contest as the country was listed among the participants in several radio and television listings. Among this year's participants, two artists had previously competed in the contest. Birthe Wilke had placed third for in the , performing "Skibet skal sejle i nat" alongside Gustav Winckler, and Domenico Modugno had placed third for in the with "Nel blu, dipinto di blu". ## Production The contest was organised and broadcast by the French public broadcaster Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF), with Marcel Cravenne [fr] serving as director and Franck Pourcel serving as musical director. Each country was allowed to nominate their own musical director to lead the orchestra during the performance of their country's entry, with the host musical director also conducting for those countries which did not nominate their own conductor. The stage constructed for the event was designed by Gérard Dubois. Its design was inspired by the era of Louis XIV. The stage featured three revolving platforms, each of which was segmented into four, similar to a revolving door, to include various backdrops. These backdrops were specific to each of the participating countries and featured scenery or objects associated with that country. A few days prior to the contest, hotel and shop owners in Cannes complained that the contest was covered and advertised too sparsely by RTF and subsequently feared that too few tourists would come to Cannes. In contrast, the Cannes Comité des Fêtes, which was involved in the organisation of the contest, believed that the broadcast of images from Cannes to many European households would have a significant impact on tourism in the weeks to follow. ## Format As in the 1957 and 1958 contests, each country, participating through a single EBU member broadcaster, was represented by one song performed by up to two people on stage. The results of the event were determined through jury voting, with each country's jury containing ten individuals who each gave one vote to their favourite song, with no abstentions allowed and with jurors unable to vote for their own country. One rule change implemented for this contest specified that individuals employed in the music industry were no longer allowed to be included among the national juries. The draw to determine the running order took place on 9 March 1959. ## Contest overview The contest was held on 11 March 1959, beginning at 21:00 CET (20:00 UTC) and lasted 1 hour and 12 minutes. The event was hosted by French television presenter Jacqueline Joubert. The prelude of Charpentier's "Te Deum", the theme music of Eurovision broadcasts, was played as opening act by the orchestra under the direction of Franck Pourcel. The winner was the represented by the song "Een beetje", composed by Dick Schallies [nl], written by Willy van Hemert and performed by Teddy Scholten. The Netherlands became the first country to achieve two victories in the event, and Van Hemert became the first individual to win the contest twice, after previously providing lyrics for the Netherlands' winner in 1957, "Net als toen". The United Kingdom's result was the first of sixteen British entries to finish in second place, a contest record as of 2023. Alongside the traditional reprise performance of the winning song, the second- and third-placed songs were also performed again, for the first and only time at the contest. After the show, a supper for the participating delegations was held on behalf of the city of Cannes at the Salon des Ambassadeurs of the Casino municipal [fr]. Initially, the prize of the contest taking the form of an engraved medallion was to be handed over solemnly during that supper but instead was presented by RTF's director of programming Jean d'Arcy [fr] to Teddy Scholten at the end of the show. ### Spokespersons Each country nominated a spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country via telephone. Known spokespersons at the 1959 contest are listed below. - – Siebe van der Zee [nl] - – Roland Eiworth [sv] ## Detailed voting results The announcement of the results from each country was conducted in reverse order to that which each country performed. ## Broadcasts Each participating broadcaster was required to relay the contest via its television network. No official accounts of the viewing figures are known to exist. An estimate given in the press was at least 20 million viewers. Broadcasters were able to send commentators to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language and to relay information about the artists and songs to their television viewers. Twelve commentator boxes were installed on the balconies of the auditorium. Known details on the broadcasts in each country, including the specific broadcasting stations and commentators are shown in the table below.
2,722,565	Brodie Croyle	1,173,706,518	American football player (born 1983)	[ "1983 births", "Alabama Crimson Tide football players", "American football quarterbacks", "Arizona Cardinals players", "Kansas City Chiefs players", "Living people", "People from Etowah County, Alabama", "Players of American football from Alabama" ]	John Brodie Croyle (/krɔɪl/; born February 6, 1983) is a former American football quarterback. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL) in the third round of the 2006 NFL Draft. He played college football for the University of Alabama from 2002 to 2005. Despite being hindered by knee injuries in his senior season in high school, Croyle was a highly recruited prospect by Louisiana State University, Florida State University, and the University of Alabama. On the night Croyle was ready to announce his decision to attend Florida State, he changed his mind and chose Alabama, his father's alma mater, instead. In Croyle's four years playing for the Alabama Crimson Tide football team, he set numerous school records, and was a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award. Croyle led the Crimson Tide to the 2006 Cotton Bowl Classic and was named the game's offensive MVP. Though he saw little playing time in his rookie season in the NFL, Croyle shared the starting position with Damon Huard in 2007. On November 18, Croyle started his first game, as the Chiefs' quarterback, against the Indianapolis Colts. Croyle remained the Chiefs' starting quarterback for the remainder of the season despite losing all six games that he started. He was the incumbent starter heading into the 2008 regular season, but suffered a shoulder injury in the Chiefs' first game. Croyle returned in Week 7 but suffered a torn MCL and was ruled out for the remainder of the season. Croyle began the 2009 season once again as the Chiefs' starting quarterback, filling in for an injured Matt Cassel. Croyle was released by the Chiefs in 2011 and later signed with the Arizona Cardinals. On May 21, 2012, he announced his retirement. Croyle is the only quarterback in Chiefs franchise history to start at least three games as a quarterback and not win a single game. He is also one of only 4 quarterbacks since 1960 (when starts first were tracked) to start at least 10 games in their career and not win a single game. He has the fewest passing yards and touchdowns in franchise history among quarterbacks with 10 or more starts. In 2015 he was named by FanSided as the 2nd worst quarterback in Chiefs franchise history. ## Early years The son of John Croyle, a former defensive end for the University of Alabama, Croyle was born on February 6, 1983. He attended high school at Westbrook Christian School in Rainbow City, Alabama and became a Super-Prep All-American selection in football. In his sophomore season, Croyle passed for 3,787 yards and 44 touchdowns. That same season, he passed for 528 yards and seven touchdowns in one game. Croyle had an equally successful junior year passing for 2,838 yards and 38 touchdowns. Croyle led his team to the state championship that year, but the team lost by a field goal. Entering his senior year, many scouts had Croyle ranked as high as the \#2 quarterback in the country behind Joe Mauer, who would go on to play Major League Baseball. However, Croyle's high school career ended abruptly in the first game of his senior season against Glencoe High School after a hit by an opposing player tore Croyle's anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), causing him to miss the remainder of his senior year. When he graduated, he held the Alabama state records for career passing yards with 9,323, and career touchdowns with 105. He set marks for most passing yards in a single season, passing yards in a single game, touchdown passes in a season, and touchdown passes in a game. ## College career Despite the knee injury, Croyle received interest from members the Southeastern Conference and the Atlantic Coast Conference, including Louisiana State and Florida State. Croyle showed interest in playing for Florida State due in part because of the team's offensive coordinator, Mark Richt. Croyle initially showed little interest in playing for Alabama after their head coach, Mike DuBose had recently been fired, but once Richt took the head coaching job with the Georgia Bulldogs, Croyle followed in his father's footsteps. On the night before he was to announce his college decision to play for Florida State, Croyle announced that he would instead play for the Alabama Crimson Tide. The Crimson Tide were not fazed by Croyle’s rather serious ligament tear, for they felt he would heal well enough that his talent still warranted a spot on the roster. Croyle graduated early from high school and enrolled at the University of Alabama in January 2001. After red-shirting his freshman year at Alabama, Croyle earned a spot as the top backup in his second season behind senior starter Tyler Watts. Croyle's coaches voted for him as the Ozzie Newsome Most Improved Freshman after starting two games in 2002. After the 2002 season, Alabama head coach Dennis Franchione resigned to take the same position at Texas A&M. Washington State head coach Mike Price was hired to replace Franchione in January 2003. Coach Price mentored Croyle throughout the 2003 spring drills and practice but was dismissed from the head coach position in May 2003 for his conduct off the field. Soon after, Mike Shula, quarterback coach for the Miami Dolphins and former quarterback of the Crimson Tide, was named head coach at Alabama. Croyle, now with his third head coach in as many years, had only a few weeks to prepare and practice under coach Shula's system. Despite starting all 11 games in 2003 as a sophomore, Croyle suffered a separated shoulder before half time of the fifth game. Croyle would start the next game against Georgia only to re-aggravate the injury, but still only sat out one game that season, and did not reveal to the public he had suffered from two cracked ribs. The Crimson Tide's 2003 season ended with a record of 4–9. He was subsequently named the Dixie Memorial Award winner as the club’s MVP and won the Derrick Thomas Community Award. His 341 pass attempts on the season were the highest seasonal total in Crimson Tide history while his 16 touchdown passes tied the single-season mark. Croyle started the 2004 season hoping to help his team improve on their last season's record of 4–9. Croyle started three games, completing 44-of-66 passes for 534 yards with six touchdowns. But during the third game of the season against Western Carolina University, Croyle tore his anterior cruciate ligament in his other knee. Croyle was forced to sit out the rest of the season, and the team finished with a 6–6 record. Undaunted, he fully recovered from the injury in 2005 and started all 12 games as a senior; completing 202 of 339 passes for 2,499 yards with 14 touchdowns and four interceptions and one rushing touchdown. Croyle was sacked eleven times in a loss to Auburn. Croyle led the Crimson Tide to a \#8 national ranking, a 10–2 record, and a 13–10 victory over Texas Tech in the Cotton Bowl Classic, where he shared the game's Most Valuable Player honors with teammate DeMeco Ryans. In his final season at Alabama, Croyle attempted a then-school-record 190 passes without an interception and a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the nation’s most outstanding senior quarterback. He became the first Alabama quarterback to start every game in a season since 1996. In the 2005 Iron Bowl, he was sacked 11 times, a series record. Croyle's 2,499 passing yards in 2005 were the highest single-season total in Alabama's school history. His total 202 completions and 339 passing attempts rank as the second-best seasonal marks in school history. His 2,311 yards of total offense were the third-best seasonal mark in the history of the school, and his 1.18 interception percentage was the lowest single-season mark in school history as well. ### College ## Professional career On April 29, 2006, the Kansas City Chiefs drafted Croyle in the third round of the 2006 NFL Draft as the 85th overall selection. He signed a four-year contract on July 28. Croyle's reputation for being injury prone caused him to drop into the third round of the draft. ### Kansas City Chiefs #### 2006 season Croyle played in only two games and saw few snaps in his rookie season. He completed 3-of-7 passes for 23 yards including two interceptions. One of those interceptions was returned by Pittsburgh Steelers safety Rian Wallace for a touchdown. #### 2007 season In April 2007, nearly a year after Croyle was drafted, Chiefs starting quarterback Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins. In the months prior to the trade agreement, Green had stated that he was being treated unfairly on and off the field and that the pre-season quarterback competition was "weighted" towards Croyle. Head coach Herman Edwards, who was emphasizing a "youth movement" on the team's roster at the time, voiced his displeasure with Green's outspoken comments and simply said that he was "trying to create competition." Edwards indicated throughout the off-season that the Chiefs' starting quarterback position was up for grabs. Throughout the offseason, Croyle was given every opportunity to win the starting job over Damon Huard. Against the New Orleans Saints while Huard sat out with a calf injury, Croyle completed only 5 of 17 passes for 45 yards as the Chiefs lost 30–7 and dropped to 0–3 in exhibition. but poor play in the pre-season led to Huard being named the Chiefs' starting quarterback for the season opener against the Houston Texans. On October 7, in a regular season home game against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Huard was injured in the fourth quarter. Croyle threw six completions in thirteen attempts over the remainder of the game and threw his first NFL touchdown pass on the final play of regulation to Samie Parker in the 17–7 loss. The touchdown helped Kansas City avoid its first shut-out loss at home since 1994. Croyle's last-minute drive made him 6-for-13 for 83 yards and one touchdown. On November 11, Croyle again substituted for an injured Huard in the final half of a 27–11 loss to the Denver Broncos. Croyle finished the game 17-for-30 for 162 yards, with one interception, in the loss that dropped Kansas City to 4–5 on the year. The following day, Croyle was named the starting quarterback for the Chiefs' upcoming game against the Indianapolis Colts, and made his first start on November 18 at the RCA Dome in a 13–10 loss. Croyle was the first quarterback drafted by Kansas City to start a game for the Chiefs since Todd Blackledge started a game in 1984. Croyle was 19-of-27 for 169 yards with one touchdown, but he lost a fumble that set up Adam Vinatieri's game-winning field goal. Croyle started his first home game at Arrowhead Stadium on November 25 against the Oakland Raiders, but injured his back in the 20–17 loss. The injury sidelined Croyle for the following week's game against the San Diego Chargers, and Damon Huard started in Croyle's place. The injured quarterbacks continued to rotate playing time, and Croyle was again declared the starter for Kansas City's game against the Denver Broncos on December 9. The plan, barring injury, was for Croyle to start the remaining games of the 2007 season, so that coach Herm Edwards and his staff could better evaluate him moving forward into 2008. However, Croyle bruised his hand while trying to stop a defender from running an interception in for a touchdown and Damon Huard, who was the only active quarterback on the Chiefs' roster besides Croyle, filled in for the remainder of the game. In the final game of the season, Croyle led the Chiefs to a 10–10 tie with the New York Jets with just three minutes remaining. However, the Chiefs lost 13–10 with a Jets field goal in overtime. Croyle would finish the game 20-of-43 for 195 yards. Croyle lost all six games that he started for the Chiefs in the 2007 season. Despite his poor performance as a starter, Croyle's statistics were considered to be hard to evaluate. #### 2008 season Croyle entered the 2008 season as the Chiefs' starting quarterback. During the season opener against the New England Patriots on September 7, Croyle left the game in the third quarter with a bruised shoulder after being sacked by linebacker Adalius Thomas. Prior to the injury, Croyle completed 11 out of 19 with no touchdowns or interceptions. Two days after the game, the Chiefs signed quarterback Ingle Martin off the Tennessee Titans' practice squad to back up Damon Huard and Tyler Thigpen in Croyle's absence. In Croyle's absence, Damon Huard started the Chiefs' game against the Oakland Raiders the following week. Huard suffered a neck injury, so Tyler Thigpen became the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games. After missing four games, Croyle returned to start against the Tennessee Titans in Week 7. He was injured on Kansas City's 14th play when he was sandwiched between two rushing defenders while throwing a pass early in the second quarter. He limped off the field. He slammed his helmet to the turf once he reached the sideline, then hobbled down a tunnel. After the game, Chiefs head coach Herman Edwards announced that Croyle would miss the remainder of the 2008 season. #### 2009 season After the Chiefs acquired quarterback Matt Cassel from the New England Patriots, Croyle entered training camp competing against Tyler Thigpen for a roster spot as backup quarterback. The first depth chart in training camp listed Croyle as the second quarterback ahead of Thigpen. Croyle entered the Chiefs' first preseason game of 2009 (against the Houston Texans) as the second quarterback and finished as the team's leading passer (12-of-18 for 145 yards) and looked poised throughout the evening to post a 91.2 quarterback rating. The Chiefs would go on to lose the game 16–10. After quarterback Matt Cassel was injured on August 29 against the Seattle Seahawks, Croyle started the final game of the preseason against the St. Louis Rams. Croyle played the entire game at quarterback for the Chiefs' regular season opener against the Baltimore Ravens when Cassel was still unable to play. Despite completing 16-of-24 passes for 177 yards and two touchdowns, the Chiefs lost to the Ravens 38–24. However, the following week, Cassel became the starter again against the Oakland Raiders in Week 2. ### Arizona Cardinals #### 2011 season After leaving the Chiefs as a free agent, Croyle signed with the Arizona Cardinals on August 23, 2011. He was waived by the team on September 2, 2011. #### 2012 season On January 8, 2012, Croyle was signed by the Arizona Cardinals. ### Retirement On May 21, 2012, Croyle announced his retirement from the NFL. ## Personal life Croyle became the Executive Director for Big Oak Boys Ranch in Ohatchee, AL. and Big Oak Girls Ranch in Springville, AL. after his father, John Croyle, retired. A Brodie lived on the Boys Ranch from the time of his birth until he became a freshman at The University of Alabama. Since taking over for his father, Croyle has been successful in the growth of Big Oak Ranch and ensuring the children grow up in a safe, Christian environment. and at the Drumm Farm in Independence, Missouri, a facility that provides foster children with a safe and stable home. Croyle serves as a spokesperson for Johnson County Court Appointed Special Advocate. On July 14, 2007 Croyle married Kelli Schutz, the 2005 winner of the America's Junior Miss competition. The couple met in Mobile, Alabama in 2006, while Croyle was preparing for the Senior Bowl. ## NFL career statistics
74,382,056	Blockchain Chicken Farm	1,173,903,582	2020 book by Xiaowei Wang	[ "2020 non-fiction books", "Books about China", "Industry in China" ]	Blockchain Chicken Farm: And Other Stories of Tech in China's Countryside is a 2020 non-fiction book by Xiaowei Wang, a Chinese-American artist, writer, and software engineer. The book explores the impact of technology on rural China, especially in relation to agriculture and food safety. It consists of several vignettes that illustrate how technology is used and adapted in rural China, both by individuals and by urban corporations, and how this impacts global society. Over the course of the book, Wang travels across China to visit places such as a "blockchain chicken farm" where chickens are tracked by QR codes to certify their free range status, a pearl farming village that exports pearls to US-based multi-level marketing companies, and a Halloween costume factory run by the e-commerce giant Taobao based in a small town. Wang conducted their research over the late 2010s, motivated by the desire to address their own biases in favour of urban areas. Blockchain Chicken Farm was published by FSG Originals x Logic, a collaboration between Farrar, Straus and Giroux and the technology magazine Logic. The book received widespread attention from critics following its release, being featured on several recommendations lists and awarded the National Book Foundation's 2023 Science + Literature prize. It was also commended for its nuance, detail, and unique perspective on technology and society. Though reception trended positive, some reviewers criticized the book for its lack of a clear thesis, its superficiality, or its misrepresentation of some concepts. ## Background China has rapidly industrialized since the mid to late twentieth century. One consequence is the emergence of substantial income inequality between China's urban and rural regions; inequality peaked in 2009, with a per capita income in urban areas thrice that of rural areas, and has since stabilized. A distinctive feature of Chinese internal migration is the hukou system, a form of household registration where people are assigned a "rural" or "urban" status based on the circumstances of their birth; the location of one's hukou determines eligibility for services such as schools, hospitals, pensions, housing, and employment in an area. Due to the difficulties in changing one's hukou, many migrants from rural to urban China lack access to such services in their place of residence. Though the hukou system has been reformed multiple times, it remains strict. Food safety is a widespread concern in China, spurred by numerous high-profile controversies regarding contaminated or misrepresented food. To serve China's rapidly growing urban middle class, who increase the country's demand both for meat and for higher-quality food, farmers and companies have attempted technological solutions to guarantee their products' freshness and safety. This includes the eponymous "blockchain chicken farms", where chickens are tracked by QR code to certify their free range status and sold at a premium. Xiaowei Wang is a Chinese-American artist, writer, and software engineer with a Ph.D. in geography from the University of California, Berkeley. Blockchain Chicken Farm is their first book. Wang was inspired to investigate technology in rural China as a critique of "metronormativity", a term defined by Jack Halberstam as a disproportionate focus on urban environments motivated by a stigma against rural cultures and societies. ## Synopsis Blockchain Chicken Farm focuses on the impact of technology in rural China, particularly as it relates to agriculture. The first major focus of the book is the "blockchain chicken farms" run by Bubuji (Chinese: 步步鸡), also known as GoGoChicken, a subsidiary of the technology arm of ZhongAn, China's largest insurance company. Wang visits a farm in Guizhou owned by Jiang, a farmer who turned to GoGoChicken after sales for his free range chickens declined due to distrust of their provenance. In Wang's discussions with Jiang and Ren, a local government employee, they discover the people involved with the project have little understanding of what technology underpins it. Though the blockchain chickens are profitable, selling for up to (US\$) to a market of upper-middle-class consumers, Jiang's enterprise sales dry up shortly after the first order, raising concerns about their long-term viability. The book then addresses the African swine fever outbreak of the late 2010s, which killed a substantial share of pigs in China, the world's largest pork producer. African swine fever had never been reported in China prior to 2018, and is a difficult disease to eradicate; pigs that survive infection remain carriers for the rest of their life, and exported pork products are able to spread the disease internationally. Wang ascribes the ASF outbreak to industrialized pig farming. The most nutritionally optimal pig swill is cannibalistic, feeding pork products to pigs themselves, which creates vectors for ASF to spread from infected to uninfected pigs. Wang states that the practice of "optimizing" farming allows for such externalities to occur and worsen. Wang then addresses the role of artificial intelligence in the workforce. Inspired by a discussion with a stranger on a train to Shanghai, Wang argues that religion in China is seeing a resurgence as a reaction to increasing social alienation driven by technology. They posit that the ideal purpose of AI in the workforce is not to "take" jobs from humans, but to collaborate with humans in their existing jobs, giving the example of an AI aiding doctors in diagnosis versus one replacing a social worker who supports patients. Blockchain Chicken Farm's next section discusses China's urban–rural education gap. The book relates the Chinese government's attempts to improve educational standards in rural areas, where very few students complete high school or attend university. Wang meets Sun Wei, a young man who works in a gig economy-like role as a drone operator, and contrasts his career expectations both with gig economy employees in the West and with his peers with higher educational achievements. They argue that Sun Wei is less marginalized or alienated as an employee than true gig economy employees, given his passion for his work, but that his role is relatively peripheral compared to that of a more traditionally credentialed employee. The last chapters address subjects such as Chinese manufacturing, mass surveillance, and discrimination against ethnic minorities in China. At the close of the book, Wang travels to rural Zhejiang, the centre of the country's massive pearl farming industry. They analyse the international nature of Zhejiang's pearl industry, which exports a substantial number of pearls to US-based multi-level marketing companies. In the United States, these pearls are distributed to influencers who host livestreamed "pearl parties", shucking oysters to see the pearls that come out. Wang discusses the economic position of people involved in multi-level marketing, noting that the states with the highest proportion of direct sellers, North Dakota, Iowa, and Wyoming, all have above-average unemployment rates. The chapters of Blockchain Chicken Farm are interspersed with recipes. These recipes use an intentionally science-fiction styling. The first, a porridge with goji berries, is described as food for a hypothetical artificial intelligence that needed to eat to survive; the second is inspired by DNA digital data storage, using tofu fritters as an analogy to the process of storing DNA on soybeans; and the third, a recipe for mooncakes, is styled as a meal prepared from moon-grown ingredients, with the cornmeal custard filling presented as made from corn grown on the Moon. ## Research The research for Blockchain Chicken Farm mostly occurred from 2016 to 2018, though it continued through to the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Wang travelled to various districts of rural China, such as Dinglou in Pinghe County, where the e-commerce retailer Taobao had created economic incentives to centralize Halloween costume production, and rural Zhejiang, a centre of pearl farming, where pearls were shipped to international multi-level marketing companies. A particular focus of the book is the eponymous "blockchain chicken farm", a farm in Guizhou in southwestern China where the smallholder farmer had been unable to convince purchasers that his chickens were genuinely free-range. GoGoChicken, a Shanghai-based company, recruited him to a blockchain-based surveillance scheme where the chickens were monitored to guarantee their status. Food safety and related controversies are a particular focus of the book. The primary driver behind most technological applications Wang discusses is the desire to improve food safety standards or confirm their enforcement; due to several high-profile Chinese controversies around food safety, the subject is of substantial concern to the nation's emerging urban middle class. Simultaneously, being able to technologically prove that a given farm has high standards provides an incentive to source products from that farm, potentially improving the financial state of the farmer. Blockchain Chicken Farm analyses how these technologies may be implemented by individuals with no knowledge or understanding of them. For example, Wang tried to discuss the blockchain technology underpinning GoGoChicken with the people using it while visiting the farms, only to discover none of them were familiar with the concept. Similarly, the book discusses how technological responses to food safety problems can backfire. Wang refers to the example of the ET Agricultural Brain, an Alibaba Group initiative to optimize pig farming. The AI model allowed for rapid large-scale industrialization of pig farms across the country, increasing output but contributing to the African swine fever outbreak that killed millions of pigs in the late 2010s. ET Agricultural Brain was repurposed to monitor at-risk herds in an attempt to combat the outbreak, which was focused on by media reports significantly more than the role it played in its genesis. ## Publication and reception Blockchain Chicken Farm was published 13 October 2020 by FSG Originals x Logic, a collaboration between Farrar, Straus and Giroux (an imprint of Macmillan Publishers) and the technology magazine Logic, for which Wang was formerly an editor. FSG Originals x Logic was a short-term collaboration to publish four books on the role of technology in contemporary society; alongside Blockchain Chicken Farm, it published Voices from the Valley by Ben Tarnoff and Moira Weigel [Wikidata], What Tech Calls Thinking by Adrian Daub, and Subprime Attention Crisis by Tim Hwang. Upon release, the book received widespread attention. Kirkus gave it a starred review, a privilege afforded to the top 10% of traditionally published books it reviews each year, and praised the "flair" with which it approached its subject matter. Peter Gordon, editor of the Asian Review of Books, joked that "[i]f there were an award for the best book title, Blockchain Chicken Farm would surely be in [the] running for 2020". He went on to deem the book "eminently readable" and remarked on how, unlike conventional "China books" that focused on travelogues or attempt to explain China to a Western audience, Blockchain Chicken Farm was primarily focused on the future of technology and simply felt its "most important signposts" were Chinese rather than Western. Ling Ma similarly wrote in Wired that she "can't think of any other recent work that comes close to capturing the alternate reality that is China today", stating Blockchain Chicken Farm exemplified the nature and pace of Chinese technological advancement to the point of being reminiscent of science fiction. Allison Arieff, print editorial director for the MIT Technology Review, reviewed Blockchain Chicken Farm for the San Francisco Chronicle. She praised the book for its avoidance of polemicism, comparing it flatteringly to what she considered a general trend towards polarization in books by authors with backgrounds in the technology industry. Similar acclaim for the work's nuance came from The Nation and the New York Times. More mixed reviews included one by Publishers Weekly, whose staff writer described Blockchain Chicken Farm as "thought-provoking if inconclusive", praising its detail and unique subject matter but criticising its absence of a clear thesis. The digital anthropologist Gabriele de Seta wrote an overall positive review of Blockchain Chicken Farm in Asiascape: Digital Asia, but felt its breadth of coverage "necessarily leaves some topics undeveloped and others undertheorized"; he proffered the examples of Wang's "detour" into Chinese livestreaming culture and their superficial handling of the concept of shanzhai (counterfeit or copycat products). Jaime Chu, editor of Spike Art Magazine, denounced the book in The Baffler as "essentially an Eat, Pray, AI memoir". She criticised the "superficiality" of Wang's research on several levels, including their dismissal of Xinjiang, their lack of engagement with the hukou system that limits social and geographical mobility, and their sparse engagement with the historical context surrounding Chinese modernization policy. Chu particularly focused on the same loose interpretation of shanzhai as de Seta, arguing that Wang misrepresented the concept to make it more amenable to free and open-source software culture. She ultimately deemed Blockchain Chicken Farm "built on analogies as intellectual labor-saving shortcuts" and insufficient as any of memoir, technology reporting, or "speculative manifesto". Amongst academics, Sunil Mani, director and Reserve Bank of India Chair of the Centre for Development Studies in Kerala, addressed the book from a food science-focused perspective in the Review of Agrarian Studies. While he noted its "non-use of quantitative data and methods of analysis", he nonetheless commended its "nuanced understanding" of the application of emerging technologies to an agricultural society. Melody Jue, associate professor of English at the University of California, Santa Barbara, covered it alongside AI in the Wild by Peter Dauvergne and A City Is Not a Computer by Shannon Mattern for American Literature. She held up Blockchain Chicken Farm as one of extremely few books addressing artificial intelligence from the perspective of the Global South, juxtaposing its "more complex story of technology and agency" with that of works that treat developing countries and regions as "passive subject[s] of ecological damage". Blockchain Chicken Farm was included on several recommendations lists. The New York Times featured it alongside Barack Obama's memoir A Promised Land and Dark Archives, an exploration of books bound in human skin by Megan Rosenbloom. Literary Hub incorporated it in its "science, technology, and nature" recommendations for October 2020 amongst Kindred: Neanderthal Life, Love, Death and Art by Rebecca Wragg Sykes and A Good Time to Be Born by Perri Klass. The Verge's 2023 reader-inspired list of "the best tech books of all time" featured Blockchain Chicken Farm, as well as Masters of Doom by David Kushner, The Inevitable by Kevin Kelly, and Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution by Steven Levy. Blockchain Chicken Farm was awarded the National Book Foundation's 2023 Science + Literature prize, a \$10,000 award, alongside Real Life by Brandon Taylor.
55,190,899	Muntz Jet	1,147,178,521	Two-door hardtop convertible	[ "1950s cars", "Cars introduced in 1951", "Convertibles", "First car made by manufacturer", "Personal luxury cars", "Rear-wheel-drive vehicles" ]	The Muntz Jet is a two-door hardtop convertible built by the Muntz Car Company in the United States between approximately 1949 and 1954. It is sometimes credited as the first personal luxury car. Developed from the Kurtis Sport Car (KSC) that was designed by Frank Kurtis, it was produced and marketed by Earl "Madman" Muntz. The car was powered by one of two V8 engines, either a 160 hp (120 kW) Cadillac engine or a 160 hp (120 kW) Lincoln engine, and it was equipped with either a General Motors Hydramatic automatic transmission or a three-speed Borg-Warner manual transmission. The Jet was streamlined, featured numerous luxury appointments, and was equipped with safety features that were not standard on most cars of its day, including a padded dashboard and seat belts. Production of the Muntz Jet occurred in Glendale, California; Evanston, Illinois; and Chicago before ceasing in 1954. The car sold for \$5,500 in 1953 (about \$51,500 in 2017), but cost \$6,500 to produce. In total, Muntz lost approximately \$400,000 on the venture. Only 198 Jets were built, an estimated 50 to 130 of which are still in existence. By 2016, fully restored cars had sold for over \$100,000 at auction. Author Matt Stone called the Jet "one of the fastest and best-performing American cars of the time" while Muntz claimed that the 1958 Ford Thunderbird was inspired by his Jet. ## Background The Muntz Jet was built by the Muntz Car Company, which was founded by Elgin, Illinois, native Earl "Madman" Muntz. Muntz, who was born in 1914 and attended Elgin High School for three semesters before dropping out, had established a prominent reputation selling television sets and other commercial and consumer electronics. Before founding the Muntz Car Company, Muntz had worked successfully as a used-car salesman and at Kaiser-Frazer dealerships in both Los Angeles and New York City, even earning the sobriquet of "world's largest car dealer". According to automotive journalist Turk Smith, he "made and lost several fortunes" during his lifetime, and he was married to seven different women. ## Design The Muntz Jet was developed from the Kurtis Sport Car (KSC), a two-seat, aluminum-body sports car designed by Frank Kurtis. Muntz bought the rights to the KSC, along with its parts and tooling, from Kurtis Kraft for \$200,000. Sam Hanks, who would later win the 1957 Indianapolis 500, contributed to the redesign and re-engineering necessary to create the Muntz. The Jet was built with a solid hardtop. Two different V8 engines were used in the Jet: a 160 hp (120 kW) Cadillac engine, and a 160 hp (120 kW) Lincoln engine. The first Jets to be constructed, in Glendale, California, had the Cadillac engine and aluminum bodies, while those built later in Illinois instead had the Lincoln engine and steel bodies. The cars were equipped with General Motors Hydramatic automatic transmissions, while a three-speed Borg-Warner manual transmission was also available as an option. Compared to its Kurtis predecessor, the Jet was heavier but also more agile and capable of a higher top speed, due to its lower drive ratio. The Muntz was 400 pounds (180 kg) heavier than the KSC, weighing almost 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg). Its wheelbase was 113 inches (290 cm), 10 inches (25 cm) longer in both overall length and wheelbase than the Kurtis, which gave it enough room to include a back seat and accommodate four occupants. The Jet stood 54 inches (140 cm) in height. It was built with body-on-chassis construction and had independent front suspension (A-arms with coil springs) and a live rear axle with leaf springs. It also featured power steering, four-wheel hydraulic brakes, dual exhausts, and a dual coil ignition. In April 1951, Norman Nicholson described the Jet as having "the appearance of a streamlined, scaled-down limousine". It was available in colors such as boy blue and elephant pink. Similar in appearance to the KSC, the Muntz was more luxuriously appointed than its sports car predecessor. Some of these appointments included an all-leather "tuck-and-roll" interior, racing-style Stewart-Warner gauges, and a center console with a Muntz radio. A liquor cabinet and ice chest placed under the rear seat armrests were available as an option. The Jet was equipped with safety features that were not standard on most cars of its day, including a padded dashboard and seat belts. ## Production and sale The first 26 to 40 Muntz Jets were built in Glendale, California. Production was then moved to a factory at 1000 Grey Avenue in Evanston, Illinois, where the car was built roughly between 1949 and 1952. The near cross-country move was necessitated by difficulties related to materials and transportation that plagued the original plant in Glendale. In April 1951, the Muntz Car Company was employing 40 people in its Evanston factory and producing a car a day. In approximately 1952, the company moved plants again, to 2901 North Sheffield Avenue in Chicago's Lake View neighborhood. Production ceased in 1954. In January 1951, the projected cost of a Jet was \$5,000. That year, Muntz planned to sell the car out of factory-run showrooms in Houston, Los Angeles, and New York City. With no network of dealers, Muntz Jets were sold to customers directly from the factory. The car sold for \$5,500 in 1953, about \$51,500 in 2017. At the same time, a Cadillac convertible sold for \$3,987, and a comparable Lincoln for \$3,600. A single Jet cost roughly \$6,500 to produce, \$1,000 more than its sticker price. Muntz himself estimated that labor costs alone for each Jet produced totaled \$2,000. In total, he lost approximately \$400,000 on the venture, and after four years gave up on it. Famous owners of the Jet included Clara Bow, Vic Damone, Grace Kelly, Alfred "Lash" LaRue, and Mickey Rooney. Six Jets were fitted with a factory-installed "hop up" kit that included an Edelbrock aluminum intake and twin double-barreled Stromberg carburetors. Muntz Car Company welding chief Peter Condos claimed that two Jets were built with 331-cubic-inch (5,420 cc) Chrysler FirePower V8 engines. ## Performance Writing in 1951, Norman Nicholson noted a production Muntz Jet had an official top speed of 112 mph (180 km/h). Muntz himself claimed it could accelerate from 0 to 80 mph (130 km/h) in nine seconds. He also stated that the Jet could reach 150 mph (240 km/h), but automotive journalist Turk Smith, writing in 1969, expressed doubt that it could even attain 130 mph (210 km/h). ## Legacy In total, 198 Muntz Jets were built. Earlier estimates of 400 cars produced, a figure possibly sourced to Muntz himself, are now thought to be inaccurate. An estimated 50 to 130 of these cars are still in existence. There is no owner's club for the car, although a registry of owners that has accounted for about 125 cars by serial number does exist. Three Jets are owned by the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles. By 2002, well restored Jets were selling at auction for \$50,000 to \$70,000. By 2016, fully restored cars had sold for over \$100,000 at auction. In the assessment of Autoweek writer Graham Kozak, while the Jet "lacks the cachet of the Tucker...it stands on its own as a well-conceived, well-executed luxury convertible". According to author Matt Stone, the Muntz was "one of the fastest and best-performing American cars of the time". Turk Smith, writing in 1969, opined that a well tuned Jet "will still outperform most stock cars of today". In 1969, Muntz claimed that the 1958 Ford Thunderbird was inspired by the Jet, and quipped that "I was eight years ahead of my time" with his car. Thomas E. Bonsall credits the Jet as being the first personal luxury car. In 2000, Daily Herald journalist Jerry Turnquist called it "America's first, high performance, four-seat sports car". It is also an example of an orphan car. After production of the Jet ended in 1954, Muntz invented and manufactured the 4-track Stereo-Pak tape player, the predecessor of the 8-track tape player. In June 2000, Muntz's childhood home of Elgin celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Muntz Jet with a parade featuring numerous Jets and their owners.
588,741	Space Oddity	1,173,387,538	1969 song by David Bowie	[ "1960s ballads", "1969 singles", "1969 songs", "1973 singles", "1975 singles", "David Bowie songs", "Folk ballads", "Major Tom", "Mercury Records singles", "Number-one singles in France", "Philips Records singles", "Psychedelic folk songs", "RCA Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Gus Dudgeon", "Songs about fictional male characters", "Songs about spaceflight", "Songs written by David Bowie", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles" ]	"Space Oddity" is a song by the English singer-songwriter David Bowie. It was first released on 11 July 1969 by Philips Records as a 7-inch single, then as the opening track of his second studio album David Bowie. Produced by Gus Dudgeon and recorded at Trident Studios in London, it is a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom; its title and subject matter were partly inspired by 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Bowie's feelings of alienation at that point in his career. One of the most musically complex songs he had written up to that point, it represented a change from the music hall-influenced sound of his debut to a sound akin to psychedelic folk and inspired by the Bee Gees. Rush-released as a single to capitalise on the Apollo 11 Moon landing, it received critical praise and was used by the BBC as background music during its coverage of the event. It initially sold poorly but soon reached number five in the UK, becoming Bowie's first and only chart hit for another three years. A 1972 reissue by RCA Records was Bowie's first US hit and was promoted with a new music video filmed by Mick Rock. Another 1975 reissue as part of a maxi-single became Bowie's first UK number-one single. Bowie re-recorded an acoustic version in 1979. A mainstay during Bowie's concerts, Bowie revisited the Major Tom character in his later singles, notably the sequel song "Ashes to Ashes" (1980). A range of artists have covered "Space Oddity" and others have released songs that reference Major Tom. A 2013 cover by the astronaut Chris Hadfield gained widespread attention; its music video was the first filmed in space. The song has appeared in numerous films and television series, and has a pivotal role in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. In 2019, Visconti remixed Bowie's original recording to mark the 50th anniversary of its first release, with a new music video directed by Tim Pope. Initially viewed as a novelty track, "Space Oddity" is now considered one of Bowie's finest recordings and remains one of his most popular songs. It has appeared in numerous "best-of" lists, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll". ## Background and writing After a string of unsuccessful singles, David Bowie released his music hall-influenced self-titled debut studio album through Deram Records in 1967. The album was a commercial failure and did little to gain Bowie notice, becoming his last release for two years. Around this time, Bowie acquired a new manager, Kenneth Pitt. In 1968, Bowie began a romantic relationship with dancer Hermione Farthingale, which lasted until February 1969. With Farthingale and guitarist John Hutchinson, Bowie formed a group called Feathers. With Bowie on acoustic guitar, the trio performed a small number of concerts between September 1968 and early 1969, combining folk, Merseybeat, poetry and mime. After the commercial failure of David Bowie, Pitt authorised the production of a promotional film in an attempt to introduce Bowie to a larger audience. The film, Love You till Tuesday, which marked the end of Pitt's mentorship of Bowie, went unreleased until 1984. By the end of 1968, Bowie had begun to feel alienation from his career. Knowing Love You till Tuesday did not have a guaranteed audience and would not feature any new material, Pitt asked Bowie to write something new; "a very special piece of material that would dramatically demonstrate David's remarkable inventiveness and would probably be the high spot of the production". With this in mind, Bowie wrote "Space Oddity", a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom, the first of Bowie's famous characters. Its title and subject matter were influenced by Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, which premiered in May 1968. Bowie said, "I went stoned out of my mind to see the movie and it really freaked me out, especially the trip passage". Biographer Marc Spitz stated the song was likely inspired by the scene in which an astronaut communicates with his daughter on her birthday, saying "Tell mama that I telephoned" before ingesting a "stress pill", rather than the film's opening or ending. Malcolm Thompson, who directed Love You till Tuesday, later said he and his girlfriend Susie Mercer contributed to the songwriting process. Bowie's break-up with Farthingale deeply affected Bowie. He later said, "It was Hermione who got me writing for and on a specific person". Spitz stated Bowie's feelings of loneliness and heartache following the break-up inspired "Space Oddity". One of the first people to hear "Space Oddity" was Calvin Mark Lee, the head of A&R at Mercury Records in London, who considered the song "otherworldly" and knew it was Bowie's ticket to be signed by the label. According to Mercury associate Simon Hayes, "Lee was really on the case with 'Space Oddity', a total convert. He wanted to sign David – and I said 'Fantastic idea'." At the time, Bowie's future wife Angela Barnett, whom he met in late 1968, was dating Lou Reizner, the head of Mercury, who was unimpressed with Bowie's output. Eager to sign Bowie, Lee, without Reizner's knowledge, financed a demo session for "Space Oddity". Lee later told Spitz: "We had to do it all behind Lou's back. But it was such a good record." ## Composition ### Lyrics "Space Oddity" tells the story of an astronaut named Major Tom, who is informed by Ground Control that a malfunction has occurred in his spacecraft but Major Tom does not get the message because he either misses it or is in such awe of outer space he does not hear it. He remains in space "sitting in a tin can, far above the world", preparing for his lonely death. In 1969, Bowie compared Major Tom's fate to the ending of 2001: A Space Odyssey, saying: "At the end of the song Major Tom is completely emotionless and expresses no view at all about where he's at. He's fragmenting ... at the end of the song his mind is completely blown – he's everything then." Authors David Buckley and Peter Doggett comment on the unusual vocabulary in the lyrics, such as "Ground Control" rather than "Mission Control", "space ship" rather than "rocket", "engines on" rather than "ignition", and the "unmilitary combination" of rank and first name for the character. Bowie's biographers have provided different interpretations of the lyrics. According to Doggett, the lyrics authentically reflect Bowie's mind and thoughts at the time. He writes that Bowie shone a light on the way advertisers and the media seek to own a stake in a lonely man in space while he himself is exiled from Earth. Chris O'Leary said the song is a "moonshot-year prophecy" that humans are not fit for space evolution and the sky is the limit. Similarly, James Perone views Major Tom acting as a "literal character" and a "metaphor" for individuals who are unaware of, or do not make an effort to learn, what the world is. In 2004, American feminist critic Camille Paglia identified the lyrics as representing the counterculture of the 1960s, stating, "As his psychedelic astronaut, Major Tom, floats helplessly into outer space, we sense that the '60s counterculture has transmuted into a hopelessness about political reform ('Planet earth is blue / And there's nothing I can do')". ### Music "Space Oddity" has been characterised as a psychedelic folk ballad. It represented Bowie's new interest in acoustic music since joining Feathers. Pegg and Doggett compare the song's style, structure, lyrics and arrangement to those of the Bee Gees' 1967 single "New York Mining Disaster 1941", which has similar minor chords and chorus. Hutchinson later stated: "'Space Oddity' was a Bee Gees type song. David knew it, and he said so at the time ... the way he sang it, it's a Bee Gees thing." "Space Oddity" is one of the most complex songs Bowie had written up to that point. He storyboarded each section, all leading into the next until completion. According to O'Leary, in a little over five minutes, the song includes "a faded-in intro, a 12-bar solo verse, a 'liftoff' sequence, a duet verse, a bridge, a two-bar acoustic guitar break, a six-bar guitar solo, a third verse, another bridge, break and solo, and a 'Day in the Life'-style outro to the fade". Bowie stated in 2002 he was "keen on ... writing in such a way that it would lead me into leading some kind of rock musical". Although primarily in the key of C major, the song has a variety of chord changes and resonances that aid in telling the story. The intro has a pairing of F major7/E and E minor, while the first verse alternates between C major and E minor. Wayne's guitar harmonises E and B while on Stylophone, Bowie "drones" C and B. A D major chord plays on the line "God's love be with you" during the pre-liftoff countdown sequence. In the second verse, an E7 chord on the line "really made the grade" counteracts the overall key of C major. O'Leary said this change "brightens" the song. The bridge's "planet earth is blue" has a standard folk-style descending progression; (B major 9th/A minor add9/G major add9/F). According to O'Leary, the B major9 chord "ratifies Major Tom's choice (or doom) to stay out in space". The acoustic-guitar break has a C–F–G–A–A note sequence with the two A notes emphasised. ## Recording ### Early demos and first studio version One of the early demos of "Space Oddity", recorded in January 1969, differs greatly from the album version, including unused vocal harmonies and different lyrics. Rather than the softly spoken "lift-off", an American-accented "blast-off!" is present. "I'm floating in a most peculiar way" is replaced with "Can I please get back inside now, if I may?" The demo also includes the later-revised lines: And I think my spaceship knows what I must do And I think my life on Earth is nearly through Ground Control to Major Tom, you're off your course, direction's wrong. The demo's instrumentation uses only acoustic guitar and Stylophone, which were played by Hutchinson and Bowie, respectively. Bowie had used the Stylophone, a recently released electronic instrument that was mainly marketed to children, to compose the song's melody. Both Bowie and Hutchinson sang vocals on the recording; they recorded another demo version in approximately mid-April 1969. The first full studio version of "Space Oddity", which was for Love You till Tuesday, was recorded on 2 February 1969 at Morgan Studios, London. At this point, the lyrics were finalised. The session was produced by Jonathan Weston; Bowie and Hutchinson were joined by Colin Wood on Hammond organ, Mellotron and flute; Dave Clague on bass and Tat Meager on drums. As in the early demos, Bowie and Hutchinson shared lead vocals, with Bowie voicing Major Tom's dialogue and Hutchinson singing Ground Control's lines. Bowie also played an ocarina solo for this recording, which Hutchinson later called "just silly". According to Pegg, this version is significantly inferior to the David Bowie recording. ### Album version In June 1969, after Bowie left Deram, Pitt negotiated a one-album deal, with options for a further one or two albums, with Mercury Records and its UK subsidiary Philips. Mercury executives had heard an audition tape that included the demo of "Space Oddity" Bowie and Hutchinson recorded in early 1969. The search for a producer began. After Beatles' producer George Martin turned down the project, Pitt hired Tony Visconti, who produced Bowie's later Deram sessions, to produce the album. Before recording for the album began, "Space Oddity" had been selected as the lead single. Visconti, however, saw it as a "novelty record"; in 2016, he told Yahoo! Music he found it derivative of works by the Beatles and Simon & Garfunkel, calling it "a cheap shot – a gimmick to cash in on the moonshot". Visconti produced the rest of the album but passed production responsibility for "Space Oddity" to Bowie's former engineer Gus Dudgeon. Dudgeon had worked as an engineer with Bowie on his Deram recordings. On hearing Bowie's demo, Dudgeon said it was "unbelievable"; he and Bowie then planned "every detail" of the recording. Work on the album version of "Space Oddity" and its B-side "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" began at Trident Studios in London on 20 June 1969. Bowie fell ill with conjunctivitis and overdubs were completed a few days later. Mercury insisted the single was released the following month, ahead of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Guitarist Mick Wayne of the British band Junior's Eyes and keyboardist Rick Wakeman were brought on at Visconti's suggestion, while composer Paul Buckmaster was hired to arrange the orchestra, which consisted of eight violins, two violas, two cellos, two arco basses, two flutes and an organ. Buckmaster became an integral part in Bowie's songwriting; he advised Bowie to focus on creating the overall sound rather than the narrative. Dudgeon hired bassist Herbie Flowers and drummer Terry Cox of the folk band Pentangle, and Bowie on acoustic guitar and Stylophone completed the lineup. Bowie later said he added the Stylophone at Marc Bolan's suggestion; "[Bolan] said, you like this kind of stuff, do something with it. And I put it on 'Space Oddity', so it served me well." Dudgeon outlined a plan for the Stylophone and Mellotron parts by scribbling notes on paper; he later told biographer Paul Trynka; "When we hit that studio we knew exactly what we wanted – no other sound would do." At one point in the session, Wayne thought he had finished his guitar take early so began retuning one of the strings. Dudgeon like the warped effect of the retuning and asked Wayne to repeat it on the next take. According to Trynka, towards the end of the session, the musicians knew they were a part of something special. Wakeman recorded his part in two takes after hearing the demo once; he later said; "it was one of half a dozen occasions where it made the hair stand up on your neck and you know you're involved in something special. 'Space Oddity' was the first time it ever happened to me". Cox also felt a sense of excitement after the session finished. The session cost £500. Dudgeon was paid £100 for his work on the two songs; in June 2002, he instigated a lawsuit against Bowie claiming he did not receive the agreed two per cent of royalties for "Space Oddity". Dudgeon intended to sue for a settlement of £1 million; the suit, however, was halted after Dudgeon's death in a car accident the following month. Dudgeon had told biographer David Buckley he felt "Space Oddity" was among the finest work of Bowie's career. ### Mixing "Space Oddity" was mixed in both mono and stereo formats, a rarity for radio singles at the time. Wakeman later said it was Bowie's idea to mix it in both formats, according to him: "To the best of my knowledge nobody released stereo singles at that time, and they pointed that out to David ... and I can remember David saying, 'That's why this one will be stereo!' And he just stood his ground ... he wasn't being awkward, but he had a vision of how things should be." Biographer Kevin Cann stated stereo copies were given to the media and radio stations while mono copies were given to retailers. According to Nicholas Pegg, the stereo single was sold only in specific territories, including Italy and the Netherlands; the mono single appeared in both Britain and America. ## Release and promotion Philips Records released "Space Oddity" as a 7-inch (18 cm) single on 11 July 1969 with the catalogue number Philips BF 1801 and "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" as the B-side. Mercury handled its US release. Despite being a rarity for singles at the time, in some territories, the single's sleeve included a photograph of Bowie playing an acoustic guitar. The label rush-released the single to capitalise on the Apollo 11 Moon mission, which was launched five days later. According to Bowie: "It was picked up by British television and used as the background music for the landing itself in Britain ... Though I'm sure they really weren't listening to the lyric at all; it wasn't a pleasant thing to juxtapose against a moon landing. Of course, I was overjoyed that they did." Upon realising the dark lyrics, the BBC ceased playing it until the Apollo 11 crew safely returned home. Shortly after its release, "Space Oddity" received some glowing reviews. Penny Valentine of Disc and Music Echo predicted the record was "going to knock back everyone senseless", and later named "Space Oddity" as the magazine's record of the year. In Melody Maker, Chris Welch wrote: "This Bee Geeian piece of music and poetry is beautifully written, sung and performed. Strangely, it could be a hit and escalate Bowie to the top." Record World said it's "a blastoff set to music, and it's haunting and eerie and right on the dot." Despite the positive reviews and Pitt's attempts at chart rigging, the single initially failed to sell. In September 1969, the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 48. Mercury's publicist Ron Oberman wrote a letter to American journalists describing "Space Oddity" as "one of the greatest recordings I've ever heard. If this already controversial single gets the airplay, it's going to be a huge hit." Despite this, the single failed to sell in the US, peaking at 124, which Pitt attributed to Oberman's use of the word "controversial" in his statement, causing it to be banned by multiple US radio stations. The single's success in the UK earned Bowie a number of television appearances in the latter half of 1969, starting with a performance on Dutch television show Doebidoe on 25 August 1969 that was broadcast five days later. This was followed by his first appearance on the BBC's Top of the Pops on 2 October, for which Bowie was filmed in a separate studio so his image could be interspersed with NASA space footage. He played Stylophone and guitar over backing tracks prepared by Dudgeon, who was in charge of synchronising the BBC Orchestra to the backing track. According to Dudgeon in 1991, it was a "nightmare": they were given enough time for only two takes, the second of which had a tighter orchestra but sloppy cohesion between the space footage and Bowie. Dudgeon stated, "If we had had the chance of a third take it would have been brilliant". The performance was broadcast on 9 October and repeated on 16 October; it helped "Space Oddity" peak at number five by early November. The Top of the Pops performance was followed by performances on Germany's 4-3-2-1 Musik Für Junge Leute on 22 October (broadcast on 22 November) and on Switzerland's Hits A-Go-Go on 3 November. On 10 May 1970, Bowie performed "Space Oddity" at the Ivor Novello Awards, where he was awarded with Most Original Song. Philips released David Bowie in the UK, with "Space Oddity" as the opening track on 14 November 1969. According to biographer Christopher Sandford, despite the commercial success of "Space Oddity", the remainder of the album bears little resemblance to it, resulting in its commercial failure on its initial release. Although Bowie was named 1969's Best Newcomer in a readers' poll for Music Now!, David Bowie sold just over 5,000 copies by March 1970. In mid-December 1969, Philips requested a new version of "Space Oddity" with Italian lyrics after learning that one had already been recorded in Italy. Pitt thought the idea was "ridiculous" and said, "it was explained to us that 'Space Oddity' could not be translated into Italian in a way that the Italians could understand". The Italian version was recorded on 20 December at Morgan Studios with accent coach and producer Claudio Fabi producing and lyrics being translated by Italian lyricist Mogol. This version, titled "Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola" (transl. "Lonely Boy, Lonely Girl"), was released as a single in Italy in 1970 and failed to chart. When asked about the single's success, Visconti said: "[I was surprised] and years later [Bowie] and I joked about it so much. But the one thing I predicted was that he would not have a hit after that." Bowie did not have another hit after "Space Oddity" for three years until the release of "Starman". According to Pegg, in a year of novelty hits that began with the Scaffold's "Lily the Pink" and ended with Rolf Harris's "Two Little Boys", "Space Oddity" was destined for the same fate; nothing more than a novelty hit. He also noted that by 1969 numerous space-themed songs had already charted, including Zager and Evans's "In the Year 2525", which was a UK number one in the three weeks immediately before "Space Oddity"'s entry into the top 40. Only later did Bowie's song "transcend" the novelty hit to be regarded as a "genuine classic". ### Rereleases After the commercial breakthrough of Bowie's fifth studio album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, RCA Records undertook a reissue campaign for his Mercury albums that included repackaging David Bowie with the title Space Oddity. To promote this release, in the US on 13 December 1972, RCA rereleased "Space Oddity" as a single backed by "The Man Who Sold the World" with the catalogue number 74-0876. The single reached number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Bowie's first hit single in the country. In Canada, it reached number 16. RCA again reissued the song in the UK on 26 September 1975 as a maxi single, in which it was backed by "Changes" and the then-unreleased 1972 outtake "Velvet Goldmine"; its catalogue number is RCA 2593. The UK reissue was Bowie's first number-one single in the country, replacing "I Only Have Eyes for You" by Art Garfunkel at number one in November. Record World said of the reissued single that "this disc is a winner from liftoff to fade." In December 1979, Bowie re-recorded "Space Oddity" for the ITV New Year special Will Kenny Everett Ever Make It to 1980? Show. The idea came from the show's director, David Mallet. Bowie recalled: > I agreed as long as I could do it again without all its trappings and do it strictly with three instruments. Having played it with just an acoustic guitar on stage early on, I was always surprised at how powerful it was just as a song, without all the strings and synthesisers. I really wanted to do it as a three-piece song. Visconti produced this new version; he stripped the original recording to acoustic guitar, bass, drums and piano. Doggett said this instrumentation mirrors John Lennon's 1970 album Plastic Ono Band, which had influenced Bowie's vocal performance on his 1977 album "Heroes". The new recording has a number of differences from the original; replacing the liftoff sequence is 12 seconds of silence and a snare drum fade-out ends the song. O'Leary said while the original "Space Oddity" ends "unresolved", the 1979 version leaves empty space. This version was issued in February 1980 as the B-side of Bowie's single "Alabama Song", which Visconti later said was "never meant" to occur. The 1979 recording was released in a remixed form in 1992 on the Rykodisc reissue of Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and in 2017 it was rereleased on Re:Call 3, part of the compilation A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982). In July 2009, EMI issued the digital-only extended play (EP) "Space Oddity 40th Anniversary EP" to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the original single. The EP includes the original UK and US mono single edits, the 1979 re-recording and eight stem tracks that isolate the lead vocal, backing vocals, acoustic guitar, string, bass and drums, flute and cellos, Mellotron and Stylophone. These stem tracks are accompanied with a mobile app that allows users to create their own remixes. Pegg said the EP "provid[es] a fascinating insight into the component sounds of a classic recording". In 2015, the original UK mono single edit was included on Re:Call 1, as part of the box set Five Years (1969–1973). The song's 50th anniversary was marked on 12 July 2019 by the release of digital and vinyl singles of a new remix of the song by Tony Visconti. The vinyl version was issued in a box set that also includes the original UK mono single edit. ### Related releases Several demo versions of "Space Oddity" have been commercially released. Two early demos, including a fragment that may be the first-recorded demo of the song, were released for the first time in April 2019 on the box set Spying Through a Keyhole. The January 1969 demo remained officially unreleased for more than 40 years until it appeared on the 2009 two-CD special edition of David Bowie, and was debuted on vinyl in May 2019 in the box set Clareville Grove Demos. An edited version of the April 1969 demo originally appeared as the opening track on the 1989 box set Sound + Vision. The unedited recording was released in June 2019 on the album The 'Mercury' Demos. All the abovementioned demos and another previously unreleased one were compiled for the 5-CD box set Conversation Piece, which was released in November 2019. The February 1969 studio recording became commercially available in 1984 on a VHS release of the film Love You till Tuesday and its accompanying soundtrack album. A shorter edit appeared on the 1997 compilation album The Deram Anthology 1966–1968 and an alternative take was released for the first time on Conversation Piece. ## Live versions "Space Oddity" remained a concert staple and a live favourite throughout Bowie's career. On 22 May 1972, Bowie played the song for BBC Radio 1's Johnny Walker Lunchtime Show but the recording was not broadcast. It was eventually released on the 1996 compilation BBC Sessions 1969–1972 (Sampler) and Bowie at the Beeb (2000). For the BBC session, Bowie inserted "I'm just a rocket man!" between verses; Elton John had recently released "Rocket Man", which is also about an astronaut and was also produced by Gus Dudgeon. A version of the song that was recorded at Santa Monica Civic Auditorium on 20 October 1972 during the Ziggy Stardust Tour was first released on Santa Monica '72 before becoming officially available in 2008 on Live Santa Monica '72. A live performance that was recorded at the Hammersmith Odeon, London, on 3 July 1973 was released on Ziggy Stardust: The Motion Picture (1983). During the 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour, Bowie sang "Space Oddity" while being raised and lowered above the stage by a cherry picker crane and used a radio microphone that was disguised as a telephone. A July 1974 performance of the song was released on the 2005 reissue of David Live while a September performance from the same tour was released in 2017 on Cracked Actor (Live Los Angeles '74). A concert performance that was recorded on 12 September 1983 was included on the live album Serious Moonlight (Live '83), which was included in the 2018 box set Loving the Alien (1983–1988) and released separately the following year. The same performance appears on the concert video Serious Moonlight (1984). Bowie effectively retired the song from live performances during his 1990 Sound+Vision Tour, after which he sang it on a few occasions, most notably closing his 50th birthday party concert in January 1997 with a solo performance on acoustic guitar; this version was released on a limited edition CD-ROM that was issued with Variety magazine in March 1999. He then performed it at the Tibet House US benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in February 2002; this new version includes an orchestra conducted by Visconti, with string arrangements played by Scorchio and Kronos Quartet. Bowie's final performance of "Space Oddity" was at Denmark's Horsens Festival during the 2002 Heathen Tour. ## Music videos On 6 February 1969, a clip of the first version of "Space Oddity" for Love You till Tuesday was filmed at Clarence Studios. Bowie plays both the tee-shirt-wearing Ground Control character and Major Tom; he wears a silver suit, a blue visor and breast plate. Final touches were made the following day. RCA used this clip to promote the September 1975 UK single reissue. To promote RCA's December 1972 US reissue of "Space Oddity", a new promotional video was created at RCA's New York studios by photographer Mick Rock; Bowie, who was tired and wore little makeup, mimes to the song with a guitar. Bowie later said: > I really hadn't much clue why we were doing this, as I had moved on in my mind from the song, but I suppose the record company were re-releasing it again or something like that. Anyway, I know I was disinterested in the proceedings and it shows in my performance. Mick's video is good, though." A promotional video for the 1979 version was debuted in the UK on 31 December 1979 on the Will Kenny Everett Ever Make It to 1980? Show, and in the US on Dick Clark's Salute to the Seventies. A fourth video, which was directed by Tim Pope and combines footage from Bowie's 50th birthday concert in Madison Square Garden with backdrop footage choreographer Édouard Lock filmed for the Sound+Vision Tour (1990), was created for the 2019 remix of the song to promote the box set Conversation Piece. The video was premiered at the Kennedy Space Center and in Times Square on 20 July, and uploaded to YouTube hours later. ## Legacy ### Major Tom Bowie revisited the character Major Tom in the 1980 single "Ashes to Ashes", from Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980). In the song, Major Tom is described as a "junkie" who is "strung out in heaven's high, hitting an all time low" but Ground Control still believes Major Tom is doing as well as he was ten years prior. The song has been interpreted as Bowie's confrontation of his past; after years of drug addiction in the 1970s, he used those struggles as a metaphor for Major Tom becoming a drug addict. The song's music video reuses visual elements from the December 1979 television performance of "Space Oddity". The 1996 Pet Shop Boys remix of the single "Hallo Spaceboy", from Outside (1995), also revisits Major Tom. The idea for the song came from Pet Shop Boys member Neil Tennant, who informed Bowie he would be adding "Space Oddity"-related lines to the remix. Although Bowie was hesitant at first, he accepted. Tennant sang the "Space Oddity"-related lines in the remix: "Ground to Major, bye-bye Tom / Dead the circuit, countdown's wrong". Major Tom may have influenced the music video for Bowie's 2015 single "Blackstar", the title track from his final album Blackstar (2016). The video, a surreal, ten-minute short film that was directed by Johan Renck, depicts a woman with a tail (Elisa Lasowski), who discovers a dead astronaut and takes his jewel-encrusted skull to an ancient, otherworldly town. The astronaut's bones float towards a solar eclipse while in the town's centre, a circle of women perform a ritual with the skull. Renck initially refused to confirm or deny that the astronaut in the video is Major Tom but he later said on a BBC documentary: "to me, it was 100% Major Tom". ### Retrospective appraisal "Space Oddity" remains one of Bowie's most-popular songs and has frequently been listed by publications as one of his greatest songs. In 2015, Mojo magazine rated it Bowie's 23rd-best track in a list of his 100 greatest songs. Following Bowie's death in 2016, Rolling Stone named "Space Oddity" one of the 30 most-essential songs of Bowie's catalogue. A year later, the staff of Consequence of Sound voted it Bowie's tenth best track. In 2017, the readers of NME voted "Space Oddity" Bowie's seventh-best track while the publication's staff placed it at number 18 in a list of Bowie's 40 best songs. The Guardian's Alexis Petridis voted "Space Oddity" number 25 in his list of Bowie's 50 greatest songs, writing: "Bowie perfectly inhabits its mood of blank-eyed, space-age alienation". In 2020, Tom Eames of Smooth Radio listed "Space Oddity" as Bowie's fifth-greatest song. Ultimate Classic Rock listed it as Bowie's greatest song in 2016. Spencer Kaufman wrote: "The song was revolutionary for its time, musically and lyrically, and helped introduce the masses to one of the most dynamic and creative music acts we will ever know." In a list ranking every Bowie single from worst to best, Ultimate Classic Rock placed "Space Oddity" at number four. "Space Oddity" has appeared on numerous best-of lists. In a 2000 list compiling the 100 greatest rock songs, VH1 placed "Space Oddity" at number 60. In 2012, Consequence of Sound included it in their list of the 100 greatest top songs of all time, ranking it number 43. In lists ranking the greatest songs of the 1960s, NME ranked "Space Oddity" at number 20, Pitchfork placed it at number 48, Paste magazine ranked it number three and Treble magazine placed it at number two. In 2021, Rolling Stone ranked "Space Oddity" at number 189 in their list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". The magazine stated as Bowie's first hit, it "offer[ed] just a glimpse of the ever-evolving star he would become". Several publications, including Mojo (39), NME (67), and Sounds (41), have also listed "Space Oddity" as one of the greatest singles of all time. Channel 4 and The Guardian similarly ranked it the 27th-greatest British number-one single in 1997 while NME ranked it number 26 in their 2012 list of the greatest number-one singles in history. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included "Space Oddity" in their list of "The 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". The song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2018. ## Track listing All songs written by David Bowie. 1969 UK original 1. "Space Oddity" – 4:33 (mono) 2. "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" – 3:52 1969 US original 1. "Space Oddity" – 3:26 2. "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" – 3:20 1969 "Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola" 1. "Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola" (Bowie, Mogol) – 5:15 2. "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" (Bowie) – 4:59 1973 US Reissue 1. "Space Oddity" – 5:05 2. "The Man Who Sold the World" – 3:53 1975 UK reissue 1. "Space Oddity" – 5:15 2. "Changes" – 3:33 3. "Velvet Goldmine" – 3:14 2009 EMI reissue (Digital EP) 1. "Space Oddity" (Original UK mono single edit) 2. "Space Oddity" (US mono single edit) 3. "Space Oddity" (US stereo single edit) 4. "Space Oddity" (1979 rerecording) 5. "Space Oddity" (Bass and drums) 6. "Space Oddity" (Strings) 7. "Space Oddity" (Acoustic guitar) 8. "Space Oddity" (Mellotron) 9. "Space Oddity" (Backing vocal, flute and cellos) 10. "Space Oddity" (Stylophone and guitar) 11. "Space Oddity" (Lead vocal) 12. "Space Oddity" (Main backing vocal including countdown) 2019 reissue (2×7") Disc 1 1. "Space Oddity" (Original Mono Single Edit) 2. "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" (Original Mono Single Version) Disc 2 1. "Space Oddity" (2019 Mix – Single Edit) 2. "Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud" (2019 Mix – Single Version) ## Personnel Credits apply to the 1969 original release: - David Bowie – vocals, 12-string acoustic guitar, Stylophone, handclaps - Mick Wayne – lead guitar - Herbie Flowers – bass guitar - Terry Cox – drums - Paul Buckmaster – string arrangement - Tony Visconti – flutes, woodwinds - Rick Wakeman – Mellotron Production - Gus Dudgeon – producer Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola (1969) - Producers: Gus Dudgeon - Musicians: - David Bowie – vocals, guitar, Stylophone - Herbie Flowers – bass - Terry Cox – drums - Rick Wakeman – Mellotron - String Section (unnamed) ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Certifications ## Cover versions and appearances in media "Space Oddity" has been covered by numerous artists. Performers on the original recording Rick Wakeman and Terry Cox, specifically the latter's band Pentangle, have covered the song. One of Bowie's favourite versions was a recording by the Langley Schools Music Project, a 60-voice choir of Canadian children who were recorded in the late 1970s and reissued on CD in 2002. Bowie said: "The backing arrangement is astounding. Coupled with the earnest if lugubrious vocal performance, you have a piece of art that I couldn't have conceived of, even with half of Colombia's finest export products in me." Many artists have written songs that reference or develop the story of "Space Oddity"; these include German singer Peter Schilling's 1983 song "Major Tom (Coming Home)", Panic on the Titanic's "Major Tom", and Def Leppard's 1987 single "Rocket". English singer-songwriter Jonathan King released a mashup of "Space Oddity" together with Peter Schilling's "Major Tom (Coming Home)" titled "Space Oddity / Major Tom (Coming Home)". This release reached No. 77 on the UK Singles Chart in May 1984. "Space Oddity" has been heard and referenced in numerous films and television series, including the American sitcom Friends, the British series EastEnders and Shooting Stars, and the films Mr. Deeds (2002), The Mother (2003) and C.R.A.Z.Y. (2005). The original single version is heard on the soundtrack of the 2004 film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers and a 2015 episode of the American drama series Mad Men. It was also featured in a 2011 Renault Clio commercial and played on the radio of Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster during its launch aboard the Falcon Heavy's maiden flight in February 2018. The song plays a pivotal role in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, in which Walter Mitty (Ben Stiller) is frequently referred to as "Major Tom" for daydreaming while at work. "Space Oddity" is featured in a scene in which Mitty decides to leap onto a helicopter after imagining his coworker Cheryl (Kristen Wiig) singing the song. For the scene, Wiig's vocal was mixed into Bowie's original track. Stiller said about the importance of "Space Oddity" in the scene: > I felt like the way it fits into the story, we got to this point and this scene which was sort of how the fantasy and reality come together for Walter, and that was what that came out of. That song, and what he mentioned in his head, and what he imagines and what he does, it all just seemed to come together over that song. "Space Oddity" was played throughout the entire opening montage for the 2017 film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, which showed humans making contact with extraterrestrial life. Director Luc Besson timed the sequences of the scene to the guitar chords of "Space Oddity", and it took many hours for the shots from the film to be synched with the song, and the bass riff was used to signify humanity's first contact with aliens. The opening sequence had originally been storyboarded with the intention of 'Space Oddity' being played in the background, with Besson saying "It's almost a music video; I matched the song to the image." Besson previously worked with Bowie on Arthur and the Invisibles (2006), and the singer agreed to allow Besson to use "Space Oddity" in Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, although Bowie died before the film was released. ### Chris Hadfield version In May 2013, Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield, commander of Expedition 35 to the International Space Station (ISS), recorded a video of "Space Oddity" on the ISS that went viral and generated a great deal of media exposure. It was the first music video to be recorded in space. In the video, which was filmed at the end of Hadfield's time at the ISS, Hadfield sang and played guitar while floating around the space station. On Earth, Joe Corcoran produced and mixed the backing track with a piano arrangement by multi-instrumentalist Emm Gryner, who worked with Bowie during his 1999–2000 concert tours. Gryner said she was "so proud to be a part of it". The lyrics were somewhat altered; rather than losing communication with Ground Control and being lost in space as a result, Major Tom receives his orders to land and does so safely, reflecting Hadfield's imminent return from his final mission to the ISS. Hadfield announced the video on his Twitter account, writing: "With deference to the genius of David Bowie, here's Space Oddity, recorded on Station. A last glimpse of the World." Bowie's social media team responded to the video, tweeting back to Hadfield, "Hallo Spaceboy ...", and later called the cover "possibly the most poignant version of the song ever created". Hadfield's performance was the subject of a piece by Glenn Fleishman in The Economist on 22 May 2013 analyzing the legal implications of publicly performing a copyrighted work of music while in Earth orbit. The song is the only one of Bowie's for which he did not own the copyright. Bowie's publisher granted Hadfield a one-year licence to the song. On 13 May 2014, when the one-year licence expired, the official video was taken offline despite Bowie's explicit wishes for the publisher to grant Hadfield a licence at no charge to record the song and produce the video. Following negotiations, the video was restored to YouTube on 2 November 2014 with a two-year licence agreement in place. According to Pegg, Hadfield's video is "Breathtakingly beautiful and extraordinarily moving, [and] offers a rare opportunity to deploy that overused adjective 'awesome' with complete justification". ## See also - "Ashes to Ashes" (David Bowie song) - "Hallo Spaceboy" - "Blackstar" (song)
72,262,494	Rhina Aguirre	1,172,085,425	Bolivian politician (1939–2021)	[ "1939 births", "2021 deaths", "21st-century Bolivian politicians", "21st-century Bolivian women politicians", "Blind activists", "Blind politicians", "Blind scholars and academics", "Bolivian Marxists", "Bolivian Roman Catholics", "Bolivian blind people", "Bolivian disability rights activists", "Bolivian educators", "Bolivian exiles", "Bolivian expatriates in Ecuador", "Bolivian human rights activists", "Bolivian radio producers", "Bolivian senators from Tarija", "Bolivian social workers", "Bolivian sociologists", "Bolivian women activists", "Bolivian women educators", "Bolivian women sociologists", "Movimiento al Socialismo politicians", "People from Tarija", "Scientists with disabilities", "Women human rights activists", "Women members of the Senate of Bolivia" ]	Rhina Aguirre Amézaga (20 May 1939 – 30 October 2021) was a Bolivian disability activist, politician, and sociologist who served as senator for Tarija from 2010 to 2015. Aguirre studied education while undergoing the novitiate at the Santa Ana School. Though she retired before making her perpetual vows, she remained influenced by the concepts of liberation theology, which united Christian doctrine with left-wing political positions. An opponent of the military dictatorships of the 1970s and '80s, Aguirre was an early activist in the country's human rights movement. Exiled to Ecuador by the García Meza regime, she collaborated with Leonidas Proaño's Indigenous Ministry and worked closely with the country's peasant and social organizations. Blinded in both eyes by toxoplasmosis, Aguirre took up the cause of disability rights, joining the Departmental Council for Disabled Persons upon her return to Bolivia. In 2009, she joined the Movement for Socialism and was elected to represent Tarija in the Senate, becoming the first blind person in Bolivian history ever to assume a parliamentary seat. ## Early life and career ### Early life and education Rhina Aguirre was born on 20 May 1939 in Tarija to Humberto Aguirre Aoiz, an artisan jeweler and Chaco War veteran from Sucre, and Lucía Amézaga de Ameller, a woman from Camargo. The eldest of three siblings, Aguirre spent her childhood in relative poverty, raised primarily by her father and stepmother, her birth mother having died when Aguirre was 5 years old. Aguirre's father made a living operating a small watch shop in the city. A communist, well-read on the theories of Marxism–Leninism, Humberto Aguirre instilled in his daughter a sense of class consciousness and educated her on the need to combat social inequality: > I didn't understand much of what he was saying [at the time] ... I didn't like that word (fighting). I imagined those wrestling shows ... My dad explained to me that it wasn't about that kind of fight, but about constant movement and work; he exhorted me to read, to inform myself. Aguirre completed her primary and secondary schooling at the Santa Ana School, a religious institute run by the nunnery. She studied education there and eventually joined the school's staff as a professor and later its director. During this time, Aguirre also underwent the novitiate, though she ultimately opted not to take the final vows. Even so, her experience with the nuns led her to become an adherent of liberation theology, which synthesized Christian beliefs with left-wing ideological values. She applied these concepts to her profession as an educator, becoming a proponent of faith-based alternative and adult education. In that vein, she also worked in radio, collaborating with the Loyola Cultural Action Foundation to produce educational programs. ### Political activism In tandem with her other activities, Aguirre studied sociology and practiced social work. A staunch opponent of the military governments of the day, she became an early activist in the country's nascent human rights movement and was a founding member of the Permanent Assembly of Human Rights in 1970. Forced into exile for her political activism against the García Meza regime, Aguirre took refuge in Ecuador, where she collaborated with Bishop Leonidas Proaño's Indigenous Ministry in Riobamba. Later, she moved to Quito, where she worked alongside local peasant and social movement organizations. Finally settling in Puyo, Aguirre was brought on as a public official in the municipality's Department of Culture. Around this time, Aguirre contracted toxoplasmosis, a parasitic disease transmitted by cats. By 1983, the condition had left her entirely blind in both eyes. With the reestablishment of democracy in Bolivia, Aguirre returned to Tarija, where she once again dedicated herself to activism in the field of human rights. In the absence of the hard-right military dictatorships of the 1970s and '80s, many of Bolivia's human rights activists re-oriented themselves in opposition to the neoliberal economics of the new democratic governments, which dismantled many of the country's state-run social services. For her part, Aguirre focused her efforts on disability rights, joining the Departmental Council for Disabled Persons in 2000, where she served as the organization's head of health and education. ## Chamber of Senators ### Election In 2009, public recognition for her work led the ruling Movement for Socialism (MAS-IPSP) to invite Aguirre to join the party's slate of candidates in the Tarija Department. Though initially hesitant, Aguirre accepted the nomination and was elected alongside singer Juan Enrique Jurado [es] as one of the MAS's two senators for that department. In doing so, she became the first blind person ever to occupy a parliamentary seat in Bolivian history. ### Tenure Throughout her senatorial term, Aguirre continued to promote legislation in favor of disabled persons, actions that bore fruit with the 2012 passage of the General Law on Persons with Disabilities, which promoted the sector's access to employment, equal opportunity, and social inclusion. Upon the conclusion of her term, Aguirre was not nominated for reelection but remained active in politics, holding the vice presidency of the MAS's Tarija affiliate for some time. ### Commission assignments - Constitution, Human Rights, Legislation, and Electoral System Commission - Constitution, Legislation, and Legislative and Constitutional Interpretation Committee (Secretary: –) - Territorial Organization of the State and Autonomies Commission (President: –) - Rural Native Indigenous Peoples and Nations and Interculturality Commission (President: –) - Social Policy, Education, and Health Commission - Education, Health, Science, Technology, and Sports Committee (Secretary: –) ## Personal life and death While in exile, Aguirre met Carlos Samaniego, an Ecuadorian sociologist from Loja, whom she married. A partisan of the Communist Party of Ecuador, Samaniego accompanied his wife on her return to Bolivia, where he joined the MAS; in 2010, he was appointed ombudsman of Tarija, and he later served as departmental coordinator of the Ministry of Autonomies in Tarija. On account of her toxoplasmosis, Aguirre suffered several miscarriages in her attempts to have children, a situation that led her to choose adoption. Her son, Carlos Saúl Samaniego, was born in Vilcabamba and studied industrial engineering in Ecuador. Aguirre died on 30 October 2021, aged 82. Her passing was commemorated by the Chamber of Senators, which issued an official posthumous recognition of her work two days after her death. ## Electoral history
49,302,503	Doris Sands Johnson	1,160,940,787	Bahamian politician (1921–1983)	[ "1921 births", "1983 deaths", "20th-century Baptists", "20th-century women writers", "20th-century writers", "Bahamian Baptists", "Bahamian educators", "Bahamian expatriates in the United States", "Bahamian independence activists", "Bahamian suffragists", "Bahamian women's rights activists", "Colony of the Bahamas people", "Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "McGill University Faculty of Education alumni", "Members of the Senate of the Bahamas", "New York University alumni", "People from New Providence", "Place of death missing", "Presidents of the Senate of the Bahamas", "Progressive Liberal Party politicians", "Southern University faculty", "Transport ministers of the Bahamas", "University of Toronto alumni", "Virginia Union University alumni" ]	Dame Doris Sands Johnson DBE (19 June 1921 – 21 June 1983) was a Bahamian teacher, suffragette, and politician. She was the first Bahamian woman to contest an election in the Bahamas, the first female Senate appointee, and the first woman granted a leadership role in the Senate. Once in the legislature, she was the first woman to be made a government minister and then was elected as the first woman President of the Senate. She was the first woman to serve as Acting Governor General of the Bahamas, and was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II. Born on New Providence Island, she completed her secondary education and became a teacher. After teaching for 17 years, Johnson returned to school to earn a master's and doctorate degree in educational administration. During this period, she traveled back and forth between school and her Bahamian home organizing labor and suffrage efforts. Upon graduation, Johnson was unable to find work because of her activism. She made a compelling speech to the Bahamian legislature in 1959, pleading for women's suffrage and subsequently made a similar plea to the Colonial Office in London. Once the right to vote had been secured, Johnson immediately entered politics in 1961, running in the first election in which women were allowed to participate. Though she lost her bid, she worked with the Progressive Liberal Party to gain Bahamian independence. When the country gained its freedom from colonial rule, Johnson was appointed to the Senate and served the government until her death, a decade later. ## Background and education Doris Louise Sands was born on 19 June 1921 in St. Agnes, New Providence, The Bahamas, to Sarah Elizabeth (née Fyne) and John Albert Sands. After completing her secondary education, Sands began teaching at the age of 15. On 3 January 1943 at Zion Baptist Church in Nassau, Sands married Ratal Allen Johnson. They subsequently had one son and Johnson worked for 17 years to earn the money to further her education. Around 1953, she was able to enroll at Virginia Union University in Richmond, Virginia, graduating with a bachelor's degree in education. She returned to the Bahamas in 1956 and joined the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP). Granted a four-year government scholarship to further her education in Canada, Johnson enrolled in a master's degree program in educational administration. Beginning her studies at MacDonald College of Education of McGill University, she earned her master's degree and began work on her doctorate at the Ontario College of Education at the University of Toronto. In the midst of her studies, the government terminated the scholarship during her third year of studying abroad, under the guise that her master's degree had been completed. Johnson believed that the scholarship was terminated because she had been active in organizing. She helped found the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the Bahamas, and in 1958 both the Bahamian Federation of Labour and the National Council of Women, traveling home intermittently during her studies to work towards enfranchisement. She returned home, but was advised that the only available positions for teaching administrators were in outlying islands. ## Political rise Feeling that her employment opportunities were being blocked, that same year, on 19 January 1959, Johnson asked to address the members of the Bahamian House of the Assembly, but was told she could only speak after the session adjourned, to which she agreed. In her speech, she pointed out that a petition had been submitted to the House in 1958 for suffrage, which Members had claimed showed only 13 petitioners and 529 signatories. She provided mimeographed copies showing the actual number was 2,829 people and included people from Abaco, Andros, Cat Island, Eleuthera, Exuma, Grand Bahama, Long Island, and New Providence. She went on to complain that women were being taxed without representation and reasoned that should the vote not be extended to them, they should no longer have to pay taxes. She insisted that women were working members of society and were ready, willing, and able to participate as full citizens. Though the Members of Parliament were impressed with the speech, they did nothing. In 1960, Johnson, as leader of the Women's Suffrage Movement, and Eugenia Lockhart, the organization's secretary, went to London to plead the case for suffrage. They met with the London branch of the International Alliance of Women to discuss the situation in the Bahamas, claiming that though they had the support of the majority of Bahamian women, many women could not voice their approval because they were employed by merchants and the government who were opposed to the cause. They also sought an audience at the Colonial Office to air their grievances, accompanied by the chairman of the PLP, Henry Milton Taylor. They met with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Iain Macleod, and two women British Parliamentarians, Baroness Joan Vickers and Baroness Eirene White. The Bahamians were assured that their case was accepted and that change would soon follow. They returned, but no change was forthcoming. Supporters rallied and collected funds for Johnson to complete her education in the United States, and she enrolled at New York University, completing her Doctor of Education in 1962. When suffrage passed in 1961, Johnson immediately entered the fray, accepting a nomination as a PLP candidate for the Eleuthera District. She wrote a booklet entitled The Next Step: Votes for Women in which she explained useful information for voting, such as how to register to vote and cast a ballot. She lost the race, but three years later participated in a debate in the push for majority rule on the parliamentary imbalance in the Bahamas with a delegation from the PLP at the United Nations. At that meeting, she met the president of her alma mater from Virginia Union, and agreed to accept a teaching post at Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. A little over a year later, Johnson left Louisiana and came back to the Bahamas to participate in the 1967 elections. The PLP won the majority of seats and she became the first woman appointee to serve in the Bahamian Senate. One of her first acts was to form a committee to help the Haitian diaspora who had fled to the Bahamas because of unrest in their own country. With an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees and a government decree to stop issuing work permits to Haitians, the situation was critical. The following year, PLP had a landslide victory in the 1968 election and Johnson was reappointed to the Senate, and appointed as the first woman to lead government business. From 1968 to 1973, Johnson was the Transportation Minister and her appointment was the first time a woman had served in the Bahamian Cabinet. In 1972, Johnson published a book entitled The Quiet Revolution in the Bahamas, which discussed the struggle for racial parity and independence, likening the efforts in the Bahamas to the American Civil Rights Movement and Martin Luther King Jr.'s fight. The book has been called "one of the most important accounts of the events and personalities involved in the attainment of Majority Rule and Independence in The Bahamas". The following year, when the Bahama's gained independence from Britain, Johnson resigned from her post as Minister and was elected as the first female President of the Senate. In 1977, shortly after being reelected to the presidency, Johnson received Queen Elizabeth II. In 1979, she briefly served as acting Governor General of the Bahamas, the first woman ever to do so, and that same year was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. Besides her official roles, Johnson served as a founding member of the Bahamas Folklore Group and spoke at various women's groups in the Bahamas and United States. She also served as president of the National Women's Housing Association and coordinator of the Bahamas Baptist Missionary and Educational Convention's Women's Auxiliary. Johnson died aged 62 on 21 June 1983. Posthumously, a high school that bears her name was dedicated in 2002 in Nassau, and officially opened in 2011. ## Selected works - Contained in .
35,352,603	Brunei at the 2012 Summer Olympics	1,104,080,885	null	[ "2012 in Bruneian sport", "Brunei at the Summer Olympics by year", "Nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics" ]	Brunei, officially known as Brunei Darussalam, competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, which was held from 27 July to 12 August 2012. The country's participation in London marked its fifth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1988 Summer Olympics. They returned to the Olympics after missing the 2008 games when it was the only country expelled from participating. The Brunei delegation included three athletes: Ak Hafiy Tajuddin Rositi, Maziah Mahusin, and swimmer Anderson Lim. Mahusin was the first women to represent Brunei at the Olympic Games and Lim's appearance made him the country's first Olympic swimmer. All three athletes qualified for the Games through wildcard places because they failed to meet the required qualifying times for their events. Mahusin was the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Lim held it at the closing ceremony. All three athletes failed to advance beyond the heat stages of their respective events, but Mahusin and Lim achieved new national records in athletics and swimming. ## Background Although Brunei first participated in the Summer Olympics in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, it was only represented by one official. It would not be until the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, United States that the country would send athletes to the Games. Since then, it has participated in five Summer Olympic Games between its debut and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England. The country was the sole member of the International Olympic Committee not to participate in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing; it had intended to do so, but was excluded on the day of the opening ceremony after failing to register any athletes. No Brunei athlete had ever won a medal at the Summer Olympics before the 2012 London Games. Brunei competed in the London Summer Games from 27 July to 12 August 2012. On 13 February it was agreed by Brunei's Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports committee that one participant in athletics and swimming would be sent to the Games. In the months prior to the London Games, Brunei attracted media attention as it was noted that the nation was one of only three countries—along with Saudi Arabia and Qatar—never to have sent a female athlete to the Olympics. The delegation to London comprised runners Ak Hafiy Tajuddin Rositi and Maziah Mahusin and swimmer Anderson Lim. Along with the three athletes, the Brunei Olympic team's delegation was led by chef de mission Hj Mohd Zamri Dato Paduka Hj Hamdani. Mahusin was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony while Lim held it at the closing ceremony. ## Athletics Ak Hafiy Tajuddin Rositi was the oldest athlete to compete for Brunei at the London Games at age 21. He had not participated in any previous Olympic Games. Rositi qualified for the Games via a wildcard because his fastest time of 49.81 seconds, set in the 2011 Asian Athletics Championships Men's 400 metres, was 4.11 seconds slower than the "B" qualifying standard for the men's 400 metres. He was drawn in the event's third heat on 4 August, finishing eighth (and last) out of all participants, with a time of 48.67 seconds. Overall Rositi finished 45th out of 47 runners, and was unable to advance into the semi-finals because he was 3.67 seconds slower than the slowest athlete in his heat who made the later stages. At age 19 and competing at her first Summer Olympics, Maziah Mahusin was the first female athlete to represent Brunei at the Games. She qualified for the Games through a wildcard place because her best time of one minute and 1.14 seconds, recorded at the Southeast Asian Youth Athletics Championships, was 13.59 seconds slower than the "B" qualifying standard for the women's 400 metres. In an interview with Reuters before the Games Mahusin said she felt "deeply honoured" to represent her country and that it was "a dream come true" that she was selected. She felt the inclusion of herself in the Brunei Olympic team would encourage her nation to pursue better standards in sport. Mahusin took part in the contest's sixth heat on 3 August, finishing seventh out of eight runners with a time of 59.28 seconds. Her time established a new Bruneian national record. Overall Mahusin ranked 41st out of 45 athletes. She did not progress into the semi-final after finishing 7.15 seconds slower than the slowest qualifier. Afterwards, Mahusin stated she did not expect to set a new national record having been unwell beforehand but hoped to compete at the Rio Olympics. Men Women ## Swimming Anderson Lim was the youngest person to represent Brunei at the London Olympic Games at age 16. He had not taken part in any previous Olympic Games. Lim qualified for the Games by being awarded a universality place by FINA because his fastest time of two minutes and 6.40 seconds did not reach the "A" (Olympic Qualifying Time) or "B" (FINA/Olympic Invititional Time) standard entry times for the men's 200 metre freestyle. It marked Brunei's first appearance in Olympic swimming competition. He was drawn in the contest's first heat on 29 July, finishing third (and last) of three swimmers with a time of two minutes and 2.26 seconds. Lim's time established a new Bruneian national swimming record. Overall he placed 40th (and last) of all competitors, and was unable to progress to the semi-finals. Lim finished 14.71 seconds slower than the slowest athlete who qualified for the later stages. Men ## See also - Brunei at the 2012 Summer Paralympics
26,450,684	Chrystal Macmillan	1,165,261,190	British feminist and pacifist	[ "1872 births", "1937 deaths", "19th-century Scottish politicians", "20th-century British lawyers", "20th-century British women lawyers", "Alumni of the University of Edinburgh", "British anti–World War I activists", "British barristers", "International Congress of Women people", "Lawyers from Edinburgh", "Members of the Middle Temple", "Pacifist feminists", "People educated at St Leonards School", "Politicians from Edinburgh", "Scottish Liberal Party parliamentary candidates", "Scottish Liberal Party politicians", "Scottish human rights activists", "Scottish pacifists", "Scottish suffragists", "Scottish women in politics", "Scottish women lawyers", "Women human rights activists", "Women mathematicians", "Women's International League for Peace and Freedom people" ]	Jessie Chrystal Macmillan (13 June 1872 – 21 September 1937) was a suffragist, peace activist, barrister, feminist and the first female science graduate from the University of Edinburgh as well as that institution's first female honours graduate in mathematics. She was an activist for women's right to vote, and for other women's causes. She was the second woman to plead a case before the House of Lords, and was one of the founders of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. In the first year of World War I, Macmillan spoke for the peace-seeking women of the United Kingdom at the International Congress of Women, a women's congress convened at The Hague. The Congress elected five delegates to take their message to political leaders in Europe and the United States. She travelled to the neutral states of Northern Europe and Russia before meeting up with other delegates in the U.S. She met with world leaders such as President Woodrow Wilson, whose countries were still neutral, to present the proposals formulated at The Hague. Wilson subsequently used these proposals as some of his Fourteen Points, his justification for making war to forge a lasting peace. At war's end, Macmillan helped to organise the second women's congress in Zurich and was one of the delegates elected to take the resolutions passed at the congress to the political leaders meeting in Paris to formulate the Versailles Peace Treaty. She supported the founding of the League of Nations. Macmillan tried but did not succeed in getting the League to establish nationality for women independent of the nationality of their husbands. ## Early career Jessie Chrystal Macmillan was born on 13 June 1872 to Jessie Chrystal (née) Finlayson and John Macmillan, a tea merchant working for Melrose & Co in Leith. The family lived at 8 Duke Street (Dublin Street as of 1922) in Edinburgh's New Town. Macmillan was the only daughter among her parents' eight sons. After an early education in Edinburgh she boarded at St Leonards School in St Andrews on the east coast of Scotland. In October 1892 Macmillan was among the first female students to enrol at the university, she was however not the first to graduate as others were either more advanced in their studies or taking higher degrees. Macmillan studied science subjects including Honours Mathematics with George Chrystal, Astronomy with Ralph Copeland, and Natural Philosophy with Peter Guthrie Tait and Cargill Gilston Knott. In April 1896 she graduated with a BSc with first-class honours in mathematics and natural philosophy, the first woman at the university to do so. In the summer of 1896 she went to Berlin for further university study, then returned to Edinburgh and passed an examination in Greek language to enter the Faculty of Arts in October 1896. She studied a number of social subjects including politics, and graduated in April 1900. Macmillan was the first woman to earn First-class honours from Edinburgh in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, also earning Second-class honours in Moral Philosophy and Logic. During this time she was a member of the Edinburgh Ladies' Debating Society, a forum which helped her gain confidence arguing in the face of opposition. She also joined the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in May 1897, the second woman member after Flora Philip in 1896. ## Women's rights Macmillan was active in the Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage (ENSWS). In 1897, two women's groups in Great Britain united to become the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), of whom Macmillan, along with Louisa Stevenson, served as executive committee members from Edinburgh. She was known as Chrystal Macmillan—she did not use the name Jessie, her mother's first name and her own birth name. As graduates, Macmillan and four other women were full members of the General Council of Edinburgh University, but they were denied the opportunity to vote in February 1906 to determine the Member of Parliament who would represent the university seat. Macmillan argued that the wording of the General Council's voting statutes used the word persons throughout, and that she and the other female graduates were indeed persons. In March, Macmillan wrote to Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy to ask for aid, as Elmy was the author of the pamphlet The Enfranchisement of Women. Macmillan told Elmy "I formed my beliefs on your pamphlet." Elmy recommended she contact Charlotte Carmichael Stopes for additional useful arguments. Macmillan brought the case before the University Courts in 1907 but lost, and lost a subsequent appeal. Scottish suffragists banded together to raise the £1000 required to present a case to the House of Lords. They hoped to raise awareness in Great Britain of the absurdity and injustice of denying the vote to educated women such as themselves. In November 1908, Macmillan appeared in London to argue, as a university graduate, for her right to vote for Scottish University seats. During her speech, the buildings of Parliament were made to suspend the temporary arrangements put in place to prevent women from entering—such arrangements had been instituted after the first militant suffrage agitations. Macmillan was the first woman to argue a case before the bar of the House of Lords. She was backed by her contemporary, Frances Simson, one of the first eight female graduates of Edinburgh. Given audience late in the day, Macmillan spoke for three-quarters of an hour. Press reports of the appearance described her as a "modern Portia," Shakespeare's fictional heiress and legal dilettante. In Scotland, Glasgow's The Herald reported that she began nervously but warmed to her subject and "argued law in an admirable speaking voice". Two days later she continued to plead her case, this time in "complete self-possession", wearing a dark red outfit and hat trimmed with ermine furs. Like other suffragists in Britain and the United States, she based her case on the words person and persons in the voting statutes, arguing that such unspecific words were no basis for the exclusion of one entire sex from voting. The court upheld both lower courts' decisions that the word persons did not include women when referring to privileges granted by the state. She lost the case, but The New York Times reported that she responded to the decision against her with the words "We'll live to fight another day". In Wellington, New Zealand, the Evening Post wrote a less strident account, noting that Macmillan was cheerful in defeat. After the court adjourned, she said to a reporter from the London Daily Chronicle, "I don't suppose that there is anything more to be done just now, but we shall live to fight another day." No matter her exact words, her time at the House of Lords attracted worldwide publicity which proved valuable to the women's cause. MacMillan spoke at many suffrage meetings during this period; for example, in 1909, she was a speaker at an NUWSS meeting along with Dr Elsie Inglis and Alice Low in Edinburgh's Café Oak Hall. A guest speaker was J A Scott from New Zealand, where women already had the right to vote. In 1911, Macmillan attended the sixth congress of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) in Stockholm. There, she embarked upon a long-term project, in cooperation with Marie Stritt, president of the German Union for Woman Suffrage, and Maria Vérone, president of the French League for Women's Rights, to document women's voting conditions around the world. In May 1913, after two years of correspondence with widely separated women's rights activists to gather global information, the women completed Woman Suffrage in Practice, 1913, a book to which Carrie Chapman Catt added a foreword. Published in conjunction with the NUWSS and the National American Woman Suffrage Association, the book described current women's voting practices in 35 countries and empires, with the authors dividing the work by country. Macmillan was responsible for writing about the UK, the US, New Zealand, Australia, India, China, South Africa and five smaller countries. Macmillan noticed that in few countries and empires were women excluded specifically by statute—they were instead kept from voting by custom alone. She wrote from both personal experience and outside observation of women's activists: "as soon as they become alive to this fact, they have tested the legality of their exclusion in the law courts." In 1913, Macmillan attended the seventh IWSA congress in Budapest, and began to serve the IWSA as vice president, a position she would hold for ten years. In 1914, she authored a 30-page booklet entitled Facts versus fancies on woman suffrage published by the NUWSS. ## Peace activism When World War I began, Macmillan looked for peace activism on the part of NUWSS. Instead, she found a majority of British women were in favour of helping the men win the war. Her pacifism was not at all passive—soon after hostilities broke out, she travelled to Flushing, Netherlands on a mission of mercy. By late October 1914 she was providing food for refugees from the fall of Antwerp. Macmillan signed the Open Christmas Letter, a peace-seeking exchange between women of warring nations, in late 1914. Elsewhere in the world, pacifist women were forced to adjust to the realities of war. After "the guns of August", Rosika Schwimmer, a native of Austria-Hungary working in England but prevented by war from returning home, outlined her idea for an international conference of neutrals to mediate between warring nations. In September 1914, Stritt wrote to Catt in America with "deep personal regret" for the "terrible war". The pacifist women of Germany were forced by war to withdraw their invitation to host the annual IWSA congress which was to have been held nine months later in Berlin. In December 1914, Canadian Julia Grace Wales, a professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, published her views about working toward a mediated peace in a pamphlet entitled "Continuous Mediation Without Armistice", popularly known as the Wisconsin Plan. Taking these messages as her inspiration, Catt proposed that, rather than holding a woman suffrage convention in Berlin, an international peace congress of women should meet in The Hague for four days beginning 28 April 1915. When this announcement reached the UK, the NUWSS was divided on the one hand by patriots such as Millicent Fawcett who were devoted to war work and on the other by the signers of the Christmas letter who wished to send peace delegates. However, the majority of the NUWSS were nationalistic more than they were peace-minded. They rejected a resolution favored by internationalists Helen Bright Clark and Margaret Bondfield which would have supported a delegation of women at The Hague. Because of this, women such as Margaret Ashton, Helena Swanwick and Maude Royden resigned from the NUWSS and made plans to attend at The Hague, some 180 women in total. Macmillan was the only internationalist executive of NUWSS who did not resign; she was away performing relief work. Volunteering near The Hague, Macmillan prepared to join the ex-NUWSS members after the group crossed the English Channel. At The Hague 28 April to 1 May 1915, a large congress of 1,150 women from North America and Europe gathered to discuss peace proposals. The event was called the International Congress of Women, or the Women's Peace Congress. The 180-strong contingent of British women was greatly reduced by Winston Churchill's purposeful cancellation of British ferry service across the Channel, stranding most of the British activists. Already in Antwerp, Macmillan easily attended the women's conference to speak for the UK—she was one of only three British women present. Macmillan was selected as a member of the international committee who were to travel to neutral nations and champion the proposal of the Congress. The Wisconsin Plan was unanimously adopted as the optimum method for returning peace to the world, and Macmillan, Schwimmer and the committee travelled to the neutral US to present President Woodrow Wilson with it. Many of the women's peace proposals were used by Wilson in his Fourteen Points, and the women's efforts helped encourage the later founding of the League of Nations. After the war, Macmillan went to Zürich in May 1919 as a delegate to the International Congress of Women. The Congress strongly condemned the harsh surrender terms that were being planned for Germany in the Treaty of Versailles to be signed the next month. Macmillan carried this written condemnation to the ongoing Paris Peace Conference, but no changes were made to the treaty. ## Lawyer By early 1918, British women who had attained the age of 30 were given the right to vote and hold office. Following the passing of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919, which enabled women to become members of the legal profession, Macmillan applied to Middle Temple as a pupil barrister. She was called to the bar on 28 January 1924 and in 1926 joined the Western Circuit, becoming only the second women to be elected to its Bar Mess. Between then and 1929 she acted as counsel for defence in the six cases in which she appeared on the Circuit, and she took 65 cases in the North London Session courts between 1927 and 1936. From 1929, she appeared at the Central Criminal Court in five cases for the prosecution, and one for defence [court books]. There are no records available for her civil cases. As she was studying for the bar, she co-founded the Open Door Council for the repeal of legal restraints on women. Macmillan worked to lift restrictions and so give women of all stations an equal opportunity in the workplace. NUWSS was re-organised in 1918 as the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship, but Macmillan disagreed with the group's stance on protective legislation for women workers. In 1929, she co-founded a global group, the Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker—she served as president of this group until her death. ## Politician At the 1935 general election, Macmillan unsuccessfully stood for election as the Liberal candidate in Edinburgh North. She came third, with less than 6% of the votes. In the same period, she worked to stem the traffic in females used as sexual slaves. To that end, she worked with Alison Roberta Noble Neilans' Association for Moral and Social Hygiene. Feminist writer Cicely Hamilton wrote of Macmillan that "she was the right kind of lawyer, one who held that Law should be synonymous with Justice ... Her chief aim in life—one might call it her passion—was to give every woman of every class and nation the essential protection of justice. She was, herself, a great and very just human being ... She could not budge an inch on matters of principle but she never lost her temper and never bore a grudge in defeat." ## Women's nationality In 1917, Macmillan spoke out against the practice of assigning a woman's national citizenship depending on whom she married. From 1905, this had been the vocal position of Ishbel Hamilton-Gordon, Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair, known as Lady Aberdeen, but Macmillan saw the issue in a new light during the war. Women who were married to foreigners were, upon declaration of war, faced suddenly with status as enemy nationals within the land of their birth. From the same legal basis, a number of British women were enjoying full citizenship in enemy territories. Macmillan was in favour of women having the right to independent nationality with the same right to retain or change as men. To that end, she wrote a piece entitled "The Nationality of Married Women" that was published twice in Jus Suffragii, once in July 1917 and again with updated statistics in June 1918. However, no new laws were passed about it, and a woman's citizenship remained tied to that of her husband. The subject came up again in 1930, during the Conference on Codification of International Law, held in The Hague. A strong contingent of women from America joined international women's groups to change the existing nationality laws, but the women were unable to agree on wording. Intense lobbying by women, and a massive parade demonstration, failed to influence the conferees, and the international law continued to hold that a woman's nationality followed her husband's. In response, Macmillan organised an International Committee for Action on the Nationality of Married Women early the next year. Six of the most influential international women's groups sought a broad base of support from working women. Macmillan's stated goal was to delay ratification of the Hague Convention, and to make certain that a woman's nationality would not change without her consent, and that the nationality of a couple's children would not be more influenced by the father's nationality. The new committee was successful in lobbying the League of Nations to address the problem, but when the League constituted a study group, that group was split between two intractable factions. On one side were those who wanted a married couple to have exactly one nationality, based on that of the husband, and on the other side were those like Macmillan who favoured independent citizenship between spouses, with the possibility of wives having different citizenship than their husbands, and children to be allowed dual citizenship. In 1932, the women's group, at an impasse, were pushed aside as ineffectual by the League of Nations, who decided in favour of ratifying the Hague Convention. The women's group disbanded, and the Hague convention was ratified in 1937. ## Death In 1937, Macmillan's health was failing and in June of that year she had a leg amputated. On 21 September she died of heart disease, at home in bed at 8 Chalmers Crescent, Edinburgh. On 23 September her body was cremated. Her remains were buried with her parents in Corstorphine churchyard in the west of the city. The grave is marked by a substantial granite cross just north of the church. In her will, she specified bequests to the Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker, and to the Association for Moral and Social Hygiene. A memorial stained glass window was added in Old Corstorphine Church soon after her death. It is on the south side of the church towards the south-east corner. ## Legacy The Chrystal Macmillan Prize is a £100 award given "at the discretion of the Scholarships and Prizes Committee" of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple in London, a professional group of attorneys. The prize was founded as an annual grant to benefit female law students scoring the highest in the bar's final examination, and to support societies with which Macmillan was associated. Her alma mater, the University of Edinburgh, has honoured Macmillan in several ways. The university's Chrystal Macmillan Building at the north-west corner of George Square is named in her honour, one of only two University buildings named after women. Since 2008, it houses the majority of the School of Social and Political Science. A Millennial Plaque honouring Macmillan is placed at the King's Buildings, a science campus at the university. The plaque notes that she was a "suffragist, founder of Women's International League for Peace and Freedom", as well as the being the "first woman science graduate of the University" in acknowledgment of her achievement in 1896. In 2021, the university's School of Social and Political Science instituted the Chrystal Macmillan PhD Studentship, to be awarded to PhD students studying fields relevant to Chrystal Macmillan, including social justice, gender and equality, human rights, and conflict resolution. In 1957, the United Nations established independent nationality for each married person, a ruling Macmillan had worked toward without success in her lifetime. Her name and picture (and those of 58 other women's suffrage supporters) are on the plinth of the statue of Millicent Fawcett in Parliament Square, London, unveiled in 2018. ## See also - List of peace activists
44,627,180	Bad Blood (Taylor Swift song)	1,173,078,564	2015 single by Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar	[ "2014 songs", "2015 singles", "Big Machine Records singles", "Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles", "Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles", "Diss tracks", "Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video", "Kendrick Lamar songs", "MTV Video of the Year Award", "Music videos directed by Joseph Kahn", "Number-one singles in Australia", "Number-one singles in New Zealand", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Ryan Adams songs", "Song recordings produced by Ilya Salmanzadeh", "Song recordings produced by Max Martin", "Song recordings produced by Shellback (record producer)", "Songs containing the I–V-vi-IV progression", "Songs written by Kendrick Lamar", "Songs written by Max Martin", "Songs written by Shellback (record producer)", "Songs written by Taylor Swift", "Taylor Swift songs" ]	"Bad Blood" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, taken from her fifth studio album 1989 (2014). Swift wrote the song with its producers Max Martin and Shellback. The album track is a pop song with stomping drums. A hip hop remix of "Bad Blood", featuring American rapper Kendrick Lamar and additional production by Ilya, was released as the fourth single from 1989 on May 17, 2015, by Big Machine and Republic Records. The lyrics are about feelings of betrayal by a close friend. Upon the album's release, critics expressed mixed opinions about "Bad Blood", with some complimenting Swift's defiant attitude and dubbing it an album highlight, while others criticized its production and lyrics. The remixed single was praised for the reworked instrumentation and Lamar's verses, which others considered to be out of place on a pop song. Media outlets speculated that American singer Katy Perry is the subject of the song. The remix received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance. "Bad Blood" was supported by a high-budget music video directed by Joseph Kahn and produced by Swift. It featured an ensemble cast consisting of many singers, actresses and fashion models, which received wide media coverage. Critics praised the video for its cinematic and futuristic visuals inspired by neo-noir styles. It won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video, and two MTV Video Music Awards for the Video of the Year and Best Collaboration. Commercially, "Bad Blood" reached number one in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Scotland, as well as the United States, where it topped the Billboard Hot 100, Adult Top 40 and Mainstream Top 40 charts. It has been certified triple platinum in Australia and Canada, and 6× platinum in the US. ## Background and release Taylor Swift's fifth studio album, 1989, was inspired by 1980s synth-pop. The album's electronic production using synthesizers, programmed drums, and processed backing vocals marked a departure from the country styles of her previous releases. On 1989, Swift and Swedish producer Max Martin served as executive producers. Martin and his frequent collaborator Shellback produced seven out of thirteen songs on the album's standard edition, including "Bad Blood". The album was released in October 2014 to commercial success, selling over one million copies within a week. "Bad Blood" was released as the fourth single from 1989. The remix version featuring rapper Kendrick Lamar was released on May 17, 2015, for digital download by Big Machine Records. The single release was supported by the premiere of its music video at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards. "Bad Blood" impacted US contemporary hit radio on May 19, 2015, under Big Machine and Republic Records imprint. The song was released to Italian contemporary hit radio on June 12, 2015, through Universal Music Group. ## Writing and composition Swift wrote "Bad Blood" about an undisclosed female musician. She revealed in a 2014 interview with Rolling Stone that this female peer, whom she had thought of as a close friend of hers, attempted to sabotage one of her concert tours by hiring people who worked for her. Upon the release of 1989, various publications speculated that Katy Perry was the subject of the song; Perry and Swift were involved in a heavily publicized feud that received widespread media coverage. Several publications including Time and The Washington Post noted parallels between the lyric "If you live like that, you live with ghosts" in "Bad Blood" and the title of "Ghost", a song from Perry's 2013 album Prism. Some critics initially interpreted "Bad Blood" to be about lost romance, which is the central theme of 1989. According to several media outlets, Perry's 2017 single "Swish Swish" is a diss track responding to "Bad Blood". "Bad Blood" was recorded by Sam Holland at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and by Michael Ilbert at MXM Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. The song was mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound Studio in New York. It is a pop track featuring heavy, stomping drums. Jem Aswad of Billboard compared its stomping beats to those of Gwen Stefani's 2005 single "Hollaback Girl", while The Observer's Kitty Empire likened the production to that of English singer Charli XCX. The chorus consists of repetitive phrases, "Now we got bad blood / You know it used to be mad love," sung by Swift with tense vocals over surging keyboard tones. Swift resents her former friend for having betrayed her, through lyrics such as "These kinda wounds, they last and they last," and "Band-aids don't fix bullet holes / You say sorry just for show." The single version incorporates elements of hip hop. It includes two verses written and performed by Lamar. According to Britton Luke of NME, the revamped version resembles the production and structure of Rihanna's 2010 single "Rude Boy". Lamar finished his verses in a few takes with Swift during a studio session in Los Angeles, recalling that their collaboration went smoothly because "the vibe was right". He told Rolling Stone in 2017 that he was unaware of the publicized feud between Swift and Perry, saying, "That's far beyond my concern. I have to stay away from that, for sure." The remix saw additional production from Ilya Salmanzadeh, who incorporated a deeper bass. ## Critical reception The album version of "Bad Blood" was met with mixed reviews from critics, many of whom singled it out as the weakest song on 1989. Mike Diver from Clash described the song as "a litany of diary-page break-up clichés set to directionless thumps and fuzzes". Mikael Wood from the Los Angeles Times considered "Bad Blood" a generic song where Swift fails to showcase herself as a distinctive artist, felt the song's beat is similar to Perry's 2013 single "Roar". Spin's Andrew Unterberger called the song "disappointingly bland" as it fails to showcase Swift's traditionally vivid songwriting. Writing for Vulture, Lindsay Zoladz felt that the song represented "brainless, evil pop" that Swift had disdained. On a more positive side, The Quietus writer Amy Pettifier considered "Bad Blood" one of the songs on 1989 that are "crammed with merit", calling it "all sass and bile". Entertainment Weekly's Adam Markovitz said that the track had potentials to become a chart success and listed it as one of the best songs on the album. Consequence reviewer Sasha Geffen applauded the song's heavy hip hop beats and deep basslines resulting in a defiant tune that represented Swift's new attitude, calling its production "the tightest turns Swift has ever cut". Robert Leedham from Drowned in Sound highlighted the song's "proud defiance" that recalled "iconic hardcore bands you've probably never heard of". The remix version received praise for Lamar's guest verses and the reworked instrumental. Meanwhile, some critics felt that Lamar's radio-friendly verses were unusual of his well-known aggressive flow. Alexis Petridis of The Guardian dubbed the single "a masterstroke" with "potent and effective" verses from Lamar and an "even more anthemic" chorus compared to the album version. Retrospectively, critics have considered "Bad Blood" one of Swift's weakest songs in her repertoire. Rankings by Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield, Paste's Jane Song, and Vulture's Nate Jones all ranked "Bad Blood" among the worst songs Swift had released. Nevertheless, "Bad Blood" featured on lists of the best songs of 2015 by NME (11th) and PopMatters (sixth). ## Commercial performance "Bad Blood" first charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks in November 2014 and January 2015 as an album cut from 1989, peaking at number 78. Upon its single release, the remix version entered the Hot 100 at number 53 and the Digital Songs chart at number 26, selling 47,000 digital copies. The following week, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated May 24, 2015, earning 385,000 digital copies in sales, 18.1 million streams, and 57 million radio impressions. Jumping 52 positions to the number-one spot, it marked one of the largest jumps to the top in Billboard chart history. "Bad Blood" was Swift's fourth Hot 100 number one and 1989's third, making Swift the first artist since Adele with her 2011 album 21 to yield three chart toppers from the same album. It was Lamar's first number one and second top-10 entry. "Bad Blood" dropped to number two after spending a week at number one. It spent five consecutive weeks at number two, blocked from the top by "See You Again" by Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth. On Billboard's airplay charts, "Bad Blood" reached number one on the Pop Songs (Mainstream Top 40) chart, a pop-focused airplay chart, in its fifth charting week. It was the fastest song to top the chart since Nelly's "Over and Over" (2004) featuring Tim McGraw, which spent three weeks before ascending to the number-one spot. In the week ending July 12, 2015, "Bad Blood" broke the record for the most single-week plays in the Pop Songs chart's 22-year history, besting the previous record by Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth's "See You Again". The single additionally peaked atop the Adult Top 40 chart. "Bad Blood" was the 10th-best-selling song of 2015 in the US, selling 2.584 million digital copies. The single has been certified 6× Platinum, based on sales and on-demand streams, by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). By July 2019, it had sold 3.2 million digital copies in the US. The single also topped the charts in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Scotland. It peaked within the top five on charts of South Africa (two), Lebanon (four), and the United Kingdom (four). "Bad Blood" has received multi-platinum certifications in Australia (3× Platinum) and Canada (3× Platinum), platinum certification in the United Kingdom, and gold in New Zealand. In the United Kingdom, the single had sold 373,000 downloads as of July 2021. ## Music video ### Development and production "Bad Blood" was supported by a high-budget music video directed by Joseph Kahn and produced by Swift. It was filmed in Los Angeles on April 12, 2015, and premiered at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards on May 17, 2015. The video features an ensemble cast consisting of singers and fashion models, whose public appearances with Swift during the subsequent 1989 World Tour led the media to call them Swift's "squad". Each member of the cast chose her character's name. The cast include (in order of appearance): Catastrophe (Swift), Arsyn (Selena Gomez), Welvin da Great (Lamar), Lucky Fiori (Lena Dunham), The Trinity (Hailee Steinfeld), Dilemma (Serayah), Slay-Z (Gigi Hadid), Destructa X (Ellie Goulding), Homeslice (Martha Hunt), Mother Chucker (Cara Delevingne), Cut Throat (Zendaya), The Crimson Curse (Hayley Williams), Frostbyte (Lily Aldridge), Knockout (Karlie Kloss), Domino (Jessica Alba), Justice (Mariska Hargitay), Luna (Ellen Pompeo), and Headmistress (Cindy Crawford). Set in a fictional London, the music video starts with Catastrophe (Swift) and her partner, Arsyn (Gomez), fighting off a group of men in a corporate office for a mysterious briefcase. When all of the men are defeated, Arsyn double crosses Catastrophe by stealing the briefcase in her hand and kicking her out of a window. The song begins with Catastrophe lying on a broken car, as Welvin da Great begins his rap verse and Lucky Fiori smokes a cigar. Catastrophe is shown being nursed back to health by a trio of girls called The Trinity, and after some time, she is ready to start training for her revenge. When her training is complete, Catastrophe and her friends strike out to exact their revenge on Arsyn and her masked henchwomen. The two teams approach each other in what seems to be slow motion while an enormous explosion goes off in the background, blotting out the London skyline. The final bits of the song contains various scenes from the video and it ends with Catastrophe and Arsyn simultaneously striking each other in the face. ### Reception The video received positive feedback regarding its production and styling, with comments pointing out several references to action movies. Rolling Stone described it as a "futuristic neo-noir" video. Daniel D'Addario of Time called it Swift's "most elaborate" music video yet, and compared its visuals to those of Sin City. Slate agreed and found other film inspirations: "Along the way, they pay homage to countless films. Besides the video's Robocop premise, there's its Sin City aesthetic, its nod to Tron'''s light cycles, and its Kill Bill-like fight in the snow." Billboard drew parallels between the video and the music videos of Britney Spears's "Toxic" and "Womanizer", which were both directed by Kahn. The video broke Vevo's 24-hour viewing record by accumulating 20.1 million views in its first day of release, which was later broken by Adele's "Hello" in October 2015, with 27.7 million views in the first 24 hours. The video's content, allegedly to be about Swift's feud with Katy Perry, drew criticism from some commentators regarding its allegedly anti-feminist message contradicting Swift's feminist identity. Jennifer Gannon from The Irish Times observed that Swift's celebrity friends were a tool for her to build a cult of personality rather than female empowerment, writing: "Her intentions may be honourable but tangled up within this complicated web of victimhood and tired gossip is her own form of girl power." The Atlantic's Spencer Kornharber defended the video, describing it as Swift's effort to counterattack "old stereotypes about women as inherently catty ... and that females must necessarily compete for the top spot in arenas from music to dating". Hannelore Roth, a literature professor, acknowledged Swift's feminist identity, but argued that the cast featured in the video implied that feminism is only accessible to rich and attractive women. Roth also noted that, since Welvin da Great (Lamar's character) appears to be the ringleader behind these women, the video proves to be "just a violent, pre-modern copy of the patriarchal structures at the office". In a retrospective review, Consequence critic Mary Siroky called the video "The Avengers of music videos". ## Accolades "Bad Blood" was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, and won Best Music Video at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards in 2016. At the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, the music video for "Bad Blood" received eight nominations and won two: Video of the Year and Best Collaboration. The song was one of the awarded songs at the 2016 ASCAP Pop Music Awards and the 2016 BMI Awards, where Swift became the first woman to win a prize named after its recipient, the Taylor Swift Award. The song received accolades at fan-voted awards such as Teen Choice Awards (including Choice Music - Collaboration), MTV Europe Music Awards, Radio Disney Music Awards and the Philippines' Myx Music Award. It received nominations at the American Music Awards (for Collaboration of the Year), People's Choice Awards, Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards and iHeartRadio Music Awards. Its music video won accolades at the UK Music Video Awards, Mexico's Telehit Awards and France's NRJ Music Award. ## Live performances and other usage At the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, Swift performed "Bad Blood" in a joint performance with Nicki Minaj; the two also performed "Trini Dem Girls" and "The Night Is Still Young", taken from Minaj's album The Pinkprint (2014). Swift included "Bad Blood" on the set list of the 1989 World Tour, which was launched in support of 1989 and ran through 2015. She also included the song on the set list for her 2018 Reputation Stadium Tour, where she performed it as part of a medley with her previous single "Should've Said No" (2008), and the Eras Tour (2023). The song has been featured in several occasions. English rock band Drenge covered the song for BBC Radio 1's live session on June 23, 2015. The animated web series How It Should Have Ended released a parody video based on "Bad Blood", titled "Bat Blood", in September 2015. "Bat Blood" parodies the marketing of the 2015 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Anthony Rizzo of the New York Yankees used "Bad Blood" as one of his walk-up songs during his time as a member of the Chicago Cubs in the 2015 and 2016 seasons. Canadian rapper-singer Drake included the song in his advertisement for Apple Music in November 2016. Rock singer Ryan Adams covered "Bad Blood" as part of his track-by-track interpretation of Swift's 1989. Adams's version is a guitar-driven alt-country song, as opposed to the original's electronic production. He released "Bad Blood" as a single preceding the release of his 1989 cover on September 17, 2015, through Apple Music's Beats 1 radio. Andrew Unterberger from Spin preferred Adams's stripped-down version to Swift's original song, and Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club called it "the quintessential Adams-style alt-country shuffle." Adams's "Bad Blood" peaked at number 25 on the Ultratop chart of Belgian Wallonia, and number 36 on Billboard's Rock Airplay chart. ## Credits and personnel Credits for the album version are adapted from liner notes of 1989, and credits for the remix version are adapted from Tidal. - Taylor Swift – vocals, backing vocals, songwriter - Kendrick Lamar – featured vocals, backing vocals, songwriter - Max Martin – producer, songwriter, programmer, keyboards, piano - Shellback – backing vocals, producer, songwriter, programmer, acoustic guitar, bass guitar, keyboards, drums, percussion, sounds (stomps and knees) - Ilya Salmanzadeh – backing vocals, producer, programmer, recording engineer - Michael Ilbert – recording engineer - Sam Holland – recording engineer - Ben Sedano – assistant recording engineer - Cory Bice – assistant recording engineer - Peter Carlsson – Pro Tools engineer - Serban Ghenea – mixing engineer - John Hanes – mixer - Tom Coyne – mastering engineer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## "Bad Blood (Taylor's Version)" A re-recorded version of "Bad Blood", titled "Bad Blood (Taylor's Version)", is scheduled for release on October 27, 2023, as part of 1989 (Taylor's Version), Swift's fourth re-recorded album. The song is a part of the re-recorded music from Swift following the dispute over the ownership of the masters of her older discography. A snippet of the re-recording was featured in the 2022 animated film DC League of Super-Pets. ## See also - List of number-one singles of 2015 (Australia) - List of number-one singles from the 2010s (New Zealand) - List of Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles of 2015 - List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 2015 - List of number-one digital songs of 2015 (US) - List of Billboard'' Mainstream Top 40 number-one songs of 2015 - List of Scottish number-one singles of 2015
27,350,691	Hermes o Logios	1,138,461,349	Greek periodical	[ "Defunct literary magazines published in Europe", "Defunct magazines published in Austria", "Greek-language magazines", "Magazines disestablished in 1821", "Magazines established in 1811", "Magazines published in Vienna", "Modern Greek Enlightenment" ]	Hermes o Logios, also known as Logios Ermis (Greek: Ἑρμῆς ὁ Λόγιος, "Hermes the Scholar") was a Greek periodical printed in Vienna, Austria, from 1811 to 1821. It is regarded as the most significant and longest running periodical of the period prior to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, containing contributions by key scholars and intellectuals. Hermes o Logios aimed at creating intellectual contacts between the Greek communities of the Ottoman Empire and the Diaspora in Western Europe, as well as the preparing national awakening of the Greek people. The periodical started its circulation after a proposal by Adamantios Korais, a leading figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment, who had stressed the need of a printed medium, written in vernacular Greek. This initiative was supported by the Philological Society in Bucharest, an organization consisting of Greek intellectuals. Hermes o Logios reflected the style of other European periodicals of early 19th century and reviewed developments in arts and sciences, being an important channel for bringing contemporary intellectual movements to the attention of the Greeks that lived in the Ottoman Empire. It was closed down by the Austrian authorities when the Greek War of Independence broke out. ## Background During the 18th century the ideals of the Western European Enlightenment and the French Revolution became widely known to the Greek scholars. They soon realized the potential of these new ideals, and especially of popular freedom and sovereignty for their own national struggle against Ottoman rule. Adamantios Korais, a humanist scholar and leading figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment, had stressed the desirability of a printed medium, written in the vernacular language, in order to spread these ideas to the Greek people, that lived in the Ottoman Empire and the Diaspora in Western Europe as well. Korais explained about the necessity of a periodical that would gather material from political and philological newspapers of the enlightened peoples of Europe and contain reports from Ottoman-ruled Greece. He also stressed that this should be edited by a man of learning, and proposed that his friend Anthimos Gazis, scholar and Orthodox priest in Vienna, would be the most suitable person. Vienna became the right place for such an initiative, since it was already the most important publishing centre for the Greek diaspora. In 1783 the Austrian Emperor had authorized the free printing of Greek books in the city, while in 1790 the first Greek newspaper, named Ephimeris, was published there. ## History ### Establishment (1811–1813) Hermes o Logios was established with the support of the Philological Society in Bucharest, an organization consisting of Greek intellectuals headed by the local Greek Orthodox Bishop, Ignatios II. The Society's goals, as published in the first issue of the periodical, were "the awakening to the progress of learning" and "the cultivation of the newer Greek language". Apart from Hermes o Logios, the Society supervised also a Greek-language school, financed translations of schoolbooks into modern Greek and provided scholarships for students to study abroad. Ignatios has already stated the need for a philological newspaper, in which each man of learning could publish his ideas, adding that "This is what the wise man Korais advises us to do and he has wisely chosen a worthy man, archimandrite Anthimos Gazis". The members of the Society then all agreed to cover part of the printing expenses. The first issue of Hermes o Logios was published on January 1, 1811, under the full title Ἑρμῆς ὁ Λόγιος, ἥ Φιλολογικαί Ἀγγελίαι (Hermes the Scholar, or Philological Reports). In the first three years of its existence (1811–1813), Hermes o Logios appeared twice a month and each issue usually consisted of 16 pages. In April 1813, Anthimos Gazis left Vienna and the editorship of the periodical was taken over by Theoklitos Farmakidis, another priest and an even more fanatical supporter of Korais. ### Crisis and revival (1814–1820) Hermes o Logios faced serious financial problems during this period. When the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812 ended, Ignatios was forced to resign and leave Bucharest and its main sponsor, the Philological Society, ceased to exist. In an announcement published as an appendix to the issues of 1813 (dated April 1, 1813), Alexandros Vasileiou, a supporter of Korais and influential personality within the Greek community of Vienna, states this fact, as well as that the periodical had too few subscribers. He therefore called on all readers to canvass for new subscribers; moreover he called upon all scholars to send in their contributions. During the period 1814–1815, Hermes o Logios reached an absolute low, with seven issues in 1814 and only one in 1815, which consisted of 16 pages written by Korais and directed against his ideological adversary, the conservative scholar, Neophytos Doukas. On the other hand, Gazis returned. In the following years, however, the periodical was subsidized by the princes of Moldavia, Scarlat Callimachi and Michael Soutzos. Apart from the difficulties faced, 1816 was a turning point, as two scholars and adherents of Korais, Theoklitos Farmakidis and Konstantinos Kokkinakis, were placed in charge. Consequently, Hermes o Logios actually became an outlet for Korais and continued to appear without interruption until the Greek War of Independence. ### Outbreak of the Greek War of Independence (1821) In 1821, the year that the War of Independence broke out, nine issues appeared between January and May. There is a special appendix to the issue of April 1, 1821, containing a Greek translation of an article dated March 29, taken from the Wiener Zeitung, which reports on the uprising of Alexandros Ypsilantis and Tudor Vladimirescu in the Danubian Principalities, that marked the beginning of the Greek War of Independence, and also states the official Austrian standpoint. In the issue of May 1, while Ypsilantis’ campaign was in full swing, the Austrian authorities required the editors to publish the excommunication issued by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Gregory V, against the architects of this uprising. This was the last issue of Hermes o Logios which then was closed down by the local authorities and Kokkinakis was arrested as a member of the patriotic organization Filiki Etaireia. ## Contents Hermes o Logios is regarded as the most important Greek periodical of the era of modern Greek Enlightenment, also known as Diafotismos. It appeared regularly over a period of ten and a half years and was the longest-running periodical prior to the outbreak of the Revolution. All volumes cover a total of 5131 pages, with texts on various subjects written by 918 contributors. ### Arts and sciences Its primary goal was to inform the Greek-speaking public within the Ottoman Empire and in the diaspora. Moreover, in favouring the views of Adamantios Korais it reflected the style of other European periodicals of that era. It reviewed developments in arts and sciences and was an important channel for bringing contemporary intellectual movements to the attention of the Ottoman-ruled Greeks. Additionally, it reproduced catalogues of European scientific books, and exhorted Greek scholars to translate and publish them, like those of Louis Jacques Thénard. The journal also published comments on astronomical observations, experiments and various articles on natural philosophy, which alternated with articles on history and philosophy. Greek scholars used as sources German or French educational books on physics, or translated and published texts on natural philosophy with large circulations in Europe, like the works of Antoine Fourcroy, René Just Haüy, and Jérôme Lalande. ### Possible revolutionary background Although Hermes o Logios was the most important publication for the transmission of progressive ideas to the Greek people, which should ultimately lead to the emancipation and independence, there was hardly any information of signs of an ongoing revolution, at least on the surface. There was the Austrian censure to be reckoned with, as the reactionary minister Klemens von Metternich and his secret police kept a very close eye on the activities of the local Greek community. The lack of items on politics, polity, law and social structures does not indicate an immanent revolution. Several editors were also members of the patriotic organization Filiki Etaireia and staunch supporters of the struggle for independence, but one can hardly maintain that this fervent patriotism is reflected in the subjects treated inside the periodical. Even in the last years, on the eve of the Greek War of Independence, in the fields of philology, sciences, philanthropy, etc., nothing out of the ordinary was published. On the other hand, there is no doubt that the contributors of Hermes o Logios dreamed of the liberation of the Greek nation and of an independent state. ### Positions in the Greek language question In respect to the Greek language question, it becomes obvious that from the very beginning Hermes o Logios adhered to Korais’ views. Korais claimed that the appropriate language for the Greek nation should be a vernacular (Demotic) language without foreign words and accepted some views by conservative scholars to retain a tincture of archaism. On the other hand, some of Korais' opponents, both conservatives and vernacularists, published their own magazines in which they attacked his linguistic views.
21,509,416	HMS Crescent (1931)	1,058,597,196	C-class British and afterward Canadian destroyer	[ "1931 ships", "C and D-class destroyers", "Canadian River-class destroyers", "Canadian River-class destroyers converted from C and D-class destroyers", "Maritime incidents in France", "Maritime incidents in June 1940", "Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness", "Ships of the Royal Canadian Navy", "Ships sunk in collisions" ]	HMS Crescent was a C-class destroyer which was built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s. The ship was initially assigned to the Home Fleet, although she was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935–36. Crescent was sold to the Royal Canadian Navy in late 1936 and renamed HMCS Fraser. She was stationed on the west coast of Canada until the beginning of World War II when she was transferred to the Atlantic coast for convoy escort duties. The ship was transferred to the United Kingdom (UK) in May 1940 and helped to evacuate refugees from France upon her arrival in early June. Fraser was sunk on 25 June 1940 in a collision with the anti-aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta while returning from one such mission. ## Design and construction Crescent displaced 1,375 long tons (1,397 t) at standard load and 1,865 long tons (1,895 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 329 feet (100.3 m), a beam of 33 feet (10.1 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of 36,000 shaft horsepower (27,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. Crescent carried a maximum of 473 long tons (481 t) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ship's complement was 145 officers and men. The ship mounted four 45-calibre 4.7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, Crescent had a single QF 3-inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels, and two 40-millimetre (1.6 in) QF 2-pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck. The 3-inch (76 mm) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2-pounders were relocated to between the funnels. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. Three depth-charge chutes were fitted, each with a capacity of two depth charges. After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges, delivered by one or two rails and two throwers. Crescent was ordered on 30 January 1930 as part of the 1929 Naval Programme and laid down on 1 December 1930 at Vickers-Armstrongs, Barrow-in-Furness. She was launched on 29 September 1931 and completed on 15 April 1932. ## Operational history After the ship commissioned on 21 April 1932, she was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet. Crescent collided with her sister HMS Comet at Chatham on 21 July and was under repair until 27 August. Crescent was refitted at Chatham between 30 March and 6 May 1933, before deploying to the West Indies between January and March 1934. She was given another refit at Chatham from 27 July to 3 September 1934. Crescent was detached from the Home Fleet during the Abyssinian Crisis, and deployed in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea from September 1935 to April 1936. When the ship returned, she was refitted at Sheerness between 23 April to 13 June and placed briefly in reserve. ### Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy Together with her sister HMS Cygnet, Crescent was sold to Canada on 20 October 1936 for a total price of £400,000. She was refitted again to meet Canadian standards, including the installation of ASDIC (sonar), and taken over by them on 1 February 1937. The ship was renamed as HMCS Fraser and commissioned into the RCN at Chatham on 17 February. Fraser was assigned to the Canadian Pacific Coast and arrived at Esquimalt on 3 May 1937. She remained there until she was ordered to the East Coast on 31 August 1939. When World War II began on 3 September, Fraser was transiting the Panama Canal and arrived at Halifax on 15 September. She and her sisters were employed as local escorts to ocean convoys sailing from Halifax. In November the Royal Navy's North America and West Indies Station took operational control of the Canadian destroyers. The ship escorted the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain part way across the North Atlantic in mid-December. In March 1940 she was ordered to join the Jamaica Force for Caribbean patrols before being reassigned to Western Approaches Command two months later. On 26 May she left Bermuda for Britain and arrived at Plymouth on 3 June where she was pressed into service evacuating Allied troops from various French ports on the Atlantic coast. Sometime in 1940, the ship's aft set of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced by a 4-inch (102 mm) AA gun. ## Loss On 25 June 1940, Fraser, her sister , and the cruiser Calcutta were returning from St. Jean de Luz after rescuing refugees trapped by the German Army (Operation Aerial), when Fraser was rammed by Calcutta in the Gironde estuary. Struck forward of the bridge by the cruiser's bow, Fraser was cut in half and sank immediately. All but 45 of the ship's crew were rescued by Restigouche and other nearby ships. Many of the survivors from Fraser transferred that later summer to , and were lost when that vessel sank on 22 October 1940 as a result of a collision with the freighter MV Port Fairy.
62,818,321	Ana Lucrecia Taglioretti	1,160,052,252	Paraguayan violinist (1995–2020)	[ "1995 births", "2020 deaths", "21st-century violinists", "21st-century women musicians", "Blind musicians", "Paraguayan people with disabilities", "Paraguayan violinists", "Paraguayan women musicians", "Place of birth missing", "Unsolved deaths", "Women violinists" ]	Ana Lucrecia Taglioretti (25 December 1995 – 7 January 2020) was a Paraguayan violinist and prodigy. Born blind, Taglioretti started studying music at the age of five, beginning her education on the piano, later studying singing and finally specializing in the violin. She joined the National Symphonic Orchestra of Paraguay in April 2014, and was invited several times to participate in Teletón Paraguay [es] telethons, as well as United Nations Paraguay and Global Infancia events. Taglioretti also participated in both national and international musical festivals and performed with artists such as Carlos Vives, Rolando Chaparro and Lizza Bogado. On 23 September 2019 Taglioretti, along with other National Symphonic Orchestra musicians, participated in a benefit concert to help Paraguayan Chaco families affected by drought and wildfires. Taglioretti was found dead on the afternoon of 9 January 2020 in the apartment where she lived. Her autopsy showed she had not suffered a violent death. ## Early life and education Taglioretti was born on 25 December 1995, three months premature. After spending three months in neonatal incubation, she was discharged, but had been abandoned; the Paraguayan Red Cross looked after her until she was adopted. She was abandoned again when her blindness was discovered. She was then adopted by a music teacher. Her adoptive mother said in 2007 that Taglioretti had stunted psychological development, which is why she would not enroll her in school and taught her with a personal curriculum at home, administering exams directly with the Ministry for Education. Taglioretti studied music from the age of five, beginning her education on the piano. When she was six she joined the Luque International Sanatorium Choir (Coro del Sanatorio Internacional de Luque), and in 2003 she joined the youth orchestra project Sounds of the Earth (Sonidos de la Tierra). Taglioretti then branched out in music; she said that she stopped playing piano to study singing, then later had to choose between playing the harp and the violin, eventually leaving singing to specialize in the latter. In 2005 she continued her studies in the National Music Conservatory and afterwards was part of one of the Miranda Conservatory orchestras. ## Career After her conservatory years, Taglioretti joined the group Urban Sound (Sonido Urbano), along with Jimena Ramírez and Rodrigo Espinosa, which opened the Harp Twins concert in the Paraguayan American Cultural Center, in October 2014. In 2010 she released her first record with the support of Amnesty International as part of the campaign A Violin for Human Rights (Un violín a favor de los derechos humanos), and in 2011 she was awarded the Young Leader of the Year Award by the Paraguay Leaders Fund. Taglioretti joined the National Symphonic Orchestra of Paraguay in April 2014, and was invited several times to participate in Teletón Paraguay [es] telethons, as well as United Nations Paraguay and Global Infancia events. She has also performed with artists such as Carlos Vives, Rolando Chaparro and Lizza Bogado. Of the performance with Vives, Taglioretti said that it was unplanned and unexpected. She had been a fan of the singer since she heard him when she was young, and went to his concert in October 2013 without a ticket, not expecting them to actually let her in, but was recognized by the cumbia band Grupo 5, who took her backstage; while backstage. Vives also recognized her and approached her to perform with him. Taglioretti participated in both national and international musical festivals. She said that she preferred to play in a group than be a soloist. On 23 September 2019 Taglioretti, along with other National Symphonic Orchestra musicians, participated in a benefit concert to help Paraguayan Chaco families affected by drought and wildfires. They collected clothes and non-perishable food items for the victims. ## Personal life In September 2012 it was reported that Taglioretti, aged sixteen, was the victim of domestic abuse at the hands of her adoptive mother when she was repeatedly found sleeping in garden chairs after being locked out of the family home, sometimes with her violin and clothes also around the garden. Eventually, neighbors' complaints and their concerns after Taglioretti supposedly mentioned contemplating suicide as an escape to a neighbor in passing, had a police and child services investigation launched. The neighbors' complaints included a video of Taglioretti speaking in one of their houses when she had run away to have dinner there; in the video, Taglioretti says that she had run away from home in March 2012 to go to the police, but was picked up and verbally abused by the mother. After listening to her wishes, a judicial order sentenced that Taglioretti would have a substitute family. She was 16 years old at the time and lived with them until she was 20 years old. ## Death Taglioretti was found dead on the afternoon of 9 January 2020 in the apartment where she lived. After her mother received no answer when she rang the doorbell, she called a locksmith. It is estimated that her body was found around 48 hours after her death. At the time of her death, she lived in an apartment located in Piribebuy street, between Chile and Alberdi, in Asunción. Both Paraguay's National Culture Secretary and the National Symphonic Orchestra paid tribute to the violinist, lamenting her death and giving their condolences to the family. On 10 January, the prosecutor that led the investigation gave a statement to say that the autopsy disregarded a violent death, because the body "did not have any fractures" or "trauma", and hinted that the cause of death was natural. The Public Ministry explained that the next autopsy results were expected in three weeks. According to people close to Taglioretti, her family had a history of heart conditions, so a cardiac arrest as her cause of death has not been dismissed. ## See also - List of unsolved deaths
40,106,480	Prism (Katy Perry album)	1,171,391,167	null	[ "2013 albums", "Albums involved in plagiarism controversies", "Albums produced by Benny Blanco", "Albums produced by Bloodshy & Avant", "Albums produced by Cirkut", "Albums produced by Dr. Luke", "Albums produced by Greg Kurstin", "Albums produced by Greg Wells", "Albums produced by Klas Åhlund", "Albums produced by Max Martin", "Albums produced by Stargate", "Capitol Records albums", "Katy Perry albums" ]	Prism is the fourth studio album by American singer Katy Perry. It was released by Capitol Records on October 18, 2013. While the album was initially planned to be "darker" than her previous material, Prism ultimately became a prominently dance-inspired record. Perry worked with several past collaborators, while enlisting new producers and guest vocals. Much of Prism revolves around the themes of living in the present, relationships, and self-empowerment. The album garnered generally positive reviews with critics praising its lyrics for being more "mature" and personal, while others considered Prism to be more formulaic than her previous material. The album debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with 286,000 copies sold, becoming Perry's best opening week to date. The album also peaked at number one in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Prism became Perry's fastest-selling album, the second best-selling album in Australia in 2013, and the second best-selling album released by a woman in the United States in 2013. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) reported that Prism was the sixth best-selling album in the world in 2013, the best-selling album in the world in 2013 released by a woman, and labeled Perry "a global phenomenon." It has sold over 4 million copies worldwide. The album's success continued throughout 2014, ranking within the top 10 of the annual charts for 2014 in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, and earned Perry a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards. The release of the album was preceded by the release of two singles. "Roar" was released on August 10, 2013, as the album's lead single and topped the Billboard Hot 100. "Unconditionally" debuted on October 16, 2013, as the record's second single. In between the release of these two tracks were the releases of promotional singles "Dark Horse" on September 17 and "Walking on Air" on September 30, 2013. "Dark Horse" was released as the album's third single three months later on December 17, 2013, and also reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. "Birthday" and "This Is How We Do" were the fourth and fifth singles, respectively. Prism was further promoted through the Prismatic World Tour. ## Background After concluding her California Dreams Tour, Perry stated that she intended to "live a little" before recording any new material that was "worth listening to". When ex-husband Russell Brand left her on December 30, 2011, she felt devastated and contemplated suicide. Perry revealed to Vogue in June 2012 that she planned to record a "darker" album than her previous records. She stated: "It was inevitable, after what I went through. If I had a time machine and could go back in time, I would. But I can't, so, you'll discover another part of me." To Interview, she mentioned that she aspired to include a more acoustic vibe to the record. Perry also said that her music would be getting "real fucking dark" and "shoegazing", though also stated that her fans would be able to relate to it. "I imagine that maybe my next record would be a little bit more of an artistic venture," she said. "Not that I'm going to self-sabotage either and be like, 'I'm going to make a crazy record that nobody really understands.'" That fall, she later told Billboard about her plans for the album, saying she already envisioned several aspects of it. Perry told the magazine that she already had songs and ideas, and knew the type of record she would make next. She also said that although she had not started recording yet, she already knew how the artwork, coloring and tone of the album would turn out. Perry further detailed: "I have to let the music take shape first. I even know what type of tour I'm doing next. I'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality. But I have to honor the music." ## Recording The development of Prism started when Perry was embarking on the California Dreams Tour. She began with a process she deemed "slow cooking", which consisted of recording random "fragments of ideas" into her mobile phone's dictaphone application. A member of Direct Management Group, Ngoc Hoang, then transcribed the audio files, which he inserted into what Perry described as a "treasure chest"; such object was consulted by Perry later on during the album's recording sessions. While Perry started recording the album officially in November 2012, accompanied by Greg Wells and Greg Kurstin, she noted she was still in a "dark place", and that she had not "let the light in". The sessions began again in March 2013, following a trip to Madagascar which Perry credited as having "put [her] priorities in perspective", thus leading her to "do more work on [her]self". Perry also viewed a video made by Eckhart Tolle, which discusses loss. She commented: "When you lose something, all your foundations crumble—but that also leaves a big hole that's open for something great to come through." After feeling prepared to record again, she reunited with her team from Teenage Dream—Dr. Luke, Bonnie McKee, and Cirkut—in Perry's hometown of Santa Barbara, California, where they spent a month recording at Playback Recording Studio among others. After those sessions, she went to Stockholm, where she worked with Scandinavian record producer Max Martin, to do what Perry called "put[ting] the ice on the cake". She also recruited other collaborators, such as Norwegian team Stargate, Bloodshy, Benny Blanco, Jonatha Brooke and Sia. By April 2013, recording for the album was halfway complete, and Perry revealed to ASCAP how was working with such collaborators. She affirmed that Wells allowed her to "vomit words"; with Martin, she picked the melodies of the songs; Luke mostly helmed the production and she worked with "topline and melody". Perry described writing sessions with McKee as "emotional abuse", adding that they argue over the "best lyric", as if they were fighting in a boxing ring. McKee, who wrote four songs for Prism, spoke with MTV on the effort, describing it as "a little bit more grown up" and "interesting". ## Composition The album opens with "Roar", a midtempo synth-driven power pop track. Musically, it contains elements of arena rock and glam rock, while lyrically it is an empowerment anthem. Comparisons were established between "Roar" and "Brave" by Sara Bareilles. "Legendary Lovers", a bhangra-based song, deals with the concepts of karma and infinity. "Birthday" was described by Perry as her own attempt at "writing something Mariah Carey would have put on her first record". Musically, it is a "fluffy" pop song that is primarily styled in the genre of disco. "Walking on Air", the album's second promotional single, is an early 1990s-inspired deep house-Eurodance-disco song, inspired heavily by CeCe Peniston and Crystal Waters. It was produced by Klas Åhlund and Max Martin. "Unconditionally", Perry's personal favorite song on the album and second official single, is a "soaring" power ballad with an "epic chorus". Jason Lipshutz from Billboard noted that the song includes a "woodblock percussion" as well as "a dramatic bass line" and deemed it the album's "most mature offering". Furthermore, he called it "an ode to love that looks past all flaws" and stated that the song acts as a "compellingly grounded predicate" to the title track from Teenage Dream. Perry herself described the song as a song about unconditional love that could come in all forms, including those from relationships, from parent-to-child, and from sibling-to-sibling. "Dark Horse" is a song with ample influences of trap, grime, hip hop, and "Southern rap-techno mashup" genres. "This Is How We Do", produced by Max Martin and Klas Ahlund, was described as being the possible "song of summer" for 2014. Shirley Halperin from The Hollywood Reporter described "This Is How We Do" as "a sunny 80s throwback", while Edna Gundersen from USA Today described it as a "buoyant pop blast with hip-hop underpinnings" and praised the song's recurring refrain ("It's no big deal!"). James Montgomery from MTV News called the song a "cocksure, club-ready banger". With "Double Rainbow", produced by Greg Kustin and co-writer Sia, Perry was allowed to "dump pent-up emotions" and "get things off her chest". The song was described as a "massive ballad". Lipshutz deemed it as a "breathy love track" with a "powerful chorus that explodes upon impact" with lyrics that include "One man's trash is another man's treasure / so if it's up to me, I'm gonna keep you forever". He added that "Kurstin brings the pop sensibility he's flashed with artists like Kelly Clarkson and P!nk, while Sia's presence connects this sleek, shimmering pop track to [her David Guetta collaboration] 'Titanium'". Elijah Sarkesian felt that "Some of Katy's finest vocals of the album are on this song". Perry described "Love Me" as a song "about loving yourself the way you want to be loved". Gundersen called it "irresistibly catchy and energetic". The song was produced by Bloodshy. Sarkesian called it "an interesting mix – the lyrics are dark, but the music is very dance-centric. At the very least, it'll do well in clubs". Montgomery stated that "Love Me" and "International Smile" both "seem destined for the dance floors". The latter was inspired by Perry's friend Mia Moretti, and was compared to the songs on Perry's previous album. Lipshutz called it a "straightforward pop-rock offering" and described its guitar hook as "kicky", adding that the song also includes a "Melting Daft Punk-esque vocoder breakdown". Halperin stated that in the song, Perry sings the "hooky" line: "Please fasten your seat belts and make sure your champagne glasses are empty". Halperin described "This Moment" and "Ghost" as "mid-tempo ballads that are closest in DNA to Perry's previous smashes". Perry stated that she was inspired to write "This Moment" after she heard the audio book of The Power of Now; the song's lyrics talk about "living in the present"; with Perry "add[ing] a romantic spin" to it. Gary Trust described "Ghost" as a "mesmerizing ballad", while Gundersen described it as "powerful, dark, and haunting". Lipshutz felt that "Ghost" and "By the Grace of God" contain the album's "most somber moments". While talking about each Prism track, Perry mentioned that "By the Grace of God" was the first song she wrote and recorded for the album back in November 2012 while she was in her "dark" phase. Jody Rosen from Vulture described bonus track "Spiritual" as an inspirational song. Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast described "It Takes Two" as a "sweeping ballad" which allowed Perry to "show off a full-throated belt that so many of her more bubbly tracks mask". In "Choose Your Battles", Perry "pounds her chest and spews venom at the man she cannot understand". ## Release and promotion ### Promotion and countdown singles On July 29, 2013, a golden truck driving in Los Angeles revealed the album's title as Prism and that it would be released on October 22, 2013. On August 9, the truck was hit by a drunk driver in Pennsylvania, but no injuries were reported. On August 20, Pepsi revealed a partnership with Perry, in which fans were given the opportunity to unlock song titles, lyrics, and snippets from Prism by tweeting the hashtag \#KATYNOW. Additionally, Pepsi provided previews of the songs "Dark Horse" and "Walking on Air", and fans could vote for which song they wanted to have an early release on music platforms. The former song was declared the winner and was released onto iTunes on September 17, 2013. Three listening parties for Prism were hosted: on September 5, 2013, one was hosted in New York, open exclusively to an audience of 100 industry insiders and journalists, where twelve tracks were played. A second Prism listening party took place the next day in Atlanta, while a third took place September 12 in Los Angeles at the Hammer Museum. In a press release on August 20, 2013, Pepsi announced a partnership with Perry to promote her fourth studio album Prism: a social "tweet-to-unlock" voting program, encouraging fans to tweet the hashtag \#KATYNOW in exchange for song titles and lyrics. The chosen tracks for the campaign were "Walking on Air" and "Dark Horse". After the samples were revealed, fans could vote for which one they wanted to have an early release on digital retailers. The winner was "Dark Horse", which was released on September 17, 2013, on the iTunes Store, serving then as the album's first promotional single. It debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and at number ten on the New Zealand Singles Chart. Perry first performed "Dark Horse" three days later at the iHeartRadio Music Festival. "Walking on Air" was released as the second promotional single on September 30. The song peaked at number 34 at Billboard Hot 100 and at number 80 in the United Kingdom. Prism was released on October 18, 2013. Its album cover was unveiled on September 6, 2013, on a Jumbotron during Good Morning America, and was shot by American photographer Ryan McGinley. For the deluxe edition, 300,000 copies with an iridescent digipak package were printed, and came with the album's logo printed onto seed paper. ### Prismatic World Tour Perry began the Prismatic World Tour on May 7, 2014, at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The first leg of the tour also featured performances in Scotland and England that month. The second leg was announced on January 15, 2014, consisting of concerts in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. The leg ran from June to October 2014. ## Singles "Roar" was serviced to mainstream radio stations on August 10, 2013, as the album's lead single, and its digital release followed two days later. It received mixed-to-positive commentary from music critics, who commended its "easy" and "poppy" beat, while some were ambivalent towards its clichéd lyrics. Commercially, it was a success, topping the Billboard Hot 100 and charts in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It became Australia's best performing song of 2013 with 560,000 copies sold by the end of the year and spending 9 weeks atop the nation's charts. The song was nominated for the Song of the Year and the Best Pop Solo Performance awards at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. "Unconditionally" was released as the album's second single on October 16, 2013. It received generally favorable reviews from critics, who praised it for being "soaring" and "effortless". A lyric video for the song was released two days after its debut, and its official music video was released on November 19, 2013. To promote the single, Perry has performed on various occasions, including a geisha-themed performance of it on the American Music Awards of 2013, which attracted negative press, controversy and accusations of cultural appropriation. "Unconditionally" has peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has charted moderately worldwide, reaching the top 30 in the single charts of Canada and Germany and the Top 10 in Italy. "Dark Horse" was released on December 17, 2013, as the album's third official single. It had previously been released as the album's first promotional single exactly three months prior to its single release. The following week, the song leaped to number four due to topping the Hot Digital Songs, selling 243,000 copies. With "Dark Horse" topping the Hot Digital Songs chart, it became Perry's 10th digital number-one single. The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart on January 29, 2014, becoming Perry's 9th number one single in the United States. It was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards. On April 3, 2014, "Birthday" was announced as the album's fourth official single. It debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 and impacted mainstream radio in the U.S. on April 21, 2014. This single peaked at number 17 in the US, becoming her 15th song to reach the top 20 in the nation. "This Is How We Do" served as the fifth official single from the album. A lyric video of the song was released on July 24, 2014. One week later, its official music video premiered and the track was sent to French radio on the same day. The song debuted at number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 on August 9, 2014, and peaked at number 24. According to PopDust and Charts in France, "Legendary Lovers" was set to be released as a single, however its release was cancelled to unknown reasons. However, the song received unofficial airplay in France. Additionally track's producer Max Martin hinted possible remix release featuring Canadian rapper and singer Drake. ## Critical reception Upon release, Prism received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars, writing that "Perry and her longtime collaborators Dr. Luke and Max Martin often go for a darker, moodier intimacy à la high-end Swedish divas Robyn and Lykke Li. Perry has always done a great job of letting us know she's in on the joke of pop stardom. Sadly, she doesn't always bring that same sense of humor and self-awareness to the joke of pop-star introspection. The album's raft of ripe-lotus ballads is larded with Alanis-ian poesy she can't pull off". Nick Catucci from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+ and stated that "Katy's superpower, now more than ever, is minting songs so relatable that their insights quickly scale up to inspirational..... Now she grasps that she's making the mainstream, not just swimming in it". Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph gave the album five out of five stars, stating Perry "sounds like a woman, and an artist, who's finally found herself" and praised the "vulnerability" of the album. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic, Alexis Petridis from The Guardian, and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine all also gave the album three out of five stars. Erlewine dubbed Prism "a tighter, cleaner record than its predecessors". Petridis called it "Katy Perry's most spiritual album to date". Mesfin Fekadu from ABC News deemed the tracks "likable", but felt the album lacked "some of the fiery fierceness and excitement that dominated Teenage Dream". James Reed from The Boston Globe felt Perry "always seemed like the pop star who knows precisely what she does best" and called the album "an unabashedly fun listen". Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound gave the album three and a half out of five stars, calling Perry "a champion of choruses". Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune gave the album 2 out of 4 stars, commenting "Though not exactly spiritual, Prism does come off as a more serious—if no less formulaic—album than its predecessor". Marah Eakin from The A.V. Club gave the album a C+, commenting "A lot of Prism is simply forgettable", though praised the tracks "Roar", "Birthday", and "This Is How We Do". Rob Harvilla from Spin gave the album a 5/10 rating, and felt some of the material was not "all that desirable". Elysa Gardner from USA Today gave the album a 3/4 rating and found the album to be "genuine and endearing". Trent Wolbe from The Verge gave an overall 4/4 rating and praised Perry's ability to "wrapping hyper-specific emotions into a new format that everyone can relate to". He particularly praised the tracks "International Smile" and "Birthday", declaring the chorus of "Birthday" to be "fucking perfect". Jody Rosen from Vulture was disappointed with every track on the album except for "Roar". Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times gave the album a 3/4 rating, calling it "a shimmering, dynamic, heavy-duty modern pop album". At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, Prism was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album, but lost against Sam Smith's In the Lonely Hour. ## Commercial performance Prism made its official debut in Ireland, where it charted atop the charts. In the United States, the album opened at the top spot on the US Billboard 200, becoming her second consecutive number one album in the country. The album sold 286,000 copies in its first week. Prism acquired the largest first week sum by a female artist for 2013, surpassing Miley Cyrus' Bangerz (270,000 copies). However, this feat was surpassed by Beyoncé's self-titled fifth album, Beyoncé (617,213 digital copies), released in December 2013. At the time of its release Prism had the fourth highest first week sales of the year for a pop record, trailing behind Daft Punk's May 2013 album Random Access Memories, which sold 339,000 copies and Justin Timberlake's The 20/20 Experience which debuted to 968,000 copies and its follow-up The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2 which debuted to just 350,000 copies. The first week sales also marks Perry's highest weekly sales, with her previous album Teenage Dream selling 192,000 copies in its first week in August 2010. Prism has the highest first week sales for a female pop artist since Madonna's twelfth studio album, MDNA. Prism sold 92,000 copies during its second week of availability, falling to number two on the Billboard 200. This represented the smallest sales dip for a number one album in the United States since the August 2013 release of The Civil Wars. Prism spent 17 weeks in the top-ten on the chart. The album has been certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold 1.74 million copies in the United States as of August 2020. In June 2014, Billboard announced its Mid Year Top 20 Best-selling albums with Prism coming in at number 9 with sales of 453,000 in 2014 alone. Pharrell Williams and Perry were the only two people in to have an album and a single in the Mid Year Top 10 charts. In February 2015, following Perry's performance at the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show, sales for the album increased by 85% and the album rebounded back into the Top 50. In New Zealand, the album became Perry's second consecutive number one album, and was certified gold by Recorded Music NZ, selling over 7,500 copies in its first week sales. Prism opened atop the ARIA Album Charts, giving the singer her second number-one album in Australia after Teenage Dream. It was the nation's 688th album to top its charts overall and 342nd to enter at the summit. The record received a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) during its second week of release, and became the country's second highest-selling album of the year behind Pink's The Truth About Love with 179,000 copies sold by the end of 2013. In Europe, the album was a moderate success. In Switzerland, the album debuted at two, just behind James Blunt's Moon Landing and was certified Gold shortly after. In Austria, the album debuted at number three and was certified Gold in its first week, achieving Platinum certification a month later. In France, Prism debuted in the Top 10, spending a dozen weeks in the Top 40, and has sold over 130,000 copies according to SNEP. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at the top of the charts, where it was certified Platinum and went on to sell 433,000 copies by February 2017. In The Netherlands and Denmark, the album debuted and peaked at number four. As of August 2015, Prism has sold over 4 million copies worldwide. ## Accolades ## Track listing Credits adapted from the liner notes of Prism. ## Personnel The following people contributed to Prism: - Klas Åhlund – production, programming - Cory Bice – assistant - Tim Blacksmith – management - Ron Blake – saxophone - Benny Blanco – instrumentation, production, programming - Delbert Bowers – assistant - Peter Carlsson – engineer - Cirkut – instrumentation, production, programming - Bradford Cobb – management - Danny D. – management - Sabina Ddumba – background vocals - Dr. Luke – coral sitar, executive producer, instrumentation, production, programming - Eric Eylands – assistant - Rachael Findlen – assistant - Justin Fox – assistant recording engineer - Alex Foster – saxophone - Mike Foster – engineer - Chris Galland – assistant - Earl Gardner – trumpet - Chris Gehringer – mastering - Şerban Ghenea – mixing - Clint Gibbs – engineer - John Hanes – engineer - Ngoc Hoàng – management - Sam Holland – engineer - Ian Mcgregor – engineer - Michael Ilbert – engineer - Ava James – vocals - Steven Jensen – management - Juicy J – featured artist, vocals - Aditya Kalyanpur – tabla - Christian Karlsson – engineer, instrumentation, production, programming - Martin Kirkup – management - Greg Kurstin – engineer, guitar, keyboards, production, programming - Ronobit Lahiri – sitar - Tucker Bodine – engineer - Andrew Luftman – production co-ordination - Magnus – engineer, instrumentation, programming - Manny Marroquin – mixing - Max Martin – executive producer, instrumentation, production, programming, background vocals - John Mayer – guitar - Dan McCarroll – A&R - Ryan McGinley – photography - Mogollon – art direction, design - Dave O'Donnell – horn engineer - Alex Pasco – engineer - Katy Perry – executive producer, primary artist, production, lead vocals, background vocals - Lenny Pickett – horn arrangements, saxophone - Vincent Pontare – engineer, instrumentation, programming - Irene Richter – production co-ordination - Saturday Night Live Band – main personnel - Chris Sclafani – assistant - Gingger Shankar – double violin - Jesse Shatkin – engineer - Stargate – instrumentation, production, programming, composition, engineering - Tensta Gospel Choir – background vocals - Steve Turre – trombone - Greg Wells – drums, piano, production, programming, synthesizer - Steven Wolf – drums - Scott "Yarmov" Yarmovsky – production co-ordination - Kenta Yonesaka – assistant ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - Album era
9,060,269	Cane Ashby	1,140,853,665	Fictional character from The Young and the Restless	[ "Adoptee characters in television", "Fictional Australian people", "Fictional bartenders", "Fictional business executives", "Fictional businesspeople", "Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead", "Fictional con artists", "Fictional identical twins", "Fictional twins", "Male characters in television", "Television characters introduced in 2007", "The Young and the Restless characters" ]	Cane Ashby is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. He is portrayed by Australian actor Daniel Goddard, who had auditioned for Brad Snyder on As the World Turns but was recommended for a role on The Young and the Restless instead. The role was to be portrayed as an American, but Goddard's Australian descent influenced the character's background. Former head writer Lynn Marie Latham introduced him during the episode airing on January 12, 2007 as an Australian bartender in search of his family. Latham created Cane as the son of Phillip Chancellor II (Donnelly Rhodes) and Jill Abbott (Jess Walton) but the character's background was rewritten by Maria Arena Bell in 2009, re-establishing him as the son of Colin and Genevieve Atkinson (Tristan Rogers and Genie Francis). Though characterized as "mysterious", Cane is "loyal and dedicated", while Goddard described the character as a "typical Australian, working-class kind of guy". He was the first member of the Atkinson family to appear on the series, followed by his parents and identical twin brother. Soon after his debut, he became a leading character, a decision praised by viewers and critics. The character has been involved with Amber Moore (Adrienne Frantz), Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) and most notably Lily Winters (Christel Khalil), a romance that garnered significant fan attention. In 2009, Cane and Lily were married; Global BC would later call Lily the love of Cane's life. The pair had two children, Charlie and Mattie Ashby. In 2011, Goddard was fired from the role, and Cane was shot to death onscreen. However, the actor was rehired soon after viewers campaigned for his return, revealing that Cane's identical twin brother was in fact the man who died. Cane's marriage to Lily was sacrificed, however, they later remarried on Valentine's Day in 2012. While the character's debut received a mixed response, Goddard has been widely acclaimed for his portrayal; Canyon News said that he portrays the character honestly, and is "always dependable, on fire and exciting". ## Casting and creation Goddard auditioned for Brad Snyder on As the World Turns and, though he was not cast in the part, Barbara Bloom, the senior vice-president of CBS Daytime, recommended Goddard to The Young and the Restless''' head writer and executive producer, Lynn Marie Latham. After testing for the character of Cane for Latham and casting director Karen Rea, Goddard received the role. The Australian actor auditioned with an American accent, but when the writers found out about his Australian background, that influenced Cane's backstory. The actor stated that, "The concept of Cane was that he was given away at birth. So he could have been from Mongolia. It just worked out luckily for me that I was the right person for the job." Since the producers could not understand the actor's real Australian accent, Goddard "Americanized" it while portraying the character. In October 2019, Goddard announced his exit from the role. ## Development ### Characterization The writers first detailed Cane as "a smart, loyal, and moral survivalist with an edge". Goddard describes Cane as a "typical Australian, working-class kind of guy who mined opals, raised goats, then went off for travel and adventure to sort of find himself". Global BC penned Cane as "mysterious". SoapNet described Cane as a "pretty stand-up guy", as well as "loyal and dedicated to the people he cares about". The network said his time in Genoa City has "made him a good man". In an interview with On-Air On-Soaps, Goddard said that Cane working at Jabot Cosmetics is "very enthusiastic and cautious about falling into a family business which is an Abbott company", and that he is "very sensitive about that". He also stated that Cane "has no fears in doing business with anybody" because if you can come from a "family of gangsters then business people don't really measure up". Looking back on Cane's "power jobs", Goddard stated: "I don’t think Cane has the book learning skills side of it, but I think he has the life lessons side of it, based on who he is and where he has come from. The way he does business with people, he kind of understands who they are as people." ### Backstory and maternity William J. Bell had created the character of Phillip Chancellor III in 1976, and he remained a vital part of the soap opera's storylines until his death onscreen in 1989. In 2007, Latham rewrote Chancellor's birth by establishing that Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), Jill's enemy and Phillip Chancellor II's wife, switched their child with another hours after his birth; the character was brought back to the series as an adult named Cane Ashby, an Australian looking for his birth mother. During that time, Goddard did not want to know the real motives of his character because he did not want that to influence his performance. After the revelation that Jill was Cane's mother, his views changed, saying he "now welcomed the information as it added more color to his portrayal". The initial lack of information made portraying Cane difficult since there was an amount of ambiguity over whether he was a good, bad, or mediocre character. The ambiguity deepened when Goddard read the script revealing that a DNA test performed for Jill and Cane came back negative. He stated that he had never asked Latham "what was going on" with the storyline, but told her that he could "play anything he needed to". A second DNA test later confirmed Cane as Jill's son. Goddard also said it was "too good to be true" for Cane to be Jill's son, adding that, "But, down the road you realize these people actually do care about you, that you can reciprocate that care. For Cane, he's had so much time without them it's pointless to have the time with them and not enjoying it." Though the maternity question was answered, more ambiguity about Cane's intentions appeared as the character received a phone call from his uncle Langley that hinted about Cane scheming against Jill and Katherine. The original intent of the call was to show that Cane wanted what was owed to him after being given away as an infant. The writers changed directions after the popularity of the character grew. Goddard said he felt the phone call was resolved within the story when Cane sent money to his uncle as part of taking care of him. In 2008, the storyline about the call Cane received from Langley was readdressed, as re-written by Maria Arena Bell. In her revised version of the storyline, Langley is really Phillip Chancellor III, portrayed by Thom Bierdz. The series kept secrecy around the plot twist by sneaking Bierdz in to tape scenes and asked that he not tell anyone of his return. Goddard liked the plot twist because it added another dimension to Cane, saying that the change would "allow another metamorphosis to begin" and additional "development and evolution of Cane". He also said that Cane had always been a "three-dimensional character" and "a fourth dimension" would soon be seen because the viewers would finally find out where he came from and who he is. Bell later introduced Tristan Rogers as Colin Atkinson and Genie Francis as Genevieve Atkinson, who would portray Cane's biological parents. Goddard stated that Rogers being on the soap opera "created a father/son rapport" for the character, which he thought had "a lot of promise" and was a "wonderful dynamic". ### Relationships The character's first romance on the soap opera was with Amber Moore (Adrienne Frantz). She later tricked him into believing they were married, and they separated after the truth surfaced. After the relationship ended, the writers planned on pairing Cane with Phyllis Summers (Michelle Stafford), but the popularity of Phyllis' romance with Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow) halted the plans for the pairing. Cane was instead written into a romance with Lily Winters (Christel Khalil); Goddard described Lily as becoming Cane's "anti-Amber". He felt the character lost a "certain amount of edge" and a "certain amount of his dynamic" after being paired with Lily but said it was replaced with "a level of compassion, understanding, tolerance, romance and love", since that those characteristics were "all the things that daytime is really about at its core". Goddard compared the romance between Lily and Cane to Lady Chatterley's Lover since both characters grew and learned from the relationship. Cane developed an attraction to Heather Stevens (portrayed by Vail Bloom) while with Lily; Goddard noted it would "come down to what Cane needs" when choosing between the two women. The storylines written for the lovers included a controversy with the characters' age gap, a miscarriage, and a love rectangle with Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) and Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). Within the love rectangle story, Chloe tricks Cane into thinking they conceived a child together. To make the storyline work, the writers scripted Cane as less intelligent, a strategy they used previously during his storyline with Amber. To keep the character from looking bad, Goddard said he made acting choices to justify Cane's actions. Despite the lessening of the character's intelligence, Goddard said he liked the story because of the originality of the plot. Love triangles and questioned paternity happen regularly in soap operas, but he felt that former head writer Maria Arena Bell managed to make those conventions fresh and new. Khalil stated that she "loved" the storyline, also saying she loved the actors involved in it. Khalil said she thought it "was a possibility" for Lily and Cane to have a happy ending, and that Lily "can see the hope, and they can adapt and love each other in a more mature and honest way". Cane married Lily in 2009, and the following year, Global BC called Lily the love of Cane's life. In 2011, Lily divorced Cane after he continued to lie to her about his faked death. However, she eventually discovered Cane was trying to protect her, and they were remarried. Goddard commented that their relationship "had come full circle" and "was being done well". Of Cane and Lily's second wedding, Goddard stated that Cane and Lily have "certainly had a lot of ups and downs", but he thought through all of that their fans "stayed true and they have expressed their desire for what they want to see". Goddard also thought their wedding of "this caliber" would make their fans "very, very happy and that is what this is about". ### 2011 departure Goddard was fired from the soap opera in 2011, and Cane was shot to death onscreen on the episode dated February 2. There were rumors that Maria Arena Bell, Latham's successor, killed the character because he was created by Latham, but this was denied. Soap Opera Weekly reported another rumor regarding the firing, saying tension between the actor and his co-stars resulted in Goddard's exit. Cane's onscreen death caused a "massive outcry" from viewers, and fans campaigned for the actor's return by sending emails and making phone calls to CBS and Sony Pictures Television. As part of the campaign, a group of viewers paid for an airplane to fly over CBS Studios with the message: "Y&R Fans Want Daniel Goddard As Cane Ashby". The plane flew over the building for about an hour. Regarding the campaign, Goddard stated: "When they started their campaign to bring Cane back, I wrote on my Facebook page that I never expected this. I have the greatest fans. There are no ifs, ands or buts about it. One of my fans coined Goddard's Family of Fans and that's what it is, GFF." In another interview, he stated he was "humbled" by viewer efforts to have him remain as the character. The actor was then rehired, revealing within the storyline that Cane's death had been faked and his twin brother, Caleb, was the one who died. Goddard had stated that he was very impressed with the soap opera's ability to keep Cane's faked death a secret. For his death scene, Goddard said he did research on how the human body reacts muscularly, how much control the person has, and what their breathing is like. Goddard stated that he did not know which character he was portraying until a certain point through the storyline, and that he "had to play it ambiguously". He also commented that it was difficult as an actor as he did not want it to look like Cane was ever manipulating Lily, however, he said it thought it was a "great storyline the fans could get behind". ## Storylines In January 2007, Cane debuted as a bartender at "Indigo", Neil Winters' (Kristoff St. John) nightclub, remaining in the United States beyond the expiration of his visa, leaving him fearful of being deported. Thereafter, he became involved with Amber Moore (Adrienne Frantz), who first used him to make Adrian Korbel (Eyal Podell) jealous and later found out Cane was looking for his birth mother. He had been adopted by a woman named Violet Montgomery and raised by her brother, Langley Ashby, after her death in Canberra, Australia. Amber was trying to find Phillip Chancellor III, Jill Abbott's (Jess Walton) lost son, who was really switched at birth with another child by Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper). Amber realized that Cane might be Jill's son and decided to marry him; they went to Las Vegas, became intoxicated and Amber tricked Cane into thinking they were married. Amber's suspicions of Cane being Jill's son were proven true, and Cane shared a reunion with Jill, as well as prevented his deportation. Cane and Amber then moved into the Chancellor Estate and he began working for Katherine's company. Cane then found their marriage certificate and noticed that his signature was unrecognizable, leading to his discovery that the marriage was invalid. Cane then rejected a devastated Amber. Cane shared a kiss with Lily Winters (Christel Khalil) in September 2007, sparking an attraction to Heather Stevens (Vail Bloom). Cane and Heather decided to be friends and Cane pursued Lily romantically, despite initial hesitations due to their age difference. Lily then became pregnant with Cane's child but soon miscarries. They later move into a house together, and Cane proposes in August 2008; she accepts. Cane then passed out intoxicated in Chloe Mitchell's (Elizabeth Hendrickson) car, Chloe takes advantage of Cane and tricks him into believing they slept together. Chloe was pregnant prior to her scheme but Cane was not excluded as a possible father. Lily moved out of their house upon this discovery and convinced Cane to marry Chloe for the sake of the child, however, Chloe's real identity was Kate Valentine, daughter of Esther Valentine (Kate Linder). Cane had the marriage annulled but still decided to stay with Chloe. Billy Abbott (Billy Miller) then discovered he was the father of Chloe's child, but decided to let Cane raise it. Billy and Lily then began an affair despite Cane still being in love with Lily and Chloe with Billy. Cane later discovers that the child, Delia, was not his and was convinced by Lily not to fight for custody but instead resume their relationship; they were later married. After the wedding, Cane recalled a phone call he had with his "Uncle Langley" regarding their con with Jill and Katherine. Afterward, Langley was revealed to be the long deceased Phillip Chancellor III in June 2009; Cane was in fact not Jill's son but someone hired by Phillip. Lily and Cane separated upon this revelation, but soon reunited upon her diagnosis with ovarian cancer. Her uterus was taken out during surgery, but the doctors were able to harvest two of her eggs; they decided to start a family with Mackenzie Browning (Clementine Ford) acting as their surrogate mother. Browning became pregnant with twins. Afterward, an immigration officer arrested Cane and planned to deport him, as he was not truly Phillip. Since he was present for the birth of his children, Charlie and Mattie in June 2010 and helped Lily overcome cancer he was not deported. Cane was then blackmailed by the crime family he turned to in Australia, and embezzled money from Tucker McCall's (Stephen Nichols) company with the help of Sofia Dupre (Julia Pace Mitchell). Cane's biological father, Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers), then came to Genoa City in December 2010 to help Blake Joseph blackmail Cane. Colin then became engaged to Jill much to Cane's dismay. Cane then tried to stop their wedding but was shot in the chest by Blake on the church steps; he died afterward, leaving Lily devastated. Lily then began believing she was receiving afterlife messages from Cane and sought professional help. After seeing Cane several times, Lily realized he wasn't a figment of her imagination; it was then revealed in May 2011 that the man shot at the church wasn't Cane, but his identical twin brother, Caleb, who was scheming with Colin to kidnap Charlie and Mattie. However, Cane continued to act as Caleb to stop the plot with Colin and later his mother, Genevieve (Genie Francis). When Lily found out about the entire conspiracy, she refused to forgive Cane and divorced him. After Colin tried to kidnap her children, Lily began to forgive Cane and let him protect her. When Cane threatened to return to Australia, Lily let him back into her life. Later, they reunited when she realized the cause of all the secrets: to take down Colin. Cane proposed to her again and they married in Provence, France in February 2012. Genevieve stays in town, and Cane constantly rejects her for everything she has done. Cane and Lily then go to work at Jabot Cosmetics, where Cane is interim CEO. Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams) becomes smitten with Lily and the two develop an attraction, making Cane jealous. Lily and Tyler share a kiss, but she turns him down and returns to Cane. Cane then helps Katherine discover she has a brain tumor that needs to be removed. While she is on sick leave, she names Cane interim CEO of her company, Chancellor Industries. He later hires an assistant, Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan), whom Jill and then Lily become suspicious of. Meanwhile, an unknown blogger is targeting the Winters family online, with photos of Hilary kissing Cane as well as the two of them in a hotel room. After a private investigation, the Winters figure out Hilary is the blogger (as she blames Neil for her mother's death years prior) just as Hilary attempts to drug Cane. She is fired from Chancellor Industries and shunned by the family. Soon after, everyone gets word that Katherine has died from terminal cancer while on trip around the world. She leaves Cane as CEO, but leaves her percentage to Victor Newman (Eric Braeden). After recovering their marriage, Cane and Lily agree to become the new managers of the Genoa City Athletic Club after her brother Devon Hamilton (Bryton James) buys it. In 2015, Cane and Lily experience marital problems after Lily learns Cane knew about Devon and Hilary's affair. Cane takes a job at Fenmore's and begins to grow close to his step-aunt, Lauren Fenmore (Tracey Bregman). The two eventually share a kiss which causes further problems within his marriage. Incorrectly thinking he and Lauren are having an affair, Lily lashes out by sleeping with Cane's friend and one-time business associate, Joe Clark (Scott Elrod). Cane dumps Lily after she confesses to the tryst. The two reconcile a few months later with Joe having become obsessed with Lily. He is subsequently framed by Joe as having involvement in Hilary's disappearance. Lily is unsure of what to believe causing Cane to be upset that she would question his innocence and the two separate, with Cane moving out of their home. Lily sleeps with Joe again before finding out the truth. Lily agrees to help Cane clear his name but he rejects her attempts to reconcile. The two eventually reconcile in early 2016. Jill purchases Brash & Sassy and appoints Cane co-CEO alongside Billy Abbott (Jason Thompson) and Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle). In 2017, Jill sells Brash & Sassy to Victoria and Lily becomes their brand ambassador. Cane believes Victoria's romantic feelings for Billy make her bias, so Cane plots to have Billy fired. After Billy secures a lucrative deal for Brash &Sassy everyone travels to Los Angeles to film a national commercial. Cane pays a videographer to alter footage involving Billy. The footage airs during a live broadcast causing a PR nightmare. As a result, Lily's commercial is pulled and Brash & Sassy loses a substantial amount of money. Prior to this, while on a business trip to Tokyo, Cane gets drunk and has sex with a colleague, Juliet Helton (Laur Allen). Cane tries to keep the one-night-stand a secret but when Victoria fires Juliet for approving the footage, she files a sexual harassment lawsuit against the company naming Cane as her harasser. Cane at first denies anything sexual happened but when Juliet announces her pregnancy he finally admits to a tearful Lily that he had sex with Juliet. Victoria feels forced to settle the suit and fires Cane for costing her company a substantial amount of money. After a DNA test proves Cane is the father, he is thankful that Lily decides to stay in their marriage but the videographer comes back asking for more money. Cane, afraid of Lily learning he is responsible for her national commercial being pulled, uses the twin's private high school tuition money to pay him off. When Lily learns of this from Billy and Victoria, she kicks him out and he moves into the Chancellor Mansion. After months of unemployment Jill agrees to appoint him interim CEO of Chancellor Industries. He is devastated when Lily files for divorce but when Juliet dies during childbirth the divorce is postponed. Upon Lily's suggestion, Cane names his newborn son Sam, after his deceased younger sister Samantha. In 2018, Cane pursues Lily to Paris, the two have a romantic reunion and they renew their vows on Valentine's Day. Lily is later sentenced to a year in prison for vehicular homicide and is sent to prison. Cane struggles with loneliness in her absence and kisses Victoria Newman twice. The second of which Billy Abbott interrupts and relays to Lily that Cane is cheating on her while she's in prison. She is upset but vows to "survive this by any means necessary." Lily subsequently cuts off communication with Cane and removes him from her visitors list. When Cane later receives divorce paper in the mail, he rips them up and vows to fight for his marriage. Cane pleads with Lily to work on their marriage but Lily sticks to her decision. Neil unexpectedly passes away on the day of Lily's release in April 2019 and Lily leaves Genoa City after her father's funeral. Cane is devastated at the loss of his marriage and after weeks of hoping Lily will return to him, he finally signs the divorce papers. During this time Cane develops a friendship with Traci Abbott (Beth Maitland) who supports him as tries to figure out his future without Lily. Traci develops a crush on Cane, which Cane is initially unaware of but later reciprocates which leads to him kissing her but the two decide to remain good friends instead of exploring a romantic relationship. In the fall of 2019, will pages are discovered that names Cane as the heir to the bulk of Katherine Chancellor's fortune, as opposed to his former brother-in-law Devon. Wanting to honor his late grandmother's wishes, Devon signs over the 2.4 billion dollars he inherited to Cane. Afterward, it is discovered that the new will pages were a forgery by Colin and Colin implicates Cane as a co-conspirator in the scam. Colin confesses to taking the money out of Cane's account and escapes from police custody. Cane vows to track down Colin, clear his name and return the money to the rightful heir. ## Reception Cane's debut in 2007 received a mixed response. Soap Opera Digest praised the storyline as "a riveting tale". Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada found the story unrealistic, but praised the addition of Goddard and Cane to the series, saying: "A few eyebrows were raised when The Young and the Restless decided to rewrite history by bringing in Daniel Goddard to play Jill's 'real' son, Phillip Chancellor. But as romantic rogue Cane Ashby, the talented newcomer seduced us into suspending our disbelief — for now!" Soon after the character's introduction, Cane and Goddard became popular among viewers and gained praise from critics. BuddyTV described Goddard as "spicing up The Young and the Restless" as Cane with "his character's storylines surrounding his true identity and his whirlwind relationship with Amber". Cane's romance with Lily later gained "a very vocal, and loyal fan base". Janet Di Lauro of Soap Opera Weekly commended Maria Arena Bell's change to Cane's backstory, saying: "This story also breathes new life into Cane, who was becoming increasingly dull as a whitewashed, pompous do-gooder. Suddenly, he has his edge back." Soap Opera Digest gave the storyline a thumbs up and a thumbs down because, though it was an exciting twist, it happened too closely to the other Chancellor family rewrite undoing the mother and daughter relationship between Jill and Katherine. The magazine later named the storyline the "Most Preposterous Plot Twist" of 2009 because the rewrite "was way out of sync with Y&R's usual authentic approach to storytelling". In 2011, Tommy Garrett of Canyon News said that Goddard is "forever second guessing his character when asked about Cane by the media", also stating that, "To keep an edgy Cane, never to make him boring and lifeless. That's why Cane is forever keeping secrets from his wife Lily and step mom Jill." Garrett added that he was "interested to see what Maria Bell's plan is" to keep the character edgy, and that Goddard's performance is "always dependable, on fire and exciting". In 2013, another writer from Canyon News'', LaDale Anderson, commented that it was difficult for Lily to resist attraction to Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams), saying that "trouble in paradise is brewing".
49,501,553	2016 Volta a Catalunya	1,140,162,478	null	[ "2016 UCI World Tour", "2016 in Catalan sport", "2016 in Spanish road cycling", "March 2016 sports events in Spain", "Volta a Catalunya by year" ]	The 2016 Volta a Catalunya was a road cycling stage race that took place in Catalonia, Spain, from 21 to 27 March. It was the fifth race of the 2016 UCI World Tour and the 96th edition of the Volta a Catalunya. The race included seven stages. Two of these included summit finishes, so the favourites for the race were all climbers. Favourites for overall victory included Chris Froome (), Alberto Contador (), Nairo Quintana () and the defending champion Richie Porte (): the race was the first meeting of several of the riders expected to feature in the Grand Tours later in the season. The first two stages were Nacer Bouhanni (). He then withdrew through illness on the third stage, which included the first summit finish. This was won by Dan Martin (), who took over the overall lead. Martin lost the lead, however, on the next stage, the second summit finish of the race, where Quintana won the stage and took over the overall lead. Quintana defended his lead over the following stage to take the overall victory, seven seconds ahead of Contador, with Martin ten seconds further back in third. Thomas De Gendt () won both the mountains and intermediate sprints classifications, with Hugh Carthy () winning the young rider classification. BMC won the team classification. ## Route The 2016 Volta a Catalunya included seven stages, all of which were road stages with no time trials. The first two stages were moderately hilly and were possibly suitable for sprinters. The third and fourth stage both included summit finishes. The third stage finished on the climb of La Molina, with the fourth finishing at Port Ainé. The fifth stage included a climb shortly before the finish, giving an opportunity for an attack, before another flat stage on the sixth day. The final stage finished on a hilly circuit in Barcelona. Following the cancellation of mountain stages in both Paris–Nice and Tirreno–Adriatico in the previous weeks, there was some concern before the start of the race that the Volta might also be affected by heavy snow; the finish at Port Ainé still had 75 centimetres (2.5 ft) of snow on the nearby ski slopes. ## Participating teams The race organisers invited 25 teams to enter the Volta a Catalunya. These included the eighteen UCI WorldTeams, which were automatically invited and obliged to enter a team. Seven Professional Continental teams received wild card invitations Each team could include eight riders. only included seven riders in their team, so 199 riders started the first stage. ## Pre-race favourites The race was expected to be decided on its two mountainous days and so was particularly suited for climbers. Cyclingnews.com described the list of favourites for victory at the Volta as "formidable" and as including "almost all the main contenders for both the Giro d'Italia and the Tour de France". Foremost among these was Chris Froome (), the reigning champion of the Tour de France. Froome's only previous race in the 2016 season was the Herald Sun Tour, which he won. Froome had a strong team that included two other possible contenders for overall victory: Geraint Thomas (who had won Paris–Nice) and Wout Poels (who had won the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana). Froome's form was, however, described by his directeur sportif as "an incognito", given the long period since his last race. The prominent riders competing with Froome for overall victory included Alberto Contador (), the reigning champion of the Giro d'Italia; Nairo Quintana (), who was second in the 2016 Tour de France; Fabio Aru (), the reigning champion of the Vuelta a España; and Richie Porte (), the defending champion of the Volta itself. Other riders with a chance of high placings included Joaquim Rodríguez (), who had won the race on two previous occasions, and Dan Martin (), the 2013 Volta winner, as well as many other climbers. On account of the mountainous terrain, there were few pure sprinters starting the race. The strongest sprinter who was present was Nacer Bouhanni (), who had been strong in Paris–Nice and had been close to victory in Milan–San Remo until his chain slipped. ## Stages ### Stage 1 21 March 2016, Calella to Calella, 175.8 km (109.2 mi) The first stage of the Volta covered a 175.8-kilometre (109.2 mi) course that started and ended on the coast in Calella; the course looped through an inland region and crossed several climbs. After first travelling along the coast, the riders turned north as far as Anglès, then turned west to cross the day's first climb, the second-category Alt de les Guilleries, followed immediately by the third-category Alt de Viladrau. As the roads turned back to the south, there was then a flat section before the biggest climb of the day, the first-category Coli Formic. After the descent came the second-category Alt de Montseny and the final climb of the day, the third-category Alt de Collsacreu. The summit of the final climb came with 18.2 kilometres (11.3 mi) to the finish line, on a long straight road in Calella. An early breakaway was formed by Lluís Mas (), Boris Dron () and Cameron Meyer (); they built a lead of over six minutes. From the climb of the Coll Formic, however, they were chased by Movistar and Cofidis; Meyer was the first over the summit to take the lead of the mountains classification, but they were caught soon afterwards. On the Alt de Montseny, Louis Vervaeke () broke away, with a six-man group chasing; meanwhile the main group split in two until Vasil Kiryienka (Sky) pulled the groups back together. With 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) remaining, Sky and Cofidis came to the front of the peloton to control the race for their sprinters. Björn Thurau attacked and was quickly brought back; Nicolas Roche (Sky) then attacked on a slight uphill section of road with approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) remaining and built a twelve-second lead. He was caught, however, by Tinkoff and Orica–GreenEDGE within the final 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). After Katusha led the peloton under the flamme rouge, Orica–GreenEDGE opened up the sprint with Simon Gerrans. Ben Swift (Sky) and Nacer Bouhanni (Cofidis) followed Gerrans and Bouhanni came past to win the stage. Swift was second, with Gerrans third. ### Stage 2 22 March, Mataró to Olot, 178.7 km (111.0 mi) The second stage was raced over a 178.7-kilometre (111.0 mi) course from Mataró to Olot. The stage was generally flat, with two categorised climbs. The first of these was the third-category Alt de Can Bordoi after 30 kilometres (18.6 mi). The second was the first-category Alt de Els Angels; at the summit of the climb there were 70 kilometres (43 mi) remaining. In the final 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), the roads rose again, although there was not a categorised climb and the final kilometres were flat. There was a 270° turn with just over 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) remaining; after this the road was straight all the way to the finish. Before the stage started, there was a minute's silence to acknowledge the bombings in Brussels that morning, with many riders – especially the Belgians – wearing black armbands. There was a four-man early breakaway that included two Belgians – Boris Dron () and Thomas De Gendt () – alongside Kamil Gradek (Verva ActiveJet) and Maxime Bouet (Etixx–QuickStep). Dron was first across both categorised climbs, with De Gendt winning both intermediate sprints and the associated bonus seconds. Dron fell away from the break with 30 kilometres (19 mi) remaining; shortly afterwards De Gendt attacked alone. About 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) later, however, he gave up on his effort, as Cofidis were chasing too hard in the main peloton. In the final 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), there were several teams attempting to control the peloton – including Team Sky with Chris Froome sitting in second place in an attempt to keep him out of danger. Movistar moved to the front with 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) remaining, with FDJ and Orica–GreenEDGE also at the front. In the final 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), however, Cofidis moved back to the front, with Geoffrey Soupe leading out Bouhanni. Bouhanni easily won the sprint, with Gianni Meersman () second and Philippe Gilbert (BMC) third. Bouhanni therefore extended his lead to 14 seconds ahead of Swift – who finished outside the top 10 – and De Gendt, who moved up to third thanks to the bonus seconds he won. Bouhanni revealed after the stage that he had been suffering from a sore stomach and had visited the race doctor. ### Stage 3 23 March, Girona to La Molina, 172.1 km (106.9 mi) The third stage included the first summit finish of the race. It covered a 172.1-kilometre (106.9 mi) route from Girona to the La Molina ski resort. The route generally took the riders north-west, with four first-category climbs along the way. After passing through Olot, where Stage 2 had finished, the riders crossed the Alt de Coubet after 63 kilometres (39.15 mi). There was then a long climb to the Alt de Toses, the highest climb of the day, which came with 56 kilometres (34.80 mi) to the finish line. After the descent, the riders passed through Alp, then began the first climb to La Molina, a 12.6-kilometre (7.8 mi) climb at an average gradient of 4.2%, including a descent towards the top. The riders then descended back into Alp and repeated the climb; the finish of the stage came at the ski station itself. The day's early breakaway was formed by seven riders: Julian Alaphilippe (), Koen Bouwman (LottoNL–Jumbo), Kévin Reza (FDJ), Johann van Zyl (Dimension Data), Jan Hirt (), Huub Duyn () and Alex Howes (Cannondale). On the day's first climb, Bouhanni lost several minutes due to his stomach illness; after 90 kilometres (56 mi) he was over seven minutes behind the peloton and was forced to retire from the race. Howes and Duyn attacked the breakaway and had a 31-second lead going into the first of the two ascents of La Molina. During the climb, Pieter Weening (Roompot) attacked from the peloton and caught the two breakaway riders; almost immediately he attacked alone and built a gap. Meanwhile, Team Sky led the peloton with all eight riders, with Movistar close behind; they quickly caught Howes and Duyn. Weening had about a minute's advantage at the top of the climb. During the descent, the peloton chased hard and reduced Weening's advantage to 30 seconds, with Sky still leading the peloton. Louis Meintjes (Lampre–Mérida) crashed shortly before the final climb began. On the climb, Louis Vervaeke attacked with 10 kilometres (6 mi) remaining and passed Weening. Within the final 5 kilometres (3.1 mi), the peloton caught him and the peloton stayed together, led by Sky, as the road descended briefly before the final ascent to the finishing line. Wout Poels (Sky) attacked as the road began to rise, but was followed by Contador. Quintana attacked next and was chased by Ilnur Zakarin (Katusha) and Contador. Richie Porte attempted to escape the group, but he was chased down by Froome. Quintana then attacked again and was followed by Dan Martin, who then passed Quintana and moved into the lead. Tejay van Garderen (BMC) chased, with Contador following, but Martin was able to stay away to the finish line. Contador finished two seconds back, with Romain Bardet () third and van Garderen fourth, all on the same time. With the bonus seconds, Martin moved into the overall lead, six seconds ahead of Contador. ### Stage 4 24 March, Bagà to Port Ainé, 172.2 km (107.0 mi) The fourth stage included the second and final summit finish of the race. It covered a 172.2-kilometre (107.0 mi) route from Bagà to Port Ainé, with four categorised climbs on the route. The first climb came at the very beginning of the day's racing; it was a third-category climb whose summit came 5.6 kilometres (3.5 mi) into the stage. There was then a long flat section – which passed through Alp again – before the special-category Port de Cantó. After a steep descent, there was a first-category climb, followed by a descent. The final climb to Port Ainé was 18.5 kilometres (11.5 mi) at 6.8%. The early breakaway was formed by Philippe Gilbert (BMC), Imanol Erviti (Movistar), Rubén Plaza (Orica–GreenEDGE), Thomas De Gendt (Lotto–Soudal), Laurens ten Dam (), Kristijan Đurasek (Lampre–Mérida), Pieter Weening (Roompot), Boris Dron (), Alexey Tsatevich (Katusha) and Ben Swift (Team Sky). Dron won the special-category climb, with the lead over the peloton at around ten minutes. The breakaway then broke up, with De Gendt and Erviti continuing together at the front of the race; on the penultimate climb, they had a seven-minute advantage on the peloton. Weening made contact with them again just before the summit of the climb and they collaborated on the descent. Coming towards the base of the final climb, Wout Poels (Sky) attacked from the peloton and linked up with Swift; despite their work, they were unable to build a significant advantage as Contador chased them. On the final climb, Erviti attacked, but he was soon passed by Weening, who built up a minute's lead. Poels was eventually caught with 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) remaining, while De Gendt had caught up with Weening again. There were several attacks in the peloton, from Mikel Nieve (Sky), Robert Gesink () and Miguel Ángel López (Astana), but the first strong attack came from van Garderen. Contador eventually chased him, with Porte, Quintana and Martin following, but Martin was soon dropped. Van Garderen was caught by Contador's group and Contador and Quintana then dropped the BMC riders. Meanwhile, De Gendt passed Weening and continued solo to take the stage win. Quintana attacked in the final 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) and finished second, 15 seconds ahead of Porte and Contador. Quintana therefore took over the race lead, with Contador eight seconds behind in second. After the stage, Contador blamed his time loss to Quintana on the effort he had put into chasing down attacks in the final kilometres, in particular that of van Garderen. Porte also praised van Garderen's efforts and was pleased with their collaboration. Froome, meanwhile, lost 37 seconds to Quintana and his directeur sportif, Nicolas Portal, said that he "didn't have the legs" to follow the leaders' attacks. ### Stage 5 25 March, Rialp to Valls, 187.2 km (116.3 mi) After two consecutive summit finishes, the fifth stage was simpler, with a 187.2-kilometre (116.3 mi) stage with just two categorised climbs. The route took the riders south from Rialp to Valls. The first 65 kilometres (40 mi) of the stage was fairly flat, before the second-category Port d'Àger climb. The roads continued to be flat until the final 40 kilometres (25 mi) of the stage. First there was an uncategorised climb with a summit around 35 kilometres (22 mi) before the finish. Then, in the final 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), there was the Alt de Lilla, a 4.1-kilometre (2.5 mi), second-category climb with an average gradient of 4.8%. After the final descent, the road slightly to the finish. No breakaway was formed in the first two-and-a-half hours of racing. Dan Martin won the day's first intermediate sprint, earning him three bonus seconds, with Contador taking one second for third place at the sprint. Eventually, after more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) of racing, a seven-rider breakaway was formed. The riders in the breakaway were Carlos Verona (Etixx–Quick-Step), Dario Cataldo (Astana), Jan Polanc (Lampre–Mérida), Kanstantsin Sivtsov (Dimension Data), Tosh Van der Sande (Lotto–Soudal), and Gaëtan Bille and Frederik Veuchelen (both Wanty–Groupe Gobert). With 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) remaining, the breakaway had two minutes' lead. On the Alt de Lilla, Poels attacked alone. At the summit, Poels had a lead of 20 seconds over the other breakaway riders. Cataldo and Verona attempted to chase him down, but their failure to collaborate in the chase meant that Sivtsov and Bille were able to catch them; Poels's lead extended to 30 seconds. In the final kilometres, the chase group got closer to him, but he was able to take the stage win, eleven seconds ahead of the chasing group. In the main peloton, Quintana followed Contador on the climb. Daniel Navarro (Cofidis), Rigoberto Urán (Cannondale) and Romain Bardet () all attempted attacks but were unable to escape. The peloton of 66 riders finished 33 seconds behind Poels, with no change to the overall standings. ### Stage 6 26 March, Sant Joan Despí to Vilanova i la Geltrú, 197.2 km (122.5 mi) The sixth stage took the riders 197.2 kilometres (122.5 mi) from Sant Joan Despí to Vilanova i la Geltrú. The riders initially travelled along the coast, crossing the third-category Alt de la Maradona, then turned inland for a long loop. The day's most significant climb, the second-category Alt de la Ventoses, came after 110 kilometres (68 mi), but the roads were otherwise mainly flat. The route turned back towards the coast to the finish. One of the principal sprinters left in the race, Sky's Ben Swift, pulled out of the stage before the start due to illness. There was again a fast start to the stage. Riders attempted to form a breakaway, but the teams with overall favourites sought to give their riders a chance at contesting the intermediate sprint that came after 12 kilometres (7.5 mi). The sprint was won by Dan Martin, putting him just one second off the overall podium. After another 50 kilometres (31 mi) of racing, the day's breakaway was finally formed by eleven riders: Petr Vakoč (Etixx–Quick-Step), Esteban Chaves (Orica–GreenEDGE), Laurens Ten Dam (Giant–Alpecin), Ryder Hesjedal (Trek–Segafredo), Bert-Jan Lindeman (LottoNL–Jumbo), Alex Howes (Cannondale), Cameron Meyer (Dimension Data), Axel Domont (AG2R La Mondiale), Romain Hardy and Rudy Molard (both Cofidis), and Marco Minnaard (Wanty–Groupe Gobert). Around halfway through the stage, they had a lead of five minutes but, due to the flat terrain, there were several teams with sprinters who were determined to bring the break back. Lampre–Mérida did most of the work at the front of the peloton; several riders also fell away from the breakaway during the course of the stage. In the final 30 kilometres (19 mi), Trek–Segafredo joined in the chase; Tinkoff then tried to split the peloton in the crosswinds but were unsuccessful. With 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) remaining, the breakaway had a 40-second lead. Vakoč made a failed attempt at a solo attack; the lead was reduced to 20 seconds with 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) remaining. Meyer, Lindeman, Vakoč and Molard attacked again and stayed clear of the peloton into the final kilometre. The chasing group was close, however, and Meyer made another attack; he was caught in the final 100 metres (330 ft). Davide Cimolai (Lampre–Mérida) used the slipstream of the breakaway riders to launch his sprint and won the stage comfortably. It was Cimolai's first ever World Tour victory, and Lampre–Mérida's first victory at any level in 2016. ### Stage 7 27 March, Barcelona to Barcelona, 136.4 km (84.8 mi) The final stage followed a 136.4-kilometre (84.8 mi) course that started and finished in Barcelona. The stage began by taking the riders north out of the city as far as Ullastrell, where there was a second-category climb. The route then turned back south, crossing a third-category climb as it returned to Barcelona after 80 kilometres (50 mi) of racing. There were then eight laps of a 6.5-kilometre (4.0 mi) finishing circuit, each lap including the third-category climb of the Alt de Montjuïc. Early in the stage, Dan Martin came third in an intermediate sprint, giving him a bonus second. He was level on time with Porte, but moved ahead of him into third place thanks to his better placings through the race. There was then a 12-man breakaway, whose lead was over three minutes at the start of the first circuit. There were attacks in the breakaway group from Lluis Mas () and Matej Mohorič (Lampre–Mérida). In the peloton, there was a brief attack by Contador, then a more significant attack from Fabio Aru. Aru was joined by Barguil and Vervaeke and they gained half a minute. They were brought back by Quintana's Movistar team; Froome then immediately made an attack. Quintana chased the move down himself, with Contador, Rodríguez and Navarro following, and the group was caught by the peloton. Hugh Carthy () also made an unsuccessful attack. Mohorič was passed by Alexey Tsatevich (Katusha) and Primož Roglič (LottoNL–Jumbo), who went on to contest a two-man sprint. Tsatevich won the sprint, despite an early celebration that nearly allowed Roglič to come past him. The peloton finished together, 14 seconds behind, with Jarlinson Pantano (IAM) winning the sprint for third place. Quintana therefore sealed his overall victory, with Contador second and Martin third. ## Post-race analysis ### Reactions Quintana described himself as "very pleased and proud" with his victory, describing it as one of the toughest races of his career, especially after his team was reduced to five riders in the final stages. He said, however, that he did not believe he was significantly ahead of Contador, Froome or his other rivals for the major races later in the season, saying that "there's a long way to go for the Tour". Contador, meanwhile, described himself as "very happy with how I'm feeling", though he described it as a "pity" that he had lost Paris–Nice by four seconds and the Volta a Catalunya by seven. He suggested that he could have won the race had he ridden differently on Stage 4 to Port-Ainé. Nicolas Portal, Chris Froome's directeur sportif, described his form as "very encouraging", saying that all he lacked was the top-end speed when the other riders accelerated at the end of the mountain stages. One other prominent performance was that of Hugh Carthy, who finished ninth overall and won the young rider classification. He described it as "by far the best [he'd] ever performed"; Cyclingnews.com described it as a "breakthrough performance". ### UCI World Tour standings The top ten riders in the Volta a Catalunya general classification were awarded points in the 2016 UCI World Tour competition. Points were also awarded for finishing in the top five places on each stage. With the points from the Volta, Quintana entered the rankings in eighth place, while Contador moved from tenth to third. Despite his fourth place, Porte was unable to defend his first place in the rankings, as Peter Sagan (Tinkoff) had won points from both the E3 Harelbeke and the Gent–Wevelgem and moved into the lead. Tinkoff also moved into the lead of the teams' rankings, while Australia remained top in the nations' rankings. ## Classifications In the 2016 Volta a Catalunya, four different jerseys were awarded. The most important of these was the general classification, calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage. Time bonuses were awarded to the first three riders at the intermediate sprints on each stage (3, 2 and 1 seconds respectively) and at each stage finish (10, 6 and 4 seconds). The leader wore a white and green jersey. A related competition was the youth classification: the highest-ranked rider born after 1 January 1991 was the leader of this classification and wore a "design" jersey. Additionally, there was a sprints classification, the leader of which was awarded a white jersey. In the sprints classification, riders received points for finishing in the top three at intermediate sprint points during each stage. There was also a mountains classification, the leadership of which was marked by a red jersey. Points for this classification were won by the first riders to the top of each categorised climb, with more points available for the higher-categorised climbs. There was also a classification for teams, in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time. ### Classification leadership table ### Final classifications
40,928,977	Cushing House	1,152,018,295	Student dormitory at Vassar College	[ "Houses completed in 1927", "University and college dormitories in the United States", "Vassar College buildings" ]	Cushing House (formerly called Cushing Hall) is a four-story dormitory on Vassar College's campus in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York. A response to freshmen overcrowding, the college's Board of Trustees hurried the Allen & Collens-designed building, named for college librarian and alumna trustee Florence M. Cushing, to construction and completion in 1927. Cushing was originally designed as eight smaller houses with euthenic principles in mind, but ended up as a single U-shaped dormitory in the Old English manor house style with Jacobean interior furnishings. Students of all grades may live in the house, which houses up to 202 in single, double, and triple rooms. Throughout Cushing's history, various proposals and plans have incited controversy among the building's residents, including designating one of its wings as all-black housing and converting one of its common areas into eight single rooms. Contemporary reviewers have looked favorably upon Cushing's aesthetic qualities, declaring it to be one of Vassar's most beautiful buildings. ## History Before Cushing House's construction, Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, faced a housing deficit relative to the number of students it enrolled, a situation deemed an emergency by the college's Board of Trustees. For the first quarter of the twentieth century, one third of the college's freshmen were housed off campus due to rising enrollment over that period. The Board voted in 1925 to move all students to on-campus housing, acknowledging the lack of adequate space for the move but pledging that they would swiftly build more. The following year, the Board voted to begin construction on the new hall without first securing funding for the building, trusting that the "friends of the College" would meet the financial demands of the project. In the meantime, the house was built using loaned funds, with the total project cost coming to \$400,000. Original plans for Cushing House, then called Cushing Hall, saw the building as a model of Vassar's euthenics program. The term euthenics was first defined by Ellen Swallow Richards of Vassar's class of 1870 as "the betterment of living conditions, though conspicuous endeavor for the purpose of securing more efficient human beings". In accordance with these principles, initial schematics saw the dormitory divided into eight separate houses all surrounded by a brick wall. Cushing was ultimately designed by architectural firm Allen & Collens which was also responsible for several other buildings on Vassar's campus including the Thompson Memorial Library and its wings before Cushing's completion, Wimpfheimer Nursery School concurrently, and Skinner Hall of Music afterwards in 1932. The Cushing project was completed in 1927 and the dormitory was named for the college's first alumnae trustee, Florence M. Cushing, who was a member of the Vassar class of 1874 and the college's librarian from the year of her graduation until 1876. On account of her death in September 1927, Cushing Hall was not dedicated in time for the incoming class of freshman for the 1927–28 school year; instead, the dedication which was marked by an informal reception was put off until October 29 of the same year. In 1954, Cushing residents were "perturbed" by the possibility of a new language hall being built within the dormitory's sightlines, citing the concern that any artificial construction would ruin their views. Another controversy arose in April 1970 after students from Cushing objected to a plan put forth by a contingent of black students and approved by the Board of Trustees that would designate one wing of Cushing as a co-ed housing space for black students of all grades. Prior to the plan's formulation, upperclassmen black students could opt to live in a student community in Kendrick House while underclassmen could live in an analogous community in Main Building. Cushing residents were not notified of the plan until after its approval and a public meeting was held at which objections were raised by both Cushing residents and black students that one wing of the dorm might not be enough space to foster a black community and that Kendrick House should instead be repurposed as elective all-black housing. After the college's administration expressed the possibility that this plan might be in violation of U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare standards on segregation, all but four black students walked out of the meeting and the assembly decided that the Board of Trustees needed to be better informed of the racial climate on campus. In 1974, Vassar's Master Planning Committee voted to convert one of Cushing's common areas, then a dining room, to eight single dorms. An emergency meeting was held and students organized a Save Cushing Dining Room movement which collected 800 signatures against the plan in 24 hours. Other instances have seen one of Cushing's parlors converted to a quad dorm used to house students temporarily when no other housing could be found for them, first in 1989 then again during the first semester of the 1998–99 school year. ## Architecture and features Cushing House was built on the north side of campus and sits apart from most of the school's other dorms, with the exception of Noyes House to its west. Cushing stands four stories tall and is configured in a U shape with two wings of student rooms connected by center common areas on the ground floor and more halls of student housing on the upper transverse (inter-wing) levels. Between the wings is a courtyard covered by a lawn and trees. Two articles published in Vassar's weekly Miscellany News in 1975 identified some of the species present at the time: Cryptomeria japonica, Ilex opaca (American holly), several crab apple trees, and a Fagus sylvatica (European beech). The exterior of the house is built in an Old English manor house style designed to mimic the nearby Pratt House which was designed by architects York and Sawyer and completed in 1916. The roof of the hall is made of slate, with walls of patterned brickwork covered with half-timbered decorations as well as leaded windows and towers. A smaller wing, sometimes referred to as the SQs ("servants' quarters") or "maid's wing", abuts the center common area and includes a pantry and kitchen on its ground floor and smaller dorm rooms that originally housed servants on the floors above. Inside the dorm, common area furnishings are Jacobean in style and architectural features include plaster ceilings, windows with tracery, and wood paneling. Within rooms, closets and windows are also notably large and soft light is present throughout the hall. The building was designed to house 130 students split between two double rooms and 126 singles, but now fits up to 202 students, demonymously referred to as "Cushlings". The house presently includes single dorms, one-room doubles, and two-room doubles and triples. Upon opening in 1927 (prior to Vassar's 1969 transition from being an all-female to co-ed college), the dormitory was limited to housing freshmen. It is now co-ed and acts as home to students from all grades including, as of 1999, the highest proportion of upperclassmen of any dorm at the school. Bathrooms are shared by all members of a hall. A minor renovation in summer 1995 and funded by the Estée Lauder Companies included more efficient lighting, rewiring, and new furniture for the house. Like all other Vassar dorms, Cushing houses a game room, a laundry room, and a Steinway grand piano. In 1928, a year after Cushing opened, Keene Richards, Vassar College's general manager, wrote to college president Henry Noble MacCracken that Cushing was "neither luxurious nor extravagant." Authors Karen Van Lengen and Lisa Reilly countered this sentiment in their 2004 architectural guide to the campus, noting that "Cushing's cozy domesticity is a far cry from the institutional nature of collegiate residential architecture found on other college campuses" and concluding that the dorm was one of the most beautiful buildings on campus. Another guide, compiled in 2003 by the staff of the Yale Daily News, identified the dorm as one of the two most popular at the college, along with Jewett House. Cushing has drawn comparisons to the fictitious Hogwarts School for Witchcraft and Wizardry according to The Miscellany News. The building's parlor was singled out in College Prowler's 2012 guide to the college as the most beautiful at Vassar.
3,363	Beer	1,173,051,963	Alcoholic drink made from fermented cereal grains	[ "Alcoholic drinks", "Beer", "Brewing", "Fermented drinks" ]	Beer is one of the oldest types of alcoholic drinks in the world, and the most widely consumed. It is the third most popular drink overall after potable water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley, though wheat, maize (corn), rice, and oats are also used. During the brewing process, fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the resulting beer. Most modern beer is brewed with hops, which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilising agent. Other flavouring agents such as gruit, herbs, or fruits may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, the natural carbonation effect is often removed during processing and replaced with forced carbonation. Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. Beer is distributed in bottles and cans and is also commonly available on draught, particularly in pubs and bars. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (ABV), although it may vary between 0.5% and 20%, with some breweries creating examples of 40% ABV and above. Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals, as well as a rich pub culture involving activities like pub crawling, pub quizzes and pub games. When beer is distilled, the resulting liquor is a form of whisky. ## Etymology In early forms of English and in the Scandinavian languages, the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ale. The word beer comes into present-day English from Old English bēor, itself from Common Germanic; although the word is not attested in the East Germanic branch of the language family, it is found throughout the West Germanic and North Germanic dialects (modern Dutch and German bier, Old Norse bjórr). The earlier etymology of the word is debated: the three main theories are that the word originates in Proto-Germanic \beuzą (putatively from Proto-Indo-European \bheusóm), meaning 'brewer's yeast, beer dregs'; that it is related to the word barley, or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin bibere 'to drink'. In Old English and Old Norse, the beer-word did not denote a malted alcoholic drink like ale, but a sweet, potent drink made from honey and the juice of one or more fruits other than grapes, much less ubiquitous than ale, perhaps served in the kind of tiny drinking cups sometimes found in early mediaeval grave goods: a drink more like mead or cider. In German, however, the meaning of the beer-word expanded to cover the meaning of the ale-word already before our earliest surviving written evidence. As German hopped ale became fashionable in England in the late Middle Ages, the English word beer took on the German meaning, and thus in English too, beer came during the early modern period to denote hopped, malt-based alcoholic drinks. ## History Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared alcoholic drinks. The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000-year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel. There is evidence that beer was produced at Göbekli Tepe during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (around 8500 BC to 5500 BC). The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BC, from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. It is possible, but not proven, that it dates back even further—to about 10,000 BC, when cereal was first farmed. Beer is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt, and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers with volumes of beer. During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza, Egypt, each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids' construction. Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi, known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi", which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and the ancient advice ("Fill your belly. Day and night make merry") to Gilgamesh, recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh by the alewife Siduri, may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC. A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by chewing or malting. During the Vedic period in Ancient India, there are records of the consumption of the beer-like sura. Xenophon noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in Armenia. Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation and thus be utilised in the brewing of beer. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch, independently invented beer. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for the development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations. Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers may have contained fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices, and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot and again in 1067 by abbess Hildegard of Bingen. In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the Reinheitsgebot (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops, and barley-malt. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. In 1912, brown bottles began to be used by the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide and prevents harmful rays from destroying the quality and stability of beer. The brewing industry is now a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers, ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres (35 billion US gallons), the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, producing total global revenues of US\$294.5 billion. In 2010, China's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres (45 billion litres), or nearly twice that of the United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium draught beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany. A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer. ## Brewing The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made at home and has been for much of its history, in which case the brewing location is often called a brewhouse. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is today usually classified as homebrewing, regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made at home. Historically, domestic beer was what's called farmhouse ale. Brewing beer has been subject to legislation and taxation for millennia, and from the late 19th century on, taxation largely restricted brewing to commercial operations only in the UK. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby. The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic drink known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast. The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as "mashing". Hot water (known as "liquor" in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as "grist") in a mash tun. The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours, during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are then washed in a process known as "sparging". This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is lautering, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium. Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames, which allow for a more finely ground grist. Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus, a weaker beer. This process is known as the second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing. The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or "copper" (so-called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper), and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, the water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness, flavour, and aroma. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remain in the beer. After boiling, the hopped wort is cooled and ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter, but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the yeast is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process that takes a week to several months, depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing ethanol, fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear. During fermentation, most of the carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a trap, and the beer is left with carbonation of only about one atmosphere of pressure. The carbonation is often increased either by transferring the beer to a pressure vessel such as a keg and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container as the fermentation finishes. Sometimes the beer is put unfiltered (so it still contains yeast) into bottles with some added sugar, which then produces the desired amount of carbon dioxide inside the bottle. Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages: primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity. When the beer has fermented, it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs, aluminium cans, or bottles for other sorts of beer. ## Ingredients The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as malted barley or malted maize (such as used in the preparation of Tiswin and Tesgüino), able to be saccharified (converted to sugars) and then fermented (converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide); a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as hops. A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary carbohydrate source, such as maize (corn), rice, wheat, or sugar, often termed an adjunct, especially when used alongside malted barley. Less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum, and cassava root in Africa; potato in Brazil; and agave in Mexico, among others. The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Water is the main ingredient in beer, accounting for 93% of its weight. Though water itself is, ideally, flavourless, its level of dissolved minerals, specifically bicarbonate ions, does influence beer's finished taste. Due to the mineral properties of each region's water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics. Regional geology accords that Dublin's hard water is well-suited to making stout, such as Guinness, while the Plzeň Region's soft water is ideal for brewing Pilsner (pale lager), such as Pilsner Urquell. The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum, which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation. The starch source, termed the "mash ingredients", in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination, and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers. Nearly all beers include barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the mash and act as a filter bed during lautering, when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material. Other malted and unmalted grains (including wheat, rice, oats, and rye, and less frequently, corn and sorghum) may be used. Some brewers have produced gluten-free beer, made with sorghum with no barley malt, for those who cannot consume gluten-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye. Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops. The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder, also known as Adalard of Corbie, though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century. Before the thirteenth century and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants, for instance, grains of paradise or alehoof. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used. Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company, use plants other than hops for flavouring. Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale. Hops contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer. Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in "head retention", the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative. Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains, which produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour. The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom-fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus. Brettanomyces ferments lambics, and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier. Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles, such as lambics, rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures. Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or finings to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer, such as wheat beers. Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from the swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin. If a beer is marked "suitable for vegans", it is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents. ## Brewing industry The history of breweries in the 21st century has included larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale. In 2002, South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller, becoming the second-largest brewery after North American Anheuser-Busch. In 2004, the Belgian Interbrew was the third-largest brewery by volume, and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth-largest. They merged into InBev, becoming the largest brewery. In 2007, SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser-Busch when it acquired Royal Grolsch, the brewer of Dutch premium beer brand Grolsch. In 2008, when InBev (the second-largest) bought Anheuser-Busch (the third-largest), the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world. As of 2020, according to the market research firm Technavio, AB InBev remains the largest brewing company in the world, with Heineken second, CR Snow third, Carlsberg fourth, and Molson Coors fifth. A microbrewery, or craft brewery, produces a limited amount of beer. The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority; in the US, it is 15,000 US beer barrels (1.8 megalitres; 390 thousand imperial gallons; 460 thousand US gallons) a year. A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other drinking establishment. The highest density of breweries in the world, most of them microbreweries, exists in the German Region of Franconia, especially in the district of Upper Franconia, which has about 200 breweries. The Benedictine Weihenstephan brewery in Bavaria, Germany, can trace its roots to the year 768, as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery. The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 and is therefore the oldest working brewery in the world. ## Varieties While there are many types of beer brewed, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The traditional European brewing regions—Germany, Belgium, England and the Czech Republic—have local varieties of beer. English writer Michael Jackson, in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer, categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names. Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989. ### Top-fermented beers Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a top-fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface, typically between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, or prune, among others. After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, "ale" referred to an unhopped fermented drink, "beer" being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) in 1973 for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide". It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers. Pale ale is a beer which uses a top-fermenting yeast and predominantly pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles. The India pale ale (IPA) variety is especially popular. Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6% abv and higher. Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley. Wheat beers are usually top-fermented. The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably, depending upon the specific style. Stout is a dark beer made using roasted barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast. There are a number of variations including dry stout (such as Guinness), sweet stout, and Imperial (or Russian) stout. Like stout, porter is a dark beer, but made with malted barley. The name "porter" was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of London. This same beer later also became known as stout, though the word stout had been used as early as 1677. The history and development of stout and porter are intertwined, though now distinguished by whether the barley has been malted or not. ### Bottom-fermented beers Lager is cool fermented beer. Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. Many are of the “pilsner” type. The name "lager" comes from the German "lagern" for "to store", as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions. Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces pastorianus) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0–4 °C (32–39 °F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks. ### Other types of beer Lambic, a beer of Belgium, is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness. ## Measurement Beer is measured and assessed by colour, by strength and by bitterness. The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention. The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, and the bitterness values should be identical. ### Colour Beer colour is determined by the malt. The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with the fuel coke. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used. In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present-day Czech Republic. The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation (fizzy bubbles) and a typical alcohol by volume content of around 5%. The Pilsner Urquell, Bitburger, and Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands Budweiser, Coors, and Miller. Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as stout, use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley. ### Strength Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast, and to 55% abv by the freeze-distilling process. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style. The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical abv of 5%. The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv. In Belgium, some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools. The weakest beers are dealcoholized beers, which typically have less than 0.05% alcohol (also called "near beer") and light beers, which usually have 4% alcohol. The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a by-product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast in higher concentrations; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content. The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% abv (33 degrees Plato, hence Vetter "33") doppelbock, was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time, though Samichlaus, by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% abv. Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. Samuel Adams reached 20% abv with Millennium, and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with Utopias. The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% abv beer. In September 2011, the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer, which, at 28%, they claim to be the world's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone. The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57,5%. It was preceded by The End of History, a 55% Belgian ale, made by BrewDog in 2010. The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck!, a 41% abv IPA, and Tactical Nuclear Penguin, a 32% abv Imperial stout. Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing, in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed, until the desired strength is reached, a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer. The German brewery Schorschbräu's Schorschbock, a 31% abv eisbock, and Hair of the Dog's Dave, a 29% abv barley wine made in 1994, used the same fractional freezing method. A 60% abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010. ## Serving ### Draught Draught (also spelled "draft") beer from a pressurised keg using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Nitrogen produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called beer balls. In traditional pubs, the pull levers for major beer brands may include the beer's logo and trademark. In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the beer widget, a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense, tight head, similar to beer served from a nitrogen system. The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised. Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "real ale" by the CAMRA organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a "stillage" which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 11–13 °C or 52–55 °F), before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition—this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass. Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences. A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds). The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet). Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption. ### Packaging Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans. However, bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast. It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with wheat beers. Typically, when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer, 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers. Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup. Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing "skunked" beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles. Plastic (PET) bottles are used by some breweries. ### Temperature The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength pale ale to be served cool, while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature. Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C or 45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C or 46 °F) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C or 48 °F) for all dark lagers, altbier and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C or 55 °F) for regular British ale, stout and most Belgian specialities; and room temperature (15.5 °C or 60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially trappist beer) and barley wine. Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager. Chilling beer makes it more refreshing, though below 15.5 °C (60 °F) the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below 10 °C (50 °F). Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours. Cask Marque, a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14 °C (53°–57 °F) for cask ales to be served. ### Vessels Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein, a mug, a pewter tankard, a beer bottle or a can; or at music festivals and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style. Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product. The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of carbonation. A beer tower is a beer dispensing device, usually found in bars and pubs, that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom. Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel. ## Health effects A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption. Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men, per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, which hides the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol. The long-term health effects of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease. Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages. In the United States, a total of 3.3 million deaths per year (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol. It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A 2004 study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself. Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110, the same as maltose; however, the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose. ## Nutritional information Beers vary in their nutritional content. The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, chromium and B vitamins. Beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread", though beer is not a meal in itself. ## Society and culture In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending beer festivals; engaging in zythology (the study of beer); visiting a series of pubs in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or rating beer. Drinking games, such as beer pong, are also popular. A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier, who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings. Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies and is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria, and in some African countries. Sales of beer are four times those of wine, which is the second most popular alcoholic drink. A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants, who wanted to drink more as a result. The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans, while a computer-controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer, water and a sports drink onto their tongues. Compared with the taste of the sports drink, the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink. Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release, even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated. Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food. Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food, while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim. ## Related drinks Around the world, there are many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks classed as beer. In Africa, there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet, such as Oshikundu in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia. Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo". Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern Himalayas. Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu—traditional rice-based drinks related to beer. The Andes in South America has Chicha, made from germinated maize (corn); while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim, a traditional drink made since pre-Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme (amylase) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars; this is similar to Masato in Peru. Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are Sahti in Finland, Kvass in Russia and Ukraine, and Bouza in Sudan. 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia. Food waste activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale. ## Chemistry Beer contains the phenolic acids 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid. Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds. Hops, and beer made with it, contain 8-prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen. Hop also contains myrcene, humulene, xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol, myrcenol, linalool, tannins, and resin. The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing. Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3, B9 and C2 into beer. Tryptophol, tyrosol, and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation (products also known as congeners) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. ## See also
238,482	PIAT	1,162,402,437	null	[ "Anti-tank weapons", "Spigot mortars", "Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1942", "Weapons of the United Kingdom", "World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom", "World War II mortars" ]	The Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank (PIAT) Mk I was a British man-portable anti-tank weapon developed during the Second World War. The PIAT was designed in 1942 in response to the British Army's need for a more effective infantry anti-tank weapon and entered service in 1943. The PIAT was based on the spigot mortar system, and projected (launched) a 2.5 pound (1.1 kg) shaped charge bomb using a cartridge in the tail of the projectile. It possessed an effective range of approximately 115 yards (105 m) in a direct fire anti-tank role, and 350 yards (320 m) in an indirect fire role. The PIAT had several advantages over other infantry anti-tank weapons of the period: it had greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, it had no back-blast which might reveal the position of the user or accidentally injure friendly soldiers around the user, and it was simple in construction. However, the device also had some disadvantages: powerful recoil, a difficulty in cocking the weapon, and early problems with ammunition reliability. The PIAT was first used during the Tunisian campaign in 1943, and remained in use with British and other Commonwealth forces until the early 1950s. PIATs were supplied to or obtained by other nations and forces, including the Soviet Union (through Lend Lease), the French resistance, the Polish Underground, and the Israeli Haganah (which used PIATs during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War). Six members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces received Victoria Crosses for their use of the PIAT in combat. ## Development At the beginning of the Second World War, the British Army possessed two primary anti-tank weapons for its infantry: the Boys anti-tank rifle and the No. 68 AT Rifle Grenade. However, neither of these was particularly effective as an anti-tank weapon. The No. 68 anti-tank grenade was designed to be fired from a discharger fitted onto the muzzle of an infantryman's rifle, but this meant that the grenade was too light to deal significant damage, resulting in it rarely being used in action. The Boys was also inadequate in the anti-tank role. It was heavy, which meant that it was difficult for infantry to handle effectively, and was outdated; by 1940 it was effective only at short ranges, and then only against armoured cars and light tanks. In November 1941 during Operation Crusader, part of the North African Campaign, staff officers of the British Eighth Army were unable to find even a single instance of a Boys knocking out a German tank. Due to these limits, a new infantry anti-tank weapon was required, and this ultimately came in the form of the Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank, commonly abbreviated to PIAT. The origins of the PIAT can be traced back as far as 1888, when an American engineer by the name of Charles Edward Munroe was experimenting with guncotton; he discovered that the explosive would yield a great deal more damage if there were a recess in it facing the target. This phenomenon is known as the 'Munroe effect'. The German scientist Egon Neumann found that lining the recess with metal enhanced the damage dealt even more. By the 1930s Henry Mohaupt, a Swiss engineer, had developed this technology even further and created shaped charge ammunition. This consisted of a recessed metal cone placed into an explosive warhead; when the warhead hit its target, the explosive detonated and turned the cone into an extremely high-speed spike. The speed of the spike, and the immense pressure it caused on impact allowed it to create a small hole in armour plating and send a large pressure wave and large amounts of fragments into the interior of the target. It was this technology that was used in the No. 68 anti-tank grenade. Although the technology existed, it remained for British designers to develop a system that could deliver shaped charge ammunition in a larger size and with a greater range than that possessed by the No. 68. At the same time that Mohaupt was developing shaped charge ammunition, Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker of the Royal Artillery was investigating the possibility of developing a lightweight platoon mortar. However, rather than using the conventional system of firing the mortar shell from a barrel fixed to a baseplate, Blacker wanted to use the spigot mortar system. Instead of a barrel, there was a steel rod known as a 'spigot' fixed to a baseplate, and the bomb itself had a propellant charge inside its tail. When the mortar was to be fired, the bomb was pushed down onto the spigot, which exploded the propellant charge and blew the bomb into the air. By effectively putting the barrel on the inside of the weapon, the barrel diameter was no longer a limitation on the warhead size. Blacker eventually designed a lightweight mortar that he named the 'Arbalest' and submitted it to the War Office, but it was turned down in favour of a Spanish design. Undeterred, however, Blacker continued with his experiments and decided to try to invent a hand-held anti-tank weapon based on the spigot design, but found that the spigot could not generate sufficient velocity needed to penetrate armour. But he did not abandon the design, and eventually came up with the Blacker Bombard, a swivelling spigot-style system that could launch a 20-pound (9 kg) bomb approximately 100 yards (90 m). Although the bombs it fired could not actually penetrate armour, they could still severely damage tanks, and in 1940 a large number of Blacker Bombards were issued to the Home Guard as anti-tank weapons. When Blacker became aware of the existence of shaped charge ammunition, he realized that it was exactly the kind of ammunition he was looking for to develop a hand-held anti-tank weapon, as it depended upon the energy contained within itself, and not the sheer velocity at which it was fired. Blacker then developed a shaped charge bomb with a propellant charge in its tail, which fitted into a shoulder-fired launcher that consisted of a metal casing containing a large spring and a spigot; the bomb was placed into a trough at the front of the casing, and when the trigger was pulled the spigot rammed into the tail of the bomb and fired it out of the casing and up to approximately 140 metres (150 yd) away. Blacker called the weapon the 'Baby Bombard', and presented it to the War Office in 1941. However, when the weapon was tested it proved to have a host of problems; a War Office report of June 1941 stated that the casing was flimsy and the spigot itself did not always fire when the trigger was pulled, and none of the bombs provided exploded upon contact with the target. At the time that he developed the Baby Bombard and sent it off the War Office, Blacker was working for a government department known as MD1, which was given the task of developing and delivering weapons for use by guerrilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe. Shortly after the trial of the Baby Bombard, Blacker was posted to other duties, and left the anti-tank weapon in the hands of a colleague in the department, Major Millis Jefferis. Jefferis took the prototype Baby Bombard apart on the floor of his office in MD1 and rebuilt it, and then combined it with a shaped charge mortar bomb to create what he called the 'Jefferis Shoulder Gun'. Jefferis then had a small number of prototype armour-piercing high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds made, and took the weapon to be tested at the Small Arms School at Bisley. A Warrant Officer took the Shoulder Gun down to a firing range, aimed it at an armoured target, and pulled the trigger; the Shoulder Gun pierced a hole in the target, but unfortunately also wounded the Warrant Officer when a piece of metal from the exploding round flew back and hit him. Jefferis himself then took the place of the Warrant Officer and fired off several more rounds, all of which pierced the armoured target but without wounding him. Impressed with the weapon, the Ordnance Board of the Small Arms School had the faults with the ammunition corrected, renamed the Shoulder Gun as the Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank, and ordered that it be issued to infantry units as a hand-held anti-tank weapon. Production of the PIAT began at the end of August 1942. There was disagreement over the name to be given to the new weapon. A press report in 1944 gave credit for both the PIAT and the Blacker Bombard to Jefferis. Blacker took exception to this and suggested to Jefferis that they should divide any award equally after his expenses had been deducted. The Ministry of Supply had already paid Blacker £50,000 for his expenses in relation to the Bombard and PIAT. Churchill himself got involved in the argument; writing to the Secretary of State for war in January 1943 he asked "Why should the name Jefferis shoulder gun be changed to PIAT? Nobody objected to the Boys rifle, although that had a rather odd ring." Churchill supported Jefferis claims, but he did not get his way. For his part Blacker received £25,000 from the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors. ## Design The PIAT was 39 inches (0.99 m) long and weighed 32 pounds (15 kg), with an effective direct fire range of approximately 115 yards (105 m) and a maximum indirect fire range of 350 yards (320 m). It could be carried and operated by one man, but was usually assigned to a two-man team, the second man acting as an ammunition carrier and loader. The body of the PIAT launcher was a tube constructed out of thin sheets of steel, containing the spigot mechanism, trigger mechanism and firing spring. At the front of the launcher was a small trough in which the bomb was placed, and the movable spigot ran along the axis of the launcher and into the trough. Padding for the user's shoulder was fitted to the other end of the launcher, and rudimentary aperture sights were fitted on top for aiming; the bombs launched by the PIAT possessed hollow tubular tails, into which a small propellant cartridge was inserted, and shaped charge warheads. Conventional spigot mortar designs have a fixed spigot rod, for example the Blacker Bombard. The moving spigot rod in the PIAT design was unusual, and served to help reduce recoil sufficiently to make it a viable shoulder fired weapon. The PIAT was a little lighter by about 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz) and about 0.6 m (2.0 ft) shorter than its predecessor, the Boys anti-tank rifle, although it was heavier than the 18 lb (8.2 kg) Bazooka. To prepare the weapon for firing the spigot mechanism, which was operated by a large spring, had to be cocked, and to do this was a difficult and awkward process. The user had to first place the PIAT on its butt, then step on both sides of the shoulder padding (a la Pogo stick) and quarter-turn the weapon to unlock the body and simultaneously lock the spigot rod to the butt; the user would then have to bend over and pull the body of the weapon upwards, thereby pulling the spring back until it attached to the trigger sear and cocking the weapon. Once this was achieved, the body was then lowered and quarter-turned to reattach it to the rest of the weapon, and the PIAT could then be fired. Users of a small stature often found the cocking sequence challenging, as they did not have the sufficient height required to pull the body up far enough to cock the weapon; it was also difficult to do when lying in a prone position, as was often the case when using the weapon in action. Note, however, that troops were trained to cock the PIAT before expected use, and "in action the projector will always be carried cocked" (but unloaded). Unless a stoppage occurred, it would not normally be necessary to manually re-cock the weapon in action. When the trigger was pulled, the spring pushed the spigot rod (which has a fixed firing pin on the end) forwards into the bomb, which aligned the bomb, ignited the propellant cartridge in the bomb and launched it along the rod and into the air. The recoil caused by the detonation of the propellant blew the spigot rod backwards onto the spring, similar to that of a blowback operation; this reduced the shock of recoil and automatically cocked the weapon for subsequent shots, eliminating the need to manually re-cock. Tactical training emphasized that it was best used with surprise and concealment on the side of the PIAT team, and where possible enemy armoured vehicles should be engaged from the flank or rear. Due to the short engagement distances and the power of the bomb, the crew could be in the bomb blast zone so hard cover was desirable; on open training grounds this might be a slit trench. The PIAT was often also used in combat to knock out enemy positions located in houses and bunkers. It was possible to use the PIAT as an ad-hoc crude mortar by placing the shoulder pad of the weapon on the ground and supporting it. Despite the difficulties in cocking and firing the weapon, it did have several advantages. The Spigot mortar design allowed a large calibre powerful shaped charge bomb giving greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, allowing it to remain effective for the rest of the war; its construction was relatively simple and robust without a conventional barrel; there was no back-blast (unlike the contemporary American bazooka) that might endanger friendly troops and give the user's position away, this also meant that the PIAT could be used in confined spaces as in urban warfare; compared to the previous anti-tank rifles the muzzle blast was minimal, also a potential concealment issue. However, the weapon did have drawbacks. It was very heavy and bulky, which meant that it was often unpopular with infantry required to carry it. There were also problems with early ammunition reliability and accuracy. Although the PIAT was theoretically able to penetrate approximately 100 millimetres (4 in) of armour, field experience during the Allied invasion of Sicily, which was substantiated by trials conducted during 1944, demonstrated that this capability was often nullified by problems of accuracy and round reliability. During these trials, a skilled user was unable to hit a target more than 60% of the time at 100 yards (90 m), and faulty fuses meant that only 75% of the bombs fired detonated on-target. ## Ammunition and effect The PIATs' ammunition used the shaped charge principle, which, if the often unreliable early round design delivered it correctly to the target, allowed the warhead to penetrate almost all enemy armour types at close range. The following ammunition types were available in 1943. - Service Bomb - "Bomb, HE/AT" - Manual says green, but museum examples seem to be brown. - AT shaped charge warhead design. Supplied with the propellant cartridge fitted and the fuse separate. - Versions: - Mark I, 1942, Nobels 808 plastic explosive filling, green band - Mark IA, Reinforced central tube - Mark II, Revised nose fuse - Mark III, Revised nose fuse, TNT filling, blue band - Mark IV, July 1944, Revised construction to reduce rearward fragmentation and "back blast" of warhead explosion. - Also useful as a general-purpose HE blast type round. - Drill -"Bomb, Drill/AT" - Black, marked "Drill" - Same shape as a live round, for dry loading practice. Cannot be fired or dry fired. - Practice Bomb - "Shot, Practice/AT" - White - Cylindrical thick steel construction, effectively a sub-calibre practice round. The PIAT requires a trough-like adapter to use it. Economical as it may be fired many times with new propellant cartridges. Trajectory slightly different to service bomb. - Inert - "Bomb, Practice Inert/AT" - Black, yellow ring, marked "Inert" - Same size and weight as a live round, no warhead, but has a live propellant cartridge. It can be fired once from a standard PIAT, it is not re-usable. Rounds were supplied in three-round ammunition cases with the propellant cartridge fitted and the fuses separate. Getting the bomb to detonate reliably against angled targets was troublesome and was addressed with revised fusing. See also the bazooka, which had similar early problems. The 1943 manual simply describes the service bomb as "H.E." or "HE/AT" and does not mention shaped charge as such. It notes that the bomb has "Excellent penetration. The bomb can penetrate the armour of the latest known types of enemy A.F.Vs. and a considerable thickness of reinforced concrete". It also notes that it may be used "as a house-breaker". ## Operational history ### World War II The PIAT was used in all theatres in which British and other Commonwealth forces served. It entered service in early-1943, and was first used in action in March near Majaz al Bab during the Tunisia Campaign. The 1944 war establishment for a British platoon, which contained 36 men, had a single PIAT attached to the platoon headquarters, alongside a 2-inch (51 mm) mortar detachment. Three PIATs were issued to every company at the headquarters level for issuing at the CO discretion – allowing one weapon for each platoon. British Army and Royal Marines commandos were also issued with PIATs and used them in action. In Australian Army service, the PIAT was also known as "Projector Infantry Tank Attack" (PITA). From 1943, one PIAT team was allocated to each infantry platoon in a jungle division – the tropical light infantry formation that was the standard front-line Australian division in the South West Pacific theatre. It was used against Japanese tanks, other vehicles and fortifications during the Borneo campaign of 1945. A contemporary (1944–45) Canadian Army survey questioned 161 army officers, who had recently left combat, about the effectiveness of 31 different infantry weapons. In that survey the PIAT was ranked the number one most "outstandingly effective" weapon, followed by the Bren gun in second place. An analysis by British staff officers of the initial period of the Normandy campaign found that 7% of all German tanks destroyed by British forces were knocked out by PIATs, compared to 6% by rockets fired by aircraft. However, they also found that once German tanks had been fitted with armoured skirts that detonated shaped charge ammunition before it could penetrate the tank's armour, the weapon became much less effective. As part of the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement, by 31 March 1946 the Soviet Union had been supplied with 1,000 PIATs and 100,000 rounds of ammunition. The PIAT was also used by resistance groups in Occupied Europe. During the Warsaw Uprising, it was one of many weapons that Polish Underground resistance fighters used against German forces. In occupied France, the French resistance used the PIAT in the absence of mortars or artillery. Six Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces for actions using the PIAT: - On 16 May 1944, during the Italian Campaign, Fusilier Frank Jefferson used a PIAT to destroy a Panzer IV tank and repel a German counterattack launched against his unit as they assaulted a section of the Gustav Line. - On 6 June 1944, Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis, in one of several actions that day, used a PIAT in an attack against a German field gun. - On 12 June 1944 Rifleman Ganju Lama of the 7th Gurkha Rifles used a PIAT to knock out two Japanese tanks attacking his unit at Ningthoukhong, Manipur (given as Burma in the official citation). Despite sustaining injuries, Ganju Lama approached within thirty yards (27 m) of the enemy tanks, and having knocked them out moved on to attack the crews as they tried to escape. When asked by his Army Commander, William Slim, why he went so close, he replied he was not certain of hitting with a PIAT beyond thirty yards (27 m). - Between 19 and 25 September 1944, during the Battle of Arnhem, Major Robert Henry Cain used a PIAT to disable an assault gun that was advancing on his company position, and to force another three German Panzer IV tanks to retreat during a later assault. - On the night of 21/22 October 1944, Private Ernest Alvia ("Smokey") Smith used a PIAT to destroy a German Panther tank, one of three Panthers and two self-propelled guns attacking his small group. The self-propelled vehicles were also knocked out. He then used a Thompson submachine gun to kill or repel about 30 enemy soldiers. His actions secured a bridgehead on the Savio River in Italy. - On 9 December 1944, while defending positions in Faenza, Italy, Captain John Henry Cound Brunt used a PIAT, amongst other weapons, to help repel an attack by the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division. ### After World War II The PIAT remained in service until the early 1950s, when it was replaced initially by the ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade and then the American M20 "Super Bazooka". The Australian Army briefly used PIATs at the start of the Korean War alongside 2.36-inch (60 mm) bazookas, but quickly replaced both weapons with 3.5-inch (89 mm) M20 "Super Bazookas". The Haganah and the emerging Israel Defence Force (IDF) used PIATs against Arab armour during the 1947–1949 Palestine war. PIATs were also used by French and Việt Minh forces during the First Indochina War. ## Users - Australia - Belgium - Canada - Free French Forces - Kingdom of Greece - India - Israel - Italy (Co-Belligerent Army and partisans) - Luxembourg - The Netherlands known in Dutch service as granaatwerper tp (tegen pantser) ("grenade launcher anti-tank") entered service in 1943, with Dutch forces fighting under British command. It served into the 1950s. - New Zealand - Polish Underground - Soviet Union - United Kingdom - Yugoslavia Used by Yugoslav partisans - Malaysia - Philippines - North Vietnam Captured from France ## Combat use World War II: - Battle of Normandy (France 1944) - Battle of Arnhem (Netherlands, 1944) - Battle of Ortona (Italy, 1943) - Battle of Villers-Bocage (Normandy, France, 1944) - Operation Epsom (Normandy, France, 1944) - Operation Perch (Normandy, France, 1944) - Warsaw Uprising (1944) 1948 Arab–Israeli War: - Battle of Yad Mordechai (Israel, 1948) - Battles of the Kinarot Valley (Israel, 1948) Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 - Battle of Longewala (India, 1971) ## See also - Panzerfaust - Bazooka - RPG-1 - Type 4 70 mm AT Rocket Launcher - Blacker Bombard
38,949,873	Battle of the Raz de Sein	1,144,639,270	Part of the French Revolutionary Wars	[ "Conflicts in 1798", "Military history of the Bay of Biscay", "Naval battles involving France", "Naval battles involving Great Britain", "Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars" ]	The Battle of the Raz de Sein was a single-ship naval engagement of the blockade of Brest during the French Revolutionary Wars between a French and Royal Navy ships of the line on 21 April 1798. The British blockade fleet under Admiral Lord Bridport had sailed from St Helens on 12 April and on the morning of 21 April was crossing the Iroise Passage when sails were spotted to the east. Three ships were detached in pursuit, led by the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Mars under Captain Alexander Hood. As the British ships approached their quarry a third sail was sighted to the southeast close to the coastline and moving north towards Brest. This ship was the 74-gun Hercule under Captain Louis Lhéritier, newly commissioned at Lorient and sailing to Brest to join the main French fleet and the British squadron immediately changed direction to intercept the new target. Facing overwhelming odds L'Héritier attempted to escape through the narrow Raz de Sein passage, but found the tide against him and so anchored at the mouth of the passage to await the British attack. At 21:15 Mars reached Hercule, coming under heavy fire as Hood manoeuvred into position, bringing his ship crashing alongside the French vessel. For more than an hour the ships fired directly into one another, so close that their guns could not be run out but had to be fired from inside the ships. Damage and casualties were severe on both sides, the latter including Hood who was mortally wounded at the height of the engagement. Ultimately Hercule was forced to surrender after attempts to board Mars failed. Both ships were battered and burnt, with the French suffering at least 290 casualties and the British 90. Hercule was conveyed to Britain in the aftermath and later repaired and served in the Royal Navy until 1810. Both L'Héritier and the deceased Hood were highly praised for their conduct during the battle, which is noted as being a very rare example during this period of an action between two ships of approximately equal strength without any external influence. ## Background During the French Revolutionary Wars the Royal Navy had exerted dominance at sea over its continental rivals, most immediately the French Navy with its principal fleet based at Brest on the Breton coast of the Bay of Biscay. To contain this fleet the British practiced a close blockade strategy; maintaining a fleet off Brest whenever weather conditions permitted to prevent the French fleet from breaking out into the Atlantic Ocean. This blockade force also limited French trade and maritime communications, attacking merchant ships and individual warships seeking to resupply or reinforce the main French fleet. This made French maritime journeys extremely hazardous even in inshore waters: in June 1795 the main French fleet had suffered a defeat at the hands of the blockade force at the Battle of Groix in the approaches to the port of Lorient, while at the action of 13 January 1797 the independently sailing 74-gun ship of the line Droits de l'Homme was driven ashore and destroyed in the approaches to Brest by two frigates of the blockade squadron. On 12 April 1798 the British blockade fleet under the command of Admiral Lord Bridport sailed from its winter anchorage at St Helens on the Isle of Wight for the Breton coast. Bridport mustered ten ships of the line to maintain the watch on Brest, although detachments of the fleet had been cruising in the region since 25 January and with notice he could call on 28 ships of the line. The French fleet had suffered a series of setbacks in the early years of the war: in addition to the losses at Groix, seven ships had been lost at the Glorious First of June in 1795 and more were wrecked during the failed Croisière du Grand Hiver operation of 1795 and the Expédition d'Irlande in 1796. To replenish these losses, the French Navy was building new ships at its major fleet bases and in April 1798 a ship had been commissioned at Lorient: the Hercule, a 74-gun ship of 1,876 tons burthen launched in July 1797 and commanded by the experienced Captain Louis L'Héritier, veteran of the Glorious First of June, and with a crew of 680, 20 short of a full complement. ## Pursuit On 20 April L'Héritier was ordered to take Hercule on her maiden voyage, the short journey northwest along the coast to join the main fleet under Vice-Admiral Morard de Galles at Brest, where the crew would be augmented to reach the full complement. On board were surplus naval supplies, including a full set of rigging for a ship of the line, from the destroyed ship Quatorze Juillet which had caught fire at Lorient earlier in the month. L'Héritier's crew were inexperienced and the captain did not intend to seek action, remaining close to the coastline during the first day of the journey. As his ship crossed Audierne Bay between Point Penmarc'h and the Pointe du Raz however sails were sighted to the northwest. These sails belonged to three ships of Bridport's fleet. At 11:00 on 21 April the British fleet had been cruising in the Iroise Passage when two sails were sighted approximately 12 nautical miles (22 km) to the east. Bridport ordered his three most easterly ships to detach and investigate the sails: the 74-gun ships of the line HMS Mars under Captain Alexander Hood, HMS Ramillies under Captain Henry Inman and the 38-gun frigate HMS Jason under Captain Charles Stirling. The strong winds favoured the large ships of the line as they pursued the strange sails, which were identified as French, until at 14:00 they were pulling abreast of them when a third sail was sighted about 15 nautical miles (28 km) to the southeast, sailing close to the shore. This new sail was much larger than the others sighted earlier in the day, and the detached squadron abandoned their former pursuit and turned towards the new arrival, Hercule. By 17:45, L'Héritier was in full flight with the British force strung out behind him, the rest of Bridport's fleet far to the west. Jason had the lead with Mars shortly behind, although Inman on Ramillies had lost his fore topmast and had dropped back. Hood, an experienced officer and a nephew of both Bridport and the veteran Admiral Lord Hood, pressed his ship forwards and gradually gained on both Jason and Hercule. L'Héritier knew that in open water he would be caught and overwhelmed, and sought instead to escape through the narrow and dangerous channel of the Raz de Sein, a rocky passage between the Île de Sein and the Pointe du Raz: during the Expédition d'Irlande the French ship of the line Séduisant had been wrecked in the Raz de Sein with 680 lives. As Hercule approached the channel, Hood put Mars on the starboard tack, overtaking Jason and bearing down on the French ship. At 20:30, L'Héritier recognised that the current was too strong for Hercule to successfully navigate the Raz de Sein and instead anchored at the mouth of the channel with a spring on his cable, a system of attaching the bow anchor that increased stability and allowed L'Héritier to swing his broadside to face the enemy while stationary, roughly 2 nautical miles (3.7 km) southwest of Pointe de Raz and about 21 nautical miles (39 km) from his destination at Brest. ## Battle At 20:45, with Jason far behind in the darkness, Mars hauled up and Hood attempted to manoeuvre into an effective position from which to attack the waiting Hercule. The vagaries of the current in the Raz de Sein passage prevented Hood from handling his ship effectively however and instead he resolved on bringing Mars directly alongside and fighting broadside to broadside. At 21:15 Mars was in range and L'Héritier opened fire, Hood replying immediately. For ten minutes, the masts and rigging of Mars came under fire, with damage to the bowsprit and foremast, as Hood continued to attempt to hold his firing position against the current before pulling slightly ahead of Hercule at 21:25 and dropping anchor. The port bow anchor became entangled with the starboard anchor on Hercule and the British ship was swung violently into the French ship, the force of the collision unhinging four of the gunports on Mars. Thus locked together, both captains ordered their ships to pour fire into the other. So closely aligned were they that many cannon on both ships could not be run out, and instead had to be fired from inside the ships. The heat from this sustained bombardment was so intense that the wood began to blacken and burn as heavy roundshot smashed gaping holes in the sides of each ship: during the combat the ragged holes torn in the side of Hercule were so extensive that the planking between the gunports was torn away, leaving wide scars along the ship's sides. Casualties were heavy on both sides: 20 minutes after the action began a musket ball struck Hood in the thigh, severing his femoral artery. Fatally wounded and bleeding profusely, Hood was carried below and command passed to Lieutenant William Butterfield. The French casualties were significantly higher than the British, a result of the much higher rate of fire achieved by Hood's well-trained crew. Aware that his ship was suffering the worst of the casualties, L'Héritier ordered his men to attempt to board the British ship of the line, but first one and then another attempt to do so was driven back with heavy casualties. The lighting of Hercule had gone out at the beginning of the engagement, leaving her crew confused, and as a result, only around 40 men answered when L'Héritier ordered the boarding; he was himself injured twice, to the head by a sabre and to the thigh by a pike, while leading the assault. At 10:30, after an hour of continual bombardment L'Héritier surrendered: Hercule's hull had been torn open, five guns were dismounted with others damaged and more than two fifths of the crew killed or wounded. Jason was approaching fast and the rest of Bridport's fleet was close enough to see the muzzle flashes from the battle. ## Aftermath L'Héritier submitted his sword to Butterfield in surrender and it was presented to the dying Hood, who accepted it before expiring. At 22:50 Jason arrived and Stirling took charge of removing prisoners from Hercule and began the long process of extricating the two battered ships of the line from the dangerous Raz de Sein channel. Losses on the French ship were not accurately recorded in the aftermath of the action, but some accounts suggested they were as high as 400 although a more realistic estimate of 290 casualties was made by the surviving French officers. British losses amounted to three officers and 19 men killed, eight men missing (believed to have drowned after falling overboard resisting L'Héritier's boarding attempts) and another 60 wounded. The weather was fortunately calm, as neither Mars nor Hercule were in a condition to survive a storm, and with great care Hercule was brought into Plymouth on 27 April and repairs were begun with the intention of restoring the ship to active service condition. The cost of these repairs totaled £12,500 (the equivalent of £ as of 2023), but HMS Hercule was ultimately commissioned into the Royal Navy and served until 1810. Historian Robert Gardiner has noted that this "classic fight" was unusual in being fought between two single ships of the line of equal force and size without an external influence, and Edward Pelham Brenton wrote in 1823 that "The meeting of two ships of the line is a circumstance of rare occurrence, and its decision in our favour a brilliant ornament to our naval history": he could only identify three other such incidents in British naval history. Examination of the relative size and strength of the combatants shows that they were well-matched: the respective broadside weights were 984 lbs on Mars to 985 lbs on Hercule; Hercules at 1,876 tons burthen measured only 34 tons more than Mars, and Hercule's understrength crew of 680 was still 46 more than on board Mars and the British crew had also been active during the Spithead Mutiny in 1797, during which Hood had been temporarily deposed as captain. Both were relatively new ships, Hercule only 24 hours at sea while Mars was the nameship of the 1794 Mars class built at the start of the French Revolutionary Wars. In summary, historian William James indicates that the greater experience of Hood's crew and the nearby presence of other British ships gave Mars a slight advantage, but that "the action of the Mars and Hercule was one that, in the conduct of it throughout, reflected about an equal share of credit upon both the contending parties." Although some British histories reported that L'Héritier died of his wounds in the aftermath of the action, this was not the case; on his return to France following exchange, L'Héritier faced a court martial for the loss of his ship and was honorably acquitted and received a letter of praising his resistance from Minister of Marine Rear-Admiral Étienne Eustache Bruix. In Britain, Butterfield was promoted to commander, and Hood was posthumously commended, Bridport writing in his official dispatch that "No Praise of mine can add one Ray of Brilliancy to the distinguished Valour of Captain Alexander Hood". His body was returned to England and buried near his home in Butleigh, Somerset under a monument provided by his family.
57,928,574	Compulsory dance	1,122,512,415	Segment in an ice dancing competition	[ "Figure skating elements", "Ice dance" ]	The compulsory dance (CD), now called the pattern dance, is a part of the figure skating segment of ice dance competitions in which all the competing couples perform the same standardized steps and holds to the music of a specified tempo and genre. One or more compulsory dances were usually skated as the first phase of ice dancing competitions. The 2009–10 season was the final season in which the segment was included in International Skating Union (ISU) junior and senior level competition. In June 2010, the ISU replaced the name "compulsory dance" with "pattern dance" for ice dance, and merged it into the short dance (SD) beginning in the 2010–11 figure skating season. The first CDs were developed during the 1930s by teams from Great Britain, who dominated ice dance for most of the early years after the sport was contested at the 1952 World Championships. The prominence of the CD in ice dance slowly declined, until it was removed and replaced by the SD in 2011, the year that the ISU voted to restructure ice dance competitions by removing the compulsory dance and original dance (OD) and replacing them with the short dance and free dance (FD). Ice dancers performed the same pattern around the rink once or twice, to the same step sequences and the same standardized tempo. The competitors were then scored based on their execution of the various elements of the dance. The CD allowed the judges to compare the technical skills of each dancer. ## Background Ice dance was contested for the first time at the World Championships in 1952; for most of that period, the British dominated the sport, winning 12 out of the next 16 championships. Many of the first CDs were developed during the 1930s by teams from Great Britain, some of which have been used by ice dance teams throughout the history of the sport. The CD's prominence in ice dance slowly declined; in 1952, CDs accounted for 60% of the total points dancers could earn, but when the original dance (OD) was added in 1967, it replaced the second CD. In 1988, the same year compulsory figures was removed from women's and men's single figure skating, CDs were decreased from three to two. In 2010, after urging by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to decrease the number of segments from three to two "for some time", the ISU voted to remove the CD from competitions, replacing it with the SD. According to then-ISU president Ottavio Cinquanta, the change was also made because "the compulsory dances were not very attractive for spectators and television". The SD had to incorporate a compulsory element in which each dance team must perform the same two patterns of a set pattern dance. Its rhythms and themes are determined beforehand by the ISU. The ice dancers are judged on how well they integrate the pattern dance into the entire SD. The 2010 World Championships was the last event to include a CD (the Golden Waltz), with Federica Faiella and Massimo Scali from Italy being the last dance team to perform a CD in competition. ## Dances The dances that have been performed in junior and senior international competition include the following, which is not a comprehensive list:

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