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Oil tanker
| 1,171,290,183 |
Ship that carries oil
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[
"Oil tankers",
"Scottish inventions",
"Ship types",
"Tankers"
] |
An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a ship designed for the bulk transport of oil or its products. There are two basic types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers. Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries. Product tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets.
Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of . Tankers move approximately 2.0 billion metric tons (2.2 billion short tons) of oil every year. Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency, the average cost of transport of crude oil by tanker amounts to only US\$5 to \$8 per cubic metre (\$0.02 to \$0.03 per US gallon).
Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler, a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel. Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile oil spills. As a result, they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations.
## History
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young's manufacture of paraffin in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.
In the 1860s, Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. Break-bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 L) wooden barrels. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: they weighed 29 kilograms (64 lb), representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel. Other problems with barrels were their expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production.
### Early designs
In 1863, two sail-driven tankers were built on England's River Tyne. These were followed in 1873 by the first oil-tank steamer, Vaderland (Fatherland), which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners. The vessel's use was curtailed by US and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank-cars similar to those in use today.
### Modern oil tankers
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876, Ludvig and Robert Nobel, brothers of Alfred Nobel, founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku, Azerbaijan. It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world.
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced a number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.
The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster, which carried its 246 metric tons (242 long tons) of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy. The ship had a length overall of 56 metres (184 ft), a beam of 8.2 metres (27 ft), and a draft of 2.7 metres (9 ft). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River.
In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect, where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems. This approach, almost universal today, was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.
Others point to Glückauf, another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain, and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships. After Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.
### Asian trade
The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner/broker Fred Lane. Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.
Armed with the canal company's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England. Named Murex, Conch and Clam, each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of today's Royal Dutch Shell company.
With facilities prepared in Jakarta, Singapore, Bangkok, Saigon, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Kobe, the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal. By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers, compared to Standard Oil's four case-oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers.
### The supertanker era
Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956. Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport. While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 162 metres (532 ft) long and had a capacity of , the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s were over 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and had a capacity of . Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries. Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil.
In 1955 the world's largest supertanker was 30,708 GRT and : SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos.
In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke the record of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig. The first tanker over 100,000 dwt built in Europe was the British Admiral. The ship was launched at Barrow-in-Furness in 1965 by Elizabeth II.
The world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd., named Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of , a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the English Channel.
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991, and Knock Nevis in 2004 (when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker). In 2009 she was sold for the last time, renamed Mont, and scrapped.
As of 2011, the world's two largest working supertankers are the TI-class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania. These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation. Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004. Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over , a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 L). They were the first ULCCs to be double-hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the V-Plus size designation.
With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2×10<sup>11</sup> L) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US\$0.02 per gallon at the pump.
## Size categories
In 1954, Shell Oil developed the "average freight rate assessment" (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers' Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under ; Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Long Range for the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling.
The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct. Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every contract. Shell and BP, the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983, later followed by the US oil companies. However, the system is still used today. Besides that, there is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m<sup>3</sup>).
Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products. Crude carriers are among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT Panamax-sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT.
Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers. The smallest tankers, with capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near-coastal and inland waterways. Although they were in the past, ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers.
### VLCC and ULCC
"Supertankers" are the largest oil tankers, and the largest mobile man-made structures. They include very large and ultra-large crude carriers (VLCCs and ULCCs – see above) with capacities over 250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of oil/318,000 metric tons. By way of comparison, the United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of oil per day in 2009. ULCCs commissioned in the 1970s were the largest vessels ever built, but have all now been scrapped. A few newer ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400 meters long.
Because of their size, supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded. These ships can take on their cargo at offshore platforms and single-point moorings. On the other end of the journey, they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off-coast. Supertanker routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy days at a time.
## Chartering
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. (The contract itself is known as a charter party.) Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, the bareboat charter, and contract of affreightment. In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel. Finally, in a contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels (160,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of JP-5 in a year's time in 25,000-barrel (4,000 m<sup>3</sup>) shipments.
One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate, or the price specified for carriage of cargo. The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by Worldscale rate. In a lump sum rate arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship's owner/operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses. Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer. Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer.
The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York. Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world. In Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate. The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100. If a given charter party settled on 85% of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85. Similarly, a charter party set at 125% of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125.
### Recent markets
The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as the supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers. Some particular variables include winter temperatures, excess tanker tonnage, supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf, and interruptions in refinery services.
In 2006, time-charters tended towards long term. Of the time charters executed in that year, 58% were for a period of 24 or more months, 14% were for periods of 12 to 24 months, 4% were from 6 to 12 months, and 24% were for periods of less than 6 months.
From 2003, the demand for new ships started to grow, resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards, exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result. This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States. The charter rate for very large crude carriers, which carry two million barrels of oil, had peaked at \$309,601 per day in 2007 but had dropped to \$7,085 per day by 2012, far below the operating costs of these ships. As a result, several tanker operators laid up their ships. Prices rose significantly in 2015 and early 2016, but delivery of new tankers was projected to keep prices in check.
Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation, A P Moller Maersk, DS Torm, Frontline, MOL Tankship Management, Overseas Shipholding Group, and Euronav.
## Fleet characteristics
In 2005, oil tankers made up 36.9% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from in 1970 to in 2005. The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers, represents 72.9% of the world's fleet.
### Cargo movement
In 2005, 2.42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. 76.7% of this was crude oil, and the rest consisted of refined petroleum products. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for the year. Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried, oil tankers moved 11,705 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 2005.
By comparison, in 1970 1.44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for that year. In terms of amount carried and distance carried, oil tankers moved 6,487 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 1970.
The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity, stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric-ton-miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight. In 2005, for each of oil tankers, 6.7 metric tons of cargo was carried. Similarly, each of oil tankers was responsible for 32,400 metric-ton miles of carriage.
The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia, Western Africa, North Africa, and the Caribbean, with 196.3, 196.3, 130.2 and 246.6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions. The main discharge ports were located in North America, Europe, and Japan with 537.7, 438.4, and 215.0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions.
### Flag states
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called its flag state. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2007, the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4,295 oil tankers of or greater worldwide. Panama was the world's largest flag state for oil tankers, with 528 of the vessels in its registry. Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers: Liberia (464), Singapore (355), China (252), Russia (250), the Marshall Islands (234) and the Bahamas (209). The Panamanian, Liberian, Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers' Federation to be flags of convenience. By comparison, the United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers, respectively.
### Vessel life cycle
In 2005, the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years. Of these, 31.6% were under 4 years old and 14.3% were over 20 years old. In 2005, 475 new oil tankers were built, accounting for . The average size for these new tankers was . Nineteen of these were VLCC size, 19 were Suezmax, 51 were Aframax, and the rest were smaller designs. By comparison, , , and worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively.
Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping. Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in the scrap metal market. In 1998, almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places such as Gadani, Alang and Chittagong. In 2004 and 2005, and respectively of oil tankers were scrapped. Between 2000 and 2005, the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between and . In this same timeframe, tankers have accounted for between 56.5% and 90.5% of the world's total scrapped ship tonnage. In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26.9 to 31.5 years.
### Vessel pricing
In 2005, the price for new oil tankers in the , , and ranges were \$43 million, \$58 million, and \$120 million respectively. In 1985 these vessels would have cost \$18 million, \$22 million, and \$47 million respectively.
Oil tankers are often sold second hand. In 2005, worth of oil tankers were sold used. Some representative prices for that year include \$42.5 million for a tanker, \$60.7 million for a , \$73 million for a , and \$116 million for tanker. For a concrete example, in 2006, Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid \$76.5 million for Knock Sheen, a 159,899 DWT tanker.
The cost of operating the largest tankers, the Very Large Crude Carriers, is currently between \$10,000 and \$12,000 per day.
## Current structural design
Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center".
A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision. Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks. A pumproom houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines. Some larger tankers have two pumprooms. A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship.
### Hull designs
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single-hulled". Most newer tankers are "double hulled", with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks. Hybrid designs such as "double-bottom" and "double-sided" combine aspects of single and double-hull designs. All single-hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010.
In 1998, the Marine Board of the National Academy of Sciences conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull design. Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations, reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing is more efficient, and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding.
The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double-hull design, including higher build costs, greater operating expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs), difficulties in ballast tank ventilation, the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance, increased transverse free surface, the greater number of surfaces to maintain, the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted, and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships.
In all, double-hull tankers are said to be safer than a single-hull in a grounding incident, especially when the shore is not very rocky. The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact.
Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea and spills from a double-hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the mid-deck tanker, the Coulombi Egg Tanker and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner.
### Inert gas system
An oil tanker's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design. Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite, but its hydrocarbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations. The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot burn.
As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air, it increases the lower flammable limit or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. At the same time it decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank decreases to about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.
Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume. As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded. The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered. Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1%. Thus, as air replaces the inert gas, the concentration cannot rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe.
## Cargo operations
Operations aboard oil tankers are governed by an established body of best practices and a large body of international law. Cargo can be moved on or off of an oil tanker in several ways. One method is for the ship to moor alongside a pier, connect with cargo hoses or marine loading arms. Another method involves mooring to offshore buoys, such as a single point mooring, and making a cargo connection via underwater cargo hoses. A third method is by ship-to-ship transfer, also known as lightering. In this method, two ships come alongside in open sea and oil is transferred manifold to manifold via flexible hoses. Lightering is sometimes used where a loaded tanker is too large to enter a specific port.
### Pre-transfer preparation
Prior to any transfer of cargo, the chief officer must develop a transfer plan detailing specifics of the operation such as how much cargo will be moved, which tanks will be cleaned, and how the ship's ballasting will change. The next step before a transfer is the pretransfer conference. The pretransfer conference covers issues such as what products will be moved, the order of movement, names and titles of key people, particulars of shipboard and shore equipment, critical states of the transfer, regulations in effect, emergency and spill-containment procedures, watch and shift arrangements, and shutdown procedures.
After the conference is complete, the person in charge on the ship and the person in charge of the shore installation go over a final inspection checklist. In the United States, the checklist is called a Declaration of Inspection or DOI. Outside the US, the document is called the "Ship/Shore Safety Checklist." Items on the checklist include proper signals and signs are displayed, secure mooring of the vessel, choice of language for communication, securing of all connections, that emergency equipment is in place, and that no repair work is taking place.
### Loading cargo
Loading an oil tanker consists primarily of pumping cargo into the ship's tanks. As oil enters the tank, the vapors inside the tank must be somehow expelled. Depending on local regulations, the vapors can be expelled into the atmosphere or discharged back to the pumping station by way of a vapor recovery line. It is also common for the ship to move water ballast during the loading of cargo to maintain proper trim.
Loading starts slowly at a low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure. Then a steady pressure is achieved and held until the "topping-off" phase when the tanks are nearly full. Topping off is a very dangerous time in handling oil, and the procedure is handled particularly carefully. Tank-gauging equipment is used to tell the person in charge how much space is left in the tank, and all tankers have at least two independent methods for tank-gauging. As the tanker becomes full, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the pumping facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.
### Unloading cargo
The process of moving oil off of a tanker is similar to loading, but has some key differences. The first step in the operation is following the same pretransfer procedures as used in loading. When the transfer begins, it is the ship's cargo pumps that are used to move the product ashore. As in loading, the transfer starts at low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure. Then a steady pressure is achieved and held during the operation. While pumping, tank levels are carefully watched and key locations, such as the connection at the cargo manifold and the ship's pumproom are constantly monitored. Under the direction of the person in charge, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the receiving facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.
### Tank cleaning
Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons. One reason is to change the type of product carried inside a tank. Also, when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be performed within a tank, it must be not only cleaned, but made gas-free.
On most crude-oil tankers, a special crude oil washing (COW) system is part of the cleaning process. The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank-cleaning system to remove wax and asphaltic deposits. Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water. Fixed and portable automated tank cleaning machines, which clean tanks with high-pressure water jets, are widely used. Some systems use rotating high-pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the tank. As the spraying takes place, the liquid is pumped out of the tank.
After a tank is cleaned, provided that it is going to be prepared for entry, it will be purged. Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been sufficiently expelled. Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers. "Gas freeing" brings the oxygen content of the tank up to 20.8% O<sub>2</sub>. The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of ignition. Specially trained personnel monitor the tank's atmosphere, often using hand-held gas indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present. After a tank is gas-free, it may be further hand-cleaned in a manual process known as mucking. Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces, protective clothing, designated safety observers, and possibly the use of airline respirators.
## Special-use oil tankers
Some sub-types of oil tankers have evolved to meet specific military and economic needs. These sub-types include naval replenishment ships, oil-bulk-ore combination carriers, floating storage and offloading units (FSOs) and floating production storage and offloading units (FPSOs).
### Replenishment ships
Replenishment ships, known as oilers in the United States and fleet tankers in Commonwealth countries, are ships that can provide oil products to naval vessels while on the move. This process, called underway replenishment, extends the length of time a naval vessel can stay at sea, as well as her effective range. Prior to underway replenishment, naval vessels had to enter a port or anchor to take on fuel. In addition to fuel, replenishment ships may also deliver water, ammunition, rations, stores and personnel.
### Ore-bulk-oil carriers
An ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry bulk cargoes. This design was intended to provide flexibility in two ways. Firstly, an OBO would be able to switch between the dry and wet bulk trades based on market conditions. Secondly, an OBO could carry oil on one leg of a voyage and return carrying dry bulk, reducing the number of unprofitable ballast voyages it would have to make.
In practice, the flexibility which the OBO design allows has gone largely unused, as these ships tend to specialize in either the liquid or dry bulk trade. Also, these ships have endemic maintenance problems. On one hand, due to a less specialized design, an OBO suffers more from wear and tear during dry cargo onload than a bulker. On the other hand, components of the liquid cargo system, from pumps to valves to piping, tend to develop problems when subjected to periods of disuse. These factors have contributed to a steady reduction in the number of OBO ships worldwide since the 1970s.
One of the more famous OBOs was of which in September 1980 became the largest British ship ever lost at sea. It sank in a Pacific typhoon while carrying a cargo of iron ore from Canada to Japan.
### Floating storage units
Floating storage and offloading units (FSO) are used worldwide by the offshore oil industry to receive oil from nearby platforms and store it until it can be offloaded onto oil tankers. A similar system, the floating production storage and offloading unit (FPSO), has the ability to process the product while it is on board. These floating units reduce oil production costs and offer mobility, large storage capacity, and production versatility.
FPSO and FSOs are often created out of old, stripped-down oil tankers, but can be made from new-built hulls; Shell España first used a tanker as an FPSO in August 1977. An example of an FSO that used to be an oil tanker is the Knock Nevis. These units are usually moored to the seabed through a spread mooring system. A turret-style mooring system can be used in areas prone to severe weather. This turret system lets the unit rotate to minimize the effects of sea-swell and wind.
## Pollution
Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.
By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers can be a threat to the environment. As discussed above, a VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels (320,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 10,800,000 US gallons (41,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organizations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."
Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, 9.3% from pipelines, and 7.4% from mystery spills. Only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels. The detailed statistics for 2004 show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5% of the number of total spills but more than 60% of the volume. Tanker spills are much more rare and much more serious than spills from non-tank vessels.
The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.
Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90), which excluded single-hull tank vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward, apart from those with a double bottom or double sides, which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015, depending on their age. Following the sinkings of Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".
### Air pollution
Air pollution from engine operation and from cargo fires is another serious concern. Large ships are often run on low quality fuel oils, such as bunker oil, which is highly polluting and has been shown to be a health risk. Ship fires may result in the loss of the ship due to lack of specialized firefighting gear and techniques and fires can burn for days.
## See also
- Escambia-class replenishment oiler
- Hydraulic tanker
- List of oil spills
- List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
- List of tankers
- List of Type T2 tankers
- Marine transfer operations
- Merchant vessel
- Petroleum transport
- Slosh dynamics
- T1 tanker
- T2 tanker
- T3 Tanker
- Type C1 ship
- Type C2 ship
- Type C3 ship
- United States Navy oiler
|
32,625,346 |
1724 papal conclave
| 1,089,743,705 |
Conclave
|
[
"1724 in Christianity",
"1724 in Europe",
"1724 in politics",
"1724 in the Papal States",
"18th-century Catholicism",
"18th-century elections in Europe",
"Papal conclaves",
"Pope Benedict XIII"
] |
The 1724 papal conclave was called upon the death of Pope Innocent XIII. It began on 20 March 1724 and ended on 28 May that year with the election of Cardinal Vincenzo Maria Orsini, a Dominican friar, as Pope Benedict XIII. The conclave was made of largely the same electors that had elected Innocent in 1721 and the same factions dominated it. Multiple attempts were made to elect candidates that would be acceptable to the various Catholic monarchies at the time, but none were successful until May. Benedict resisted his own election for two days before being convinced to accept it.
## Background
The papal conclave that had elected Innocent XIII in 1721 was dominated by cardinals appointed by Clement XI, who had been Pope for 21 years and appointed over 70 cardinals during that time. The conclave that elected Innocent was marked by a new alliance between the French and Spanish cardinals due to a change in the Spanish dynasty following the War of the Spanish Succession that resulted in Philip V, a Bourbon and the grandson of Louis XIV of France, ascending to what had previously been a Habsburg throne. Innocent was elected unanimously with the prospect that he might cooperate with both Bourbon France and the Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor. Innocent had been in poor health for the year before his death on 7 March 1724 and preparations for the conclave to elect his successor had begun before his death.
## Conclave
During his pontificate Innocent XIII had only created three new cardinals. When he died the composition of the College of Cardinals and its factions were similar to the one that had elected him. The conclave began on 20 March 1724 with only 33 cardinal electors present, but eventually 53 total cardinals took part in the election.
At the start of the conclave, electors from the zelanti faction attempted to elect Giuseppe Renato Imperiali, but this was not possible because of his unpopularity with both France and Spain. Following this attempt cardinals representing the Bourbons insisted that no serious attempt to elect a new pope take place until all cardinals who were traveling had arrived, and until the electors had received instructions from the various Catholic monarchs.
Annibale Albani, the brother of Clement XI, tried to elect Fabrizio Paolucci as Pope, having supported him previously in 1721. The Hapsburg emperor, Charles VI, was opposed to Paolucci because he was sympathetic to the Bourbons, and a papal veto from Charles arrived from Vienna before Paolucci could be elected. Several of the electors continued to vote for Paolucci after he was excluded in protest of the veto. Representatives of England attempted to influence the conclave in order to reduce the honours that had been given in Rome to members of the House of Stuart, but their influence was limited because Giulio Alberoni, who had agreed to help them, did not have significant influence at the conclave.
Charles VI had instructed his representative to the papal court Maximilian Ulrich von Kaunitz to work closely with Álvaro Cienfuegos to elect a candidate that he favoured. Cuenfuego's instructions were that cardinals Pamfili, Vallemani, Spada, Piazza, Corradini, Caracciolo, Tanara, Orsini, Ruffo, Colonna, Davia, Boncompagni, Pico, and Pignatelli would be acceptable to the emperor, and that cardinals Paolucci, Olivieri, Bussi, Sagripanti, and Origo were to be excluded.
Cienfuegos led electors that were part of the imperial party in an attempt to elect Giulio Piazza. Piazza was almost elected on May 13, but was short by four votes. The electors were confident that they would be able to elect him, because more cardinals were arriving to participate in the conclave, and it became public in Rome that Piazza was likely to be the new pope. Albani did not support this because he had not been a part of the negotiations despite being the original elector to suggest Piazza, and undermined his election by proposing Vincenzo Orsini as an alternate candidate.
## Election of Benedict XIII
On 28 May the conclave unanimously elected Orsini as Pope. He had not been seen as a serious candidate in past conclaves because he did not have political experience. Orsini was 75 at the time, and it took the cardinals two days to convince him to accept his election. He was recorded to have spent the night before his election sleepless and in tears. Even when the cardinals had taken him into the Sistine Chapel for the formal vote to elect him pope after they had been convinced he would accept, he was still unwilling to accept his own election. Ultimately, he only accepted it after being convinced of it by Agustín Pipia the Master of the Dominican Order, of which he was a member. Upon accepting his election, he attempted to take the name Benedict XIV, which would have recognized Antipope Benedict XIII, the last Avignon Pope during the Western Schism. Lawyers from the Roman Curia eventually persuaded Orisini to take the name Benedict XIII.
Orisini's election was notable at the time because it was unusual for the cardinals to elect friars, since they were seen by some as too rigid. Members of religious orders at the time were often respected by the cardinals, but rarely elected, with Benedict XIII being only the fourth since the Council of Trent. Unlike the other mendicants elected to the papacy in this period, he was of noble birth, being the eldest son of the Duke of Gravina, but had forfeited his rights to his father's title in order to enter the Dominicans.
|
2,375,532 |
KWCH-DT
| 1,169,443,327 |
CBS affiliate in Hutchinson, Kansas
|
[
"1953 establishments in Kansas",
"CBS network affiliates",
"Circle (TV network) affiliates",
"Gray Television",
"Heroes & Icons affiliates",
"Television channels and stations established in 1953",
"Television stations in Wichita, Kansas"
] |
KWCH-DT (channel 12) is a television station licensed to Hutchinson, Kansas, United States, serving the Wichita area as an affiliate of CBS. It is owned by Gray Television alongside CW affiliate KSCW-DT (channel 33) and maintains studios on 37th Street North in northeast Wichita and a transmitter facility located east of Hutchinson in rural northeastern Reno County. KWCH-DT serves as the flagship of the Kansas Broadcasting System (KBS), a network of four full-power stations that relay CBS network and other programming provided by KWCH across central and western Kansas, as well as bordering counties in Colorado, Nebraska, and Oklahoma.
The station was established as KTVH in Hutchinson on July 1, 1953, and was the first television station built within the state. Though based in Hutchinson until 1978, when the main studio was officially moved to Wichita, it has had a presence in that city since 1954. The KBS network took its present form in the early 1960s. KTVH was the third-rated news outlet in the area until the owners of two of the other three KBS stations purchased it, changed the call letters to KWCH in 1983, and successfully led it to first place in the local ratings.
## History
### KTVH
On June 30, 1952, Wichita-Hutchinson Company, Inc., filed an application for a construction permit to build channel 12 in Hutchinson, which the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted on January 8, 1953. The company was composed of several shareholders from Hutchinson and other Kansas cities, including Ray Dillon of the Dillons grocery store family; local car dealer J. C. Child; W. D. P. Carey, whose family owned salt mines; the publisher of The Hutchinson News-Herald; and the owner of radio station KWBW. The call letters KTVH were selected; a tract of land on Plum Street was purchased for studio facilities; and a tower site was acquired selected east of town. The first test pattern went out on June 24, 1953, ahead of July 1, when the station launched as the first commercial television station based in Kansas.
KTVH was the first television station to open that covered Wichita, the state's largest city. In August 1954, channel 12 opened a satellite studio in Wichita's Lassen Hotel. Its attempts to identify as a station serving both Hutchinson and Wichita, in what would become a running theme in the first three decades of station history, rankled the stations licensed there. KAKE radio and television petitioned the FCC in November 1954 to order KTVH to stop identifying as a "Wichita station"; it declined to do so.
In 1955, Wichita-Hutchinson Company sold 80 percent of KTVH to the Des Moines-based Minneapolis Star & Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles family, for \$1.07 million. The Star & Tribune Company expanded channel 12's Wichita presence in 1956 by purchasing the former studios of KEDD, the first station to be built in that city, which had just closed. A power increase from 240,000 watts to the class-maximum 316,000 watts followed in 1957. The new owners also made a second effort at seeking permission to identify more closely with Wichita in 1958; the station's president, Joyce Swan, cited confusion from national advertisers, who thought the dual designation of Wichita and Hutchinson signified separate markets, and stated that "it is obvious that an advertising media that covers a large area must cater to the largest metropolitan market". The FCC allowed it to identify as "Hutchinson–Wichita" in 1959 and further tossed out petitions for reconsideration from the two Wichita commercial stations.
As KTVH grew, other television stations were set up in western and central Kansas. KTVC at Ensign, serving communities in southwestern Kansas including Dodge City and Garden City, launched in 1957; in 1958, television stations were established at Goodland (KWGB-TV) and Hays (KAYS-TV) in the northwestern part of the state. KWGB-TV aired CBS and NBC programs, while KTVC and KAYS-TV were ABC affiliates engaged in a regional hookup with KAKE-TV known as the "Golden K Network". In 1961, KTVC switched affiliations from ABC to CBS. The owners of KAYS-TV purchased the Goodland station, by then known as KWHT-TV. Both stations underwent changes: KAYS-TV announced it would join CBS on September 1, 1962, and KWHT-TV changed its call letters in October to KLOE-TV, matching co-owned KLOE radio. KTVC, KLOE, and KAYS then joined KTVH to form the Kansas Broadcasting System (KBS), with KTVH as the flagship. KBS claimed coverage of 66 Kansas counties as well as portions of Oklahoma and Colorado. In 1963, KTVH activated a new transmitter located northwest of Burrton and east of Hutchinson, operating from the tallest broadcast tower in the state at 1,504 ft (458 m).
The Star & Tribune Company announced the sale of KTVH to the WKY Television System of Oklahoma City, owned by the Gaylord family, for \$4.4 million in December 1968. However, much to both parties' surprise, the FCC voted 4–2 to designate the transaction for hearing in August 1969. The decision was met with dissension even from FCC chairman Rosel H. Hyde, who complained that the majority's conclusions that the acquisition of the Hutchinson station would give the Gaylord interests too much media power and that it might downgrade program service were prejudicial. Hearings were set for November, but this was near the expiration date of the sale contract on December 31, and the Star & Tribune Company refused to extend it beyond that date. During that time, the FCC also got a new chair, Dean Burch, who chided the commission for taking nine months to designate the proposed sale for hearing; when the two parties asked for approval without such a hearing, the commission refused, preventing the sale from moving forward.
After the WKY sale bid collapsed, the Star & Tribune Company retained KTVH for another 14 years. In 1976, the FCC granted permission for KTVH to shift its main studio from Hutchinson to Wichita as long as it retained current staffing and service levels at its Hutchinson site. In response, channel 12 purchased the Wichita studio site outright after having leased it for 20 years; it also bought an adjacent tract of land and embarked on an expansion of the facility that more than doubled its size. In 1978, KTVH originated 45 percent of its local programming from Hutchinson and 55 percent from Wichita.
### "The Look of a Leader"
By 1982, Cowles Media—as the Minneapolis Star & Tribune Company was renamed that year to reflect its media diversification—owned two television properties: KTVH and WDRB, an independent station in Louisville, Kentucky. The Hutchinson station was among its most profitable divisions. However, the company had suffered through an 89 percent decline in earnings in 1981, sparking rumors of a sale. The rumors became reality at the end of July when Cowles agreed to sell KTVH for \$12 million to Kansas Broadcasting System Inc., a partnership of Hays businessmen Ross Beach and Robert E. Schmidt of Hays, owners of KAYS and KLOE.
The sale took effect in January 1983. Beach and Schmidt hired a new general manager, Ron Bergamo, and set out to turn around a station stuck in third place in the local news ratings (particularly in the Wichita metro itself) and with a staid reputation. This included major investments in new equipment and hiring consultants to plot a major image revamp, as well as a change of call letters from KTVH to KWCH, which took effect July 4. A goal was set to turn the station into a first-place finisher within 12 to 18 months, and coinciding with the new call letters, the motto "The Look of a Leader" was adopted.
Under Beach and Schmidt, the rebadged KWCH turned around its local news ratings and had become a serious and successful challenger to KAKE, the metro-area leader, by 1986. By 1988, it had dislodged KAKE from first place in a majority of time slots. In addition, Beach and Schmidt had acquired KTVC, the last television station in western Kansas not owned by a Wichita-area station, in 1988. The turnaround attracted the interest of Michigan-based Smith Broadcasting, who made an unexpected and unsolicited \$45 million purchase offer for KBS that Beach and Schmidt accepted that same year. Among Smith's first actions were to appoint part-owner Sandy DiPasquale, who later became the CEO of Newport Television, as president and general manager and to change the call letters on the western and central Kansas stations to designations that incorporated "KBS". DiPasquale became the majority owner in 1992 as Smith sold his interests in KBS to buy other broadcast properties.
Spartan Communications of Spartanburg, South Carolina, purchased KBS from DiPasquale in 1994 for \$58 million. Spartan merged with Media General in 2000.
### Schurz and Gray ownership
On April 6, 2006, Media General announced that it would sell KWCH, its satellites, and four other stations as a result of its purchase of four former NBC owned-and-operated-stations (WVTM-TV in Birmingham, Alabama; WCMH in Columbus, Ohio; WNCN serving Raleigh, North Carolina; and WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island). South Bend, Indiana-based Schurz Communications eventually emerged as the winner and took over on September 25, at which time Schurz formed a new subsidiary known as "Sunflower Broadcasting, Inc.", which became the licensee for its Wichita media market broadcasting properties. In July 2007, KSCW became a sister station to KWCH after Schurz bought the station through a failing station waiver. In 2009, Schurz further expanded its operations by entering into an agreement with Entravision Communications, which was preparing to launch Univision affiliate KDCU-DT, to provide local advertising sales, technical functions, and transmitter tower space. The partnership expanded in 2011 with the addition of a local newscast.
Schurz announced on September 14, 2015, that it would exit from broadcasting and sell its entire broadcasting division, including KWCH (and its satellites), KSCW-DT, and the JSA with KDCU-DT, to Gray Television for approximately \$442.5 million. Gray already owned KAKE, which it divested to Lockwood Broadcast Group in order to retain the higher-rated KWCH. The FCC approved the sale on February 12, 2016, and the sale was completed on February 16.
## News operation
Prior to 1983, KTVH was generally an also-ran in local news. Viewers found it stodgy and conservative, and KAKE and KSNW both regularly trounced channel 12 in the ratings; KAKE drew three to four times as many households in the Wichita metro, while KTVH drew barely half the news ratings of KSN in the full market. In 1978, when the station overhauled its news product, it also had the market's smallest newsgathering staff with nine reporter-photographers where KARD had 12 and KAKE had 22. The KWCH overhaul orchestrated by Beach and Schmidt brought a series of changes, including the adoption of the Eyewitness News moniker; the station's first professionally built set; and a new female anchor, Susan Peters, to present the news alongside market veteran Roger Cornish. Over the decade that followed, KWCH rose to the top of the local news ratings, first in the Wichita metro and then in the full market beginning in 1991.
The other KBS stations, which were not co-owned with KWCH until the 1980s, produced their own local news programs. In 1991, KBSH in Hays abandoned its longstanding separate evening news and switched to inserting a segment of local news into the KWCH broadcasts. In January 2002, this was discontinued, and news stories from Hays were sent to Wichita for incorporation into KWCH's newscasts. Similarly, the local news in Dodge City was trimmed back from a full program to inserts and then to reports in KWCH's own newscasts. In 2005, KWCH began producing an insert into its news for Cox Communications cable customers in Salina.
On January 19, 2004, KWCH began producing a half-hour prime time newscast at 9:00 p.m. for Fox affiliate KSAS-TV through a news share agreement. In September 2007, after its acquisition of KSCW, KWCH began producing a two-hour extension of its weekday morning newscast for KSCW; this later expanded on September 12, 2011, to include half-hour newscasts at 4:00 p.m. weekdays and nightly at 9:00 p.m. For the rest of 2011, KSAS and KSCW carried simultaneous and separate newscasts before KSNW assumed the KSAS news production contract at the start of 2012. This resulted in a lawsuit where KSAS alleged a breach of contract because it was receiving a taped newscast instead of a live one; the suit was settled when KWCH agreed to air the Fox newscast live for the remainder of the contract.
Beyond local news programs, KWCH operates the high school sports outlet Catch It Kansas, which includes a website and a weekly show aired on KSCW.
### Notable former on-air staff
- David Bloom, reporter (1988–1990)
- Cheryl Burton, anchor (now at WLS-TV in Chicago)
- Shon Gables, anchor/reporter
- Andrea Joyce (Andi Joyce), anchor (later at CBS Sports and NBC Sports)
- Susan Peters, anchor (1983–1991); now at KPTS
## Technical information
### Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
### Analog-to-digital conversion
KWCH shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 12, on February 17, 2009, the original target date on which full-power television stations in the United States were to transition from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate (which was later pushed back to June 12, 2009). The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 19 to VHF channel 12.
After the transition, KWCH became one of four television stations that operated their digital signals on the VHF band that were granted a power increase later that month due to reception issues that the stations experienced as a result of moving their digital channel allocations from UHF to VHF. As reception problems continued even after the increase, the FCC granted KWCH-DT permission to swap transmitter facilities with sister station KSCW-DT; on September 29, 2009, KWCH-DT moved its digital signal back to UHF channel 19, with KSCW-DT moving its digital allocation to VHF channel 12.
In 2012, Schurz built a digital replacement translator of KSCW-DT in Wichita, broadcast from the studios. The 12.1 and 12.2 subchannels are also carried; this aids reception of KSCW and KWCH in parts of Wichita that may not get as strong a signal from the Hutchinson transmitters.
### Satellites
KWCH operates a network of three additional full-power satellite stations covering central and western Kansas, which together with KWCH are branded as the Kansas Broadcasting System (KBS). These stations—KBSD-DT in southwestern Kansas and KBSH-DT and KBSL-DT serving northwestern Kansas—are counted as one outlet for ratings and regulatory purposes. KBS was formed in 1962 and provided network programming and advertising sales functions to the then-separately owned stations; trade advertising boasted that advertisers had the ease of "One Order, One Invoice, One Check" working with KBS.
|
52,896,602 |
Arjun Reddy
| 1,173,405,638 |
2017 film directed by Sandeep Reddy Vanga
|
[
"2010s Telugu-language films",
"2010s avant-garde and experimental films",
"2017 directorial debut films",
"2017 films",
"2017 independent films",
"2017 romantic drama films",
"Film controversies",
"Film controversies in India",
"Films about alcoholism",
"Films about depression",
"Films about surgeons",
"Films involved in plagiarism controversies",
"Films set in Karnataka",
"Films shot in Karnataka",
"Indian avant-garde and experimental films",
"Indian independent films",
"Indian nonlinear narrative films",
"Indian romantic drama films",
"Medical-themed films",
"Obscenity controversies in film",
"Sexual-related controversies in film",
"Telugu films remade in other languages"
] |
Arjun Reddy is a 2017 Indian Telugu-language romantic drama film written and directed by Sandeep Reddy Vanga, and produced by his brother Pranay Reddy Vanga's company Bhadrakali Pictures. It stars Vijay Deverakonda and Shalini Pandey while Rahul Ramakrishna, Jia Sharma, Sanjay Swaroop, Gopinath Bhat, Kamal Kamaraju and Kanchana appear in supporting roles. The film tells the story of Arjun Reddy Deshmukh (Deverakonda), a high-functioning alcoholic surgeon who has anger management problems. Arjun is on a self-destructive path after the marriage of his girlfriend Preethi Shetty (Pandey); the film focuses on his downfall and subsequent resurgence.
Arjun Reddy was partially inspired by Sandeep Vanga's life as a physiotherapy student. He worked on the script for two years and it took four to five years for the film to materialise. Principal photography commenced on 20 June 2016 at Hyderabad and took 86 working days to complete. Other filming locations include Mangalore, Dehradun and New Delhi, filming also took place in Italy. Radhan and Harshvardhan Rameshwar composed the soundtrack and score, respectively. Raj Thota was director of photography and Shashank Mali edited the film.
Made on a budget of ₹5–5.15 crore; the film was released worldwide on 25 August 2017. It received widespread critical acclaim for its direction, writing, cinematography and the cast performances—especially that of Deverakonda, but drew criticism for allegedly promoting substance abuse among young people and for its sex scenes. The film was a box office success, grossing ₹51 crore globally, with a distributor share of ₹25.5 crore.
It received six nominations at the 65th Filmfare Awards South, including Best Telugu Film and Best Telugu Director for Vanga; the film's only win was Best Telugu Actor for Deverakonda. The film was remade in Hindi as Kabir Singh (2019) and twice in Tamil: as Adithya Varma (2019) and Varmaa (2020).
## Plot
Arjun Reddy Deshmukh is a house surgeon at St. Mary's Medical College in Mangalore, India. Despite being a brilliant student, he has severe anger management problems that earn the wrath of the college dean. Arjun's aggressive nature also earns him a reputation among his juniors as a college bully. After a brawl alongside his friend Kamal against members of the opposing team during an inter-college football match the dean asks Arjun to either apologise or leave the college. Arjun initially chooses to leave the college, but stays back after meeting first-year student Preethi Shetty.
Arjun and his friend Shiva enter a third-year classroom and announce that Arjun is in love with Preethi and asserts that she is exclusive to him. Initially afraid, Preethi starts adjusting to Arjun's overbearing attitude. She eventually reciprocates his feelings and they develop an intimate relationship. Arjun graduates with an MBBS degree and leaves for Mussoorie to pursue a Master's degree in Orthopedic surgery. Over the course of three years, Arjun's and Preethi's relationship becomes stronger. Months later, Arjun visits Preethi's house, where her father sees them kissing and throws Arjun out.
Preethi's father opposes her and Arjun's relationship due to Arjun's brash behaviour and also because they belong to different castes. Arjun demands Preethi decide within six hours otherwise he will end their relationship. Following this incident, Preethi's parents seize her phone, preventing her from contacting Arjun. By the time she manages to visit Arjun's house, he is drunk, injects morphine into himself, and becomes unconscious for two days. Preethi is then forcibly married to someone from her caste. Arjun learns about the marriage from Shiva and goes to her house. He is assaulted and gets arrested for making a scene. Arjun's father throws him out of the family home for ruining his reputation.
With Shiva's help, Arjun rents a flat and joins a private hospital as a surgeon. To cope with his emotions, he starts taking drugs, attempts one-night stands, buys a pet dog and names it after Preethi and drinks alcohol; all of which are unsuccessful. Within months, he becomes a successful surgeon and a high-functioning alcoholic who is feared by the hospital's staff members, one of the reasons being his high surgery count. Arjun's self-destructing behaviour and refusal to move on worries Shiva and Kamal. He persuades one of his patients, Jia Sharma, a leading film star, to have a no-strings relationship with him, which he ends when she falls in love with him.
On a day off, Arjun unwillingly agrees to perform a life-saving surgery and collapses from dehydration. The hospital staff examines his blood samples, which show traces of alcohol and cocaine. The hospital chief files a case against Arjun, who accepts the truth on the grounds of violating his professional ethics during an in-house court hearing, despite Shiva making arrangements to bail him out. Arjun's medical license is cancelled for five years and he is evicted from the flat. The next morning, Shiva manages to reach Arjun to convey his grandmother's death; he meets his father, and they reconcile. Arjun gives up his self-destructive habits soon after.
While leaving for a vacation, Arjun sees a pregnant Preethi sitting in a park. Convinced that she is unhappy with her marriage, Arjun meets her after returning from his vacation. Preethi reveals that she left her husband days after their marriage and continued to work in a clinic. She tells Arjun that he is the child's father, and they reunite. The pair marries, and Preethi's father apologises for misunderstanding their love for each other.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
After discontinuing his studies as a physiotherapist, Sandeep Vanga worked in the 2010 Telugu film Kedi as an assistant director. He worked on the script of Arjun Reddy for two years and for four to five years approached producers who were not willing to finance the project until Vanga's brother Pranay Reddy agreed to do so. Pranay and Vanga's father invested in the film equally. The project was made under the production banner of Bhadrakali Pictures.
Arjun Reddy was partially inspired from Vanga's life as a physiotherapy student: "It is not my story but there are a lot of references from my life [...] Some of my medical college friends saw the film and said that Arjun reminds them of me." After working on a scene, he used to wait for a week as he believed that for a film with twists and turns, the narrative would have a chance to jump, thereby giving scope for cinematic liberties. For the same, whenever the idea for a plot twist came to him, Vanga used to work on it for three to four weeks.
In a September 2017 interview with Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu, Vanga said he believed that Telugu cinema uses dialects spoken in Guntur and Vijayawada. Since he was unaware of the way of speaking in both the places, he wrote the dialogue in a Hyderabad Telangana accent. He made use of words that were rarely spoken in colloquial Telugu like yaralu (sister-in-law) to make Arjun look "real and rooted". Some of the dialogue was written in Tulu. With a dark mood prevailing for 100 minutes, Vanga wanted a happy ending for the film, with two or three options for the climax. He said he "didn't have the heart" to end the narrative on a sad note, considering the darkness Arjun was subjected to. The initial edit was 220 minutes long; this was reduced to 186 minutes.
### Cast and crew
Vanga initially approached Sharwanand to play the film's lead role. Sharwanand was at first apprehensive of Vanga handling the responsibilities of directing and producing the project but after reading the script, he changed his mind. He sent the script to many producers, who considered the project too risky to fund. After Sharwanand left the project, Vanga signed Vijay Deverakonda to play Arjun Reddy. Deverakonda's breakthrough film Pelli Choopulu (2016) had not yet been released, and many were against Vanga for casting him, citing it a risky move for a home production. In an interview with Indo-Asian News Service, Devarakonda called the portrayal of Arjun Reddy exhausting, noting that, "I had to be constantly probing into the darkest areas of my consciousness, digging out feelings and tapping into emotions I had never touched in myself". He did not have any cinematic references but watched films like The Godfather (1972), Scarface (1983) and Goodfellas (1990) to remain in an alpha male zone.
Arjun and Preethi had an age difference of four years, which Vanga wanted to showcase effectively. He chose Shalini Pandey to play Preethi; she was pursuing a career in theatre in Jabalpur. Pandey's father was apprehensive of her signing a film contract; the shoot delayed by five months. Pandey was firm in her decision, which strained her relationship with her father. Vanga wanted her to dub for her role, to which she agreed because it would help her own the character completely. Vanga conducted an eight-day acting workshop with Deverakonda and Pandey. Kanchana was cast as Arjun's grandmother in November 2016; Arjun Reddy marked her comeback to Telugu cinema after Shri Datta Darshanam (1985). The producers persuaded her to join the project after a series of long discussions.
Rahul Ramakrishna, who worked as a lyricist for Pelli Choopulu, was cast as Arjun's friend Shiva. Ramakrishna's career as a journalist helped him understand several dialects, which in turn had a positive effect on his performance. He called Shiva's friendship with Arjun "loyal and unconditional", which gives them the liberty to deride each other at times. Amit Sharma was chosen after a three-hour audition; Vanga felt he "had the apt attitude and arrogance" for the role of Amit, Arjun's nemesis. Bhushan Kalyan played the role of the college's dean. Tulu actor Gopinath Bhat was cast as Preethi's father. Sanjay Swaroop, Kamal Kamaraju, Jia Sharma and Priyadarshi Pulikonda were cast in other important roles.
Nagesh Banell was initially the film's director of photography. He was replaced by Raj Thota later, who worked for 85% of the film. Deverakonda recommended him; he did the clash work for Pelli Choopulu whose cinematography was handled by Banell. Vanga worked on the film's sound design and worked with Sachin Hariharan of Sync Cinema. Harshavardhan Rameshwar composed the background score. Shashank Mali edited the film.
### Filming
Principal photography commenced in Hyderabad on 20 June 2016. Kanchana joined the film's sets on 30 November 2016. The protagonists' college life portions were filmed at the three heritage buildings of the University college of Hampankatta, Mangalore. Other filming locations included Dehradun and Delhi in India and parts of Italy. According to Deverakonda, Vanga wanted to set the film in a coastal city and chose Mangalore—mirroring his student life in Dharwad—and stayed there for ten days to finalise the locations. In an interview with Idlebrain.com, Vanga said, "When you write a script, you think about a particular location. But, it scared me when we got worst of locations for some of the scenes. But it didn't matter because our attention would be on characters. I realised that when content is clear, locations doesn't matter most of the times."
The principal photography was completed in 86 working days, and was made on a budget of ₹5–5.15 crore. Vanga preferred long, uninterrupted takes; the pre-Intermission sequence was seven minutes long. According to Deverakonda, if filmed in conventional style, Vanga would have finished the film in 200 working days. For a few scenes, Thota used a hand-held camera weighing 25 kilograms (55 lb), which adversely affected his hands. The classroom fight scene featuring Deverakonda, Pandey and Sharma was filmed in a single take; Sharma wanted Deverakonda to actually hit him to make the scene look natural. He said their experience in theatre helped their performances. The crew wanted to film the intermission scene, in which Arjun urinates in his pants, authentically but a delay in the shoot led to the insertion of a medical hosepipe in Deverakonda's trousers.
## Music
The soundtrack of Arjun Reddy consists of seven songs, all of which were composed by Radhan. Ananta Sriram, Rambabu Gosala and Shreshta wrote the lyrics of two songs each while Mandela Pedaswamy was the lyricist of "Mari Mari". Shreshta wrote the lyrics for "Madhurame" and "Gundelona"; she composed the latter's tune, which lacked instrumental support. "Gundelona" is the debut of Sowjanya as a playback singer.
As a part of the film's marketing, the first single from the soundtrack, titled "Mangaluru – Mussorie" (later known as "Dhooram") was released on 23 April 2017. Three more singles— "The Breakup Song" (later known as "Teliseney Na Nuvvey"), "Emitemito" and "Madhurame"—were released on 19 June 10 and 31 July 2017, respectively. Srivathsan Nadadhur, writing for The Hindu, said "The Breakup song", along with "Break-Up" from Rarandoi Veduka Chudham (2017) and "Badulu Cheppave" from Ninnu Kori (2017) is an instance in which Telugu cinema "continued in Kolaveri mode too intermittently" in the first half of 2017. The film's soundtrack was marketed by Aditya Music and was released at an audio-release promotional event in Hyderabad on 21 August 2017.
The film's music received a positive response from critics. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote that Radhan's music, which varies from "classical strains to more trippy beats", was one of the factors, along with the cinematography, that brought Arjun Reddy to life. Neeshita Nyayapati writing for The Times of India said the songs "deserve a special mention" and that Radhan did a "brilliant job". Namrata Suri of The News Minute wrote that Arjun Reddy has one of the "most original soundtracks composed by Radhan", and that "Madhurame" and "The Breakup song" are the memorable songs from the film. In December 2017, Nadadhur commented; "For a film so brutally raw and honest, Arjun Reddy got its aura from its music as much as the swag of Vijay Deverakonda". He added that the heavy metal undertone matched up to the "extremities and mood swings of its lead character". Nadadhur also praised the use of semi-classical and jazzy touches in the soundtrack.
## Release
Arjun Reddy was given an 'A' (adult) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification due to the abundance of expletives and innuendoes. Vanga complained that the board took his creative struggle for granted. He considered writing a letter to the board asking what was taken into consideration before certification. The board complained that the producers of the film had not submitted their promotional material for censoring before using it. Asian Cinemas and KFC Entertainments acquired the film's distribution rights for Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Nirvana Cinemas distributed the film in overseas markets. The teaser of the film was released on 27 February 2017, and the trailer was released on 12 August 2017.
Days before the film's release, Indian National Congress party's Rajya Sabha member V. Hanumantha Rao tore promotional posters featuring the lead pair kissing each other that had been pasted on TSRTC buses. He found them objectionable and said they adversely affected the minds of young people. It led the film's promoters to remove such posters across Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Arjun Reddy was released worldwide on 25 August 2017, notably clashing with Indian films Vivegam and A Gentleman. In Hyderabad, 55 paid premieres were held a day before the release, surpassing the record set by Baahubali 2: The Conclusion which had 33 premiere shows. The film's digital rights were acquired by Amazon Prime Video, which made it available online on the 50th day of theatrical release. Star Maa purchased the satellite rights for ₹3.5 crore. The film had its global television premiere on 21 January 2018, with a TRP rating of 13.6. The film was substantially edited for in its television premiere, drawing criticism from its audience.
## Reception
### Box office
Arjun Reddy opened to a 100% occupancy in some areas of India, including districts of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. At the United States box office, the film debuted with earnings of US\$194,051 from its premieres and of US\$709,347 in two days. By the end of its first weekend, it grossed US\$954,677 in the US, and A\$111,521 in Australia. Arjun Reddy grossed ₹19 crore globally, with a distributor share of ₹10.42 crore in its first weekend. The film was declared commercially successful as it earned a profit of 73.66% for its distributors. Arjun Reddy's earnings exceeded US\$1 million on its fourth day of theatrical release in the US, becoming the 32nd Indian Telugu-language film to do so.
By the end of its first week, the film grossed ₹34.3 crore and a distributor share of ₹18.5 crore, providing a return of nearly 200% to its distributors. After earning US\$1,681,996 in 17 days in the US, Arjun Reddy became the fourth highest grossing Telugu film of the year in that country. By then, it had grossed a worldwide total of ₹45 crore and a distributor share of ₹25 crore. In its complete global theatrical run, Arjun Reddy grossed a total of ₹51 crore and earned a distributor share of ₹26 crore.
### Critical response
Arjun Reddy received positive reviews from critics. Writing for Film Companion, Baradwaj Rangan said that while the pre-interval sequences were generic, the "prickly" latter portions justified both the film's title and the running time. Rangan called Arjun Reddy a film that "digs deep [and] rings true" and said it "really comes into its own" in the second half. S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu wrote that Vanga's storytelling had a "conviction and confidence probably only a debutante will have". He found the performances, especially those of Deverakonda and Kanchana, "pitch perfect". Sangeetha Devi Dundoo said the film is "too raw and real to be absolutely fictional" and commented: "Hours after watching Arjun Reddy, it’s hard to shake off its effect. It’s like a hangover, albeit in a good way."
Indo-Asian News Service gave the film five stars out of five, called it the "most original, experimental and daring work to come out Telugu cinema in a long time", and said the protagonist's "rise, fall and rise ... is nothing short of poetic and heart wrenching". Neeshita Nyayapati gave the film four stars out of five and commented: "With Arjun Reddy, Sandeep Vanga has managed to tell a story that is seldom told, without sleaze or cheesy lines or [over the top] drama". Srivatsan of India Today also gave the film four stars out of five and wrote: "Lo and behold, Arjun Reddy—the film and Vijay Deverakonda, is something that the Telugu industry deserved in the first place", and praised the "brutal and honest" filmmaking. Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle also gave the film four stars out of five and commended the performances and the filmmaking but was apprehensive of the second half's pace. The Times of India, also gave four stars stating "Arjun Reddy is the dawn of a new era of films for the Telugu film industry."
Hemanth Kumar, in his review for Firstpost gave 3.75 stars out of five and praised the storytelling in particular, saying: "There are no gimmicks, no surprises, no twists. And in doing so, we are forced to absorb the film at a more personal and subconscious level." Latha Srinivasan, in her review for NewsX, wrote that the protagonist is "unconventional, free-spirited and tries to break the shackles of traditional societal norms". She said the romance is "rooted in deep emotions" and gave the film 3.5 stars out of five. Giving three stars out of five, K. Naresh Kumar of The Hans India was critical of the film's pace and a few subplots in the second half. He wrote: "As a tale of a love-struck man, who falters and finally figures out what is best for him, the experiment that the director undertakes is tedious, stretching out time and again". Murali Krishna CH, in his review for the Cinema Express, praised the unpredictability of the first half but was apprehensive of some emotional scenes in the second half; he found them a "serious flaw" after the intermission.
## Controversies
### Toxic masculinity
The film has also drawn criticism for its misogyny and glorification of toxic masculinity. Sowmya Rajendran, in her review for The News Minute, panned its "utterly colourless" female characters and validation of abusive behaviour, writing: "The film treats women as property, to be under the protection and control of men ... [it] will have us believe that women have no opinions about anything that happens to them or around them." Malini Raghu of Deccan Herald concurred, stating: "portraying [Reddy] as just a wounded and short-tempered but affectionate boy is not acceptable to many [...] The female lead's gullibility is annoying, especially to women. All she does is keep mum and boost her man's ego." Vishnupriya Bhandaram of Firstpost found the film's depiction of misbehavior as an alpha male attribute to be "deeply problematic", while Sify's Ashley Tellis classified it as "part of the culture of misogyny that has always existed in Telugu (and Tamil and all Indian film cultures)." Speaking to The Asian Age, Neelima Menon opined that "it's problematic when you add celebratory background score to an act of verbally abusing a woman with sexually coloured remarks, or beating her up, or decide to make these acts sound heroic." Writing for Mashable, Pramit Chatterjee summed up the film as "the flag-bearer of 21st-century toxic masculinity".
In 2019, actress Parvathy criticised Arjun Reddy at a roundtable organised by Film Companion for glorifying misogyny, abuse and toxic masculinity in the films at International Film Festival of India (IFFI). Her comments against Arjun Reddy were met with widespread appreciation and criticism with many noting that she was brave enough to address the issue in front of Deverakonda. Later, Deverakonda criticised social media trollers during an interview for blowing the issue out of proportion while simultaneously emphasising on how much he respected Parvathy and her work.
### Glorification of substance and sexual abuse
Post-release, Hanumantha Rao lodged a complaint against the film, stating that it promoted sexual abuse in colleges and substance abuse in hospitals. He also asked K. Chandrashekar Rao, the chief minister of Telangana, to stop the film's screening across the state. A week after the film's release, D. Nagaraju from Khammam accused the film's makers of plagiarising his script and demanded compensation of ₹2 crore. In Vijayawada, women's organisations held a protest against the film, complaining of its "objectionable" content that could have a negative impact on young people.
## Accolades
## Remakes
Arjun Reddy was remade in Hindi by Vanga himself as Kabir Singh, which was released on 21 June 2019. The film was first remade in Tamil by Bala as Varmaa; however in early 2019 the production company E4 Entertainment shelved the film's release due to creative differences with Bala, and relaunched the film as Adithya Varma with Gireesaaya directing, which was released on 21 November 2019. Despite initially being shelved, Varmaa was released on 6 October 2020. In June 2019, producer S. Narayan bought the Kannada remake rights of the film. E4 Entertainment also holds the rights to make a Malayalam version. In 2021, Yuva Films, a Nepali film production company was reported to be producing a Nepali version of Arjun Reddy.
|
45,337,023 |
The Governor's Daughter
| 1,167,633,020 | null |
[
"1910 drama films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American drama short films",
"American silent short films",
"Lost American drama films",
"Silent American drama films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
] |
The Governor's Daughter is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company. The story details a convict who is being sent to prison when the train is wrecked and the sheriff escorting him is killed. The convict frees himself, but halts his escape to save the life of a little girl. As he returns the girl to her nurse, a policeman identifies and recaptures him. Later the little girl accompanies her father, the governor, on a tour of the prison and the father pardons the hero-convict. The film included scenes of a real train wreck and the scenario was written around the filming of the disaster. The film received praise for the before and after scenes which were described as shocking to The Moving Picture World's reviewer. The film was released on June 24, 1910, and was shown as far away as Australia. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from June 25, 1910. It states: "Bill Raymond, a convict, sentenced to a long term, is on his way to prison, in custody of the sheriff. A little girl [Nell] is a passenger in the same train. She shows that she feels sorry for the man. He in turn appreciates her sympathy. The train is wrecked, and the sheriff, who is handcuffed to Bill, is killed. Bill takes the key of the handcuffs from the pocket of the dead man, frees himself, and is about to escape, when he notices that the little girl, abandoned by her nurse, is lying unconscious in the car, which is now on fire. The convict risks his life to save the child, and carries her out in his arms. He takes her to her nurse and is recognized by a policeman and taken in custody, his chance for freedom lost. The child, who is the daughter of the governor, although Bill does not know it, is restored to her parent. The nurse fears to mention the incident, and the governor does not know how his darling's life was saved. Later the governor goes to the state prison on a tour of inspection, and Nell accompanies him. She has some flowers which she wants to give to the prisoners. In her tour of the prison, she recognizes Bill. She tells her father about it, and he pardons the hero-convict on the spot...."
## Production
The impetus to produce this film appears to have been the ability of the Thanhouser crew to capture a disaster on film. Film historian Q. David Bowers writes, "What was one company's misfortune was another's gain, and from time to time during the next few years Thanhouser cameramen hurried to film scenes of disasters so that they could be featured as film episodes in scenarios which were written after the fact." It is unknown what particular rail disaster was filmed, but a possible that the accident depicted was in the Bronx on the night of June 1, 1910. That night one stalled train, concealed in smoke from a fire, was struck by another train near the Mott Avenue subway station. One of the composite cars was shredded by the steel cars behind it; there were no fatalities in the accident. Other accidents prior to the film debut occurred in January and February.
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser, averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O'Neil. Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production, but two possible candidates exist. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The only credit known for the cast is that of Marie Eline as Nell. Other members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions, Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane. Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company. Crane was also involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser.
## Release and reception
The single reel drama, approximately 985 feet long, was released on June 24, 1910. Advertisements played up the wreck of the \$40,000 train car while a positive review in The Moving Picture World praised the well-managed production's prison and track wreck scenes, but remarked that the improbable story was purely fantastical. One of the more dramatic articles to appear in The Moving Picture World included reference to the film while playing up the dramatic element describe the footage and the filming of the wreck. It states: "... The scenes were portrayals of a train crash and they give you startling before-and-after wreck views. They made you shiver when they showed you the fate that came to a car full of passengers – sudden, cruel and without warning. They made you shiver; ... And you thanked God that the thing before you was only a picture on the screen!" Known advertisements for the film included theaters in Rhode Island and Indiana. Records show that film made it to Australia, with one Launceston, Tasmania newspaper showing an advertisement on January 30, 1911.
The film was still in circulation years after its production, with the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures approving this film for viewing without censorship in a May 21, 1915 decision. This list also records the existence of two films bearing the same name, one from Selig Polyscope and the other from the Éclair American Company.
## See also
- List of American films of 1910
|
30,766,907 |
Reversible cellular automaton
| 1,160,853,455 |
Cellular automaton that can be run backwards
|
[
"Cellular automata",
"Reversible computing"
] |
A reversible cellular automaton is a cellular automaton in which every configuration has a unique predecessor. That is, it is a regular grid of cells, each containing a state drawn from a finite set of states, with a rule for updating all cells simultaneously based on the states of their neighbors, such that the previous state of any cell before an update can be determined uniquely from the updated states of all the cells. The time-reversed dynamics of a reversible cellular automaton can always be described by another cellular automaton rule, possibly on a much larger neighborhood.
Several methods are known for defining cellular automata rules that are reversible; these include the block cellular automaton method, in which each update partitions the cells into blocks and applies an invertible function separately to each block, and the second-order cellular automaton method, in which the update rule combines states from two previous steps of the automaton. When an automaton is not defined by one of these methods, but is instead given as a rule table, the problem of testing whether it is reversible is solvable for block cellular automata and for one-dimensional cellular automata, but is undecidable for other types of cellular automata.
Reversible cellular automata form a natural model of reversible computing, a technology that could lead to ultra-low-power computing devices. Quantum cellular automata, one way of performing computations using the principles of quantum mechanics, are often required to be reversible. Additionally, many problems in physical modeling, such as the motion of particles in an ideal gas or the Ising model of alignment of magnetic charges, are naturally reversible and can be simulated by reversible cellular automata.
Properties related to reversibility may also be used to study cellular automata that are not reversible on their entire configuration space, but that have a subset of the configuration space as an attractor that all initially random configurations converge towards. As Stephen Wolfram writes, "once on an attractor, any system—even if it does not have reversible underlying rules—must in some sense show approximate reversibility."
## Examples
### One-dimensional automata
A cellular automaton is defined by its cells (often a one- or two-dimensional array), a finite set of values or states that can go into each cell, a neighborhood associating each cell with a finite set of nearby cells, and an update rule according to which the values of all cells are updated, simultaneously, as a function of the values of their neighboring cells. The simplest possible cellular automata have a one-dimensional array of cells, each of which can hold a binary value (either 0 or 1), with each cell having a neighborhood consisting only of it and its two nearest cells on either side; these are called the elementary cellular automata. If the update rule for such an automaton causes each cell to always remain in the same state, then the automaton is reversible: the previous state of all cells can be recovered from their current states, because for each cell the previous and current states are the same. Similarly, if the update rule causes every cell to change its state from 0 to 1 and vice versa, or if it causes a cell to copy the state from a fixed neighboring cell, or if it causes it to copy a state and then reverse its value, it is necessarily reversible. call these types of reversible cellular automata, in which the state of each cell depends only on the previous state of one neighboring cell, "trivial". Despite its simplicity, the update rule that causes each cell to copy the state of a neighboring cell is important in the theory of symbolic dynamics, where it is known as the shift map.
A little less trivially, suppose that the cells again form a one-dimensional array, but that each state is an ordered pair (l,r) consisting of a left part l and a right part r, each drawn from a finite set of possible values. Define a transition function that sets the left part of a cell to be the left part of its left neighbor and the right part of a cell to be the right part of its right neighbor. That is, if the left neighbor's state is (a,b) and the right neighbor's state is (c,d), the new state of a cell is the result of combining these states using a pairwise operation × defined by the equation (a,b) × (c,d) = (a,d). An example of this construction is given in the illustration, in which the left part is represented graphically as a shape and the right part is represented as a color; in this example, each cell is updated with the shape of its left neighbor and the color of its right neighbor. Then this automaton is reversible: the values on the left side of each pair migrate rightwards and the values on the right side migrate leftwards, so the prior state of each cell can be recovered by looking for these values in neighboring cells. The operation × used to combine pairs of states in this automaton forms an algebraic structure known as a rectangular band.
Multiplication of decimal numbers by two or by five can be performed by a one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton with ten states per cell (the ten decimal digits). Each digit of the product depends only on a neighborhood of two digits in the given number: the digit in the same position and the digit one position to the right. More generally, multiplication or division of doubly infinite digit sequences in any radix b, by a multiplier or divisor x all of whose prime factors are also prime factors of b, is an operation that forms a cellular automaton because it depends only on a bounded number of nearby digits, and is reversible because of the existence of multiplicative inverses. Multiplication by other values (for instance, multiplication of decimal numbers by three) remains reversible, but does not define a cellular automaton, because there is no fixed bound on the number of digits in the initial value that are needed to determine a single digit in the result.
There are no nontrivial reversible elementary cellular automata. However, a near-miss is provided by Rule 90 and other elementary cellular automata based on the exclusive or function. In Rule 90, the state of each cell is the exclusive or of the previous states of its two neighbors. This use of the exclusive or makes the transition rule locally invertible, in the sense that any contiguous subsequence of states can be generated by this rule. Rule 90 is not a reversible cellular automaton rule, because in Rule 90 every assignment of states to the complete array of cells has exactly four possible predecessors, whereas reversible rules are required to have exactly one predecessor per configuration.
### Critters' rule
Conway's Game of Life, one of the most famous cellular automaton rules, is not reversible: for instance, it has many patterns that die out completely, so the configuration in which all cells are dead has many predecessors, and it also has Garden of Eden patterns with no predecessors. However, another rule called "Critters" by its inventors, Tommaso Toffoli and Norman Margolus, is reversible and has similar dynamic behavior to Life.
The Critters rule is a block cellular automaton in which, at each step, the cells of the automaton are partitioned into 2×2 blocks and each block is updated independently of the other blocks. Its transition function flips the state of every cell in a block that does not have exactly two live cells, and in addition rotates by 180° blocks with exactly three live cells. Because this function is invertible, the automaton defined by these rules is a reversible cellular automaton.
When started with a smaller field of random cells centered within a larger region of dead cells, many small patterns similar to Life's glider escape from the central random area and interact with each other. The Critters rule can also support more complex spaceships of varying speeds as well as oscillators with infinitely many different periods.
## Constructions
Several general methods are known for constructing cellular automaton rules that are automatically reversible.
### Block cellular automata
A block cellular automaton is an automaton at which, in each time step, the cells of the automaton are partitioned into congruent subsets (called blocks), and the same transformation is applied independently to each block. Typically, such an automaton will use more than one partition into blocks, and will rotate between these partitions at different time steps of the system. In a frequently used form of this design, called the Margolus neighborhood, the cells of the automaton form a square grid and are partitioned into larger 2 × 2 square blocks at each step. The center of a block at one time step becomes the corner of four blocks at the next time step, and vice versa; in this way, the four cells in each 2 × 2 belong to four different 2 × 2 squares of the previous partition. The Critters rule discussed above is an example of this type of automaton.
Designing reversible rules for block cellular automata, and determining whether a given rule is reversible, is easy: for a block cellular automaton to be reversible it is necessary and sufficient that the transformation applied to the individual blocks at each step of the automaton is itself reversible. When a block cellular automaton is reversible, the time-reversed version of its dynamics can also be described as a block cellular automaton with the same block structure, using a time-reversed sequence of partitions of cells into blocks, and with the transition function for each block being the inverse function of the original rule.
### Simulation of irreversible automata
`showed how to embed any irreversible d-dimensional cellular automaton rule into a reversible (d + 1)-dimensional rule. Each d-dimensional slice of the new reversible rule simulates a single time step of the original rule. In this way, Toffoli showed that many features of irreversible cellular automata, such as the ability to simulate arbitrary Turing machines, could also be extended to reversible cellular automata.`
As Toffoli conjectured and proved, the increase in dimension incurred by Toffoli's method is a necessary payment for its generality: under mild assumptions (such as the translation-invariance of the embedding), any embedding of a cellular automaton that has a Garden of Eden into a reversible cellular automaton must increase the dimension.
`describes another type of simulation that does not obey Hertling's assumptions and does not change the dimension. Morita's method can simulate the finite configurations of any irreversible automaton in which there is a "quiescent" or "dead" state, such that if a cell and all its neighbors are quiescent then the cell remains quiescent in the next step. The simulation uses a reversible block cellular automaton of the same dimension as the original irreversible automaton. The information that would be destroyed by the irreversible steps of the simulated automaton is instead sent away from the configuration into the infinite quiescent region of the simulating automaton. This simulation does not update all cells of the simulated automaton simultaneously; rather, the time to simulate a single step is proportional to the size of the configuration being simulated. Nevertheless, the simulation accurately preserves the behavior of the simulated automaton, as if all of its cells were being updated simultaneously. Using this method it is possible to show that even one-dimensional reversible cellular automata are capable of universal computation.`
### Second-order cellular automata
The second-order cellular automaton technique is a method of transforming any cellular automaton into a reversible cellular automaton, invented by Edward Fredkin and first published by several other authors in 1984. In this technique, the state of each cell in the automaton at time t is a function both of its neighborhood at time t − 1 and of its own state at time t − 2. Specifically, the transition function of the automaton maps each neighborhood at time t − 1 to a permutation on the set of states, and then applies that permutation to the state at time t − 2. The reverse dynamics of the automaton may be computed by mapping each neighborhood to the inverse permutation and proceeding in the same way.
In the case of automata with binary-valued states (zero or one), there are only two possible permutations on the states (the identity permutation and the permutation that swaps the two states), which may themselves be represented as the exclusive or of a state with a binary value. In this way, any conventional two-valued cellular automaton may be converted to a second-order cellular automaton rule by using the conventional automaton's transition function on the states at time t − 1, and then computing the exclusive or of these states with the states at time t − 2 to determine the states at time t. However, the behavior of the reversible cellular automaton determined in this way may not bear any resemblance to the behavior of the cellular automaton from which it was defined.
Any second-order automaton may be transformed into a conventional cellular automaton, in which the transition function depends only on the single previous time step, by combining pairs of states from consecutive time steps of the second-order automaton into single states of a conventional cellular automaton.
### Conserved landscape
A one-dimensional cellular automaton found by uses a neighborhood consisting of four contiguous cells. In this automaton, a cell flips its state whenever it occupies the "?" position in the pattern "0?10". No two such patterns can overlap, so the same "landscape" surrounding the flipped cell continues to be present after the transition. In the next step, the cell in the same "?" position will flip again, back to its original state. Therefore, this automaton is its own inverse, and is reversible. Patt performed a brute force search of all two-state one-dimensional cellular automata with small neighborhoods; this search led to the discovery of this automaton, and showed that it was the simplest possible nontrivial one-dimensional two-state reversible cellular automaton. There are no nontrivial reversible two-state automata with three-cell neighborhoods, and all two-state reversible automata with four-cell neighborhoods are simple variants on Patt's automaton.
Patt's automaton can be viewed in retrospect as an instance of the "conserved landscape" technique for designing reversible cellular automata. In this technique, a change to the state of a cell is triggered by a pattern among a set of neighbors that do not themselves change states. In this way, the existence of the same pattern can be used to trigger the inverse change in the time-reversed dynamics of the automaton. Patt's automaton has very simple dynamics (all cyclic sequences of configurations have length two), but automata using the same conserved landscape technique with more than one triggering pattern are capable of more complex behavior. In particular they can simulate any second-order cellular automaton.
The SALT model of is a special case of the conserved landscape technique. In this model, the cells of an integer grid are split into even and odd subsets. In each time step certain pairs of cells of one parity are swapped, based on the configuration of nearby cells of the other parity. Rules using this model can simulate the billiard ball computer, or support long strings of live cells that can move at many different speeds or vibrate at many different frequencies.
## Theory
A cellular automaton consists of an array of cells, each one of which has a finite number of possible states, together with a rule for updating all cells simultaneously based only on the states of neighboring cells. A configuration of a cellular automaton is an assignment of a state to every cell of the automaton; the update rule of a cellular automaton forms a function from configurations to configurations, with the requirement that the updated value of any cell depends only on some finite neighborhood of the cell, and that the function is invariant under translations of the input array.
With these definitions, a cellular automaton is reversible when it satisfies any one of the following conditions, all of which are mathematically equivalent to each other:
1. Every configuration of the automaton has a unique predecessor that is mapped to it by the update rule.
2. The update rule of the automaton is a bijection; that is, a function that is both one-to-one and onto.
3. The update rule is an injective function, that is, there are no two configurations that both map to the same common configuration. This condition is obviously implied by the assumption that the update rule is a bijection. In the other direction, the Garden of Eden theorem for cellular automata implies that every injective update rule is bijective.
4. The time-reversed dynamics of the automaton can be described by another cellular automaton. Clearly, for this to be possible, the update rule must be bijective. In the other direction, if the update rule is bijective, then it has an inverse function that is also bijective. This inverse function must be a cellular automaton rule. The proof of this fact uses the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem, a topological characterization of cellular automata rules as the translation-invariant functions that are continuous with respect to the Cantor topology on the space of configurations.
5. The update rule of the automaton is an automorphism of the shift dynamical system defined by the state space and the translations of the lattice of cells. That is, it is a homeomorphism that commutes with the shift map, as the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem implies.
`analyze several alternative definitions of reversibility for cellular automata. Most of these turn out to be equivalent either to injectivity or to surjectivity of the transition function of the automaton; however, there is one more alternative that does not match either of these two definitions. It applies to automata such as the Game of Life that have a quiescent or dead state. In such an automaton, one can define a configuration to be "finite" if it has only finitely many non-quiescent cells, and one can consider the class of automata for which every finite configuration has at least one finite predecessor. This class turns out to be distinct from both the surjective and injective automata, and in some subsequent research, automata with this property have been called invertible finite automata.`
### Testing reversibility
It was first shown by that the problem of testing reversibility of a given one-dimensional cellular automaton has an algorithmic solution. Alternative algorithms based on automata theory and de Bruijn graphs were given by and , respectively.
- Culik begins with the observation that a cellular automaton has an injective transition function if and only if the transition function is injective on the subsets of configurations that are periodic (repeating the same substring infinitely often in both directions). He defines a nondeterministic finite-state transducer that performs the transition rule of the automaton on periodic strings. This transducer works by remembering the neighborhood of the automaton at the start of the string and entering an accepting state when that neighborhood concatenated to the end of the input would cause its nondeterministically chosen transitions to be correct. Culik then swaps the input and output of the transducer. The transducer resulting from this swap simulates the inverse dynamics of the given automaton. Finally, Culik applies previously known algorithms to test whether the resulting swapped transducer maps each input to a single output.
- Sutner defines a directed graph (a type of de Bruijn graph) in which each vertex represents a pair of assignments of states for the cells in a contiguous sequence of cells. The length of this sequence is chosen to be one less than the neighborhood size of the automaton. An edge in Sutner's graph represents a pair of sequences of cells that overlap in all but one cell, so that the union of the sequences is a full neighborhood in the cellular automaton. Each such edge is directed from the overlapping subsequence on the left to the subsequence on the right. Edges are only included in the graph when they represent compatible state assignments on the overlapping parts of their cell sequences, and when the automaton rule (applied to the neighborhood determined by the potential edge) would give the same results for both assignments of states. By performing a linear-time strong connectivity analysis of this graph, it is possible to determine which of its vertices belong to cycles. The transition rule is non-injective if and only if this graph contains a directed cycle in which at least one vertex has two differing state assignments.
These methods take polynomial time, proportional to the square of the size of the state transition table of the input automaton. A related algorithm of determines whether a given rule is surjective when applied to finite-length arrays of cells with periodic boundary conditions, and if so, for which lengths.
For a block cellular automaton, testing reversibility is also easy: the automaton is reversible if and only if the transition function on the blocks of the automaton is invertible, and in this case the reverse automaton has the same block structure with the inverse transition function.
However, for cellular automata with other neighborhoods in two or more dimensions, the problem of testing reversibility is undecidable, meaning that there cannot exist an algorithm that always halts and always correctly answers the problem. The proof of this fact by is based on the previously known undecidability of tiling the plane by Wang tiles, sets of square tiles with markings on their edges that constrain which pairs of tiles can fit edge-to-edge. Kari defines a cellular automaton from a set of Wang tiles, such that the automaton fails to be injective if and only if the given tile set can tile the entire plane. His construction uses the von Neumann neighborhood, and cells with large numbers of states. In the same paper, Kari also showed that it is undecidable to test whether a given cellular automaton rule of two or more dimensions is surjective (that is, whether it has a Garden of Eden).
### Reverse neighborhood size
In a one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton with n states per cell, in which the neighborhood of a cell is an interval of m cells, the automaton representing the reverse dynamics has neighborhoods that consist of at most n<sup>m − 1</sup> − m + 1 cells. This bound is known to be tight for m = 2: there exist n-state reversible cellular automata with two-cell neighborhoods whose time-reversed dynamics forms a cellular automaton with neighborhood size exactly n − 1.
For any integer m there are only finitely many two-dimensional reversible m-state cellular automata with the von Neumann neighborhood. Therefore, there is a well-defined function f(m) such that all reverses of m-state cellular automata with the von Neumann neighborhood use a neighborhood with radius at most f(m): simply let f(m) be the maximum, among all of the finitely many reversible m-state cellular automata, of the neighborhood size needed to represent the time-reversed dynamics of the automaton. However, because of Kari's undecidability result, there is no algorithm for computing f(m) and the values of this function must grow very quickly, more quickly than any computable function.
### Wolfram's classification
A well-known classification of cellular automata by Stephen Wolfram studies their behavior on random initial conditions. For a reversible cellular automaton, if the initial configuration is chosen uniformly at random among all possible configurations, then that same uniform randomness continues to hold for all subsequent states. Thus it would appear that most reversible cellular automata are of Wolfram's Class 3: automata in which almost all initial configurations evolve pseudo-randomly or chaotically. However, it is still possible to distinguish among different reversible cellular automata by analyzing the effect of local perturbations on the behavior of the automaton. Making a change to the initial state of a reversible cellular automaton may cause changes to later states to remain only within a bounded region, to propagate irregularly but unboundedly, or to spread quickly, and lists one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton rules exhibiting all three of these types of behavior.
Later work by Wolfram identifies the one-dimensional Rule 37R automaton as being particularly interesting in this respect. When run on a finite array of cells with periodic boundary conditions, starting from a small seed of random cells centered within a larger empty neighborhood, it tends to fluctuate between ordered and chaotic states. However, with the same initial conditions on an unbounded set of cells its configurations tend to organize themselves into several types of simple moving particles.
### Abstract algebra
Another way to formalize reversible cellular automata involves abstract algebra, and this formalization has been useful in developing computerized searches for reversible cellular automaton rules. defines a semicentral bigroupoid to be an algebraic structure consisting of a set S of elements and two operations → and ← on pairs of elements, satisfying the two equational axioms:
- for all elements a, b, and c in S, (a → b) ← (b → c) = b, and
- for all elements a, b, and c in S, (a ← b) → (b ← c) = b.
For instance, this is true for the two operations in which operation → returns its right argument and operation ← returns its left argument.
As Boykett argues, any one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton is equivalent to an automaton in rectangular form, in which the cells are offset a half unit at each time step, and in which both the forward and reverse evolution of the automaton have neighborhoods with just two cells, the cells a half unit away in each direction. If a reversible automaton has neighborhoods larger than two cells, it can be simulated by a reversible automaton with smaller neighborhoods and more states per cell, in which each cell of the simulating automaton simulates a contiguous block of cells in the simulated automaton. The two axioms of a semicentral bigroupoid are exactly the conditions required on the forward and reverse transition functions of these two-cell neighborhoods to be the reverses of each other. That is, every semicentral bigroupoid defines a reversible cellular automaton in rectangular form, in which the transition function of the automaton uses the → operation to combine the two cells of its neighborhood, and in which the ← operation similarly defines the reverse dynamics of the automaton. Every one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton is equivalent to one in this form.
Boykett used this algebraic formulation as the basis for algorithms that exhaustively list all possible inequivalent reversible cellular automata.
### Conservation laws
When researchers design reversible cellular automata to simulate physical systems, they typically incorporate into the design the conservation laws of the system; for instance, a cellular automaton that simulates an ideal gas should conserve the number of gas particles and their total momentum, for otherwise it would not provide an accurate simulation. However, there has also been some research on the conservation laws that reversible cellular automata can have, independent of any intentional design. The typical type of conserved quantity measured in these studies takes the form of a sum, over all contiguous subsets of k cells of the automaton, of some numerical function of the states of the cells in each subset. Such a quantity is conserved if, whenever it takes a finite value, that value automatically remains constant through each time step of the automaton, and in this case it is called a kth-order invariant of the automaton.
For instance, recall the one-dimensional cellular automaton defined as an example from a rectangular band, in which the cell states are pairs of values (l,r) drawn from sets L and R of left values and right values, the left value of each cell moves rightwards at each time step, and the right value of each cell moves leftwards. In this case, for each left or right value x of the band, one can define a conserved quantity, the total number of cells that have that value. If there are λ left values and ρ right values, then there are λ + ρ − 2 independent first-order-invariants, and any first-order invariant can be represented as a linear combination of these fundamental ones. The conserved quantities associated with left values flow uniformly to the right at a constant rate: that is, if the number of left values equal to x within some region C of the line takes a certain value at time 0, then it will take the same value for the shifted region C + t/2 at time t. Similarly, the conserved quantities associated with right values flow uniformly to the left.
Any one-dimensional reversible cellular automaton may be placed into rectangular form, after which its transition rule may be factored into the action of an idempotent semicentral bigroupoid (a reversible rule for which regions of cells with a single state value change only at their boundaries) together with a permutation on the set of states. The first-order invariants for the idempotent lifting of the automaton rule (the modified rule formed by omitting the permutation) necessarily behave like the ones for a rectangular band: they have a basis of invariants that flow either leftwards or rightwards at a constant rate without interaction. The first-order invariants for the overall automaton are then exactly the invariants for the idempotent lifting that give equal weight to every pair of states that belong to the same orbit of the permutation. However, the permutation of states in the rule may cause these invariants to behave differently from in the idempotent lifting, flowing non-uniformly and with interactions.
In physical systems, Noether's theorem provides an equivalence between conservation laws and symmetries of the system. However, for cellular automata this theorem does not directly apply, because instead of being governed by the energy of the system the behavior of the automaton is encoded into its rules, and the automaton is guaranteed to obey certain symmetries (translation invariance in both space and time) regardless of any conservation laws it might obey. Nevertheless, the conserved quantities of certain reversible systems behave similarly to energy in some respects. For instance, if different regions of the automaton have different average values of some conserved quantity, the automaton's rules may cause this quantity to dissipate, so that the distribution of the quantity is more uniform in later states. Using these conserved quantities as a stand-in for the energy of the system can allow it to be analyzed using methods from classical physics.
## Applications
### Lattice gas automata
A lattice gas automaton is a cellular automaton designed to simulate the motion of particles in a fluid or an ideal gas. In such a system, gas particles move on straight lines with constant velocity, until undergoing elastic collision with other particles. Lattice gas automata simplify these models by only allowing a constant number of velocities (typically, only one speed and either four or six directions of motion) and by simplifying the types of collision that are possible.
Specifically, the HPP lattice gas model consists of particles moving at unit velocity in the four axis-parallel directions. When two particles meet on the same line in opposite directions, they collide and are sent outwards from the collision point on the perpendicular line. This system obeys the conservation laws of physical gases, and produces simulations whose appearance resembles the behavior of physical gases. However, it was found to obey unrealistic additional conservation laws. For instance, the total momentum within any single line is conserved. As well, the differences between axis-parallel and non-axis-parallel directions in this model (its anisotropy) is undesirably high. The FHP lattice gas model improves the HPP model by having particles moving in six different directions, at 60 degree angles to each other, instead of only four directions. In any head-on collision, the two outgoing particles are deflected at 60 degree angles from the two incoming particles. Three-way collisions are also possible in the FHP model and are handled in a way that both preserves total momentum and avoids the unphysical added conservation laws of the HPP model.
Because the motion of the particles in these systems is reversible, they are typically implemented with reversible cellular automata. In particular, both the HPP and FHP lattice gas automata can be implemented with a two-state block cellular automaton using the Margolus neighborhood.
### Ising model
The Ising model is used to model the behavior of magnetic systems. It consists of an array of cells, the state of each of which represents a spin, either up or down. The energy of the system is measured by a function that depends on the number of neighboring pairs of cells that have the same spin as each other. Therefore, if a cell has equal numbers of neighbors in the two states, it may flip its own state without changing the total energy. However, such a flip is energy-conserving only if no two adjacent cells flip at the same time.
Cellular automaton models of this system divide the square lattice into two alternating subsets, and perform updates on one of the two subsets at a time. In each update, every cell that can flip does so. This defines a reversible cellular automaton which can be used to investigate the Ising model.
### Billiard-ball computation and low-power computing
`proposed the billiard-ball computer as part of their investigations into reversible computing. A billiard-ball computer consists of a system of synchronized particles (the billiard balls) moving in tracks and guided by a fixed set of obstacles. When the particles collide with each other or with the obstacles, they undergo an elastic collision much as real billiard balls would do. The input to the computer is encoded using the presence or absence of particles on certain input tracks, and its output is similarly encoded using the presence or absence of particles on output tracks. The tracks themselves may be envisioned as wires, and the particles as being Boolean signals transported on those wires. When a particle hits an obstacle, it reflects from it. This reflection may be interpreted as a change in direction of the wire the particle is following. Two particles on different tracks may collide, forming a logic gate at their collision point.`
As showed, billiard-ball computers may be simulated using a two-state reversible block cellular automaton with the Margolus neighborhood. In this automaton's update rule, blocks with exactly one live cell rotate by 180°, blocks with two diagonally opposite live cells rotate by 90°, and all other blocks remain unchanged. These rules cause isolated live cells to behave like billiard balls, moving on diagonal trajectories. Connected groups of more than one live cell behave instead like the fixed obstacles of the billiard-ball computer. In an appendix, Margolus also showed that a three-state second-order cellular automaton using the two-dimensional Moore neighborhood could simulate billiard-ball computers.
One reason to study reversible universal models of computation such as the billiard-ball model is that they could theoretically lead to actual computer systems that consume very low quantities of energy. According to Landauer's principle, irreversible computational steps require a certain minimal amount of energy per step, but reversible steps can be performed with an amount of energy per step that is arbitrarily close to zero. However, in order to perform computation using less energy than Landauer's bound, it is not good enough for a cellular automaton to have a transition function that is globally reversible: what is required is that the local computation of the transition function also be done in a reversible way. For instance, reversible block cellular automata are always locally reversible: the behavior of each individual block involves the application of an invertible function with finitely many inputs and outputs. were the first to ask whether every reversible cellular automaton has a locally reversible update rule. showed that for one- and two-dimensional automata the answer is positive, and showed that any reversible cellular automaton could be simulated by a (possibly different) locally reversible cellular automaton. However, the question of whether every reversible transition function is locally reversible remains open for dimensions higher than two.
### Synchronization
The "Tron" rule of Toffoli and Margolus is a reversible block cellular rule with the Margolus neighborhood. When a 2 × 2 block of cells all have the same state, all cells of the block change state; in all other cases, the cells of the block remain unchanged. As Toffoli and Margolus argue, the evolution of patterns generated by this rule can be used as a clock to synchronize any other rule on the Margolus neighborhood. A cellular automaton synchronized in this way obeys the same dynamics as the standard Margolus-neighborhood rule while running on an asynchronous cellular automaton.
### Encryption
`proposed using multidimensional reversible cellular automata as an encryption system. In Kari's proposal, the cellular automaton rule would be the encryption key. Encryption would be performed by running the rule forward one step, and decryption would be performed by running it backward one step. Kari suggests that a system such as this may be used as a public-key cryptosystem. In principle, an attacker could not algorithmically determine the decryption key (the reverse rule) from a given encryption key (forward rule) because of the undecidability of testing reversibility, so the forward rule could be made public without compromising the security of the system. However, Kari did not specify which types of reversible cellular automaton should be used for such a system, or show how a cryptosystem using this approach would be able to generate encryption/decryption key pairs.`
`have proposed an alternative encryption system. In their system, the encryption key determines the local rule for each cell of a one-dimensional cellular automaton. A second-order automaton based on that rule is run for several rounds on an input to transform it into an encrypted output. The reversibility property of the automaton ensures that any encrypted message can be decrypted by running the same system in reverse. In this system, keys must be kept secret, because the same key is used both for encryption and decryption.`
### Quantum computing
Quantum cellular automata are arrays of automata whose states and state transitions obey the laws of quantum dynamics. Quantum cellular automata were suggested as a model of computation by and first formalized by . Several competing notions of these automata remain under research, many of which require that the automata constructed in this way be reversible.
### Physical universality
`asked whether it was possible for a cellular automaton to be physically universal, meaning that, for any bounded region of the automaton's cells, it should be possible to surround that region with cells whose states form an appropriate support scaffolding that causes the automaton to implement any arbitrary transformation on sets of states within the region. Such an automaton must be reversible, or at least locally injective, because automata without this property have Garden of Eden patterns, and it is not possible to implement a transformation that creates a Garden of Eden.`
`constructed a reversible cellular automaton that is physically universal in this sense. Schaeffer's automaton is a block cellular automaton with two states and the Margolis neighborhood, closely related to the automata for the billiard ball model and for the HPP lattice gas. However, the billiard ball model is not physically universal, as it can be used to construct impenetrable walls preventing the state within some region from being read and transformed. In Schaeffer's model, every pattern eventually decomposes into particles moving diagonally in four directions. Thus, his automaton is not Turing complete. However, Schaeffer showed that it is possible to surround any finite configuration by scaffolding that decays more slowly than it. After the configuration decomposes into particles, the scaffolding intercepts those particles, and uses them as the input to a system of Boolean circuits constructed within the scaffolding. These circuits can be used to compute arbitrary functions of the initial configuration. The scaffolding then translates the output of the circuits back into a system of moving particles, which converge on the initial region and collide with each other to build a copy of the transformed state. In this way, Schaeffer's system can be used to apply any function to any bounded region of the state space, showing that this automaton rule is physically universal.`
|
71,625,250 |
Midnights
| 1,173,917,692 | null |
[
"2022 albums",
"Albums produced by Aaron Dessner",
"Albums produced by Jack Antonoff",
"Albums produced by Sounwave",
"Albums produced by Taylor Swift",
"Albums recorded at Electric Lady Studios",
"Bedroom pop albums",
"Chill-out music albums",
"Concept albums",
"Dream pop albums by American artists",
"Republic Records albums",
"Synth-pop albums by American artists",
"Taylor Swift albums"
] |
Midnights is the tenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, released on October 21, 2022, via Republic Records. Announced at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards, Midnights marked Swift's first new body of work since her 2020 indie folk albums, Folklore and Evermore. It is a moody concept album about nocturnal ruminations, written and produced by Swift with longtime collaborator Jack Antonoff.
Inspired by Swift's "sleepless nights", Midnights explores topics of anxiety, insecurity, self-criticism, self-awareness, insomnia, and self-confidence, with lyricism characterized as confessional yet cryptic. Sonically, it experiments with chill-out, electropop, dream pop, and bedroom pop styles, resulting from an alternative approach to synth-pop using analog synthesizers, drum machine, subtle grooves and hip hop/R&B rhythms. Swift unveiled the standard track list on a TikTok series called Midnights Mayhem with Me from September 21 to October 7, 2022.
The album was a commercial success across all formats of music consumption, breaking a string of records globally. It achieved the Spotify feat for the most single-day streams of an album and topped the charts in 28 territories. In the United States, it opened with over 1.57 million units, logged Swift's 11th number-one on the Billboard 200, the largest vinyl sales week of the 21st century, became the best-selling album of 2022, and spawned 10 top-ten songs on the Billboard Hot 100—the most for any album—in the same week. The lead single "Anti-Hero" marked her ninth number-one on the Hot 100, while the later singles "Lavender Haze" and "Karma" peaked at number two. Tracks such as "Maroon", "Snow on the Beach" featuring Lana Del Rey, "You're on Your Own, Kid", "Midnight Rain", and "Bejeweled" charted high internationally.
Receiving acclaim from music critics for its restrained production, candid songwriting and vocal cadences, Midnights was ranked amongst the best albums of 2022 by publications. Journalists felt the album's ubiquitous success is a testament to Swift's cultural impact. To support Midnights along with her previous albums, Swift embarked on the Eras Tour in 2023.
## Background
After a dispute over the sale of the masters of her first six studio albums in 2019, Taylor Swift announced that she plans to re-record the said albums. She released the first two of these re-recordings, Fearless (Taylor's Version) and Red (Taylor's Version), in 2021. The latter included the ten-minute, original version of her 2012 song "All Too Well". It was accompanied by a corresponding short film, All Too Well: The Short Film, written and directed by Swift. Many speculated that her next album would be Speak Now (Taylor's Version) or 1989 (Taylor's Version) (both 2023).
Swift garnered five nominations for the short film at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards on August 28, 2022, and won three of them. In her acceptance speech for the Video of the Year award, she announced a "brand-new" studio album scheduled for release on October 21, 2022. Shortly after, Swift's official website was updated with a clock counting down to midnight and the phrase "Meet me at midnight". The canvases of some of Swift's songs on Spotify were changed to a visual featuring the clock. At midnight, Swift posted across her social media accounts that her tenth studio album would be titled Midnights, accompanied by a premise. She described the album as "the stories of 13 sleepless nights scattered throughout [her] life". Swift's official website crashed due to heavy traffic following the posts.
## Writing and production
According to Swift, the subject matter of Midnights was inspired by five major topics: self-hatred, revenge fantasies, "wondering what might have been", falling in love, and "falling apart". Swift enlisted Jack Antonoff, her longtime collaborator since 2013, to co-produce Midnights with her, which came together as a result of Swift's and Antonoff's partners, English actor Joe Alwyn and American actress Margaret Qualley, respectively, shooting in Panama for the 2022 romantic thriller film Stars at Noon. While their partners filmed, Swift and Antonoff worked together in New York City. The duo wrote 11 of the album's 13 songs together; of the remaining two, Swift wrote the track "Vigilante Shit" alone and "Sweet Nothing" with Alwyn, who is credited with his pseudonym William Bowery. Some bonus tracks were co-produced by Aaron Dessner, who had collaborated with Swift on her 2020 albums Folklore and Evermore. She conceived the bonus tracks on their "journey to find that magic 13 [tracks]", and claimed that she released them because she wanted to share her entire creative process with fans.
Swift's love life inspired the lyrics of "Lavender Haze" and "Snow on the Beach", the former of which takes after the phrase "in the lavender haze" from the period drama series Mad Men. Swift wrote "Lavender Haze" after she and Alwyn had to protect their relationship from unsolicited scrutiny online ("weird rumors" and "tabloid stuff"). "Snow on the Beach" is about "falling in love with someone at the same time as they're falling in love with you", and is co-written by American singer Lana Del Rey. In "Anti-Hero", Swift detailed her insecurities, such as struggling with "not feeling like a person".
Antonoff conferred a "very analogue" production to Midnights, using vintage synthesizers he has never used before, such as Oberheim OB-8, Yamaha DX7, and Solina. He processed some of the instrumentals and Swift's vocals using sound modulators such as Soundtoys, iZotope VocalSynth, Klemt Echolette and Watkins Copicat to generate "interesting" effects. The composition of "Lavender Haze" was conceived by Antonoff when he heard Sounwave, one of his collaborators, press a button accidentally, playing a "small little loop" produced by Jahaan Sweet. Sounwave edited the loop, processing it further, and Sam Dew added melodies to the loop with Zoë Kravitz, who had been working with Antonoff as well. Antonoff pitched the song to Swift, who wrote its lyrics; "Glitch" was also born from these sessions. Sweet further reached out to Swift via Antonoff with "Karma", which had also been worked on by Keanu Beats. The next day, Antonoff returned with "Karma" finished with Swift's vocals on it.
## Music and lyrics
The standard edition of Midnights consists of thirteen tracks. The deluxe CD adds three bonus songs, of which two are remixes, while Midnights (3am Edition), available only on streaming and digital download platforms, adds seven other bonus tracks. Six of the album's tracks are labelled explicit. Del Rey provides guest vocals on the fourth track, "Snow on the Beach".
### Composition
Midnights has been described as a dream pop, synth-pop, bedroom pop, electropop, and chill-out music album, with heavy R&B, electronica and ambient elements. Departing from the indie and alternative folk sound of Folklore and Evermore, Swift sought to create an experimental pop album, expanding her alternative approach to synth pop sounds. "Maximalist minimalism" is the sonic signature of Midnights, incorporating subtle melodies, emphasized rhythms, vintage synthesizers (prominently Moog and Roland Juno-60), drum machine, Reese bass, Mellotron, downbeats, and low-key harmonies. Swift's vocals retain a country timbre, but with rhythmic and conversational cadences. The vocals are sometimes electronically manipulated, resulting in androgynous and "hiccuping" vocal effects. Influences of hip hop and rapping are present in Swift's vocal delivery as well, in line with the lyrics' internal rhymes. In describing its overall sound, Paste said Midnights "moves fairly effortlessly between the discotheque and a moonlit boulevard", The Guardian described it as "a moody, sophisticated filter on the pop that made [Swift's] name", and Beats Per Minute regarded it Swift's foray into alternative R&B.
### Theme
Midnights is a concept album, about "after-hour agonies" and thoughts. Midnight is a recurring lyrical motif in Swift's music, having been used in different contexts and viewpoints in her preceding albums. The A.V. Club said Midnights expands the artistic motif "into a full-blown album". The album marks Swift's return to a mostly autobiographical lyricism, after exploring fictitious storylines and characters in Folklore and Evermore. The New Yorker said Midnights is a collage of various emotions during "the spontaneous, restless headspace of nighttime thought". The main themes are self-assurance, self-criticism, insecurity, anxiety, public image, insomnia, and feminism, with a characteristic confessional but "cryptic" tone.
Several critics regard Midnights as Swift's most candid, confident, and frankest writing yet. Some others consider it a consolidatory work of her career, such as containing "bits and pieces from all of Swift's eras" according to Billboard, and a blend of "Reputation's attitude, 1989's unimpeachable hooks, Lover's heart-on-its-sleeve vulnerability" in the words of Consequence.
### Songs
The opening track, "Lavender Haze", is a disco-inflected, rhythmic pop song driven by a murky groove, falsetto chorus, modular synths, and backing vocals from Kravitz. It is an R&B-leaning, "emo-erotic" track about the tabloid scrutiny and online rumors that Swift and Alwyn face, and references the Madonna–whore complex. "Maroon" is a dynamic dream pop song with a buzzing drone. It is about a "missed-chance romance", recalling several specific memories. The title is a call-back to Swift's fourth studio album, Red (2012), with the maroon color serving as the more "experienced version" of red. "Anti-Hero" is a pop rock song about self-loathing. "Snow on the Beach" is a hazy dream pop ballad, featuring backing vocals by Del Rey. It references "All for You" (2001) by Janet Jackson.
The fifth track, "You're on Your Own, Kid", is an alternative rock song that begins with muted instrumentals and swells into a crescendo. It discusses Swift's early stardom and her struggles during rise to fame, such as her eating disorder. "Midnight Rain", sees Swift remember an old relationship that was forestalled by her professional ambition and ambivalence about settling down. It features a pitched-down hook, programmed drums and percussion. "Question...?", asks rhetorical questions about "blurry" memories. Its short intro interpolates Swift's own 2016 single "Out of the Woods". "Vigilante Shit" is built around bubbling beats, swirling synths, industrial elements, and snare drums. It is a "noirish" vengeance declaration, taking aim at an enemy and encourages other women to do the same. "Bejeweled" is a disco tune driven by synth arpeggios, with lyrics recognizing Swift's self-worth.
The tenth track, "Labyrinth", is a steady synth-pop song with skittering electronic elements, church organ, and subtle guitars, about the anxiety over falling in love again. "Karma" is a playful, electroclash and chillwave "diss track" with elements of new wave, alternative pop and techno, and comical lyrics. It describes the culmination of Swift's "good karma". Employing a double entendre, "Sweet Nothing" is a relaxed, love song driven by saxophone and electric piano, emulating 1970s ballads. It is an ode to Swift's calm romantic relationship inside her house, as opposed to her hectic stardom outside. The standard album closes with "Mastermind", which satirizes Swift's alternate perspective on fate and happenstance. She confesses that her "calculating approach to pop stardom seeped into her love life as well", as opposed to her views about spontaneity of destiny in the Folklore track, "Invisible String". It is also a nod to Swift's own "cryptic and Machiavellian" habit of leaving Easter eggs.
The first bonus track, "The Great War", evokes battle imagery to show the easiness two people in a relationship can find themselves in a conflict, while also paying tribute to a partner who puts a stop to one's own destructive tendencies. In the ballad "Bigger Than the Whole Sky", Swift sings about the grief after the loss of a loved one; it was compared to "Ronan", which was written about the death of a young boy to cancer days before his fourth birthday. "Paris" is an upbeat, synth-heavy pop track, reminiscent of her style in 1989. "High Infidelity" employs audio distortions as a metaphor for a bad connection in a relationship between musicians. "Glitch" is an electronica song, about "malfunctioning" from lust. It features octave shifts in the chorus. In "Would've, Could've, Should've", Swift expresses regret over entering into a relationship with a "grown" man when she was 19, his treatment of her, and the persisting emotional trauma. "Dear Reader" is an electro-pop tune about Swift's concern over her listeners regarding her music as the "guiding light". "Hits Different" is an emotional breakup song reflecting on the past relationship in style of country pop prevalent in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The Late Night Edition contains the exclusive track "You're Losing Me (From the Vault)", an "airy" ballad describing dissolution of a long-term romantic relationship due to the diminishing understanding between the partners.
## Art direction
Upon the album's announcement, press outlets speculated that Swift's Moschino outfit for the VMAs afterparty—a navy blue micro mini romper embellished with silver stars—teased the album's aesthetic. Analyzing the album's promotional pictures, The Ringer described the aesthetic as "glam, but a chill, interior kind of glamor as opposed to big popstar glamor", with midnight blue dominating the color palette and retro photographs featuring upholstery. Clock faces and "60s/'70s family-room decor", such as "wood-paneled walls and mustard couches", are also a part of the Midnights era. Vogue noted 1970s styles in Swift's fashion, marking a departure from the rural, cottagecore attire she had adopted for Folklore and Evermore. Fashion critic Jess Cartner-Morley found it reminiscent of the album cover of Country Life (1974) by English art rock band Roxy Music and the photographs by French artist Guy Bourdin for Vogue France.
### Cover artwork
The standard cover artwork of Midnights is minimalist. It takes inspiration from old-fashioned LP jackets whose songs were listed on the front cover. The photograph of Swift featured in the artwork depicts her in blue eye shadow, black eye liner, and her signature red lips, observing a glimmering lighter held near her face. It depicts trāṭaka according to Beats Per Minute. The typeface used is Neue Haas Grotesk. The album title and track listing are in a blue gradient. The vinyl edition of the cover, posted by Swift across her social media, splits the track list into an A-side and B-side, indicating a two-sided LP. Three limited-edition color variants of the physical album, featuring different cover artworks were also issued. The Cut said the covers depict Swift in "various states of glamorous late-night stress." The Dallas Observer noted similarities to the indie sleaze aesthetic. Additionally, the reverse side of the standard and three alternate editions each portray a quarter sector of a dial; when assembled together and combined with a clock mechanism sold separately, they form a functioning clock.
## Release and promotion
Midnights was released on October 21, 2022. It marked her fifth album in the three-year span of 2020–2022, whereas she had released only four albums in the entire 2010s decade preceding that; commenting on the recent "rapid pace" of her album cycles, Swift stated that she feels to create music "more freely" than she did during her 20s, and that she is "happier when [she] is making things more often." Swift engaged in a traditional roll-out for Midnights, following limited promotion of her surprise-released albums during the COVID-19 pandemic.
On the Midnights Manifest, an itinerary for the album launch, Swift teased a "very chaotic surprise" occurring hours after the release, which was eventually revealed to be the extended album, entitled Midnights (3am Edition), containing seven bonus tracks that Swift said were written for the album but ultimately excluded from the standard thirteen; and was released at 03:00 EDT. Upon release, Midnights was available in five CD, LP, and digital album editions each, as well as a cassette. A limited-edition purple marbled LP variant was available in the US only on May 21 and 22, 2023. Two special editions, subtitled Late Night and Til Dawn, were released on May 26; they contain more bonus tracks, including a remix of "Karma" featuring American rapper Ice Spice.
### Marketing
To "defy" her usual routine of incorporating Easter eggs to hint at information, Swift released a video series on TikTok called Midnights Mayhem with Me, consisting of thirteen episodes between September 21 and October 7, 2022. She unveiled the track-list in a randomized order in the series, one song per episode, in front of a curtain backdrop, accompanied by an elevator music tune. A lottery cage containing 13 ping pong balls numbered from one to thirteen, each representing a track of the album, was rolled, and when a ball drops out, Swift disclosed the title of the corresponding track on the album, through a telephone. The first episode revealed the thirteenth track "Mastermind", and the final episode revealed "Snow on the Beach" and its Del Rey feature.
Some lyrics from Midnights were displayed on Spotify's billboards across the world in the days leading up to the album's launch, starting with Times Square on October 17. Swift also posted an itinerary, entitled Midnights Manifest, detailing the promotional events scheduled for the album. She limited her press appearances and did not perform, only appearing on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on October 24, and The Graham Norton Show on October 28. An iHeartRadio program called Midnights with Taylor, featuring commentary from Swift, ran on its pop stations from October 21 to 26, during which the album received airplay. She also answered some fan-submitted questions for Sirius XM Hits 1.
### Visuals
Four music videos—for "Anti-Hero", "Bejeweled", "Lavender Haze", and the "Karma" remix—all written and directed by Swift, were released on October 21 and 25, 2022, January 27 and May 26, 2023, respectively. The teaser trailer for the album's music videos exclusively premiered during Amazon Prime Video's Thursday Night Football broadcast on October 20, 2022, with a pre-taped introduction by Swift, which was first announced by American sportscaster Charissa Thompson on October 14 as "something very, very special". It revealed a trailer compiling clips of several visual works based on Midnights. The cast includes Swift, Jack Antonoff, Laura Dern, the Haim sisters, Mike Birbiglia, Laith Ashley, Dita Von Teese, Mary Elizabeth Ellis, John Early, and Pat McGrath, with cinematography by Rina Yang, who previously worked with Swift on All Too Well: The Short Film. The video for the lead single, "Anti-Hero", premiered eight hours after the release of Midnights. She described it as a depiction of her "nightmare scenarios and intrusive thoughts". Besides "Anti-Hero", the Midnights Manifest itinerary specified a music video release for "another track", which Swift later confirmed to be "Bejeweled", which was an alternate take on the Cinderella plot. The "Lavender Haze" music video—described by Swift as a "sultry sleepless 70's fever dream"—explores psychedelic and surrealist symbolisms, featuring Laith Ashley. The video for "Karma" featuring Ice Spice premiered at the first East Rutherford show of the Eras Tour. It features cosmic and celestial imagery.
### Media response
Pitchfork, Time, and the Recording Academy named Midnights as one of the most anticipated records of fall 2022; USA Today called it the most anticipated release of Swift's career. Time found the 13-song track list a "concise lineup" for Swift, whose last album, Red (Taylor's Version), consisted of 30 tracks. The New York Times called Swift a "restless creative force" for releasing her fifth album in three years and expected Midnights to become one of 2022's best-selling albums, despite its October release, with Quartz projecting Midnights to achieve record-setting vinyl sales. Los Angeles Times compared Swift's "prolific run of albums" to those of "the all-time greats".
The lack of a pre-released single led to speculation over the album's sound on the internet. Variety opined Midnights could either "continue in that more subdued, acoustic, Americana vein" of Folklore and Evermore, or return to the "pure pop" of Lover (2019) and its immediate predecessors. ABC News described the album's release as a "dramatic" event. Several publications, such as The Washington Post, praised Swift's marketing strategy. Fortune and El País commended the promotional roll-out for its "aura of mystery and excitement" and the "art of suspense". Slate and I-D opined that Midnights is "the result of a winning formula"—hybridizing the modern "surprise-drop approach", which is more streaming-friendly but unfavorable for physical sales, with the traditional, "old-school" rollout by preannouncing the album, but nevertheless withholding all of the songs until the release day, which cements the album release as a "proper newsworthy event".
### Singles
"Anti-Hero" is the lead single of Midnights. Republic Records released the song to the US hot adult contemporary radio on October 24, 2022, followed by contemporary hit radio on October 25. It became the best-selling song of 2022. "Bejeweled" and "Question...?" were released for limited-time digital download exclusively through Swift's website on October 25, as promotional singles. "Lavender Haze" was released to US contemporary hit radio as the second single on November 29, 2022. "Karma" became the third single to US adult contemporary radio on May 1, 2023.
### Tour
On November 1, 2022, Swift announced her sixth concert tour, the Eras Tour. She described the tour as "a journey through the musical eras of [her] career". An all-stadium tour, it consists of 131 concerts across five continents. It recorded an incredibly high demand for tickets globally, so much so that Swift kept on adding additional dates to all the legs of the tour. On November 15, the tickets went up for sale on Ticketmaster's website, which crashed immediately, halting the presale. The public on-sale was later canceled due to "insufficient" inventory to meet the demand. Nevertheless, the Eras Tour sold over two million tickets on its first day of presale alone, breaking the all-time record for the most concert tickets sold by an artist in a single day. However, Ticketmaster was widely criticized by fans, customers, consumer groups and US lawmakers for a flawed and deceitful ticketing service. Two lawsuits were filed by fans on Ticketmaster for "intentional deception", fraud, price fixing and antitrust violations, in December 2022. Beyond the controversy, the tour had a socioeconomic impact on popular culture.
## Critical reception
Midnights received widespread acclaim from music critics, most of whom praised its subdued production and vocals; some named it Swift's best album yet. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized score out of 100 to ratings from publications, the album received a weighted mean score of 85 based on 28 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 8.0 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.
Rolling Stone's Brittany Spanos and Rob Sheffield, and Alex Bilmes of Esquire dubbed Midnights an instant classic; Spanos praised Swift's "brilliant and fresh" songwriting style, Sheffield highlighted the moody production, and Blimes called it "the pop album of the year". Reviews published by Billboard's Jason Lipshutz, Variety's Chris Willman, Clashs Matthew Neale, Under the Radar's Andy Von Pip, and The Guardian's Alexis Petridis all appreciated Midnights for favoring an elegant and understated production over the market-oriented chart hits of Swift's contemporaries. Alex Hopper in American Songwriter said the album is a "grungier" 1989 with the lyrical proficiency of Folklore and Evermore. PopMatters' Rick Quinn stated that Swift "demonstrates her mastery of pop structure and style" in Midnights. In Paste, Ellen Johnson considered the album more nuanced than mainstream pop, while containing some of Swift's "sleekest pop tunes yet". The Associated Press' Elise Ryan felt the album is a product of Swift's maturity and artistic evolution, while Gigwise's Lucy Harbron praised the reinvention and experimentation.
Reviews also noticed a more refined aspect to Swift's songwriting approach in Midnights. According to NME's Hannah Mylrea, the "candid" lyrics depart from the narrative-driven songwriting Swift had been known for and offer a glimpse into her expanding artistry. Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times admired Swift's strong vocals and wrote that while much of Midnights relies on her well-known first-person songwriting, it is "so strong [...] that eventually you stop caring what's drawn directly from Swift's real life and what's not". Helen Brown of The Independent wrote although the music might take time for listeners to absorb, Midnights is enriched by Swift's "assured lyrical control" and "feline vocal stealth". The Observer's Kitty Empire described Midnights as "an album of fascinating small-hours contemplation".
Some critics were more reserved in their praise, taking issue with Antonoff's "bit redundant" production style. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times, Chris Richards of The Washington Post, and Paul Attard of Slant Magazine wrote positive reviews but felt that Swift played it safe. For Ann Powers of NPR, Pitchfork's Quinn Moreland, and The Line of Best Fit's Paul Bridgewater, the album's sound could have been better. The Daily Telegraph's Neil McCormick liked the intimacy in Midnights, but felt Swift's uncertainty "to press deeper into intimate songcraft or restart a commercial juggernaut". Carl Wilson of Slate complimented the album's concept, sound and vocals, but felt some lyrics were weak. Robert Christgau assigned the album a three-star honorable mention in his "Consumer Guide" on Substack, noting its music "as textural as anything this tunemaster has ever let out in public, and muzzier as a consequence", while picking out as highlights "Snow on the Beach", "Mastermind", and "Sweet Nothing", which "hints sweetly that many pseudo-autobiographical lyrics to the contrary she does actually have a longtime [boyfriend]".
### Year-end lists
## Commercial performance
Midnights is Swift's most commercially successful album to-date. It broke a string of sales, streaming, digital, vinyl and official chart records globally. Billboard declared it a blockbuster. According to Universal Music Group, Midnights moved three million global album-equivalent units in its first week, and over six million in two months.
It broke all-time records on Spotify, such as those for the most streamed album in a single day with 186 million streams in its opening day, surpassing the previous record of 155 million streams by Drake's Certified Lover Boy (2021), and the fastest album to amass 700 million streams (within a week). Swift became the most streamed artist in a single day in Spotify history, with 228 million streams across her discography (the first artist to cross the 200-million mark), in addition to various feats on other streaming platforms. She was the second most streamed artist on Spotify in 2022, behind Bad Bunny.
All of the album's tracks entered the Billboard Global 200; nine and eight of those charted within the top 10 of the Global 200 and Global Excl. US charts, respectively, setting records for the most simultaneous top-10 entries on both and making Swift the first artist to occupy the entire top five of the Global 200. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) ranked Swift as 2022's Global Recording Artist of the Year, making her the first act to win the accolade three times (after 2014 and 2019); Midnights ranked second on the list of 2022's most consumed albums across all formats.
### Americas
In the US, Midnights sold over 800,000 pure copies in its first day, marking the best-selling album of 2022 and the biggest sales week for an album since Swift's own Reputation (2017). It surpassed 1.2 million units in its first three days, becoming Swift's fifth album to open with one million sales—a record unique to her, and reached 1.4 million units by the fifth day, as well as 1.05 million pure sales, marking the largest opening week of the last seven years and Swift's career-best.
Midnights has topped the Billboard 200 for six weeks, and spent thirteen consecutive weeks atop the Top Album Sales chart—the most since Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture (1997). It opened with 1,578,000 units, of which 1.14 million were pure sales, including 575,000 vinyl LPs and 395,000 CDs. It became the year's best-selling vinyl LP and CD. Midnights garnered 549.26 million streams in its first week, the third-largest streaming week of all time. Overtaking Oops!... I Did It Again (2000) by Britney Spears, it marked the second-largest first week for an album by a female artist in the US, after Adele's 25 (2015). Swift tied Barbra Streisand for the most number-one albums among women (11), and most consecutive number-one debuts, surpassing Eminem and Kanye West. Midnights earned over 200,000 units in each of its first four weeks, and finished 2022 with 3.294 million total units. It subsequently became the first 21st-century album to sell over one million vinyl LPs in the US. As of July 2023, Midnights has sold 2.454 million in traditional abum sales in the United States.
All of the album's 20 tracks debuted in the top 45 of the US Billboard Hot 100, giving Swift a total of 188 Hot 100 entries; the 13 standard tracks arrived in the top 15, led by "Anti-Hero", Swift's ninth US number-one song. Swift became the first act to control the entire top 10 of the Hot 100 concurrently; the woman with the most top-10 entries (40), surpassing Madonna (38); the first act to debut atop the Billboard 200 and Hot 100 simultaneously four times; and the first act to occupy the entire top 10 of the Hot 100, Streaming Songs, and Digital Songs charts together. Midnights is the first album in history with ten top-10 songs, surpassing Certified Lover Boy (9). Billboard noted its streams were strong enough to monopolize the top 10 without airplay or digital sales. Swift ranked as 2022's Billboard Year-End top female artist.
In Brazil, Midnights marked the biggest first-week Spotify streams ever for an album in the country. On the Canadian Albums Chart, Midnights opened with the biggest first-week of the year and scored Swift's 11th number-one album. All 20 tracks debuted within the first 35 spots of the Canadian Hot 100, with the top 10 spots entirely occupied by the album, led by "Anti-Hero".
### Asia-Pacific
In China, Midnights sold over 200,000 digital albums in its first day on QQ Music, opened with the year's best units for an international artist, and became 2022's best-selling album by a western artist. Three, four and eleven Midnights tracks debuted on the Indonesia Songs, Hong Kong Songs, and Malaysia Songs charts, led by "Anti-Hero" at numbers one, six and one, respectively. All of the album's standard tracks charted on the Vietnam Hot 100, and within the top-15 of Singapore Top 30 Chart. In the Philippines, it garnered the biggest first-week Spotify streams ever for an album in the country, and occupied the top 13 spots of the Philippines Songs chart, with "Anti-Hero" at number one. On India's IMI International Top 20 Singles chart, Midnights debuted seven tracks, led by "Anti-Hero" at number four.
The album became a record tenth consecutive number-one album for Swift in Australia, with the biggest opening week since Reputation. It set the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) records for the biggest streaming and vinyl sales weeks for an album. All of its standard tracks entered the ARIA Singles Chart, occupying the entire top 14 region, except the seventh spot. With the debut of "Anti-Hero" atop the singles chart, Swift earned a record third Australian "Chart Double" of her career, extending the feat for five consecutive weeks. It was the best-selling album of 2022 in Australia, and has since spent fourteen weeks atop the country's album chart—her longest running number-one album. Midnights was Swift's 11th consecutive number-one album on the New Zealand Albums Chart. Four of its tracks debuted within the top-five of the New Zealand Top 40 Singles chart.
### Europe
Midnights opened with Swift's best first-week units in France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and the UK. In the latter, Midnights sold over 140,000 units in its first three days, surpassing the opening-week tally of Harry Styles' Harry's House (113,000 units) to become the fastest-selling album of 2022. Ultimately, the album debuted atop the UK Albums Chart, beating The Car by Arctic Monkeys to the top spot with 204,000 units—Swift's highest first-week tally. She broke Madonna's record for the shortest time for a female act to accumulate nine UK number-one albums, and became the first woman since Miley Cyrus in 2013 to simultaneously debut atop both the albums and singles chart, following the number-one debut of "Anti-Hero" as well. It also sold 80,000 vinyl copies in 2022, the highest annual figure for an album in the 21st century, propelling the UK's total vinyl sales past CD sales for the first time since 1987. Midnights spent five weeks atop the albums chart—her longest running number-one album in the UK.
The album marked Swift's eighth number-one album on the Irish Albums Chart and the biggest first week since Ed Sheeran's ÷ (2017), and spent eight weeks atop the chart. It scored her first number-one album on Germany's Top 100 Albums chart with the largest streaming week for an album by an international artist in the country in 2022 (20 million), and marked the year's biggest overall opening week for an international artist there. Furthermore, Midnights marked the biggest debut-week Spotify streams for an English-language artist in Spain, and seven and eight of its tracks debuted on Norway's Topp 40 Singles and Billboard Luxembourg Songs charts, respectively. The album was Swift's fourth number-one debut on Portugal's Top 50 Albums chart, spent five non-consecutive weeks at number one in Sweden, and was the third best-selling album of 2022 in Austria, the Netherlands, and the UK. In the UK, the album sold 416,965 units over the course of the final two months of 2022, making it the third best selling album of the year. Nearly 50% of Midnights' sales were CDs, LPs, and cassettes. Midnights was the best selling physical album with 206,136 copies sold, while it sold 11,679 digital copies. It was also the best selling vinyl in the country with 89,163 units sold.
## Accolades
Swift achieved over 20 Guinness World Record entries with the release of Midnights. She won all of her three nominations at the 48th People's Choice Awards, including the Female Artist of 2022.
## Impact
Swift's unanticipated announcement of the album at the Video Music Awards was a "headline-grabbing" moment, according to Billboard. Bruce Gillmer, the show's producer, stated that Midnights gave a "massive lift" to the viewership ratings. The album's cover artwork became an Internet trend, mimicked and parodied by social media users, including official accounts of brands, organizations and celebrities. Apple Fitness+ released three exercise programs designed around Swift's music, featuring tracks from Midnights, curated for yoga, treadmill and HIIT workouts. Spotify's servers crashed for several minutes when the album was released.
Critical commentary described the pan-format success of Midnights in the streaming era as unprecedented. Various publications dubbed Swift as the paramount pop star of the 21st century, wielding a commercial and cultural dominance surpassing those of her contemporaries. Billboard noted how the album's success is "evenly" distributed across streaming, album sales and track sales, unlike other albums of 2022. The Financial Times pondered whether Swift is "the last pop superstar", underscoring the 1.5 million first-week units—a figure unseen since the "1990s boy bands" era, which was regarded as the peak for the US music business. Music publisher Matt Pincus called Swift "basically an intellectual property franchise now. Like a DC movie". Fortune compared her to the Marvel Cinematic Universe. I-D dubbed Swift the "last remaining real popstar", capable of "shifting more albums and filling more stadiums than her contemporaries [...] unseen since the industry's golden era". Noting a 2021 article from The New York Times that asked "if Adele couldn't sell more than a million albums in a single week, could any artist?" after her album 30 missed the mark, Rolling Stone responded that Swift "has once again moved the goalposts regarding what the music industry can see as possible from a major pop star".
Many journalists acknowledged Swift's longevity. Slate underscored how Swift's career has lasted longer than that of the Beatles, and broke the band's once-deemed "unbeatable" records. Business journalist Greg Jericho, in The Guardian, lauded her ability to remain culturally relevant and successful 18 years into her music career, writing that the Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, David Bowie and Bruce Springsteen were past their prime at that stage. Bree Player of Marie Claire wrote, "The word 'icon' is thrown around far too liberally these days, but Miss Swift is a living legend." When Jimmy Fallon listed Swift the album's achievements at The Tonight Show, Swift expressed her gratitude for the success but underscored the ageism regarding female singers: "It's like, you know, I'm 32. So, we're considered geriatric popstars [...] They start trying to put us out to pasture at age 25, I'm just happy to be here!"
The Washington Post proclaimed that Swift dominated 2022. According to CNET, 2022 is the most prominent year of Swift's career, led by the "mainstream cultural success" of Midnights. Bloomberg News reported that the album generated \$230 million in sales for Universal Music Group in 2022, accounting for 3% of their annual revenue—the highest from any artist. As a result, Swift was the highest-paid woman in entertainment in 2022, earning US\$92 million.
## Track listing
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Midnights and relevant editions.
Notes
- signifies an additional producer
- signifies a co-producer
- "Question...?" interpolates Swift's 2014 song "Out of the Woods" written by herself and Antonoff.
## Personnel
Musicians
- Taylor Swift – vocals
- Jack Antonoff – percussion, programming, synthesizer (all tracks); background vocals (1, 3–5, 7, 9, 10, 13), drums (1, 3, 4, 6, 11–13), Mellotron (1, 3–5, 7), Wurlitzer organ (1, 3, 8), bass (2–5, 9, 15, 18, 20), electric guitar (2, 4, 5, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20), piano (2, 12, 15, 16, 20), acoustic guitar (3, 4, 5, 9, 15), crowd noises (7), slide guitar (15)
- Aaron Dessner – percussion (14, 17), keyboards (14, 17), synth bass (14), piano (14, 17), electric guitar (14, 19), synthesizer (17, 19), acoustic guitar (17), bass guitar (19), harmonica (19)
- Sam Dew – background vocals (1, 18)
- Zoë Kravitz – background vocals (1, 18)
- Jahaan Sweet – synth pads (1, 11); bass, flute, synthesizer (1); keyboards (11),
- Sounwave – programming (1, 11)
- Dominic Rivinius – snare drum (1), drums (7-8)
- Evan Smith – saxophone (2, 12, 13); clarinet, flute, organ (2, 12); synthesizer (4, 5, 7–9, 13, 16), percussion (16)
- Bobby Hawk – violin (3, 4, 13)
- Dylan O'Brien – drums (4), crowd noises (7)
- Lana Del Rey – vocals (4)
- Rachel Antonoff – crowd noises (7)
- Austin Swift – crowd noises (7)
- Sean Hutchinson – drums (5, 7), percussion (5)
- Mikey Freedom Hart – keyboards (9); programming (12-13), synthesizer (12-13, 16), theremin (16), organ (16)
- Keanu Beats – synthesizer (11)
- Michael Riddleberger – drums (13)
- Zem Audu – saxophone (12-13)
- Kyle Resnick – trumpet (14)
- Yuki Numata Resnick – violin
- Benjamin Lanz – drums, trombone (17)
- James Krivchenia – drums (17)
- Bryce Dessner – electric guitar (19)
- Bryan Devendorf – drums (19)
- James McAlister – drums (19), synthesizer (19)
- Thomas Bartlett – keyboards (19), synthesizer (19)
Technical'''
- Jack Antonoff – engineering
- Laura Sisk – engineering
- Şerban Ghenea – mixing
- Bryce Bordone – mixing assistance
- Randy Merrill – mastering
- Jahaan Sweet – engineering (1, 11)
- Ken Lewis – engineering (1, 7, 8)
- Evan Smith – engineering (2, 4, 5, 7–9, 12, 13)
- Jon Gautier – engineering (3, 13)
- Dave Gross – engineering (4)
- Sean Hutchinson – engineering (5, 7)
- David Hart – engineering (9, 13)
- Sounwave – engineering (11)
- Keanu Beats – engineering (11)
- Michael Riddleberger – engineering (13)
- Zem Audu – engineering (13)
- John Rooney – engineering assistance
- Jon Sher – engineering assistance
- Megan Searl – engineering assistance
- Jonathan Garcia – engineering assistance (1, 7, 8)
- Mark Aguilar – engineering assistance (1, 11)
- Jacob Spitzer – engineering assistance (4)
- Laurene Marquez – additional engineer
- James McAlister – drums programming (14, 17, 19)
- Jonathan Low – mixer, engineering (17, 19)
- Bella Blasko – engineering (14, 17, 19)
- Justin Vernon – additional engineer (19)
- Thomas Bartlett – additional engineer (19)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Monthly chart
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Release history
## See also
- List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2022
- List of Billboard'' 200 number-one albums of 2023
- List of number-one albums from the 2020s (Denmark)
- List of number-one albums from the 2020s (New Zealand)
- List of number-one albums of the 2020s (Czech Republic)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Australia)
- List of number-one albums of 2023 (Australia)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Belgium)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Canada)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Ireland)
- List of number-one albums of 2023 (Ireland)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Portugal)
- List of number-one albums of 2022 (Spain)
- List of number-one hits of 2022 (Austria)
- List of number-one hits of 2022 (Denmark)
- List of number-one hits of 2022 (France)
- List of number-one hits of 2022 (Germany)
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|
31,073,932 |
2011 Kobalt Tools 400
| 1,106,348,274 | null |
[
"2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series",
"2011 in sports in Nevada",
"March 2011 sports events in the United States",
"NASCAR races at Las Vegas Motor Speedway"
] |
The 2011 Kobalt Tools 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on March 6, 2011 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway in Clark County, Nevada. Contested over 267 laps, it was the third race of the 2011 season. Carl Edwards, driving for Roush Fenway Racing, won the race. Tony Stewart finished second and Juan Pablo Montoya finished third.
Polesitter Matt Kenseth maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race, as Greg Biffle, who started in the fourth position on the grid, remained behind him. On the 8th lap, the first caution was given because Robby Gordon spun sideways. Following the second caution, Stewart became the leader, and increased his lead to 6.5 seconds by lap 95. Late in the race, Stewart was given a penalty for speeding on pit road, giving the lead to Edwards. Edwards remained the leader to win for the second time at Las Vegas Motor Speedway.
There were seven cautions and 22 lead changes among 15 different drivers throughout the course of the race. It was Edwards' first win in the 2011 season and the 20th of his career. The result moved Edwards up to the third position in the Drivers' Championship, seven points behind Stewart while being tied with Montoya. Ford maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, three points ahead of Chevrolet and five ahead of Toyota, with 33 races remaining in the season. A total of 152,000 people attended the race, while 10.1 million watched it on television.
## Report
### Background
Las Vegas Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races. The race was scheduled to be held on the standard track at Las Vegas Motor Speedway; a four-turn D-shaped oval track that is 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long. The track's turns are banked at 20 degrees, while the front stretch, the location of the finish line, and the back stretch on the opposite side of the track are banked at nine degrees. The racetrack has seats for 142,000 spectators.
Before the race, Kyle Busch was leading the Drivers' Championship with 80 points, and Kurt Busch stood in second with 77 points. Tony Stewart and A. J. Allmendinger followed tied for third and fourth with 69 points, four ahead of Jeff Gordon and Mark Martin, who were tied for fifth. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Ford, Toyota and Chevrolet were leading with twelve points, four points ahead of Dodge. Jimmie Johnson was the race's defending winner from 2010.
### Practice and qualifying
Two practice sessions were held in preparation for the race; one on Friday and the other on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes long, while the second was 75 minutes long. Matt Kenseth was quickest with a time of 28.939 seconds in the first session, 0.047 seconds faster than David Ragan. Montoya was just off Ragan's pace, followed by Carl Edwards, Greg Biffle, and Marcos Ambrose. Stewart was seventh, still within a second of Kenseth's time. Also in the first practice session, Jeff Gordon spun sideways after the fourth turn.
Forty-four cars were entered for qualifying; however, only forty-three could qualify for the race because of NASCAR's qualifying procedure. Kenseth clinched the fifth pole position of his career, with a time of 28.589 seconds. He was joined on the front row of the grid by Ambrose. Edwards qualified third, Biffle took fourth, and Kyle Busch started fifth. Joey Logano, Allmendinger, Newman, Martin Truex Jr. and Martin rounded out the top ten. The only driver that failed to qualify for the race was Brian Keselowski. Once the qualifying session completed, Kenseth commented, "Qualifying is not my strong suit, but I knew we had a really fast car today when we did our last qualifying run [in practice]. Honestly, this is the most nervous I've been before qualifying in probably five years at least, because I knew we had a shot at the pole, and I knew last week we really messed up. I didn't want to mess up a fast car today, so I was really happy with that."
In the second and final practice, Kenseth remained quickest with a time of 29.330 seconds. Kyle Busch followed in second, ahead of Newman and Edwards. Biffle was fifth quickest, with a time of 29.393 seconds. David Reutimann, Truex, Stewart, Logano, and Denny Hamlin rounded out the top ten positions. Ragan, who was second in the first session, could only manage 12th.
### Race
The race, the third in the season, began at 3:00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox. The conditions on the grid were dry before the race with the air temperature at 60 °F (16 °C). Las Vegas Motor Speedway Chaplain Joe Freiburger began pre-race ceremonies, by giving the invocation. Next, Kristen Hertzenberg, from Phantom-Las Vegas Spectacular, performed the national anthem, and Gray Abercrombie, Lowe's sports marketing manager, gave the command for drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, Hamlin had to move to the rear of the grid because of him changing his engine.
Kenseth retained his pole position lead into the first corner, followed by Biffle, who started fourth. Over the following two laps, Edwards fell to the fourth position, while Biffle passed Kenseth for the lead. After starting 16th on the grid, Trevor Bayne moved up to 11th by the fifth lap. On the following lap, Truex fell three positions to ninth. At lap eight, the first caution was given after Robby Gordon spun sideways. Most of the front runners made pit stops during the caution, while Jeff Gordon stayed out to become the leader. During the lap 12 restart, Jeff Gordon was the leader ahead of Stewart and Montoya. However, Stewart passed Gordon to become the leader on the next lap. Also on the same lap, Kenseth drove to pit road after having a flat tire. On the 14th lap, Stewart remained the leader, while Kurt Busch moved to the second position ahead of Jeff Gordon. Afterward, Andy Lally spun sideways, prompting the second caution. Few drivers made pit stops during the caution. At the lap 18 restart, Stewart was first, followed by Busch, Gordon, and Montoya. By the 20th lap, Reutimann, who started 25th on the grid, had moved up 18 positions.
By lap 24, Stewart maintained a 1.7 second lead over Busch, as Gordon fell to sixth. Stewart continued to increase his lead over the next ten laps, while Busch remained in the second position. On the 35th lap, Reutimann moved up to the sixth position. Seven laps later, Jamie McMurray and Keselowski made contact with each other. On the following lap, Paul Menard moved up to 12th. At the 45th lap, Stewart had a 3.6 second lead over Busch, as Johnson fell to 23rd. On the next lap, Biffle claimed second away from Busch. During lap 49, green flag pit stops began with Kurt Busch and Reutimann. On lap 51, Gordon, Montoya, made pit stops, as Biffle became the leader. Once green flag pit stops concluded on lap 62, Stewart reclaimed the first position ahead of Kyle Busch. Two laps later, Biffle claimed moved up to the fourth position. On the next lap, Bill Elliott claimed the fifth position. Stewart increased his lead to 1.6 seconds by the 67th lap. At lap 74, Gordon moved up into the tenth position after passing Logano. Four laps later, Kevin Harvick moved up to the 14th position. On lap 81, Harvick claimed the 13th position.
During lap 87, Gordon moved up to the tenth position. By the 95th lap, Stewart had increased his lead to 6.5 seconds over second place. On the next lap, the third caution was given after Kyle Busch collided into the wall because of a flat tire. Most of the frontrunners made pit stops during the caution. At the 101 restart, Stewart was the leader. On the following lap, Kurt Busch and Kahne spun sideways, prompting the fourth caution to be given. On the lap 106 restart, Stewart remained the leader ahead of Edwards and Biffle in second and third. On the 107th lap, Biffle passed Edwards for the second position. Afterward, Kyle Busch's engine failed, causing the fifth caution to come out. At lap 115, Stewart led Biffle on the restart. During lap 121, Edwards passed Biffle to claim second, as Stewart increased his lead. Ten laps later, Harvick moved up to the sixth position. On lap 138, Dale Earnhardt Jr. claimed the seventh position, while Truex fell to sixth. Eleven laps later, the sixth caution was given because Gilliland collided into the wall after having a flat tire. During the caution, most of the teams made pit stops. Also on the same lap, Stewart and Harvick received a penalty after having speeding on pit road.
At the lap 156 restart, Edwards became the leader ahead of Truex. Edwards maintained the lead on the next lap, as Montoya moved up into third. By lap 159, Edwards had a 1.25 second lead over Truex. Five laps later, Johnson passed Gordon for the ninth position. Edwards continued to increase his lead to 2.6 seconds by lap 171. After having a speed penalty, Stewart had moved up to 18th by the 178th lap. On lap 185, Clint Bowyer moved up to 16th, while Edwards increased his lead to 2.9 seconds. Nine laps later, the seventh caution was given after Gordon collided into the wall after having a flat tire. Most of the drivers made pit stops during the caution, as Stewart reclaimed the first position at the lap 202 restart. By the 214th lap, Stewart had a lead of 2.45 seconds. Four laps later, Menard moved up to the tenth position after passing Brian Vickers. On lap 220, Edwards passed Truex to claim third, as Stewart increased his lead to 3 seconds. Five laps later, Hamlin moved up to the seventh position. On lap 234, green flag pit stops began with Stewart and Montoya. Two laps later, Harvick and Johnson made pit stops, five laps before Edwards and Truex.
Once the green flag pit stops concluded, Edwards was the leader, 1.1 seconds ahead of Montoya. By the 250th lap, Edwards increased his lead to 1.6 seconds. On the following lap, Kurt Busch moved into the tenth position, as Newman moved up to fifth. With four laps remaining, Stewart passed Montoya for the second position. Edwards maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2011 season. Stewart finished second, ahead of Montoya in third and Ambrose in fourth. Newman clinched the fifth position, after starting eighth.
### Post-race
Edwards appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season, in front of a crowd of 152,000 people. "These guys are unbelievable. It means a lot coming off Phoenix. I went home last week and didn’t know how things were going to go. You don’t get a good race car like that often. We had another one today," said Edwards of his triumph.
Although Stewart was leading the race near the end, Edwards passed him after the final pit stops. Stewart, who finished second, said, "I don't know what happened on the pit stop there, but we had a miscue and had a penalty and had to go to the back, and unfortunately it kind of dealt our cards for us. [Crew chief] Darian Grubb made a good call getting us the track position back, but it also showed everybody else that they could do it, too, and we couldn't run two-and-a-half runs on a set of left-side tires." In the subsequent press conference, Kyle Busch stated his frustration from his accident, "On the restart there [on Lap 107], I was going to bide my time and try to get back through traffic with plenty of time to go, and 'kablooey' – it just broke." Doug Yates, the engine builder for Roush Fenway Racing, expressed his enjoyment of winning the race:
> "This is an exciting win for Roush Yates Engines. We ran great all week long. I think this says a lot about our program and how we plan to run at 1.5 mile tracks throughout the 2011 season. I want to thank Ford again for their support as we continue to excel with the FR9 engine."
Stewart also commented, "It kills me to throw a race away like that, especially at a place we haven't won at yet. This was a big deal [Sunday], and when you lead that many laps and have a car that's that fast and you lose it ... I'm sure [Monday] when the emotion dies down we'll look back and say it was a great weekend. But, man, it does not sit good right now." The race result moved Stewart into the first position in the Driver's Championship with 113 points, tied with Kurt Busch in second. Edwards, the winner of the race, and Montoya followed in third and fourth on 106, three points ahead of Newman in fifth. Ford maintained their lead in the Manufacturers' Championship with 21 points. Chevrolet and Toyota placed second and third with 18 and 16 points, while Dodge was fourth with 11. 10.1 million people watched the race on television. The race took two hours, fifty-seven minutes and twenty seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 1.246 seconds.
Carl's win would be the only win of the season for him, in the same race teammate Matt Kenseth won en route to the 2003 title. Due to the Chase format introduced after Matt's title, Carl would end up losing the title via tiebreaker to Stewart, who entered the Chase winless and went on to win five of the ten Chase races, including the finale.
## Results
### Qualifying
### Race results
## Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Manufacturers' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for the driver standings.
|
56,294,773 |
2018 Mexico City ePrix
| 1,161,089,003 | null |
[
"2017–18 Formula E season",
"2018 in Mexican motorsport",
"March 2018 sports events in Mexico",
"Mexico City ePrix"
] |
The 2018 Mexico City ePrix (formally the 2018 ABB Formula E Mexico City e-Prix) was a Formula E electric car race held at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in the centre of Mexico City on 3 March 2018. It was the fifth round of the 2017–18 Formula E Championship and the third edition of the event as part of the championship. Audi driver Daniel Abt won the 47-lap race starting from fifth position. Oliver Turvey finished second for NIO and e.Dams-Renault driver Sébastien Buemi took third.
Mahindra's Felix Rosenqvist won the pole position by posting the fastest lap in qualifying and led for the first 14 laps until a battery management system problem at the final corner promoted Turvey to the lead. Turvey held the lead until the mandatory pit stops to change into a second car. Swift work from Abt's pit crew moved him past Turvey who was slow leaving his garage because of a gear selection fault. Abt led the rest of the race to take his first career victory and the first for a German in Formula E. Turvey took second after holding off Buemi in the final five laps.
The result increased Jean-Éric Vergne's lead in the Drivers' Championship to 12 points over Rosenqvist who retired because his car not have enough electrical energy to allow him to finish the race. Sam Bird kept third despite not scoring any points as Buemi maintained fourth and Nelson Piquet Jr. kept fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah further extended their advantage over the non-scoring Mahindra and Jaguar passed Virgin for third with seven races left in the season.
## Background
The 2018 Mexico City ePrix was confirmed as part of Formula E's 2017–18 series schedule in September 2017 by the FIA World Motor Sport Council. It was the fifth of the twelve scheduled single-seater electric car races of the 2017–18 Championship, and the third time it was a FIA Formula E Championship event. It was held on 3 March 2018 at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in the centre of Mexico City. The race was the only one of the season held on a permanent track: it is a mixture of the Grand Prix and oval layouts and has 17 turns at a length of 2.093 km (1.301 mi). The high elevation of the circuit created thin air and lower wind resistance, causing teams to optimise the cooling of their cars; the asphalt surface was less abrasive than other tracks. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA; Formula E's governing body) introduced a track limits zone into turn one to stop drivers using the grass in that area. The driver adviser to the stewards for the race was former Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters racer Alexandre Prémat.
After winning the Santiago ePrix three weeks earlier, Techeetah driver Jean-Éric Vergne led the Drivers' Championship with 71 points and was five points ahead of Felix Rosenqvist of Mahindra. Sam Bird (Virgin) followed in third place with 61 points; Sébastien Buemi (e.Dams-Renault) was fourth and Nelson Piquet Jr (Jaguar) followed in fifth. Techeetah led the Teams' Championship with 89 points; Mahindra (87 points) followed close behind in second position and Virgin placed third with 69 points. Jaguar were fourth with 54 points and e.Dams-Renault were fifth with 44 points. A total of ten teams fielded two drivers each for a total of 20 participants in the event.
Allan McNish, team principal of Audi, affirmed his team would fight back after poor car reliability in the first four races and noted the unpredictability commonly observed in Formula E, "At the moment, we're going through a tough time in our young Formula E history. But we are as determined as ever and will continue to push to the maximum with Daniel [Abt] and Lucas, in spite of the current challenges." Buemi sought to continue his recent form of strong performances in Mexico and said his team would attack by using the experience they had accumulated in the previous two races in Mexico City, "I'm delighted to be back in Mexico after my performances in the last two races, and I hope that we'll keep up the momentum. We've always been quick in free practice in Mexico, but it's not been the same story in qualifying. We're determined to put that right this year and challenge for the race win."
After Techeetah and Dragon incurred record fines of €15,000 (\$18,500) for seat belt manipulation in the preceding Santiago ePrix, the FIA issued a bulletin to all teams the day before the Mexico City race clarifying what was prohibited with the safety device. Starting from this race, the FIA forbade the installation of tie-wraps or teams using tape on the belts in line with a regulation prohibiting any material modification or safety harness reshaping. Also, the FIA undertook more detailed post-race examinations to prevent any future occurrence of teams using such systems. Andretti team principal Roger Griffiths explained, "The FIA has also clarified how, that if you are going to attach and relocate the driver's radio connector to the seatbelt, you can attach it only to the label on the seatbelt and not through the webbing of the material itself."
## Practice
Two practice sessions—both on Saturday morning—were held before the late afternoon race. The first session ran for 45 minutes and the second lasted half an hour. A half an hour untimed shakedown session was held on Friday afternoon to allow teams to check the reliability of their cars and their electronic systems. After shakedown, Venturi, Dragon, e.Dams-Renault and Jaguar were fined €5,000 for 5G electromagnetic radiation interference in the illegal 5–6 GHz band that could have potentially interfered with the FIA's data gathering system; a further €3,500 was suspended for the rest of the season. All four teams were cautioned a repeat occurrence put them at risk of disqualification.
The first practice session began under a rising sun in low air and track temperatures; no heat management concerns were reported. Additionally, the track surface was dusty and damp in some areas; some times were faster than Oliver Turvey's (NIO) 2017 pole position lap. Audi's Lucas di Grassi used 200 kW (270 hp) of power to record the fastest lap late on at 1 minute, 1.58 seconds, 0.362 seconds faster than any one else on the circuit. The rest of the top ten composed of Edoardo Mortara, Vergne, Mitch Evans, Alex Lynn, José María López, Rosenqvist, Daniel Abt, Bird and Buemi. No major incidents occurred during practice; several drivers ran onto the circuit's run-off areas. López was aggrieved at Luca Filippi who slowed him in turn three. He lost control of the rear of his vehicle at turn seven and avoided damaging it.
Di Grassi was again fastest in second practice with a 1-minute, 1.203 seconds lap. The session's early pace setter Rosenqvist was second and Evans placed third. Positions four to ten were occupied by Nick Heidfeld, Lynn, António Félix da Costa, Abt, Buemi, López and Bird. Mortara necessitated course officials to wave the full course yellow flags leaving the first corner as his car stopped in the turn two braking zone. Later, López lost control of the rear of his car and hit the turn 11 barrier with his left-rear wheel. López switched into his second car for the rest of the session. In the session's closing minutes, Heidfeld lost control of his car's rear at the turn seven and eight double left hander and struck the bollards dictating track limits. With five minutes left, Lynn was at maximum power driving tinto turn two and was about to pass the slower Rosenqvist on some dirt when he lost control of his vehicle's rear and struck a wall with the left-hand side after locking his brakes. Lynn was unhurt and the session continued with two minutes to go; no driver went faster.
## Qualifying
Saturday's afternoon qualifying session ran for an hour and was divided into four groups of five cars. Each group was placed in championship order and were determined by a lottery system and was permitted six minutes of on-track activity. Every driver was limited to two timed laps with one at maximum power. The fastest five overall competitors in the four groups participated in a "Super Pole" session with one driver on the track at any time going out in reverse order from fifth to first. Each of the five drivers was limited to one timed lap and the starting order was determined by the competitor's fastest times (Super Pole from first to fifth, and group qualifying from sixth to twentieth). The driver and team who recorded the fastest time were awarded three points towards their respective championships. In the first group of five runners, which was held on a dusty track that provided a negligible amount of grip, di Grassi was the early pace setter, followed by Maro Engel, Jérôme d'Ambrosio, Tom Blomqvist (who made a driving error) and Filippi. Buemi set the fastest overall group lap in the second group at 1 minute, 1.668 seconds. Rosenqvist was first to venture onto the track in the group and was fastest until Buemi's lap. Vergne lost time leaving the track's corners and was third. Piquet placed fourth. A suspension issue made Bird group two's slowest driver. In the third group, Félix da Costa set the fastest lap, ahead of Turvey. Lynn drove aggressively through the chicane to go third-fastest. López and Nico Prost rounded out the top five.
The track was at its most clean in the fourth group and saw Abt go fastest in the group by pushing hard. Heidfeld in second locked his tyres and did not set a clean lap time. Similarly, André Lotterer locked his tyres into the first corner and set the third-fastest lap. Fourth-placed Evans made an error in the first third of the lap and lost half a second in the next third due to his car cutting out. Mortara was slow throughout and placed 20th overall. At the end of group qualifying, Buemi, Rosenqvist, Félix da Costa, Turvey, Lynn's laps progressed them to super pole. Rosenqvist locked his tyres on his lap. Nonetheless, he took his second pole position of the season and the fifth of his career with a time of 1 minute, 1.645 seconds. He was provisionally joined on the grid's front row by Félix da Costa, in his first super pole appearance since the 2016 Long Beach ePrix, who locked his tyres at certain parts of the track and had pole position until Rosenqvist's lap. Lynn was third-fastest and his compatriot fourth-placed Turvey locked his tyres entering the second turn. Buemi locked his brakes driving into turn one; he was able to hit the apex of the corner at the start of his lap. A steady pace for the rest of Buemi's lap qualified him fifth. After qualifying, di Grassi and the Virgin duo of Bird and Lynn were demoted ten places for changing the inverter and gearbox in their respective cars. Similarly, Félix da Costa's car was discovered to be under the minimum weight limit of 880 kg (1,940 lb) during scrutineering. He started fourth since its weight after group qualifying complied with the regulations. The rest of the grid lined up after penalties as Abt, Vergne, Piquet, Heidfeld, Lotterer, Lynn, Engel, Evans, López, d'Ambrosio, Prost, Blomqvist, Filippi, Mortara, Bird and di Grassi.
### Qualifying classification
Notes:
- — António Félix da Costa was demoted to fourth after his car was discovered to be under the minimum weight limit of 880 kg (1,940 lb).
- — Alex Lynn and Sam Bird were penalised ten places for changing their gearboxes.
- — Lucas di Grassi was demoted ten places for changing his inverter.
## Race
Weather conditions at the start were dry, warm and sunny with the air temperature was between 27.0 to 27.7 °C (80.6 to 81.9 °F) and the track temperature from 40.5 and 41.65 °C (104.90 and 106.97 °F). A special feature of Formula E is the "Fan Boost" feature, an additional 100 kilowatts (130 hp) of power to use in the driver's second car. The three drivers who were allowed to use the boost were determined by a fan vote. The distance of the racewas increased from 45 laps to 47 to better showcase the technological efficiency advancements teams had made. When the race began from its standing start at 16:00 Central Daylight Time (UTC–06:00), Rosenqvist maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first corner closely followed by Turvey and Buemi as the field avoided contact entering the turn. Abt made a fast getaway and moved past Félix da Costa for fourth while his fellow countryman Engel made a poor start and fell to 19th. A few cars in the middle of the pack collided with each other in turn three, launching chunks of bodywork airborne; no driver entered the pit lane for repairs. Then, López collided with his teammate d'Ambrosio; both continued with minor damage to their vehicles.
Di Grassi moved from 20th to 18th by the end of lap one while Evans gained three positions over the same distance. At the lap's conclusion, Rosenqvist led Turvey by eight-tenths of a second with Buemi third. Henceforth, Rosenqvist began to establish a small advantage over the rest of the field as drivers began to settle into a rhythm. Evans overtook Lotterer for eighth position on lap three, and Félix da Costa lost seventh two laps later to Vergne who passed Félix da Costa by putting him off the circuit at the entrance to turn six. Piquet used this to gain sixth. Di Grassi progressed through the field on the lap, passing Filippi into the first turn, a move that put the latter ran wide. This allowed Mortara to draw alongside Filippi on the inside. As the duo braked for the turn three chicane, both ran wide. Filippi drove across the chicane and stopped before rejoining the circuit. Mortara meanwhile drove across the kerbs to stay on the track. These events demoted Filippi behind Engel and Bird. Further ahead, Abt pressured Buemi as he momentarily could not affect a pass as Vergne was close behind.
By the ninth lap, most drivers had about 65 per cent of electrical energy remaining which gave no perceptible advantage for anyone bar Rosenqvist who led Turvey by two seconds. Buemi, di Grassi and Rosenqvist were announced as the winners of the FanBoost vote the lap after. Meanwhile, Turvey led Buemi by two-seconds, which was in contrast to previous races where his car typically struggled to pull away because of poor electrical energy usage. At the front, Rosenqvist set what was at this point the fastest lap of the race at 1 minute, 3.601 seconds and it appeared he would win the race and reclaim the lead of the Drivers' Championship from Vergne. As Rosenqvist exited the final corner to finish the 14th lap, he had a sudden loss in power due to a battery management system failure and stopped to reset his car and allow him to continue driving. Turvey moved into the lead with Buemi and Abt second and third. Rosenqvist fell to ninth and was out of contention for the victory.
Abt's attempts at passing Buemi were disrupted when Rosenqvist stopped twice more on the turn three run-off area and prompted course officials to wave localised yellow flags. Nevertheless, Abt overtook Buemi for second on the inside at the exit of turn one after the latter braked early and ran wide. Abt began to close up to Turvey. Rosenqvist chose to end his stop-start approach and made an early switch into his second car with the objective of re-entering the top ten. The leaders made their mandatory pit stops to change into a second car on lap 24. Piquet and di Grassi remained on the circuit for one additional lap before making their own stops. After the pit stops, Abt gained the lead from Turvey because his stop was six seconds faster than the latter who had gear selection trouble. Buemi fell to fourth as Vergne took third. Abt pulled away as Turvey came under attack from Vergne. On lap 27, Heidfeld stopped on the start/finish straight before entering the pit lane per the instructions of his team for troubleshooting that revealed a water pump failure, curtailing his race.
As di Grassi was gaining positions, he earned one point for setting the fastest time on the lap, completing a circuit in 1 minute, 2.02 seconds. Further ahead, Turvey made a small error leaving the Peraltada chicane, allowing Vergne to unsuccessfully challenge him. This allowed Buemi to use FanBoost to pass Vergne by steering right onto the inside at the first corner on lap 28. Later, the stewards investigated Lotterer's pit stop release and penalised him with a drive-through penalty after determining he ran over the foot of a pit crew member leaving his garage, dropping him from seventh to thirteenth. The crew member was transported to the circuit's medical centre and released after examinations revealed no serious injures. Further down the pack on lap 31, di Grassi aimed for the top ten; a minor collision with López on the start/finish straight caused him to spin at the first turn.
Piquet had the knowledge of having more usable electrical energy and passed his teammate Evans two laps later. The following lap, Mahindra called the slow Rosenqvist into the pit lane to retire since he could not finish the race. Piquet overtook Vergne, whose two-way radio communication was cut off due to a systems glitch losing him all information on his steering wheel, for fourth place shortly after and started to hassle Buemi for third place. On lap 37, di Grassi used his FanBoost to pass d'Ambrosio for 12th while Prost parked his car in the garage with a broken front-right suspension due to contact with Bird at turn three, making him the race's final retiree. Turvey was slow leaving the Peraltada chicane, allowing Buemi to challenge him; he was mindful of the faster Piquet. Engel lost 11th to di Grassi in the race's final laps and broke his rear wing after contacting him.
At the start of the penultimate lap, Buemi attempted to pass Turvey for second and locked all four of his tyres. Buemi avoided striking the rear of Turvey's car. Turvey similarly locked his tyres as both drivers remained second and third; an earlier driving error from Piquet lost him a small amount of time. In his 37th start, Abt increased his lead to more than six seconds and took his first career victory. It was the first for a German driver in Formula E, and for Audi as a factory team. The victory moved Abt to sixth in the Drivers' Championship. Turvey finished second to earn his first career podium and Buemi was third. Off the podium, Piquet, Vergne, Evans, Félix da Costa, Mortara, di Grassi, Lynn, D'Ambrosio, López. Lotterer, Filippi, Blomqvist, Engel and Bird were the final finishers.
### Post-race
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Abt said going into the race, he and his team were aware his car was fast and their situation in the championship. He praised the swift work of his mechanics and noted Formula's E unpredictability, "We didn't give up, we kept believing in it and today was just a fantastic day." Turvey spoke of his delight over taking his and NIO's first podium, "Everyone in the team has worked so hard since last season to gain a huge step forward in performance and we've not been able to show this due to a few tough races." Third-place finisher Buemi said that winning the race would not have been possible because of the fast pace of Abt's car and was happy to accumulate extra championship points, "Today he [Abt] put his knowledge into practice and I had a problematic pit stop because I almost collided with Nico [Prost] because he had his pit stop at the same time as I."
Rosenqvist described his race as "one of those rare days when I can say it was quite a perfect Saturday" notwithstanding his early retirement, "Right from the practice sessions through to qualifying. I was out in front with a comfortable three second lead and it was getting better. It was all a bit too good to be true, but the issue was not in our hands." With regards to his inter-team systems glitch, Vergne revealed it prompted him to allow Buemi and Piquet through so that he could follow Buemi's strategy to allow him to reach the end of the race and gather championship points. Piquet spoke of his belief a better starting position would have helped him get on the podium, and attempted a different strategy, "Depending on who the players are around you, you want to risk overtaking or you want to try and save energy." Nevertheless, Piquet stated his belief Jaguar had the most reliable car in the field and the team would aim to continue improving for the rest of the season.
The incident where Lotterer caused ligament injuries to one of his mechanics was the first such occurrence of anyone sustaining an injury since the minimum pit stop time was abolished at the preceding Santiago ePrix. Lotterer spoke of his belief there would be another similar incident in the future, "Everyone is pushing the limits and the cars, they are so close together, there's not much space for the mechanic to jump off the car once the belts are done. But that's the same as other pitstops in other categories – mechanics change tyres [and] it always happens once in a while. This is part of racing." Scott Mitchell of Autosport noted the abolition of the minimum pit stop was one of Formula E's most unpopular changes and argued it promoted an unnecessary element of competition during the switch into a second car with regards to personal safety. Additionally, Rosenqvist's and Piquet's pit stops came under scrutiny from the motorsport press as it was theorised that their car's seat belts were altered illegally in order to decrease the time spent in their garages and risked infringing the revised FIA regulations concerning the new seat belts.
The consequence of the final positions increased Vergne's lead at the top of the Drivers' Championship to twelve points ahead of second-placed Rosenqvist. Bird kept third place notwithstanding him not scoring any points. Buemi's third-place finish drew him closer to Bird in the battle for third. Piquet's fourth-place result kept him in fifth. In the Teams' Championship, Techeetah further extended their advantage over Mahindra by another seven points. Jaguar overtook Virgin for third and e.Dams-Renault were fifth with seven rounds left in the season.
### Race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
Notes:
- — One point for fastest lap.
- — Three points for pole position.
## Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Notes: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
|
2,884,590 |
Operation Nordseetour
| 1,149,451,580 |
1940 German naval raid
|
[
"Battle of the Atlantic",
"Conflicts in 1940",
"December 1940 events",
"Maritime incidents in 1940",
"Naval battles and operations of World War II",
"Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom",
"Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II",
"Naval battles of World War II involving Germany"
] |
Operation Nordseetour (German: "North Sea Tour") was an unsuccessful raid conducted between 30 November and 27 December 1940 by the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper. It formed part of the World War II Battle of the Atlantic, with the heavy cruiser seeking to attack Allied convoys in the North Atlantic. Admiral Hipper left Germany on 30 November 1940 and entered the Atlantic after evading British patrols. She had difficulty locating any convoys, and was plagued by engine problems and bad weather. While returning to Brest in German-occupied France, Admiral Hipper encountered Convoy WS 5A on the night of 24 December. A torpedo attack that night did not inflict any damage, and Admiral Hipper was driven off by the convoy's escorts when she attacked on the next morning. Two British transports and a heavy cruiser were damaged. The German cruiser sank a merchant ship later on 25 December, and arrived in Brest on 27 December.
The German military was disappointed with the results of the raid. It indicated that the Admiral Hipper-class of heavy cruisers were not well suited to attacking shipping in the Atlantic due to their short range and unreliable engines. The Royal Navy strengthened convoy escort forces in response to the attack on Convoy WS 5A. This frustrated two attacks that were attempted by German battleships in early 1941.
## Background
Plans prepared by the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) prior to World War II specified that its surface warships would be used to attack Allied merchant shipping travelling on the oceans. Submarines and aircraft were to be used against shipping near the coasts of Allied countries. Surface raiders were to range widely, make surprise attacks and then move to other areas. They were to be supported by supply ships that were pre-positioned before the start of operations. The Royal Navy anticipated Germany's intentions, and adopted plans of its own to institute convoys to protect merchant shipping and deploy cruisers to monitor attempts by German surface ships to break out into the Atlantic Ocean.
The Admiral Hipper-class of heavy cruisers were designed to operate in the North Atlantic. Their main armament was eight 203-millimetre (8.0 in) guns. The secondary armament comprised twelve 105-millimetre (4.1 in) guns, twelve 37-millimetre (1.5 in) guns and eight 20-millimetre (0.79 in) guns. The cruisers were also armed with twelve 533-millimetre (21.0 in) torpedo tubes. Their range was relatively short at 6,500 miles (10,500 km), which meant that they would need to frequently refuel from supply ships during sorties into the Atlantic. The engines also proved unreliable.
Admiral Hipper was the lead ship of the class and entered service in April 1939. During the following February she made a sortie into the North Sea with the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau. From April that year she was involved in the German invasion of Norway, Operation Weserübung. On 8 April Admiral Hipper defeated the British destroyer HMS Glowworm off Norway, which rammed her before sinking. After landing troops at Trondheim, the cruiser returned to Germany for repairs on 12 April. She reentered service in May, and in early June accompanied the two Scharnhorst-class battleships and four destroyers for the Operation Juno attack on British shipping off Norway. On 8 June Admiral Hipper sank the British naval trawler HMT Juniper and critically damaged the troop transport Orama. The cruiser, Gneisenau and several destroyers took part in two abortive sorties from Trondheim on 10 and 20 June; on the second of these Gneisenau was torpedoed by a British submarine. From 25 July Admiral Hipper searched for Allied ships in the Norwegian and Barents Seas, and captured a Finnish freighter. She was ordered to return to Germany on 5 August, and reached Wilhelmshaven on 9 August. Admiral Hipper then underwent maintenance until 9 September. Captain Wilhelm Meisel assumed command during this period.
## Preparations
In August 1940 the German leader Adolf Hitler ordered an intensification of the attacks on Allied shipping in the Atlantic. At this time only Admiral Hipper and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer could be made ready to conduct anti-shipping raids. Gneisenau and Scharnhorst as well as the heavy cruiser Lützow were still undergoing repairs. The new battleship Bismarck and heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen were fitting out.
It was initially intended that Admiral Hipper would operate in the seas between Iceland and the Faroe Islands and possibly also the North Atlantic from late September in an attempt to divert the Home Fleet's ships during Operation Sea Lion, the planned German invasion of southern England. This sortie formed part of Operation Herbstreise (German: "Autumn Journey"), which also included decoy troop convoys that would feint a landing in Scotland. After the cancellation of the invasion Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, the commander of the Kriegsmarine, decided that Admiral Hipper's cruise should go ahead.
During September the British received Ultra intelligence obtained by decrypting encoded Luftwaffe (German Air Force) radio messages that indicated Admiral Hipper was to make a reconnaissance sortie into the Barents Sea. This was the only Ultra intelligence they received on her operations during this period, as the codes protecting the Kriegsmarine's messages had not been broken.
## Raid
### Initial attempt
Admiral Hipper departed Kiel bound for the Atlantic on 24 September 1940. She put in at Kristiansand in Norway to repair a broken cooling pump, and sailed again on 27 September. Admiral Hipper suffered an engine room fire the next day while sailing to the west of Stavanger. Both turbines had to be shut down to allow her crew to fight the fire, leaving the ship adrift for four hours. The damage from the fire forced the abandonment of the sortie.
The cruiser arrived back at Kiel on 30 September, and proceeded to Hamburg on 2 October for repairs. These were completed on 28 October. During this period Admiral Scheer departed Germany on 23 October 1940 for what proved to be a successful raid into the Atlantic and Indian Oceans that lasted until 1 April 1941.
### Breakout into the Atlantic
Once the repairs were completed Admiral Hipper underwent training in the Baltic Sea from 29 October until 18 November. She then loaded ammunition and supplies for a long range operation into the Atlantic. This sortie, code named Operation Nordseetour (German: "North Sea Tour"), was more ambitious than that which had been planned for September. The goal of the operation was to attack Allied convoys in the North Atlantic. The cruiser was not to attack ships sailing independently. Consistent with standing practices for German surface raiders, the orders for the operation required Meisel to not engage enemy forces that were superior or equal to his ship.
At this time the German B-Dienst signals intelligence service was providing raiders with general information about the locations of Allied ships. The service was generally unable to pass on actionable intelligence though, as it could not decrypt intercepted Royal Navy radio messages. In particular, the Germans lacked information on the dates Allied convoys sailed and the routes they took. Each raider embarked a B-Dienst detachment that was responsible for monitoring Allied radio signals and using direction finding techniques to locate convoys and warships.
The cruiser set out again from Brunsbüttel on 30 November. She had been spotted there by a Royal Air Force reconnaissance aircraft the previous day, but the British did not realise that her presence at the port meant she was about to sail. Admiral Hipper was escorted by four torpedo boats for the first stage of the voyage. She refuelled from a tanker at a fjord near Bergen in Norway on 1 December before proceeding north. Meisel wanted a period of bad weather to help hide his ship from British patrols while passing Allied occupied Iceland, and he operated to the south of Jan Mayan island for the next several days. During this period, the cruiser refuelled from the tanker Adria on 2, 3 and 5 December. After the weather worsened, Admiral Hipper passed through the Denmark Strait that separated Greenland and Iceland on the night of 6/7 December. She was not detected by the British.
After entering the Atlantic, Admiral Hipper proceeded to the waters off southern Greenland to rendezvous with the tanker Friedrich Breme. It took several days to locate the tanker, during which Admiral Hipper's crew experienced extreme cold and a hurricane force storm.
### Attack on Convoy WS 5A
Once refuelling was complete, Admiral Hipper began searching for convoys on the key route between Halifax in Canada and the United Kingdom. She patrolled to the south of the routes taken by convoys though, and did not encounter any. The crew endured another hurricane level storm, the cruiser's starboard engine failed and she ran dangerously low on fuel at one point. Admiral Hipper refuelled again from Friedrich Breme on 16 and 20 December. On 20 December Meisel decided to conclude the operation, and set course for Brest in occupied France.
Admiral Hipper detected multiple ships with her radar at 8:45 pm on 24 December while sailing 700 miles (1,100 km) west of Cape Finisterre in Spain. This was Convoy WS 5A, which had sailed from the United Kingdom carrying 40,000 soldiers and large quantities of supplies on board 20 ships. The WS convoys were special convoys that carried troops and supplies from the United Kingdom to Egypt and Asia on board fast ships. They were assigned powerful escort forces. Five of the ships were travelling with the convoy in the North Atlantic before entering the Mediterranean Sea to form part of an Operation Excess convoy that would carry supplies to Malta and Greece.
Convoy WS 5A's escort comprised the heavy cruiser HMS Berwick as well as the light cruisers HMS Bonaventure and Dunedin. Only Dunedin was fitted with radar. The light cruiser HMS Naiad had also formed part of the escort until 24 December. The aircraft carriers HMS Argus and Furious were sailing with the convoy to transport land-based aircraft to West Africa. As their flight decks were crowded with these aircraft, the two carriers could only fly off five of their own aircraft.
Meisel wrongly believed that he had found one of the weakly escorted OB convoys that sailed from the United Kingdom to Africa and decided to attack it at dawn the next day. His radar was unable to distinguish escorts from cargo vessels. Still, when in the darkness Admiral Hipper detected a large ship at the rear of the convoy, the Germans thought it was an escorting armed merchant cruiser. Preferring to weaken the escort before attacking the convoy in the morning, Meisel decided to attack with torpedoes which will not give away their presence since the British will think they were under U-Boat attack. Admiral Hipper fired three torpedoes at the convoy at 1:53 am on 25 December, but none hit.
The German sailors spotted the convoy to the west at 6:03 am on Christmas Day. Weather conditions were poor, with a strong wind, heavy seas, limited visibility and rain squalls. Berwick was among the first ships to be sighted, and other escorts were soon spotted. Meisel turned his ship towards the British heavy cruiser. The attack plan was to approach unsuspected as close as possible, to be able to attack the ship with a 3 torpedo fan shot from the rear torpedo launcher. But fire was opened on her with his 203-millimetre guns from a range of 6,000 yards (5,500 m) at 6:39 am, before the torpedoes were launched. As a result, the torpedo launcher was blocked by the blast of the guns and the launch had to aborted. Similarly the launching of 3 torpedoes from the forward launcher was botched when the secondary armament opened fire on the other escorts. While the British had not spotted Admiral Hipper, Berwick's crew were at dawn action stations when the engagement began. They returned fire at Admiral Hipper from 6:41 am, and the light cruisers changed course to join the fight. During this period Admiral Hipper's secondary armament fired at the transports, damaging Empire Trooper and Arabistan. Two men were killed on Empire Trooper.
In line with his orders to not engage equal or superior forces, Meisel sought to end the battle. He believed that the British light cruisers were destroyers, and turned to port to evade a possible torpedo attack. Admiral Hipper's rear turrets continued to fire at Berwick, and her secondary armament engaged the light cruisers.
Meisel was able to break contact at 6:43 am but was sighted by Berwick again at 6:47 am. At this time the British cruiser was on a parallel course approximately 8,000 yards (7,300 m) to the port of Admiral Hipper. Berwick opened fire, and Admiral Hipper fired back. At 7:05 am a 203-millimetre shell disabled one of Berwick's gun turrets, and she was hit below the waterline soon afterwards. Rain squalls then allowed Miesel to evade the British at 7:14 am by sailing north west. The British cruisers rejoined the convoy. Convoy WS 5A's ships had been ordered to scatter at 6:50 am, and it proved difficult to reassemble them. Admiral Hipper did not suffer any damage in this engagement and Berwick required repairs that took six months to complete.
Following the battle Admiral Hipper returned to a course bound for Brest. The ship was continuing to experience engine problems and was running low on fuel. At 10:00 am on 25 December, Admiral Hipper's crew sighted the cargo ship Jumma sailing by itself. She was sunk by a single salvo from the cruiser's 203-millimetre guns and two torpedoes. None of Jumma's crew of 111 survived. Admiral Hipper docked at Brest on 27 December. This made her the first major German warship to arrive at a port in occupied France. Royal Air Force Coastal Command aircraft had attempted to locate Admiral Hipper as she approached Brest, but did not spot her.
## Aftermath
The German military was disappointed by the results of Operation Nordseetour. Admiral Hipper did not disrupt Allied shipping, and the sortie demonstrated that she was not well suited to anti-shipping operations in the Atlantic due to her short range and unreliable engines. The engagement with Convoy WS 5A also illustrated the problems with dispatching single raiders into the Atlantic, as Admiral Hipper would have been at great risk had she been damaged. Raeder may have been unhappy with Meisel's decision to fight Berwick.
The attack on Convoy WS 5A demonstrated to the British that surface raiders posed a serious threat to all convoys in the North Atlantic. In response, the Royal Navy immediately began assigning major warships to escort convoys whenever possible. Naiad was ordered to rejoin Convoy WS 5A, and the light cruiser HMS Kenya was dispatched to protect two SL convoys that were approaching the United Kingdom from Sierra Leone. The battlecruiser HMS Repulse and light cruiser HMS Nigeria also sailed to guard convoys in the western Atlantic. Force H, the powerful British squadron based at Gibraltar that included an aircraft carrier and a battlecruiser, also entered the Atlantic on 25 December. The battlecruiser HMS Renown was damaged by a storm. During February and March 1941 escorting battleships forced the Scharnhorst-class battleships to break off two attacks against convoys when they were operating in the Atlantic during Operation Berlin.
Operation Excess was delayed by the disruption caused by the attack on Convoy WS 5A. During the period of delay, a powerful Luftwaffe anti-shipping force arrived in the Mediterranean. The Excess convoy left Gibraltar on 6 January bound for Malta and Greece. On 10 January German aircraft badly damaged the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious while she was escorting the convoy. This may have been avoided if the Excess convoy had sailed when originally planned.
|
32,603,552 |
Typhula quisquiliaris
| 1,055,177,912 |
Species of fungus
|
[
"Fungi described in 1886",
"Fungi of Africa",
"Fungi of Europe",
"Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries",
"Typhulaceae"
] |
Typhula quisquiliaris, commonly known as the bracken club, is a species of club fungus in the family Typhulaceae. It produces small, white fruit bodies up to 9 millimetres (0.4 in) in height, each with a single distinct "head" and "stem". The head is fertile, while the stem attaches to a sclerotium embedded in the substrate. The fruit bodies grow from dead wood, and strongly favours bracken, where the species feeds saprotrophically. Though T. quisquiliaris was described under a different name by James Sowerby in 1803, the specific name quisquiliaris was sanctioned in 1821 by Elias Magnus Fries, and the species was moved to the genus Typhula, which resulted in its currently accepted binomial name by Paul Christoph Hennings in 1896. The species has been recorded in Europe and north Africa.
## Taxonomy
Typhula quisquiliaris was first described by James Sowerby in 1803 as Clavaria obtusa. However, this name was found to be illegitimate, as it had already been given to a different species by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1797. The species was given its sanctioned name several years later by Elias Magnus Fries, in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum. Fries named the species Pistillaria quisquiliaris, having previously (in 1818) named it Clavaria quisquiliaris. The specific name quisquiliaris is from the Latin meaning "pertaining to refuse". In the same year, Samuel Frederick Gray reclassified Sowerby's Clavaria obtusa, naming it Geoglossum obtusum. Fries's name was taken up as the valid one, however, and in 1896, Paul Christoph Hennings transferred the species to Typhula, giving the species the name by which it is known today. However, the name Pistillaria quisquiliaris was sometimes used into the 20th century. For instance, Carleton Rea used it in a 1922 publication. The species is commonly known as the bracken club.
## Description
Typhula quisquiliaris produces fruit bodies in the form of clubs. Each fruit body consists of a single distinct "stem" and "head", and measures up to 7 mm (0.3 in) in height. The surface of the head is smooth and white, and measures 1.5 to 4 mm (0.06 to 0.2 in) by 1 to 2.5 mm (0.04 to 0.1 in). The rounded stem is infertile, and of a similar colour to the head. However, it has a very fine downy covering, and is somewhat translucent. The stem measures from 0.3 to 0.4 mm (0.01 to 0.02 in) in width. The stem attaches to sclerotium which is buried into the branch from which the fruit body grows.
### Microscopic characteristics
Typhula quisquiliaris spores are narrowly ellipsoid, and measure from 9 to 14 by 4 to 5.5 micrometres (μm). The spores are white, and contain small granules. The spores are borne on basidia which measure 50 to 70 by 7 to 8 μm, with four spores on each basidium. The downy covering of the stem is made up of thick-walled hairs, each measuring 15 to 60 by 3 to 7 μm, though they are often swollen towards the base. The sclerotium measures from 1.5 to 3 by 0.5 μm, and is a pale yellow colour. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae.
## Habitat and distribution
Typhula quisquiliaris fruit bodies are typically found in rows, growing from plant detritus. The species favours bracken, especially Pteridium aquilinum, but the colonisation of dead matter from other plants is not unknown. Upon these substrates, it feeds as a saprotroph, breaking down the dead organic matter in order to sustain itself. The species has been recorded in Europe and northern Africa. In Europe, the fruit bodies can be encountered from April to December.
|
6,300,737 |
Slender smooth-hound
| 1,134,363,681 |
Species of shark
|
[
"Endemic marine fish of New Zealand",
"Fish described in 1954",
"Gollum (genus)"
] |
The slender smooth-hound or gollumshark (Gollum attenuatus) is a species of ground shark in the family Pseudotriakidae. It is endemic to the waters around New Zealand, where it is usually found close to the bottom over the continental slope at depths of 300–600 m (980–1,970 ft). An extremely slim, plain brownish shark reaching 1.1 m (3.6 ft) in length, the slender smooth-hound can be identified by its broad, flattened head with a long, distinctively bell-shaped snout. Its mouth is angular with short furrows at the corners, and contains a very high number of tooth rows in both jaws. Its two dorsal fins are roughly equal in size.
The diet of the slender smooth-hound is diverse, but dominated by small, benthic bony fishes and decapod crustaceans. It exhibits a specialized form of aplacental viviparity with oophagy: the females produce a single capsule in each uterus that contains 30–80 ova, of which one ovum develops into an embryo that consumes the rest of the ova and stores the yolk material in its external yolk sac. The growing embryo is mainly sustained by this yolk sac during gestation, though it may be additionally supplied with histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. The typical litter size is two pups, one per uterus. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the slender smooth-hound as Least Concern; it is taken as fishery bycatch but not in great numbers, and furthermore large portions of its range see minimal fishing activity.
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
The first known specimen of the slender smooth-hound was a 93 cm (37 in) long adult male collected by the trawler Maimai in December 1953, at a depth of 220 m (720 ft) off Cape Palliser on New Zealand's North Island. It was preserved by the crew as a curiosity and given to ichthyologist Jack Garrick, who described it in a 1954 issue of the scientific journal Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Garrick named the species Triakis attenuata, in reference to its extremely slender ("attenuate") body.
In 1973, Leonard Compagno proposed a separate genus for the slender smooth-hound: Gollum, after the character in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, "to whom this shark bears some resemblance in form and habits." He placed Gollum with the finback catsharks (Proscylliidae), but also noted its many anatomical similarities to the false catshark (Pseudotriakis microdon). At the time, Compagno chose to maintain Pseudotriakis as the sole member of the family Pseudotriakidae because of its numerous unique traits. More recently, he and other taxonomists have increasingly tended to group Gollum and Pseudotriakis together in the family Pseudotriakidae. This arrangement was corroborated by a 2006 phylogenetic study by Juan Andrés López and colleagues, which found that the two genera have a high degree of genetic similarity across four protein-coding genes and form a natural clade apart from Proscyllium. An additional species of Gollum has now been described, and there is at least one additional species yet to be described.
## Distribution and habitat
The range of the slender smooth-hound is restricted to the upper and middle continental slope around New Zealand, including submarine features to the north such as the Three Kings Ridge, the Challenger Plateau, and the Wanganella Bank. This uncommon species is mainly found between 300 and 600 m (980 and 1,970 ft) deep, but has been recorded from 129 to 724 m (423 to 2,375 ft) deep. It prefers a temperature of around 10 °C (50 °F) and a salinity of approximately 34.8‰. Generally swimming near the sea floor, this shark inhabits both soft and rocky-bottomed habitats in terrain ranging from plateaus to steep slopes.
## Description
The slender smooth-hound has a very thin body and a broad, highly flattened head. The snout is long, with a distinctive bell-shaped outline when viewed from above. The eyes have an elongate horizontal oval shape, and are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). Beneath each eye is a prominent ridge, and behind is a much smaller spiracle. The nostrils are preceded by small, almost triangular flaps of skin. The line of the mouth forms an angle; there are very short furrows at the mouth corners. The upper and lower jaws contain 96–99 and 108–114 rows respectively of small, very closely spaced teeth; each tooth has a narrow upright central cusp flanked by smaller cusplets on both sides. The five pairs of gill slits are short.
The pectoral fins originate below the fourth gill slit and have gently curved margins. The pelvic fins are small and angular; the males have pointed claspers. The two dorsal fins are similar in size and shape, with narrowly rounded apexes and concave trailing margins. The first dorsal fin originates over rear of the pectoral fins, while the second dorsal fin originates between the pelvic and anal fins. A midline ridge is present between the dorsal fins. The anal fin is less than half as high as the first dorsal fin, and has a nearly straight trailing margin. The short and narrow caudal fin makes up about one-sixth of the total length; the lower caudal fin lobe is indistinct, while the upper lobe has a strong ventral notch near the tip. The skin is densely covered by small, overlapping dermal denticles. The crown of each denticle is mounted on a short stalk and bears three horizontal ridges leading to marginal blade-like teeth, with the central tooth particularly long. This species is plain brownish-gray above and lighter below. It grows up to 1.1 m (3.6 ft) long and 4 kg (8.8 lb) in weight, with females reaching a slightly larger size than males.
## Biology and ecology
The slender smooth-hound is likely a schooling species. It preys on a variety of benthic fishes and invertebrates, and also scavenges; human garbage has been reported among its stomach contents. Small bony fishes, lanternfishes in particular, are the most important prey type, followed by decapod crustaceans. Cephalopods, gastropods, isopods, brittle stars, dogfish sharks, and cartilaginous fish egg capsules may also be consumed. On the Challenger Plateau, cephalopods are an important food source for juveniles under 50 cm (20 in) long.
Like the false catshark, the slender smooth-hound exhibits aplacental viviparity with oophagy, in a form different from that in the mackerel sharks. Mature females have a single functional ovary, on the right side, and two functional uteruses. Only one embryo develops within each uterus at a time, resulting in litters of two (rarely one) pups. The uterus inner surface is covered by villi. Within a uterus, 30–80 ova 4–8 mm (0.16–0.31 in) across are packed into a single rigid, amber-colored capsule; of these, only one ovum is fertilized and develops into an embryo, while the remaining ova begin to break down. The embryo consumes these other ova and transfers the yolk material into its external yolk sac, which serves as its main source of nourishment during gestation; this oophagous process is completed by an embryonic length of 10–39 mm (0.39–1.54 in). The embryo may also receive secondary nutrition in the form of histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. When the embryo is 29–40 mm (1.1–1.6 in) long, it emerges from the capsule, which by that time has become translucent and gelatinous. Embryos 4–25 cm (1.6–9.8 in) long have well-developed external gill filaments. The external yolk sac is entirely absorbed when the embryo is 34–42 cm (13–17 in) long and close to being born. Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately 70 cm (28 in) long.
## Human interactions
Harmless to humans and of no economic value, the slender smooth-hound is occasionally caught incidentally in bottom trawls and on bottom longlines. Much of its northern range lies in little-fished waters, and thus the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed it under Least Concern. However, this shark's very low fecundity would render it susceptible to population depletion should fishing pressure increase in the future. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the slender smooth-hound as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.
|
43,210,943 |
Development of Deus Ex
| 1,171,763,826 | null |
[
"Deus Ex",
"Development of specific video games",
"Ion Storm games"
] |
An approximately 20-person team at Ion Storm developed Deus Ex, a cyberpunk-themed action-role playing video game, over the course of 34 months, culminating in a June 2000 release. Team director and producer Warren Spector began to plan the game in 1993 after releasing Ultima Underworld II with Origin Systems and attempted the game both there and at Looking Glass Technologies before going into production with Ion Storm. Official preproduction began around August 1997, lasted for six months, and was followed by 28 months of production. Spector saw their work as expanding on the precedent set by Origin, Looking Glass, and Valve.
In preproduction, six people from Looking Glass's Austin studios focused on the setting ahead of the game mechanics, and chose a story centered around prominent conspiracy theories as an expression of the "millennial madness" in The X-Files and Men in Black. Spector felt that the development process's highlights were the "high-level vision" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable "proto-missions", and Unreal Engine license. Their pitfalls included the team structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto-missions, and weakened morale from Daikatana's bad press. The game was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23, 2000 for Windows 95 and later versions, whereupon it earned over 30 "best of" awards in 2001.
## Preproduction
`After Warren Spector released Ultima Underworld II with Origin Systems in January 1993, he began to plan Troubleshooter, the game that would become Deus Ex. Noting his wife's fascination with The X-Files, he connected the "real world, millennial weirdness, [and] conspiracy stuff" topics on his mind and decided to make a game about it that would appeal to a wider audience. He also considered cyberpunk influences that came from around 1978 when he was participating in a themed Dungeons & Dragons campaign created and led by Bruce Sterling, who had adapted that campaign based on the choice Spector and the other players made. Troubleshooter, in contrast to the other games he had been making at Origin, would have been a "real-world role-playing game", relying more on player choices and assuring that every player could reach the end of the game but in the manner they choose.`
In his 1994 proposal to Origin, he described the concept as "Underworld-style first-person action" in a real-world setting with "big-budget, nonstop action" starring an ex-cop "security specialist". He described the project as "high" risk for its "technological unknowns" as "probably the toughest project on his wish list". It failed to get to production. He later left Origin for Looking Glass Technologies near the time that they were producing Thief: The Dark Project, but kept the idea in mind. For Thief, he tried to suggest buffing the character more so that the player could opt to fight through levels instead of sneaking, the original intent of the game, but the team didn't take to these ideas. He continued to change his character and game system plans for Troubleshooter, though the game he then called Junction Point did not reach production at Looking Glass. Spector wrote that the timing was not yet ripe because the business teams were not interested, the technology was not yet feasible, he did not have an interested team or the resources to make one, and that publishers did not want a "first-person, cross-genre game". Spector, himself, was also tired of unrealistic fantasy and alien settings. Frustrated at Looking Glass, Spector sought employment elsewhere and was nearly about to sign a contract with Electronic Arts, when John Romero of Ion Storm approached him. When Romero offered him a chance to make his "dream game" without any restrictions, Spector was immediately on board.
Preproduction began around August 1997 and lasted about six months. The six-person team came from Looking Glass's Austin studios. Spector, the team's director and producer, saw their work as improving upon the foundation provided by Origin, Looking Glass, and Valve by doing what those companies did not. The game's working title was Shooter: Majestic Revelations, with a scheduled release of Christmas 1998. The working title was meant to be ironic because they did not want the game to be solely a first-person shooter. They worked on the setting ahead of the game mechanics, and decided on a conspiracy-style story that referenced existing conspiracy theories such as Area 51, CIA drug trafficking, the John F. Kennedy assassination, the Majestic 12, and a Masonic underground bunker beneath Denver International Airport. Spector said their research helped them understand how conspiracy theorists think. The team was also able to look to the real world in 1997 to find the rise of stories about terrorists and mechanically-augmented soldiers that they were able to build upon. They also used this time to work out the backstory for constancy. The team designed over 200 characters without associated in-game roles, which was both helpful when designing missions and unhelpful as they attempted to reduce their scope. In the third quarter of 1997, Spector wrote a "manifesto" on his ideal game and the "rules of role-playing" that was later published in the February 1999 Game Developer magazine. His principles included "problems, not puzzles", "no forced failure", "players do; NPCs watch", and "areas with multiple entrance and exit points". Reflecting, Spector felt that Deus Ex accomplished the intent of his manifesto.
The Shooter design document set the player as an augmented agent working against an elite cabal in the "dangerous and chaotic" 2050s. Its subtitle was "roleplaying in a world of secrets, lies, and conspiracies". It was written to be similar in concept to Half-Life, Fallout, Thief: The Dark Project, and GoldenEye 007, and to mix elements of the films Colossus: The Forbin Project, The Manchurian Candidate, and RoboCop in a world inspired by The X-Files and Men in Black—examples of "the millennial madness that's gripping the world ... and a general fascination with conspiracy theories and the desire to play with high-tech espionage toys".
The preproduction team also tweaked the game systems. They chose a skill system that used nanotechnology augmentation, unique to the player character, as "special powers" instead of "die-rolls" or skills that required granular management. They also built a conversation structure based on console role-playing game setups, and drafted the augmentation upgrade, inventory, and skill screens. They also designed an in-game text editor for taking notes, and "reward systems" for skill points, reduced weapon and tool cooldowns, and augmentation upgrades. Preproduction had generated 300 pages of documentation by March 1998. The document grew to 500 pages with "radically different" content by their April 1999 Alpha 1 deadline. Of Spector's original design document, the marketing section was the only part left unedited.
## Production
In early 1998, after six months of preproduction, the Deus Ex project grew to a 20-person team and entered a 28-month production phase. Spector hired new staff in their Austin studio and was also assigned a Dallas-based art team. The development team consisted of three programmers, six designers, seven artists, a writer, an associate producer, a tech, plus two writers and four testers as contractors. Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director, Harvey Smith the lead designer, Jay Lee the lead artist, Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer, and Spector producer and director.
The team had many disagreements, and Spector's original staff setup crumbled. When two experienced designers vied for the lead designer position, Spector chose both and made two design teams: the "Looking Glass design team" or "immersive simulation group" led by Harvey Smith (System Shock, Ultima VIII: Pagan) and the "Ultima roleplaying team" or "traditional roleplaying group" led by Robert White (Ultima Online, Ultima IX: Ascension as "Bob White"). He initially thought their competition would be easily managed and fruitful, but neither team felt second to the other and Spector had to merge the teams and choose a single designer, Smith, to lead it. He felt that the matrix management structure under which the Dallas art team worked for the project but were not the project's staff hurt the game's progress. Some of the artists were not interested in Deus Ex, and Spector wrote that "the art department drifted a bit". He said that the matrix management structure created tension and problems, and was generally against the idea due to how it worked at his previous studios Origin and Looking Glass. Though his stance won out and the project received dedicated artists, Spector lamented that the game could have been improved for not having matrix management in the first place. He wrote that he learned about the importance of team member personal investment in the game, the preemptive benefits of addressing personnel concerns as they arise, and the usefulness of a chain of command even when consensus works.
Spector described the team as interested in multiple genres of gaming, consisting of both maximalists who wanted to "do everything" and minimalists who wanted to do few things well. Close friends who understood the team's intents were invited to test the game and give feedback. The wide range of input led to debates in the office and changes in the game. In his postmortem, Spector concluded that the team was "unrealistic, blinded by promises of complete creative freedom" and by "assurances" of budget, marketing, and no time restraints, which he called "seductive traps". By mid-1998, the game's title had become Deus Ex, from the Latin literary device deus ex machina ("god from the machine") whereby an impossible plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention. Spector acknowledged its grammatical faults as a title and added that he liked it because of the in-game struggle for power, the reference to the medium's own plot difficulties, the reference to the game inside a computer machine, and the "self-referential" acceptance of trying one's best to resolve affairs. The game was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23, 2000 for Windows 95 and later versions. They also planned third-party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux.
Spector felt that the development process's highlights were the "high-level vision" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable "proto-missions", and Unreal Engine license. Their pitfalls included the team structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto-missions, and weakened morale from bad press. He referred to that period of Ion Storm as "Sturm und Drang" with its degree of hype and as a target of vitriol following Daikatana's "suck it down" trash talk marketing and what Spector saw as negative press in 1998 and 1999. He said that his Austin team had "frequent" slumps in morale from taking the company's coverage personally and seeing their private emails posted online. Spector wrote that "too many talented people" interested in Deus Ex did not join because they refused to work at Ion Storm. He added that the company's notoriety did contribute to their press coverage from major outlets, more so than during his time at Origin or Looking Glass. Eventually, the Deus Ex Austin team developed a we'll show them' mentality" to distinguish their work and reputation from the Dallas-based Daikatana and Anachronox Ion Storm releases, which Spector considered toxic.
### World and character design
The original 1997 design document for the game privileges character development over all other parts, including experimental sequences and technology demos. They wanted players to consider "who they wanted to be" in the game, and for that to be connected to how they behaved in the game. In this way, the game world was "deeply simulated": real and common sense enough to be believed that the player may think about solving the game problems in creative and emergent ways without seeing distinct puzzles. The developers also wanted "choice" with "consequence"—what Spector called the team's "two most frequently uttered words". Their simulation was not able to maintain that level of openness, and the team had to force "skill", "action", and "character interaction" paths through the levels. Spector compared this technique to the practices of Ultima's developers, though he felt his team did it "more consciously and ... effectively". Spector later credited Konami's 1995 role-playing video game Suikoden as an inspiration, stating that the limited choices in Suikoden inspired him to expand on the idea with more meaningful choices in Deux Ex.
The game changed greatly over the course of production, but parts that remained consistent include the augmented counterterrorist protagonist JC Denton. The anti-terrorism organization UNATCO was originally TLC, the Terrorist Limitation Coalition. Ally Tracer Tong was more of a "mercenary" than a "kindly anarchist", while enemies like UNATCO's Joseph Manderley went from "ruthless bastard" to "stuffy bureaucrat" and Majestic 12's Bob Page and assassin Anna Navarre played more of a background role. Many of the original character ideas were reshaped to fit the final game design. The Majestic 12 organization originally intended to initiate a Mexican invasion of Texas and then suffocate the presidential cabinet by killing their oxygen supply. When this failed, their artificial intelligence kills the organization and retreats to outer space with nuclear weapons. Some of the plot and characters were brought to the final version, except that Majestic 12 is clandestine and focused on controlling the Internet. Though Spector originally pictured the game as akin to The X-Files, lead writer Sheldon Pacotti felt it ended up more like James Bond. Spector himself called the game "James Bond meets The X-Files". He wrote that the team overextended itself by planning such elaborate scenes, especially parts such as a replica of downtown Austin, Area 51 reconstructed from satellite data, a sunken post-earthquake Los Angeles, a raid to free thousands of prisoners of war from a Federal Emergency Management Agency-controlled United Nations concentration camp, and over 25 missions throughout Siberia, western Europe, and the United States.
`Designer Harvey Smith suggested a streamlined plot that removed the Mexican invasion to make development easier and the narrative more personal. While finished assets were repurposed, entire parts of the game were abandoned, including Texas and the Denver airport. Environments such as a flooded city became a Majestic 12 research site and the endgame Helios space station became Area 51. He also made the call to remove a playable mid-game White House level due to its complexity and production needs in other areas. Pete Davison of USgamer referred to the White House and presidential bunker as "the truly deleted scenes of Deus Ex's lost levels". Spector referred to his "dream" level—the White House—as their "toughest map challenge". The team has speculated that the assets may exist on a "DVDs in someone's attic", though Pacotti, Smith, Spector, and the final release have no trace of them. Pacotti felt that the experience of rescuing Paul was worth cutting the White House from the game.`
Testing revealed that their idea of a role-playing game based in the real world was more interesting in theory than actuality. They chose two real-world inspirations for levels: "highly interconnected, multi-level" spaces and places one cannot normally visit (such as the White House). In practice, they felt that some functions of the real world, such as hotels and office buildings, were not compelling in a game, and that "reality" always lost when up against "fun". Their recreations of notable locations and items such as the Statue of Liberty and payphones were questioned when they did not emulate the actual site or function. Internally, the team began to doubt their investment in a non-player character-driven game as sufficiently interesting. Spector was swayed by this widespread sentiment to have "monsters and bad guys", and the team increased the prominence of several robots and added genetically-altered animals that still fit the story.
### Design
The game was designed to be "genre-busting"—partly simulation, role-playing game, first-person shooter, and adventure. Spector intended for Deus Ex to be an "immersive simulation" similar to Ultima Underworld by removing reminders of the game world such as interface or backstory. He described the game's role-playing elements as the player-character becomes a "unique alter ego" built from the ramifications of their unique gameplay decisions. Similar to a first-person shooter, the game uses a first-person perspective and includes shooting, but there are other non-violent gameplay options. Like an adventure game, Deux Ex is primarily based on a linear narrative story and item collection, though its puzzles are open-ended with many possible solutions and consequences. Ion Storm felt the game was about player expression rather than the appearance of the developers' ingenuity, and wanted to treat the player as a "collaborator" that they could empower to make choices and deal with consequences.
Once implemented, the team's game systems did not work as intended. They built prototypes of the systems and some missions towards the beginning of development, which uncovered some of their blind spots. For example, their early implementation of the conversation system and user interface afforded them enough time to revise by the final release. They also found the augmentations and skills to not be as interesting in implementation as they seemed in the design document. Developers from other companies, such as Doug Church, Rob Fermier, Marc LeBlanc, and Gabe Newell, identified these deficiencies in game "tension" when they played the prototype. This led to a substantial revision of the augmentations and skills; Smith designed an augmentation per-use "energy cost" that led to energy refill rewards and more tactical play.
Their milestones served as wake-up calls for the game's direction. A May 1998 "proto-mission" milestone was to have a basic but functional demo of the crucial game systems and two maps (the White House and Hong Kong) ready. The team worked on the riskiest parts of the game first such that the core game would be functioning, albeit not polished. The demo revealed that the size of their maps caused performance problems and would have to be divided into smaller maps. It also was one of the first signs that maps needed to be cut. The team forgot to prototype the non-player character artificial intelligence in this demo. A year later, in May 1999, they reached a milestone for finished game systems and the first two missions completed. While the player could start the game and character, use augmentations, acquire inventory, complete objectives, and save the game, their poor quality and comments from Newell led Spector to nickname the milestone the "Wow, these missions suck" milestone. They felt that their first demos showed their potential, but they were not nearly close to reaching it. This milestone also helped them estimate the work required for missions and the portions that worked best, which led to a trim of their 500-page design manual to the best 270 pages. Spector recalled Smith's mantra here: "less is more".
Smith had "an intimacy" with the level design tools such that he could sense when the design met the game's technical restrictions, like the maximum possible size or number of characters for a room. He suggested the narrower skill tree with palpable effects, such as exchanging skills about weapon damage for more accessible weapons. The team adopted the cuts, having been encouraged by the recent milestone. Spector has said that had they waited for the beta to have made the same reductions (as per common practice), "it would have been a disaster." Spector's post-proto-mission strategy was to bring the rest of the missions to proto-mission functionality rather than perfecting the two existing proto-missions. He felt that this would be a more efficient use of staff time, even if it meant that the final product would be more "bare-bones" than brilliant. Almost all of their game systems besides the inventory and conversation schemes were rethought up through the end of the project.
They also made choices about the minutiae of game mechanics. The team chose to pause the action while the player was viewing interfaces as to keep the strategy tactical, and to make the affinity of strangers and purpose of items "instantly recognizable". Spector said that the issue of naming the player-character almost incited a "holy war", though they compromised and let the player choose in exchange for a common "code name and backstory". They also saved the cinematic cutscene work for last so as not to repeat work as things changed during development.
Spector wrote that the team did not figure out how to handle NPC AI until late in development. This led to wasted time as the team discarded their early AI. They were also building atop their game engine's shooter-based AI instead of building a customized version anew to handle the spectrum of convincing emotions they wanted from their characters. As a result, NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development. Spector felt that their "sin" was their inconsistent display of a trustable "human AI".
### Technology
`The game was developed on systems including dual-processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine-gigabyte hard drives, some using SCSI. The team used "more than 100 video cards" throughout development. Deus Ex was built using Visual Studio, Lightwave, and Lotus Notes. The team also built a custom dialogue editor, ConEdit. They used UnrealEd atop the Unreal game engine for map design, which Spector wrote was "superior to anything else available". Their trust in UnrealScript led them to code "special cases" for their immediate mission needs instead of more generalized multi-case code. Even as team members expressed concern, the team only addressed this later in the project. To Spector, this was a lesson to always prefer "general solutions" over "special casing", such that the tool set works predictably.`
They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction, expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay. They chose the Unreal engine as it did 80% of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch. Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group. The programmers also found the engine accommodating, though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software. Spector estimated that six to nine months of playing with the engine were necessary to learn how to use it properly, and even still, their ideas did not always implement as planned. Spector thought it would have been much harder to have written the interfaces, skill systems, and conversations on their own. Despite the savings, the time Spector thought they would save not writing an engine was lost learning the engine, though they did have more time to work on content creation and gameplay systems. Spector also felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves, instead of "treating the engine as a black box" and coding conservatively. He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release, which slipped through their quality assurance testing. Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence, pathfinding, and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine. He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for the game's sequel and Thief 3. He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended, and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism.
## Post-release
Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues, players noted "dramatic slowdowns" immediately following launch, and the team did not understand the "black box" of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed. Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how "Warren Spector makes games all by himself" or that "Deus Ex couldn't possibly have been made by Ion Storm". He has said that the game won over 30 "best of" awards in 2001, and concluded that their final game was not perfect, but that they were much closer for having tried to "do things right or not at all".
|
1,138,988 |
Asuka Langley Soryu
| 1,172,929,449 |
Fictional character from Neon Genesis Evangelion
|
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"Child characters in animated television series",
"Female characters in anime and manga",
"Female characters in film",
"Female soldier and warrior characters in anime and manga",
"Fictional Eurasian people",
"Fictional German people",
"Fictional Japanese people",
"Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga",
"Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder",
"Fictional child prodigies",
"Fictional female captains",
"Fictional female child soldiers",
"Fictional military captains",
"Fictional private military members",
"Neon Genesis Evangelion characters",
"Science fiction film characters",
"Teenage characters in anime and manga",
"Teenage characters in television",
"Television characters introduced in 1995"
] |
Asuka Langley Soryu (惣流・アスカ・ラングレー, Sōryū Asuka Rangurē) is a fictional character from the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise created by Gainax. She first appears in the original anime series, and also appears in the franchise's animated feature films and related media, including video games, the Rebuild of Evangelion films, and the manga adaptation by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto. In Japanese, Yūko Miyamura voices Asuka in all her animated appearances and merchandise. In English, Tiffany Grant voices her in the ADV Films dub and Stephanie McKeon voices her in the Netflix dub.
Within the franchise, Asuka is designated as the Second Child and the pilot of a giant mecha named Evangelion Unit-02 to fight against enemies known as Angels for the special agency Nerv. Because of childhood trauma, she has developed a competitive and outgoing character to get noticed by other people and affirm her own self. In the Rebuild of Evangelion films, her Japanese surname is changed to Shikinami (式波) and she differs significantly in her background and characterization from her TV series incarnation.
Series creator and director Hideaki Anno originally proposed her as the main protagonist of the series. Character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto asked Anno to include a male main character instead, downgrading her to the role of co-protagonist with Shinji Ikari. Anno based her psychology on his personality, bringing his moods into the character, acting instinctively and without having thought about how the character would evolve. During the first broadcast of the series, he changed his plans, creating an evolutionary parable in which Asuka becomes more dramatic and suffers, intentionally going against the expectations of the fans. The Japanese voice actress Miyamura was also influential, deciding some details and some of Asuka's lines.
Asuka maintained a high ranking in the series' popularity polls and has appeared in surveys to decide the most popular anime characters in Japan. Merchandising based on her has also been released, particularly action figures, which became highly popular. Some critics took issue with her hubris and her personality, judging these as tiresome and arrogant; others appreciated her realism and complex psychological introspection. Asuka is also one of the most successful and influential examples of the himedere stereotype, characteristic of grumpy and arrogant characters with a fragile hidden side, helping to define its characteristics.
## Conception
In the early design stages of the Neon Genesis Evangelion anime, creator and director Hideaki Anno proposed including a girl similar to Asuka as the protagonist. Character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto proved reluctant to accept the idea of a female character in the lead role after Gainax's previous works like Gunbuster and Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water; he said: "A robot should be piloted by a trained person, whether it is a woman or not makes no difference, but I cannot understand why a girl should pilot a robot". He thus asked the director to use a boy in the role of main character, downgrading Asuka to the role of female co-protagonist. He modeled the relationship between her and the male protagonist Shinji Ikari taking inspiration from Nadia and Jean from The Secret of Blue Water. Asuka should have represented "[Shinji's] desire for the female sex", as opposed to Rei Ayanami's "motherhood", and should have been the idol of Neon Genesis Evangelion. Anno also thought of her as Nadia La Arwal from The Secret of Blue Water with a different hairstyle. In the initial project, Asuka was described as "a determined girl" who adapts to the situation in which she finds herself, passionate about video games and "aspires to become like Ryoji Kaji". In the nineteenth episode, she would have had to be seriously injured in her attempt to protect Shinji, who would have thus "proved his worth" trying to save her.
For the character's name, Anno took inspiration from Asuka Saki (砂姫 明日香, Saki Asuka), the protagonist of the manga Super Girl Asuka (超少女明日香, Chō Shōjo Asuka), written by Shinji Wada; for the surname, he merged the names of two ships used in the Second World War, the Japanese World War II aircraft carrier Soryu and the American aircraft carrier Langley. Despite her multi-ethnic origins, the staff made Asuka's skin the same color as that of Rei Ayanami. For the German language terms used in the scenes with Asuka, staff asked for help from an American employee of Gainax, Michael House, who exploited his basic knowledge of the language, acquired in high school, and a Japanese-German dictionary from a local library. According to Anime News Network's May Callum, Gainax did not pay attention to the dialogue's German grammar, believing the series would never be successful enough to be watched by native German speakers.
For Asuka's psychology, Anno relied on his personality, as with the other characters in the series. Staff originally inserted her after the first six episodes to lighten the tones of the series. She was presented with an exhilarating personality without foreshadowing her eventual depressing moments in the latter half. Anno said that he didn't intend to go "that far" at first and that he didn't completely grasp the character of Asuka until he made her "Are you stupid?" (あんたバカ?, Anta baka?) catchphrase, with which the character was definitively born. During the series's first airing, the director began to criticize otaku, Japanese obsessed animation fans, accusing them of being excessively closed and introverted; therefore, he changed the atmosphere of the second half of the series, making the plot darker, violent, and introspective. Asuka's story reflected the changes: although she had been introduced in an essentially positive role, her character became increasingly dramatic and introverted, going against the expectations and the pleasure principle of anime fans. In the twenty-second episode, Anno focused on Asuka's emotional situation, harassed by her first menstrual cycle, but not considering himself capable of exploring such a feminine theme, he condensed everything into a single scene.
Miyamura's interpretation was also important for Asuka's characterization. During the production of the last episodes he inserted scenes in which he represented Asuka with simple hand-drawn sketches, remaining satisfied with the result, saying: "After having drawn Asuka with a marker, as soon as Yuko Miyamura gave it her voice, it was more Asuka than ever". Furthermore, the author's original intent was to insert a long live action segment for the film The End of Evangelion (1997) centered on the character. The original segment focused on a normal day of Asuka, who would wake up in an apartment after drinking and spend the night with Tōji Suzuhara, with whom she would embark on a sexual and sentimental relationship. Misato Katsuragi would have been the roommate in the apartment next to her; Rei Ayanami would have been her colleague and her senpai. In the alternate universe of live action, Shinji would never have existed; walking the streets of Tokyo-2, however, Asuka would hear his voice calling her.
### Voice
#### Neon Genesis Evangelion
Yūko Miyamura voices Asuka's character in all her appearances in the original series, and the later films, spin-offs, video games, and the Rebuild of Evangelion film series. The only exception is an introspective scene from the twenty-second episode, when other female members of the cast replace the character's voice during a metaphysical sequence. She had originally auditioned for the role of Rei, but staff felt her voice was too energetic, so she was offered Asuka instead.
According to Miyamura, Asuka's dubbing proved difficult. She said she wished to "erase Evangelion" and forget her experience with it. Towards the end of the first broadcast, Miyamura suffered from bulimia and found herself in a disastrous psychic state, similar to that of Asuka's character. After the release of the movie The End of Evangelion (1997) she said, "I think I had a kamikaze feeling during the voice-over". The voice actress identified herself so much with the character she took a conversation course in German, decided some of the character's lines, and Asuka's details, such as the cloth puppet in the shape of a monkey featured in her childhood flashbacks. One of her ideas was the German sentences Asuka utters in the twenty-second episode of the series in a telephone conversation with her stepmother.
When dubbing the last scene of The End of Evangelion, in which Shinji strangles Asuka, Shinji's voice actress Megumi Ogata physically imitated his gesture and strangled her colleague. Because of her agitation, Ogata squeezed her neck too hard, risking having her not properly recite the rest of the film's lines. With Ogata's gesture, Miyamura could finally produce realistic sounds of strangulation and thanked her colleague for her availability. Anno based the scene on an incident that happened to one of his female friends. She was strangled by a malicious man, but when she was about to be killed, she stroked him for no reason. When the man stopped squeezing her neck, the woman regained a cold attitude, speaking the words that Asuka would have said to Shinji in the original script: "I can't stand the idea of being killed by someone like you" (あんたなんかに殺されるのは真っ平よ).
Dissatisfied with Miyamura's interpretation, Anno asked her to imagine a stranger sneaking into her room, who could rape her at any time, but who prefers to masturbate by watching her sleep. The director asked her what she would say about this if she woke up suddenly, noticing what had happened. Miyamura, disgusted by the scene, replied saying "Kimochi warui" (気持ち 悪い, "How disgusting" or "I feel sick"). After the conversation, Anno changed the line by echoing the voice actress's reaction.
#### Rebuild of Evangelion saga
Further difficulties arose during the dubbing sessions for the film Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo (2012), the third installment of the Rebuild saga, set fourteen years after the previous movies. According to Miyamura, the scenario gave her "very confused feelings" and "a constant feeling of light-headedness". Hideaki Anno did not explain the plot and setting of the film to her, complicating her work. At the beginning, however, she didn't want to go back to dubbing the Rebuild and she was scared, given the suffering caused by The End of Evangelion. Even after finishing the final film of the saga, Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time (2021), Miyamura stated: "I felt like a mother to Asuka at times. I cannot watch End of Evangelion even now because it's too painful." Recording for Thrice Upon a Time was less stressful, but also taxing due to the many delays and revisions in production. At the end of the recording, Anno thanked her for playing the role of Asuka for twenty-five years; Miyamura furthermore noted Anno and Kazuya Tsurumaki orientated her far more than before.
During the recording of the feature film, she had to dub a scene in which Asuka screams in pain as she pulls an anti-Angel seal from her eye. When she recorded, the drawings for the sequence had not yet been completed, so she imagined the scenes involved, listening to the director's explanations and trying to do her best to feel the required sensations. Screaming, she tried to use all her imagination and pretended to stab herself, as if flesh were being torn from her. The support of Megumi Ogata, Shinji's voice actress who was already used to screaming in other Evangelion scenes, also helped her in the process. The last thing asked of her was to write the character's full name in cursive herself to be used in the film. She had lived in Australia for the past two decades, but was still unsure of how to write "Langley". Miyamura also played Soryu and Shikinami as two different people, but both with a strong desire to be better. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, her sessions were already finished; later, some points were resumed and re-recorded, so there was no precise prediction as to when the work would be finished. She still had difficulties in understanding the story, and had taken the habit of reading fan-made analysis.
#### English dub
Asuka is voiced by Tiffany Grant in English in the ADV films dub, and Stephanie McKeon in the Netflix dub. Grant felt playing Asuka was "refreshing", as "she says the most horrible things to people, things that you'd like to say to people and can't get away with". Grant stated she greatly identified with the character, to the point of Asuka becoming a part of her: "She's kinda like my kid sister, which is why I feel the need to stick up for her". Grant also met Miyamura in conventions in the early 2000s and, discussing their experiences portraying Asuka, Miyamura rekindled their shared love and concern for the character's happiness.
## Appearances
### Neon Genesis Evangelion
Asuka Langley Soryu was born on December 4, 2001. She is the daughter of Dr. Soryu Kyoko Zeppelin, an employee of a research center named Gehirn. She is of Japanese and German descent and has U.S. citizenship. In 2005 her mother participates in a contact experiment with Unit 02, but, because of an accident, she suffers a severe mental breakdown, becoming permanently hospitalized. These injuries render her unable to recognize her child. Asuka is deeply hurt by her mother's behavior, who speaks to a doll believing it to be her daughter. After some time, Asuka is chosen as the Second Child and Eva-02's official pilot. Hoping that her selection could lead her mother to pay attention to her again, she excitedly runs to her room to announce the news, finding her mother's corpse hanging from the ceiling. Shocked and traumatized by her mother's suicide, Asuka adopts self-affirmation as the only reason to be, participating in training sessions to become a pilot and meet other people's expectations.
Her custody is assigned to Ryoji Kaji, towards whom she is infatuated. At fourteen, after graduating from a German university, Asuka leaves there, accompanied by Kaji and Unit 02, on board a United Nations aircraft carrier escorted by numerous warships to protect the Eva. During the trip, she meets Shinji Ikari, Third Child and pilot of Unit 01, and her new classmates Tōji and Kensuke. The United Nations fleet is then attacked by Gaghiel, the sixth Angel. Recognizing this event as a good chance to demonstrate her skills, Asuka independently activates her Eva, coercing Shinji into joining her in the cockpit. Despite struggling to work together, and the Eva not yet being equipped to operate underwater, the two children destroy the enemy. She is later placed in class 2-A of Tokyo-3 first municipal middle school, living with Shinji under Misato Katsuragi's care. She teases Shinji continuously about his passivity and perceived lack of manliness, but gradually comes to respect and like him as they fight Angels together. She is rarely able to express these feelings. However, following a series of Angel battles where Shinji outperforms her, she grows increasingly unable to continue to suppress her traumatized psyche, drastically lowering her pilot skills. This comes to a head when the Angel Arael attacks; Asuka, burdened by her continually worsening performance in tests, tries to attack the Angel alone, but is overwhelmed by the Angel's attack, a beam that penetrates her mental barrier and forces her to relive her darkest memories.
In the battle with the next Angel, Armisael, she cannot activate the Evangelion. As a result of this, Asuka loses all will to live, runs away and goes to the home of her friend Hikari Horaki, spending time aimlessly roaming the streets of Tokyo-3. She is eventually found by Nerv personnel, naked and starving in the bathtub of a ruined building. The main series ends with her lying in a hospital bed in a catatonic state.
### The End of Evangelion
In the movie The End of Evangelion (1997), as the Japanese Strategic Self-Defense Force invades Nerv headquarters, Asuka is placed inside Unit 02, which is then submerged in a lake for her protection. As she is bombarded by depth charges, Asuka wakes up, declares she does not want to die, and, in a moment of clarity, feels her mother within the Eva. Her self-identity regained, she emerges and defeats the Self-Defence Force, before encountering nine mechas named Mass-Production Evas. Though she successfully disables all nine opponents, Eva-02's power runs out; the power of the mass-produced Evas allows them to eviscerate and dismember Unit 02.
Seeing Asuka's destroyed Evangelion makes Shinji go into a frenzy, which eventually culminates in him starting a catastrophic event named the Third Impact. Shinji and Asuka have an extended dream-like sequence inside Instrumentality, a process in which the soul of humanity merges into one collective consciousness. Shinji claims he wants to understand her, but she refuses. He is furious at her rejection and lashes out by choking her. At the end of the process, Shinji rejects Instrumentality, and she returns after him in a new world. In the film's final scene, Shinji begins strangling Asuka, but stops when she caresses his face. Shinji breaks down crying and the film ends with Asuka disdainfully looking down on Shinji, saying simply, "How disgusting", before cutting to black.
### Rebuild of Evangelion
In the Rebuild of Evangelion saga, Asuka appears first in the second film, Evangelion: 2.0 You Can (Not) Advance (2009). Changes have been made to her character, such as her family name being changed from Sōryū (惣流) to Shikinami (式波), continuing the Japanese maritime vessel naming convention. The name change resulted from a precise choice by Hideaki Anno, who said he had changed the background of the character. Asuka Shikinami Langley, compared to her original counterpart, seems more open and vulnerable. Near the end of the film, for example, she confides in someone for the first time talking genuinely about her feelings with Misato. She does not feel infatuated with Ryōji Kaji and maintains a more affectionate and peaceful relationship with Shinji. Although she publicly rejects others, she becomes possessive of Shinji, feeling jealous for him and taking an interest in his feelings.
During the production phase, screenwriter Yōji Enokido has added a night scene in which Asuka, feeling alone, enters her colleague's room without permission, sleeping next to him. In the course of events, she also plays video games and tries to cook something for Shinji. She is a captain of the European Air Force, faces the seventh Angel with her Eva-02, and is designated pilot of the Eva-03, whereas in the original series this Eva was piloted by Tōji Suzuhara. Unit 03 is later contaminated by a parasitic-type Angel, Bardiel, and collides with Eva-01; Asuka survives, but is last seen in urgent care.
In Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo (2012), the saga's third instalment, Asuka is initially part of the rescue operation for Eva-01, which is stranded in space, working together with Mari for an organization named Wille, which is dedicated to destroying Nerv. Convinced by Mari, she dons her old plugsuit in an attempt to get Shinji to recognize them.[^1] After fighting off an initial attack by Nerv, Asuka confronts Shinji in his holding cell and tells him fourteen years have passed. Asuka is biologically twenty-eight years old, but has not physically aged due to what she calls the "curse of Eva"; she also wears an eyepatch that glows blue. Asuka, again supported by Mari, confronts Shinji and his co-pilot Kaworu Nagisa and eventually self-destructs her Eva during the fight. After the fight, she grabs Shinji's wrist, and they move along the ruins of Tokyo-3, followed by Rei Ayanami.
#### Evangelion: 3.0+1.0
In the final film, Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time, Asuka guides Shinji and Rei before being picked up by Kensuke Aida. She lives in a place named Village-3 in Kensuke's house. She feels she is no longer human as a result of the changes to her body and lack of aging, growing indifferent to her well-being. In the course of the feature film she goes to check on Shinji's distraught and almost catatonic state in silence; Miyamura described hers as the attitude of a mother "who quietly leaves food in front of her son's room to see how he is doing when he is locked up in his room". Shikinami eventually forces Shinji, completely helpless and no longer wanting to continue living, to eat by forcibly stuffing food into his mouth.
When Will's ship AAA Wunder arrives to pick-up Asuka, Shinji insists on going with her. During the final battle in Antarctica Asuka is forced to take off her eyepatch, releasing the ninth Angel contained within. She converts Eva-02 to a new form, but is absorbed by Eva-13. Inside, Asuka meets the original member of the Shikinami clone series she's a part of. Asuka is shown to have fought the other clones as a child before being selected as a pilot. Lamenting not having anyone to take care of her, Kensuke appears, dressed as her stuffed doll, and reassures her. Asuka is then present in an adult body, and Shinji thanks her for saying she liked him, and tells her he liked her as well, before him and Mari bid her farewell. In the final scene of the film, she is last seen on a train platform in a rebuilt world.
During 3.0+1.0, Asuka confesses her feelings to Shinji by saying that she liked him; for Miyamura, the sentence would not imply that her love is over or that she now loves someone else, "but that she genuinely wanted to tell him that". The actress also emphasized during the interviews that she did not interpret Kensuke and Asuka's relationship as romantic, as Shikinami is still physically fourteen years old; according to her, Kensuke would only be a sort of parental reference figure, and even Anno said that the character's last scene in Thrice Upon A Time is related to the image of Kensuke as a father figure for Shikinami. According to her, "Kensuke is a warmth for those who are lonely or want to feel safe". During production, a scene in which Kensuke shoots Asuka with a camera was thought to be a love scene; however, the voice actress also interpreted this love as paternal. Tetsuya Iwanaga, Japanese interpreter of Kensuke, described his character as "a friend she's never quite been able to get rid of ever since middle school". In an interview, Iwanaga stated that he interpreted the scene in which Kensuke is seen disguised as Asuka's rag doll as a representation of him becoming "the prop that rescued Asuka". Miyamura also voiced a scene in which Asuka says "baka Shinji?" as a "love letter" to everyone who supported the couple.
### In other media
In the Neon Genesis Evangelion manga, illustrated and written by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Asuka has a more immature character than her animated counterpart and her story is different; despite having a similar, familiar past, in the manga she was conceived through artificial fertilization, as the result of an experiment in eugenics. In her first actual battle against Gaghiel, whom she confronts alongside Shinji in the same Evangelion unit in the classic series, she fights alone, while Shinji later watches the recorded fight on a projector. In the next battle, Asuka and Shinji fight, as in the classic series, against Angel Israfel together; Sadamoto conceived their dance training as akin to a "kiss", underlining their psychological connection. Kotaku also noticed how much of their relationship is "absent", while she remains fixated on Kaji. In the comic her fellow pilot Kaworu Nagisa is also introduced before and interacts with her, immediately arousing her antipathy.
Further differences are presented in the last chapters of the manga, corresponding to the events of the movie The End of Evangelion. In the feature film, the Eva-02 is dismembered by the Eva Series before Shinji's arrival, while in the comic the Third Child intervenes in battle in her defense. In the final chapter of the comic, following the failure of Instrumentality, Shinji lives in a world where it snows again in Japan and where people do not seem to have any memory of recent events. The Third Child, traveling on a train to his new school, meets a girl similar to Asuka. According to Sadamoto, the Asuka-like girl is not concretely Asuka, but the symbol "of an attractive woman that Shinji can meet in the new world".
In a scene from the last episode of the animated series, an alternate reality is presented with a completely different story than in the previous installments, where Asuka is a normal middle school student and a childhood friend of Shinji Ikari, the Evangelion units never existed, and Asuka did not experience any childhood trauma regarding her mother Kyōko. A similar version of events can be found in Neon Genesis Evangelion: Angelic Days, and the parody series Petit Eva: Evangelion@School, where she behaves like a sister towards Shinji. In Neon Genesis Evangelion: Campus Apocalypse, Asuka is a foreign exchange student, and uses a whip in battle. She is also present in Neon Genesis Evangelion: Legend of the Piko Piko Middle School Students. The simulation game Neon Genesis Evangelion: Ayanami Raising Project includes an expansion in its PlayStation 2 version that allows the player to take on the role of Asuka's guardian instead of Rei's. She is also available as a romantic option in Neon Genesis Evangelion: Girlfriend of Steel 2nd, Neon Genesis Evangelion 2, Neon Genesis Evangelion: Shinji Ikari Raising Project and its manga adaptation. In Neon Genesis Evangelion: Anima, Asuka is older, more stable and mature, having developed a strong friendship with Shinji and even Rei. Asuka also merges with her Eva unit turning into a hybrid named Crimson A1.
She also appears in the crossover Transformers x Evangelion, in the video games based on the original animated series and media not related to the Evangelion franchise, including Honkai Impact 3rd, Monster Strike, Super Robot Wars, Tales of Zestiria, Puzzle & Dragons, Keri hime sweets, Summons Board, Puyopuyo!! Quest and in an official Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion cross-over episode. In the Super Robot Wars franchise, she butts heads with Kouji Kabuto, the pilot of Mazinger Z and Mazinkaiser. It is also implied that she developed crushes on famous heroes such as Char Aznable and Amuro Ray, but proves jealous of Shinji, who crushes for Lynn Minmay of the Macross franchise.
## Characterization and themes
Asuka is an energetic, proud and enterprising girl with a brave and resolute character. She tends to look down on other people and wants to be constantly at the center of attention. Although she normally shows a stubborn and exuberant attitude, in some moments she exhibits a kinder, more sensitive and caring side. Her abrupt and impulsive ways often arouse other people's antipathy, since they do not fully understand her real intentions. Unlike fellow pilots Shinji and Rei, she is extremely proud to be a pilot and engages in missions with great enthusiasm, but despite her apparently strong, aggressive and competitive character, Asuka suffers from the same sense of alienation as her companions.
Asuka suffers from a masculine protest, a psychological expression that indicates exaggeratedly masculine tendencies in tired and rebellious women who protest against traditional female gender roles. She sees her male peers merely as rivals and spectators of her abilities, and suffers from a marked emotional complex for the male sex, merging a so-called "radical rivalry" and a latent inferiority complex. Her masculine protest is reflected in her strong misandric tendencies, since she is dominated by the need to beat male peers with an obsessive self-affirmation desire. Despite this, she also has a sense of admiration for her guardian and senpai, Ryōji Kaji. Asuka is emotionally dependent on him, since she has a strong unconscious desire to find a reference figure to rely on. Asuka's infatuation also leads her to feel great jealousy for him and she eventually tries to seduce him. Newtype magazine noted how she sometimes beats boys while being kind to Kaji.
Asuka's excessive pride prevents her from admitting—even to herself—that she feels something for male protagonist Shinji, and as events and battles unfold, her feelings of love and hate intensify and dominate her. She kisses Shinji in the fifteenth episode, but when he beats her in pilot tests, she develops an inferiority complex towards him. This leads her to attack Shinji's virility continuously, directing both interest and open hostility towards him. Because of their intimate fragility and insecurities, Shinji and Asuka are unable to communicate effectively with one another on an emotional level, despite their mutual latent interest. According to Newtype magazine, Shinji has feelings for her, while Asuka openly states her feeling of being frustrated with wanting him as her partner, so "her feelings for him as a man are less than they appear to be". According to critic Susan J. Napier, they might be expected to develop a romantic attraction for each other, but their sexual tension is subsumed under Asuka's intense competitiveness; Napier also noted that Shinji feels fear and attraction towards the maternal figures of the women around him, such as Rei or Misato, but only Asuka "is allowed to seem explicitly sexual".
In one scene from The End of Evangelion movie, Asuka is seen on a bed while she speaks with an angry expression, interpreted by writers Kazuhisa Fujie and Martin Foster as a representation of Shinji's libido. Asuka is framed while she has sexual intercourse with her partner, in a position described by an official artbook as "of the cowgirl". According to an official card game, moreover, neither Yui, nor Rei and nor Misato could be a woman for Shinji, while Asuka, the only girl equal to him, becomes the center of his desire, using her as an object to console himself and ending up hurting her. Despite this, in the last scene Shinji meets Asuka in the new world after the failure of Instrumentality, just as he had wished. Asuka's relationship with Rei Ayanami is also conflictual. She despises Rei, calling her "Miss Perfect" (優等生, yūtōsei, literally "honor student") and "mechanical puppet girl". In a scene from the twenty-second episode, Rei and Asuka are left alone in an elevator; Rei states she is ready to die for Commander Gendō Ikari, provoking Asuka's anger, who slaps her and says she has hated her from the moment they met. Shortly thereafter, Rei helps her during the fight against Arael, an act that destroys her already wounded pride.
Her ostentatious competitiveness originates from her childhood experiences, marked by the mental illness and the suicide of her mother Kyōko. Asuka faced her loss by immersing herself in pride, becoming indisposed to any kind of help or advice and adopting strength and self-affirmation as her only raison d'être. Tormented "by the fear of not being necessary", she pilots Unit-02 only to satisfy her intimate desire for acceptance, longing to be considered "an elite pilot who will protect humanity". She also wants to be recognized by others through her role as a pilot and has been described as a perfectionist. Her excessive self-confidence leads her to clash with Shinji, gradually losing self-confidence and becoming psychologically and physically compromised. The Fourth Child's selection, Tōji Suzuhara, also contributes to the destruction of her pride. After she learns of Kaji's death, she questions the meaning of her life and her identity, avoiding any kind of human contact and never meeting the gaze of other people.
Overwhelmed by the fear of being alone, the young woman shows that she has a great and morbid need for the Eva, even more than her colleague Shinji has. In a scene from the twenty-fifth episode, she excoriates the Evangelion unit as a "worthless piece of junk", but immediately admits "I'm the junk". In the director's cut version of the twenty-second episode, two scenes set in the ninth and fifteenth episodes were added, in which Asuka appears frustrated in front of the sliding door of her room and after the kiss with Shinji; from Asuka's dialogue that overlaps these scenes, it becomes clear that she has been looking for help and love from Shinji. Her self-love represents an act of psychological compensation to be recognized in the eyes of other people. After her mother's mental illness, she represses her sadness and eventually decides to not cry anymore and to behave like an adult with a reaction formation. Her memories related to her past and her mother are repressed and removed from her consciousness during this phase. In the last episodes, Asuka completely loses her self-confidence. She develops a deep disgust with herself and suffers from separation anxiety. The caption "attachment behavior" (愛着行動) also appears in the same episodes. The word attachment in psychology can also refer to the emotional bond that is established between the mother and her child; Asuka therefore boards the Eva-02 like a child who instinctively clings to its mother figure.
Miyamura noted that Asuka was not called himedere at the time, but agreed to the definition of her having to hide her feelings in 2007. Furthermore, for Japanese philosopher and cultural critic Hiroki Azuma, she is the "symbol of the outside" in the world of Evangelion, taking Shinji away from his comfort zone in the "Nerv family"; in contrast to Rei, who'd play an "imaginary healing" role, Asuka would be an independent person in reality. Critics also noted that Asuka is iconographically and psychologically opposed to Rei. Rei has blue hair and red eyes and is often associated with the Moon, while Asuka has red hair and blue eyes and is presented in the eighth episode, "Asuka Strikes!", silhouetted by the Sun. Rei is also related to white; the writer Claudio Cordella noted how white is associated in Japanese culture with sanctity, light, eternity, while red is the color of sterile sexuality, traditionally chosen by unmarried girls or geisha for their kimono. Japanese psychiatrist Kōji Mizobe linked Asuka's red to menstruation, compared to Rei's white to altruism, attributing Asuka's unstable behavior to a narcissistic or histrionic personality disorder. Writer Dennis Redmond instead noted that Shinji's Eva-01 is purple, halfway between Rei's blue Eva-00 and Asuka's 02, describing Rei as a symbol of an empty and "lyric neonational interiority", while Asuka as a mirror of a pragmatic and "outrageous multinational exteriority". Polygon has written on how the two are different shades of the same spectrum of "feminine", neither of which is good or bad in themselves, and which Shinji must recognize as autonomous individuals by overcoming the Madonna–whore complex — the inability of some men to see women in their individual nuances, perceiving them dichotomously either as angelic beings or maleficent entities.
Rei has been compared to the Superego, Shinji to the Ego and Asuka to the Id, the three intrapsychic instances proposed by Sigmund Freud's second topic, since the Id is the instinctual part of a human being. The three Children have also been compared to the three stages of the human soul postulated by the Jewish Kabbalah: Asuka to Nephesh, source of animal vitality, Shinji to Ru'ah, the soul, fruit of the raising of man from his purely biological aspect, and Rei to Neshamah, the spirit, fruit of the connection between man and God. Others critics have linked Asuka to Ama-no-Uzume, a Shinto female deity associated with dance and sensuality. Hiroki Azuma also described Asuka and the other characters in the series as "stereotypical characters", with no particular individual or aesthetic characteristics; Asuka, in particular, has been described as a "typical sci-fi anime character". According to Azuma, however, with these stereotypical characters Anno would have been able to describe the 1990s. Mizobe described her and Shinji as "communicationally disabled", a feature that allowed contemporary Japanese youth to identify with them even twenty-six years after the original series's airing. Moreover, for the critic Manabu Tsuribe in The End of Evangelion she represents for Shinji the Other, another person separated from himself with whom he can never become one. For Tsuribe, the film concludes when Shinji recognizes Asuka as a separate entity. The Anime Café's Japanese critic Akio Nagatomi, noting how other characters in Evangelion bear similarities with others in a previous work by Gainax and Anno, Gunbuster, described Asuka as a counterpart to Jung Freud. Engineer Yumiko Yano also compared Asuka's dull gaze in the final episodes, locked up in a hospital room after a psychic and emotional breakdown, to the dolls of artist Katan Amano.
## Cultural impact
### Popularity
Website Otaku Kart described Asuka as "one of the most popular female characters in anime history". She appeared in polls on best anime pilots and female anime characters, proving popular among both female and male audiences. In 1996 she ranked third among the "most popular female characters of the moment" in the Anime Grand Prix survey by Animage magazine, behind Rei Ayanami and Hikaru Shido from Magic Knight Rayearth. In 1997 and 1998 Anime Grand Prixes, she remained among the top ten female characters; in 1997 she ranked in fourth place, while in 1998 she ranked sixth. Asuka also appeared in the magazine's monthly surveys, remaining in the top twenty in 1996, 1997 and 1998 polls. In 1999, Animage ranked her fortieth among the one hundred most popular anime characters.
Her popularity increased after the release of the second Rebuild of Evangelion movie; in August and September 2009 she emerged in first place and remained the most popular female Neon Genesis Evangelion character in Newtype magazine popularity charts, while in October she ranked tenth. In a Newtype poll in March 2010, she was voted the third most popular female anime character from the 1990s, immediately after Rei Ayanami and Usagi Tsukino from Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon.
In February 2015, almost twenty years after the show first aired, she emerged again on the magazine's charts in sixth place. In 2017, she also ranked sixteenth among the characters Anime! Anime! site readers would "rather die than marry". Her line "Are you stupid?" (あんたバカ?, Anta baka?) also became widely used among hardcore fans after her first appearance in the eighth episode. In 2021, after the release of the final Rebuild film, Asuka ranked most popular female character in another Newtype poll.
### Critical reception
Asuka divided anime critics, receiving an ambivalent response. Negative reviews criticized her arrogant, surly and authoritarian character. While appreciating her for providing "a good dose of comic relief" to Evangelion, Anime Critic Pete Harcoff described her as "an annoying snot". Raphael See from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews, who found Neon Genesis Evangelion's characterization "a little cliché, or just plain irritating at times", despised Asuka for her arrogant attitude. Anime Reign writer Matthew Perez described her as initially "overly stuck up", but he also appreciated her evolution. By contrast, IGN critic Ramsey Isler ranked her as the thirteenth greatest anime character of all time for the realism of her characterization, saying: "She's a tragic character, and a complete train wreck, but that is what makes her so compelling because we just can't help but watch this beautiful disaster unfold." Comic Book Resources included her among the best anime female pilots, describing her as "the best classic himedere in shounen anime" and "one of the most fascinating characters in anime".
Screen Rant ranked her among the best Neon Genesis Evangelion characters, praising her development. According to critic Jay Telotte, Asuka is "the first credible multinational character" in the history of Japanese science fiction television. Crunchyroll and Charapedia also praised her realism and personality. Asuka's fight sequence against the Mass-Production Evangelions in The End of Evangelion was particularly well-received by critics, while Tiffany Grant was praised for her role as Asuka's English voice actress by Mike Crandol of Anime News Network.
Animation Insider reviewer Eric Surrell commented on Asuka's role in Evangelion: 2.0 You Can (Not) Advance (2009), the second installment of the Rebuild saga, stating that "the arrival and sudden dismissal of Asuka was shocking and depressing, especially considering how integral she was to the original Evangelion". Slant Magazine's Simon Abrams, reviewing Evangelion: 2.0, responded negatively to Shinji and Asuka's new relationship, "which is unfortunate because that bond should have the opportunity to grow in its own time". LA Weekly's Brian Miller appreciated her debut, praising Shinji's "downright charming" courtship. The Fandom Post found the character neglected by Anno's script, given the lesser space devoted to her and Mari's introduction, while Renan Fontes from Comic Book Resources judged Asuka Shikinami significantly less interesting than Langley. UK Anime Network on the other hand found Rebuild's Asuka a more human and easier to empathize with character than the one of the classic series. Website Otaku Revolution enjoyed the development and revelations about Asuka in Evangelion: 3.0+1.0, finding them "very fitting". Geek Ireland praised the fact that the movie gives a sense of conclusion to Asuka, Shinji, and the other characters, while Otaku Voice's A. Dean Kelly wrote that: "Everything about Asuka from 3.33 finally begins to make sense in this moment".
### Legacy
Asuka's character has been used for merchandising items such as life-size figures, action figures, guitars, clothes, and underwear, some of which sold out immediately. Her action figures proved successful. According to Japanese writer Kazuhisa Fujie, Evangelion-related household items with the image of Asuka or other female characters of the series have become so popular that they have been put back on the market with a second edition. Movic has also released a cassette drama featuring her and Shinji as part of its Animate series featuring other popular works. On February 27, 1997, Kadokawa Shoten published a book dedicated to her entitled Asuka - Evangelion Photograph (ASUKA-アスカ- 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン文庫写真集). In 2008, Broccoli released a video game entitled Shin Seiki Evangelion: Ayanami Ikusei Keikaku with Asuka Hokan Keikaku, in which the player takes on the task of looking after Asuka or Rei Ayanami.
Japanese celebrities cosplayed her during concerts or tours, such as Haruka Shimazaki, singer Hirona Murata and Saki Inagaki. Lai Pin-yu, a Taiwanese Democratic Progressive Party and Legislative Yuan member, held election rallies cosplaying Asuka, gaining popularity. Asuka's character was parodied by Excel from Excel Saga and some of her aesthetic and character traits inspired other female characters. Kotaku writer Richard Eisenbeins listed her as an example of the himedere stereotype, a term used to indicate grumpy, assertive and authoritarian characters that nonetheless possess a more gentle, empathetic and insecure side, hidden due to a stormy past or traumatic experiences. Anthony Gramuglia from Comic Book Resources identified her as one of the most popular and influential himedere characters, comparing Asuna Yūki from Sword Art Online, Rin Tōsaka from Fate/stay night, Kyō Sōma from Fruits Basket and Taiga Aisaka from Toradora! to her. Critics also compared Mai Shibamura from Gunparade March, Michiru Kinushima from Plastic Memories and D.Va from Overwatch game series to Asuka.
Japanese band L'Arc-en-Ciel took inspiration from the character for their song "Anata". Further references have been identified in other Japanese animated series, including Sayonara, Zetsubou-Sensei, Wotakoi: Love Is Hard for Otaku, Gurren Lagann, and Sword Art Online, in which a scene of her and Rei in an elevator from the twenty-second episode is parodied.
## See also
- List of Neon Genesis Evangelion'' characters
[^1]: As depicted in the Evangelion: 3.0 (-120min.) prequel manga.
|
18,933,196 |
Bismuth
| 1,173,778,463 | null |
[
"Alchemical substances",
"Bismuth",
"Chemical elements",
"Chemical elements with rhombohedral structure",
"Materials that expand upon freezing",
"Minerals in space group 166",
"Native element minerals",
"Pnictogens",
"Post-transition metals",
"Trigonal minerals"
] |
Bismuth is a chemical element with the symbol Bi and atomic number 83. It is a post-transition metal and one of the pnictogens, with chemical properties resembling its lighter group 15 siblings arsenic and antimony. Elemental bismuth occurs naturally, and its sulfide and oxide forms are important commercial ores. The free element is 86% as dense as lead. It is a brittle metal with a silvery-white color when freshly produced. Surface oxidation generally gives samples of the metal a somewhat rosy cast. Further oxidation under heat can give bismuth a vividly iridescent appearance due to thin-film interference. Bismuth is both the most diamagnetic element and one of the least thermally conductive metals known.
Bismuth was long considered the element with the highest atomic mass whose nuclei do not spontaneously decay. However, in 2003 it was discovered to be extremely weakly radioactive. The metal's only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, experiences alpha decay at such a rate that its half-life is more than the estimated age of the universe.
Bismuth metal has been known since ancient times. Before modern analytical methods bismuth's metallurgical similarities to lead and tin often led it to be confused with those metals. The etymology of "bismuth" is uncertain. The name may come from mid-sixteenth century Neo-Latin translations of the German words weiße Masse or Wismuth, meaning 'white mass', which were rendered as bisemutum or bisemutium.
## Main uses
Bismuth compounds account for about half the global production of bismuth. They are used in cosmetics; pigments; and a few pharmaceuticals, notably bismuth subsalicylate, used to treat diarrhea. Bismuth's unusual propensity to expand as it solidifies is responsible for some of its uses, as in the casting of printing type. Bismuth has unusually low toxicity for a heavy metal. As the toxicity of lead and the cost of its environmental remediation became more apparent during the 20th century, suitable bismuth alloys have gained popularity as replacements for lead. Presently, around a third of global bismuth production is dedicated to needs formerly met by lead.
## History and etymology
Bismuth metal has been known since ancient times and it was one of the first 10 metals to have been discovered. The name bismuth dates to around 1665 and is of uncertain etymology. The name possibly comes from obsolete German Bismuth, Wismut, Wissmuth (early 16th century), perhaps related to Old High German hwiz ("white"). The Neo-Latin bisemutium (coined by Georgius Agricola, who Latinized many German mining and technical words) is from the German Wismuth, itself perhaps from weiße Masse, meaning "white mass".
The element was confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those elements. Because bismuth has been known since ancient times, no one person is credited with its discovery. Agricola (1546) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead. This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties.
Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the name tectum argenti, or "silver being made" in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth.
Bismuth was also known to the Incas and used (along with the usual copper and tin) in a special bronze alloy for knives.
Beginning with Johann Heinrich Pott in 1738, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and Torbern Olof Bergman, the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear, and Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin.
## Characteristics
### Physical characteristics
Bismuth is a brittle metal with a dark, silver-pink hue, often with an iridescent oxide tarnish showing many colors from yellow to blue. The spiral, stair-stepped structure of bismuth crystals is the result of a higher growth rate around the outside edges than on the inside edges. The variations in the thickness of the oxide layer that forms on the surface of the crystal cause different wavelengths of light to interfere upon reflection, thus displaying a rainbow of colors. When burned in oxygen, bismuth burns with a blue flame and its oxide forms yellow fumes. Its toxicity is much lower than that of its neighbors in the periodic table, such as lead and antimony.
No other metal is verified to be more naturally diamagnetic than bismuth. (Superdiamagnetism is a different physical phenomenon.) Of any metal, it has one of the lowest values of thermal conductivity (after manganese, and occasionally neptunium and plutonium) and the highest Hall coefficient. It has a high electrical resistivity. When deposited in sufficiently thin layers on a substrate, bismuth is a semiconductor, despite being a post-transition metal. Elemental bismuth is denser in the liquid phase than the solid, a characteristic it shares with germanium, silicon, gallium, and water. Bismuth expands 3.32% on solidification; therefore, it was long a component of low-melting typesetting alloys, where it compensated for the contraction of the other alloying components to form almost isostatic bismuth-lead eutectic alloys.
Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form distinctive, colorful hopper crystals. It is relatively nontoxic and has a low melting point just above 271 °C, so crystals may be grown using a household stove, although the resulting crystals will tend to be of lower quality than lab-grown crystals.
At ambient conditions, bismuth shares the same layered structure as the metallic forms of arsenic and antimony, crystallizing in the rhombohedral lattice (Pearson symbol hR6, space group Rm No. 166) of the trigonal crystal system. When compressed at room temperature, this Bi-I structure changes first to the monoclinic Bi-II at 2.55 GPa, then to the tetragonal Bi-III at 2.7 GPa, and finally to the body-centered cubic Bi-V at 7.7 GPa. The corresponding transitions can be monitored via changes in electrical conductivity; they are rather reproducible and abrupt and are therefore used for calibration of high-pressure equipment.
### Chemical characteristics
Bismuth is stable to both dry and moist air at ordinary temperatures. When red-hot, it reacts with water to make bismuth(III) oxide.
2 Bi + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → Bi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>
It reacts with fluorine to make bismuth(V) fluoride at 500 °C or bismuth(III) fluoride at lower temperatures (typically from Bi melts); with other halogens it yields only bismuth(III) halides. The trihalides are corrosive and easily react with moisture, forming oxyhalides with the formula BiOX.
4 Bi + 6 X<sub>2</sub> → 4 BiX<sub>3</sub> (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
4 BiX<sub>3</sub> + 2 O<sub>2</sub> → 4 BiOX + 4 X<sub>2</sub>
Bismuth dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make bismuth(III) sulfate and sulfur dioxide.
6 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 2 Bi → 6 H<sub>2</sub>O + Bi<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub> + 3 SO<sub>2</sub>
It reacts with nitric acid to make bismuth(III) nitrate (which decomposes into nitrogen dioxide when heated).
Bi + 6 HNO<sub>3</sub> → 3 H<sub>2</sub>O + 3 NO<sub>2</sub> + Bi(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>
It also dissolves in hydrochloric acid, but only with oxygen present.
4 Bi + 3 O<sub>2</sub> + 12 HCl → 4 BiCl<sub>3</sub> + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O
### Isotopes
The only primordial isotope of bismuth, bismuth-209, was traditionally regarded as the heaviest stable isotope, but it had long been suspected to be unstable on theoretical grounds. This was finally demonstrated in 2003, when researchers at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay, France, measured the alpha emission half-life of to be 2.01×10<sup>19</sup> years (3 Bq/Mg), over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe. Owing to its extraordinarily long half-life, for all presently known medical and industrial applications, bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and nonradioactive. The radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of a few elements whose radioactivity was suspected and theoretically predicted before being detected in the laboratory. Bismuth has the longest known alpha decay half-life, although tellurium-128 has a double beta decay half-life of over 2.2×10<sup>24</sup> years. Bismuth's extremely long half-life means that less than approximately one-billionth of the bismuth present at the formation of the planet Earth would have decayed into thallium since then.
Several isotopes of bismuth with short half-lives occur within the radioactive disintegration chains of actinium, radium, and thorium, and more have been synthesized experimentally. Bismuth-213 is also found on the decay chain of neptunium-237 and uranium-233.
Commercially, the radioactive isotope bismuth-213 can be produced by bombarding radium with bremsstrahlung photons from a linear particle accelerator. In 1997, an antibody conjugate with bismuth-213, which has a 45-minute half-life and decays with the emission of an alpha particle, was used to treat patients with leukemia. This isotope has also been tried in cancer treatment, for example, in the targeted alpha therapy (TAT) program.
## Chemical compounds
Bismuth forms trivalent and pentavalent compounds, the trivalent ones being more common. Many of its chemical properties are similar to those of arsenic and antimony, although they are less toxic than derivatives of those lighter elements.
### Oxides and sulfides
At elevated temperatures, the vapors of the metal combine rapidly with oxygen, forming the yellow trioxide, Bi
<sub>2</sub>O
<sub>3</sub>. When molten, at temperatures above 710 °C, this oxide corrodes any metal oxide and even platinum. On reaction with a base, it forms two series of oxyanions: BiO<sup>−</sup>
<sub>2</sub>, which is polymeric and forms linear chains, and BiO<sup>3−</sup>
<sub>3</sub>. The anion in Li
<sub>3</sub>BiO
<sub>3</sub> is a cubic octameric anion, Bi
<sub>8</sub>O<sup>24−</sup>
<sub>24</sub>, whereas the anion in Na
<sub>3</sub>BiO
<sub>3</sub> is tetrameric.
The dark red bismuth(V) oxide, Bi
<sub>2</sub>O
<sub>5</sub>, is unstable, liberating O
<sub>2</sub> gas upon heating. The compound NaBiO<sub>3</sub> is a strong oxidising agent.
Bismuth sulfide, Bi
<sub>2</sub>S
<sub>3</sub>, occurs naturally in bismuth ores. It is also produced by the combination of molten bismuth and sulfur.
Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl, see figure at right) and bismuth oxynitrate (BiONO<sub>3</sub>) stoichiometrically appear as simple anionic salts of the bismuthyl(III) cation (BiO<sup>+</sup>) which commonly occurs in aqueous bismuth compounds. However, in the case of BiOCl, the salt crystal forms in a structure of alternating plates of Bi, O, and Cl atoms, with each oxygen coordinating with four bismuth atoms in the adjacent plane. This mineral compound is used as a pigment and cosmetic (see below).
### Bismuthine and bismuthides
Unlike the lighter pnictogens nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic, but similar to antimony, bismuth does not form a stable hydride. Bismuth hydride, bismuthine (BiH
<sub>3</sub>), is an endothermic compound that spontaneously decomposes at room temperature. It is stable only below −60 °C. Bismuthides are intermetallic compounds between bismuth and other metals, such as neodymium.
In 2014 researchers discovered that sodium bismuthide can exist as a form of matter called a “three-dimensional topological Dirac semi-metal” (3DTDS) that possess 3D Dirac fermions in bulk. It is a natural, three-dimensional counterpart to graphene with similar electron mobility and velocity. Graphene and topological insulators (such as those in 3DTDS) are both crystalline materials that are electrically insulating inside but conducting on the surface, allowing them to function as transistors and other electronic devices. While sodium bismuthide (Na
<sub>3</sub>Bi) is too unstable to be used in devices without packaging, it can demonstrate potential applications of 3DTDS systems, which offer distinct efficiency and fabrication advantages over planar graphene in semiconductor and spintronics applications.
### Halides
The halides of bismuth in low oxidation states have been shown to adopt unusual structures. What was originally thought to be bismuth(I) chloride, BiCl, turns out to be a complex compound consisting of Bi cations and BiCl and BiCl anions. The Bi cation has a distorted tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry and is also found in Bi
<sub>10</sub>Hf
<sub>3</sub>Cl
<sub>18</sub>, which is prepared by reducing a mixture of hafnium(IV) chloride and bismuth chloride with elemental bismuth, having the structure [Bi<sup>+</sup>
] [Bi<sup>5+</sup>
<sub>9</sub>] [HfCl<sup>2−</sup>
<sub>6</sub>]
<sub>3</sub>. Other polyatomic bismuth cations are also known, such as Bi, found in Bi
<sub>8</sub>(AlCl
<sub>4</sub>)
<sub>2</sub>. Bismuth also forms a low-valence bromide with the same structure as BiCl. There is a true monoiodide, BiI, which contains chains of Bi
<sub>4</sub>I
<sub>4</sub> units. BiI decomposes upon heating to the triiodide, BiI
<sub>3</sub>, and elemental bismuth. A monobromide of the same structure also exists. In oxidation state +3, bismuth forms trihalides with all of the halogens: BiF
<sub>3</sub>, BiCl
<sub>3</sub>, BiBr
<sub>3</sub>, and BiI
<sub>3</sub>. All of these except BiF
<sub>3</sub> are hydrolyzed by water.
Bismuth(III) chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride in ether solution to produce the acid HBiCl
<sub>4</sub>.
The oxidation state +5 is less frequently encountered. One such compound is BiF
<sub>5</sub>, a powerful oxidizing and fluorinating agent. It is also a strong fluoride acceptor, reacting with xenon tetrafluoride to form the XeF<sup>+</sup>
<sub>3</sub> cation:
BiF
<sub>5</sub> + XeF
<sub>4</sub> → XeF<sup>+</sup>
<sub>3</sub>BiF<sup>−</sup>
<sub>6</sub>
### Aqueous species
In aqueous solution, the Bi ion is solvated to form the aqua ion Bi(H
<sub>2</sub>O)<sup>3+</sup>
<sub>8</sub> in strongly acidic conditions. At pH \> 0 polynuclear species exist, the most important of which is believed to be the octahedral complex [Bi
<sub>6</sub>O
<sub>4</sub>(OH)
<sub>4</sub>].
## Occurrence and production
In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold. The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite and bismite. Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China.
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), 10,200 tonnes of bismuth were produced worldwide by mining and 17,100 tonnes by refining in 2016. Since then, USGS does not provide mining data for bismuth, considering them unreliable. Globally, bismuth is mostly produced by refining, as a byproduct of extraction of other metals such as lead, copper, tin, molybdenum and tungsten, though the refining-to-mining ratio depends on the country.
Bismuth travels in crude lead bullion (which can contain up to 10% bismuth) through several stages of refining, until it is removed by the Kroll-Betterton process which separates the impurities as slag, or the electrolytic Betts process. Bismuth will behave similarly with another of its major metals, copper. The raw bismuth metal from both processes contains still considerable amounts of other metals, foremost lead. By reacting the molten mixture with chlorine gas the metals are converted to their chlorides while bismuth remains unchanged. Impurities can also be removed by various other methods for example with fluxes and treatments yielding high-purity bismuth metal (over 99% Bi).
### Price
The price for pure bismuth metal has been relatively stable through most of the 20th century, except for a spike in the 1970s. Bismuth has always been produced mainly as a byproduct of lead refining, and thus the price usually reflected the cost of recovery and the balance between production and demand.
Prior to World War II, demand for bismuth was small and mainly pharmaceutical — bismuth compounds were used to treat such conditions as digestive disorders, sexually transmitted diseases and burns. Minor amounts of bismuth metal were consumed in fusible alloys for fire sprinkler systems and fuse wire. During World War II bismuth was considered a strategic material, used for solders, fusible alloys, medications and atomic research. To stabilize the market, the producers set the price at \$1.25 per pound (\$2.75 /kg) during the war and at \$2.25 per pound (\$4.96 /kg) from 1950 until 1964.
In the early 1970s, the price rose rapidly as a result of increasing demand for bismuth as a metallurgical additive to aluminium, iron and steel. This was followed by a decline owing to increased world production, stabilized consumption, and the recessions of 1980 and 1981–1982. In 1984, the price began to climb as consumption increased worldwide, especially in the United States and Japan. In the early 1990s, research began on the evaluation of bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in ceramic glazes, fishing sinkers, food-processing equipment, free-machining brasses for plumbing applications, lubricating greases, and shot for waterfowl hunting. Growth in these areas remained slow during the middle 1990s, in spite of the backing of lead replacement by the United States federal government, but intensified around 2005. This resulted in a rapid and continuing increase in price.
### Recycling
Most bismuth is produced as a byproduct of other metal-extraction processes including the smelting of lead, and also of tungsten and copper. Its sustainability is dependent on increased recycling, which is problematic.
It was once believed that bismuth could be practically recycled from the soldered joints in electronic equipment. Recent efficiencies in solder application in electronics mean there is substantially less solder deposited, and thus less to recycle. While recovering the silver from silver-bearing solder may remain economic, recovering bismuth is substantially less so.
Dispersed bismuth is used in certain stomach medicines (bismuth subsalicylate), paints (bismuth vanadate), pearlescent cosmetics (bismuth oxychloride), and bismuth-containing bullets. Recycling bismuth from these uses is impractical.
## Applications
Bismuth has few commercial applications, and those applications that use it generally require small quantities relative to other raw materials. In the United States, for example, 733 tonnes of bismuth were consumed in 2016, of which 70% went into chemicals (including pharmaceuticals, pigments, and cosmetics) and 11% into bismuth alloys.
In the early 1990s, researchers began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications.
### Medicines
Bismuth is an ingredient in some pharmaceuticals, although the use of some of these substances is declining.
- Bismuth subsalicylate is used as a diarrheal; it is the active ingredient in such "pink bismuth" preparations as Pepto-Bismol, as well as the 2004 reformulation of Kaopectate. It is also used to treat some other gastro-intestinal diseases like shigellosis and cadmium poisoning. The mechanism of action of this substance is still not well documented, although an oligodynamic effect (toxic effect of small doses of heavy metal ions on microbes) may be involved in at least some cases. Salicylic acid from hydrolysis of the compound is antimicrobial for toxogenic E. coli, an important pathogen in traveler's diarrhea.
- A combination of bismuth subsalicylate and bismuth subcitrate is used to treat the bacteria causing peptic ulcers.
- Bibrocathol is an organic bismuth-containing compound used to treat eye infections.
- Bismuth subgallate, the active ingredient in Devrom, is used as an internal deodorant to treat malodor from flatulence and feces.
- Bismuth compounds (including sodium bismuth tartrate) were formerly used to treat syphilis. Arsenic combined with either bismuth or mercury was a mainstay of syphilis treatment from the 1920s until the advent of penicillin in 1943.
- "Milk of bismuth" (an aqueous suspension of bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate) was marketed as an alimentary cure-all in the early 20th century, and has been used to treat gastrointestinal disorders.
- Bismuth subnitrate (Bi<sub>5</sub>O(OH)<sub>9</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>) and bismuth subcarbonate (Bi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)) are also used in medicine.
### Cosmetics and pigments
Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl) is sometimes used in cosmetics, as a pigment in paint for eye shadows, hair sprays and nail polishes. This compound is found as the mineral bismoclite and in crystal form contains layers of atoms (see figure above) that refract light chromatically, resulting in an iridescent appearance similar to nacre of pearl. It was used as a cosmetic in ancient Egypt and in many places since. Bismuth white (also "Spanish white") can refer to either bismuth oxychloride or bismuth oxynitrate (BiONO<sub>3</sub>), when used as a white pigment. Bismuth vanadate is used as a light-stable non-reactive paint pigment (particularly for artists' paints), often as a replacement for the more toxic cadmium sulfide yellow and orange-yellow pigments. The most common variety in artists' paints is a lemon yellow, visually indistinguishable from its cadmium-containing alternative.
### Metal and alloys
Bismuth is used in metal alloys with other metals such as iron. These alloys are used in automatic sprinkler systems for fires. It forms the largest part (50%) of Rose's metal, a fusible alloy, which also contains 25–28% lead and 22–25% tin. It was also used to make bismuth bronze which was used in the Bronze Age, having been found in Inca knives at Machu Picchu.
#### Lead replacement
The density difference between lead (11.32 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) and bismuth (9.78 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) is small enough that for many ballistics and weighting applications, bismuth can substitute for lead. For example, it can replace lead as a dense material in fishing sinkers. It has been used as a replacement for lead in shot, bullets and less-lethal riot gun ammunition. The Netherlands, Denmark, England, Wales, the United States, and many other countries now prohibit the use of lead shot for the hunting of wetland birds, as many birds are prone to lead poisoning owing to mistaken ingestion of lead (instead of small stones and grit) to aid digestion, or even prohibit the use of lead for all hunting, such as in the Netherlands. Bismuth-tin alloy shot is one alternative that provides similar ballistic performance to lead.
Bismuth, as a dense element of high atomic weight, is used in bismuth-impregnated latex shields to shield from X-ray in medical examinations, such as CTs, mostly as it is considered non-toxic.
The European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) for reduction of lead has broadened bismuth's use in electronics as a component of low-melting point solders, as a replacement for traditional tin-lead solders. Its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food processing equipment and copper water pipes, although it can also be used in other applications including those in the automobile industry, in the European Union, for example.
Bismuth has been evaluated as a replacement for lead in free-machining brasses for plumbing applications, although it does not equal the performance of leaded steels.
#### Other metal uses and specialty alloys
Many bismuth alloys have low melting points and are found in specialty applications such as solders. Many automatic sprinklers, electric fuses, and safety devices in fire detection and suppression systems contain the eutectic In19.1-Cd5.3-Pb22.6-Sn8.3-Bi44.7 alloy that melts at 47 °C (117 °F) This is a convenient temperature since it is unlikely to be exceeded in normal living conditions. Low-melting alloys, such as Bi-Cd-Pb-Sn alloy which melts at 70 °C, are also used in automotive and aviation industries. Before deforming a thin-walled metal part, it is filled with a melt or covered with a thin layer of the alloy to reduce the chance of breaking. Then the alloy is removed by submerging the part in boiling water.
Bismuth is used to make free-machining steels and free-machining aluminium alloys for precision machining properties. It has similar effect to lead and improves the chip breaking during machining. The shrinking on solidification in lead and the expansion of bismuth compensate each other and therefore lead and bismuth are often used in similar quantities. Similarly, alloys containing comparable parts of bismuth and lead exhibit a very small change (on the order 0.01%) upon melting, solidification or aging. Such alloys are used in high-precision casting, e.g. in dentistry, to create models and molds. Bismuth is also used as an alloying agent in production of malleable irons and as a thermocouple material.
Bismuth is also used in aluminium-silicon cast alloys in order to refine silicon morphology. However, it indicated a poisoning effect on modification of strontium. Some bismuth alloys, such as Bi35-Pb37-Sn25, are combined with non-sticking materials such as mica, glass and enamels because they easily wet them allowing to make joints to other parts. Addition of bismuth to caesium enhances the quantum yield of caesium cathodes. Sintering of bismuth and manganese powders at 300 °C produces a permanent magnet and magnetostrictive material, which is used in ultrasonic generators and receivers working in the 10–100 kHz range and in magnetic and holographic memory devices.
### Other uses as compounds
- Bismuth is included in BSCCO (bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide) which is a group of similar superconducting compounds discovered in 1988 that exhibit the highest superconducting transition temperatures.
- Bismuth telluride is a semiconductor and an excellent thermoelectric material. Bi<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub> diodes are used in mobile refrigerators, CPU coolers, and as detectors in infrared spectrophotometers.
- Bismuth oxide, in its delta form, is a solid electrolyte for oxygen. This form normally breaks down below a high-temperature threshold, but can be electrodeposited well below this temperature in a highly alkaline solution.
- Bismuth germanate is a scintillator, widely used in X-ray and gamma ray detectors.
- Bismuth vanadate is an opaque yellow pigment used by some artists' oil, acrylic, and watercolor paint companies, primarily as a replacement for the more toxic cadmium sulfide yellows in the greenish-yellow (lemon) to orange-toned yellow range. It performs practically identically to the cadmium pigments, such as in terms of resistance to degradation from UV exposure, opacity, tinting strength, and lack of reactivity when mixed with other pigments. The most commonly-used variety by artists' paint makers is lemon in color. In addition to being a replacement for several cadmium yellows, it also serves as a non-toxic visual replacement for the older chromate pigments made with zinc, lead, and strontium. If a green pigment and barium sulfate (for increased transparency) are added it can also serve as a replacement for barium chromate, which possesses a more greenish cast than the others. In comparison with lead chromate, it does not blacken due to hydrogen sulfide in the air (a process accelerated by UV exposure) and possesses a particularly brighter color than them, especially the lemon, which is the most translucent, dull, and fastest to blacken due to the higher percentage of lead sulfate required to produce that shade. It is also used, on a limited basis due to its cost, as a vehicle paint pigment.
- A catalyst for making acrylic fibers.
- As an electrocatalyst in the conversion of CO<sub>2</sub> to CO.
- Ingredient in lubricating greases.
- In crackling microstars (dragon's eggs) in pyrotechnics, as the oxide, subcarbonate or subnitrate.
- As catalyst for the fluorination of arylboronic pinacol esters through a Bi(III)/Bi(V) catalytic cycle, mimicking transition metals in electrophilic fluorination.
## Toxicology and ecotoxicology
See also bismuthia, a rare dermatological condition that results from the prolonged use of bismuth.
Scientific literature indicates that some of the compounds of bismuth are less toxic to humans via ingestion than other heavy metals (lead, arsenic, antimony, etc.) presumably due to the comparatively low solubility of bismuth salts. Its biological half-life for whole-body retention is reported to be 5 days but it can remain in the kidney for years in people treated with bismuth compounds.
Bismuth poisoning can occur and has according to some reports been common in relatively recent times. As with lead, bismuth poisoning can result in the formation of a black deposit on the gingiva, known as a bismuth line. Poisoning may be treated with dimercaprol; however, evidence for benefit is unclear.
Bismuth's environmental impacts are not well known; it may be less likely to bioaccumulate than some other heavy metals, and this is an area of active research.
## See also
- Lead-bismuth eutectic
- List of countries by bismuth production
- Bismuth minerals
- Patterns in nature
|
73,995,589 |
Sarita Colonia
| 1,172,474,768 |
Peruvian folk saint
|
[
"1914 births",
"1940 deaths",
"20th-century Peruvian women",
"20th-century venerated Christians",
"Folk saints",
"People from Ancash Region"
] |
Sara Colonia Zambrano (1 March 1914 – 20 December 1940), popularly known as Sarita Colonia, was a Peruvian folk saint. Born into poverty, she moved to Lima and worked various jobs until her death at age 26. Her burial site became a common place for prayers, and she became associated with tales of miracles and piety. She became especially popular among the poor, and she also came to be associated with other marginalized groups such as migrants, sex workers, criminals, and people of the LGBT community. A shrine was built in her honor at the height of her popularity in 1983, and her image was commonly seen in Lima during this period.
## Biography
Colonia was born on 1 March 1914, in the Belén neighborhood of Huaraz, Peru, to carpenter Amadeo Colonia Flores and Rosalía Zambrano. The Colonia family moved to Lima in 1922. Colonia was sent to a Catholic boarding school, and she developed a desire to become a nun. She was pulled out of the school when the family returned to Huaraz in 1926. Her mother died shortly afterward, and Colonia was forced to raise her younger siblings, including her half-siblings after her father remarried. For a time, she took a job at a bakery in Huaraz. In the early 1930s, Colonia moved back to Lima in the hope of seeking a larger income. For the following three years, she worked as a live-in maid. She then moved to Callao to live in the market and sell fish. Other jobs she worked at the time included selling clothes and working in cafés. Colonia fell severely ill and was taken to the hospital on 19 December 1940, and she died in Lima the following day. Her death was attributed to malaria, but her relatives disagreed with this diagnosis, saying that she died from ingesting castor oil. Colonia was buried in a common grave at the Baquijano cemetery in Callao.
## Religious following
### Grave site and shrine
The location where Colonia was buried was designated with a wooden cross, causing it to become a gathering point for people grieving those without grave markers. As visitors came to her grave, answered prayers and miracles were attributed to her. Later, when the common grave was exhumed, Colonia's family relocated her remains. A shrine was built on Colonia's burial site in 1983. The shrine is made of concrete blocks, and it features a tomb, an image of Colonia, and a place for lighting prayer candles. Flowers are often purchased by visitors before entering to deliver to the shrine. Water from the tomb and from the flowers is often used for spiritual purposes, such as healing and cleansing. Each year, two festivals are held for Colonia in her shrine: one for her birth in March, and one for her death in December.
### Followers
Colonia first became the subject of reverence in the 1960s and 1970s. The increase of migrants to Lima during this time allowed reverence of Colonia to spread as they became her main adherents. This generation of migrants convened around her grave, and her following spread throughout shanty towns. They used her grave as an alternative for orthodox religious practice, as she too had traveled to Lima to escape poverty. This association has caused her to be seen as a patron saint for illegal immigration to the United States, and those crossing the Mexico–United States border sometimes wear her image to seek her protection.
Colonia's grave was popularized as a place of worship for marginalized groups who were treated poorly in churches. In addition to migrants, this group has grown to include the poor more generally, such as dockworkers, maids, bus drivers, and the unemployed, as well as other outsider groups, such as criminals, sex workers, and members of the LGBT community. Colonia's relatively uneventful life of poverty adds to this effect, and the majority of her followers similarly come from poverty. Due to her association with criminals and the poor, her followers have often been perceived negatively in Lima. As bus and taxi drivers became common adherents, her image was often seen displayed in these vehicles during the 1970s and 1980s in Lima. The height of Colonia's religious following occurred in these years, when her grave had constant visitors.
Colonia is also believed to protect thieves and prisoners, and some prisoners wear tattoos of her image for her alleged protection. In 1994, police foiled a bank robbery plot by apprehending the culprits when they visited Colonia's shrine to pray for success. Due to her association with prisoners, the local prison of Callao is sometimes known as Sarita Colonia.
The Catholic Church has formally discouraged worship of Colonia, though it became more accommodating after an increase in her popularity. By the 21st century, Colonia's image was more widely accepted in Lima, and her status as a folk saint was institutionalized into the city's culture. Her following remained steady in the early decades of the 21st century, still producing thousands of adherents during festivals but not growing in number.
### Folk tales
In her life, several miracles were attributed to Colonia by her family. She was alleged to have cured her younger sister's liver disease and her father's brain injury. Her brother said that she was inspired to seek a religious life by visions of Jesus Christ and Mary. She is also said to have been rescued from a canal as a teenager by a divine man in a white tunic.
Various folk tales have developed around Colonia's life, with different traditions developing between different demographics and groups of workers. As she is commonly revered by the poor, many of these involve success in seeking work. Later stories of her life emphasized her suffering and her generosity rather than miracles. Many of these stories provide alternative accounts of her death. The most common is the belief that she died following a rape or an attempted rape, either committing suicide to protect her purity or being saved by God taking her to protect her. The rapists in these stories are often figures of authority, such as police officers, or they play on racial stereotypes, portrayed as having darker skin while Colonia is portrayed as white. In 1999, Colonia's brother wrote a biography with the stated purpose of correcting falsehoods that had been spread about her life.
## Image and media
Colonia's name and image are recognized in Lima and often reproduced, including on a variety of merchandise featuring her depiction. Depictions of Colonia are typically based on the lone existing photograph of her, taken in 1926 when she was 12 years old. As with many popular cultural figures, depictions are more likely to portray her as a white woman. She also appears in fiction, including the 1990 book Sarita Colonia viene volando () by Eduardo González Viaña. The debut album of Los Mojarras, titled Sarita Colonia, features cover art of a Sarita Colonia tattoo. The crime procedural show Gamboa featured an episode in the 1980s in which a cult of thieves devoted to Sarita Colonia is infiltrated by the police.
Murals have also been created in Colonia's likeness. A large painting of her was created in 1980 by the artist group E. P. S. Huayco [es] on a canvas of 12,000 empty tin cans, which were placed on a hill frequented by migrants in Lima. This painting became another meeting point for devotees of Colonia to leave offerings. Another mural was featured in Milan, Italy, painted by two Peruvian students in 2017, though it was painted over in the following years. This mural was painted on the side of a railway embankment, on the border of an ethnically diverse neighborhood in the city.
|
67,731,411 |
Gigi Ibrahim
| 1,140,109,792 |
Egyptian activist and citizen journalist
|
[
"1980s births",
"Citizen journalists",
"Egyptian activists",
"Egyptian bloggers",
"Egyptian journalists",
"Egyptian socialists",
"Egyptian women activists",
"Egyptian women bloggers",
"Living people",
"Revolutionary Socialists (Egypt)"
] |
Gigi Ibrahim (also mentioned as Gihan Ibrahim, born 1986 or 1987) is an Egyptian citizen journalist and activist. During the Egyptian revolution in 2011, she reported events about the protests and became a face of the events for much of the Western media.
Ibrahim was born in Long Beach, California to Egyptian parents although she soon moved to Egypt, where she lived until she was 14. Her family subsequently returned to California, where she began attending a local Catholic high school. She graduated from high school in 2005, attending Orange Coast College at first before transferring to The American University in Cairo in 2008. She became involved with the Revolutionary Socialists organization and graduated in 2010 with a degree in political science.
Ibrahim became an organizer of the protests in 2011 and used Twitter to document events that took place during the revolution. Her tweets additionally helped human rights groups to document arrests and state violence during the revolution. Western news media treated her as a face of the revolution. After the 2013 coup d'état, Ibrahim chose to stay in Egypt and continue her involvement in activism and protests. She later co-founded a shoe manufacturing company in Cairo.
## Early life and education
Ibrahim was born in Long Beach, California to Egyptian parents in 1986 or 1987. When she was a year old, the family moved back to Egypt. After her mother died, she went back to California with her father and sister in 2001; she was 14 at the time. She enrolled in a local Catholic school as a freshman.
While Ibrahim was in her second week of classes at the school, the September 11 attacks occurred. The next day, Federal Bureau of Investigation agents searched the Ibrahims' home, explaining that a neighbor had called a tipline to report the family. The neighbor's concerns were the fact that Ibrahim's uncle sometimes walked outside at night while speaking Arabic on phone calls, and a U-Haul truck had recently been parked outside their house. As the only Muslim in her class, Ibrahim was also asked to give a presentation about Islam at her school despite the fact that her family was not very religious. The experience led Ibrahim to realize that her life was going to be different because she was Muslim and Egyptian.
Over the years that followed, Ibrahim gained an increasing level of interest in politics. She became involved in a group that advocated for the rights of illegal immigrants to the United States in response to what she saw as discriminatory enforcement of immigration law by local police officers, and was also involved in pro-Palestinian activism. However, she was largely unaware of political events in Egypt at the time, and visited Egypt only rarely.
Ibrahim graduated Cornelia Connelly High School in 2005, and then attended Orange Coast College. She transferred to The American University in Cairo in 2008 at the age of 22, where she became involved in the local politics of Egypt and participated in protests throughout 2009 and 2010. During this time, she became involved with the Revolutionary Socialists, of which she is a member. She graduated in 2010 with a degree in political science.
## Involvement in Egyptian politics
Ibrahim told Al Jazeera that her political activism began when she started talking to people who were involved in the labour movement, and that her family was uncomfortable with her going to protests. She became involved in the Egyptian revolution of 2011 as an organizer, additionally engaging in citizen journalism by using social media including Twitter while attending protests "to spread accurate information and paint a picture at the ground". Ibrahim and other Egyptian youth on Twitter played a leading role in organizing the events of January 25, 2011. Her tweets also helped to document arrests and state violence for human rights groups.
In October 2011, Ibrahim reported that she had been briefly arrested while filming a strike action by public transport workers in Cairo, and was released after agreeing to delete her footage.
By winter of 2012, Ibrahim had more than 30,000 followers on Twitter, and was active in protests against the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.
### Reception by Western media
Ibrahim became a face of the events in Egypt for much of the media. She regularly appeared on CNN, sometimes live from the 2011 protests, and additionally reported live from the protests on Al Jazeera. Her political views were rarely mentioned in Western media.
Judy Woodruff described Ibrahim as "a symbol of the uprising" on PBS NewsHour. On The Daily Show, Ibrahim told Jon Stewart that she initially joined the protests because of a class she took at the American University in Cairo called "Social Mobilization under Authoritarian Regimes." The New York Times conducted an interview with her using Skype, and a February 2011 Frontline episode titled "Gigi's Revolution" examined her relationship with her elite Egyptian family and "her attempts to convince her family of the righteousness of her cause." On February 14, 2011, she appeared on an Al Jazeera English talk show alongside Alaa Abd El-Fattah and Mohamad Waked to discuss the events in Egypt after the fall of Hosni Mubarak. She was also featured on the cover of the February 28, 2011 issue of Time magazine, later criticizing the related article in that issue by saying that the West "needs to believe that we could not have [made revolution possible] without their digital toys."
### After the 2013 coup in Egypt
In July 2013, many militants from the revolution chose to leave after the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, but Ibrahim stayed. As of July 2013, Ibrahim was living in Nasr City and continued to participate in activism and protests. In August 2013, she was part of a group called the Third Square that met in Sphinx Square in Giza to protest both the military government and the Muslim Brotherhood.
After the 2013 coup, Ibrahim's husband went into exile because he wanted to remain a journalist, while she founded a shoe manufacturing company in Cairo. In January 2021, she told Jeune Afrique that it was dangerous to protest and to be a journalist who didn't work on behalf of the regime, explaining that "We now live under a dictator worse than Mubarak [...] Any protest is punishable by sanctions. The protest is now being done underground."
## Shoe manufacturing career
After the 2013 coup in Egypt, Ibrahim founded a shoe manufacturing company in Cairo.
A September 2021 article in The National identified Ibrahim as the co-owner of Cairo shoe manufacturing company Bulga, founded in 2016, along with artisan Mona Sorour. Ibrahim manages advertising, public relations and sales for the company, which is named after the traditional balgha. The shoes are designed through collaboration with indigenous groups in various regions of Egypt and manufactured in multiple workshops across the country, using exclusively Egyptian materials and labor; Ibrahim cited the decline of traditional craftsmanship resulting from the increase in mass-produced items as a major factor in the creation of Bulga.
Ibrahim has a United States passport and could leave Egypt. In October 2021, she explained her decision to remain in the country to The New Yorker, saying that "Maybe here I’m a second-class citizen as an Egyptian woman, but [in the U.S.] I’m a second-class terrorist."
|
1,108,210 |
Antlion
| 1,170,283,411 |
Family of insects
|
[
"Articles containing video clips",
"Extant Cretaceous first appearances",
"Myrmeleontidae",
"Neuroptera"
] |
The antlions are a group of about 2,000 species of insect in the neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae. They are known for the predatory habits of their larvae, which mostly dig pits to trap passing ants or other prey. In North America, the larvae are sometimes referred to as doodlebugs because of the marks they leave in the sand. The adult insects are less well known due to their relatively short lifespans compared to the larvae. Adults, sometimes known as antlion lacewings, mostly fly at dusk or just after dark and may be mistakenly identified as dragonflies or damselflies.
Antlions have a worldwide distribution. The greatest diversity occurs in the tropics, but a few species are found in cold-temperate locations, one such being the European Euroleon nostras. They most commonly occur in dry and sandy habitats where the larvae can easily excavate their pits, but some larvae hide under debris or ambush their prey among leaf litter.
Antlions are poorly represented in the fossil record. Myrmeleontiformia is generally accepted to be a monophyletic group, and within the Myrmeleontoidea, the antlions' closest living relatives are thought to be the owlflies (Ascalaphidae). A 2019 study finds Myrmeleontidae to be monophyletic, aside from Stilbopteryginae and Palparinae, which form separate clades closer to Ascalaphidae. The predatory actions of the larvae have attracted attention throughout history and antlions have been mentioned in literature since classical times.
## Etymology
The exact meaning of the name "antlion" is uncertain. It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix "lion" merely suggesting destroyer or hunter. In any case, the term seems to go back to classical antiquity. The antlion larva is often called a "doodlebug" in North America because of the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating, which look as if someone has been doodling.
The scientific name of the type genus Myrmeleo – and thus, the family as a whole – is derived from Ancient Greek léon (λέων) "lion" + mýrmex (μύρμηξ) "ant", in a loan translation of the names common across Europe. In most European and Middle Eastern languages, at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to "antlion".
## Description
Antlions can be fairly small to very large neuropterans, with wingspans ranging from 2 to 15 cm (0.8 to 5.9 in). The African genus Palpares contains some of the largest examples. Acanthaclisis occitanica is the largest European species, with an 11 cm (4.3 in) wingspan, and most North American species approach this size.
The adult has two pairs of long, narrow, multiveined, translucent wings and a long, slender abdomen. Although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies, they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects. Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent, apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as the head and thorax combined. Also, the pattern of wing venation differs, and compared to damselflies, the adults are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about at night in search of a mate. Adult antlions are typically nocturnal, and rarely seen by day.
Males of most species have a unique structure, a bristle-bearing knob known as a "pilula axillaris", at the base of the rear wing. The abdomen in males is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe. The tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males, depending perhaps on oviposition sites, and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger-like extension.
The antlion larva has a robust fusiform body, a very plump abdomen, and a thorax bearing three pairs of walking legs. The prothorax forms a slender mobile "neck" for the large, square, flattened head, which bears an enormous pair of sickle-like jaws with several sharp, hollow projections. The jaws are formed by the maxillae and mandibles; the mandibles each contain a deep groove over which the maxilla fits neatly, forming an enclosed canal for injecting venom to immobilise the victim, and enzymes to digest its soft parts. The larva is clad in forward-pointing bristles which help it to anchor itself and exert greater traction, enabling it to subdue prey considerably larger than itself. Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus. All the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored; some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage.
## Distribution
There are about 2,000 species of antlion found in most parts of the world, with the greatest diversity being in warmer areas. The best known species are those in which the larvae dig pits to trap their prey, but not all species do this. Antlions live in a range of usually dry habitats including open woodland floors, scrub-clad dunes, hedge bases, river banks, road verges, under raised buildings and in vacant lots.
## Life-cycle
Apart from pit-trap-forming taxa, the biology of members of the family Myrmeleontidae, to which the antlions belong, has been little studied. The life-cycle begins with oviposition (egg-laying) in a suitable location. The female antlion repeatedly taps the prospective laying site with the tip of her abdomen and then inserts her ovipositor into the substrate and lays an egg.
Depending on the species and where it lives, the larva either conceals itself under leaves, debris or pieces of wood, hides in a crack or digs a funnel-shaped pit in loose material. As ambush predators, catching prey is risky because food arrives unpredictably and, for those species that make traps, maintaining one is costly. The larvae therefore have low metabolic rates and can survive for long periods without food. They can take several years to complete their life-cycle; they mature faster with plentiful food, but can survive for many months without feeding. In cooler climates they dig their way deeper and remain inactive during the winter.
When the larva attains its maximum size, it pupates and undergoes metamorphosis. It makes a globular cocoon of sand or other local substrate stuck together with fine silk spun from a slender spinneret at the rear end of the body. The cocoon may be buried several centimetres deep in sand. After completing its transformation into an adult insect over the course of about one month, it emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument behind, and works its way to the surface. After about twenty minutes, the adult's wings are fully opened and it flies off in search of a mate. The adult is considerably larger than the larva as antlions exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of holometabolous insect. This is by virtue of the fact that the exoskeleton of the adult is extremely thin and flimsy, with an exceptionally low density. The adult typically lives for about 25 days, but some insects survive for as long as 45 days.
## Ecology
Antlion larvae eat small arthropods – mainly ants – while the adults of some species eat pollen and nectar, and others are predators of small arthropods. In certain species of Myrmeleontidae, such as Dendroleon pantherinus, the larva, although resembling that of Myrmeleon structurally, makes no pitfall trap, but hides in detritus in a hole in a tree and seizes passing prey. In Japan, Gatzara jezoensis larvae lurk on the surface of rocks for several years while awaiting prey; during this time they often become coated with lichen, and have been recorded at densities of up to 344 per square metre.
The larva is a voracious predator. Within a few minutes of seizing its prey with its jaws and injecting it with venom and enzymes, it begins to suck out the digestion products. The larva is extremely sensitive to ground vibrations, the low-frequency sounds made by an insect crawling across the ground; the larva locates the source of the vibrations by the differences in timing of the arrival of waves detected by receptors, tufts of hairs on the sides of the two hindmost thoracic segments.
In trap-building species, an average-sized larva digs a pit about 2 in (5 cm) deep and 3 in (7.5 cm) wide at the edge. This behavior has also been observed in the Vermileonidae (Diptera), whose larvae dig the same sort of pit to feed on ants. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, the antlion larva starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg, it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus, it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the center. As it slowly moves round and round, the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper, until the slope angle reaches the critical angle of repose (that is, the steepest angle the sand can maintain, where it is on the verge of collapse from slight disturbance), and the pit is solely lined by fine grains. By digging in a spiral when constructing its pit, the antlion minimises the time needed to complete the pit.
When the pit is completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface, often in a wide-opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone. The steep-sloped trap that guides prey into the larva's mouth while avoiding crater avalanches is one of the simplest and most efficient traps in the animal kingdom. The fine grain lining ensures that the avalanches which carry prey are as large as possible. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose, they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as ants. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by the larva. By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit, the larva also undermines the sides of the pit, causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them. Thus, it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers.
Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects and other arthropods, and can even subdue small spiders. The projections in the jaws of the larva are hollow and through this, the larva sucks the fluids out of its victim. After the contents are consumed, the dry carcass is flicked out of the pit. The larva readies the pit once again by throwing out collapsed material from the center, steepening the pit walls to the angle of repose.
Antlion larvae require loose soil, not necessarily, but often, sand. Antlions can also handle larger granular material which is filtered out of the soil during pit construction. The larvae prefer dry places protected from the rain. When it first hatches, the tiny larva specialises in very small insects, but as it grows larger, it constructs larger pits, and thus catches larger prey, sometimes much larger than itself.
Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva's ability to trap prey. The larva of the Australian horsefly (Scaptia muscula) lives in antlion (for example Myrmeleon pictifrons) pit traps and feeds on the prey caught, and the female chalcid wasp (Lasiochalcidia igiliensis) purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax.
Recent research has found that antlion larvae often "play dead" for a variable amount of time (from a few minutes up to an hour) when disturbed to hide from predators. The method is effective; it increased survival rates in patches that use it by 20%. Furthermore, they appear to have maximized its usefulness—further increasing the duration is not likely to convey substantial survival benefits to the larvae.
## Evolution
The closest living relatives of antlions within the Myrmeleontoidea are the owlflies (Ascalaphidae); the Nymphidae are more distantly related. The extinct Araripeneuridae and Babinskaiidae are considered likely to be stem groups in the Myrmeleontiformia clade. The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences, and while issues remain for the group as a whole (the "Hemerobiiformia" being paraphyletic), the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic, giving the following cladogram:
The subfamilies are shown below; a few genera, mostly fossil, are of uncertain or basal position. The fossil record of antlions is very small by neuropteran standards. However, some Mesozoic fossils attest to the antlions' origin more than 150 million years ago. These were at one time separated as the Palaeoleontidae, but are now usually recognized as early antlions.
## Taxonomy
The supra-generic classification within the Myrmeleontidae is disputed. Michel et.al recognise just four subfamilies, with Brachynemurinae, Dendroleontinae and others placed in the Myrmeleontinae.
BioLib includes the following (with selected genera):
- Acanthaclisinae
1. Acanthaclisini Navas, 1912
- Brachynemurinae - 3 tribes:
1. Brachynemurini Banks, 1927
- e.g. Brachynemurus Hagen, 1889
2. Gnopholeontini Stange, 1994
3. Lemolemini Stange, 1994
- Dendroleontinae (otherwise in Myrmeleontinae) - tribes:
1. Acanthoplectrini Markl, 1954
2. Bandidini Krivokhatsky, 1998
3. Dendroleontini Banks, 1899
4. Nuglerini Stange, 1976
5. Periclystini Stange, 1976
6. Voltorini Stange, 1976
- Myrmecaelurinae (otherwise in Myrmeleontinae) - tribes:
1. Gepini Markl, 1954
2. Isoleontini Holzel, 1969
3. Myrmecaelurini Esben-Petersen, 1918
4. Nesoleontini Markl, 1954
- Myrmeleontinae
1. Maulini Markl, 1954
2. Myrmeleontini Latreille, 1802
1. Euroleon Esben-Petersen, 1918
2. Hagenomyia Banks, 1911
3. Myrmeleon Linnaeus, 1767
4. others ...
3. Porrerini Navas, 1913
1. Porrerus Navás, 1913
- Nemoleontinae (otherwise in Myrmeleontinae) - tribes:
1. Creoleontini Markl, 1954
2. Delfimeini Krivokhatsky, 1998
3. Distoleontini Tillyard, 1916
4. Glenurini Banks, 1927
5. Gymnocnemini Navas, 1912
6. Macronemurini Esben-Petersen, 1918
7. Nemoleontini Banks, 1911
8. Pseudoformycaleontini Holzel, 1987
- Palparinae (including Araripeneurinae)
1. Dimarini Navas, 1914
2. Palparidiini Markl, 1954
3. Palparini Banks, 1911
1. Palpares Rambur, 1842
4. Pseudimarini Markl, 1954
- Stilbopteryginae
1. Aeropteryx Riek, 1968
2. Stilbopteryx Newman, 1838
The following subfamilies have also been recognized by some taxonomists:
- Dimarinae
- Echthromyrmicinae
- Glenurinae
- Pseudimarinae
Antlions of uncertain systematic position are:
- Palaeoleon (fossil)
- Newleon Miller & Stange, 2012
- Samsonileon
## In culture and folklore
In popular folklore in the southern United States, people recite a poem or chant to make the antlion come out of its hole. Similar practices have been recorded from Africa, the Caribbean, China and Australia.
The Myrmecoleon was a mythical ant–lion hybrid written about in the 2nd century AD Physiologus, where animal descriptions were paired with Christian morals. The ant-lion as described was said to starve to death because of its dual nature – the lion nature of the father could only eat meat, but the ant half from the mother could only eat grain chaff, thus the offspring could not eat either and would starve. It was paired with the Biblical verse Matthew 5:37. The fictional ant-lion of Physiologus is probably derived from a misreading of Job 4:11.
The French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre wrote that "The Ant-lion makes a slanting funnel in the sand. Its victim, the Ant, slides down the slant and is then stoned, from the bottom of the funnel, by the hunter, who turns his neck into a catapult."
Antlions appear as antagonists in the 1991 life simulation video game, SimAnt, and (in a giant form) in the Final Fantasy series, Grounded, Terraria, Don't Starve Together, Monster Rancher 2, Mother 3 and in the Half-Life 2 video game series as an unrelated alien insect species sharing sand burowing traits with the real antlion larvae. The Trapinch, Vibrava, and Flygon Pokémon evolution line is based on an antlion. The fictional sarlacc from the Star Wars franchise is often compared to the real-life antlion. It also appears as a predator in the film Enemy Mine.
In the third book of Tove Jansson's Moomins series, Finn Family Moomintroll, a rather large and fanciful antlion appears in the second chapter, depicted as a sand-dwelling predator with the literal head of a lion.
## See also
- List of Myrmeleontidae genera
- Vermileonidae - wormlions
|
86,186 |
Cailleach
| 1,169,684,717 |
Gaelic female hag deity
|
[
"Celtic goddesses",
"Creator goddesses",
"Destroyer goddesses",
"Hags",
"Irish goddesses",
"National personifications",
"Personifications of Ireland",
"Scottish folklore",
"Scottish mythology"
] |
In Gaelic (Irish, Scottish and Manx) myth, the Cailleach (, ) is a divine hag and ancestor, associated with the creation of the landscape and with the weather, especially storms and winter. The word literally means 'old woman, hag', and is found with this meaning in modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and has been applied to numerous mythological and folkloric figures in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In modern Irish folklore studies, she is sometimes known as The Hag of Beara, while in Scotland she is known as Beira, Queen of Winter.
## Name
Cailleach ('old woman' or 'hag' in modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic) comes from the Old Irish Caillech ('veiled one'), an adjectival form of caille ('veil'), an early loan from Latin pallium, 'woollen cloak'.
The Cailleach is often referred to as the Cailleach Bhéara in Irish and Cailleach Bheurra in Scottish Gaelic. Gearóid Ó Crualaoich believes this comes from a word meaning 'sharp, shrill, inimical' – bior or beur – and refers to the Cailleach's association with winter and wilderness, as well as her association with horned beasts or cattle.
The 8th- to 9th-century Irish poem The Lament of the Old Woman says that the Cailleach's name is Digdi or Digde. In The Hunt of Slieve Cuilinn she is called Milucra, sister of Áine. In the tale of the Glas Gaibhnenn, she is called Biróg. Elsewhere, she is called Bui or Bua[ch]. In Manx Gaelic she is known as the Caillagh.
The plural of cailleach is cailleacha () in Irish, cailleachan () in Scottish Gaelic, and caillaghyn in Manx. The word is found as a component in terms like the Gaelic cailleach-dhubh ('nun') and cailleach-oidhche ('owl'), as well as the Irish cailleach feasa ('wise woman, fortune-teller') and cailleach phiseogach ('sorceress, charm-worker'). Related words include the Gaelic caileag and the Irish cailín ('young woman, girl, colleen'), the diminutive of caile 'woman', and the Lowland Scots carline/carlin ('old woman, witch'). A more obscure word that is sometimes interpreted as 'hag' is the Irish síle, which has led some to speculate on a connection between the Cailleach and the stonecarvings of Sheela na Gigs.
## Legends
In Scotland, where she is also known as Beira, Queen of Winter (a name given by 20th-century folklorist Donald Alexander Mackenzie), she is credited with making numerous mountains and large hills, which are said to have been formed when she was striding across the land and accidentally dropped rocks from her creel or wicker basket. In other cases she is said to have built the mountains intentionally, to serve as her stepping stones. She carries a hammer for shaping the hills and valleys, and is said to be the mother of all the goddesses and gods. According to Mackenzie, Beira was a one-eyed giantess with white hair, dark blue skin, and rust-colored teeth.
The Cailleach displays several traits befitting the personification of winter: she herds deer, she fights spring, and her staff freezes the ground.
In partnership with the goddess Brìghde, the Cailleach is seen as a seasonal deity or spirit, ruling the winter months between Samhainn (1 November or first day of winter) and Bealltainn (1 May or first day of summer), while Brìghde rules the summer months between Bealltainn and Samhainn. Some interpretations have the Cailleach and Brìghde as two faces of the same goddess, while others describe the Cailleach as turning to stone on Bealltainn and reverting to humanoid form on Samhainn in time to rule over the winter months. Depending on local climate, the transfer of power between the winter goddess and the summer goddess is celebrated any time between Là Fhèill Brìghde (Imbolc, 1 February) at the earliest, Latha na Cailliche (25 March), or Bealltainn (1 May) at the latest, and the local festivals marking the arrival of the first signs of spring may be named after either the Cailleach or Brìghde.
Là Fhèill Brìghde is also the day the Cailleach gathers her firewood for the rest of the winter. Legend has it that if she intends to make the winter last a good while longer, she will make sure the weather on 1 February is bright and sunny, so she can gather plenty of firewood to keep herself warm in the coming months. As a result, people are generally relieved if Là Fhèill Brìghde is a day of foul weather, as it means the Cailleach is asleep, will soon run out of firewood, and therefore winter is almost over. On the Isle of Man, where She is known as Caillagh ny Groamagh, the Cailleach is said to have been seen on St. Bride's day in the form of a gigantic bird, carrying sticks in her beak.
According to Mackenzie, the longest night of the year marked the end of her reign as Queen of Winter, at which time she visited the Well of Youth and, after drinking its magic water, grew younger day by day.
In Scotland, the Cailleachan (lit. 'old women') are also known as the Storm Hags, and seen as personifications of the elemental powers of nature, especially in a destructive aspect. They are said to be particularly active in raising the windstorms of spring, during the period known as A' Chailleach.
On the west coast of Scotland, the Cailleach ushers in winter by washing her great plaid (Gaelic: féileadh mòr) in the Gulf of Corryvreckan (Gaelic: Coire Bhreacain - 'whirlpool/cauldron of the plaid'). This process is said to take three days, during which the roar of the coming tempest is heard as far away as twenty miles (32 km) inland. When she is finished, her plaid is pure white and snow covers the land.
In Scotland and Ireland, the first farmer to finish the grain harvest made a corn dolly, representing the Cailleach (also called "the Carlin or Carline"), from the last sheaf of the crop. The figure would then be tossed into the field of a neighbor who had not yet finished bringing in their grain. The last farmer to finish had the responsibility to take in and care for the corn dolly for the next year, with the implication they'd have to feed and house the hag all winter. Competition was fierce to avoid having to take in the Old Woman.
Some scholars believe the Old Irish poem "The Lament of the Old Woman of Beara" is about the Cailleach; Kuno Meyer states, "she had fifty foster-children in Beare. She had seven periods of youth one after another, so that every man who had lived with her came to die of old age, and her grandsons and great-grandsons were tribes and races."
## Locations associated with the Cailleach
### Ireland
In Ireland, the Cailleach is associated with craggy, prominent mountains and outcroppings, such as Hag's Head () the southernmost tip of the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare.
Labbacallee wedge tomb () is located near Glanworth, County Cork and is, according to folklore, the Cailleach's grave and former dwelling where she lived with her husband, Mogh Ruith, who she threw a boulder at, pinning him to the floor of the River Funshion.
The megalithic tombs at Loughcrew in County Meath are situated atop Slieve na Calliagh () and include a kerbstone known as "the hag's chair". Cairn T on Slieve na Calliagh is a classic passage tomb, in which the rays of the equinox sunrise shine down the passageway and illuminate an inner chamber filled with megalithic stonecarvings.
The summit of Slieve Gullion in County Armagh features a passage tomb known locally as the 'Calliagh Beara's House'. There is also a lake, where the Calliagh is said to have played a trick on the mythical warrior, Fionn mac Cumhaill, when he took on the physical appearance of an old man after diving into the lake to retrieve a ring that the Calliagh fooled him into thinking was lost.
Aillenacally (Aill na Caillí, "Hag Cliff") is a cliff in County Galway.
The Carrowmore passage tombs on the Cúil Iorra Peninsula in County Sligo, are associated with the Cailleach. One is called the Cailleach a Bhéara's House. William Butler Yeats refers to the Sligo Cailleach as the 'Clooth na Bare'. In County Sligo she is also called the Garavogue Cailleach.
There is a rock on the Beara Peninsula in West Cork at Kilcatherine said to resemble the Cailleach. In mythology she is said to have leapt across the bay from Coulagh to its present location.
### Scotland
The Cailleach is prominent in the landscape of Argyll and Bute, Scotland. In later tales she is known as the Cailleach nan Cruachan ("the witch of Ben Cruachan"). Ben Cruachan is the tallest mountain in the region. Tea-towels and postcards of her are sold in the visitor shop for the Hollow Mountain, which also features a mural depicting her accidental creation of Loch Awe. Legend has it that the Cailleach was tired from a long day herding deer. Atop Ben Cruachan she fell asleep on her watch and a well she was tending overflowed, running down from the highlands and flooding the valleys below, forming first a river and then the loch. The overflowing well is a common motif in local Gaelic creation tales - as seen in the goddess Boann's similar creation of the River Boyne in Ireland. Other connections to the region include her above-mentioned strong ties with the fierce whirlpool in the Gulf of Corryvreckan.
She is also associated with other Scottish mountains. Ben Nevis was said to be her "mountain throne". The two mountains on the Isle of Skye named Beinn na Caillich (western and eastern) after her, from which fierce storms of sleet and rain descend, wreaking havoc and destruction upon the lands below.
There is a Gleann Cailliche in Glen Lyon in Perthshire with a stream named Allt Cailliche which runs into Loch Lyon. This area is famous for a pagan ritual which according to legend is associated to the Cailleach. There is a small shieling in the Glen, known as either Tigh nan Cailleach (Scottish Gaelic for house of the old women) or Tigh nam Bodach, (Scottish Gaelic for house of the old men), which houses a number of heavy water-worn stones, resembling miniature human beings. Roughly rectangular, the building originally measured 2m by 1.3m by 0.4m high with a stone roof. A replacement roof of a wooden pallet having collapsed and the whole building having become somewhat ruinous it was rebuilt by a local dyker in 2011.
According to local legend the stones represent the Cailleach, her husband the Bodach, and their children and the site may represent the only surviving shrine of its kind in Great Britain. The local legend suggests that the Cailleach and her family were given shelter in the glen by the locals and while they stayed there the glen was always fertile and prosperous. When they left they gave the stones to the locals with the promise that as long as the stones were put out to look over the glen at Bealltainn and put back into the shelter and made secure for the winter at Samhain then the glen would continue to be fertile. This ritual is still carried out to this day.
## In popular culture
- In Scottish Gaelic literature, the Cailleach was famously used to personify the internal literary critic of 18th-century poet William Ross. Despite being widely viewed as a, "love-lorn romantic who died of unrequited love", due to the poet's many versifications of his loss and heartbreak over the 1782 marriage of his beloved Mòr Ros, Ross was also capable of poking fun at himself, as in the poem Oran eadar am Bàrd agus Cailleach-mhilleadh-nan-dàn ("Exchange of Verses between the Poet and the Hag-who-spoils-poems").
- According to American ethnomusicologist Amy Murray, the Gaels of the Outer Hebrides sometimes referred to Queen Victoria as "A' chailleach a-stùiradh" ("The Hag that's steering").
## See also
- Baba Yaga
- Banshee
- Beira
- Bodach
- Carlin stone
- Carrauntoohil
- Celtic animism
- Cyhyraeth
- Imbolc
- Labbacallee wedge tomb
- Sheela na Gig
- Slieve Gullion
## Primary sources
- "The Lament of the Old Woman of Beare", ed. and tr.
|
762,701 |
Chicago Marathon
| 1,159,785,115 |
Annual footrace held in Chicago, U.S.
|
[
"1977 establishments in Illinois",
"Annual sporting events in the United States",
"Chicago Marathon",
"Handcycling competitions",
"Marathons in the United States",
"October sporting events",
"Recurring sporting events established in 1977",
"Track and field in Illinois",
"Wheelchair marathons",
"World Marathon Majors"
] |
The Chicago Marathon is a marathon (long-distance foot race) held every October in Chicago, Illinois. It is one of the six World Marathon Majors. Thus, it is also a World Athletics Label Road Race. The Chicago Marathon is the fourth-largest race by number of finishers worldwide.
Annual Chicago marathons were held from 1905 to the 1920s, but the first race in the present series occurred on September 25, 1977, under the original name the Mayor Daley Marathon, which drew a field of 4,200 runners. The race has been held every year since, except in 1987 when only a half-marathon was run, and in 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. It became among the fastest-growing modern-marathon road races in the world, due in part to its largely fast and flat course which facilitates the pursuit of personal records and world record performances. The race has achieved its elite status among marathons by developing relationships with sponsors who provide prize money to lure elite runners who have produced American and world record performances. Since 2008, the race has been owned and organized by Bank of America, and is officially known as the Bank of America Chicago Marathon.
The race is limited to 45,000 runners and only runners who finish within 61⁄2 hours are officially timed. Those wishing to participate can register after either meeting a time qualifying standard or being selected through a general lottery. Although the race has limited registration, exceptions include elite runners, legacy finishers, and charity representatives. Increasingly, local, national and global charities as well as humanitarian organizations encourage sponsored participation in the event as a means of fund raising.
## History
The first modern marathon at the 1896 Games of the I Olympiad in Greece generated interest in the sport which led to similar races throughout most western countries and across the United States. While marathons sporadically occurred in New York City and St. Louis, the Boston Marathon had established an annual marathon in 1897, soon to be followed by a Chicago annual race. Beginning in 1905, the Chicago Marathon (organized first by the Illinois Athletic Club 1905 to 1909, then sponsored by the Chicago Daily News after 1910) was held annually, with significant community and spectator support, until the early 1920s.
The first Chicago Marathon was run on September 23, 1905. That first race began at the Evanston Golf Club and finished in front of a standing-room-only paying crowd at Washington Park Race Track. Beginning with a little over a dozen runners, only seven completed the course. In a stunning upset, a reported 100,000 or more spectators watched Chicagoan Rhud Metzner come from behind to steal a late-race victory from the favored Louis Marks. With that first race, the Chicago Marathon began an annual run of epic races that continued until the early 1920s, eventually on a revised course that largely resembles today's marathon route. The second year, feet bleeding, Canadian Dennis Bennett won, while a band played "Maple Leaf Forever". In the early years, runners had their own regimens: John Lindquist from Brooklyn took a commanding lead in 1907 while doing whiskey shots, but by mile 23, he was apparently falling asleep; while, the next year, the French-born Chicagoan Albert Corey had more success sipping champagne. Over the years elite fields included Olympic champions, world records were continually sought, and the marathon continued to inspire Chicago communities and spectators until challenges of the early 1920s sidelined the event.
It was not until the health consciousness of the 1960s that marathon growth gained traction in the public's eyes. Frank Shorter's 1972 Games of the XX Olympiad marathon victory represented the convergence of many middle-class American ideals. Then the 1976 New York City Marathon, which was the first New York City Marathon to embrace the five borough course, popularized the big city marathon. As the New York marathon began to grow exponentially in the 1970s, the Chicago Marathon was established as a rival to the New York City Marathon. By the mid-1980s, the Chicago Marathon was ensconced as one of the big four marathons. During the mid-1980s, it was named America's Marathon/Chicago and opened up the way for appearance payments. Joan Benoit Samuelson described the Chicago Marathons of the mid-1980s as "The World's Marathon". The Bank of America Chicago Marathon is an open race with no qualifying time to participate.
The Modern Era Chicago Marathon was founded over the objection of Ed Kelly, Chicago Park District Superintendent who refused permission to run in the parks or along the Lake Michigan lakefront. With the help of Lee Flaherty, the event's founder who operated out of Flair House in the Near North Side community area of Chicago, Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley's support for the marathon was enlisted. Although Mayor Daley died, his successor Michael Anthony Bilandic approved the race and got Kelly on board. Michael Bilandic, a runner, and his wife actually passed out medals at the first marathon on September 25, 1977. This first edition of the modern Chicago Marathon was called the Mayor Daley Marathon. Flaherty footed the bill for the first race, which had no sponsors. He again footed the bill in 1978 when the race was again called the Mayor Daley Marathon. In 1979, however, Beatrice Foods became the first race sponsor.
In the early years the Chicago Marathon was held in August. It has from its inception with 4,200 runners and 2,128 finishers been one of the nation's largest marathons. The 2000 running was second only to New York. The 1979 and 1980 events, however, continued to be gatherings of amateur runners. By 1982, the race finally had sufficient prize money to attract world class athletes. The 1982 was the first with world class times such as the 2:10:59 by Greg Meyer. By 1983, the Chicago Marathon had achieved its status as one of America's most important marathons. In 1984, Beatrice raised the purse to \$250,000 (\$50,000 more than New York's). The race had become a legitimate rival to New York and continues to vie for top runners. The 1985 race was spectacular with Steve Jones breaking his own course record (2 seconds short of the world record) and Joan Benoit Samuelson the 1984 Olympic Champion, two-time defending Chicago Marathon Champion and Olympic Bronze Medalist, Rosa Mota and the fourth place Olympic finisher and world record setting Ingrid Kristiansen. Benoit set a record that stood nearly a generation. At that time, it was considered the premier marathon in the United States, if not the world. Although 1986 had 40 world-class runners among the 8,000 participants the times paled in comparison. Beatrice dropped out as a sponsor in 1987. Because of this only a half-marathon race was held that year and the marathon was moved to the spring of 1988 and attracted Heileman Brewing Company to sponsor the 1988 Old Style Chicago Marathon. The race resulted in three women who had been passed over for the 1988 Games of the XXIV Olympiad placing in the top positions. In 1991, Heileman discontinued its sponsorship and both the prize money and performances waned. In 1992, the race again had no sponsorship, but 1993 brought new sponsor LaSalle Bank. In 1994, the race became the LaSalle Bank Chicago Marathon. In 1996, LaSalle Bank purchased the Chicago Marathon from Major Events, Inc., who had purchased the race three years prior from Flaherty. In 1998, the race began using transponder timing. In 2001, when Catherine Ndereba broke the women's world record marathon time, both the men's and women's then-current world records had been set at the Chicago Marathon.
In 2007, Bank of America acquired LaSalle Bank's parent company ABN AMRO North America in 2007 and assumed the race's title sponsorship. The 2007 race made history with the first ever CEO Marathon Challenge. The race featured a special competition among the CEOs, presidents, company owners and c-suite executives of companies with at least \$5 million in annual gross revenue (\$2.5 million for women). The 2007 race also made history for having three (men's, women's & men's wheelchair) of its four races decided in the final 100 meters in a day of record setting heat. The race was partially shut down early (after three and a half hours) as temperatures rose to an unseasonably hot 88 °F (31 °C), which surpassed both the temperature records for the Chicago Marathon and official Chicago records for October 7. Over 10,000 registrants chose not to run in the record temperatures, while 10,934 people did not finish (many were called after the course closed early for safety). One runner died, over 30 were hospitalized, and over 400 others sought medical attention. Marathon owner and sponsor Bank of America, which had just acquired LaSalle Bank, has denied culpability. Similar hot conditions have been experienced in other city center races. In 2003, London's The British 10K also had extremely hot weather that affected many runners.
The 2020 edition of the race was cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic, with all registrants given the option of either transferring their entry to 2021, 2022, or 2023, or obtaining a full refund.
## Course
The marathon course is a loop course, starting and ending at Grant Park. From there, the current course winds through 29 of the city's neighborhoods. The course loop can be generally divided into three sections: North, West, and South. In each of these sections, three of the city's main stadiums are near the course's turning points: Wrigley Field to the north; the United Center to the west; and Guaranteed Rate Field to the south. The city's fourth professional stadium, Soldier Field, is located near the start/finish area.
For the first three miles, runners wind through Chicago's downtown area. Eventually, they head north along LaSalle Street.
Runners are supported by over 12,000 volunteers spread throughout the course including at 20 aid stations located approximate every 1–3 miles. For runners in distress, aid station volunteers include medical staff and ambulatory services are scattered throughout the course.
Digital timers are positioned every 5 kilometers, as well as the halfway point.
## Runner statistics
The Bank of America Chicago Marathon has grown significantly from its beginnings. In 1905, 20 runners registered for the first Chicago Marathon, 15 actually started the race, and 7 finished. For the first "modern" marathon race in 1977, 4,200 people took part. In 1995, 9,000 people registered, and in 1999, over 29,000 people registered. The 2001 marathon run on October 7 reached its cap of 37,500, which was instituted after the 2000 race drew 33,171 runners, just prior to the entry deadline on September 19. In 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 it reached its cap of 40,000. The October 10, 2004, October 9, 2005 and October 22, 2006 races reached their 40,000 entrant caps on August 16, July 14, and May 26 respectively. On April 18, 2007, the 2007 race run on October 7 reached its cap of 45,000 entrants. There was a late registration exemption whereby elite runners (marathon times of less than 2:31/3:01 or half marathon times of 1:11/1:21 for (men/women)) could register until September 1 even though the race had reached its registration cap in the spring. The 40,000 registrants and 33,000 finishers in 2003 made the Chicago Marathon the third or fourth largest marathon depending on which metric (registrants or finishers) is used.
The Chicago Marathon has never excluded women. Historically, however, the women's field has been smaller than the men's. This seems to be the result of older age categories having large multiples of men to women, but the women are beginning to outnumber the men in the 20s age group of the field.
### Records
World records have been broken at Chicago five times. In 1984, Steve Jones broke the world record with 2:08:05. In 1999, Khalid Khannouchi was the first to surpass 2:06:00 with 2:05:42.
The men's record was broken in the 2013 race by Dennis Kimetto with a time of 2:03:45. That world record has since been broken, but it remains the Chicago course record.
The women's record was broken in two consecutive years. In 2001, Catherine Ndereba broke the record in 2:18:47, and Paula Radcliffe surpassed that mark with 2:17:18 the year after. In 2019, Brigid Kosgei won in a world record time of 2:14:04 which is now the women's course record.
## Economic impact
Much of the marathon's impact is derived from the tourism industry. More than 10,000 of the runners in 2010 indicated that it was their first visit to Chicago. Of that, 6,000 came from 100 countries. Due to the travelers, the event increases hotel occupancy rates during the marathon. According to an independent study by the University of Illinois, the 2015 marathon contributed an estimated US\$277 million worth of activity to the Chicago economy, equivalent to 1,948 jobs.
### Charity program
Since the charity program was officially established in 2002, more than 106,000 runners have raised over \$207 million for local, national and global causes.
Charity fundraising is now closely intertwined with the event as the runners now raise money for research, aid the suffering and heighten public awareness of different causes. The marathon offers all registered entrants the opportunity to fundraise for a charity partner. The marathon recognizes four levels of charities based on the number of participants recruited, and fundraising levels.
Runners can also opt out of the public lottery or obtain a guaranteed place after this has been drawn by choosing to run for an official charity. The 2016 event had over 170 charity partners, and raised more than US\$16.9 million.
## Deaths
- 1998 – Kelly Barrett, 43, Littleton, Colorado – Believed to be caused by hyponatremia
- 2000 – Danny Towns, 45, Edmond, Oklahoma – Cardiac arrest
- 2001 – Luke Roach, 22, Seattle, Washington – Collapsed near finish line. Body temperature reached 107 °F (42 °C) (heat stroke)
- 2003 – Rachael Townsend, 29, The Plains, Ohio – Mitral valve prolapse
- 2007 – Chad Schieber, 35, Midland, Michigan – Mitral valve prolapse
- 2011 – William Caviness, 35, Greensboro, North Carolina – Believed to have died from cardiac arrest five hundred yards from finish line.
## See also
- Spirit of the Marathon, 2007 documentary
|
2,400,608 |
145th Street station (IRT Lenox Avenue Line)
| 1,172,887,186 |
New York City Subway station in Manhattan
|
[
"1904 establishments in New York City",
"Harlem",
"IRT Lenox Avenue Line stations",
"New York City Subway stations in Manhattan",
"Railway and subway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan",
"Railway stations in the United States opened in 1904"
] |
The 145th Street station is a station on the IRT Lenox Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 145th Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem, Manhattan, it is served by the 3 train at all times. Built for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), the 145th Street station contains two side platforms that can only fit six and a half train cars, unlike almost all other IRT stations, which are able to fit full-length ten-car trains.
The station opened in 1904 as one of the northern termini of the original subway line operated by the IRT. With the construction of the Harlem–148th Street station to the north in the 1960s, the 145th Street station was planned to be closed, but due to community opposition, and passengers' protests, the station remained open. Since the 145th Street station is the second-to-last stop on the line, entry is provided only to the southbound platform, although northbound customers are allowed to exit from this station. The station was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005, and was closed from July to November 2018 for extensive renovations.
The 145th Street station contains two side platforms and two tracks. The station was built with tile and mosaic decorations. The platforms contain exits to Lenox Avenue's intersection with 145th Street and are not connected to each other within fare control.
## History
### Construction and opening
Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and legal challenges were resolved near the end of 1899. The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, in which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway.
The 145th Street station was constructed as part of the IRT's East Side Branch (now the Lenox Avenue Line). The original plan envisioned a station on the Lenox Avenue Line at 141st Street, just south of the 142nd Street Junction, where a spur of the Lenox Avenue Line diverges to the Bronx via the IRT White Plains Road Line. This was ultimately not built, and instead, the 145th Street station became the last stop on the Lenox Avenue Line before it entered the Lenox Yard, a train maintenance yard immediately to the north. McMullan & McBean began work on the section from 135th Street and Lenox Avenue to Gerard Avenue and 149th Street, including the 145th Street spur, on September 10, 1901.
On November 23, 1904, the East Side Branch opened to 145th Street. Initially, the station was served by East Side local and express trains. Local trains ran from City Hall to Lenox Avenue (145th Street). Express trains had their southern terminus at South Ferry or Atlantic Avenue and had their northern terminus at 145th Street or West Farms (180th Street). South of the station, most northbound trains used a switch to access the western platform, which served both entering and exiting passengers; the train would then reenter service in the southbound direction. Northbound trains heading to Lenox Yard would drop off passengers on the eastern platform, which was an exit-only platform and did not have any ticket booths. Express trains to 145th Street were eliminated in 1906.
### Later years
In 1918, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened south of Times Square–42nd Street, and the original line was divided into an "H"-shaped system. Local trains were sent to South Ferry. The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. The IRT routes were given numbered designations with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock. These fleet contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The first such fleet, the R12, was put into service in 1948. The route to Lenox Avenue–145th Street became the 3. The New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) announced plans in 1956 to add fluorescent lights above the edges of the station's platforms. In 1959, all 3 trains became express.
With the construction of the Harlem–148th Street station inside the Lenox Yard in the 1960s, the 145th Street station was planned to be closed, since the 148th Street station was intended as a direct replacement for the 145th Street station. However, the proposal was shelved due to protests from the local community over the long walk of up to seven blocks to either the new station or 135th Street one stop south, and due to possible congestion issues at 135th Street. The 148th Street station opened on May 13, 1968; despite its name, the new terminal was located at 149th Street. Afterward, all northbound trains continued to 148th Street.
From 1995 to 2008, this station lacked full-time service, as 3 trains did not operate during late nights. Full-time service was restored on July 27, 2008. During late nights, riders could take the M7, the M102, or a shuttle bus to 135th Street. The station was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 30, 2005, due to its importance as one of the first IRT stations to be built.
Starting on March 2, 1998, the tunnel was reconstructed along with the cracked tunnel floor. This was done to correct a major water problem that had existed for many years due to the presence of the Harlem Creek and other underground streams, which caused extensive flooding, water damage, and seepage problems that occasionally contributed to severe service disruptions. The project cost \$82 million and was finished on October 12, 1998. During the reconstruction, 3 trains were rerouted to the 137th Street–City College station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Supplemental shuttle bus service connecting to other lines in the area were provided for much of this time.
Under the 2015–2019 Metropolitan Transportation Authority Capital Plan, the station underwent a complete overhaul as part of the Enhanced Station Initiative and was entirely closed for several months. Updates included cellular service, Wi-Fi, USB charging stations, interactive service advisories and maps. In January 2018, the New York City Transit and Bus Committee recommended that Citnalta-Forte receives the \$125 million contract for the renovations of 167th and 174th–175th Streets on the IND Concourse Line and 145th Street on the IRT Lenox Avenue Line. However, the MTA Board temporarily deferred the vote for these packages after city representatives refused to vote to award the contracts. The contract was put back for a vote in February, where it was ultimately approved. The subway station was closed for renovations from July 23 to November 28, 2018. Due to the closure, 2018 ridership dropped 41.9% compared to the previous year, from 1,093,045 riders in 2017 to 635,413 riders in 2018.
## Station layout
There are two tracks with two short side platforms. The station, served by the 3 train at all times, is between 135th Street to the south and Harlem–148th Street to the north. The station is 348 feet (106 m) long and can fit six-and-a-half 51-foot (16 m) IRT subway cars. Only the first five cars of a train open here because the R62 subway cars used on the 3 service are configured in five-car sets and each must have their doors opened at the same time (selective door operation is used). Before trains on the 3 service were lengthened from nine to ten cars in 2001, only four cars opened their doors at the station. The station is slightly offset under Lenox Avenue, being located closer to the avenue's western curb line.
### Design
The fare control is at platform level, and there is no crossover or crossunder between the platforms. The station agent's booth is located on the southbound platform. The station has mosaic name tablets, some old "145" terra cotta cartouches, and a mosaic replica of a cartouche. There used to be women's and men's restrooms on the southbound platform, as evidenced by stone lintels reading "women" and "men". The central section of the southbound platform widens near the turnstiles.
As with other stations built as part of the original IRT, the station was constructed using a cut-and-cover method. The tunnel is covered by a "U"-shaped trough that contains utility pipes and wires. The bottom of this trough contains a foundation of concrete no less than 4 inches (100 mm) thick. The lowest sections of the trough's outer walls are composed of transverse arches 5 feet (1.5 m) wide. Each platform consists of 3-inch-thick (7.6 cm) concrete slabs, beneath which are located drainage basins. Columns between the tracks, placed atop the transverse arches, support the jack-arched concrete station roofs. Unlike in most original IRT stations, the majority of these columns are not built-up I-beams. Along the northern end of the platforms there are dense clusters of I-beam columns, while the remainder of the platform contains circular, cast-iron Doric-style columns spaced every 15 feet (4.6 m). The ceiling is about 15 feet (4.6 m) above platform level; the section of the ceiling north of the fare control area is smooth, and the section south of fare control is composed of segmental vaults supported by the center columns. There is a 1-inch (25 mm) gap between the trough wall and the platform walls, which are made of 4-inch (100 mm)-thick brick covered over by a tiled finish.
The 2018 artwork at this station is Parade, a ceramic and glass artwork by Derek Fordjour. It consists of images depicting the African-American parade tradition of Harlem.
### Track layout
Like the other stations on the original IRT subway, it was initially built for trains shorter in length than the standard eight to ten cars used by the subway. In the 1950s and 1960s, all of the other IRT stations were either lengthened to 10 cars or closed. The 145th Street station was also lengthened slightly to the north: there are no columns between the tracks there, since the site formerly accommodated a track crossover. When 145th Street was planned to be closed in the 1960s, it was deemed unnecessary to further lengthen the platforms. Because it remained open, 145th Street is the only original IRT station besides the 42nd Street Shuttle stations that still cannot accommodate ten-car trains. Approximately 200 feet (61 m) north of the station is a diamond crossover for the approach to the northern terminal of the 3 train at Harlem–148th Street. Approximately 300 feet (91 m) south of the station is the 142nd Street Junction with the IRT White Plains Road Line. A track crossover formerly existed immediately south of the station, and another switch existed immediately north of the original platforms, within the space occupied by the current platform extension.
### Exits
Street staircases from platform level go up to all four corners of 145th Street and Lenox Avenue. One street staircase goes to each of the corners; the stairs on the west side of Lenox Avenue serve the southbound platform, while the stairs on the east side are served by the northbound platform. There is no entrance from the street to the northbound platform, as both eastern street staircases contain a high exit-only turnstile and emergency gate. Like the other original IRT stations, this station originally was built with entrances resembling elaborate kiosks, which were removed for reducing sight lines for motorists. The street staircases were replaced with relatively simple, modern steel railings like those seen at most New York City Subway stations.
|
3,030,960 |
Vulcanodon
| 1,136,677,085 |
Extinct genus of dinosaurs
|
[
"Early Jurassic dinosaurs of Africa",
"Fossil taxa described in 1972",
"Fossils of Zimbabwe",
"Sauropods"
] |
Vulcanodon (meaning "volcano tooth") is an extinct genus of sauropod dinosaur from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa. The only known species is V. karibaensis. Discovered in 1969 in Zimbabwe, it was regarded as the earliest-known sauropod for decades, and is still one of the most primitive sauropods that has been discovered. As a quadrupedal, ground-dwelling herbivore, Vulcanodon already showed the typical sauropod body plan with column-like legs and a long neck and tail. It was smaller than most other sauropods, measuring approximately eleven metres (36 ft) in length. Vulcanodon is known from a fragmentary skeleton including much of the pelvic girdle, hindlimbs, forearms, and tail, but lacking the trunk and neck vertebrae as well as the skull.
Originally, this genus was believed to be a prosauropod because of the knife-shaped teeth found near its fossils, which fit in with the idea that prosauropods were omnivorous. Scientists now know that the teeth belonged to an unidentified theropod that may have scavenged on the Vulcanodon carcass. Vulcanodon is now known to be a true sauropod. Upon the discovery of the related Tazoudasaurus, both animals were unified in the family Vulcanodontidae, though this has not been universally accepted.
## Description
Vulcanodon was initially thought have been a small sauropod. In 2010, Gregory S. Paul estimated its length at eleven metres, its weight at 3.5 tonnes. Some books mention lower estimates of approximately 6.5 m (21 ft). However, in 2018, researchers have estimated a greater body mass of 10.3 metric tons (11.4 short tons). The thighbone was 110 centimetres (43 in) long.
As one of the earliest and basalmost sauropods, it is important for understanding the early evolution of this group. Sauropods descend from basal sauropodomorphs (informally called "prosauropods"), which were primitively bipedal (two-legged). While Vulcanodon already was fully quadrupedal (four-legged), its limb proportions were intermediate between those of its prosauropod ancestors and those of later, more derived sauropods. Its forelimbs were much more similar to later sauropods than basal sauropodomorphs because they are straight, much more gracile, and the proximal end of the ulna is v-shaped. Unfortunately, no skull or neck of Vulcanodon is known, although it is otherwise very well known.
### Hindlimbs and pelvis
Vulcanodon's limbs were sturdy and column-like, and its forelimbs were already proportionally long, reaching 76% of hindlimb length. Its lower leg, metatarsus, and toes were shortened in comparison to its bipedal ancestors, but still not as short as in later sauropods. The sacrum was made out of four fused sacral vertebrae; "prosauropods" possessed only three sacrals. The tail vertebra bodies already showed an incipient excavation of their lateral sides, saving weight and giving them a waisted appearance when viewed from below. In later sauropods, this excavations were enlarged to form extensive perforated pockets called pleurocoels. Contrasting the many sauropod-like features of the skeleton, the pelvis was relatively primitive, reminiscent of its "prosauropod" ancestors. One such feature is that the brevis shelf of the ilium has a fossa, which is not found in any more derived sauropods.
The hallux (the first toe of the foot) showed a large claw that was flattened laterally, as seen in "prosauropods". However, the claws of the second and third toe were unusual in being nail-like and broader than deep. This feature was also found in the probably closely related Tazoudasaurus, but is absent in all other sauropods. The feet of Vulcanodon were semiplantigrade as in later sauropods (where both the digits and part of the metatarsals contact the ground), a derived feature not found in more basal sauropods like Isanosaurus. However, they also retained primitive features, like the fact that the phalanges were not reduced.
Many of the features found in sauropods that basal sauropodomorphs lack are related to the change in body size. The greatest regions affected by this are the hind limbs and pelvis. For example, an elongating of the ilium, size reduction of the lesser trochanter shelf, and semiplantigrade posture are some features that indicate the amount and positioning of leg muscles being modified. Vulcanodon possessed these features, the latter of which is seen earliest in it. However, Vulcanodon does not have reduced distal phalanges, which are seen in Shunosaurus and all more derived sauropods. This means that while the muscle positioning of its legs were changing, they had not yet reduced in the distal region of the limb.
## Discovery
Vulcanodon is known only from a single locality on an island in Lake Kariba, the largest artificial lake in the world, in northern Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia). The island, located west of Bumi Hills, is called "Island 126/127", after early, unpublished lake charts, but has no formal name. The first bone was found by B. A. Gibson of the town of Kariba in July 1969, and an excavation team collected the specimen in October 1969, March 1970 and May 1970. In the later half of 1970, the new find was presented at a scientific symposium in Cape Town and a brief note was published. The find was formally named and described in July 1972 by palaeontologist Michael Raath. The name Vulcanodon (lat. Vulcanus – Roman god of fire; gr. odon – "tooth") points to the fact that the skeleton was found in sandstone, that was at the time misinterpreted to be part of the Batoka Formation but is actually part of the Forest Sandstone lays a few metres below the lava flows of the Batoka Formation, and emphasizes the peculiar knife-shaped teeth that are now known to belong to a theropod. The specific name, karibaensis, refers to the place of discovery on a small island in Lake Kariba. It was one of the first dinosaurs found in Zimbabwe.
The skeleton (catalogue number QG24) has been found weathering out of a hill slope and was partially eroded by surface exponation and plant roots. It includes the pelvis and sacrum, most of the left hind limb and foot, a right thigh bone, and twelve anterior tail vertebrae. These remains pertain to a single individual as they were all found articulated (still connected together). Additionally, several disarticulated bones were found, including the right forearm and some metacarpalia and phalanges from both the right and left forefeet, probably also pertaining to this individual. Later, the site was revisited by the scientists Geoffrey Bond and Michael Cooper, who were able to collect additional remains including a scapula (specimen QG152, a shoulder blade) and a fragment of a neck vertebra. These remains show that more than one individual was present, and it is possible that they do not pertain to Vulcanodon at all. Today, the Vulcanodon remains are stored in the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe in Bulawayo.
Raath (1972) noted the discovery of nine fragmentary carnivorous teeth near the pelvic region of the skeleton. He argued that the Vulcanodon carcass might have been embedded with the head and neck bended backwards above the pelvis, a posture called death pose that is frequently seen in dinosaur skeletons. The teeth would have been the only preserved elements of the skull. However, as shown by Cooper (1984), these teeth do not pertain to Vulcanodon but to a theropod dinosaur that may have scavenged on the Vulcanodon carcass.
## Classification
Originally, Michael Raath (1972) described Vulcanodon not as a sauropod but as an advanced, specialized prosauropod, possibly of the family Melanorosauridae. According to Raath, the sauropod-like limb proportions in Vulcanodon evolved independently from those of true sauropods (through convergent evolution). He argued that primitive features of the pelvis as well as the knife-shaped teeth preclude a classification within the Sauropoda. The teeth, however, are now known to belong to a theropod. Arthur Cruickshank (1975) was the first to show that Vulcanodon was indeed a sauropod, arguing that the fifth metatarsal bone was equally long as the remaining metatarsals, a condition seen in other sauropods but not in prosauropods. Today, Vulcanodon is universally accepted to be one of the most basal (primitive) members of Sauropoda.
Michael Cooper (1984) erected a new family, the Vulcanodontidae, which he regarded as the "rootstock" for later sauropod families. Originally, the Vulcanodontidae included Vulcanodon and the Indian Barapasaurus, but subsequent studies attributed a number of other, much more fragmentary early sauropod genera to this family, including Ohmdenosaurus and Zizhongosaurus. Paul Upchurch (1995) showed that Barapasaurus was more closely related to later, more advanced sauropods than to Vulcanodon, rendering the Vulcanodontidae polyphyletic and therefore invalid.
The exact relationships with other basal sauropod genera remain unclear. Ronan Allain and colleagues (2004, 2008) found that Vulcanodon is most closely related to Tazoudasaurus, a newly discovered sauropod genus from Morocco. These researchers suggested reintroducing the name Vulcanodontidae to name the clade containing Vulcanodon and Tazoudasaurus. However, this sibling relationship between Tazoudasaurus and Vulcanodon could not be confirmed by other analyses.
Adam Yates (2004) described a single sauropod tail vertebra from the Upper Elliot Formation of South Africa that may belong to a genus closely related to Vulcanodon. The Upper Elliot Formation is famous for its abundant fossils of the prosauropod Massospondylus.
## Paleoecology
During the later part of the Lower Jurassic, southern Africa was the scene of massive volcanism, resulting in extensive lava flows (so called flood basalts) that covered much of southern Africa and Antarctica. These basalt formations are known as the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous province. Vulcanodon comes from the "Vulcanodon beds", a fossil-bearing sediment unit within the Batoka Formation, which is composed primarily of flood basalts. The skeleton was found near the top of a 30-metre-thick (98 ft) bedded layer of sand- and siltstone that is over- and underlain by flood basalts.
It was long assumed that Vulcanodon lived during the lowermost (earliest) part of the Jurassic (the Hettangian stage) or at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, approximately 200 million years ago. Therefore, it was regarded as the earliest sauropod known, until the discovery of the even older Late Triassic Isanosaurus was announced in 2000. Adam Yates (2004) has recently shown that Vulcanodon is actually much younger than previously thought, dating to the uppermost (latest) part of the Lower Jurassic during the Toarcian stage, approximately 175–183 million years ago. Thus, it is contemporary to the closely related Tazoudasaurus. Although the locality of Vulcanodon itself cannot be dated radiometrically because of weathering of the lavas, it would roughly be a contemporary to Karoo lavas from other localities, as the entire sequence of volcanic eruptions was finished within one million years.
Vulcanodon is the only named dinosaur from the Vulcanodon beds. Cooper (1984) noted that the habitat was desert-like, as indicated by aeolian (wind-blown) sands of the Forest Sandstone Formation, which underlies the "Vulcanodon beds". The sediments in which Vulcanodon was found may represent distal alluvial fan deposits which levelled off into a desert landscape, which may have contained lakes during the wet season. The individual may have roamed the shores of wadis that cut into the alluvial fan deposits, unless the carcass was transported to the locality it was found by flooding.
Initially, sauropods were thought to be mainly aquatic, inhabiting lush peat swamps and being captive to the buoyancy of water to support their giant body weights. In 1984, Cooper pointed out that Vulcanodon, the most primitive sauropod known at that time, lived in a desert like environment and therefore must have been terrestrial. This indicated that the large body size of sauropods, as already seen in Vulcanodon, had not evolved as an adaptation to an aquatic life style.
|
44,939,646 |
2015 Paris–Nice
| 1,163,286,998 |
Cycling race
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[
"2015 UCI World Tour",
"2015 in French sport",
"March 2015 sports events in France",
"Paris–Nice"
] |
The 2015 Paris–Nice was the 73rd edition of the Paris–Nice stage race. It took place from 8 to 15 March and was the second race of the 2015 UCI World Tour following the Tour Down Under. The race was a return to the traditional format of Paris−Nice after an unorthodox course in 2014. It started in Yvelines, west of Paris, with a prologue time trial; the course then moved south through France with several stages suitable for sprinters. The decisive part of the race began on stage four with a summit finish at the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret; stage six also had a mountainous route. The race ended after seven days with the climb of the Col d'Èze outside Nice.
The 2014 champion, Carlos Betancur (), chose not to defend his title. The early lead in the race was taken by Michał Kwiatkowski () in the prologue; he kept the lead until stage three, when Michael Matthews took over the race lead through time bonuses. Stage four was won by Richie Porte (), while Kwiatkowski took back the race lead. On stage six, a chaotic stage in rainy conditions, Tony Gallopin () won and took over the race lead, but he was unable to defend his lead in the final-day time trial. Porte, the 2013 champion, won the general classification as well as two stages. Kwiatkowski finished second overall, with Simon Špilak () on the same time in third place.
The points classification was won by Matthews, who had four top-ten finishes as well as his stage win. The mountains classification was won by Thomas De Gendt (). Kwiatkowski won the young riders classification as the best rider born after 1 January 1990. The teams classification was won by .
## Teams
As Paris–Nice was a UCI World Tour event, all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad. Three Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations.
## Pre-race favourites
Paris–Nice overlapped with another UCI World Tour race, Tirreno–Adriatico. In 2015, the Italian race attracted the main Grand Tour riders, such as Alberto Contador (), Chris Froome (), Vincenzo Nibali () and Nairo Quintana (). Only one former Grand Tour champion, Bradley Wiggins (), chose to compete in Paris–Nice.
The favourites for the race included the 2013 champion, Richie Porte (), the 2011 champion, Tony Martin () and the 2014 world champion, Michał Kwiatkowski (). Other riders considered to have a chance of victory included Geraint Thomas (), who had just won the Volta ao Algarve, Romain Bardet and Jean-Christophe Péraud (both ), Tejay van Garderen (), Andrew Talansky () and Rui Costa ().
Paris–Nice was also raced by many classics riders preparing for the Spring Classics and especially Milan–San Remo, which followed just a few days later. Riders expected to feature on the flatter days included classics specialists such as Alexander Kristoff (), John Degenkolb (), Arnaud Démare () and Philippe Gilbert () and sprinters like Nacer Bouhanni () and André Greipel ().
## Route
The previous edition had been an unusual race with no time trials or summit finishes, but the 2015 edition of the race was a return to the traditional form: the race began with a prologue individual time trial near Paris; this was followed by a series of road stages south through France, including one summit finish; the race ended with a mountain time trial on the Col d'Èze. The race, known as the "race to the Sun", was seen as a mini-Tour de France, where riders needed to be both competent time-trialists and capable of climbing mountains. The key stages were expected to be the summit finish on the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret on stage 4 and the concluding time trial on the Col d'Èze.
## Stages
### Prologue
8 March 2015 — Maurepas to Maurepas, 6.7 km (4.2 mi), individual time trial (ITT)
The race began with a prologue individual time trial in the Yvelines department. The 6.7-kilometre (4.2-mile) prologue was flat, with three major turns. The riders included four of the top five of previous year's world time trial championships in Bradley Wiggins (), Tony Martin (), Tom Dumoulin () and Rohan Dennis ().
The first rider to set off in the race was Daniel McLay (). Dylan van Baarle () was the leader for a significant period, with a time of 8' 04". The lead was briefly held by Giacomo Nizzolo () and Tiago Machado (). Their times were beaten by Dennis, who recorded a time of 7' 40". Dennis held the lead for an hour and a half, until he was beaten by Michał Kwiatkowski by less than a second. Kwiatkowski's time was enough to beat all the other riders. He therefore took the yellow jersey of the overall leader, as well as the green jersey of the points leader and the white jersey of the best young rider. The absence of categorised climbs meant that no polka-dot jersey was awarded.
### Stage 1
9 March 2015 — Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse to Contres, 192 km (119.3 mi)
The first road stage of the race took the riders over an almost entirely flat 192-kilometre (119.3-mile) course south from Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse to Contres. There was one climb in the day's racing – the Côte de Bel Air – after 3 kilometres (1.9 miles).
The first breakaway of the day came from Jonathan Hivert (). He attacked alone and took both maximum mountain points and the victory at the first intermediate sprint. Despite at one point having a lead of nearly four minutes, he sat up and was caught by the peloton. Michael Matthews (), in eighth place after the prologue, took second place in the intermediate sprint to win two bonus seconds, moving him to ten seconds behind Michał Kwiatkowski, while John Degenkolb () took a second for finishing third.
The next significant move was made by Hivert's teammate, Anthony Delaplace, who broke away with Thomas Voeckler (). The two remained in the breakaway for most of the rest of the stage, which was raced at a very slow pace. Delaplace and Voeckler had a lead of over six minutes, but the peloton gradually chased them down. With 25 kilometres (16 miles) remaining, they had about a minute's lead and Voeckler forced an acceleration. Their lead extended to over 1' 40" with 15 kilometres (9 miles) remaining, and they won the final intermediate sprint. Geraint Thomas () took the bonus second for third place. The breakaway still had over 40 seconds' lead with 5 kilometres (3 miles) remaining, but were caught by the sprinters' teams 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles) from the finish line.
Degenkolb was the first rider to start the sprint in a disorganised finale to the stage, but he was not able to maintain his speed and finished outside the top ten. The stage was won by Alexander Kristoff () ahead of Nacer Bouhanni () and Bryan Coquard (). Kwiatkowski therefore maintained his lead in the general, points and youth classifications, while Hivert took the polka dot jersey of the mountains classification.
18 kilometres (11 miles) from the end of the stage, Tom Boonen clashed wheels while riding at the back of the peloton. He fell on his shoulder and, after receiving medical attention, abandoned the race with a suspected broken collarbone. That evening, it was announced that, though his collarbone was not broken, he had suffered a dislocation in his shoulder and would miss the Spring Classics season, including his principal targets at Paris–Roubaix and the Tour of Flanders.
### Stage 2
10 March 2015 — ZooParc de Beauval (Saint-Aignan) to Saint-Amand-Montrond, 172 km (106.9 mi)
The second road stage was a 172-kilometre (106.9-mile) route from the ZooParc de Beauval to the town of Saint-Amand-Montrond. The first part of the route was a 127-kilometre (79-mile) route southeast. The riders then entered a finishing circuit; they first rode the final 8 kilometres (5 miles) of the circuit, before doing a complete 45-kilometre (28-mile) lap. The route was again mostly flat, with just one categorised climb. This was the Côte de la Tour and came as part of the finishing circuit.
The first breakaway of the day was formed by Arnaud Gérard (), who escaped alone and earned a lead of over eight minutes, with the peloton riding slowly behind. Gerard won both intermediate sprints. On the first, Alexander Kristoff () took second place to win two bonus seconds. John Degenkolb(), who had come third and won a one-second bonus in the first sprint, took second place in the second sprint ahead of Michael Matthews ().
The chase was led by and and Gerard had less than a minute's lead at the Côte de la Tour. Philippe Gilbert (), Jonathan Hivert () and Laurens De Vreese () attacked over the climb, with Hivert winning a point for the mountains classification and maintaining his lead in the competition. The race came back together with approximately 38 kilometres (24 miles) left to race.
The following period of racing was relatively calm, without attacks and with controlling the pace. With 9.2 kilometres (5.7 miles) remaining, however, Tony Martin () attacked and was joined by Geraint Thomas (), Lars Boom () and Matti Breschel (). Breschel suffered a puncture and dropped out of the move, but Martin, Thomas and Boom continued their breakaway attempt. Several riders, including Rui Costa (), made unsuccessful attempts to bridge across to the leading group. The chase in the main peloton was led by and the leading group was caught with 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles) remaining.
The first team to move forward in the sprint was , with following soon afterwards. Greg Henderson, however, was the penultimate man in the train; his lead-out brought André Greipel to a perfect position to open his sprint. Arnaud Démare () came close, but Greipel was able to win the stage. Degenkolb took third place and, with bonus seconds taken into account, was just two seconds behind Michał Kwiatkowski.
### Stage 3
11 March 2015 — Saint-Amand-Montrond to Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule, 179 km (111 mi)
The third stage started where stage two had ended, Saint-Amand-Montrond, and took the riders over a 179-kilometre (111-mile) route to the finish line in Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule. The route started with a 146.5-kilometre (91.0-mile) route, initially heading south-east before turning north in the final part of the stage. The riders then entered another finishing circuit. They first rode the final 13 kilometres (8 miles) of the circuit, then did an entire 19.5-kilometre (12.1-mile) lap. There was a short climb and two corners in the final kilometre of the stage.
The first break of the day was formed by Philippe Gilbert () and Florian Vachon () after 9 kilometres (6 miles). Bradley Wiggins () and Antoine Duchesne () attempted to bridge across to the leading pair; Wiggins was first to drop back, while Duchesne was never able to get closer than two minutes to the pair ahead. Bob Jungels () took third place in the first intermediate sprint. At the first mountains sprint, Gilbert crossed the line first to win four points and take the lead of the mountains classification. Following repeated attacks from the peloton behind, Gilbert and Vachon were joined after 74 kilometres (46 miles) by Thomas Voeckler (). Gilbert then won the two other third-category climbs, earning a nine-point lead in the classification.
With 50 kilometres (31 miles) remaining, Gilbert, Vachon and Voeckler still had a five-minute lead, with the sprinters' teams joining Michał Kwiatkowski's team in chasing the breakaway down. With 20 kilometres (12 miles) left to race, the lead was cut to 43 seconds, and Gilbert dropped out of the break with 17 kilometres (11 miles) remaining. Vachon was next to drop out of the leading group; Voeckler was then joined by Paolo Tiralongo (). Voeckler himself then fell back, while Tiralongo was joined by riders Jan Bakelants and Romain Bardet. This group of three riders held a gap of approximately 16 seconds, but were chased down by the peloton.
The sprint was led by in support of Michael Matthews, for whom the short hill before the finish line was ideal. tried and failed to come past them in the final kilometre. With 500 m (1,640 ft) to go, still had four riders at the head of the peloton. Matthews was able to hold on for the win, despite a late challenge from Davide Cimolai () and Giacomo Nizzolo (). Thanks to the bonus seconds he won on the line, Matthews took over the overall lead in the race, as well as the leadership of the points and young rider classifications.
### Stage 4
12 March 2015 — Varennes-sur-Allier to Col de la Croix de Chaubouret, 204 km (126.8 mi)
The fourth stage of the race was the longest of the race: a 204-kilometre (126.8-mile) route from Varennes-sur-Allier to the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret, the only summit finish in the race. The route was hilly throughout, with two second-category and five third-category climbs before the final ascent. The Col de la Croix de Chaubouret was the highest point in the race at 1,201 m (3,940 ft), making this the queen stage of the 2015 Paris–Nice. It was a 10-kilometre (6-mile) climb averaging 6.7%, with some sections at 9%.
The early break was formed by Antoine Duchesne (), Thomas De Gendt () and Chris Anker Sørensen (). They earned a lead of more than eight minutes, with De Gendt winning the first seven mountain sprints of the day. This won him enough points to put him in the lead of the mountains classification. Duchesne was dropped on the first second-category climb of the day, the Côte de La Gimond, which came after 152 kilometres (94 miles). Work in the main peloton from had reduced the deficit significantly and, on the Côte de La Gimond, drove hard to split the peloton in two. Rafał Majka () was among the riders temporarily distanced, though his teammates were able to bring him back into the main group.
As they crossed the Col de La Gachet with 29 kilometres (18 miles) remaining, De Gendt and Sørensen had a lead of two minutes; this was reduced to less than a minute 3.5 kilometres (2.2 miles) later at the summit of the penultimate climb of the day, the Côte de la Croix Blanche. Andrew Talansky () and Majka both suffered mechanical problems around the summit of this climb. continued to chase the breakaway down and they were caught with 13 kilometres (8 miles) remaining.
At the base of the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret, and the came to the head of the peloton. Sky's Lars Petter Nordhaug led the peloton through the first 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) of the climb, dropping Michael Matthews () along the way. Warren Barguil () crashed at the base of the climb; though he eventually finished the stage, he was unable to return to the main group. After Nordhaug pulled off, his teammate Nicolas Roche took over. His turn at the head of the group caused several riders to be distanced, including Talansky, Majka and Wilco Kelderman ().
With 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) remaining, Roche pulled off and Geraint Thomas () attacked the small group of leaders. He gained a small lead and was joined by Jakob Fuglsang () and Simon Špilak (). Tejay van Garderen () and Rubén Fernández () attempted to bridge across, but Fernández, while looking at the group behind, cycled straight into van Garderen and crashed. Richie Porte () covered this move. He was again able to follow as Michał Kwiatkowski attacked. When Kwiatkowski had caught Thomas' group inside the final kilometre, Porte himself attacked. Thomas, his teammate, was the only rider able to follow him and they finished first and second on the stage. Kwiatkowski finished third, eight seconds behind. With the time bonuses won on the stage, Kwiatkowski was able to re-take the race lead; he was one second ahead of Porte with Thomas a further two seconds back.
### Stage 5
13 March 2015 — Saint-Étienne to Rasteau, 192.5 km (119.6 mi)
The fifth stage of the race was a 192.5-kilometre (119.6-mile) route that started in Saint-Étienne, travelled south and ended in Rasteau. The course began with a first-category climb, the Col de la Republique, but the remainder of the stage was generally flat. Three categorised climbs were located in the second half of the stage (two third category and one second), with the final climb 8.5 kilometres (5 miles) from the stage finish. The final 500 m (1,640 ft) were uphill.
The break was formed on the first-category climb that began the day's racing. Thomas De Gendt (), who had taken the lead of the mountains classification on stage four, attacked again. He was joined by Andrew Talansky (), Romain Sicard (), Egor Silin () and Paweł Poljański (). De Gendt won the mountain sprint on this climb and on all the other climbs of the day. The group was never allowed more than a four-minute lead, since Talansky was only 2' 51" behind Michał Kwiatkowski, the general classification leader. The chase was led by Kwiatkowski's team, who were joined by with 60 kilometres (37 miles) remaining. With 20 kilometres (12 miles) remaining and the gap at 1' 30", 's Bradley Wiggins moved to the front of the peloton. After Wiggins had reduced the gap, the took up the pace-setting.
Sicard and Poljański dropped out of the leading group on the final climb and, with less than 5 kilometres (3 miles) remaining and a lead of 25 seconds, an attack from De Gendt distanced Talansky too. were now leading the chase behind but, with 3 kilometres (2 miles) left, the leading pair still had a 30-second lead. With 1 kilometre (0.6 miles) remaining, a final attack from De Gendt dropped Silin. De Gendt attempted to hold on for a solo victory, but he was unable to avoid the sprinters' teams. As he was caught, Bryan Coquard () opened his sprint. Davide Cimolai (), however, was able to come past him in the final metres to take his second win of the year. Coquard finished second, with Michael Matthews () winning further points for the green jersey by finishing third. The top 10 of the general classification remained unchanged after the stage.
### Stage 6
14 March 2015 — Vence to Nice, 181.5 km (112.8 mi)
The final road stage of the race was a 181.5-kilometre (112.8-mile) route starting in Vence and ending on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice. The route was mountainous throughout: it included three first-category climbs and three second-category climbs. The summit of the final climb, the Côte de Peille, came with 27 kilometres (17 miles) remaining, as the riders descended into Nice down the Col d'Èze. The end of the descent came with approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) remaining, with a flat run to the finishing line.
A large breakaway escaped in the early part of the stage. This included 31 riders, representing a variety of teams but not or . Tim Wellens () was the best placed rider on general classification, 1' 25" behind Michał Kwiatkowski; he was the virtual leader of the race through much of the day. Wellens' teammate Thomas De Gendt was also in the breakaway: he won the first two climbs of the day to increase his lead in the mountains classification.
The first major attacks came with about 60 kilometres (37 miles) remaining: Kwiatkowski attacked with three teammates (Tony Martin, Julian Alaphilippe and Michał Gołaś), briefly gaining a lead of half a minute. were able to catch them. After the next climb, the Col Saint-Roch, the same four riders attacked, with Tony Gallopin () following. They again gained a half-minute lead, while Sky had just one domestique left to help Richie Porte and Geraint Thomas. were unable to continue their pressure, however, on the Côte de Peille, Gallopin attacked after sensing that Kwiatkowski was vulnerable. Near the top of the climb, Porte and Thomas caught Kwiatkowski's group, then attacked them and left them behind. They were joined by several riders, including Simon Špilak () and Jakob Fuglsang ().
At the summit of the final climb, therefore, Gallopin had a lead over the Porte and Thomas group, with Kwiatkowski struggling in another group behind. On the descent, however, Porte and Thomas both crashed in separate incidents; they were recaptured by Kwiatkowski's group. After the final stage, Porte attributed these crashes to over-inflated tyres.) Gallopin won the final intermediate sprint and the bonus seconds, ahead of the chasing group that was led by Rui Costa () and Fuglsang. Gallopin, however, was able to extend his lead throughout the long descent. He won the stage solo, more than 30 seconds ahead of the first chasing group. Porte and Thomas were over a minute behind, with Kwiatkowski losing an additional two seconds on the finish line. Gallopin, who had been 38" behind Kwiatkowski, took the race lead. He was now 36" ahead of Porte, with Kwiatkowski, Thomas, Fuglsang and Costa within six seconds of him. Gallopin said after the stage that, while he hoped to defend his yellow jersey in the final stage time trial on the Col d'Èze, it would be difficult to stay ahead of Porte.
### Stage 7
15 March 2015 — Nice to Col d'Èze, 9.6 km (6.0 mi)
The 2015 Paris–Nice concluded with a mountain time trial on the Col d'Èze. The 9.6-kilometre (6.0-mile) course began in Nice and had an average gradient of 4.7%. The steepest part of the climb came in the early stages: the second kilometre had an average gradient of 8.5%. The intermediate timing point came at the Col des Quatre Chemins, 4 kilometres (2 miles) from the finish. The final 1.5 kilometres (0.9 miles) towards the summit of the Col d'Èze were contested on a false flat. This time trial was the traditional final stage of Paris–Nice, though it was absent from the 2014 edition. The last time the course was used, in the last stage of the 2013 Paris–Nice, the stage was won by Richie Porte (), securing his overall race victory. As was customary in time trial stages, the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage. The race was held in rainy and windy conditions.
The first major news of the day was that Bradley Wiggins (), who had won the stage in the 2012 Paris–Nice and who was the reigning world time trial champion, would not start the stage. He had been in 103rd place overnight, more than 56 minutes behind race leader Tony Gallopin. The first rider to set off was Stijn Vandenbergh (), who recorded a time of 23' 37". Alexander Kristoff () completed the course in 22' 11" and led the race for a while. Sérgio Paulinho () briefly took over the lead, before he was overtaken by Thomas De Gendt (), whose time was 21' 19". Rein Taaramäe () recorded a better time, but was immediately beaten by the next rider, Andrew Talansky (). Talansky's time was 21' 00"; he led until former world time trial champion Tony Martin () became the first rider to complete the course in under 21 minutes. Martin was the leader of the stage until the final few riders completed the course. Simon Špilak () was the first of the general classification contenders to beat Martin; his time was 20' 36". This was enough to beat many of the other contenders for the overall classification: Rui Costa (), Geraint Thomas () and Michał Kwiatkowski () all finished behind Špilak. Porte, in second place overnight, was the only rider able to beat Špilak's time: Porte was 11 seconds ahead at the intermediate time check and finished the stage 13 seconds ahead.
The final rider to set off was Gallopin (). Gallopin was 36 seconds ahead of Porte overnight and expressed hope that he would be able to defend his lead and take overall victory. Immediately after he set off, however, he was nervous and uncomfortable on his bike. Gallopin, like most of the riders, was riding a conventional road bike with aero bars attached. At the intermediate time check, he was already 58 seconds behind Porte; he lost another 41 seconds in the second part of the stage. His time of 22' 02" meant he finished 29th on the stage and lost the yellow jersey. He dropped to sixth place overall. Porte therefore won both the stage and the overall victory in the race, his first general classification victory since he won Paris–Nice in 2013. Kwiatkowski's fifth place on the stage was enough to ensure both second place overall (30 seconds behind Porte) and victory in the young rider classification. Špilak finished on the same overall time as Kwiatkowski in third place, with Costa also on the same time in fourth.
## Classification leadership table
In the 2015 Paris–Nice, four jerseys were awarded. The general classification was calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages (stages 1–6): the stage winner won a ten-second bonus, with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively. Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints (three seconds for the winner of the sprint, two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third. The leader of the general classification received a yellow jersey. This classification was considered the most important of the 2015 Paris–Nice, and the winner of the classification was considered the winner of the race.
The second classification was the points classification. Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top ten in a stage. Unlike in the points classification in the Tour de France, the winners of all stages were awarded the same number of points. Points were also won in intermediate sprints; three points for crossing the sprint line first, two points for second place, and one for third. The leader of the points classification was awarded a green jersey.
There was also a mountains classification, for which points were awarded for reaching the top of a climb before other riders. Each climb was categorised as either first, second, or third-category, with more points available for the more difficult, higher-categorised climbs. For first-category climbs, the top seven riders earned points; on second-category climbs, five riders won points; on third-category climbs, only the top three riders earned points. The leadership of the mountains classification was marked by a white jersey with red polka-dots.
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification, marked by a white jersey. Only riders born after 1 January 1990 were eligible; the young rider best placed in the general classification was the leader of the young rider classification.
There was also a classification for teams, in which the times of the best three cyclists in a team on each stage were added together; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest cumulative time.
|
42,536,941 |
The Boat Race 2011
| 1,072,390,993 | null |
[
"2011 in English sport",
"2011 in rowing",
"2011 sports events in London",
"March 2011 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"The Boat Race"
] |
The 157th Boat Race took place on 26 March 2011. Held annually, the event is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race was won by Oxford. Of the eighteen competitors in the race, thirteen were British. The race was sponsored for the second time by Xchanging.
Oxford won the Women's Boat Race by four lengths while Cambridge's Goldie beat Oxford's Isis in the reserve race.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. First held in 1829, the competition is a 4.2-mile (6.8 km) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 2010 race by 1+1⁄3 lengths, and led overall with 80 victories to Oxford's 75 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the seventh consecutive year, and it was the second time that the title had been given over to sponsorship; as such it was referred to as the "Xchanging Boat Race". The BBC broadcast the event in the United Kingdom, in high-definition for the first time.
The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race.
## Crews
The Cambridge crew was "slightly heavier" than their opponents, weighing in at a ceremony at City Hall overseen by Boris Johnson at 3.5 pounds (1.6 kg) more per rower than Oxford. Thirteen of the eighteen competitors were British, the highest proportion for a decade. Of the two crews, Cambridge featured three returning Blues to Oxford's one. Oxford University Boat Club's president Ben Myers suggested "we're home-grown guys, we know about the Boat Race and we're keen". Oxford were coached once again by Sean Bowden, who set their boat up as "tandem rigged" (where two consecutive crew row on the same side of the boat), the first time such a configuration had been used in the Boat Race since 1975. Steve Trapmore was making his debut as Cambridge's coach. Oxford's stroke, Simon Hislop, had recovered from testicular cancer in time to participate in the race.
## Races
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station. Despite falling slightly behind early on in the race, Cambridge rowed their way back into contention and umpire Rob Clegg was forced to warn both crews as the coxes steered towards one another. Following a brief clash of oars, Oxford started to pull away again at Harrods Furniture Depository. At Hammersmith Bridge, the Oxford cox called for push, shouting "2003" to invoke memories of the narrowest margin of victory in the history of the event in the 2003 race. Passing St Paul's School, Oxford took the lead and steered across and in front of the Cambridge boat. Despite attempts to keep in touch with Oxford, Cambridge fell farther and farther behind, and Oxford passed the finishing post four lengths clear in a time of 17 minutes and 37 seconds.
Oxford won the 66th Women's Boat Race by four lengths, their third consecutive victory. Oxford's Isis beat Cambridge's Goldie in the reserve race by six lengths.
## Reaction
Cambridge number four Henry Cubasch remarked "They had the strength, character and went for it; we just let them slip." Oxford's Constantine Louloudis said "We held Cambridge in high regard. But I certainly didn't predict a margin like that." Cambridge president Rasumussen called it a "stinging defeat".
|
19,683,834 |
East Worldham
| 1,155,556,178 | null |
[
"East Hampshire District",
"Former civil parishes in Hampshire",
"Villages in Hampshire"
] |
East Worldham is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Worldham, in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire, England. It is 1.9 miles (3.1 km) east of Alton; and 1.9 miles (3.1 km) south-west of Wyck. Hartley Mauditt and West Worldham are nearby, which, along with East Worldham, form the parish of Worldham. The village is just east of the A31 road and contains St Mary's Church and the Three Horse Shoes pub, amongst other buildings. Worldham Golf Course located just to west and Dean Farm Golf Course just to the east. For centuries the village and surrounding parish were owned by Winchester College. In 1931 the parish had a population of 208.
## History
Archaeological findings in the fields between West and East Worldham reveal that the area has been visited and inhabited since at least the Palaeolithic era. An Iron Age Hillfort, dated to around 100 BC, lay on the summit of King John's Hill, to the east of East Worldham. The Romans built a road from Chichester to Silchester which passed below the hill over what is now Green Street and Pookles Lane.
The village is believed to have been part of "Werildeham", mentioned in the Domesday Book. There have been multiple spellings of the name, including Werildeham; Wardham, 11th century; Wirldham, 12th century; Verildham, 13th century; Verilham and YV'erlham, 14th century; and Wardelham, 16th century.
For several centuries, the manor of East Worldham was held by the Venuz (or Venuiz) family, associated with marshall service, a sergeantry connected with the custody of the forests of Woolmer and Alice Holt. According to Samuel Tymms, "Robert de Venuz held the manors of East Worldham, in Hants, and Draycote, in Wilts, by the sergeantry of performing the office of Marshal. These manors, by the Domesday Survey, are said to be held by Geoffrey le Marshal. From the proximity of the period there appears little doubt but that this Geffrey left two daughters and coheiresses, married to Robert de Venuz and Gilbert le Marshal, which latter seems to have acquired the office indicated by his name, not however without a dispute from his co-inheritor, whose lands being held by virtue of serving the office, would entitle their holder to fill it." A dispute arose concerning the inheritance of the manor in the early part of the 14th century. The Patent Rolls noted that, as the result of a trial in 1329, it passed, on the death of Margery, widow of John Venuiz, to the Burghersh family. There is also a recorded release by Thomas, son and heir of John de Venuz, to Sir John de Burghersh, knight, of all his right in East Worldham manor. Thomas Chaucer married Matilda, daughter and coheiress of Sir John Burghersh, nephew of Henry Burghersh, Bishop of Lincoln, becoming the owner of the manor.
Documents indicate the Gurdons or Gordons occupied the village from at least the 13th century when Sir Adam de Gurdon held property. In 1472 the Gurdon holding was purchased by Winchester College who would increasingly grow to dominate the parish over the next 500 years. The Sandals holding later merged with the Gurdons and documents exist indicating the existence of the Sandals in 1255 and another in 1329, witnessed by a John de Sandale. For centuries, village life centred on the old farm holdings of the Manor; the Shelleys, Freres, Sandals and Gurdons (now merged into Old House Farm), and the Heathers, Clays, Porters, Park, Smiths and some descendants of these families continue to live in the village today and many old farm buildings still exist. The naturalist and ornithologist Gilbert White immortalised the localities of the region, including East Worldham, in his The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789).
By at least the mid-19th century, East Worldham and most of the parish of Worldham was owned by both Winchester College and the Dutton Estate. From the early 1860s when Dr. Fell became vicar in the village, East Worldham underwent dramatic change, which the renovation of the church and additions of hop kilns to the local farms and the building of new cottages, most of which form the urban landscape of the village today. In 1892 Mr Hall of Alton, financed the "lowering of the gradients of Worldham Hill by smoothing out four sections", a steep hill which had caused many problems to the local inhabitants as it lay along the main road to the village. The first Parish Council meeting took place in 1894 in the schoolroom.
On 1 April 1932 the parish was abolished to form "Worldham".
In May 1944, a Junkers JU188 was shot down by a Mosquito nearby and its debris was scattered across the nearby village of West Worldham, including the church wall. Later, the inhabitants had to be evacuated when a bomb fell into the field opposite Manor Farm, and had to be defused and removed by the Royal Engineers. In 1962, the Dutton Estate holdings were sold to seven tenant farmers who retained the land they farmed but sold the remaining woodlands and properties.
## Geography
East Worldham is located in the eastern central part of Hampshire, in the south-east of England, 1.9 miles (3.1 km) south-east of Alton. It is situated at 500 feet (150 m) above sea level. The landscape is dominated by farmland and several woods such as Warner's Wood, Pheasant Wood to the south and Furzefield Copse, Rookery Copse, Great Wood, Tanner's Copse, Pondfield Copse, Monk Wood and New Copse to the north are in the vicinity as is the small hamlet of Wyck. Situated on the edge of a rock terrace, the chalk of Alton is on the west. The village slopes down abruptly to the gault adjoining Kingsley on the east. Oakhanger Stream adjoins the River Wey from East Worldham to Kinglsey. Lodge Hill, or King John's Hill, is the site of a hunting lodge of John, King of England; it is situated on an isolated eminence to the south-east of the parish by Woolmer Forest. Chloritic Marl, characterised as a narrow band at the base of the Chalk Marl, is seen in the lane leading from Alton to West and East Worldham, and also north-west of Selbourne. Blanket Street connects the village to West Worldham a mile to the south-west and Hartley Mauditt just beyond that. At East Worldham this road meets the B3004 road (Caker's Lane/Green Street) near The Three Horseshoes and is the main road passing through the village from the A31 road, leading to the A325 road in the east. The nearest railway station is Alton, 2.1 miles (3.4 km) north-west of the village.
## Economy
In 2001 East Worldham contained roughly two-thirds of the population of 336 people who lived in the whole Parish of Worldham. Most houses in the area date to the pre-20th century; however in recent times numerous farm buildings have been converted to housing and for industrial purposes. According to the parish website, there are now "two significant industrial developments within the parish". The local economy is based around agriculture, particularly cattle farming. Beef cattle, sheep, grain crops, and hops are the main sources of income, Farmers from the area Worldham traded in Southampton and Alton throughout its history. Most inhabitants are either retired or commute to nearby towns to work. Golf is also important to the local economy, with Worldham Golf Course located just to west and Dean Farm Golf Course just to the east. The Jalsa Salana, an annual Islamic convention held at Oaklands Farm nearby, attracts numerous people from surrounding areas. Red Bug Productions are based in the parish cottages along the main road.
## Notable landmarks
East Worldham contains 10 Grade II listed buildings. St Mary's Church is of Transitional Norman architecture and is a Grade II\* listed building. Notable features include triple lancet windows, a small pointed tower, three bells, and stained glass by Hardman & Co. The chancel was restored in 1864, and in 1865, the nave was rebuilt. During the late restoration, a stone monument, like a coffin, was found under the floor of the church, which contained the figure of a 13th-century lady. Magdalen College, Oxford is patron of the vicarage. A church school was built in 1864 upon a site donated by James Dutton, 3rd Baron Sherborne.
East Worldham House, a Grade II listed building, dates to the late 18th and early 19th century. The two-storey house is made with ashlar walls, flat arches and stone cills. The entrance is located on the west side and features a Tuscan porch in the centre, with 5 windows, one of them large. The interior of the house contains Regency features, with a staircase, panelled doors in architraves, and several fireplaces. The coach house, 5 metres to the north of the house is also a listed building, dated to the early 19th century. It is made of malmstone ashlar, with the upper wall of the centre boarded with a hay loft door and has a hipped slate roof. Today this building functions as a garage and workshop.
The Old House Farmhouse on Shelleys Lane is believed by the parish authorities to have originally been the oldest building in the village, but the current building dates to only the 17th and early and late 19th century. The walls are made of coursed malmstone with brick dressings, rendered with a plinth. The roof is apparently unusual with the "northern half being of steeper pitch, both sections half-hipped, with a slate roof above the wing." It became a Grade II listed building on 1 May 1983. The Manor Farmhouse building, also a Grade II listed building, dates to the early 17th century, with alterations in the mid-19th century, containing Victorian window sashes.
The Sandals farm contains three cottages dated to the 17th century. Heather Cottage is another 17th-century cottage, with 20th-century additions to the rear, on Worldham Hill, noted for its thatched roof. It is believed to be named after William Heather, a resident mentioned in the 1665 Hearth Tax returns. It became a listed building on 18 July 1986. The Three Horseshoes Public House was first licensed in 1834 and is one of the main features of the village. It was rebuilt some 50 years later by Henry Newman. Also of note is the Rectory House on Wyck Lane, and the Oast House, just to the west of the rectory.
## Notable people
- Alexander Charles Garrett, curate of East Worldham
- John Wallis, Arabic scholar and vicar of East Worldham
|
11,030,295 |
Black Tears
| 1,091,997,154 | null |
[
"2007 songs",
"Powderfinger songs",
"Songs written by Bernard Fanning",
"Songs written by Darren Middleton",
"Songs written by Ian Haug",
"Songs written by John Collins (Australian musician)",
"Songs written by Jon Coghill"
] |
"Black Tears" is a song by Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger, from their sixth studio album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence. The song is an acoustic ballad in a folk music style, beginning with one guitar and a lead vocal, later introducing a guitar with a synthesised effect from the first chorus. Following the Dream Days at the Hotel Existence release, live versions of the song have been released on other recordings.
The song did not cause the release of the album to be delayed, despite claims that the song's lyrics could interfere with the 2004 Palm Island death in custody case.
## Controversy
On 2 May 2007, mX, an afternoon newspaper in Brisbane, revealed that the defence team for Senior Sergeant Chris Hurley would be referring the song to Queensland Attorney-General Kerry Shine, due to concerns that the song's lyrics could prejudice the 2004 Palm Island death in custody, where Hurley had been charged for manslaughter. On 2 May Hurley's lawyer Glen Cranny said "The content and proposed timing of the song’s release raises some serious concerns regarding Mr Hurley’s trial." It was claimed by the defence team that the song's lyrics were similar to the events that took place surrounding the death of Mulrunji. The band's manager, Paul Piticco, conceded the song was about the case but insisted they were not specific enough to cause a problem. The album was set to be released 10 days before Hurley would face Townsville Supreme Court, on 12 June. There were concerns that the case's jury could potentially be biased by the lyrical content.
Due to the concerns raised, Powderfinger sought legal advice. Then Queensland premier, Peter Beattie, who had legal experience, said the song was likely to be protected by free speech laws, noting "The matter would have to go pertain specifically to the issues of the trial" for a "prejudice" argument to be raised.
Several days after the initial threats of legal action, Powderfinger backed down and announced they would change the song. The band's lawyers sent Shine a copy of the new, altered lyrics. It was then reported that an analysis of the new lyrics found they were safe to release. This was the version that would later be used on the album. A statement from Shine's office stated that "Crown Law has examined the lyrics. Crown Law have advised Mr Shine's office the lyrics raise no legal concern."
In a June 2007 interview, Fanning noted that Powderfinger hoped to re-release the original version of the song in the future, after the case had been settled. He also said that he was not angry about having to change his lyrics, but lamented the lack of Australian musicians willing to challenge the status quo.
The legal threats against the song were attacked heavily by some writers, including Andrew Stafford of The Bulletin. He noted that it was highly unlikely "Black Tears" would be released as a single, so potential jurors would need to "buy a copy of Dream Days in the ten days between its release and Hurley's trial just to hear the song". He also noted that Piticco had stated the lyrics could just as easily refer to a death in Brisbane, not on Palm Island.
## Musical content
In a media statement published on the band's MySpace web page, lead singer Bernard Fanning, who originally wrote the song, said the inspiration came to him after "a trip that I took last year to Uluru". He said it discussed the issue of people climbing the rock, which is sacred in Aboriginal folklore, despite "the prevalence of literature and signage" asking people not to. Fanning compared climbing Uluru to climbing the Vatican, which he noted would be highly offensive to Catholics.
Fanning said the second part of the song, which contained the controversial lyrics, was written following the Queensland Director of Public Prosecutions passing down its finding in the death in custody case. He said that the band believed the song would have no bearing on the legal procedure, they would nonetheless include an alternative version of the song on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence.
The alternate version of the song still contains the lyrics An island watchhouse bed / A black man's lying dead. but not the lyrics that followed.
Upon announcing that the album would contain an altered version, Fanning noted his initial reasons for the song, stating "to bring attention to the obvious disadvantage that is still being suffered by Aboriginal people in this country", which he said included the issue of "Indigenous deaths in custody". Despite the claimed lyrical change, some early versions of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence were shipped with a version of "Black Tears" that included the controversial lyrics, which were also published on the band's website.
## Release history
### Original version
- Dream Days at the Hotel Existence – Track 9
### Live performances
- Across the Great Divide tour DVD – Disc 1, Track 11
- I Don't Remember – iTunes only – Track 2
|
6,063,263 |
2005 USC Trojans football team
| 1,162,609,217 |
American college football season
|
[
"2005 Pacific-10 Conference football season",
"2005 in sports in California",
"Pac-12 Conference football champion seasons",
"USC Trojans football seasons"
] |
The 2005 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California in the 2005 NCAA Division I-A football season, winning the Pacific-10 Conference (Pac-10), and playing for the NCAA Division I-A national championship. The team was coached by Pete Carroll, led on offense by quarterback and 2004 Heisman Trophy winner Matt Leinart, and played their home games in the Los Angeles Coliseum.
With many of their starters returning, a highly ranked recruiting class, and a number one ranking before the season, the team had high expectations of repeating as national champions and planned on becoming the first FBS-equivalent team to three-peat as AP champions since Minnesota in 1936. They had nearly all of their offensive starters returning, although they had only two returning defensive starters from the previous year. The team went undefeated in the regular season with nine of their twelve wins by 17 points or more and were compared with the greatest teams in the history of college football. Once again ranked first in the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) rankings, they were invited to the national championship bowl game at the Rose Bowl, where they lost to the Texas Longhorns. With a final record of 12–1, they finished the season ranked second in the nation in both the Associated Press (AP) and Coaches' Polls.
A number of players from the team won national awards, with running back Reggie Bush becoming the school's seventh Heisman winner before it was later vacated due to a violation of NCAA rules. Following the season, Bush was selected second in the 2006 National Football League (NFL) Draft and was followed by Leinart at tenth and nine other Trojans during the draft, with the team sending eleven players to the NFL that season.
On June 10, 2010, USC was forced to vacate two wins from the 2004 season, and all wins from the 2005 season, after an NCAA investigation into the football program (and men's basketball program) declared Bush retroactively ineligible. Additional sanctions included a bowl ban in 2010 and 2011, and the loss of 30 football scholarships (10 per year in 2010, 2011, and 2012). All official NCAA records show the Trojans as having a 0–0 record during the 2005 season, including the loss to Texas in the National Championship being vacated.
## Before the season
The 2003 Trojans finished the season with a 12–1 record and shared the national title with the Louisiana State University (LSU) Tigers; USC won the Associated Press championship while LSU played for and won the BCS National Championship. The 2004 Trojans finished with a 13–0 record that included a win in the national championship game. The team became only the second team to be ranked first in the AP Poll from pre-season until the end of the season, and the tenth team to repeat as national champions. Returning fourteen starters from 2004, including Heisman Trophy-winning quarterback Matt Leinart, and with a 22-game winning streak, the Trojans were ranked at the top of the polls once again in the pre-season.
### Coaching changes
After the 2004 season, four Trojan assistant coaches were offered and took jobs elsewhere. The most notable coach lost was offensive coordinator Norm Chow who took a job in the same position for the Tennessee Titans. Also leaving, were defensive line coach Ed Orgeron, who took the head coaching position at Ole Miss, quarterbacks coach Carl Smith, who became the offensive coordinator for the Jacksonville Jaguars, and offensive line coach Tim Davis who was hired by the Miami Dolphins. Carroll rebuilt his staff by elevating Ken Norton, Jr. from graduate assistant to full-time assistant coaching the linebackers, and hiring Steve Sarkisian, who was with the Oakland Raiders in 2004 and was formerly with the Trojans, as quarterbacks coach. Pat Ruel, who was with the New York Giants in 2004, to coach the offensive line, and Jethro Franklin, who spent 2004 with the Green Bay Packers, as defensive line coach, Sarkisian would additionally be named as assistant head coach and Lane Kiffin, wide receivers coach, would add recruiting and offensive coordinating to his duties.
### Roster changes
Although returning 14 starters from 2004, the team lost four players to the 2005 NFL Draft and another to the supplemental draft. The four players taken in the regular draft were Mike Patterson, taken 31st by Philadelphia, Shaun Cody, taken in the second round by Detroit, Lofa Tatupu, taken in the second round by Seattle, and Matt Cassel, taken in the seventh round by New England. Additionally, Manuel Wright was taken in the supplemental draft as a fifth round selection by the Miami Dolphins.
### Recruiting
The Trojans signed 19 recruits for the new class. Included in the top–10 class (ranked first by one source) were four five–star recruits on defense, two five–star recruits on offense, and another eight four–star recruits. Thomas Herring, who signed with the class, did not qualify for admission and sat out for the season, later enrolling in the school.
### Pre-season honors
Seven Trojan players were honored as part of pre-season watch lists for national awards.
- Darnell Bing – Bronko Nagurski Trophy, Lott Trophy, and Jim Thorpe Award
- Reggie Bush – Maxwell Award
- Dwayne Jarrett – Maxwell Award
- Ryan Kalil – Rimington Trophy
- Matt Leinart – Maxwell Award
- Steve Smith – Maxwell Award
- LenDale White – Maxwell Award
In addition to the awards, six players were honored on various pre-season All-America teams. Both Leinart and Bush were chosen by Playboy, Athlon, The Sporting News, Street & Smith, Phil Steele's, Lindy, and Blue Ribbon for their first teams. In addition, Playboy and Phil Steele chose Tom Malone to their first teams, Athlon chose Jarrett to its first team, and The Sporting News, Street and Smith, and Phil Steele chose Bing to their first teams. White was chosen to a number of third teams.
## Season
### Schedule
‡The Trojans loss in the Rose Bowl was also officially vacated.
### Game summaries
#### Hawaii
The Trojans began the season by traveling to Hawaii to face the Warriors led by sixth–year head coach June Jones and quarterback Colt Brennan, Leinart's backup in high school. The Trojans opened the scoring on a 65-yard interception return by Darnell Bing. The Warriors answered with a field goal, however the Trojans scored 14 points in the second quarter to take a 21–3 lead into half-time. After Leinart threw his second touchdown of the game to start the second half, Brennan was able to answer with his own touchdown pass to keep the deficit to 18, however, before the end of the quarter Leinart threw his third touchdown, Bush rushed for his second touchdown, and the Trojan defense returned a fumble for the fourth Trojan touchdown of the quarter. In the fourth quarter, most of the Trojan starters were out of the game, and backup quarterback John David Booty threw a touchdown to Dwayne Jarrett, his third touchdown catch of the game. Tyler Graunke threw a touchdown for the Warriors to bring them within 39, but backup running back Desmond Reed rushed for the last Trojan touchdown of the game to bring the final score to 63–17 and bringing the Trojans' win streak to 23 games.
#### Arkansas
In the Trojans' first home game of the season they faced the Arkansas Razorbacks, led by eighth–year head coach Houston Nutt and quarterback Robert Johnson. Bush opened the scoring for the Trojans with a 76-yard rush. The Razorbacks answered with a touchdown pass by Johnson, however, Leinart scored three touchdowns, two passing and one rushing, before the end of the quarter. In the second quarter the Razorbacks were able to kick a field goal before the Trojans scored two more touchdowns on a rush by LenDale White and a third pass by Leinart. Going into the half the Trojans led 42–10. In the third quarter, White rushed for his second touchdown and Leinart threw a fourth before the Trojan starters were taken out of the game. Booty threw his second touchdown of the season in the fourth quarter before backup quarterback Alex Mortensen threw a touchdown for the Razorbacks. Third-string Trojan quarterback Mike McDonald threw a 4-yard touchdown to end the game, giving the Trojans a 70–17 win and a 24-game winning streak.
#### Oregon
The Trojans next traveled to Eugene, Oregon to face the Ducks in both teams' conference opener. The Ducks, led by eleventh–year head coach Mike Bellotti and quarterback Kellen Clemens, came into the game undefeated, and started quickly with an early field goal. Later in the quarter, Clemens threw a touchdown and early in the second quarter another field goal gave the Ducks a 13–0 lead. Before the end of the half, Leinart threw a touchdown to Bush and a Mario Danelo field goal gave the Trojans a 13–10 deficit at the half. In the second half, the Trojans began an onslaught with two more Leinart touchdown passes, two LenDale White touchdown rushes, and a Bush rush for a touchdown. Scoring 45 straight points, the Trojans won the game 45–13 and extended their winning streak to 25 games and improved to 3–0 on the season as the Ducks fell to 2–1.
#### Arizona State
The Trojans next stayed on the road and faced the fifteenth–ranked Arizona State Sun Devils, led by fifth–year head coach Dirk Koetter and quarterback Sam Keller. With both offenses struggling in the first quarter, Sun Devil, Terry Richardson, opened scoring on an 84-yard punt return for a touchdown. The Trojans answered early in the second quarter with a field goal, however, two touchdowns, a Keller pass and a Keegan Herring rush, gave the Sun Devils an 18-point half-time lead. Starting in the third quarter the Trojans got on track with a pair of rushing touchdowns to bring their deficit to four, and midway through the fourth quarter they took the lead on a quarterback sneak by Leinart. Keller drove the Sun Devils to another touchdown to take back the lead, but two more rushing touchdowns by the Trojans, within a minute and a half, gave them the win, 38–28. Reggie Bush and LenDale White both ran for over 150 yards to help the Trojans win their Pac-10 record 26th consecutive game. Helping to seal the win for the Trojans were their defense who sacked Keller five times and caused him to throw five interceptions. Before the game, Keller, in his first year as a starter, had thrown for 2,165 yards in seven games.
#### Arizona
The Trojans next went home to face the Arizona Wildcats, led by second–year head coach Mike Stoops and quarterback Richard Kovalcheck. Though the Trojans were a 38.5 point favorite and took an early lead on a LenDale White rushing touchdown, the Wildcats answered after Kovalcheck threw his own touchdown and the game was tied at the end of the first quarter. Though both teams struggled in the second quarter, Leinart was able to complete a 22-yard touchdown to Dwayne Jarrett late in the half to take a 14–7 lead. In the third quarter, White rushed for two more touchdowns, however, Kovalcheck answered both times to keep the Wildcats within a touchdown going into the fourth quarter. Early in the fourth, Leinart threw his second touchdown to Jarrett and White rushed for a fourth touchdown to give the Trojans a 42–21 win. Both White and Bush rushed for over 100 yards for the third straight game, which was a school record, and the win increased the Trojan winning streak to 27 games.
#### Notre Dame
In a game that looked to be overshadowed by pre-game hype and assertions of being the newest "Game of the Century", the meeting between perennial rivals, Notre Dame and USC, called by some the second greatest rivalry in college football, would be the 77th meeting between the schools, who play for the Jeweled Shillelagh. The Irish, led by first–year coach Charlie Weis and junior quarterback Brady Quinn, were ranked ninth in the country. The Trojans had won three straight meetings with the Irish, each by 31 points. Expectations, however, were high that this game would be closer.
In a surprise move, after Weis insisted it would not happen, the Irish wore their alternate green jerseys for the game. The score was back and forth for much of the game, with the Irish leading 21–14 at half-time after a pair of touchdowns by running backs Reggie Bush and LenDale White for the Trojans, and a rushing touchdown by Travis Thomas, a passing touchdown by Quinn, and a punt return for a touchdown by Tom Zbikowski for the Irish. The Trojans took a 28–24 lead with five minutes left in the game when Reggie Bush ran for his third touchdown of the game, however, Quinn answered with four complete passes and his own 5 yard touchdown run to give the Irish a 31–28 lead with less than two minutes remaining. On the Trojans last series, however, Leinart, after being sacked and facing fourth down with nine yards to go on the Irish 26 yard line, completed a 61-yard fade to Dwayne Jarrett to give the Trojans a last chance near the Irish goal line. After a series of plays including Leinart fumbling the ball out of bounds, the stadium clock incorrectly running out of time, and part of the Notre Dame student section rushing onto the field, the Trojans had the ball on the Irish 1 yard line with seven seconds remaining. Instead of opting for the field goal and going to overtime, Leinart tried to sneak into the end zone. When he was stopped, in a play that would come to be called the "Bush Push", Bush pushed him over the goal line for the winning score of 34–31. In the aftermath of the game, the Irish dropped to a 4–2 record for the season and dropped three places in the national rankings to 12th. The Trojans moved to 6–0 on the season, escaped with a 28-game winning streak, and remained first in the rankings.
#### Washington
The Trojans next visited the Washington Huskies, led by first–year head coach Tyrone Willingham and quarterback Isaiah Stanback. The Huskies took an early lead on a field goal, but the Trojans answered with a Leinart touchdown pass to Steve Smith. Stanback threw his only touchdown of the game late in the quarter to give the Huskies a 10–7 lead, but the Trojans took the lead for good less than a minute later with Leinart's second touchdown pass of the day. A minute into the second quarter Reggie Bush ran for a touchdown, and, after a failed extra point attempt and the Huskies offense unable to move the ball, two minutes later returned a punt 84 yards for a touchdown. After another failed drive for the Huskies and another two minutes, Leinart threw his third touchdown of the game to give the Trojans a 34–10 lead. Stanback rushed for a touchdown with two minutes remaining before half-time to cut their deficit in half, but Mario Danelo kicked a field goal as time expired to give the Trojans a 37–17 lead at half-time. In the third quarter, Leinart threw his fourth touchdown of the game before he was replaced by backup Booty. A Booty interception, that was returned 76 yards by Dashon Goldson, gave the Huskies their last score of the game, and Booty's touchdown pass to Patrick Turner proved to be the final score in the game, giving the Trojans a 51–24 win. With the win the Trojans extended their winning streak to 29 games.
#### Washington State
The Trojans next faced the Washington State Cougars, led by third–year head coach Bill Doba and quarterback Alex Brink. The Trojans took an early lead on a Leinart touchdown pass to Dwayne Jarrett, but the Cougars answered two minutes later on a Jerome Harrison rush for a touchdown. After the Cougars missed the extra point, the Trojans scored three more touchdowns in the first quarter, with a fumble recovery in the end zone and two more Leinart touchdown passes, to take a 28–6 lead. Late in the second quarter the Trojans scored again on a LenDale White touchdown rush, and a Mario Danelo field goal as time was expiring gave them a 38–6 half-time lead. The Trojans would get another Danelo field goal and a second White touchdown rush before the Cougars would rush for their second touchdown. With a final rushing touchdown after the starters had been taken out of the game, the Trojans won 55–13 and increased their winning streak to 30 games.
#### Stanford
The Trojans next faced the Stanford Cardinal. Though the Cardinal were the last team to beat the Trojans at home back in 2001, they were slightly struggling under first–year head coach Walt Harris and quarterback Trent Edwards with a 4–3 record. The Trojans jumped to an early lead with a LenDale White rushing touchdown, a Reggie Bush rushing touchdown, a Leinart touchdown pass to White, and a Mario Danelo field goal. With a 24-point lead, Leinart threw two more touchdown passes before Edwards passed for the first Cardinal touchdown of the game. Leinart's fourth touchdown pass came with three minutes left in the half to give the Trojans a 44–7 half-time lead. The Cardinal scored on a rush in the third quarter, and with many starters out the Trojans answered in the fourth quarter with their own rushing touchdown. The Cardinal ended the scoring with 23 seconds remaining with their second rushing touchdown of the game to bring the score to 51–21. With the win, the Trojans extended their winning streak to 31 games.
#### California
The Trojans next traveled to face rivals, the California Golden Bears, led by fourth–year head coach Jeff Tedford and quarterback Joe Ayoob. Although the Bears handed the Trojans their last loss in 2003, they were struggling in the season, having lost three out of the last four games and dropping out of the rankings for the first time since 2003. The Trojans scored first after Ayoob's first of four interceptions in the game, on a LenDale White rush. Ayoob recovered after the interception, and led the Bears to a field goal to cut their deficit to four at the end of the first quarter. In the second quarter, Leinart rushed for a pair of touchdowns to give the Trojans a 21–3 lead at half-time. After a pair of White rushing touchdowns, the Bears scored again on a Chris Manerino rush that ended scoring in the game, with the Trojans winning 35–10. With the win, the Trojans clinched at least a share of the Pac-10 title and increased their winning streak to 32 games, tied for the sixth longest in history.
#### Fresno State
The Trojans next faced the sixteenth–ranked Fresno State Bulldogs, led by ninth–year head coach Pat Hill and quarterback Paul Pinegar. The Bulldogs took an early lead on a Pinegar touchdown pass that was answered by LenDale White's rushing touchdown for the Trojans to leave the game tied at the end of the first quarter. After a rushing touchdown for the Bulldogs, the Trojans could only answer with a Mario Danelo field goal. A second passing touchdown by Pinegar and another Danelo field goal closed out the half with the Bulldogs leading 21–13. The Trojans seemed to take control of the game in the third quarter with a Leinart touchdown run, a Reggie Bush touchdown run, and a Leinart touchdown pass that gave the Trojans a 13-point lead. Pinegar answered for the Bulldogs with his third touchdown pass of the game, but a 50-yard touchdown rush by Bush allowed the Trojans to keep the same lead, Two touchdowns in the fourth quarter, Pinegar's fourth touchdown pass and a second rushing touchdown for the Bulldogs, gave them a 1-point lead with nine minutes left in the game. After a 65-yard run by Bush, White scored for the Trojans, who missed on a two–point conversion attempt. A Danelo field goal gave the Trojans a 50–42 lead, and the Trojans won after intercepting Pinegar with a minute left in the game. Bush set a Pac-10 record with 513 total yards in the game, including almost 300 yards rushing, and the Trojans increased their winning streak to 33 games.
#### UCLA
For their final regular season game the Trojans faced their cross-town rivals, the eleventh–ranked UCLA Bruins, led by fourth–year head coach Karl Dorrell and quarterback Drew Olson. The Trojans got an early lead with a Mario Danelo field goal and did not slow down, scoring on a Leinart touchdown pass and a pair of rushing touchdowns by LenDale White and Reggie Bush. The Bruins were finally able to score midway through the second quarter with a field goal, and then four minutes later with another, but Bush ran for his second touchdown late in the quarter to give the Trojans a 31–6 lead at half-time. In the third quarter, Leinart threw his second touchdown of the game, and then 13 seconds later, a fumble by the Bruins was returned by Justin Wyatt for another Trojan touchdown. Leinart threw his third touchdown of the game to White and White rushed for his second rushing touchdown before the Bruins would score on a Maurice Drew rush. With backups in the game, the Trojans scored on another rush, before Olson threw his only touchdown pass of the game with 11 seconds left. With the missed extra point, the Trojans won 66–19, increasing their winning streak to 34 games, which tied them for the fourth longest winning streak of all-time. With the win, they clinched the Pac-10 title, first place in the BCS rankings, and an invitation to the Rose Bowl, which served as the national championship game.
#### Rose Bowl
The Rose Bowl Game served as the BCS National Championship Game, and as a result of the Bowl Championship Series agreement, the Trojans, ranked first in the BCS and the Texas Longhorns, ranked second, would meet in the game. In the weeks leading up to the game, it had been referred to by numerous publications as one of the most-anticipated match-ups in college football history and even "the greatest college football game" of all time.
Less than three weeks before the game, USC's Reggie Bush won the Heisman trophy ahead of second place finisher, and Texas quarterback, Vince Young. Bush had the second highest number of first place votes in Heisman history (O. J. Simpson) and the highest percentage of first place votes, while Young had a record number of second place votes. Bush's 933 point margin of victory was the 17th highest in the history of the Heisman voting. The third finalist was Matt Leinart, winner of the Heisman trophy in 2004. This meant that the Rose Bowl would mark the first time two Heisman trophy winners had ever played in the same backfield.
In the game, coach Mack Brown and his Texas Longhorns beat USC by the score of 41–38 and ended USC's 34 game win streak. The game's outcome was still in doubt late in the fourth quarter, when the Trojans tried to convert a fourth down play that would win the game for them. After they were stopped Young led the Longhorns on a touchdown drive that was capped by his fourth down rush for the twelve yard touchdown.
Since the game, the media, coaches, and other commentators have praised the game as one of the greatest ever.
### Roster
### Coaching staff
The Trojan team was coached by Pete Carroll and his staff. Much of the staff from 2004 remained, however, Carroll had to replace three offensive assistants and one defensive assistant.
## After the season
### Legacy
Throughout the season and especially after the win over UCLA, commentators had postulated that the Trojans were one of the "greatest teams of all-time". ESPN analysts were virtually unanimous in their declaration of the 2005 USC Trojans as the best offense in the history of college football. ESPN analysts Mark May and Kirk Herbstreit declared, before the 2005 Rose Bowl had even been played, that the 2005 USC Trojans were the 2nd best college football team of the past 50 years (May placed them behind only the 1995 Nebraska Cornhuskers; Herbstreit behind only the 2001 Miami Hurricanes). Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated later observed that, although the team "may have had the greatest set of skill players in history," "ESPN spent the better part of Christmas season comparing that Trojans squad to some of the most acclaimed teams of all time only to find out that they weren’t even the best team that season."
#### NCAA investigation and sanctions
In June 2010, the NCAA imposed sanctions on USC as a result of an investigation into the football program. One of the major focuses was improper gifts given to Reggie Bush.
The NCAA found that Bush had received gifts from two sports agents from at least December 2004, including a limousine ride to the 2005 Heisman Trophy presentation and a rent-free home. As a result, USC was placed on four years' probation and forced to vacate its last two wins of the 2004 season (including the 2005 Orange Bowl) as well as all of its wins in the 2005 season. It was also banned from bowl games in 2010 and 2011 and lost 30 scholarships over three years. Running backs coach Todd McNair was banned from off-campus recruiting for one year after the NCAA determined he'd known about Bush's dealings with the agents. The NCAA also forced USC to permanently disassociate itself from Bush. These sanctions have been criticized by some NCAA football writers, including ESPN’s Ted Miller, who wrote, “It's become an accepted fact among informed college football observers that the NCAA sanctions against USC were a travesty of justice, and the NCAA’s refusal to revisit that travesty are a massive act of cowardice on the part of the organization. That's the take of all clear-thinking people.”
### Awards
#### Conference
Near the end of the season, the Pac-10 Conference named its award winners. Reggie Bush was named as the conference player of the year and Pete Carroll was named as the conference coach of the year. In addition, twelve players were named to the All-Conference team. Bush, Matt Leinart, Dwayne Jarrett, Taitusi Latui, Sam Baker, Ryan Kalil, Darnell Bing, Lawrence Jackson, and Frostee Rucker were named to the first team while LenDale White, Fred Matua, and Scott Ware were named to the second team. Nine others were also named as honorable mentions.
#### National
After the season, a number of Trojans were named as national award winners and finalists. Reggie Bush became USC's seventh Heisman Trophy winner with the second largest margin of victory ever. However, after the aforementioned NCAA investigation, USC would return its copy of Bush's Heisman Trophy, considering that Bush was determined to be ineligible to play by the NCAA. On September 14, 2010, Bush announced that he would forfeit the Heisman and return his copy of the trophy. Bush also won the Doak Walker Award. Despite not winning the Maxwell Award, he won two other Player of the Year awards. Leinart, who was voted third in the Heisman Trophy ballot, was named as a finalist for the Davey O'Brien Award and the Maxwell Award, won the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award, and was named by The Sporting News as their Sportsman of the Year. In addition, Pete Carroll was named a finalist for the Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year award, and Jarrett was named a finalist for the Biletnikoff Award, though neither won.
In addition to the individual awards, ten players were named to All-America teams. On first teams, Bush was named by nine different publications, Leinart was named by two, Jarrett was named by seven, Lutui was named by six, Bing was named by two, and Blake was named by one publication. Besides the first teams, Kalil was named to a second team along with White and Matua, while Lawrence Jackson was named to a third team.
### Roster changes
A week after the loss in the Rose Bowl, Reggie Bush announced his plans to skip his senior season and declare for the 2006 NFL Draft. Along with Bush, ten other Trojans were drafted. Bush was the first Trojan selected and the second overall pick by New Orleans, while 2004 Heisman-winner, Matt Leinart, was taken tenth overall by Arizona. Three players were taken in the second round, Winston Justice by Philadelphia, Taitusi Lutui by Arizona, and LenDale White by Tennessee, and two more were taken in the third round, Frostee Rucker to Cincinnati and Dominique Byrd by St. Louis to end the first day of the draft. On the second day, Darnell Bing was taken in the fourth round by Oakland, David Kirtman taken in the fifth round by Seattle, LaJuan Ramsey taken in the sixth by Philadelphia, and, finally, Fred Matua was taken in the seventh by Detroit to end the Trojans' draft day.
## Staff
|
44,137,564 |
Fifteen Million Merits
| 1,170,594,933 | null |
[
"2011 British television episodes",
"Black Mirror episodes",
"Fiction about origami",
"Fictional television shows",
"Reality television series parodies",
"Television episodes about advertising",
"Television episodes written by Charlie Brooker",
"Television in fiction"
] |
"Fifteen Million Merits" is the second episode of the first series of the British science fiction anthology series Black Mirror. It was written by the series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker and his wife Konnie Huq and directed by Euros Lyn. It first aired on Channel 4 on 11 December 2011.
Set in a world where most of society must cycle on exercise bikes in order to earn currency called "merits", the episode tells the story of Bing (Daniel Kaluuya), who meets Abi (Jessica Brown Findlay) and convinces her to participate in a talent show so she can become famous. The episode was inspired by Huq's idea that her technology-obsessed husband Brooker would be happy in a room covered by screens; it additionally drew motivation from the narrative of talent shows leading to fame. "Fifteen Million Merits" incorporates elements of dystopian fiction, science fiction and drama, and offers commentary on capitalism.
The episode received a positive critical reception. The relationship of Abi and Bing drew comparison to that of Julia and Winston in Nineteen Eighty-Four, whilst Abi's objectification was compared to that of female media figures. The episode's ambiguous ending led to discussion about the commodification of dissent. The visual style and music of the episode were praised, as was the romance between Abi and Bing. The acting received a mixed reception, as did the world-building, but the depressing humour and bleak tone of the episode garnered positive reviews. "Fifteen Million Merits" was nominated for a British Academy Television Craft Award, but did not win; while on critics' lists of Black Mirror episodes by quality, it generally places middling or poorly.
## Plot
Bing Madsen (Daniel Kaluuya) lives in a room surrounded by screens that wake him up, serve as a video game console and feature regular adverts. He rides on a stationary bike to generate electricity in exchange for "merits", which he needs to pay for his daily cost of living. He sits next to Dustin (Paul Popplewell), an obnoxious man who degrades the overweight cleaners as they pass and watches pornography as he cycles.
Overhearing Abi Khan (Jessica Brown Findlay) singing in the toilets, Bing convinces her to enter Hot Shot, a virtual talent show whose winners can live a life of luxury. He offers to buy her entry ticket, having inherited millions of merits from his deceased brother. The ticket costs more merits than he thought, 15 million, almost his entire savings, but he buys it. Bing goes with Abi to the audition and she gives him an origami penguin. Abi is made to drink a carton of "Cuppliance" before performing "Anyone Who Knows What Love Is (Will Understand)" by Irma Thomas for the judges Wraith, Hope and Charity (Ashley Thomas, Rupert Everett and Julia Davis, respectively). The judges are unimpressed, but Wraith offers a place for Abi on his pornography channel WraithBabes. Despite Bing's protestations from backstage, Abi, succumbing to pressure from the audience and judges, accepts.
Whilst in his room, Bing sees an advert for WraithBabes featuring Abi. He cannot afford the merits to skip it, and a high-pitched noise sounds when he looks away from the screens, so he must watch. Increasingly agitated, he smashes a screen out of frustration and then hides a shard of glass under his bed. Bing then becomes single-mindedly obsessed with cycling and being as frugal as possible. He buys a Hot Shot ticket and hides the shard of glass in his trousers. Onstage, he starts performing a dance number, then pulls out the shard and threatens to slice his own neck. Wraith goads him to do it, but the other judges encourage him to speak. Bing passionately and angrily rants about the heartless, artificial system they live under. Hope declares the speech the most heartfelt in Hot Shot history and offers Bing his own regular show on one of his channels.
Bing is shown recording his show, where he rants while holding the shard to his neck. Despite criticising the system on his show, he now lives in much larger quarters, and the episode ends with him looking out from his room at what appears to be a vast green forest.
## Production
The executive producers Charlie Brooker and Annabel Jones began work on Black Mirror in 2010, having previously worked together on other television programmes. The programme was commissioned for three hour-long episodes by Channel 4, taking its budget from the comedy department. Brooker's production company Zeppotron produced the show for Endemol. "Fifteen Million Merits" was the first Black Mirror episode to be written, though it aired second, following "The National Anthem".
### Conception and writing
"Fifteen Million Merits" was written by Brooker and his wife Konnie Huq; an inspiration for the episode was Huq's remark that Brooker would "basically be happy in a room where every wall" was an iPad screen. Huq had conceived of a future where the walls of every house would be a touch-screen television, whilst Brooker had been inspired by avatars and Miis on the Xbox 360 and Wii. Huq had also had an idea that gyms should be powered by the energy produced by its exercise equipment.
Additionally, Brooker said that the episode is based on a narrative promoted by talent shows where becoming an "overnight star" is "one of the main means of salvation that's held up" for people who "do a job they hate for little reward". At the time, Huq was presenting The Xtra Factor, a reality series companion show. She had previously presented the children's television show Blue Peter and noted that many children wanted to be famous without knowing what they would be famous for. The episode was also influenced by The Year of the Sex Olympics, a 1968 dystopian television play that comments on reality television.
In an article promoting Black Mirror shortly before its release, Brooker mentioned the "1984" ad produced by Apple, Inc. for the Apple Macintosh computer. He said that the advert "implied the Mac might save mankind from a nightmarish Orwellian future", but that such a world would instead "probably" look "a bit like" the one in "Fifteen Million Merits". He and Huq nicknamed the episode the "Screenwipe Story" because of the similarities between Bing's monologues and Brooker's televised rants on Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe.
The ending went through various drafts. One idea featured Bing and Abi living together, both unhappy with their lives; another idea had Bing deliver his stream and anxiously pore over the ratings for it. One ending revealed that the exercise bikes were not connected to anything, contrary to the implication that they are generating electricity; Jones commented that the viewer may think this anyway.
### Filming and post-production
Euros Lyn directed the episode; Brooker had written reviews of Lyn's work on the science fiction programme Doctor Who and Lyn was familiar with his articles in The Guardian and his show Nathan Barley. Daniel Kaluuya was cast as Bing Madsen, based on an audition in which he performed Bing's rant on Hot Shot. Kaluuya would later be cast by Jordan Peele in the 2017 horror film Get Out because of the strength of this scene. Jessica Brown Findlay played Abi, having recently finished working on historical drama Downton Abbey. Rupert Everett played Judge Hope, Julia Davis played Judge Charity and Ashley Thomas, known by the stage name "Bashy", played Judge Wraith.
Additionally, characters riding the exercises bikes include Dustin, an unpleasant cyclist played by Paul Popplewell and Swift, a woman with a crush on Bing played by Isabella Laughland. Hannah John-Kamen was cast as the Hot Shot winner Selma, whilst Kerrie Hayes played Glee, a poor singer wanting to appear on Hot Shot.
Filming took place in Buckingham, on a disused university campus. Due to the small budget, every scene was filmed on one set, which was redressed for each location. The sets feature working screens, as using visual effects would have required a larger budget and more time. For example, when Kaluuya swiped his hand in front of a screen attached to his bike machine, a crew member would press a button to trigger the screen's response. Digital avatars called "doppels" represented each character on the screens, including in a large Hot Shot audience. An illustrator and a team of animators worked on the doppels, with every cast member being assigned an avatar, and hundreds more avatars appearing in the Hot Shot audience. Many audience reactions were shot so that they could be inserted as appropriate responses to the story and dialogue. The "cycling chamber" shown is one of thousands in the building in which the story take place; a low budget meant this building could only be shown sparingly.
Bing's screen displays different programmes. Whilst the gameshow Botherguts was fictional and had to be filmed, Endemol allowed their gameshows Don't Scare the Hare and The Whole 19 Yards to be displayed on the screens. Additionally, adverts for the fictional pornography channel WraithBabes needed to be filmed; two real pornographic actresses were hired, with one of the actresses bringing her boyfriend to participate in the shoot. For the WraithBabes video featuring Abi, the team shot some graphic elements that were ultimately not used. The final version has the actor put his thumb in Abi's mouth, giving a sense of "weird violation" rather than titillation.
To inform Kaluuya's portrayal of Bing, Lyn and Kaluuya discussed Bing's backstory in great depth, considering Bing's relationship with his deceased brother. In a key scene, Bing smashes a screen in his cell after seeing Abi in a porn advert. During filming of the scene, Kaluuya accidentally cut his foot, a moment that was included in the final cut. The episode reaches its climax with Bing's appearance on Hot Shot, where he dances before delivering a rant. Kaluuya worked with a choreographer for the dance, whilst the rant was written by Brooker "in a real rush" to imitate Bing's feelings as he speaks. It contains lines that do not make complete sense, such as "You're sitting there slowly knitting things worse". Bing's Hot Shot performance was filmed in two takes, with three cameras on Kaluuya.
Judge Hope was inspired by the talent competition judge Simon Cowell, as well as BBC Radio 1 DJs from the 1970s. Davis and Everett both had the idea of affecting Australian accents, but only Everett was allowed to do so. To distance Judge Hope from the singer George Michael, Everett removed his glasses during his first scene.
### Music
The episode features an original soundtrack by Stephen McKeon. McKeon agreed with Lyn that the score should use live musicians and sound "natural" as a contrast to the artificiality of the setting. The music for Bing's character is Western in genre, chosen to match his cell's personalised theme and to evoke the symbolism of a hero in Western film, which Bing unsuccessfully tries to embody by "saving" Abi.
The music for pornography channel WraithBabes features voices by Tara Lee, McKeon's daughter, who was 16 years old at the time. The scene in which Bing works hard to achieve enough merits to enter Hot Shot is five minutes long; the music had to build throughout, and McKeon used a sample of an exercise bike in his composition. The song "Anyone Who Knows What Love Is (Will Understand)" by Irma Thomas was chosen by Brooker to stand out from the dystopic setting; he wanted a catchy song with a 1960s style. It recurs in later Black Mirror episodes.
## Broadcast
The episode first aired on 11 December 2011, a week after "The National Anthem", the programme's debut episode. Coincidentally, "Fifteen Million Merits" was initially scheduled to air at the same time as the final of the eighth series of ITV's The X Factor. Brooker contacted Channel 4, who moved the programme to a later timeslot. Trailers for the episode noted that it would air after The X Factor final, and one trailer ran on ITV during the final itself. Brooker commented that Hot Shot was not meant to "directly be" The X Factor, as talent shows have different roles in the fictional setting of the episode.
## Museum exhibit
From June to September 2017, scenes from "Fifteen Million Merits" were featured at a Barbican Centre exhibit entitled "Into the Unknown: A Journey Through Science Fiction". The entrance contained a 6-foot (1.8 m) high installation containing extracts from the episode across multiple screens.
## Analysis
The episode falls under the genres of dystopian fiction, science fiction and drama, with elements of romance. David Sims of The A.V. Club described it as "far-fetched satire", whilst Brooker called it "an incredibly reductive piss-taking version of capitalism". Alexandra Howard of The 405 identified advertising and capitalism as "villain[s]" in this episode and Adam David of CNN Philippines found the world to be "techno-fascist". The janitors, the exercise bikers and the television hosts can be seen as different social classes. David thought that the world represented neoliberalism, a political system in which "freedom is merely another cage you have to pay your way to get imprisoned in". The episode addresses disadvantages to contemporary technology as well as more emotional themes: Jacob Hall of /Film found that it takes the idea of microtransactions in video games to "hellish extremes" and Ryan Lambie of Den of Geek wrote that the episode addresses the "fragility of relationships". The episode has a penguin motif, arising when Abi gives Bing an origami penguin, and concluding when Bing's ornamental penguin is seen in the ending.
The episode includes several fictional television shows such as the talent show Hot Shot and Botherguts, in which overweight people are degraded for entertainment. Sam Richards of The Telegraph noted that Hot Shot is "a caustic satire on TV talent shows"; it was widely considered to be based on the singing competition The X Factor, with Judge Hope in the role of Simon Cowell. Reviewers have also drawn comparisons to the singing competition American Idol. David Lewis of Cultbox compared Botherguts to Brooker's previous work TVGoHome.
"Fifteen Million Merits" was compared to various works of dystopian fiction. Lambie made comparisons to the 20th century dystopian novels Nineteen Eighty-Four, Brave New World and We, due to the plot revolving around a "doomed relationship". However, Bing and Abi are opposite to Winston and Julia of Nineteen Eighty-Four, who have their love suppressed by torture, as Bing "unwittingly sells Abi into a life of exploitation". Emily Yoshida of Grantland found the story to have parallels to 2006 film Idiocracy, set in a commercialised dystopia. Ian Berriman of GamesRadar+ compared the episode to the works of the American author Ray Bradbury and to the French Marxist Guy Debord's concept of the "spectacle". The first shot of the episode—in which a man is woken up in a dark room—is similar to that of the previous episode, "The National Anthem".
Bing is a tragic hero, according to Sam Wollaston of The Guardian. Richards believed that Bing can be seen as a satire of Brooker himself, as both can be described as a "bilious TV critic turned TV presenter". His character speaks very little for most of the episode before his stream of consciousness-style rant at the judges. Berriman suggests that the character's name could derive from the search engine Bing.
Howard described Abi as a woman who is "reduced to an object of gratification". She said that Abi's storyline is relevant to contemporary reality stars and Instagram models, arguing that "stardom, for women, equates to sexual objectification". She gave the example of the American media personality Kim Kardashian. Tim Surette of TV.com wrote that the episode provides a "look forward into our celebrity-obsessed culture".
The technology and setting of the episode were compared to contemporary technology and games. Sims used the metaphor that Bing is "stuck inside a cellphone", and that his life is a game of Candy Crush. Brendan Connelly of Bleeding Cool called Bing's cell a "little tomb made out of Kinect-equipped iPads". Sims noted that the doppels each person has resemble Mii avatars.
The ending was widely discussed by reviewers. The forest seen from Bing's window at the end of the episode can be interpreted as real or a computer-generated landscape. Connelly questioned whether Bing has "sold out" or "been deceived" into thinking his television show is having an effect. Berriman wrote that the "system can tolerate dissent, as long as it can be packaged and commodified". Yoshida concurred that "even our supposedly clear-eyed dissent to [mainstream media] can be packaged and sold".
## Reception
"Fifteen Million Merits" premiered on Channel 4 on 11 December 2011 at 9:30 p.m., where, according to 7-day figures from the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board, the episode was watched by 1.52 million viewers.
In 2012, Joel Collins and Daniel May were nominated for their work on the episode in the category Best Production Design at the British Academy Television Craft Awards, but did not win the award.
### Critical reception
The episode garnered positive reviews. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 100% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 9.50/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Combining the worst aspects of reality shows, talent competitions, and a hunger for fame, 'Fifteen Million Merits' effectively shows how anything – even our humanity – could be readily exploited." It received ratings of five out of five stars in GamesRadar, four out of five stars in The Telegraph, three out of five stars in Cultbox and an A rating in The A.V. Club. As "Fifteen Million Merits" was the second episode of Black Mirror, many reviewers made qualitative comparisons to the first episode "The National Anthem". Sims found that it is a "grander work in every way", while Wollaston called it "much better", "more artful" and "moving", but Connelly found it disappointing in comparison to the first episode. It was Yoshida's favourite episode of the first two series. Surette wrote that the episode was "one of the most beautiful and haunting hours of science-fiction television you'll [ever] see".
The episode was seen by Connelly and Richards to overuse tropes, with Connelly calling it a "fairly prosaic story situated in an all too familiar future world". Berriman found the world-building lacking. In contrast, Surette believed it to portray "a fully realized future that might not be too far off". The episode received praise from Sims, who said it was "a dazzling piece of science fiction that builds its world out slowly but perfectly". Lewis said that its moral "is more sledgehammer than subtle", but Sims found the ending "devastating and smart". Connelly wrote that "the show really punched out through the screen" in the final scene.
Surette and Wollaston praised the work as "thought-provoking", whilst Yoshida found concepts in the episode to be "bleakly funny". It was described by Lewis as "profoundly depressing", "highly watchable" and "utterly wretched". Richards found it to have "style, savvy and lashings of acerbic humour". Meanwhile, Surette lauded it as "gripping" and Wollaston described it as "original" and "thoughtful". Sims praised the pacing as "slow" and "repetitive" but "utterly compelling". He gave as an example Bing's name being withheld during the first 20 minutes of the episode.
Wollaston remarked that "all the performances are good", though Sims found that Bing is "perhaps too inscrutable". Lewis praised Kaluuya's acting in Bing's performance on Hot Shot. Richards enjoyed the "deliciously evil" judges, but Lambie called Judge Hope "a little too shrill" and Wollaston believed that Julia Davis—who played Judge Charity—should have had a larger role.
Reception to Abi's storyline was mostly positive and the relationship between Abi and Bing was well-received. Though Connelly considered it dubious that Abi would "choose a life of televised sex abuse over a life of menial labour", Sims found it realistic, as Abi seems "blindsided" just as the audience is. Howard found that Abi's story "rings chillingly true". Lambie found it to be "among the most moving" of recent romances he had seen, praising the "warmth" of the characters' romance contrasting with the "coldness" of the rest of the episode. Lewis thought the scene in which Abi saw the golden ticket Bing had bought "genuinely touching" and his holding Abi's hand was "sweet". Lambie singled out the scene in which Abi gives Bing an origami penguin for praise of Brown Findlay's acting.
The production of the episode was universally praised. Sims lauded the episode as "visually seamless" and Surette enjoyed the "gorgeous visuals". Wollaston described the world as "striking to look at and beautiful". Lambie believed it to be "some of the finest production design, music and acting [...] in a genre television show all year". Surette praised the music as "moving".
### Black Mirror episode rankings
"Fifteen Million Merits" placed middling to poorly on critics' rankings of the 23 instalments of Black Mirror, from best to worst:
- 9th – James Hibberd, Entertainment Weekly
- 9th – Morgan Jeffery, Digital Spy
- 9th – Aubrey Page, Collider
- 10th – Charles Bramesco, Vulture
- 15th – Matt Donnelly and Tim Molloy, TheWrap
- 19th – Corey Atad, Esquire
- 20th – Travis Clark, Business Insider
- 22nd – Ed Power, The Telegraph
Meanwhile, Brian Tallerico of Vulture rated Kaluuya's performance the fifth best of Black Mirror, calling it "delicate and subtle".
Other critics ranked the 13 episodes in Black Mirror's first three series, where "Fifteen Million Merits" received an even spreading of rankings:
- 1st – Andrew Wallenstein, Variety
- 2nd (of the Top Ten) – Brendan Doyle, Comingsoon.net
- 6th – Jacob Hall, /Film
- 9th – Adam David, CNN Philippines
- 11th – Mat Elfring, GameSpot
|
48,322,241 |
Matthew Wright (basketball)
| 1,173,697,482 |
Filipino-Canadian basketball player
|
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"Basketball players from Toronto",
"Canadian expatriate basketball people in France",
"Canadian expatriate basketball people in the United States",
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"Canadian sportspeople of Filipino descent",
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"Filipino expatriate basketball people in France",
"Filipino expatriate basketball people in Japan",
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"Phoenix Super LPG Fuel Masters players",
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"SEA Games medalists in basketball",
"SEA Games silver medalists for the Philippines",
"Shooting guards",
"Small forwards",
"St. Bonaventure Bonnies men's basketball players",
"UJAP Quimper 29 players"
] |
Matthew Andrew Christopher Wright (born February 7, 1991) is a Filipino-Canadian professional basketball player for Kyoto Hannaryz of the Japanese B.League. He played college basketball at St. Bonaventure University. He has since become an ABL champion, a two-time PBA All-Star, and a member of Gilas Pilipinas.
In college, Wright helped lead the St. Bonaventure Bonnies to an Atlantic 10 championship and into the 2012 NCAA tournament. In his senior season, he led the team in scoring.
After college, Wright started his professional career in France. He then went to play for the Westports Malaysia Dragons, with whom he won an ABL championship with. He then spent six seasons with the Phoenix Fuel Masters before joining Kyoto Hannaryz in 2022.
## Early life
Wright was born on February 7, 1991, in Toronto to Chris Wright and Ofelia Wright (née Agustin). He grew up there with his parents, grandmother, and some relatives. The Filipino community in Toronto exposed him to basketball, which he started learning at 10 years old. Vince Carter and Kobe Bryant were also his influences growing up. While attending Bloorlea Middle School, he was selected as their Athlete of the Year.
## High school career
Wright played for the Scadding Court AAU basketball program in his teen years. He also played at the Martingrove Collegiate Institute, leading them in scoring with 21 points a game. He did consider committing to the La Salle Green Archers in the Philippines before his final year of high school, but decided to remain in Toronto so that he could be recruited by a Division 1 program. In his senior year, he averaged 23 points, 4 rebounds, 7 assists and 2 blocks per game. He also led them to their second consecutive Toronto District School Board Triple-A championship.
Wright had offers from Maine, Duquesne, and Santa Clara University. However, the NCAA questioned whether he had accepted money to play for the Philippines men's national under-18 team. While he waited for the NCAA to clear him, other schools lost interest in him and he considered playing for the University of Toronto. During this time, he made an unofficial campus visit to St. Bonaventure, who then helped him become eligible as the rumors of him accepting money were proven to be false. He then committed to play for the St. Bonaventure Bonnies in 2010.
## College career
In Wright's first season, he started off poorly, shooting one-for-21 from three point range. He bounced back by scoring 18 points against the George Washington Colonials and followed up that performance with 15 points in a win over Duquesne. The team started relying on him more to provide off the bench scoring. He finished his rookie season as his team's leader in three point shooting (.426), second in steals (.8), fourth in assists (1.6), and fifth in scoring (6.9).
In his sophomore season, Wright was promoted to the starting lineup after one of the senior guards got hurt. During that season, he hit a game-winning three pointer from the corner off a pass from teammate Andrew Nicholson against the St. Joseph's Hawks. Behind Nicholson, the Bonnies won the Atlantic 10 championship that year. They also made it to the 2012 NCAA tournament, where they lost to the Florida State Seminoles. He finished the season as the team's leader in assists and steals while averaging 6.8 points and 2.5 rebounds.
In his junior season, Wright had 22 points on eight-of-eleven shooting including four-of-four behind the arc when the Bonnies beat the Temple Owls. He followed that with an 18-point night in SBU's triumph over the Hawks. He also struggled through a torn plantar fascia during this time. Still, he was able to average 7.3 points per game and finished in the top 10 in three point shooting in the A10.
In his senior season, Wright had a college career-high 27 points on 10 of 14 shooting in a win against Canisius, which gave the Bonnies a 3–0 start to their season. The Bonnies then started A10 play with him scoring 20 points in a win over the Richmond Spiders. He then had 18 points against Fordham, then had 24 points against George Mason, which were both wins. He also got a cut below his right eye that required two stitches after the game. For those performances, he was named Atlantic 10 Co-Player of the Week along with Richmond guard Kendall Anthony. He then had 22 points on 8 of 15 shooting including 5 of 8 behind the arc in a win against the St. Louis Billikens. For that season, he led St. Bonaventure in scoring with 16.3 points per game. Aside from finishing in the top 10 for scoring in the Atlantic 10 conference, he also finished in the top 10 for assists, three-pointers made, minutes played, and free throw percentage (which he led the entire conference). He graduated with a degree in history.
## Professional career
### UJAP Quimper 29 (2014–2015)
After Wright graduated, he applied for the 2014 NBA Draft, where he went undrafted. For a while, he was working in a warehouse in Rexdale. He then was able to sign a professional contract to play for the French club Quimper. This made him the 15th St. Bonaventure men's basketball alumnus to sign a professional contract since Mark Schmidt became the Bonnies’ head coach in 2007. He made his debut in a 91–87 loss to Cognac on October 25, 2014. He did not score but he dished out three assists in 14 minutes of action. However, he time there did not last long as he did not have a good relationship with the head coach there.
### Westports Malaysia Dragons (2015–2016)
Before the start of the 2015–16 ABL season, the Westports Malaysia Dragons signed Wright and Jason Brickman to be their ASEAN Imports. On November 7, 2015, Wright recorded 30 points, 4 rebounds, 3 assists and 6 3-pointers made in a 100–92 win over the Saigon Heat. That season, Wright was named as the ASEAN Heritage MVP after he helped lead the Dragons to the finals of the ASEAN Basketball League on his maiden season with an average of 23.1 points, 4.2 rebounds and 3.4 assists per game. The Dragons were able to claim their first ABL championship in franchise history in five games.
### Mighty Sports (2016)
On September 16, 2016, it was reported that he was going to be part of the Mighty Sports lineup for the 2016 Merlion Cup. In the team's second game on the group stages, he scored 20 points against the Westports Malaysia Dragons to help the team get a semifinals berth. Mighty Sports eventually lost to the Shanghai Sharks in the finals of the 2016 Merlion Cup after Jimmer Fredette was fouled in the final possession taking a triple who then drained the 3 free throws.
### Phoenix Fuel Masters (2016–2022)
#### 2016–17 season: Rookie season
Coach Chot Reyes committed all the players of the Gilas pool to the PBA draft, including Wright. With him being a member of Gilas, he didn't need to play in the PBA D-League for two conferences, which was a requirement for other Fil-foreigners. He reunited with Ariel Vanguardia who was his coach when he played for the Westports Malaysia Dragons, after he was selected by the Phoenix Fuel Masters as their Gilas draft selection in the 2016 PBA draft. On November 8, 2016, he signed a 3-year, P8.5M rookie max deal with Phoenix.
Due to food poisoning, he missed the team's first game of the 2016-17 PBA Philippine Cup where they lost 94–87 to Blackwater Elite. In his PBA debut, he scored 14 points to help his team have an upset win against the San Miguel Beermen. Against the Meralco Bolts, he had 22 points, including crucial free throws, that sealed the win for Phoenix. He then had a near triple-double of 12 points, 12 rebounds, and 9 assists in a win over the NLEX Road Warriors. He then followed it up by scoring 18 points in the second half to take a win against Barangay Ginebra. For those performances, he was given his first Player of the Week award. In his first All-Star Game, he received co-MVP honors along with Troy Rosario of the opposing side. That week, he also competed in his first three-point contest and won another All-Star Game MVP. He scored 27 points in a rematch with Ginebra in the Commissioner's Cup, taking the win over them. But they failed to qualify for the playoffs, as they lost to NLEX despite him scoring a career-high 42 points, the most by a rookie since Eric Menk in 1999. In the 2017 Governors' Cup, he struggled, as Phoenix failed to win games. He had 36 points against the Rain or Shine Elasto Painters, but they still got their eighth straight loss, a franchise-worst. He finished the season on the All-Rookie Team with 16.5 points, 6.1 rebounds, and 3.7 assists.
#### 2017–18 season
After starting the 2017–18 Philippine Cup with a loss, Phoenix went on to win two straight, with Wright scoring 13 of his 19 points against NLEX for that second straight win. On his 27th birthday, he scored a game-high 16 points, 5 rebounds, and made the game-winning assist to Doug Kramer against the TNT Katropa. He scored 32 points against the Globalport Batang Pier to secure the final spot in the playoffs for Phoenix. But they were eliminated by the Katropa. This loss gave him more rest after spending time between Phoenix and national team duties. In the Commissioner's Cup, he finished off a comeback from down sixteen against the Philippine Cup finalists Magnolia Hotshots by making a step-back three with 3.2 seconds remaining. He finished the game with 19 points on 7-of-14 shooting. In a double-overtime win over Ginebra, he made back-to-back scores in the second overtime that sealed the win for Phoenix. He finished that game with 19 points, 10 rebounds, three assists, one steal, and no turnovers in 44 minutes. During the 2018 All-Star Week, he once again played in the All-Star Game and competed in the three-point contest. In an overtime game against the Bolts, he had 28 points and six assists, but missed a jumper that could have won the game for them in overtime. In a win against Globalport, he had 24 points on six threes, but received a technical foul after retaliating from a hit to his head from opposing import Malcolm White. In the Governors' Cup, they finished with a franchise-best record of 8–3 record, gaining a twice-to-beat advantage and second-place finish in the standings. He had 23 points in their last win. But they lost in the first round to the seventh-seeded Bolts. He finished the season third in the league in scoring with 17.6 points per game.
#### 2019 season
Before the start of the 2019 PBA season, Wright was awarded a three-year contract extension. He was also awarded a spot on the Second Mythical Team for the previous season. In a Philippine Cup match versus the Katropa, he scored 23 points (with seven coming in the overtime period) to lead the Fuel Masters to their second straight overtime win. He had 25 points in a win over the Beermen that secured the top seed for the Fuel Masters. They then beat the Alaska Aces to advance to the semifinals for the first time in franchise history. In the semifinals, they lost their first two games to the Beermen, as their playoff inexperience started to show. But in Game 3, he hit four crucial free throws despite battling bronchitis to give Phoenix the win. However, he received a flagrant foul for hitting Beermen guard Von Pessumal. The Beermen went on to win the next two games, eliminating the Fuel Masters from the playoffs. In the Commissioner's Cup, Phoenix had three straight losses with Coach Louie Alas and Calvin Abueva suspended. They also lost import Rob Dozier to a foot injury. He scored 28 points to lead Phoenix to a win over NorthPort and stop their win streak. In a comeback win against Ginebra, he combined with replacement import Richard Howell for 27 points in the third quarter. He finished that game with 32 points, while Howell had 31 points and 21 rebounds. More importantly, it was their second straight win. For those performances, he won a unanimous Player of the Week award. In the Governors' Cup, he had a foot injury during a team practice. Despite the injury, he was able to play in Phoenix's final game, in which he hit a tough corner three with 1.2 seconds remaining to beat Blackwater. He dedicated the game-winner to retiring veterans Kramer and Willy Wilson.
#### 2020 season: Bubble season
On September 17, the PBA Board of Governors have approved a plan to restart the season on October 11 (originally on October 9), then was given a provisional approval by the Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (IATF-EID) on September 24. All games were played in the "PBA bubble" in Angeles City, the isolation zone specifically created for league operations. Before the start of the season, interim coach Topex Robinson was made permanent head coach.
In the first game of the 2020 Philippine Cup, he scored 36 points in a win over the Bolts. He dedicated that performance to his late childhood idol Kobe Bryant and to coach Robinson. He then followed up that with 23 points, seven rebounds, and nine assists in a win over NorthPort. In a loss to TNT, he made all 13 of his free throw attempts and finished the game with 31 points. This was the most free throws made without missing since LA Tenorio also went 13-of-13 in 2017. Against Magnolia, he scored 23 points to help Phoenix overcome a 23-point deficit. In the return of Abueva after a 16-month ban against NLEX, he scored 28 points. He continued his high-scoring with 33 points in a win against the Terrafirma Dyip. He cooled down with just 10 points against SMB, but RJ Jazul's career-high of 33 points gave Phoenix the win. He also had 10 assists. At the end of the elimination round, he emerged as a leading MVP candidate, leading the league in statistical points and leading Phoenix to the 2nd seed.
They beat Magnolia in the quarterfinals, as he hit a game-winning three point shot off the bench. However, in Game 1 of the semifinals against TNT, he injured his ankle. He decided to play through the pain, as he played limited minutes in Game 2. In Game 3, he had 23 points, including a turnaround jumper that sealed the win and moved them one more win closer to the Finals. But TNT won the next two games, with TNT guard Bobby Ray Parks Jr. scoring 36 and 26 points on them, eliminating Phoenix from finals contention. At the end of the season, he was awarded a spot on the PBA's Elite Five. He also finished second in Best Player of the Conference voting, losing it to Barangay Ginebra's Stanley Pringle.
#### 2021 season
Wright scored 20 points in a loss to the Hotshots, now having Abueva, who had been acquired by them in the offseason before the 2021 Philippine Cup. He missed a game due to a sprained ankle, but Phoenix still won that game with Vic Manuel stepping up with 26 points and 12 rebounds. Following a league-imposed break, he and Manuel led the league in scoring, but had only one win to four losses up to that point. They got their second win against Rain or Shine when Wright made his only field goal of the game in the last 2.6 seconds of the game to put them up for good. He did contribute 12 rebounds and five assists. In the end, they were eliminated from playoff contention when they lost to Ginebra. In the Governors' Cup, he got another Player of the Week award after scoring 23 points in a Christmas Day win over NLEX. It was also during this time that he got offers to play in the Japanese B-League. For the period of February 11–13, he earned another Player of the Week award after scoring 27 points,10 assists, and the game-winning steal in a win over TNT. They secured the last spot for the playoffs with a win over NorthPort. At the end of the elimination round, he was no. 2 in statistical points, putting him in the running for Best Player of the Conference. Phoenix was eliminated in a blowout loss by Magnolia, in which he fouled out. He also admitted frustration with Phoenix losing key players to trades and free agency. He was made a member of the Second Mythical Team with averages of 16.3 points, 5.8 rebounds, and career-high averages of 6.4 assists and 1.6 steals.
#### 2022–23 season
Wright began talks on contract negotiations with Phoenix, keeping his options open on playing overseas. They failed however, to reach an agreement before the start of the season. Phoenix also tried trading him, but no takers were found. With the contract set to expire at the end of the 2022 Philippine Cup, he decided to play out the contract and set aside negotiations as not to distract the team. He began his season with 20 points in a loss to SMB. In Phoenix's penultimate game of the conference, he had 15 points, eight rebounds, and four assists to lead them in a rout over the Converge FiberXers. It was revealed that he had to leave for the US to marry his wife, and would not finish the conference. He mentioned that it could possibly be his last game with the team, as both him and Phoenix failed to reach a compromise in contract negotiations. He also mentioned that playing overseas or returning to the PBA with a different teams were options he was considering. In Phoenix's final game of the conference, they lost to Ginebra without him.
### Kyoto Hannaryz (2022–present)
On August 31, 2022, Wright announced that he had officially parted ways with Phoenix. On September 2, Kyoto Hannaryz of the Japanese B.League announced that they had signed him to a two-year deal (with the second year a team option). The contract came with perks and a clause that would allow him to play for the national team. The move reunited him with head coach Roy Rana, who was a rival head coach back when he was still in high school.
Wright went scoreless in his B.League debut against the Sendai 89ers, but recorded four assists and three rebounds. Despite a back injury, he played in their rematch the following day, contributing five points as the team bounced back with the win. He then missed back-to-back games against the Nagoya Flying Eagles. He returned with 10 points, but his team still lost to SeaHorses Mikawa. In the rematch, the team snapped their three-game losing streak, with him contributing eight points and four assists. Against Niigata Albirex, he had his best game yet with 16 points, five rebounds and three assists. He got to play in the Asia Rising Star game during the B.League's All-Star Weekend. In the first game after All-Star Weekend, he had 13 points and seven rebounds in a win over the Osaka Evessa. Against the Hiroshima Dragonflies, he scored a season-high 26 points and eight assists, but lost and slid to a 16–24 record. They did not make the playoffs after a record of 22–38.
On May 18, 2023, Wright signed a multi-year contract extension with the team.
## National team career
### Junior national team
Wright was part of the Philippines men's national under-18 team coached by Franz Pumaren that competed in the four-nation Nokia Manila Youth Basketball Invitational 2008 and 2008 FIBA Asia Under-18 Championship. He was convinced by fellow Fil-Canadian Norbert Torres to join the team.
### Senior national team
In 2016, he was included in the pool of the Philippine men's senior national team where the members of the Philippine squad that participated at the 2016 FIBA Asia Challenge was derived from.
The following year, Wright was on the team for the 2017 SEABA Championship, and he won a gold medal. He was also on the roster for that year's FIBA Asia Cup, and scored 25 points in a win over Qatar to clinch the top spot in Group B. However, Gilas only finished in seventh place after making back-to-back second-place finishes. He contributed 12 points (including a perfect 7-of-7 from the free throw line) in a win over Japan for the 2019 FIBA World Cup qualifiers.
In 2018, he was involved in the Philippines–Australia basketball brawl, as he was among nine Filipino players ejected from the game. As a result, him and Japeth Aguilar had to serve a one-game suspension, which was the least punishment among players involved. They were able to make their return in a qualifying game against Qatar.
For the final World Cup qualifiers in 2019, Wright was not included in the lineup. Still, Gilas qualified for the World Cup with a win over Kazakhstan. He returned to the Gilas pool for the World Cup, but experienced pains in his ankle. His ankle got better, but in the end, he was one of the final cuts from the final roster for the World Cup. He was able to win a gold medal in the 2019 SEA Games.
Wright begged off from the Gilas Pilipinas pool for the first window of the Fiba Asia Cup qualifiers due to rehab for an ankle injury. In 2022, he returned to Gilas for the 2021 SEA Games. Unlike last time, Gilas was denied its gold medal by Indonesia in the finals.
## Personal life
As of 2017, he is involved in a long-distance relationship with Gabriela Moscoso. They have two sons, Preston and Roman. They married on July 24, 2022.
## Career statistics
### International
#### Season-by-season averages
\|- \| align=center \| 2014–15 \| align=left \| Quimper \| LNB Pro B \| 16 \|\| 23.9 \|\| .403 \|\| .343 \|\| .649 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 9.8 \|- \| align=center \| 2015–16 \| align=left \| Westports Malaysia Dragons \| ABL \| 27 \|\| 34.8 \|\| .453 \|\| .425 \|\| .740 \|\| 4.1 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .2 \|\| 21.2 \|- \|-class=sortbottom \| align="center" colspan=2 \| Career \| All Leagues \| 43 \|\| 30.9 \|\| .442 \|\| .404 \|\| .715 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .1 \|\| 17.0
### B.League
### PBA
As of the end of 2022–23 season
#### Season-by-season averages
\|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix \| 26 \|\| 32.9 \|\| .363 \|\| .336 \|\| .788 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .0 \|\| 16.5 \|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix \| 35 \|\| 33.1 \|\| .405 \|\| .343 \|\| .748 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 17.6 \|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix Pulse \| 37 \|\| 33.0 \|\| .380 \|\| .343 \|\| .844 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 18.9 \|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix Super LPG \| 17 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .446 \|\| .394 \|\| .802 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .0 \|\| 21.1 \|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix Super LPG \| 24 \|\| 37.1 \|\| .357 \|\| .282 \|\| .796 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 6.4 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .1 \|\| 16.3 \|- \| align=left \| \| align=left \| Phoenix Super LPG \| 10 \|\| 34.9 \|\| .342 \|\| .297 \|\| .750 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .0 \|\| 15.3 \|-class=sortbottom \| align="center" colspan=2 \| Career \| 149 \|\| 34.3 \|\| .384 \|\| .336 \|\| .798 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 4.9 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 17.8
### NCAA
\|- \| align="left" \| 2010–11 \| align="left" rowspan="4" \| St. Bonaventure University \| 31 \|\| 0 \|\| 16.2 \|\| .386 \|\| .317 \|\| .846 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.6 \|\| .8 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.7 \|- \| align="left" \| 2011–12 \| 32 \|\| 18 \|\| 27.3 \|\| .351 \|\| .317 \|\| .778 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .9 \|\| .3 \|\| 6.8 \|- \| align="left" \| 2012–13 \| 26 \|\| 21 \|\| 23.8 \|\| .430 \|\| .306 \|\| .813 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .1 \|\| 7.3 \|- \| align="left" \| 2013–14 \| 32 \|\| 31 \|\| 34.9 \|\| .409 \|\| .362 \|\| .861 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .1 \|\| 16.3 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\| Career \|\| 121 \|\| 70 \|\| 25.7 \|\| .396 \|\| .333 \|\| .839 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 2.4 \|\| .9 \|\| .1 \|\| 8.9
|
4,861,660 |
Tornerò (Mihai Trăistariu song)
| 1,171,469,311 |
2006 single by Mihai Trăistariu
|
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"2006 singles",
"2006 songs",
"Disco songs",
"Electronic dance music songs",
"Eurovision songs of 2006",
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"Pop songs",
"Romanian songs",
"Warner Records singles"
] |
"Tornerò" (; "I Will Return") is a song by Romanian singer Mihai Trăistariu from his eighth studio album of the same name (2006). Released by CMC Entertainment on 3 July 2006, it was written by Cristian Hriscu, Mihaela Deac and its producer Eduard Cîrcotă. With English verses and a refrain in Italian, "Tornerò" is a disco, pop, dance and rave song featuring Trăistariu using his higher vocal range. The track won the Selecția Națională pre-selection show and represented in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006, held in Athens, Greece. There, the singer was pre-qualified for the Grand Final, where he finished fourth with 172 points. On stage, three male and two female dancers from Romanian dance group Big Bounce accompanied Trăistariu, performing a mixture of ballet and contemporary dance.
Music critics gave generally positive reviews of the song, praising its catchiness and the singer's vocal delivery. "Tornerò" received airplay in various countries and chartwise peaked at number thirty-eight on the Romanian Top 100, and reached the top ten in Finland and Greece, as well as the top forty in Sweden. The song was also awarded a prize by Romanian magazine V.I.P and received nominations at the Greek MTV Music Awards, Romanian Top Hits Awards and Radio România Actualități Awards. The promotion of "Tornerò" consisted of various live performances and endeavours, as well as the release of an accompanying music video in 2006. Artists such as Greek singer Anna Vissi and Romanian recording artist Lora have covered the track.
## Background and release
A disco, pop, dance and rave song whose verses are in English and refrain in Italian, "Tornerò" was written by Cristian Hriscu, Mihaela Deac and Eduard Cîrcotă, and produced solely by Cîrcotă. It was recorded at Art Music Studio in Bucharest in January 2006. Throughout the song, Trăistariu uses his higher vocal range. Writing for National Post, Sean Carrie compared "Tornerò" to the works of American singer Ricky Martin and Trinidadian-German performer Haddaway. The track was released for digital download on 3 July 2006 by CMC Entertainment through the iTunes Store, lasting three minutes, and was later included on his eighth studio album Tornerò (2006).
## Critical reception and recognition
"Tornerò" song was one of the favourites to win the Eurovision Song Contest by both fans and Billboard's Fred Bronson, and ascended on betting odds. An editor of Antena 1 called the track a "phenomeon", while an editor of Libertatea wrote that "Tornerò" remains "the best-known song by a Romanian artist at Eurovision". An author of Tribune Business News considered it "probably has one of the most haunting refrains among all the Romanian [Eurovision entries]". Including the single at number four in their list of "Eurovision [2006]: Top 10 Tips", BBC praised Trăistariu's vocals as "soaring", as well as the song as "the most contemporary offering [in the contest]". The website further wrote: "Something about this makes it hard to forget – a very high scorer." Ioana Matfeev of Top Românesc slightly criticised Trăistariu's diction in the song. In a 2016 poll on Wiwibloggs called "What is your favourite Eurovision song from Romania?", it finished in fourth place with over 500 votes. According to Giannis Argyriou of EuroVisionary, "Tornerò" remained popular among Eurovision viewers, while fans of the song include Romanian singer Alexa and Romanian music critic Liviu Zamora; the latter praised Trăistariu's emotional delivery.
## Commercial performance and accolades
"Tornerò" received airplay in over thirty countries after its release, and attained commercial success in over 20, including multiple European territories such as Greece. The song was also well-received by the gay community and was played in European gay clubs. It was also given notable airplay by a radio station in San Francisco, California. Chartwise, "Tornerò" peaked at number thirty-eight on the native Romanian Top 100, and at number four in Greece. It debuted and peaked at number eight on Finland's Suomen virallinen lista chart in the week ending 17 September 2006. The song also entered the Swedish Sverigetopplistan chart at number 49 on 21 September 2006, and rose to number 21 over the next two editions, lasting for a total of fourteen non-consecutive weeks. The commercial success of "Tornerò" positively influenced the trajectory of Trăistariu's career. The song sold several digital downloads in Greece and generated incomes of over €2.5 million along with other promotional endeavours. "Tornerò" received a prize from Romanian V.I.P magazine and was nominated for an award at the Greek MTV Music Awards in 2006. In the same year, the song received a nomination at the Romanian Top Hits Awards in the Boys – Best Hit category. Trăistariu also won Artist of the Year and received a nomination in the Best Dance-Pop Song category at the 2007 Radio România Actualități Awards.
## Promotion and other usage
Trăistariu made appearances to perform "Tornerò" on multiple occasions throughout the years, along with other endeavours. An accompanying music video for the song was also filmed sometime in 2006, with it being included on a CD release of the track in the same year. The visual portrays the singer lip synching to "Tornerò" while walking in a hallway with dancers and other people, occasionally interacting with them and joining their activities. Trăistariu recorded a duet version of the song with Greek singer Tamta titled "Tornerò, Tromero", while covers were done by artists including Greek recording artist Anna Vissi, and Romanian singer Lora during Romanian television show Te cunosc de undeva!.
## At Eurovision
### National selection
On 26 February, the Selecția Națională was held in order to select the Romanian entrant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. "Tornerò" was chosen after the votes of a professional jury panel (12) and public televoting (10) were combined, resulting in 22 points. Prior to being selected to represent his country at Eurovision, Trăistariu had participated in the Romanian national selection multiple times. Romanian-American singing-songwriting duo Indiggo, who placed seventh with their song "Be My Boyfriend", sparked controversy after demanding €100,000 from the Romanian Television (TVR) for allegedly not being votable by fans due to continuously busy lines. Their allegation was turned down by TVR.
### In Athens
The Eurovision Song Contest 2006 took place at the O.A.C.A. Olympic Indoor Hall in Athens, Greece and consisted of one semi-final on 18 May, and the final on 20 May 2006. According to the then-Eurovision rules, selected countries, except the host country and the "Big Four" (France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom), were required to qualify from the semi-final to compete for the final; the top ten countries from the semi-final progressed to the final. In 2006, Romania automatically qualified to the final due to the top 11 result last year, where Trăistariu performed in 12th place, preceded by and followed by . At the close of the voting, it had received 172 points, finishing in fourth position and thus qualifying the country for the final in the next contest. "Tornerò" received points from 35 countries with and awarding the maximum 12 points to the entry.
Onstage, Trăistariu was accompanied by three male and two female dancers from Romanian dance group Big Bounce, who performed choreography done by Romanian singer and choreographer CRBL [ro]. It contained elements from both ballet and contemporary dance, and was meant to "highlight [...] Trăistariu's song and voice." Over the course of the preparations, dancers were partially replaced. Romania's first rehearsal took place on 15 May 2006 to positive reactions from the audience. Various changes concerning the staging were also made on the same occasion. In a review of Trăistariu's show, Caroline Briggs of BBC compared his look to a "ginger" Justin Timberlake.
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Tornerò" – 3:00
- Greek CD single
1. "Tornerò" – 3:00
2. "Tornerò" (Cre8 Remix) – 4:02
3. "Tornerò" (Almud Tech Remix) – 4:45
4. "Tornerò" (Music Video) – 3:00
- Scandinavian/Romanian CD single
1. "Tornerò" – 3:00
2. "Tornerò" (Cre8 Remix) – 4:02
3. "Tornerò" (Almud Tech Remix) – 4:45
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history
|
3,112,183 |
Jeff Banister
| 1,165,106,029 |
American baseball player, coach, and manager
|
[
"1964 births",
"Arizona Diamondbacks coaches",
"Baseball players from Oklahoma",
"Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players",
"Carolina Mudcats players",
"Harrisburg Senators players",
"Houston Cougars baseball players",
"Lee College (Texas) alumni",
"Living people",
"Macon Pirates players",
"Major League Baseball bench coaches",
"Major League Baseball catchers",
"Major League Baseball managers",
"Major League Baseball players with one career hit",
"Manager of the Year Award winners",
"People from Keller, Texas",
"People from La Marque, Texas",
"People from Weatherford, Oklahoma",
"Pittsburgh Pirates coaches",
"Pittsburgh Pirates players",
"Sportspeople from Galveston County, Texas",
"Texas Rangers managers",
"Watertown Pirates players"
] |
Jeffery Todd Banister (born January 15, 1964) is an American former professional baseball player and manager. He is the bench coach for the Arizona Diamondbacks. Before that, he was a special assistant for the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball. He served as the manager of the Texas Rangers from 2015 through 2018. Before joining the Rangers, Banister spent 29 years within the organization of the Pirates as a player and coach in both the Pirates' major and minor league system. After leaving the Rangers, Banister served the Director of Player Development with the University of Northern Colorado Bears baseball program in 2021 before landing with the D-backs.
Banister played baseball at La Marque High School in La Marque, Texas. He developed bone cancer in his sophomore year, which almost necessitated the amputation of his left leg below the knee. While playing college baseball for Lee College, he suffered a home plate collision which broke three vertebrae in his neck, leaving him paralyzed for ten days. After rehabilitating, he was named a Junior College All-American the next season, and received a scholarship to the University of Houston, to play for the Houston Cougars baseball team. He was then drafted by the Pirates in 1986. After playing in Minor League Baseball, he appeared in one major league game on July 23, 1991, recording a hit in his only plate appearance. He did not appear in another major league game, ending his playing career after the 1993 season.
Following his playing career, Banister remained with the Pirates. He served as a manager for their Minor League Baseball affiliates from 1994 through 1998, and then as a minor league and major league field coordinator until 2010. The Pirates considered him for their managerial vacancy before the 2011 season, though hired him as their bench coach, serving in that role through the 2014 season. The Rangers hired Banister as their manager during the 2014–15 offseason, and he was named the American League Manager of the Year for 2015.
## Playing career
### Amateur career
Banister attended La Marque High School in La Marque, Texas. At La Marque, Banister played for the school's baseball, basketball, and American football teams. During his sophomore year of high school, Banister injured his right ankle while playing baseball. During an examination of his ankle, which was slow to heal, he was diagnosed with bone cancer. He had developed cysts which required skin grafting to treat. An infection in his leg led to the development of osteomyelitis, which spread from his right ankle to just below his knee. Doctors recommended amputation to save the rest of his leg, but Banister refused, as he hoped he would be able to continue his baseball career. Doctors performed seven operations on his leg, which saved it from being amputated. In his senior year, Banister suffered a knee injury playing American football, which nearly led to him being cut from the baseball team because of his decreased mobility. His father suggested he change positions and become a catcher, which allowed him to remain on the baseball team.
At a tryout conducted by professional scouts, Banister was noticed by the coaches at Lee College, a junior college in Baytown, Texas. They recruited Banister to play college baseball at Lee. While catching in a 1983 game, he suffered a collision at home plate, where the baserunner attempted to jump over him, and hit Banister in the head with his knee. The collision broke three of the vertebrae in his neck. Banister was not originally scheduled to play in that game; a scout for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB) told Lee's coach that he hoped to see Banister catch, which resulted in Banister being added to the starting lineup in a last-minute change. As a result of the collision, Banister was paralyzed from the neck down for ten days. Doctors initially warned him that he may never walk again. He had another three operations performed on his back and learned how to walk again during the 1984 season. Entering the hospital weighing 225 pounds (102 kg), he weighed 139 pounds (63 kg) when he was discharged. Banister recovered and played another season for Lee in 1985, and was named a Junior College All-American. He transferred to University of Houston after the season to play for the Houston Cougars baseball team on a scholarship in 1986.
### Professional career
The Pittsburgh Pirates selected Banister in the 25th round of the 1986 Major League Baseball Draft; he was the 621st player chosen in the draft. Playing in Minor League Baseball, Banister made his professional debut as a member of the Watertown Pirates of the Class A-Short Season New York–Penn League in 1986. He had a .145 batting average in 46 games played. In 1987, he played for the Macon Pirates of the Class A South Atlantic League, and batted .254 in 101 games. Banister then played 71 games for the Harrisburg Senators of the Class AA Eastern League in 1988, batting .259. He returned to Harrisburg in 1989, when he batted .238 in 102 games. He was named an Eastern League All-Star in 1989. He returned to Harrisburg for the 1990 season, and recorded a .269 batting average in 101 games. During the 1990 season, he received a promotion to the Buffalo Bisons of the Class AAA American Association. In 12 games for the Bisons, Banister batted .320.
Banister began the 1991 season with Buffalo. The Pirates promoted Banister from the minor leagues on July 23, 1991, when catcher Don Slaught was injured and placed on the disabled list. Manager Jim Leyland used Banister as a pinch hitter for pitcher Doug Drabek in the eighth inning of that day's game against the Atlanta Braves at Three Rivers Stadium. Using Cecil Espy's bat, Banister hit a ball from Dan Petry and just beat shortstop Jeff Blauser's throw to first base. Banister is one of only 15 batters (excluding pitchers) in baseball history to record a hit in his only major league plate appearance.
Banister was sent back to Buffalo without playing in another game for Pittsburgh. He finished the Class AAA season with a .244 average in 79 games. He missed the 1992 season when he suffered a right elbow injury that required surgery. Banister served as a player-coach for the Carolina Mudcats of the Class AA Southern League in 1993. Playing in only eight games, he had a .333 batting average. After the season, he ended his playing career. He retired with a career .247 batting average in 515 minor league games played.
## Coaching and managerial career
### Overview
After retiring as a player, Banister remained with the Pirates' organization. From 1994 through 1998, Banister served as a manager in the Pirates' minor league system. He served as the manager of the Welland Pirates of the New York–Penn League in 1994. A year later, he managed the Augusta GreenJackets of the South Atlantic League, and led them to win the league's championship. Banister managed in the Hawaiian Winter League in the 1995 and 1996 offseasons. From 1996 through 1997, he was the manager of the Lynchburg Hillcats of the Class A-Advanced Carolina League. Midway through the 1997 season, he was named the manager of the Carolina Mudcats, a position he held through the 1998 season. Banister had a 299–330 win–loss record (a .475 winning percentage) as a manager from 1994 through 1998.
From 1999 through 2002, Banister worked as Pittsburgh's Major League Field Coordinator on the coaching staffs of managers Gene Lamont and Lloyd McClendon. He was then assigned the job of Minor League Field Coordinator, and served in that role from 2003 through 2010. In 2004, he served as the interim manager of Lynchburg when Jay Loviglio resigned from the position due to personal reasons. Banister became the interim pitching coach for Lynchburg in 2008 when Bob Milacki resigned from the position. Mike Steele then took the job from Banister in 2009. Banister managed the Scottsdale Scorpions of the Arizona Fall League (AFL) in 2009.
On August 8, 2010, Banister was named the Pirates' interim bench coach after Gary Varsho was fired by the organization. At the end of the 2010 season, the Pirates fired manager John Russell. Banister and Clint Hurdle were the two finalists for the position. The Pirates named Hurdle as their manager, and Banister was named their full-time bench coach. As the Pirates bench coach, Banister learned about sabermetrics from a quantitative analyst who traveled with the team. Banister learned to use quantitative data to inform his decisions on when the Pirates should employ defensive shifts in the field. He was initially chosen to manage Scottsdale in the AFL after the 2014 season, but he was replaced by Pirates' special assistant Frank Kremblas due to the possibility of the Pirates reaching the MLB postseason.
After the 2014 season, Banister interviewed with the Houston Astros as a candidate to fill their managing vacancy, following the firing of Bo Porter. The Astros instead hired A. J. Hinch. He also interviewed with the Texas Rangers, and was a finalist for the position along with Rangers' interim manager Tim Bogar and pitching coach Mike Maddux. On October 16, 2014, the Rangers named Banister their new manager. He signed a three-year contract with an option for a fourth season. Jon Daniels, the Rangers' general manager, indicated that Banister will help the Rangers to incorporate analytics into their baseball decisions.
As Banister and Daniels began to discuss the coaching staff for the 2015 season, it was decided that Bogar, who had a 14–8 record (.636 winning percentage) after Ron Washington's resignation, would not return to the Rangers under Banister. Banister retained Maddux and hitting coach Dave Magadan on his coaching staff, but third base coach Gary Pettis left for the Astros and first base coach Bengie Molina did not return to the team in that role. Banister guided the Rangers to the American League West division championship with a record of 88 wins and 74 losses. The Rangers would end up losing to the Toronto Blue Jays in the American League Division Series. Banister was named the American League Manager of the Year after the season.
During the 2015–16 offseason, the Rangers extended Banister's contract through the 2018 season, with an option for the 2019 season, while also releasing pitching coach Mike Maddux and hitting coach Dave Magadan. Bannister later hired Doug Brocail as the new pitching coach and Anthony Iapoce as the new hitting coach.
On September 21, 2018, following several days of speculation and rumors about Banister's future with the Rangers, Banister was fired following a surprise meeting with the Rangers management. He finished with a record of 325 wins and 313 losses in 638 games. On January 6, 2019, the Pirates hired Banister as a special assistant in baseball operations. In June 2020, Banister and 14 others were laid off by the Pirates as they restructured their front office.
On November 2, 2021, Banister was hired by the Arizona Diamondbacks to be the team's bench coach for the 2022 season.
### Managerial record
## Personal life
Banister was born on January 15, 1964. He is originally from Weatherford, Oklahoma. At the age of six, the Banisters moved from Weatherford to La Marque. His father, Bob, coached Jeff at La Marque High School on both the football and basketball teams. His mother, Verda, was an algebra teacher at La Marque. He has a sister, Carey. In 1988, his father died at the age of 48 due to a heart attack. His grandfather died of a heart attack three weeks later.
Banister met his wife, Karen, while they were students at the University of Houston. Karen worked as a teacher at Clear Lake High School in Houston. The Banisters have two children: Alexandra and Jacob. Alexandra is a college volleyball player. The Banisters reside in Keller, Texas.
Banister won the inaugural Gilda Radner Courage Award. In 2011, Banister won the "Pride of the Pirates" award for demonstrating his "sportsmanship, dedication and outstanding character".
|
44,363,734 |
Robert Kurrle
| 1,123,825,189 |
American cinematographer
|
[
"1890 births",
"1932 deaths",
"American cinematographers",
"Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)",
"People from Port Hueneme, California"
] |
Robert Kurrle (February 2, 1890 – October 27, 1932), also known as Robert B. Kurrle, was an American cinematographer during the silent and early talking film eras. Prior to entering the film industry, he was already experimenting with aerial photography. Considered a very prominent cinematographer, even his early work received notice and praise from both critics and other industry professionals. The advent of sound film did not abate his continued rise, and he became the top director of photography at Warner Brothers by 1932.
He shot 70 films over the sixteen years of his career, working with such prominent directors as William Wellman, Raoul Walsh, Michael Curtiz, Archie Mayo, and William Dieterle. He was a member of the American Society of Cinematographers by 1921, and he was also one of the inaugural members of the International Photographers branch of I.A.T.S.E. (International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees). In October 1932, at the height of his career, he suddenly fell ill after wrapping a film. Hospitalized, his condition quickly worsened and within a week he was dead of an infection to the brain.
## Early life
Born Robert Bard Kurrle in Port Hueneme, California on February 2, 1890, Kurrle had at least one sibling, Ernest W. Kurrle. Prior to his entry into the film industry, Kurrle was already an innovative filmmaker. In 1909, flying in a Curtiss open cockpit bi-plane, he photographed the Panama Canal from the air. In 1913, Kurrle would become the first photographer to take an aerial photograph of the city of Oakland, California. Describing the experience, Kurrle said "... we went along just as smoothly as if we were riding on velvet".
## Film career
### Metro years and freelancing
Kurrle's first foray into the film industry was on the 1916 film, Her Great Price, directed by Edwin Carewe. He later collaborated with Carewe on a number of pictures during the 1920s. He began his career working for Metro Pictures, where he stayed at until 1921. Metro was one of the film companies which merged in 1924 to form Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The quality of Kurrle's work was noticed even early in his career. His filming of 1919's Lion's Den was called "spectacular". Kurrle's work the following year on The Right of Way was described by some as "... remarkable even in this day of almost perfect cinematography." By 1921, Kurrle was already a member of the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC). Early that year, he followed Carewe and left Metro to become a freelance cinematographer. Fifteen of the twenty-four films Kurrle worked on during 1921-27 were directed by Carewe. In 1922, while filming a Carewe picture, I Am the Law, Kurrle successfully tested a new high-speed film from Eastman. The new film allowed interior filming with less lighting, reducing both equipment and staffing costs.
Over the course of his career, Kurlle received numerous positive criticism and attention from other industry members and publications. He was highlighted in American Cinematographer on many occasions, the first time being in the 1922 edition, where he was called a "valued member" of the ASC. When he was selected to man the camera for fellow ASC member Phil Rosen's film, Abraham Lincoln, a prominent industry magazine stated that Kurlle's career had been "brilliant" up to that point. In July 1924, after Kurrle's return from north Africa where he shot A Son of the Sahara, American Cinematographer called him "... a master of his profession."
For 1926's Wings of the Storm, Kurrle's exterior shots in Mt. Rainier National Park received positive comments from industry trade papers. In 1927 Kurrle was lauded for his camerawork on the film adaptation of Tolstoy's Resurrection, which was directed by his long-term collaborator Carrewe. The following year, in the first ever American Cinematographer poll of the top Hollywood directors, Kurrle was selected as one of the top 10 cinematographers in the industry. That same year, 1928, his camera work on Sadie Thompson, was lauded as "... beautifully done, and the settings are completely in the mood of the story".
### Universal and Warner Brothers
By 1928 Kurrle was being called a "camera ace", a reference not only to his skill behind the camera, but also to the fact that he was one of the few people in Hollywood to own their own plane. In 1928 he worked exclusively with Universal Pictures, before returning to freelance the following year. In mid-1930, Kurrle signed a contract with Warner Brothers. Over the next two years he rose to become their top cinematographer. During his sixteen-year career, he worked with such notable directors as John Ince, William Wellman, Raoul Walsh, Michael Curtiz, Archie Mayo, and William Dieterle (who directed the final film Kurrle photographed). In 1928 Kurrle was one of the inaugural members of the International Photographers branch of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (I.A.T.S.E.).
Even when the film was given less than stellar press, Kurrle's work was often praised, as in the case of the 1929 film Her Majesty, Love, where it was noted, "The story is negligible, the cast, though capable, has nothing to do, and the direction is heavy handed and slow. But Robert Kurrle's cinematography is outstanding." That same year, his camerawork on another Carewe film, an adaptation of Longfellow's Evangeline, was deemed as "beautiful" by The Film Daily. The magazine also rated his photography as "excellent" for Merian Cooper's version of the classic tale, The Four Feathers. There were times when his work only garnered average reviews in some papers, such as 1930's Hit the Deck, while still gaining praise in others.
Kurrle was behind the camera for Lloyd Bacon's 1930 version of Moby Dick, for which his work received high praise, being called "... one of the three outstanding elements of the entire work." In 1931, his work on Resurrection was described as "... brilliant and sweeping". During 1932, Kurrle was the director of photography on ten feature films which were released that year. In September and October 1932, he worked on back to back films. The first was The Match King, featuring Warren William and Lili Damita, followed by Lawyer Man, starring William Powell and Joan Blondell. Lawyer Man was his final film.
## Death
Following the completion of his work on Lawyer Man, he went to the hospital for treatment of a persistent cold. This developed into a sinus infection, which further worsened into an infection in his brain. He remained in the hospital for over a week, fighting the infection, but eventually died from it. His death at the age of 42 on October 27, 1932, shocked the film industry. Later it was reported that the infection was meningitis. The last two films he worked on were released posthumously. Upon his death, American Cinematographer said, "The Motion Picture Industry lost one of its greatest cinematographers and finest gentlemen ..."
His memorial service was held at The Little Church of the Flowers in Glendale, California, after which he was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park, also in Glendale.
## Filmography
(Per AFI database)
- Her Great Price (1916)
- Boston Blackie's Little Pal (1918)
- Hitting the High Spots (1918)
- No Man's Land (1918)
- The Trail to Yesterday (1918)
- Unexpected Places (1918)
- Easy to Make Money (1919)
- Faith (1919)
- Blind Man's Eyes (1919)
- Blackie's Redemption (1919)
- The Lion's Den (1919)
- Lombardi, Ltd. (1919)
- One-Thing-at-a-Time O'Day (1919)
- The Spender (1919)
- Isobel; or the Trail's End (1920)
- The Right of Way (1920)
- Rio Grande (1920)
- Habit (1921)
- Her Mad Bargain (1921)
- The Invisible Fear (1921)
- The Lure of Youth (1921)
- Playthings of Destiny (1921)
- I Am the Law (1922)
- A Question of Honor (1922)
- Silver Wings (1922)
- All the Brothers Were Valiant (1923)
- Abraham Lincoln (1924)
- Madonna of the Streets (1924)
- A Son of the Sahara (1924)
- Joanna (1925)
- The Lady Who Lied (1925)
- The Red Rider (1925)
- Sackcloth and Scarlet (1925)
- Why Women Love (1925)
- High Steppers (1926)
- Pals First (1926)
- Wings of the Storm (1926)
- Breakfast at Sunrise (1927)
- Resurrection (1927)
- The Stolen Bride (1927)
- The Tender Hour (1927)
- Ramona (1928)
- Revenge (1928)
- Sadie Thompson (1928)
- Evangeline (1929)
- The Four Feathers (1929)
- Rio Rita (1929)
- Dancing Sweeties (1930)
- The Furies (1930)
- Hit the Deck (1930)
- Maybe It's Love (1930)
- Moby Dick (1930)
- River's End (1930)
- God's Gift to Women (1931)
- Her Majesty Love (1931)
- Illicit (1931)
- Resurrection (1931)
- The Road to Singapore (1931)
- Smart Money (1931)
- The Crooked Circle (1932)
- Crooner (1932)
- The Expert (1932)
- High Pressure (1932)
- Jewel Robbery (1932)
- Lawyer Man (1933)
- The Match King (1932)
- One Way Passage (1932)
- The Strange Love of Molly Louvain (1932)
- Winner Take All (1932)
|
21,078,363 |
Crispy Gamer
| 1,132,882,105 |
American video game website
|
[
"Defunct websites",
"Internet properties established in 2008",
"Video game websites"
] |
Crispy Gamer was an American video game website that published news, culture, reviews, comics, and videos. It launched on October 26, 2008, as an independent website after being in beta for six months. Founding staff included former employees of Google, eMusic, and gaming website GameSpy. In January 2010, one month after acquiring gamerDNA, the editorial staff was laid off by the authority of the board of directors, with the company's CEO resigning in protest. The website continued to operate, with gamerDNA being acquired by Live Gamer in 2011. It was stated in 2012 that the website became defunct.
## History
Crispy Gamer was created by Chris Heldman, head of media entertainment at Google; John Keefer, editorial director of GameSpy; Chris Hoerenz, chief marketing officer from eMusic; E2open engineer Andre Srinivasan; and Aldis Porietis. The website was first conceived by Chris Heldman under the idea of "The Game Trust", a chosen group of some of the finest writers in the industry. He pitched the idea of creating a new gaming website to John Keefer at the E3 2007. Keefer, initially adamant, agreed with the stipulation of a "separation of church and state" in terms of being in the pocket of video game companies.
The company was based in New York City, setting up office in October 2007. The site was in beta for six months before launching on October 26, 2008, with twenty employees, ranging from Entertainment Weekly to Wired. The website announced the same day that it raised \$8.25 million in venture capital from J. P. Morgan's Constellation Ventures. In February 2009, Crispy Gamer signed a syndication deal with Tribune Media Services, McClatchy Tribune Information Services, and gamerDNA.
The website decided against showing video game advertising. Despite reaching a million in monthly unique visitors, it failed to generate ad revenue. Heldman blamed it on the 2009 recession, which he described as "a perfect storm". In September 2009, John Keefer left the website to write for GamePolitics.com. In December 2009, the company acquired gamerDNA, Inc. One month after the acquisition, the editorial staff and most of the management on authority of the board of directors were laid off. The editorial staff included former Joystiq writer Kyle Orland, Scott Jones, former associate producer of The Daily Show John Teti, Evan Narcisse, James Fudge, Ryan Kuo, managing editor Elise Vogel, and Chief Marketing Officer Anne Mischler. In response to the layoffs, Chris Heldman resigned as CEO in protest.
Original gamerDNA CEO Jon Radoff mentioned he only learned of this through inquiring journalists. The day before, in a meeting between Crispy Gamer's videographer John Teti and member of the board and representative of Constellation Ventures Tom Wasserman, Wasserman mentioned his displeasure of the site's underwhelming traffic and ad revenue. The board of directors decided to take the website to a "gaming focused ad network" direction as a result. In July 2011, gamerDNA was acquired by Live Gamer. At that time, the company was still operating Crispy Gamer. Kyle Orland stated in January 2012 that the website was defunct.
|
28,112,564 |
Zan Parr Bar
| 1,110,789,216 |
20th-century American Quarter Horse stallion
|
[
"1974 animal births",
"1987 animal deaths",
"AQHA Hall of Fame (horses)",
"American Quarter Horse show horses",
"American Quarter Horse sires"
] |
Zan Parr Bar (1974–1987) was an American Quarter Horse stallion who excelled at halter and at calf roping, as well as being a sire of show horses. A grandson of Three Bars, he was shown in halter as well as under saddle, or while ridden, in both regular riding classes and in roping events. He retired from showing in 1980 to become a breeding stallion, where he sired over 600 foals, with many show winners. He died in 1987 and was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Association's (AQHA) Hall of Fame in 2010.
## Early life
Zan Parr Bar was a chestnut stallion sired by Par Three, a son of AQHA Hall of Fame member Three Bars, a Thoroughbred stallion. His dam, or mother, was Terry's Pal, a daughter of Poco Astro. He was bred by Bobbie Silva of Tulare, California, and was foaled on April 30, 1974. At four months old he was bought by Bill Gibford, a professor at California Polytechnic State University, who named him Zan Parr Bar, with the Zan part of the name referring to the horse's distant ancestor Zantanon, and the Parr and Bar referring to Par Three and Three Bars. At maturity, he stood 15.3 hands (160 cm) high and weighed 1,250 pounds (570 kg).
## Show career
Gibford showed Zan Parr Bar as a two-year-old in halter, earning some Grand Champion and Reserve Grand Championships. While at a show in California, Texas breeder Carol Rose saw Zan Parr Bar, and tried to purchase him from Gibford, who had been her advisor at California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), but Gibford would not sell, only compromising at allowing Rose the right of first refusal if he ever did sell the horse. A month later, Gibford called Rose, and informed her that he was in fact entertaining offers for the stallion, and she immediately flew to California and finalized the deal for the horse. As Rose put it, "I was on a plane at eight the next morning, there by three, and by 5:30, the deal was done. At six, someone else who'd made an offer showed up."
## Show career
Rose moved the stallion to Texas and her then-husband Matlock Rose continued the horse's halter career. At the same time, Zan Parr Bar began showing western pleasure, earning 19 points in the discipline with the AQHA by the end of 1977, enough for a Performance Register of Merit. In 1978, the stallion began showing in steer roping, training with Billy Allen and earning a Superior Steer Roping horse title as well as an AQHA Champion title by the end of 1978.
During Zan Parr Bar's show career he earned an AQHA Champion, Performance Register of Merit, Superior Halter Horse and Superior Steer Roping Horse. He was the 1977 High Point Halter Stallion and World Champion Three Year Old Stallion. In 1979 he was the World Champion Aged Stallion in Halter as well as the High Point Steer Roping Horse. In 1980 he repeated as World Champion Aged Halter stallion. By the end of his showing career, in AQHA shows he had earned 245 points in halter, 278 points in steer roping, 38 points in western pleasure, 20 points in calf roping, and 13 points in reining.
## Breeding career
Zan Parr Bar retired from showing after 1980, becoming a full-time breeding stallion. He sired a number of World Champion horses, including Reprise Bar, Zan Parr Jack, and Zan Gold Jack. Crossed with fellow Hall of Fame member Diamonds Sparkle, Zan Parr Bar produced Sparkles Rosezana, Zans Diamond Sun and Sparkles Suzana. In total, he sired 652 foals out of 12 foal crops, with his foals earning 22 AQHA Champion honors, 31 World Champion titles, 6 Superior Halter titles, 204 Performance Register of Merits, and 143 Superior Performance honors in various disciplines. His foals earned almost 25,000 points in almost all the types of show ring classes offered by the AQHA. One of his foals, Reprise Bar, earned the AQHA Superhorse title at the 1984 AQHA World Show. Five of his offspring won all-around high point awards, earning the most points in a given year in a specific discipline in AQHA shows.
## Death and honors
Zan Parr Bar died of colitis X on November 25, 1987, and was buried at the Southwest Stallion Station in Elgin, Texas. He was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2010.
## Pedigree
|
82,208 |
International Mathematical Olympiad
| 1,173,608,723 |
Mathematical olympiad for pre-university students
|
[
"International Mathematical Olympiad",
"International Science Olympiad",
"Mathematics competitions",
"Recurring events established in 1959"
] |
The International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is a mathematical olympiad for pre-university students, and is the oldest of the International Science Olympiads. It is “the most prestigious” mathematical competitions in the world. The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959. It has since been held annually, except in 1980. More than 100 countries participate. Each country sends a team of up to six students, plus one team leader, one deputy leader, and observers.
The content ranges from extremely difficult algebra and pre-calculus problems to problems in branches of mathematics not conventionally covered in secondary or high school and often not at university level either, such as projective and complex geometry, functional equations, combinatorics, and well-grounded number theory, of which extensive knowledge of theorems is required. Calculus, though allowed in solutions, is never required, as there is a principle that anyone with a basic understanding of mathematics should understand the problems, even if the solutions require a great deal more knowledge. Supporters of this principle claim that this allows more universality and creates an incentive to find elegant, deceptively simple-looking problems which nevertheless require a certain level of ingenuity, often times a great deal of ingenuity to net all points for a given IMO problem.
The selection process differs by country, but it often consists of a series of tests which admit fewer students at each progressing test. Awards are given to approximately the top-scoring 50% of the individual contestants. Teams are not officially recognized—all scores are given only to individual contestants, but team scoring is unofficially compared more than individual scores. Contestants must be under the age of 20 and must not be registered at any tertiary institution. Subject to these conditions, an individual may participate any number of times in the IMO.
## History
The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959. Since then it has been held every year (except in 1980, when it was cancelled due to internal strife in Mongolia) It was initially founded for eastern European member countries of the Warsaw Pact, under the USSR bloc of influence, but later other countries participated as well. Because of this eastern origin, the IMOs were first hosted only in eastern European countries, and gradually spread to other nations.
Sources differ about the cities hosting some of the early IMOs. This may be partly because leaders and students are generally housed at different locations, and partly because after the competition the students were sometimes based in multiple cities for the rest of the IMO. The exact dates cited may also differ, because of leaders arriving before the students, and at more recent IMOs the IMO Advisory Board arriving before the leaders.
Several students, such as Lisa Sauermann, Reid W. Barton, Nicușor Dan and Ciprian Manolescu have performed exceptionally well in the IMO, winning multiple gold medals. Others, such as Terence Tao, Grigori Perelman, Ngô Bảo Châu and Maryam Mirzakhani have gone on to become notable mathematicians. Several former participants have won awards such as the Fields Medal.
## Scoring and format
The competition consists of 6 problems. The competition is held over two consecutive days with 3 problems each; each day the contestants have four-and-a-half hours to solve three problems. Each problem is worth 7 points for a maximum total score of 42 points. Calculators are not allowed. The problems chosen are from various areas of secondary school mathematics, broadly classifiable as geometry, number theory, algebra, and combinatorics. They require no knowledge of higher mathematics such as calculus and analysis, and solutions are often elementary. However, they are usually disguised so as to make the solutions difficult. The problems given in the IMO are largely designed to require creativity and the ability to solve problems quickly. Thus, the prominently featured problems are algebraic inequalities, complex numbers, and construction-oriented geometrical problems, though in recent years, the latter has not been as popular as before because of the algorithmic use of theorems like Muirhead's Inequality, and Complex/Analytic Bash to solve problems.
Each participating country, other than the host country, may submit suggested problems to a Problem Selection Committee provided by the host country, which reduces the submitted problems to a shortlist. The team leaders arrive at the IMO a few days in advance of the contestants and form the IMO Jury which is responsible for all the formal decisions relating to the contest, starting with selecting the six problems from the shortlist. The Jury aims to order the problems so that the order in increasing difficulty is Q1, Q4, Q2, Q5, Q3 and Q6, where the First day problems Q1, Q2, and Q3 are in increasing difficulty, and the Second day problems Q4, Q5, Q6 are in increasing difficulty. The Team Leaders of all countries are given the problems in advance of the contestants, and thus, are kept strictly separated and observed.
Each country's marks are agreed between that country's leader and deputy leader and coordinators provided by the host country (the leader of the team whose country submitted the problem in the case of the marks of the host country), subject to the decisions of the chief coordinator and ultimately a jury if any disputes cannot be resolved.
## Selection process
The selection process for the IMO varies greatly by country. In some countries, especially those in East Asia, the selection process involves several tests of a difficulty comparable to the IMO itself. The Chinese contestants go through a camp. In others, such as the United States, possible participants go through a series of easier standalone competitions that gradually increase in difficulty. In the United States, the tests include the American Mathematics Competitions, the American Invitational Mathematics Examination, and the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad, each of which is a competition in its own right. For high scorers in the final competition for the team selection, there also is a summer camp, like that of China.
In countries of the former Soviet Union and other eastern European countries, a team has in the past been chosen several years beforehand, and they are given special training specifically for the event. However, such methods have been discontinued in some countries.
## Awards
The participants are ranked based on their individual scores. Medals are awarded to the highest ranked participants; slightly fewer than half of them receive a medal. The cutoffs (minimum scores required to receive a gold, silver, or bronze medal respectively) are then chosen so that the numbers of gold, silver and bronze medals awarded are approximately in the ratios 1:2:3. Participants who do not win a medal but who score 7 points on at least one problem receive an honorable mention.
Special prizes may be awarded for solutions of outstanding elegance or involving good generalisations of a problem. This last happened in 1995 (Nikolay Nikolov, Bulgaria) and 2005 (Iurie Boreico), but was more frequent up to the early 1980s. The special prize in 2005 was awarded to Iurie Boreico, a student from Moldova, for his solution to Problem 3, a three variable inequality.
The rule that at most half the contestants win a medal is sometimes broken if it would cause the total number of medals to deviate too much from half the number of contestants. This last happened in 2010 (when the choice was to give either 226 (43.71%) or 266 (51.45%) of the 517 contestants (excluding the 6 from North Korea — see below) a medal), 2012 (when the choice was to give either 226 (41.24%) or 277 (50.55%) of the 548 contestants a medal), and 2013, when the choice was to give either 249 (47.16%) or 278 (52.65%) of the 528 contestants a medal. In these cases, slightly more than half the contestants were awarded a medal.
## Penalties
North Korea was disqualified twice for cheating, once at the 32nd IMO in 1991 and again at the 51st IMO in 2010. It is the only country to have been accused of cheating.
## Summary
## Notable achievements
The following nations have achieved the highest team score in the respective competition:
- China, 24 times: in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999 (joint), 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2019 (joint), 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023;
- Russia (including Soviet Union), 16 times: in 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1979, 1984, 1986 (joint), 1988, 1991, 1999 (joint), 2007;
- United States, 8 times: in 1977, 1981, 1986 (joint), 1994, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019 (joint);
- Hungary, 6 times: in 1961, 1962, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1975;
- Romania, 5 times: in 1959, 1978, 1985, 1987, 1996;
- West Germany, twice: in 1982 and 1983;
- South Korea, twice: in 2012 and 2017;
- Bulgaria, once: in 2003;
- Iran, once: in 1998;
- East Germany, once: in 1968.
The following nations have achieved an all-members-gold IMO with a full team:
- China, 15 times: in 1992, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2019, 2021, 2022 and 2023.
- United States, 4 times: in 1994, 2011, 2016, and 2019.
- South Korea, 3 times: in 2012, 2017, and 2019.
- Russia, twice: in 2002 and 2008.
- Bulgaria, once: in 2003.
The only countries to have their entire team score perfectly in the IMO were the United States in 1994 (they were coached by Paul Zeitz), China in 2022, and Luxembourg, whose 1-member team had a perfect score in 1981. The US's success earned a mention in TIME Magazine. Hungary won IMO 1975 in an unorthodox way when none of the eight team members received a gold medal (five silver, three bronze). Second place team East Germany also did not have a single gold medal winner (four silver, four bronze).
Several individuals have consistently scored highly and/or earned medals on the IMO: Zhuo Qun Song (Canada) is the most highly decorated participant with five gold medals (including one perfect score in 2015) and one bronze medal. Reid Barton (United States) was the first participant to win a gold medal four times (1998–2001). Barton is also one of only eight four-time Putnam Fellows (2001–04). Christian Reiher (Germany), Lisa Sauermann (Germany), Teodor von Burg (Serbia), Nipun Pitimanaaree (Thailand) and Luke Robitaille (United States) are the only other participants to have won four gold medals (2000–03, 2008–11, 2009–12, 2010–13, 2011–14, and 2019–22 respectively); Reiher also received a bronze medal (1999), Sauermann a silver medal (2007), von Burg a silver medal (2008) and a bronze medal (2007), and Pitimanaaree a silver medal (2009). Wolfgang Burmeister (East Germany), Martin Härterich (West Germany), Iurie Boreico (Moldova), and Lim Jeck (Singapore) are the only other participants besides Reiher, Sauermann, von Burg, and Pitimanaaree to win five medals with at least three of them gold. Ciprian Manolescu (Romania) managed to write a perfect paper (42 points) for gold medal more times than anybody else in the history of the competition, doing it all three times he participated in the IMO (1995, 1996, 1997). Manolescu is also a three-time Putnam Fellow (1997, 1998, 2000). Eugenia Malinnikova (Soviet Union) is the highest-scoring female contestant in IMO history. She has 3 gold medals in IMO 1989 (41 points), IMO 1990 (42) and IMO 1991 (42), missing only 1 point in 1989 to precede Manolescu's achievement.
Terence Tao (Australia) participated in IMO 1986, 1987 and 1988, winning bronze, silver and gold medals respectively. He won a gold medal when he just turned thirteen in IMO 1988, becoming the youngest person to receive a gold medal (Zhuo Qun Song of Canada also won a gold medal at age 13, in 2011, though he was older than Tao). Tao also holds the distinction of being the youngest medalist with his 1986 bronze medal, followed by 2009 bronze medalist Raúl Chávez Sarmiento (Peru), at the age of 10 and 11 respectively. Representing the United States, Noam Elkies won a gold medal with a perfect paper at the age of 14 in 1981. Both Elkies and Tao could have participated in the IMO multiple times following their success, but entered university and therefore became ineligible.
## Medals (1959–2023)
The current ten countries with the best all-time results are as follows:
## Gender gap and the launch of European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad
Over the years, since its inception to present, the IMO has attracted far more male contestants than female contestants. During the period 2000–2021, there were only 1,102 female contestants (9.2%) out of a total of 11,950 contestants. The gap is even more significant in terms of IMO gold medallists; from 1959 to 2021, there were 43 female and 1295 male gold medal winners.
This gender gap in participation and in performance at the IMO level led to the establishment of the European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad (EGMO).
## Media coverage
- A documentary, "Hard Problems: The Road To The World's Toughest Math Contest" was made about the United States 2006 IMO team.
- A BBC documentary titled Beautiful Young Minds aired July 2007 about the IMO.
- A BBC fictional film titled X+Y released in September 2014 tells the story of an autistic boy who took part in the Olympiad.
- A book named Countdown by Steve Olson tells the story of the United States team's success in the 2001 Olympiad.
## See also
- List of International Mathematical Olympiads
- International Mathematics Competition for University Students (IMC)
- International Science Olympiad
- List of mathematics competitions
- Pan-African Mathematics Olympiads
- Junior Science Talent Search Examination
- Art of Problem Solving
|
938,396 |
Battle of Lang Vei
| 1,165,707,595 |
1968 battle in the Vietnam War
|
[
"1968 in Vietnam",
"Battles and operations of the Vietnam War",
"Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1968",
"Battles involving Vietnam",
"Battles involving the United States",
"Conflicts in 1968",
"History of Quảng Trị province"
] |
The Battle of Lang Vei (Vietnamese: Trận Làng Vây) began on the evening of 6 February 1968 and concluded during the early hours of 7 February, in Quảng Trị Province, South Vietnam. Towards the end of 1967, the 198th Tank Battalion of the People's Army of Vietnam's (PAVN) 202nd Armored Regiment received instructions from the North Vietnamese Ministry of Defense to reinforce the 304th Division as part of the Route 9–Khe Sanh Campaign. After an arduous journey down the Ho Chi Minh trail in January 1968, the 198th Tank Battalion linked up with the 304th Division for an offensive along Highway 9, which stretched from the Laotian border through to Quảng Trị Province. On 23 January, the 24th Regiment attacked the small Laotian outpost at Bane Houei Sane, under the control of the Royal Laos Army BV-33 "Elephant" Battalion. In that battle, the 198th Tank Battalion failed to reach the battle on time because its crews struggled to navigate their tanks through the rough local terrain. However, as soon as the PT-76 tanks of the 198th Tank Battalion turned up at Bane Houei Sane, the Laotian soldiers and their families retreated into South Vietnam.
After Bane Houei Sane was captured, the 24th Regiment prepared for another attack which targeted the U.S. Special Forces Camp at Lang Vei, manned by Detachment A-101 of the 5th Special Forces Group and indigenous Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) forces. On 6 February, the 24th Regiment, again supported by the 198th Tank Battalion, launched their assault on Lang Vei. Despite artillery and air support, the U.S.-led forces conceded ground and the PAVN quickly dominated their positions. By the early hours of 7 February the command bunker was the only position still held by Allied forces. To rescue the American survivors inside the Lang Vei Camp, a counterattack was mounted, but the Laotian soldiers who formed the bulk of the attack formation refused to fight the PAVN. Later on, U.S. Special Forces personnel were able to escape from the camp, and were rescued by a U.S. Marine task force from Khe Sanh Combat Base.
## Background
### North Vietnam
The task of capturing Lang Vei was entrusted to the PAVN's 24th Regiment, 304th Division, led by Colonel Le Cong Phe. The regiment was to be supported by the 2nd Battalion (part of the 101D Regiment, 325th Division), the 2nd Artillery Battalion (part of the 675th Artillery Regiment), one tank company (part of the 198th Tank Battalion, 203rd Armored Regiment), two sapper companies, one anti-aircraft gun company, and one flamethrower platoon. One of the most important features of the PAVN formation were the elements of the 203rd Armoured Regiment; the "Route 9-Khe Sanh Campaign" marked the first time the PAVN deployed its armored forces on the battlefield. In 1964, soldiers of the PAVN's first armored unit—the 202nd Armored Regiment—was sent into South Vietnam without their T-34 medium tanks, because their prime mission was to learn enemy armor tactics in order to prepare for future missions. On 22 June 1965, the North Vietnamese Ministry of Defense passed Resolution 100/QD-QP, to establish the 203rd Armored Regiment and Resolution 101/QD-QP to create an Armored Force Command.
For PAVN commanders, the creation of an independent armored force command represented a significant milestone in the development of their army, because it enabled them to respond to the circumstances on the battlefield with a modern armored force. To prepare for their upcoming mission, the 203rd Armored Regiment undertook a series of combined-arms training with infantry and artillery units in different types of terrain, in order to operate in Vietnam's rough mountainous and jungle conditions. On 5 August 1967, the Ministry of Defense ordered the 203rd Armored Regiment to form a sub-unit, namely the 198th Tank Battalion equipped with 22 PT-76 amphibious tanks, to bolster the strength of the 304th Division in South Vietnam. From their base in Luong Son, Hòa Bình Province, the 198th Tank Battalion began their arduous 1,350 kilometers (840 mi) journey down the Ho Chi Minh Trail under constant U.S. air-strikes. In January 1968, the 198th Tank Battalion arrived on the field where it joined the 304th Division for an attack on the Laotian outpost of Ban Houei Sane.
### United States/South Vietnam
The Lang Vei Special Forces Camp was placed under the control of the United States Army's Detachment A-101, Company C, 5th Special Forces Group, to train and equip locally recruited Vietnamese through the CIDG program. Detachment A-101 had originally been established in July 1962 at Khe Sanh. In 1966, Detachment A-101 moved to its first site near the village of Lang Vei, when the United States Marines took control of Khe Sanh Combat Base as part of an American military build-up in South Vietnam's northern provinces. However, the first camp at Lang Vei proved to be only temporary, as the PAVN attacked the camp on 4 May 1967. Even though the PAVN attack was repelled, damage to the camp was extensive. Since the original site lacked good observation and fields of fire beyond the barbed-wire perimeter, the 5th Special Forces Group commander decided to move the camp to a more suitable area, about 1,000 meters to the west. The new camp, on Highway 9 about 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) to the west of Khe Sanh, was completed in 1967.
In 1967, Captain Franklin C. Willoughby assumed command of Detachment A-101 at Lang Vei, which had a tactical area of responsibility of 220 square kilometers (85 sq mi), and was one of nine operational CIDG camps in I Corps Tactical Zone. From Lang Vei, U.S Special Forces personnel worked jointly with a 14-man Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) special forces contingent and six interpreters; they were responsible for border surveillance, interdiction of enemy infiltration and assistance in the Revolutionary Development Program. To accomplish those tasks Willoughby had one Montagnard company, three South Vietnamese rifle companies and three combat reconnaissance platoons at his disposal. Early in January 1968, Detachment A-101 received reinforcements in the form of a Mobile Strike Force Company, consisting of 161 Hre tribesmen, along with six U.S. Special Forces advisors. Elements of this Mobile Strike Force Company operated from a fortified bunker about 800 meters west of the camp, which served as an observation post. During the day the Hre tribesmen of the Mobile Strike Force conducted patrols; at night they took up ambush positions in the vicinity of the camp.
Prior to the battle, Willoughby placed Company 101 of 82 Bru Montagnard tribesmen, on the northeastern flank of the camp, with the 3rd Combat Reconnaissance Platoon positioned just behind it. Company 104 was placed in the southern end of the camp; Company 102, consisting of 42 men, was positioned at the opposite end about 450 meters to the west, while the 43-man Company 103 was positioned further south. The 1st and 2nd Combat Reconnaissance Platoons were placed at the northern and southern perimeters respectively, about 200 meters apart. Individually, the CIDG personnel carried M1 and M2 carbines with nearly 250,000 rounds of ammunition, and each company was also equipped with one 81 mm mortar. Among heavy weapons, there were two 106mm recoilless rifles, two 4.2-inch mortars and nineteen 60 mm mortars positioned around the camp. For close-in support, the CIDG personnel were furnished with 100 disposable M-72 anti-tank weapons. Antitank mines were requested, but were denied. If necessary, Willoughby could also request support from at least two rifle companies from the 26th Marine Regiment at Khe Sanh, along with artillery support from other locations within range.
Following the construction of the new camp site west of Lang Vei, Willoughby and his CIDG soldiers concentrated their efforts on strengthening the camp's defenses, and they made relatively few contacts with the PAVN. However, unbeknownst to Willoughby, the PAVN 304th Division had assembled on the battlefield, reinforced by the 198th Tank Battalion, with the following orders: the 66th Regiment was given the task of capturing Khe Sanh village, part of Hướng Hóa District, to begin their "Route 9-Khe Sanh Campaign"; the 24th Regiment was ordered to destroy the enemy strongholds of Ban Houei Sane and Lang Vei; the 9th Regiment was ordered to destroy any reinforcements that might try to relieve those bases areas. From December 1967, CIDG soldiers operating from Lang Vei began to report more frequent contacts with the PAVN. By mid-January, U.S. military intelligence also reported movements of PAVN formations across the Xe Pone River from Laos into South Vietnam. At the same time, the PAVN began to harass the Lang Vei Camp with mortar and artillery fire at least two or three times a week, and PAVN patrols probed the camp's perimeters. 3rd Marine Division intelligence estimated the combat strength of PAVN and Viet Cong forces in the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone area during this period was 40,943 troops.
## Preliminary attacks
On 21 January 1968, the PAVN 66th Regiment began its attack on Khe Sanh village, seat of the Hướng Hóa local government. At that time, Khe Sanh village was defended by the ARVN Regional Force 915th Company and the U.S. Marines Combined Action Company Oscar. Throughout the night, the combined U.S and South Vietnamese forces held their position, but at dawn U.S. soldiers on the ground called in air strikes and artillery support from the Khe Sanh Combat Base. Fighting in and around Khe Sanh village continued throughout the day and into the following night, and was finally captured by the PAVN at 09:30 on 22 January. At 11:00 Colonel David E. Lownds ordered Company D, 1st Battalion, 26th Marines, to relieve the defenders inside Khe Sanh village, but reversed his orders after second thoughts about PAVN ambushes. Later, the ARVN Regional Force 256th Company was destroyed by the PAVN 9th Regiment as it marched to Khe Sanh village. The PAVN 66th Regiment paid a heavy price for their victory with 154 killed and 496 wounded.
On the evening of 23 January, one day after the fall of Khe Sanh village, the PAVN 304th Division moved against their next target, the small Laotian outpost at Ban Houei Sane. Prior to 1968, Laotian forces at Ban Houei Sane had played an important role in the war, watching PAVN infiltration into South Vietnam from a section of the Ho Chi Minh Trail running through Laos. The outpost was manned by 700 Laotian soldiers of BV-33 "Elephant" Battalion, Royal Laos Army, led by Lieutenant Colonel Soulang Phetsampou. As night fell, the PAVN 3rd Battalion, 24th Regiment attacked the outpost. The 198th Tank Battalion, which was tasked with supporting the 24th Regiment, was delayed as their tank crews tried to navigate their PT-76 amphibious tanks through the rough local terrain. However, confusion quickly descended on the Laotian defenders as the PT-76 tanks turned up outside their outpost. After three hours of fighting, Lt. Col. Phetsampou decided to abandon his outpost, so he radioed the Lang Vei Camp and requested helicopters to evacuate his men and their families. However, as helicopters were unavailable, the Laotians decided to move eastward by foot along Highway 9, in an attempt to reach Lang Vei just across the border in South Vietnam.
Following the loss of both Khe Sanh village and Ban Houei Sane, thousands of civilian refugees made their way towards Lang Vei village and the Special Forces camp. With an estimated 8,000 non-combatants within a thousand meters of his camp, Willoughby radioed Da Nang for assistance. This arrived on 25 January in the form of food and medical supplies, along with a six-man Special Forces augmentation team. The Laotian soldiers of BV-33, with assistance from the new Special Forces team, were given materials to restore the old Lang Vei Camp, where they would remain until further orders were issued from Da Nang. The Laotian soldiers and their families brought with them stories of a PAVN attack supported by tanks, which was a cause for concern for Willoughby, because Ban Houei Sane was only 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) away across the border. On 30 January Willoughby's fears were confirmed when a PAVN deserter, Private Luong Dinh Du, surrendered himself to the U.S. Special Forces in Lang Vei. Under interrogation, Private Du revealed that tracked vehicles were positioned near his unit, but a planned attack was canceled twice for unknown reasons.
## Battle
In response to the threat posed by the PAVN, Willoughby stepped up daytime patrols and night ambushes around his camp. On the morning of February 6, the PAVN fired mortars into the Lang Vei compound, wounding eight Camp Strike Force soldiers. That afternoon, Lt. Col. Daniel F. Shungel, commander of Company C, 5th Special Forces Group, flew into Lang Vei from Da Nang as a diplomatic gesture towards the Laotian commander Lt. Col. Phetsampou. At 18:10 hours, the PAVN followed up their morning mortar attack with an artillery attack from 152 mm howitzers, firing 60 rounds into the camp. The bombardment wounded two more Strike Force soldiers and damaged two bunkers. Then at 23:30, PAVN artillery started pounding the camp, which covered the movement of the 24th Regiment and the 3rd Battalion, 101D Regiment. From an observation post above the tactical operations centre, Sergeant Nickolas Fragos saw the first PAVN tanks moving along Lang Troai Road, attempting to breach the barbed wire in front of Company 104. He immediately went down to the tactical operations center and described what he had witnessed to Willoughby; Shungel then advised Willoughby to concentrate all available artillery and air support on the PAVN formation just in front of Company 104. Soon afterwards, three PT-76 tanks were knocked out by a 106 mm recoilless rifle manned by Sergeant First Class James W. Holt, but the barbed wire in front of Company 104 was quickly overrun by the combined PAVN tank-infantry attack.
Meanwhile, from inside the tactical operations center, Willoughby was busy calling in air and artillery support. He also radioed the 26th Marines at Khe Sanh to request the deployment of two rifle companies as part of the reinforcement plan, but his request was denied. Believing that the attack on Company 104 was the enemy's main effort, Willoughby concentrated his artillery support there during the early stages of the battle. About 10 minutes after the artillery had begun firing, a U.S. Air Force forward air-controller arrived over Lang Vei along with a flareship and an AC-119 Shadow gunship. Willoughby then requested air strikes on the ravines north of the camp, on Lang Troai Road, and the areas west of the early warning outpost manned by the Hre soldiers of the Mobile Strike Force. Despite the ferocity of the air strikes and artillery fire, the PAVN managed to break through the Company 104 area, forcing the defenders to retreat into the 2nd and 3rd Combat Reconnaissance Platoon positions behind them. By 01:15, the PAVN had captured the entire eastern end of the Special Forces Camp and, from the Company 104 area, began pouring fire on Company 101.
At the opposite end of the camp, three PT-76 tanks rolled through the barbed wire barrier in front of Company 102 and 103. Point blank, the tank crews destroyed several bunkers with their guns, forcing the soldiers of Company 102 and 103 to abandon their positions. Those who survived the onslaught either retreated to the reconnaissance positions, or along Highway 9, toward Khe Sanh in the east. About 800 meters to the west, Sergeant First Class Charles W. Lindewald, an adviser to the Mobile Strike Force, also reported back to Willoughby that the early warning outpost was in danger of being overrun. To save it, Lindewald directed artillery strikes on the PAVN troops moving up towards his outpost, but he later died from a gunshot wound to the stomach as the PAVN overran the outpost. At about 01:30, Shungel and his hastily organized tank-killer teams were busy engaging the tanks that were roaming the Company 104 area; on many occasions the M-72 rockets fired by the Americans either missed completely, jammed, misfired, or simply failed to knock out the enemy tanks. By 02:30, the PAVN had broken through the inner perimeter of the camp, and began harassing the soldiers trapped inside the tactical operations center, which included Willoughby along with seven other Americans, three South Vietnamese special forces, and 26 CIDG soldiers.
Above ground, U.S. and ARVN soldiers who had escaped death or capture tried to escape from the PAVN. From the team house, a group of four Americans and about 50 CIDG soldiers held a quick conference and decided that they would leave the camp through the northern perimeter, where there was no visible sign of the PAVN. Without much difficulty, the Americans and the CIDG soldiers were able to make it through the barbed-wire barrier, but PAVN soldiers on the eastern side of the camp detected their movement and began firing on the group. Ultimately, only two Americans and about 10 Vietnamese soldiers managed to escape from the camp, taking refuge in a dry creek bed that offered some cover and concealment. At around 03:30, Willoughby made another request for the Marines at Khe Sanh to send reinforcements, but again his request was turned down. In an attempt to save the defenders at Lang Vei, Company C Headquarters in Da Nang tried to call for reinforcements from the Marines at Khe Sanh, but its request was also turned down. Finally, Company C Headquarters placed another Mobile Strike Force Company and a company-sized unit on standby alert in Da Nang, to be airlifted into battle as soon as helicopters were available.
Back in Lang Vei, the PAVN continued to harass the small force of soldiers still trapped in the command bunker with hand grenades, explosives and bursts of gunfire down the stairwell that led into the bunker. Shortly after 06:00, the PAVN threw several fragmentation grenades and tear gas grenades down the stairwell. Then, a voice called down the stairwell in Vietnamese, demanding the American-led forces give up at once. Following a quick discussion with his CIDG soldiers, the South Vietnamese special forces commander led his troops up the stairwell to surrender, but were killed by PAVN soldiers, leaving behind their American counterparts. After the South Vietnamese had gone up, there was another short verbal exchange between the Americans in the bunker and the PAVN in English, which was followed by another fire fight when the Americans refused surrender. At 06:30, the PAVN successfully blasted a hole on the northern wall, gaining direct access into the command bunker. However, instead of launching a direct attack on the last American stronghold, the PAVN continued to throw grenades through the wall.
At dawn, Sergeant First Class Eugene Ashley Jr. assembled about 100 Laotian soldiers of BV-33 at the old Lang Vei Camp in order to launch a rescue operation and, if possible, recapture the Special Forces Camp from the PAVN. Even though Lt. Col. Phetsampou had initially refused to take part in the operation, the Americans held him to his earlier promise of providing them with troops. After Ashley had formed the Laotian soldiers into a skirmish line, he radioed the forward air-controllers overhead to direct strafing runs on the Special Forces camp to soften up the enemy.
Meanwhile, as COMUSMACV General William Westmoreland learned of the PAVN attack on Lang Vei and Lownd's refusal to send a relief force, he ordered the U.S. Marines to supply enough helicopters to airlift a 50 man strike force with the aim of rescuing the survivors. Subsequently, Colonel Jonathan F. Ladd, commanding officer of the 5th Special Forces Group, and Major General Norman J. Anderson, commander of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing were directed to formulate a rescue plan. While Willoughby and his men waited for help in the command bunker, Ashley and his Laotian contingent cautiously entered the Special Forces camp.
The Laotian soldiers were evidently reluctant to advance on the PAVN, and only inched forward when the Americans ordered them to do so. In their first attempt to break through PAVN lines, Ashley and his men were beaten back. Undeterred, the American-led forces tried to penetrate PAVN positions several times, and only stopped after Ashley was shot in the chest and later killed by an exploding artillery round. Ashley was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. The Laotians, who feared the PAVN, disengaged from the fight and fled. After Ashley's final attack had failed, Willoughby and his men made the decision to abandon their position. However, after Specialist Four James L. Moreland was mortally wounded, Captain Willoughby decided to leave him in the bunker, because the remaining Americans were in no physical condition to carry out the wounded man. Under the cover of U.S. air strikes, Willoughby and other American survivors escaped towards the old Lang Vei Camp, which was evacuated by Marine CH-46s from HMM-262, which lifted in a 50 man reaction force. By 17:30 on 7 February, all known survivors had been evacuated to Khe Sanh.
## Aftermath
The fight for Lang Vei, though short in duration, was a costly endeavor for both sides. In their efforts to hold the camp, the combined Montagnard and South Vietnamese CIDG soldiers suffered 309 killed, 64 wounded, and 122 captured. Of the original 24 Americans who took part in the battle, seven were killed in action, 11 sustained injuries, and three were captured. Nearly all of the camp's weaponry and equipment were either destroyed or captured by enemy forces. For the North Vietnamese, the battle for Lang Vei marked the first successful use of armor in the war. In terms of human casualties, the PAVN claimed to have lost 90 soldiers killed and 220 wounded.
On the evening of 7 February, though the fight was over for the military forces, the ordeal continued for the civilians who were caught in the fighting. An estimated 6,000 survivors from the old Lang Vei Camp including CIDG soldiers and their families, Montagnard tribesmen and the Laotians, followed the Americans and descended on the Khe Sanh Combat Base. However, when they reached the American compound, Lownds refused to give them entry because he feared that PAVN soldiers may have mingled with the crowd. Instead, Lownds ordered his soldiers to herd the civilians into bomb craters, disarmed the local soldiers, and kept them under guard even though PAVN artillery shells continued to rain down on the base. No food or medical aid was given to the civilians as they were kept outside the wires of the American compound. Frustrated by the lack of support and poor treatment by the Americans, Phetsampou complained that his people were being treated more like an enemy. On 10 February, Laotian civilian refugees started walking back to Laos along Highway 9, because they feared for their lives and preferred to die in their own country. On 15 February, through arrangements made by the Laotian embassy in Saigon, Phetsampou and his soldiers were flown back to their country on a Royal Laotian Air Force C-47 transport aircraft.
## See also
- Battle of Ban Houei Sane
- Battle of Khe Sanh
|
23,385,722 |
Nebula Award
| 1,152,130,785 |
Literature prize for science fiction and fantasy works from the United States
|
[
"American fiction awards",
"Awards established in 1965",
"Nebula Awards",
"Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America",
"Science fiction awards"
] |
The Nebula Awards annually recognize the best works of science fiction or fantasy published in the United States. The awards are organized and awarded by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association (SFWA), a nonprofit association of professional science fiction and fantasy writers. They were first given in 1966 at a ceremony created for the awards, and are given in four categories for different lengths of literary works. A fifth category for film and television episode scripts was given 1974–78 and 2000–09, and a sixth category for game writing was begun in 2018. In 2019 SFWA announced that two awards that were previously run under the same rules but not considered Nebula awards—the Andre Norton Award for Middle Grade and Young Adult Fiction and the Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation—were to be considered official Nebula awards. The rules governing the Nebula Awards have changed several times during the awards' history, most recently in 2010. The SFWA Nebula Conference, at which the awards are announced and presented, is held each spring in the United States. Locations vary from year to year.
The Nebula Awards are one of the best known and most prestigious science fiction and fantasy awards and together with the Hugo Awards have been called "the most important of the American science fiction awards". Winning works have been published in special collections, and winners and nominees are often noted as such on the books' covers. SFWA identifies the awards by the year of publication, that is, the year prior to the year in which the award is given.
For lists of winners and nominees for each Nebula category, see the list of categories below.
## Award
The Nebula Awards are given annually by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) for the best science fiction or fantasy fiction published during the previous year. To be eligible for consideration works must be published in English in the United States. Works published in English elsewhere in the world are also eligible provided they are released on either a website or in an electronic edition. The awards are not limited to American citizens or members of SFWA. Works translated into English are also eligible.
There are no written rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy, and the decision of eligibility in that regard is left up to the nominators and voters, rather than to SFWA.
The winner receives a trophy but no cash prize; the trophy is a transparent block with an embedded glitter spiral nebula and gemstones cut to resemble planets. The trophy itself was designed for the first awards by J. A. Lawrence, based on a sketch by Kate Wilhelm, and has remained the same ever since.
Nebula Award nominees and winners are chosen by members of the SFWA. Works are nominated each year between November 15 and February 15 by published authors who are members of the organization, with the six works that receive the most nominations forming the final ballot. Additional nominees are possible in the case of ties. Members then vote on the ballot throughout March, and the final results are presented at the Nebula Awards ceremony in May. Authors are not permitted to nominate their own works, though they can decline nominations. Ties in the final vote are broken, if possible, by the number of nominations the works received.
## History
The first Nebulas were given in 1966, for works published in 1965. The idea for such an award, funded by the sales of anthologies collecting the winning works, was proposed by SFWA secretary-treasurer Lloyd Biggle, Jr. in 1965. The idea was based on the Edgar Awards, presented by the Mystery Writers of America, and the idea to have a ceremony at which to present them was prompted by the Edgar and Hugo Awards. The initial ceremony consisted of four literary awards, for Novels, Novellas, Novelettes, and Short Stories, which have been presented every year since. A Script award was also presented from 1974 to 1978 under the names Best Dramatic Presentation and Best Dramatic Writing and again from 2000 through 2009 as Best Script, but after 2009 it was again removed and replaced by SFWA with the Ray Bradbury Award. In 2018, a new Game Writing category was added, for writing in video and tabletop games.
Prior to 2009, the Nebula Awards employed a rolling eligibility system. Each work was eligible to qualify for the ballot for one year following its date of publication. As a consequence of rolling eligibility, there was the possibility for works to be nominated in the calendar year after their publication and then be awarded in the calendar year after that. Works were added to a preliminary list for the year if they had ten or more nominations, which were then voted on to create the final ballot. In 1970, the option was added for voters to select "no award" if they felt that no nominated work was worthy of winning; this happened in 1971 in the Short Story category and in 1977 in the Script category.
Beginning in 1980 the eligibility year for nominations was set to the calendar year, rather than December–November as initially conceived, and the SFWA organizing panel was allowed to add an additional work. Authors were also allowed to use the mass-market paperback publication of their books as the beginning of their nomination period, rather than the initial hardback publication. As a consequence of the combination of this rule and the rolling eligibility, the 2007 awards, despite nominally being for works published in 2006, instead were all given to works initially published in 2005. Beginning with the 2010 awards, the rolling eligibility system and paperback publication exemption were replaced with the current rules.
## Categories
Beside the Nebulas, several other awards and honors are presented at the Nebula Awards ceremony, though not necessarily every year. Two of them are annual literary awards voted by SFWA members on the Nebula ballot: the Andre Norton Award for Outstanding Young Adult Science Fiction or Fantasy Book, inaugurated 2006, and the Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation, which replaced the Best Script award in 2010. The others are the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award since 1975 for "lifetime achievement in science fiction and/or fantasy", the Author Emeritus since 1995 for contributions to the field, the Kevin O'Donnell, Jr. Award for service to SFWA, and the Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award since 2009 for significant impact on speculative fiction. All four are discretionary but a Grand Master, selected by the officers and past presidents, has been named every year for more than a decade. The Solstice Award may be presented posthumously (where only living writers may be named Grand Master or Author Emeritus); in all, twelve have been awarded in five years to 2013. The Andre Norton Award and Ray Bradbury Award were previously annual literary awards on the Nebula ballot but not considered full award categories, but in 2020 both were added as official categories and their full names changed to be "Nebula Awards".
## Recognition
The Nebula Awards have been described as one of "the most important of the American science fiction awards" and "the science-fiction and fantasy equivalent" of the Emmy Awards. Along with the Hugo Award, the Nebula Award is also considered one of the premier awards in science fiction, with Laura Miller of Salon terming it "science fiction's most prestigious award", and Justine Larbalestier, in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction (2002), referring to it and the Hugo Award as "the best known and most prestigious of the science fiction awards". Brian Aldiss, in his book Trillion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction, claimed that the Nebula Award provided "more literary judgment" while the Hugo was a barometer of reader popularity, rather than artistic merit, though he did note that the winners of the two awards often overlapped. David Langford and Peter Nicholls stated in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (2012) that the two awards were often given to the same works, and noted that some critics felt that the Nebula selection reflected "political as much as literary ability" as it did not seem to focus as much on literary talent over popularity as expected.
Several people within the publishing industry have said that winning or being nominated for a Nebula Award has effects on the author's career and the sales of that work. Spider Robinson in 1992, as quoted in Science Fiction Culture (2000), said that publishers "pay careful attention" to who wins a Nebula Award. Literary agent Richard Curtis said in his 1996 Mastering the Business of Writing that having the term Nebula Award on the cover, even as a nominee, was a "powerful inducement" to science fiction fans to buy a novel, and Gahan Wilson, in First World Fantasy Awards (1977), claimed that noting that a book had won the Nebula Award on the cover "demonstrably" increased sales for that novel.
## Annual collections
The Nebula Winners series, renamed the Nebula Awards Showcase series in 1999, is published annually by SFWA and edited by a variety of SFWA members. It was started in 1966 as a collection of short story winners and nominees for that year, and has continued every year since. The contents of each year's collection is at the discretion of its editor. The sales of these anthologies were intended to pay for presenting the awards themselves.
The anthology The Best of the Nebulas (1989), edited by Ben Bova, collected winners of Nebula awards from 1966 through 1986 officially selected by SFWA members. The unofficial anthology Nebula Award Winning Novellas (1994), edited by Martin H. Greenberg, contained ten stories which had won the novella award between 1970 and 1989.
## See also
- List of science fiction awards
- List of joint winners of the Hugo and Nebula awards
- Hugo Award
- BSFA Award
- Locus Award
|
3,584,084 |
Hynerpeton
| 1,170,971,771 |
Extinct species of amphibian
|
[
"Devonian animals",
"Devonian tetrapods",
"Devonian vertebrates of North America",
"Famennian genera",
"Fossil taxa described in 1994",
"Ichthyostegalia",
"Late Devonian animals"
] |
Hynerpeton (/haɪˈnɜːrpətɒn/ lit. 'creeping animal from Hyner') is an extinct genus of early four-limbed vertebrate that lived in the rivers and ponds of Pennsylvania during the Late Devonian period, around 365 to 363 million years ago. The only known species of Hynerpeton is H. bassetti, named after the describer's grandfather, city planner Edward Bassett. Hynerpeton is known for being the first Devonian four-limbed vertebrate discovered in the United States, as well as possibly being one of the first to have lost internal (fish-like) gills.
This genus is known from few remains discovered at the Red Hill fossil site in Hyner, Pennsylvania. The most notable fossil is a large endochondral shoulder girdle consisting of the cleithrum, scapula, and coracoid (but not the interclavicle and clavicles), all connected into one shoulder bone. The inner surface of this shoulder bone possesses an array of depressions believed to have been attachment points for a unique set of powerful muscles around the chest. This may have given Hynerpeton improved mobility and weight-bearing abilities compared to other Devonian limbed vertebrates such as Ichthyostega and Acanthostega. The cleithrum (upper blade of the shoulder) is fused to the scapulocoracoid (lower plate of the shoulder, in front of the shoulder socket), unlike in most tetrapods, but the shoulder girdle is independent of the skull, unlike in most fish.
Early four-limbed vertebrates are often referred to as tetrapods (using a common trait-based definition of the term), although animals like Hynerpeton, Ichthyostega, and Acanthostega are placed outside the crown group Tetrapoda by paleontologists. From a cladistic (relations-based) point of view, alternative terms include "stem-tetrapod" or "stegocephalian", indicating that they were part of the lineage of animals that would lead to crown-tetrapods such as modern amphibians (Lissamphibia), reptiles, mammals, and birds.
Hynerpeton hails from the Red Hill fossil site, which, during the Late Devonian, was a warm floodplain inhabited by a diverse ecosystem of aquatic fish and terrestrial invertebrates. Hynerpeton was one of several genera of four-limbed vertebrates known from the site, although it was the first to be discovered. It has been theorized that animals like Hynerpeton were able to use their amphibious lifestyle to find shallow pools where they could spawn, isolated from predatory fish which inhabited the deeper rivers.
## History
In 1993, paleontologists Edward "Ted" Daeschler and Neil Shubin found the first Hynerpeton fossil at the Red Hill fossil site near Hyner, Pennsylvania, USA. They were surveying the Devonian rocks of Pennsylvania in search of fossil evidence for the origin of limbed vertebrates. This initial find was a robust left endochondral shoulder girdle, belonging to an animal which had powerful appendages. This fossil, designated ANSP 20053, is now considered the holotype specimen of Hynerpeton, which Daeschler and his colleagues formally named in an article published by Science Magazine in 1994. At the time of its discovery, Hynerpeton was the oldest four-limbed vertebrate known from the United States, and its presence in a complex ecosystem such as that preserved at Red Hill helped to answer some of Daeschler and Shubin's questions on the origin and lifestyle of limbed vertebrates. The generic name Hynerpeton is in reference to Hyner and herpeton ("creeping animal"), a Greek word which is commonly used as a suffix for newly named ancient amphibians. The specific name, bassetti, is named in honor of Edward M. Bassett, an American city planner and Daeschler's grandfather.
The most fossiliferous layer of the Red Hill site, the "Hynerpeton lens", was named after the genus. It is believed to have been deposited during the Middle to Upper Famennian stage, about 365 to 363 million years ago. Since 1993, more stegocephalian remains have been found in the Hynerpeton lens (also known as the Farwell paleosols). These include shoulder bones, jaw bones, skull fragments, gastralia (belly scutes), a femur, and a large and unusually-shaped humerus. In 2000, a pair of jaw bones were assigned to a second genus, Densignathus, and other studies have argued that several additional unnamed taxa were present at the site, including possibly the oldest known whatcheeriid.
Some of this material has been assigned to Hynerpeton, but in many cases, these assignments were reverted. For example, paleontologist Jenny Clack referred several addition fossils to the genus in her 1997 review of Devonian trackways. These fossils, which had not been previously noted in the scientific literature, included a jugal (cheek bone), belly scutes, and a portion of the mandible (lower jaw). In 2000, Daeschler described the mandible (ANSP 20901) in more depth, and compared and contrasted it with the remains of Densignathus. A more comprehensive review of Red Hill "tetrapod" fossils was undertaken by Daeschler, Clack, and Shubin in 2009. They noted that most fossils were assigned to Hynerpeton based on their close proximity to the point where the original endochondral shoulder girdle was discovered. However, they argued that, since there were other unique animals (i.e. Densignathus, the owner of the unusual humerus, and whatcheerids) close to this point, proximity was not a sufficient reason to consider these referrals valid. Therefore, they did not consider the remains described by Clack (1997) and Daeschler (2000) to be guaranteed examples of Hynerpeton material. Nevertheless, they did retain a referred left cleithrum, ANSP 20054, within the genus due to its structure being practically identical to that of the holotype.
## Description
Hynerpeton individuals were presumably similar to other early limbed vertebrates ("tetrapods") such as Ichthyostega or Acanthostega. Although a lack of sufficient fossil material makes it unwise to come to specific conclusions about the anatomy of Hynerpeton, the structure of the preserved endochondral shoulder girdle offers some information on its classification. The endochondral shoulder girdle is the portion of the shoulder girdle containing the scapula, coracoid, and cleithrum, but not the clavicles and interclavicle. As a whole, the endochondral shoulder girdle is massive and cleaver-shaped. The upward-pointing "shaft" is formed by the cleithrum, a blade-like bone of the shoulder girdle lost by most amniotes. The rear-pointing "blade" is formed by the scapulocoracoid, a plate-like bone which also possesses the glenoid fossa (shoulder socket) along its rear edge and in later tetrapods would separate into the scapula and coracoid. In lobe-finned fish ancestral to tetrapods, such as Eusthenopteron, the endochondral shoulder girdle was attached to the skull. In true tetrapods, the endochondral shoulder girdle is divided into two separate bones: the cleithrum and scapulocoracoid. Hynerpeton is intermediate between these two states, as the endochondral shoulder girdle is separated from the skull but not yet divided into two separate bones. In this way Hynerpeton is comparable to Devonian stem-tetrapods rather than true tetrapods, which did not appear in the fossil record until the Carboniferous. Based on the size of the bone, the Hynerpeton individual to which it belonged had an estimated length of 0.7 meters (2.3 feet).
The cleithrum portion is smooth, unlike the rough-textured cleithrum of tetrapodomorph fish. In addition, the upper portion of the cleithrum is expanded and slightly tilted forwards, a derived character similar to Tulerpeton and true tetrapods. The scapulocoracoid region is large when seen from the side but very thin when seen from below. The glenoid fossa (shoulder socket) is positioned on the posterolateral (outer and rear) edge of the scapulocoracoid, a position significantly more lateral than other Devonian tetrapods (apart from Tulerpeton). Above the glenoid fossa is a raised area known as the supraglenoid buttress.
Hynerpeton also has several autapomorphies, unique features which no other known stem-tetrapod possesses. The inner face of the scapulocoracoid has a large, deep depression known as a subscapular fossa. The upper rim of this depression is very roughly textured due to being covered with muscle scars. The rear edge of the subscapular fossa, on the other hand, is formed by a massive raised area, known as an infraglenoid buttress. A second depression known as the infraglenoid fossa, which is continuous with the glenoid fossa, wraps around the rear of the bone to bisect the infraglenoid buttress.
These characteristics combined seem to support the idea that Hynerpeton had very powerful muscles attached to the scapulocoracoid portion of the endochondral shoulder girdle. The infraglenoid fossa is particularly well-developed in this genus, and may have been an origin point for retractor muscles. A similar groove on the front edge of the bone may have helped with elevating or protracting the limb. The rim of the subscapular fossa also evidently provided a site for muscle attachment. As these features are unknown in other stem- and crown-tetrapods, it is likely that Hynerpeton's musculature was used for some unique, experimental form of movement that did not survive the Devonian. The original describers suggested that strong muscles could have been equally viable for walking or swimming.
Unlike most of its contemporaries, Hynerpeton seems to lack a postbranchial lamina. This blade of bone, preserved in many fish and some stem-tetrapods (Acanthostega, for example) extends lengthwise along the inner edge of the cleithrum. It typically forms the rear wall of the branchial chamber (gill cavity), and may have helped ensure that water flows in a single direction through the gills. Its absence in Hynerpeton may indicate that it lacked gills, and that the Hynerpeton lineage may have been among the first vertebrates to evolve this adaptation. However, this interpretation is not without controversy. Janis & Farmer (1999) noted that postbranchial laminae were absent in some eusthenopterid fish (which retained gill bones) and present in Whatcheeria (which had no evidence for gills despite well-preserved remains). Shoch & Witzmann (2011) note that it is not always clear when or how postbranchial laminae are preserved due to the divergent morphology of many stegocephalian cleithra. In addition, they point out that aquatic salamanders, which breathe with external gills, do not require nor possess postbranchial laminae. Daeschler et al. (1994) considered the loss of the postbranchial lamina to be a derived feature indicating that Hynerpeton was more "advanced" than Acanthostega. On the contrary, Schoch & Witzmann (2011) found evidence for a postbranchial lamina in crown-tetrapods such as the temnospondyls Trematolestes and Plagiosuchus. Thus, Hynerpeton's loss of a postbranchial lamina (and possibly internal gills) likely evolved independently of crown-tetrapods.
## Classification
The original 1994 description of Hynerpeton tentatively placed it within the order Ichthyostegalia of the superclass Tetrapoda. At the time, "Tetrapoda" referred to any four-limbed vertebrate and "Ichthyostegalia" referred to "primitive", Ichthyostega-like Devonian members of the category. However, the arrival and popularity of cladistics has altered both of these terms. Many paleontologists continue to use the traditional definition of "tetrapod"; a few instead opt for a cladistic definition which restricts the term to the crown group, a clade (relations-based grouping) containing only descendants of the last common ancestor of living tetrapods. While Hynerpeton is a tetrapod in the sense that it is a four-limbed vertebrate, it is not a member of the tetrapod crown group, as its lineage went extinct long before the lineages of modern tetrapods evolved. Likewise, "Ichthyostegalia" has been abandoned in the age of cladistics due to being an evolutionary grade leading to true tetrapods, rather than a relations-based clade. The traditional, non-cladistic definition of Tetrapoda, which begins at the earliest limbed vertebrates, is roughly equivalent to a clade named Stegocephali, which is defined as all animals more closely related to temnospondyls than to Pandericthys.
Hynerpeton has not been included in many phylogenetic analyses due to its limited amount of fossil material. Those analyses that have included it usually place it as a transitional form on a series of stem-tetrapods leading to crown-Tetrapoda. The shape of the cleithrum and the loss of the postbranchial lamina allow it to be placed higher than Acanthostega (and usually Ichthyostega as well), but the retention of a single-piece endochondral shoulder girdle usually means that it is not placed higher than Tulerpeton. The following is a simplified cladogram based on Ruta, Jeffery, & Coates (2003):
## Paleoecology
Hynerpeton was found at the Red Hill site of Pennsylvania. This roadcut preserved fossils from the Duncannon member of the Catskill Formation, which was laid down in an ancient coastal floodplain. During the late Devonian, the floodplain was close to the equator, so the climate was warm and humid, with a dry and wet season. It formed along the coast of a shallow sea which bisected the continent Euramerica, and was dominated by several small, slow rivers flowing down from the Acadian mountains in the eastern part of the continent. These rivers were prone to changing their course dramatically, creating oxbow lakes and ponds adjacent to the main river channels. The most abundant plants were forests of ancient broadleaf trees (Archaeopteris) supplemented with marshes filled with fern-like plants (Rhacophyton). Wildfires were common during the dry season, as evidenced by the large amount of charred Rhacophyton material. Other plants include lycopsids such as Lepidodendropsis and Otzinachsonia, as well as difficult-to-place herbs and shrubs such as Barinophyton and Gillespiea.
The animal life of Red Hill was also quite diverse. Early arachnids (Gigantocharinus), millipedes (Orsadesmus), and undescribed scorpions were among the few fully terrestrial members of the Red Hill fauna. The waterways were inhabited by a large variety of fish. Benthic placoderms such as the rare Phyllolepis, the common Groenlandaspis, and the abundant Turriaspis were a large part of the fish assemblage. The early ray-finned fish Limnomis was also abundant, likely forming large schools. Early sharks were present, including the minuscule Ageleodus and the spine-finned Ctenacanthus. Various lobe-finned fish populated the floodplain, as well as the large acanthodian Gyracanthus. The apex predator of the assemblage was Hyneria, a 3-meter (10 feet) long tetrapodomorph fish.
Hynerpeton was not the only purported tetrapod at the site. A somewhat larger genus, Densignathus, coexisted alongside it. In addition, an unusual humerus incompatible with the endochondral shoulder girdle of Hynerpeton may show that a third genus lived in the floodplain. Skull fragments similar to those of whatcheeriids such as Pederpes and Whatcheeria may indicate that a fourth genus was also present, though their referral to whatcheeriids has been questioned. The depositional environment and fauna of the Red Hill site offered new hypotheses for the questions on why and how terrestriality evolved in stem-tetrapods. The Catskill floodplain never became dry enough for its waterways to completely dry up, but at certain times of the year shallow ponds became isolated from the main river channels. Terrestrial or semiaquatic animals could have used these ponds as refuge from the larger predatory fish which patrolled the deeper waterways. A modern equivalent would probably be the Murray River of Australia. In this subtropical modern environment experiencing wet and dry seasons, spawning golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) take refuge in oxbow lakes to escape larger, faster murray cod (Maccullochella peeli) in the main river channel. In a Devonian environment, vertebrates with terrestrial capabilities may have had the advantage when navigating between these different environments. The flexibility imparted by such a lifestyle could also have let them take advantage of a larger variety of food sources.
## See also
- Ichthyostega
- Acanthostega
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History of Philadelphia
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History of largest city in Pennsylvania
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The city of Philadelphia was founded in 1682 by William Penn in the English Crown Province of Pennsylvania between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. Before then, the area was inhabited by the Lenape people. Philadelphia quickly grew into an important colonial city and during the American Revolution was the site of the First and Second Continental Congresses. After the Revolution the city was chosen to be the temporary capital of the United States. At the beginning of the 19th century, the federal and state governments left Philadelphia, but the city remained the cultural and financial center of the country. Philadelphia became one of the first U.S. industrial centers and the city contained a variety of industries, the largest being textiles.
After the American Civil War Philadelphia's government was controlled by a Republican political machine and by the beginning of the 20th century Philadelphia was described as "corrupt and contented." Various reform efforts slowly changed city government with the most significant in 1950 where a new city charter strengthened the position of mayor and weakened the Philadelphia City Council. At the same time Philadelphia moved its supports from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party, which has since created a strong Democratic organization.
The city began a population decline in the 1950s as mostly white and middle-class families left for the suburbs. Many of Philadelphia's houses were in poor condition and lacked proper facilities, and gang and mafia warfare plagued the city. Revitalization and gentrification of certain neighborhoods started bringing people back to the city. Promotions and incentives in the 1990s and the early 21st century have improved the city's image and created a condominium boom in Center City and the surrounding areas that has slowed the population decline.
## History
### 17th century
Before Philadelphia was colonized by Europeans, the area was inhabited by the Lenape (Delaware) Indians. The Delaware River Valley was called the Zuyd, meaning "South" River, or Lënapei Sipu.
Located north of what will eventually become the Center City and on the east bank of the Schuylkill was a Lenape settlement named Coaquannock, meaning "grove of pines." One of the largest Lenape settlements in the region, located in today's South Philadelphia near the confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers, was Passyunk, meaning "in the valley." Other settlements including the village of Nitapèkunk, "place that is easy to get to," located in today's Fairmount Park area, and Shackamaxon, "place where the chief was crowned", both were located on the west bank of Delaware River, upstream from today's Northern Liberties.
The first exploration of the area by Europeans was in 1609, when a Dutch expedition led by Henry Hudson entered the Delaware River Valley in search of the Northwest Passage. The Valley, including the future location of Philadelphia, became part of the New Netherland claim of the Dutch. Around 1630s, to control the Great Minquas Path, a fur trade route to the Susquehannock which passed through Philadelphia region, the Dutch authority of New Netherland built a palisaded factorij located near the confluence of the Schuylkill River and the Delaware River, named Fort Beversreede.
In 1637, Swedish, Dutch and German stockholders formed the New Sweden Company to trade for furs and tobacco in North America. Under the command of Peter Minuit, the company's first expedition sailed from Sweden late in 1637 in two ships, Kalmar Nyckel and Fogel Gri. Minuit had been the governor of the New Netherland from 1626 to 1631. Resenting his dismissal by the Dutch West India Company, he brought to the new project the knowledge that the Dutch colony had temporarily abandoned its efforts in the Delaware Valley to focus on the Hudson River valley to the north. The ships reached Delaware Bay in March 1638, and the settlers began to build a fort at the site of present-day Wilmington, Delaware. They named it Fort Christina, in honor of the twelve-year-old Queen Christina of Sweden. It was the first permanent European settlement in the Delaware Valley. Part of this colony eventually included land on the west side of the Delaware River from just below the Schuylkill River.
The first English settlement occurred about 1642, when 50 Puritan families from the New Haven Colony in Connecticut, led by George Lamberton, tried to establish a theocracy at the mouth of the Schuylkill River. The New Haven Colony had earlier struck a deal with the Lenape to buy much of New Jersey south of present-day Trenton. The Dutch and Swedes in the area burned the English colonists' buildings. A Swedish court under Swedish Governor Johan Björnsson Printz convicted Lamberton of "trespassing, conspiring with the Indians." The offshoot New Haven colony received no support. The Puritan Governor John Winthrop said it was dissolved owing to summer "sickness and mortality." The disaster contributed to New Haven's losing control of its area to the larger Connecticut Colony.
Johan Björnsson Printz was appointed to be the first royal governor of New Sweden, arriving in the colony on February 15, 1643. Under his ten-year rule, the administrative center of New Sweden was moved north to Tinicum Island, to the immediate southwest of today's Philadelphia, where he built an outpost called Fort New Gothenburg and his own manor house which he called the Printzhof.
In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannock in their successful conflict with Maryland colonists led by General Harrison II. With the alliance with Susquehannock, the Swedes further strengthened their claims for land at the mouth of the Schuylkill River. In 1648, New Sweden built a stockaded 30-by-20-foot blockhouse directly in front of the Dutch Fort Beversreede, called Fort Nya Korsholm or Fort New Korsholm. The Swedish building was said to be only twelve feet from the gate of the Dutch fort and was meant to intimidate the Dutch residents and intercept trade. As a result, the Dutch abandoned Fort Beversreede in 1651 and dismantled and relocated the nearby Fort Nassau to the Christina River, downstream from the Swedes' Fort Christina. The Dutch consolidated their forces at the rebuilt fort, renamed Fort Casimir.
The Dutch never recognized the legitimacy of the Swedish claim and, in the late summer of 1655, Director-General Peter Stuyvesant of New Amsterdam mustered a military expedition to the Delaware Valley to subdue the rogue colony. Although the colonists had to recognize the authority of New Netherland, the Dutch terms were tolerant. The Swedish and Finnish settlers continued to enjoy a much local autonomy, having their own militia, religion, court, and lands. This official status lasted until the English capture of New Netherland in October 1664, and continued unofficially until the area was included in William Penn's charter for Pennsylvania in 1682.
The Swedish immigration and expansion continued in the Philadelphia region. In 1669, one of the founders of the New Sweden, Sven Gunnarsson, moved into the region and settled at a place called Wicaco, a former native settlement located on today's Society Hill and Queens Village in South Philadelphia, beginning with a log blockhouse. The Swedish congregation on Tinicum Island moved to Wicaco in 1677, and repurposed the blockhouse as their church, five years before the founding of the city of Philadelphia. Sven Gunnarsson died in 1678 and was one of the first buried at the church. The church and the cemetery eventually became the Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church of Philadelphia, the oldest church in Pennsylvania.
Penn envisioned a city where all people regardless of religion could worship freely and live together. Being a Quaker, Penn had experienced religious persecution. He also planned that the city's streets would be set up in a grid, with the idea that the city would be more like the rural towns of England than its crowded cities. The homes would be spread far apart and surrounded by gardens and orchards. The city granted the first purchasers land along the Delaware River for their homes. It had access to the Delaware Bay and Atlantic Ocean, and became an important port in the Thirteen Colonies. He named the city Philadelphia (philos, "love" or "friendship", and adelphos, "brother"); it was to have a commercial center for a market, state house, and other key buildings. The grid plan was adapted from a grid plan originally designed by cartographer Richard Newcourt for London.
Penn sent three commissioners to supervise the settlement and to set aside 10,000 acres (40 km<sup>2</sup>) for the city. The commissioners bought land from Swedes at the settlement of Wicaco, and from there began to lay out the city toward the north. The area went about a mile along the Delaware River between modern South and Vine Streets. Penn's ship anchored off the coast of New Castle, Delaware, on October 27, 1682, and he arrived in Philadelphia a few days after that. He expanded the city west to the bank of the Schuylkill River, for a total of 1,200 acres (4.8 km<sup>2</sup>). Streets were laid out in a gridiron system. Except for the two widest streets, High (now Market) and Broad, the streets were named after prominent landowners who owned adjacent lots. The streets were renamed in 1684; the ones running east–west were named after local trees (Vine, Sassafras, Mulberry, Cherry, Chestnut, Walnut, Locust, Spruce, Pine, Lombard, and Cedar) and the north–south streets were numbered. Within the area, four squares (now named Rittenhouse, Logan, Washington and Franklin) were set aside as parks open for everyone. Penn designed a central square at the intersection of Broad and what is now Market Street to be surrounded by public buildings.
Some of the first settlers lived in caves dug out of the river bank, but the city grew with construction of homes, churches, and wharves. The new landowners did not share Penn's vision of a non-congested city. Most people bought land along the Delaware River instead of spreading westward towards the Schuylkill. The lots they bought were subdivided and resold with smaller streets constructed between them. Before 1704, few settlers lived west of Fourth Street.
Philadelphia grew from a few hundred European inhabitants in 1683 to over 2,500 in 1701. The population was mostly English, Welsh, Irish, Germans, Swedes, Finns, and Dutch. Before William Penn left Philadelphia for the last time on October 25, 1701, he issued the Charter of 1701. The charter established Philadelphia as a city and gave the mayor, aldermen, and councilmen the authority to issue laws and ordinances and regulate markets and fairs. The first known Jewish resident of Philadelphia was Jonas Aaron, a German who moved to the city in 1703. He is mentioned in an article entitled "A Philadelphia Business Directory of 1703," by Charles H. Browning. It was published in The American Historical Register, in April, 1895.
In 1681, King Charles II gave Penn a large piece of his newly acquired American land holdings to repay a debt the king owed to Admiral Sir William Penn, Penn's father. This land included present-day Pennsylvania and Delaware, though the claim as written would create a bloody conflict with Maryland (dubbed Cresap's War) over the land grant already owned by Lord Baltimore. Penn put together a colonial expedition and fleet, which set out for America in the middle of the following summer. Penn, sailing in the vanguard, first set foot on American soil at the colony at New Castle, Delaware. An orderly change of government ensued, as was normal in an age used to the privileges and prerogatives of aristocracy and which antedated nationalism: the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new Proprietor. The first Pennsylvania General Assembly was soon held in the colony.
By 1682, the area of modern Philadelphia was inhabited by about fifty Europeans, mostly subsistence farmers live in and around the Wicaco settlement.
Penn later journeyed up the river and founded Philadelphia with a core group of accompanying Quakers and others seeking religious freedom on lands he purchased from the local chieftains of the Lenape or Delaware nation. This began a long period of peaceful co-operation between the colony and the Delaware, in contrast to the frictions between the tribe and the Swedish and Dutch colonists. However, the new colonists would not enjoy such easy relations with the rival and territorial Conestoga peoples to the west for a number of decades as the English Quaker and German Anabaptist, Lutheran and Moravian settlers attracted to the religiously tolerant colony worked their way northwest up the Schuylkill and due west south of the hill country into the breadbasket lands along the lower Susquehanna River. Lord Baltimore and the Province of Maryland had circa 1652–53 finished waging a decade long declared war against the Susquehannocks and the Dutch, who'd been trading them furs for tools and firearms for some time. Both groups had uneasy relations with the Delaware (Lenape) and the Iroquois. Furthermore, Penn's Quaker government was not viewed favorably by the Dutch, Swedish, and English settlers in what is now Delaware. They had no "historical" allegiance to Pennsylvania, so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own Assembly.
### 18th century
Philadelphia became an important trading center and major port. Initially the city's main source of trade was with the West Indies, which had established sugar cane plantations as part of the Triangle Trade associated with Africa and Europe. During Queen Anne's War in 1702 and 1713 with the French, trade was cut off to the West Indies, inflicting financial harm on Philadelphia. The end of the war brought brief prosperity to all of overseas British possessions, but a depression in the 1720s stunted Philadelphia's growth. The 1720s and 1730s saw immigration from mostly Germany and north Ireland to Philadelphia and the surrounding countryside. The region was developed for agriculture and Philadelphia exported grains, lumber products and flax seeds to Europe and elsewhere in the American colonies; this pulled the city out of the depression.
In 1704, they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new semi-autonomous colony of Lower Delaware. New Castle, the most prominent, prosperous and influential settlement in the new colony, became the capital. During its brief period of ascendancy as an empire following the victory by Gustav the Great in the Battle of Breitenfeld Swedish settlers arrived in the area in the early 17th century to found a nearby colony, New Sweden in what is today southern New Jersey. With the arrival of more numerous English colonists and development of the port on the Delaware, Philadelphia quickly grew into an important colonial city.
Philadelphia's pledge of religious tolerance attracted many other religions beside Quakers. Mennonites, Pietists, Anglicans, Catholics, and Jews moved to the city and soon outnumbered the Quakers, but they continued to be powerful economically and politically. Political tensions existed between and within the religious groups, which also had national connections. Riots in 1741 and 1742 took place over high bread prices and drunken sailors. In October 1742 and the "Bloody Election" riots, sailors attacked Quakers and pacifist Germans, whose peace politics were strained by the War of Jenkins' Ear. The city was plagued by pickpockets and other petty criminals. Working in the city government had such a poor reputation that fines were imposed on citizens who refused to serve an office after being chosen. One man fled Philadelphia to avoid serving as mayor.
In the first half the 18th century, like other American cities, Philadelphia was dirty, with garbage and animals littering the streets. The roads were unpaved and in rainy seasons impassable. Early attempts to improve quality of life were ineffective as laws were poorly enforced. By the 1750s, Philadelphia was turning into a major city. Christ Church and the Pennsylvania State House, better known as Independence Hall, were built. Streets were paved and illuminated with oil lamps. Philadelphia's first newspaper, Andrew Bradford's American Weekly Mercury, began publishing on December 22, 1719.
The city also developed culturally and scientifically. Schools, libraries and theaters were founded. James Logan arrived in Philadelphia in 1701 as a secretary for William Penn. He was the first to help establish Philadelphia as a place of culture and learning. Logan, who was the mayor of Philadelphia in the early 1720s, created one of the largest libraries in the colonies. He also helped guide other prominent Philadelphia residents, which included botanist John Bartram and Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin arrived in Philadelphia in October 1723 and would play a large part in the city's development. To help protect the city from fire, Franklin founded the Union Fire Company. In the 1750s Franklin was named one of the city's post master generals and he established postal routes between Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and elsewhere. He helped raise money to build the American colonies' first hospital, which opened in 1752. That same year the College of Philadelphia, another project of Franklin's, received its charter of incorporation. Threatened by French and Spanish privateers, Franklin and others set up a volunteer group for defense and built two batteries.
When the French and Indian War began in 1754 as part of the Seven Years' War, Franklin recruited militias. During the war, the city attracted many refugees from the western frontier. When Pontiac's Rebellion occurred in 1763, refugees again fled into the city, including a group of Lenape hiding from other Native Americans, angry at their pacifism, and white frontiersmen. The Paxton Boys tried to follow them into Philadelphia for attacks, but was prevented by the city's militia and Franklin, who convinced them to leave.
#### American Revolution
In the 1760s, the British Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts, combined with other frustrations, increased political tension and anger against Britain in the colonies. Philadelphia residents joined boycotts of British goods. After the Tea Act in 1773, there were threats against anyone who would store tea and any ships that brought tea up the Delaware. After the Boston Tea Party, a shipment of tea had arrived in December, on the ship the Polly. A committee told the captain to depart without unloading his cargo.
A series of acts in 1774 further angered the colonies; activists called for a general congress and they agreed to meet in Philadelphia. The First Continental Congress was held in September in Carpenters' Hall. During the American Revolutionary War, Philadelphia was the site of the First and Second Continental Congresses.
After the Revolutionary War began in April 1775 following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress met in May at the Pennsylvania State House. There, they also met a year later to write and sign the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Philadelphia was important to the war effort; Robert Morris said,
> You will consider Philadelphia, from its centrical situation, the extent of its commerce, the number of its artificers, manufactures and other circumstances, to be to the United States what the heart is to the human body in circulating the blood.
After Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless, and the city prepared for what was seen as an inevitable British Army attack. Because bells could easily be recast into munitions, one of those preparations was hastily removing the Liberty Bell (and other Philadelphia bells) and sending them by heavily guarded wagon train to the Zion German Reformed Church in Northampton Town (present-day Allentown), where it was hidden under the church floor boards during the British occupation of Philadelphia. The Liberty Bell remained hidden in Allentown from September 1777 until its return to Philadelphia in June 1778, following the British retreat from Philadelphia on June 18, 1778.
After the Revolution's conclusion in 1783, Philadelphia was chosen to be the temporary capital of the United States from 1790 to 1800, and the city continued for some years to be the country's cultural and financial center. Its large free black community aided fugitive slaves and founded the first independent black denomination in the nation, the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
The port city was vulnerable to capture by the British by sea. Officials recruited soldiers and studied defenses for invasion from Delaware Bay, but built no forts or other installations. In March 1776 two British frigates began a blockade of the mouth of Delaware Bay; British soldiers were moving south through New Jersey from New York. In December fear of invasion caused half the population to flee the city, including the Continental Congress, which moved to Baltimore. General George Washington pushed back the British advance at the battles of Princeton and Trenton, and the refugees and Congress returned. In September 1777, the British invaded Philadelphia from the south. Washington intercepted them at the Battle of Brandywine but was driven back.
Following Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, thousands of Philadelphians fled north within Pennsylvania and east into New Jersey. Congress moved to Lancaster and then to York. Fearing the British Army would seize the Liberty Bell and other large Philadelphia bells, which could easily be recast into munitions, the Liberty Bell was hastily transported north, where it was hidden beneath the floor boards of the Zion German Reformed Church in Northampton Town (present-day Allentown, Pennsylvania).
On September 23, 1777, as expected, British troops marched into a half-empty Philadelphia and were met by cheering Loyalist crowds. The British occupation of the colonial capital would last ten months. After the French entered the War on the side of the Continentals, the last British troops pulled out of Philadelphia on June 18, 1778, to help defend New York City and the Continentals arrived the same day and reclaimed Philadelphia, placing Major General Benedict Arnold in charge as the city's military commander. The city government returned a week later, and the Continental Congress returned in early July. The Liberty Bell, which had been hidden in an Allentown church since September 1777, was returned to Philadelphia following the British retreat from Philadelphia on June 18, 1778.
At the end of the American Revolutionary War, many Patriot soldiers had not been paid their wages for their service during the war. Congress refused the soldiers' request for payment of their salaries. In what is known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, hundreds of Patriot veterans of the war who were owed back pay marched with their weapons on the Pennsylvania statehouse in Philadelphia. Congress, lacking in funds, fled from Philadelphia to Princeton, New Jersey. With their departure and the departure of their families and staffs, Philadelphia was left all but deserted.
As a result of the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Congress fled Philadelphia, eventually settling in New York City, designated as the temporary capital. Besides the Constitutional Convention in May 1787, United States politics was no longer centered in Philadelphia. Due to political compromise, Congress chose a permanent capital to be built along the Potomac River.
After 1787, the city's economy grew rapidly in the postwar years. Serious yellow fever outbreaks in the 1790s interrupted development. Benjamin Rush identified an outbreak in August 1793 as a yellow fever epidemic, the first in 30 years, which lasted four months. Two thousand refugees from Saint-Domingue had recently arrived in the city in flight from the Haitian Revolution. They represented five percent of the city's total population. They likely carried the disease from the island where it was endemic, and it was rapidly transmitted by mosquito bites to other residents. Fear of contracting the disease caused 20,000 residents to flee the city by mid-September, and some neighboring towns prohibited their entry. Trade virtually stopped; Baltimore and New York quarantined people and goods from Philadelphia. People feared entering the city or interacting with its residents. The fever finally abated at the end of October with the onset of colder weather and was declared at an end by mid-November. The death toll was 4,000 to 5,000, in a population of 50,000. Yellow fever outbreaks recurred in Philadelphia and other major ports through the nineteenth century, but none had as many fatalities as that of 1793. The 1798 epidemic in Philadelphia also prompted an exodus; an estimated 1,292 residents died.
Pennsylvania, which had abolished slavery in 1780, required any slaves brought to the city to be freed after six months' residency. The state law was challenged by French planters from Saint-Domingue, who brought their enslaved peoples with them, but defended by the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Through 1796, 500 slaves from Saint-Domingue gained freedom in the city. Because of the violence accompanying the revolution on the island, Philadelphians, many of whom had southern ties, and residents of the Upper South worried that free people of color would encourage slave insurrections in the U.S.
Historian Gary B. Nash emphasizes the role of the working class, and their distrust of their betters, in northern ports. He argues that working class artisans and skilled craftsmen made up a radical element in Philadelphia that took control of the city starting about 1770 and promoted a radical Democratic form of government during the revolution. They held power for a while, and used their control of the local militia to disseminate their ideology to the working class and to stay in power until the businessmen staged a conservative counterrevolution. Philadelphia suffered serious inflation, causing problems especially for the poor, who were unable to buy needed goods. This led to unrest in 1779, with people blaming the upper class and Loyalists. A riot in January by sailors striking for higher wages ended up with their attacking and dismantling ships. In the Fort Wilson Riot of October 4, men attacked James Wilson, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who was accused of being a Loyalist sympathizer. Soldiers broke up the riot, but five people died and 17 were injured.
However, Philadelphia was selected as the temporary United States capital for ten years starting in 1790. The United States Congress, founded in March 1789, occupied the Philadelphia County Courthouse, which became known as Congress Hall, and the Supreme Court worked at City Hall. Robert Morris donated his home at 6th and Market Street as a residence for President Washington, known as the President's House.
During the city's 10 years as federal capital, members of Congress were exempt from the abolition law, but the many slaveholders in the executive and judicial branches were not. President Washington, Vice-president Jefferson and others brought slaves as domestic servants, and evaded the law by regularly shifting their slaves out of the city before the 6-month deadline. Two of Washington's slaves escaped from the President's House, and he gradually replaced his slaves with German immigrants who were indentured servants.
The Pennsylvania state government left Philadelphia in 1799 and the United States government left in 1800. By this time, the city had become one of the United States' busiest ports and the country's largest city, with 67,787 people living in Philadelphia and its contiguous suburbs. Philadelphia's maritime trade was interrupted by the Embargo Act of 1807 and then the War of 1812. After the war, Philadelphia's shipping industry never returned to its pre-embargo status, and New York City succeeded it as the busiest port and largest city.
### 19th century
In the mid and late 1850s, immigrants from Ireland and Germany streamed into the city, swelling the population of Philadelphia and its suburbs. In Philadelphia, as the rich moved west of 7th Street, the poor moved into the upper class' former homes, which were converted into tenements and boarding houses. Many small row houses crowded alleyways and small streets, and these areas were filthy, filled with garbage and the smell of manure from animal pens. During the 1840s and 1850s, hundreds died each year in Philadelphia and the surrounding districts from diseases such as malaria, smallpox, tuberculosis, and cholera, related to poor sanitation; the poor suffered the most fatalities. Small rowhouses and tenement housing were constructed south of South Street.
Violence was a serious problem; gangs like the Moyamensing Killers and the Blood Tubs controlled various neighborhoods. During the 1840s and early 1850s when volunteer fire companies, some of which were infiltrated by gangs, responded to a fire, fights with other fire companies often broke out. The lawlessness among fire companies virtually ended in 1853 and 1854 when the city took more control over their operations. During the 1840s and 50s violence was directed against immigrants by people who feared their competition for jobs and resented newcomers of different religions and ethnicity. Nativists often held mostly anti-Catholic, anti-Irish meetings. Violence against immigrants also occurred, the worst being the nativist riots in 1844. Violence against African Americans was also common during the 1830s, 40s, and 50s. Immigrants competed with them for jobs, and deadly race riots resulted in the burning of African-American homes and churches. In 1841, Joseph Sturge commented "...there is probably no city in the known world where dislike, amounting to the hatred of the coloured population, prevails more than in the city of brotherly love!" Several anti-slavery societies had been formed and free blacks, Quakers and other abolitionists operated safe houses associated with the Underground Railroad, but working class and ethnic whites opposed the abolitionist movement.
The lawlessness and the difficulty in controlling it, along with residential development just north of Philadelphia, led to the Act of Consolidation in 1854. The act passed on February 2, making Philadelphia's borders coterminous with Philadelphia County, and incorporating various subdistrict within the county.
#### American Civil War
Once the American Civil War began in 1861, Philadelphia's southern leanings were reduced. Popular hostility shifted against southern sympathizers. Mobs threatened a secessionist newspaper and the homes of suspected sympathizers, and were only turned away by the police and Mayor Alexander Henry. Philadelphia supported the war with soldiers, ammunition, and war ships and its manufacturers produced many army uniforms. Philadelphia was also a major receiving place of the wounded, with more than 157,000 soldiers and sailors treated within the city. Philadelphia began preparing for invasion in 1863, but the Confederate Army was repelled by Union forces at Gettysburg.
In the years following the American Civil War, Philadelphia's population continued to grow. The population grew from 565,529 in 1860 to 674,022 in 1870. By 1876, the city's population stood at 817,000. The dense population areas were not only growing north and south along the Delaware River, but also moving westward across the Schuylkill River. A large portion of the growth came from immigrants, still mostly Irish and German. In 1870, twenty-seven percent of Philadelphia's population was born outside the United States.
By the 1880s, immigration from Russia, Eastern Europe, and Italy started rivaling immigration from Western Europe. Many of the immigrants from Russia and Eastern Europe were Jewish. In 1881, there were around 5,000 Jews in the city, and by 1905 the number had increased to 100,000. Philadelphia's Italian population grew from around 300 in 1870 to around 18,000 in 1900, with the majority settling in South Philadelphia. Along with foreign immigration, domestic migration by African Americans from the South led to Philadelphia having the largest black population of a Northern U.S. city in this period. By 1876, nearly 25,000 African Americans living in Philadelphia, and by 1890 the population was near 40,000. While immigrants moved into the city, Philadelphia's rich left for newer housing in the suburbs, with commuting made easy by newly constructed railroads. During the 1880s much of Philadelphia's upper class moved into the growing suburbs along the Philadelphia Main Line west of the city.
Politically the city was dominated by the Republican Party, which had developed a strong political machine. The Republicans dominated the post-war elections, and corrupt officials made their way into the government and continued to control the city through voter fraud and intimidation. The Gas Trust was the hub of the city's political machine. The trust controlled the gas company supplying lighting to the city. With the board under complete control by Republicans in 1865, they awarded contracts and perks for themselves and their cronies. Some government reform did occur during this time. The police department was reorganized; and volunteer fire companies were eliminated and were replaced by a paid fire department. A compulsory school act passed in 1895, and the Public School Reorganization Act freed the city's education from the political machine. Higher education changed as well. The University of Pennsylvania moved to West Philadelphia and reorganized to its modern form; and Temple University, Drexel University and the Free Library were founded.
The city's major project was organizing and staging the Centennial Exposition, the first World's Fair in the United States, which celebrated the nation's Centennial. Held in Fairmount Park, exhibits included Alexander Graham Bell's telephone and the Corliss Steam Engine. Beginning May 10, 1876, by the end of the Exposition on November 10, more than nine million people had visited the fair. The city undertook construction of a new city hall, designed to match its ambitions. The project was graft-ridden and it took twenty-three years to complete. Upon completion of its tower in 1894, City Hall was the tallest building in Philadelphia, a position it maintained until One Liberty Place surpassed it in 1986.
Philadelphia's major industries of the era were the Baldwin Locomotive Works, William Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Company, and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Westward expansion of the Pennsylvania Railroad helped Philadelphia keep up with nearby New York City in domestic commerce, as both cities fought for dominance in transporting iron and coal resources from Pennsylvania. Philadelphia's other local railroad was the Reading Railroad, but after a series of bankruptcies, it was taken over by New Yorkers. The Panic of 1873, which occurred when the New York City branch of the Philadelphia bank Jay Cooke and Company failed, and another panic in the 1890s hampered Philadelphia's economic growth. While the depressions hurt the city, its diverse array of industries helped it weather difficult times. It had numerous iron and steel-related manufacturers, including Philadelphian-owned iron and steel works outside the city, most notably the Bethlehem Iron Company in the city by that name. The largest industry in Philadelphia was textiles. Philadelphia produced more textiles than any other U.S. city; in 1904 the textile industry employed more than 35 percent of the city's workers. The cigar, sugar, and oil industries also were strong in the city. During this time the major department stores: Wanamaker's, Gimbels, Strawbridge and Clothier, and Lit Brothers, were developed along Market Street.
By the end of the century, the city provided nine municipal swimming pools, making it a leader in the nation.
Philadelphia became one of the first U.S. industrial centers with a variety of industries, the largest being textiles. It had many economic and family ties to the South, with southern planters maintaining second homes in the city and having business connections with banks, sending their daughters to French finishing schools run by refugees from Saint-Domingue in Haiti, selling their cotton to textile manufacturers, which in turn sold some products to the South, for instance, clothing for slaves. At the beginning of the American Civil War, there were many southern sympathizers, although most city residents became firmly Union as the war went on.
After the American Civil War, city government was controlled by the Republican Party; it established a political machine that gained power through patronage. By the beginning of the 20th century, Philadelphia was described as "corrupt and contented." Various reform efforts slowly changed city government; in 1950, a new city charter strengthened the position of mayor and weakened the Philadelphia City Council. Beginning during the Great Depression, voters changed from traditional support for the Republican Party to increasing support for the Democratic Party of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, which has now been predominant in local politics for many decades.
The population grew dramatically at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, through immigration from Ireland, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Asia, and the Great Migration of blacks from the rural South and Puerto Ricans from the Caribbean, all attracted to the city's expanding industrial jobs. The Pennsylvania Railroad was expanding and hired 10,000 workers from the South. Manufacturing plants and the U.S. Navy Yard employed tens of thousands of industrial workers along the rivers, and the city was also a center of finance and publishing, with major universities.
### 20th century
The embargo and decrease in foreign trade led to the development of local factories to produce goods no longer available as imports. Manufacturing plants and foundries were built and Philadelphia became an important center of paper-related industries and the leather, shoe, and boot industries. Coal and iron mines, and the construction of new roads, canals, and railroads helped Philadelphia's manufacturing power grow, and the city became the United States' first major industrial city. Major industrial projects included the Waterworks, iron water pipes, a gasworks, and the U.S. Naval Yard. In response to exploitative working conditions, some 20,000 Philadelphia workers staged the first general strike in North America in 1835, in which workers in the city won the ten-hour workday and an increase in wages. In addition to its industrial power, Philadelphia was the financial center of the country. Along with chartered and private banks, the city was the home of the First and Second Banks of the United States, Mechanics National Bank and the first U.S. Mint. Cultural institutions, such as the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the Academy of Natural Sciences, the Athenaeum and the Franklin Institute also developed in the 19th century. The Pennsylvania General Assembly passed the Free School Law of 1834 to create the public school system.
In the beginning of the 20th century, Philadelphia had taken on a poor reputation. People both inside and outside of the city commented that Philadelphia and its citizens were dull and contented with its lack of change. Harper's Magazine commented that "The one thing unforgivable in Philadelphia is to be new, to be different from what has been." In his pioneering 1899 work of urban sociology The Philadelphia Negro W. E. B. Du Bois had written, "Few large cities have such a disreputable record for misgovernment as Philadelphia." Du Bois's study found, in addition to general mismanagement and neglect, severe racial disparities in employment, housing, health, education, and criminal justice. These disparities persisted; for example, between 1910 and 1920 the proportion of black citizens of Philadelphia who developed tuberculosis was four to six times that of whites.
Along with an image of "dullness" and of poor governance practices, Philadelphia was known for its political corruption. The Republican-controlled political machine, run by Israel Durham, permeated all parts of city government. One official estimated that US\$5 million was wasted each year from graft in the city's infrastructure programs. The majority of residents were Republican, but voter fraud and bribery were still common. In 1905, the city enacted election reforms, such as personal voter registration and the establishing primaries for all city offices. But, residents became complacent, and the city's political bosses continued in control. After 1907, Boss Durham retired and his successor, James McNichol, never controlled much outside North Philadelphia. The Vare brothers, George, Edwin, and William, had created their own organization in South Philadelphia. With no central authority, Senator Boies Penrose took charge. In 1910, infighting between McNichol and the Vares contributed to the reform candidate, Rudolph Blankenburg, to be elected mayor. During his administration, he made numerous cost-cutting measures and improvements to city services, but he served only one term. The machine again gained control.
In 1910, a general strike occurred across the city, starting originally among streetcar workers it then spread to 65,000 - 70,000 workers shutting down the entire city.
The policies of Woodrow Wilson's administration reunited reformers with the city's Republican Party and World War I temporarily halted the reform movement. In 1917, the murder of George Eppley, a police officer defending City Council primary candidate James Carey, ignited the reformers again. They passed legislation to reduce the City Council from two houses to one, and provided council members an annual salary. With the deaths of McNichol in 1917 and Penrose in 1921, William Vare became the city's political boss. In the 1920s the public flouting of Prohibition laws, mob violence, and police involvement in illegal activities led Mayor W. Freeland Kendrick to appoint Brigadier General Smedley Butler of the U.S. Marine Corps as director of public safety. Butler cracked down on bars and speakeasies and tried to stop corruption within the police force, but demand for liquor and political pressure made the job difficult, and he had little success. After two years, Butler left in January 1926 and most of his police reforms were repealed. On August 1, 1928, Boss Vare suffered a stroke, and two weeks later a grand jury investigation into the city's mob violence and other crimes began. Numerous police officers were dismissed or arrested as a result of the investigation, but no permanent change resulted. Strong support among some residents for the Democratic presidential candidate Al Smith, who was Catholic, marked the city's turning away in the 20th century from the Republican Party.
Philadelphia continued to grow with immigrants coming from Eastern Europe and Italy and African American migrants from the South. Foreign immigration was briefly interrupted by World War I. The demand for labor for the city's factories, including the new U.S. Naval Yard at Hog Island, which constructed ships, trains, and other items needed in the war effort, helped attract blacks in the Great Migration. In September 1918, cases of the influenza pandemic were reported at the Naval Yard and began to spread. The disease became widespread following the Philadelphia Liberty Loans Parade, which was attended by more than 200,000 people. Mortality on some days was several hundred people and, by the time the pandemic began to subside in October, more than 12,000 people had died.
The rising popularity of automobiles led to widening of roads and creation of Northeast (Roosevelt) Boulevard in 1914, the Benjamin Franklin Parkway in 1918, the changing of many existing streets to one-way streets in the early 1920s, and construction of the Delaware River (Benjamin Franklin) Bridge to New Jersey in 1926. Philadelphia began to modernize, steel and concrete skyscrapers were constructed, old buildings were wired for electricity, and the city's first commercial radio station was founded. In 1907, the city constructed the first subway. It hosted the Sesqui-Centennial Exposition in South Philadelphia, and in 1928 opened the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
In the three years after the stock market crashed in 1929, 50 Philadelphia banks closed. Of those only two were large, Albert M. Greenfield's Bankers Trust Company and the Franklin Trust Company. Savings and loan associations also faced trouble, with mortgages of 19,000 properties being foreclosed in 1932 alone. By 1934, 1,600 of 3,400 savings and loan associations had shut down. From 1929 to 1933, regional manufacturing fell by 45 percent; factory payrolls fell by 60 percent; retail sales fell by 40 percent. Worst hit of all was construction, where payrolls dropped 84 percent. Unemployment peaked in 1933, when 11.5 percent of whites, 16.2 percent of African Americans, and 19.1 percent of foreign-born whites were out of work. Mayor J. Hampton Moore blamed people's economic woes, not on the worldwide Great Depression, but on laziness and wastefulness, and claimed there was no starvation in the city. Soon after, he fired 3,500 city workers, instituted pay cuts, forced unpaid vacation, and reduced the number of contracts the city awarded. This saved Philadelphia millions of dollars, and the efforts kept the city from defaulting on its debts, but were unpopular among the unemployed. The city relied on state money to fund relief efforts. Moore's successor S. Davis Wilson instituted numerous programs financed by Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal's Works Progress Administration, despite condemning the program during his mayoral campaign. At the peak of WPA-financed jobs in 1936, 40,000 Philadelphians were employed under the program.
With encouragement from the state government and labor's founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), Philadelphia became a union city. Many trade unions discriminated against African Americans for years, and they were closed out of some labor advances. Workers' dissatisfaction with conditions led to numerous strikes in the textile unions, and the CIO organized labor in other industries, with more strikes taking place. During the 1930s, the Democratic Party began to grow in Philadelphia, influenced by the leadership of the Roosevelt administration during the Depression. A newly organized Independent Democratic Committee reached out to residents. In 1936, the Democratic National Convention was held in Philadelphia. The majority of voters in the city reelected the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt as president; they also voted for Democratic Congressmen and state representatives. City government continued to be dominated by Republicans, but the politicians were elected by small margins.
The beginning of World War II in Europe and the threat of the U.S. becoming involved generated new jobs in defense-related industries. After the U.S. became involved in the war in 1941, the city mobilized. Philadelphia consistently met war bond quotas and when the war ended in 1945, 183,850 residents were in the U.S. armed forces. With so many men serving in the military, there had been a labor shortage; businesses and industries hired women and workers from outside the city. In 1944, the Philadelphia Transportation Company promoted African Americans to positions as motormen and conductors (from which they had previously been excluded) on public transportation vehicles. Resentful, other PTC workers protested and began a strike that nearly immobilized the city. President Roosevelt sent troops to replace the striking workers. After a federal ultimatum, the workers returned after six days.
After World War II ended, Philadelphia had a serious housing shortage. Around half of the city's housing had been built in the 19th century, and many units lacked proper sanitary facilities, were overcrowded, and in poor condition. Competition for housing, as African Americans (many had come to the city in the Great Migration from the South) and Puerto Ricans moved into new neighborhoods, resulted in racial tension. The wealthier middle-class residents, often white, continued to move out to the suburbs in what became called white flight.
The population peaked at more than two million residents in 1950; afterward the city's population declined while that of the neighboring suburban counties grew. Some residents moved out of the region altogether due to restructuring of industry and loss of tens of thousands of jobs in the city. Philadelphia lost five percent of its population in the 1950s, three percent in the 1960s and more than thirteen percent in the 1970s. Manufacturing and other major Philadelphia businesses, which had supported middle-class lives for the working class, were moving out of the area or shutting down in industrial restructuring, including major declines in railroads.
The city encouraged development projects in University City in West Philadelphia and the area around Temple University in North Philadelphia, it removed the "Chinese Wall" elevated railway, and developed Market Street East around the transportation hub. Some gentrification occurred, with restoration of properties in historic neighborhoods such as Society Hill, Rittenhouse Square, Queen Village, and the Fairmount area. A non profit group Action Philadelphia was formed to improve and promote Philadelphia's image. The airport expanded, the Schuylkill Expressway and the Delaware Expressway (Interstate 95) were built, SEPTA was formed, and residential and industrial development took place in Northeast Philadelphia.
By the 1950s, much Philadelphia housing was aged and substandard. In the post-World War II era of suburbanization and construction of area highways, many middle-class families met their demand for newer housing by leaving the city for the suburbs. Population decline accompanied the industrial restructuring and the loss of tens of thousands of jobs in the mid 20th century. With increasing poverty and social dislocation in the city, gang and mafia warfare plagued the city in from the mid-20th century to the early 21st century.
By the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st, revitalization and gentrification of historic neighborhoods attracted an increase in middle-class population as people began to return to the city. New immigrants from Southeast Asia, and Central and South America have contributed their energy to the city. Promotions and incentives in the 1990s and the early 21st century have improved the city's image and created a condominium boom in Center City and the surrounding areas.
Preparations for the United States Bicentennial in 1976 began in 1964. By the early 1970s, US\$3 million had been spent but no plans were set. The planning group was reorganized and numerous citywide events were planned. Independence National Historical Park was restored and development of Penn's Landing was completed. Less than half the expected visitors came to the city for the Bicentennial, but the event helped revive the identity of the city, inspiring annual neighborhood events and fairs.
In 1947, Richardson Dilworth was selected as the Democratic candidate, but lost to incumbent mayor Bernard Samuel. During the campaign Dilworth made numerous specific charges about corruption within city government. The City Council set up a committee to investigate, with findings followed by a grand jury investigation. The five-year investigation and its findings garnered national attention. US\$40 million in city spending was found to be unaccounted for, and the president judge of the Court of Common pleas had been tampering with court cases. The fire marshal went to prison; and an official in the tax collection office, a water department employee, a plumbing inspector, and head of the police vice squad each committed suicide after criminal exposures. The public and the press demanded reform and by the end of 1950, a new city charter was drafted. The new charter strengthened the position of the mayor and weakened the City Council. The council would be made of ten councilmen elected by district and seven at large. City administration was streamlined and new boards and commissions were created.
In 1951, Joseph S. Clark was elected as the first Democratic mayor in 80 years. Clark filled administration positions based on merit and worked to weed out corruption. Despite reforms and the Clark administration, a powerful Democratic patronage organization eventually replaced the old Republican one. Clark was succeeded by Richardson Dilworth, who continued the policies of his predecessor. Dilworth resigned to run for governor in 1962, and city council president James Tate was elected as the city's first Irish Catholic mayor. Tate was elected mayor in 1963 and reelected in 1967 despite opposition from reformers who opposed him as an organization insider.
As elsewhere in major US cities, the 1960s was a turbulent decade for the city. Numerous civil rights and anti-war protests took place, including large protests led by Marie Hicks to desegregate Girard College. Students took over the Community College of Philadelphia in a sit-in, race riots broke out in Holmesburg Prison, and a 1964 riot along West Columbia Avenue killed two people, injured over 300 and caused around US\$3 million in damages. Crime was also a serious problem. Primarily drug-related gang warfare plagued the city, and in 1970 crime was rated the city's number one problem in a City Planning Commission survey. The court system was overtaxed and the tactics of the police department under Police Commissioner Frank Rizzo were controversial. Rizzo was credited with preventing the level of violence seen in other cities at the time and was elected mayor in 1971.
The outspoken Rizzo, who was reelected in 1975, was a divisive figure who had loyal supporters and passionate opponents. Police and fire departments and cultural institutions were well supported under Rizzo, but other city departments like the Free Library, the Department of Welfare and Recreation, the City Planning Commission and the Streets Department experienced large cuts. The radical group called MOVE formed in 1972, and tension soon developed with city officials. The first major clash occurred in 1978 at the group's Powelton Village headquarters, resulting in the death of a police officer. Nine MOVE members were convicted at trial and sentenced to prison. In 1985, a stand-off occurred at the group's new headquarters in West Philadelphia, whose residents were believed to be armed resisters. The police dropped a satchel bomb on the house from a helicopter; it set off a fire that killed eleven MOVE members, including five children, and destroyed sixty-two neighboring houses. Survivors sued the city in civil court and won damages.
Crime continued to be a problem in the 1980s. Deadly Mafia warfare plagued South Philadelphia, drug gangs and crack houses invaded the slums of the city, and the murder rate skyrocketed. William J. Green became mayor in 1980, and in 1984 W. Wilson Goode became Philadelphia's first African-American mayor. Development continued in areas in Old City and South Street, and large modern skyscrapers of glass and granite, designed by nationally known architects, were constructed in Center City. City employee labor contracts signed during the Rizzo administration helped set up a city financial crisis that Green and Goode were unable to prevent. The city was near bankruptcy at the end of the 1980s.
In 1985, the MOVE Bombing of the Cobbs Creek neighborhood by city helicopters occurred, killing 11 and destroying 61 homes.
A group of Hmong refugees settled in Philadelphia after the end of the 1970s Laotian Civil War associated with the Vietnam War. They were attacked in discriminatory acts, and the city's Commission on Human Relations held hearings on the incidents. Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, said that lower-class residents resented the Hmong receiving a \$100,000 federal grant for employment assistance when they were also out of work; they believed that American citizens should be getting assistance. Between 1982 and 1984, three quarters of the Hmong people who had settled in Philadelphia left for other cities in the United States to join relatives living elsewhere. Vietnamese and other immigrants from Asia have settled in the city, many near the Italian Market area. In addition, numerous Hispanic immigrants from Central and South America have entered the city, settling in North Philadelphia.
In 1992, Ed Rendell was elected as the city's first Jewish mayor. At the time, the city had numerous unpaid bills, the lowest bond rating of the top fifty largest U.S. cities, and a budget deficit of US\$250 million. Rendell attracted investment in the city, stabilized the city's finances, and produced small budget surpluses. Revitalization of parts of Philadelphia continued in the 1990s. In 1993, a new convention center was opened, creating a hotel boom with seventeen hotels opening between 1998 and 2000 when the city hosted the Republican National Convention. The city began promoting heritage tourism, and producing festivals and entertainment to attract tourists. In 2005, National Geographic Traveler named Philadelphia America's Next Great City, citing its recent revitalization and general compact cityscape.
## 21st century
Former city council president John F. Street was elected mayor in 1999 and city revitalization continued into the 21st century. The Street administration targeted some of the city's worst neighborhoods for revitalization and made considerable progress. Tax breaks created in 1997 and 2000 helped create a condominium boom in Center City, increasing the population of Center City and helping slow the city's 40-year population decline. The population of Center City rose to 88,000 in 2005 from 78,000 in 2000 and the number of households grew by 24 percent.
The city has had struggles: a series of scandals in the 1990s plagued the police department, including underreporting of crime. The Street administration was plagued with scandal, with administration people being accused of awarding contracts based on campaign donations for Street's 2003 reelection campaign. The 2000s had a rise of violent crime after a decline in the 1990s. In 2006, Philadelphia's murder rate was 27.8 per 100,000 inhabitants versus a rate of 18.9 in 2002.
The remains of the President's House were found during excavation for a new Liberty Bell Center, which led to archeological work in 2007. In 2010, a memorial on the site opened to commemorate Washington's slaves, African Americans in Philadelphia and U.S. history, and to mark the house site.
In 2008, Michael Nutter, with a background in business, was elected as the city's third African-American mayor. From July 2007 to July 2009, the city's crime rate decreased 30%. Nutter helped launch Philadelphia's Foreclosure Prevention Program, which seeks to help residents keep their housing and which has been copied by many cities.
In 2015, Pope Francis visited Philadelphia during his U.S. tour; he attended the 2015 World Meeting of Families and said mass to 1 million people on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway.
Tourism has become one of the city's main industries; as of 2018, Philadelphia was the eighth-most visited U.S. city.
## See also
- American urban history
- Timeline of Philadelphia
- List of mayors of Philadelphia
- List of newspapers in Pennsylvania in the 18th century#Philadelphia
- History of African Americans in Philadelphia
- History of Italian Americans in Philadelphia
- History of Irish Americans in Philadelphia
|
54,176,392 |
Save as Draft
| 1,165,377,029 | null |
[
"2010s ballads",
"2017 singles",
"2017 songs",
"Katy Perry songs",
"Song recordings produced by Elof Loelv",
"Songs written by Elof Loelv",
"Songs written by Katy Perry",
"Songs written by Mustard (record producer)",
"Songs written by Noonie Bao"
] |
"Save as Draft" is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry for her fifth studio album, Witness (2017). It was sent to adult contemporary radio in the United States on June 26, 2017, by Capitol Records, as the record's fourth single. The track was written by Perry, Noonie Bao, Dijon McFarlane, Nicholas Audino, Lewis Hughes and its producer Elof Loelv. Musically, "Save as Draft" is a mid-tempo power ballad, which lyrically portrays a warning about coming to terms with an ex.
Reviewers were ambivalent about "Save as Draft" following its release. While receiving praise for its sensibility and innovation on the subject matter, it was also called mediocre and inferior to other tracks on Witness. The song also drew comparisons to the music of Sam Smith, Lorde, and Timbaland. Commercially, "Save as Draft" reached numbers 14 and 19 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary and Adult Top 40 component charts, respectively, in the United States. It was aided by several live performances, including during her concert tour Witness: The Tour (2017–2018) and four-day YouTube live stream Katy Perry Live: Witness World Wide (2017).
## Recording and release
"Save as Draft" was written by Katy Perry, Noonie Bao, Dijon McFarlane, Nicholas Audino, Lewis Hughes and Elof Loelv, while production was solely handled by the latter; Max Martin was credited as a vocal producer. The song is included on Witness (2017), Perry's fifth studio album. It was sent to American adult contemporary radio stations on June 26, 2017, by Capitol Records, as Witness's fourth single. It was ranked as the format's most added song that week alongside American recording artist Kesha's "Praying" (2017), with each impacting 16 radio stations.
## Composition and lyrics
Musically, "Save as Draft" is a mid-tempo power ballad, featuring "icy" production, and technology metaphors. During an episode of Delilah Rene's podcast Conversations with Delilah, Perry said that the song was a warning about coming to terms with an ex: "I've been in that cycle before in a relationship and it had kind of reignited the relationship, and there’s only so many times you can reignite the relationship or want to or should and sometimes you just need to write it and never send it [...] It's just that exercise, that cathartic exercise." Perry further stated: "I like drafting and then sleeping on it because, for me, my emotions get very heightened in the evening [...]." Based on the interview, HuffPost's Brittany Wong called the singer a "breakup coach" and jokingly advised her to write a self-help book in the future.
In a review of "Save as Draft", Bobby Finger of Jezebel speculated that the song was about blogging, with Perry "describ[ing] the pain of desperately wanting to provide satisfying content for an impassioned, unpredictable audience that is incapable of ever being satisfied" and "explain[ing] the frustrating act of writing a blog you never publish out of fear that it will only be torn apart by haters or misunderstood". According to Finger, the singer ultimately "decides to hide her truth from the public". Kevin O'Donnell of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Save as Draft" showcases "a timely rumination on the suckiness of living in a digital world". Lyrics of the track include: "I don't fuck with change, but lately I've been flipping coins a lot" and "I struggle, I juggle, I could just throw a line to you / But I should let sleeping dogs lie / 'Cause I know better, baby / I write it, erase it, repeat it, but what good will it do to reopen the wound?" Perry sings the lines: "So I take a deep breath / And I save as draft" in a near whisper tone and takes an audible breath throughout.
## Reception and promotion
Upon its release, "Save as Draft" was met with mixed reviews from music critics. Finger from Jezebel called the song's chorus "moving" and concluded: "Wow, I'm sobbing". Wren Graves, writing for Consequence of Sound, thought that "Save as Draft" was the best among the closing tracks on Witness and wrote: "[it] puts a 21st century spin on the old thinking-of-my-ex weeper." Idolator's Mike Wass was mixed towards the song, calling it inferior to other mid-tempo tracks on the album, although labelling its subject matter "relatable and the track should satisfy fans/radio programmers looking for a little more substance". Chris Willman from Variety similarly thought that "Save as Draft" was a "mixed bag". Rolling Stone's Christopher R. Weingarten negatively compared the track to the work of Sam Smith, while others likened it to Timbaland and OneRepublic's "Apologize" (2007), as well as to the material of Lorde. Commercially, "Save as Draft" reached number 14 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary component chart on August 5, 2017, staying on the chart for 16 weeks. On the Adult Top 40 chart, it peaked at number 19 on August 26, 2017, leaving after 10 weeks.
Perry promoted "Save as Draft" with several live performances. The singer included the song during her Witness: The Tour (2017–2018) concert tour at selected dates, where she performed it towards the end with fellow ballads from her catalog. Perry also sang the track during her four-day YouTube live stream Katy Perry Live: Witness World Wide (2017), at the Glastonbury Festival near Pilton, Somerset, England on June 24, and for British radio station Kiss on June 30, 2017; at the latter appearance, she performed an acoustic version of the song.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Witness.
### Recording locations
- Recorded at Encore Studios (Burbank, California) and MXM Studios (Stockholm, Sweden)
- Mixed at MixStar Studios (Virginia Beach, Virginia)
### Personnel
- Katy Perry – vocals, composition
- Nicholas Audino – composition
- Noonie Bao – composition
- Rachael Findlen - engineer
- Serban Ghenea - mixing
- John Hanes - mixing engineer
- Lewis Hughes – composition
- Peter Karlsson - vocal editing
- Elof Loelv – composition, production, engineer, drums, bass, piano, synthesizer
- Randy Marill - mastering
- Max Martin – vocal production
- Dijon McFarlane – composition
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
|
513,099 |
Bob Turley
| 1,170,355,913 |
American baseball player (1930-2013)
|
[
"1930 births",
"2013 deaths",
"American League All-Stars",
"American League strikeout champions",
"American League wins champions",
"Baltimore Orioles players",
"Baseball players from East St. Louis, Illinois",
"Baseball players from Fulton County, Georgia",
"Baseball players from Madison County, Illinois",
"Belleville Stags players",
"Boston Red Sox coaches",
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"Major League Baseball pitching coaches",
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"People from Blue Ridge, Georgia",
"People from Marco Island, Florida",
"People from Troy, Illinois",
"Primerica",
"St. Louis Browns players",
"World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners"
] |
Robert Lee Turley (September 19, 1930 – March 30, 2013), known as Bullet Bob, was an American professional baseball player and financial planner. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a pitcher from 1951 through 1963. After his retirement from baseball, he worked for Primerica Financial Services.
Turley made his MLB debut with the St. Louis Browns in 1951, and stayed with the team through their first season in Baltimore, when he appeared in his first MLB All-Star Game. After the 1954 season, he was traded to the New York Yankees. With the Yankees, Turley appeared in two more All-Star Games. He led the American League in wins in 1958, and won the Cy Young Award, World Series Most Valuable Player Award, and Hickok Belt that year. He finished his playing career with the Los Angeles Angels and Boston Red Sox in 1963, and then coached the Red Sox in 1964.
Turley began working in financial planning during the baseball offseason. In 1977, he cofounded with Arthur L. Williams Jr. the company that would become Primerica. He also invested in real estate, buying and selling 27 houses in Florida.
## Early life
Turley was born in Troy, Illinois. He was raised in East St. Louis, Illinois. He attended East St. Louis Senior High School in East St. Louis, and played for the school's baseball squad for three years. He was used as both a starter and reliever, becoming the staff's ace pitcher by the end of his senior season, in 1948. Turley won the team's sportsmanship award that year.
Bill DeWitt, the general manager of the St. Louis Browns, brought Turley to Sportsman's Park for a tryout. Turley also attended a workout camp for the New York Yankees, held in Maryville, Illinois. The day after he graduated from high school in 1948, Turley signed with the Browns as an amateur free agent. He received a \$600 signing bonus (\$ in current dollar terms).
## Professional career
### Minor leagues and St. Louis Browns / Baltimore Orioles
Turley made his professional debut that year in Minor League Baseball with the Belleville Stags of the Class D Illinois State League, pitching to a 9–3 win–loss record. He was promoted to the Aberdeen Pheasants of the Class C Northern League in 1949, and led the league in wins with 23, and strikeouts with 205. He split the 1950 season with the Wichita Indians of the Class A Western League and the San Antonio Missions of the Class AA Texas League. Turley led Wichita in the Western League playoffs. In 1951, he played for San Antonio. He appeared in the Texas League's All-Star Game, and was named the league's most valuable player at the end of the season. He struck out 22 batters in one game for San Antonio.
Turley played his first game in the major leagues on September 29, 1951. He lost to the Chicago White Sox. He did not pitch again in 1951, and after the season ended, he enlisted with the United States Army for two years. Turley returned to the Browns in August 1953, and caught attention for his high strikeout rate. Turley remained with the team after they moved to Baltimore, Maryland, to become the Baltimore Orioles in 1954. He earned \$9,000 (\$ in current dollar terms) for the 1954 season. He pitched the first game at Memorial Stadium, striking out nine in a complete game. A power pitcher, Turley recorded many strikeouts, but did not have great control. For the 1954 season, he led the American League in strikeouts with 185, but also led the league with 181 walks. That year, he earned comparisons to fellow fireballer Bob Feller, and finished in third place in balloting for the Hickok Belt, given to the professional athlete of the year.
While playing for the Orioles, Turley obtained the nickname "Bullet Bob". The magazine Look wrote a story about Turley, and wanted to measure the velocity of his fastball. They used a bullet timer from the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, which recorded a speed of 98 miles per hour (158 km/h) by the time it reached home plate.
Casey Stengel, the manager of the New York Yankees, sought to acquire Turley. The Yankees needed younger starting pitchers, as their rotation fell off due to the ages of Allie Reynolds, Eddie Lopat, Johnny Sain, Tommy Byrne, and Jim Konstanty. In order to acquire the hitting the Orioles decided they needed to compete, they traded Turley to the Yankees after the 1954 season. The Yankees received Turley, Billy Hunter, Don Larsen, and players to be named later, while the Orioles acquired Harry Byrd, Jim McDonald, Willy Miranda, Hal Smith, Gus Triandos, Gene Woodling, and players to be named later. To complete the trade, the Yankees sent Bill Miller, Kal Segrist, Don Leppert, and Ted Del Guercio to the Orioles, and the Orioles sent Mike Blyzka, Darrell Johnson, Jim Fridley and Dick Kryhoski to the Yankees. Comprising 17 players, this trade remains the largest in MLB history.
### New York Yankees
Turley played for the Yankees from 1955 to 1962. In the 1955 season, Turley won 17 games for the Yankees, and recorded 210 strikeouts, second to Herb Score (245). But, he also led the league in walks with 177. The Yankees won the American League pennant, and advanced to the 1955 World Series, where they faced the Brooklyn Dodgers. He pitched in Game Three of the 1955 World Series, losing to Johnny Podres. He also made two relief appearances in the series, in Games Five and Seven, as the Dodgers defeated the Yankees four games to three.
Turley had a disappointing season in 1956, with an 8–4 win–loss record and a 5.05 earned run average (ERA). However, the Yankees again won the American League pennant. Turley appeared in Games One and Two of the 1956 World Series against the Dodgers as a relief pitcher. Facing Clem Labine in Game Six, Turley pitched a complete game, but the Yankees lost the game by a 1–0 score. The Yankees defeated the Dodgers in Game Seven to win the series four games to three.
In the 1957 season, Turley developed a curveball. He finished the season with a 2.71 ERA, good for fourth-best in the American League. The Yankees won the pennant again. In the 1957 World Series against the Milwaukee Braves, Turley started Game Three, but was relieved by Larsen in the second inning. He won his first World Series game in Game Six, a complete game. The Yankees lost the series to the Braves, four games to three.
Fellow pitcher Sal Maglie wrote during 1958 spring training that Turley "ha[d] started to step off the mound when things get a little shaky, take a couple of deep breaths and then go back to work." Maglie thought this helped with Turley's self-control, a characteristic Maglie considered one of the three most essential to a successful pitcher.
By the 1958 season, Turley changed his delivery in an effort to improve his control, by using a no-wind up pitching position. His best season came in 1958, when he won 21 games and lost seven, for an American League-leading .750 winning percentage. He also led the American League with 19 complete games, and finished with the sixth-best ERA (2.97). However, his 128 walks also led the league. Turley started Game Two of the 1958 World Series by allowing up a leadoff home run and lasting just one-third of an inning as the Yankees fell behind the Milwaukee Braves two games to none. With the Yankees one game away from elimination, Turley threw a complete game shutout in Game Five. He then recorded a 10th-inning save in Game Six. A day later, in Game Seven, he relieved Don Larsen in the third inning and won his second game in three days, with 6+2⁄3 innings of two-hit relief. The Yankees became just the second team to recover from a 3–1 World Series deficit, and Turley was voted the World Series Most Valuable Player Award. As a result of his 1958 season, Turley won the Hickok Belt as top professional athlete of the year, receiving twice as many votes as Jim Brown, the second-place finisher. He also won the Cy Young Award as the best pitcher in Major League Baseball, edging Warren Spahn of the Braves by one vote, and Lew Burdette of the Braves and Bob Friend of the Pittsburgh Pirates by two votes. Turley finished second in the American League Most Valuable Player Award voting, losing to Jackie Jensen of the Boston Red Sox. Additionally, he won The Sporting News' Player of the Year and Pitcher of the Year Awards.
Turley earned a \$35,000 salary for the 1959 season, his highest as a baseball player. The Yankees chose Turley to be their Opening Day starting pitcher for the 1959 season, opposing Tom Brewer of the Red Sox. The Yankees won the game by a 3–2 score. However, Turley's fastball began to lose its effectiveness. He increased the usage of his curveball to compensate. Turley finished the year with an 8–11 win–loss record. In the 1960 season, Turley had a 9–3 win–loss record, and his 3.27 ERA was the seventh best in the American League. He started Game Two of the 1960 World Series against the Pirates, earning the win. He also started the deciding Game Seven, which the Pirates won, taking the series.
Turley suffered through discomfort in his right elbow during the 1961 season, which resulted in a 3–5 win–loss record and 5.75 ERA in only 15 games pitched. New manager Ralph Houk began to emphasize his younger pitchers, as he removed Turley from the starting rotation and used him as a relief pitcher. Though the Yankees reached the 1961 World Series, and defeated the Cincinnati Reds four games to one, Turley did not make an appearance. After seeking medical attention, Turley was diagnosed with bone chips in his elbow. He underwent surgery in the offseason to remove the bone chips, and returned to the Yankees confident his performance would improve in 1962. He agreed to a salary cut, from \$28,000 to \$25,000. However, the bone chips recurred during the 1962 season. As a result, his effectiveness was limited in 1962 as well. On June 25, Turley started a game that lasted 22 innings, and a record seven hours, but was removed after recording only one out. During the 1962 season, American League players elected Turley as their player representative, following Woodling's trade to the National League. Over the season, Turley pitched to a 4.57 ERA in only 69 innings. The Yankees defeated the San Francisco Giants four games to three in the 1962 World Series, but Turley was not an active participant.
### Los Angeles Angels, Boston Red Sox, and coaching
After the 1962 season, the Yankees sold Turley to the Los Angeles Angels for cash, in the first move made by new Yankees' general manager Roy Hamey, who sought to rebuild the Yankees pitching staff. The move was conditional; the Angels could return Turley if they were not satisfied with him. The Angels chose to retain Turley at the start of the 1963 season. Turley struggled, winning two games while losing seven, and the Angels released him in July. A week later, he signed with the Boston Red Sox. Turley retired after the 1963 season, with a 101–85 win–loss record and a 3.64 ERA in 12 seasons.
After the 1963 season, Turley agreed to remain with the Red Sox as their pitching coach, succeeding Harry Dorish. Turley spent one season as the Red Sox' pitching coach, and was released at the end of the year. He attempted to make a comeback as a pitcher with the Houston Colt .45s in 1965, but did not make the team. He then agreed to become the pitching coach for the Richmond Braves of the International League, a minor league team in the Atlanta Braves organization, in 1966, but resigned before the start of the 1966 season.
### Sign stealing
Turley got into the habit while on the bench of stealing signs when he saw the opposing pitcher throw. Using a system of whistling where be whistled if the next pitch was different from the last, he would attempt to help any Yankee who wanted the advice, with Johnny Blanchard and Elston Howard being appreciative of the help while Moose Skowron and Yogi Berra did not care. In one instance, Jim Bunning of the Detroit Tigers noticed the system and pointed to Turley to stop or he would knock down the batter (which happened to be Mickey Mantle). When Turley whistled anyway, he threw a missile in the middle of the box that Mantle missed on, which led to the next batter in Berra pleading that he wasn't listening to whistles. In 1961, even when he was on the injured list, he remained on the bench to do his system, and Tony Kubek estimated that Mickey Mantle his fifty homeruns in part due to Turley, and Mantle once credited half of his home runs to Turley. Roger Maris and his historic 61st home run was hit after the sign for the pitch was decoded by the third base coach, an acolyte of Turley's system.
## Personal life
Turley moved from East St. Louis to Lutherville, Maryland, in 1954, when the Browns moved to Baltimore. Though he played in Baltimore for one season, he remained in Lutherville for the remainder of his baseball career, and sent his children to the local public schools.
Turley began working as a financial planner in 1957, by selling life insurance. He also operated a bowling alley in Bel Air, Maryland, and an insurance firm in Baltimore. In 1977, Turley joined with Arthur L. Williams Jr. and five others to found A. L. Williams & Associates, an insurance company. At A. L. Williams, agents advised clients to purchase term life insurance, rather than cash value life insurance, and invest the money they saved in mutual funds. The company became Primerica Financial Services, and was later bought out by Citigroup in 1989. He retired from the business in 2001, and sold half of his business to his son and the other half to Lynn Webb, a senior national sales director.
Later in his life, Turley resided in Blue Ridge, Georgia, and had a winter home on Marco Island, Florida. Turley's hobby was real estate. He bought and sold many homes on Marco Island, including a 13,500 square feet (1,250 m<sup>2</sup>) home he built that was locally referred to as "Turley Mansion" and "Turley Castle". In total, Turley and his wife bought and sold 27 houses on Marco Island and in Naples, Florida.
Turley made an appearance on It's News to Me, a current events-based game show hosted by Walter Cronkite. He was mentioned in a song called "St. Louis Browns" by Skip Battin, who was the bass guitarist of The Byrds and the New Riders of the Purple Sage. In the lyrics, Battin describes Turley as a "no-hit pitcher" who "got too surly" and who was "traded...too early".
Turley's uncle, Ralph, also played professional baseball. The Yankees signed Ralph Turley in 1949 when they meant to sign Bob, and released Ralph when they discovered he was the "wrong Turley". Nik Turley, a Yankees prospect, identified Bob Turley as a "distant relative".
### Death
Turley lived in Alpharetta, Georgia, for the last two years of his life. He died on March 30, 2013, in hospice care at Lenbrook, a retirement community in Atlanta at age 82 from liver cancer. Turley was cremated in Duluth, Georgia.
## See also
- List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
|
72,079,695 |
Stage works of Paul Goodman
| 1,169,488,633 | null |
[
"American plays by writer",
"Works by Paul Goodman"
] |
Prior to his career in social criticism, the American writer Paul Goodman had a prolific career in avant-garde literature, including some 16 works for the stage. His plays, mostly written in the 1940s, were typically experimental. Their professional productions were either unsuccessful or flopped, including the three productions staged with The Living Theatre in the 1950s and one with The American Place Theatre in 1966. His lack of recognition as a litterateur in the 1950s helped drive him to his successful career in social criticism in the 1960s.
## Background
Paul Goodman's writing career was prolific and heterogeneous. Though primarily known for his 1960s works of social criticism, Goodman primarily thought of himself as an artist–humanist, or man of letters. Across all of his works, he said he had one subject, "the organism and the environment", and one common, pragmatic aim, that his writing should effect a change. Up to the 1950s, he wrote literary avant-garde fiction, poetry, and theater, typically experimental. While his fiction and poetry received some critical response, he was largely unrecognized as a litterateur, apart from a coterie of admirers. His difficult personality and unrefined style hindered his literary reputation. This dissatisfaction from lack of audience in the 1950s is what drew him to social criticism in the 1960s, where he found success, leaving behind his literary ambitions for the limelight.
## Noh plays
In what he intended to be an American adaptation of the Japanese Noh art form, Goodman wrote five verse drama plays, or what Goodman called "dance poems": Dusk, The Birthday, The Three Disciplines, The Cyclist, and The Stop Light. In his adaptation, he portrayed the three Noh characters—the Waki, the Shite, and the Chorus—respectively as the "Audience", the "Object of Awareness", and the "Mind of the Poet Himself". Put another way, the plays each have three characters: a traveler (the audience), a spirit (the idea of the poem), and the chorus (that interprets both for each other).
His friend's small press, 5x8 Press, published the collection as Stop-Light in December 1941. It was Goodman's first book, and included an essay on the art form by Goodman and illustrations by his brother, Percival. Dusk had been published separately in a periodical two months prior to the book, and The Birthday would be revised and published in Michael Benedikt's 1967 anthology Theatre Experiment.
Dudley Fitts, contemporaneously reviewing the five American Noh plays in The Saturday Review of Literature, wrote that only The Three Disciplines and The Stop Light achieved the author's intentions but even then, the form did not adapt well outside of its original language and tradition. He also judged Goodman's diction as generally flat and humor as informal. The other three "failures", wrote Fitts, portrayed their protagonist (the Object of Awareness) as "either a dismal truism ... or a downright silliness". The Stop Light, however, moved Fitts, and in his opinion successfully integrated Goodman's idea, symbol, and diction. The New Republic considered Goodman's conceit clever and strategic but found that his themes did not neatly resolve.
The New York Poets' Theater produced Dusk and Stop Light in May 1948. Artist Mark Rothko designed Dusk's set and Ned Rorem composed its music, while Costantino Nivola designed Stop Light's set and Ben Weber composed its music. The Noh plays were later staged at New York's CHARAS Theater in 1990.
## The Living Theatre
Goodman's interest in theater developed alongside Julian Beck, Judith Malina, and their Living Theatre. After being introduced by playwright Tennessee Williams, Goodman became a close and influential friend, introducing Malina and Beck to anarchism prior to their founding of their Living Theatre. Goodman described himself as "a kind of company psychiatrist" for the theater company, for which he also wrote plays that the theater considered among the American vanguard. In turn, Goodman wrote in defense of the Living Theatre. Director Lawrence Kornfeld said Goodman's plays were among the first to incorporate non-linguistic elements, such as screams and other sounds.
As Malina and Beck prepared to open The Living Theatre in New York's Cherry Lane Theatre, they held their first show in their living room over a week in late August 1951. Among their five-play program was Goodman's short farce Childish Jokes: Crying Backstage. The sets and invitations were primitive and the 20-person seating arrangements intimate. Attendees included John Cage, Merce Cunningham, and Carl Van Vechten.
### Faustina
Goodman's Faustina centers on Faustina the Younger, the wife of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and reflects on Aurelius's Meditations with Reichian themes. Faustina falls in love with the gladiator Galba, who is killed in a ritual ceremony to ease her jealousy. The play ends with the scenery collapsing, representing the fall of Roman civilization. In a closing monologue, Faustina breaks the fourth wall to chastize the audience for not having risen onto the stage to prevent Galba's murder, or to express any other spontaneous thought of the actor.
Written in 1948, Jackson Mac Low and members of the Resistance group first produced Faustina with no stage to a full house in Robert Motherwell's New York City East Village loft in June 1949. Malina and Beck attended. Their Living Theatre would produced the show three years later, in May 1952, in New York's Cherry Lane Theatre. Goodman published a revised edition in the Quarterly Review of Literature (1961) and further revised for publication among his Three Plays (1965).
The Living Theatre selected Goodman's Faustina to put on as one of their first three shows in the Cherry Lane Theatre, staged around the 1951 holiday season. Faustina followed productions of Gertrude Stein's Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights and Kenneth Rexroth's Beyond the Mountains, which sold out and flopped, respectively. A set of sullen January 1952 rehearsals for Faustina led to its production's postponement. Beck continued to design Faustina's Roman frescos with funds from a successful program of bohemian theater. Faustina rehearsals resumed in April and were complicated as the theater bled into their personal lives, including a love triangle between Malina, Goodman, and a lover of Malina's who appeared in Faustina. The lover's Gestalt therapy sessions with Goodman had turned into an affair, sometimes delaying rehearsals. The Living Theatre's production was hurt by its actors lack of faith in its ending, in which Julie Bovasso, who played Faustina, struggled to give the closing, spontaneous monologue. On opening night, her speech consisted of her annoyance at the prompt, which she considered pretentious. Goodman approved of her authenticity. After Bovasso quit the production, another cast member gave the speech instead. Similar calls to direct action would feature in the troupe's performances by the end of the 1960s, but Beck himself later came to consider this specific monologue prompt insulting to the audience.
The show opened in late May 1952 to mediocre reviews and scarce attendance. Critics considered Beck's collaged set design to be a highlight. They considered Goodman's writing and the troupe's acting to be less effective. A New York Times reviewer described the first act of the Living Theatre production as "numb". Though the show continued through mid-June, Bovasso left after several performances. As Beck put it, the production was "humiliating agony".
### The Young Disciple
The Young Disciple, a free interpretation of the Gospel of Mark, follows a pseudobiblical plot in which a community attempts to interpret a "miraculous event" that is never specifically explained but comes to interfere with their daily lives and hampers their creativity. The play explores blocked psychological development and the natural human capacity to act freely, as Goodman later expressed in his book on Gestalt therapy.
Originally written by Goodman in 1941, he pressed the theatre in early 1955 to produce it. By mid-year, Beck began to cast and stage the play with choreography by Merce Cunningham and music by Ned Rorem. Beck, the play's director, designed a set of painted collages on corrugated cardboard. Personal issues again complicated the production, as Beck sought to please Goodman by producing the play but was privately insecure as to whether Goodman liked him. The play itself, as the writer John Tytell put it, was a "fulfillment of Goodman's own Socratic fantasy ... that he could advise youth on how to live in a disintegrating universe". Goodman saw his role as liberating the audience from an unspecific societal influence that alienated them from their personhood and made them obedient. In this play, this manifested as emotional outbursts, crawling on the ground while "making night noises, strange husky grating and chirping sounds", heavy breathing, vomiting, dancing, and trembling. In the week before the show's opening, New York police questioned cast members and inferred that the play's content could be deemed obscene. They ultimately did not stop the show.
Staged in an Upper West Side loft, the production came during an artistic period of the Living Theatre in which they did not advertise, charge admission, or invite critics. Despite Beck considering The Young Disciple as their loft period's high point, it proved unpopular upon its October 1955 opening, as affronted audiences reacted to its charged contents in disgust, annoyance, terror, awe, and excitement, according to Beck. Beck now believed that the Living Theatre had become too arty and focused on its artistic community rather than on the theatre itself. Goodman later published The Young Disciple in his Three Plays (1965).
### The Cave at Machpelah
For two decades, beginning in 1935, Goodman worked on The Cave at Machpelah, a verse drama based on Abraham's biblical sacrifice of Isaac. Goodman used the play to explore the combined origins of Arab and Jewish peoples, man's relationship with God, and the issue of "faith" as discussed in Kierkegaard's philosophical work Fear and Trembling. Completed in 1958, Goodman called this trilogy "The Abraham Plays". Act I, Abraham and Isaac (1935), is a poetic retelling of the sacrifice of Isaac and the test of Abraham's faith. Act II, Hagar and Ishmael (1935), has Ishmael quarrel with the Angel of the Lord. In Act III, The Cave at Machpelah (1958), Ishmael and Isaac arrange to bury Abraham. The third act was published in Commentary in June 1958.
Beck began directing and rehearsing the play during early 1959. The production included music by Ned Rorem and choreography by Merce Cunningham. The Living Theatre rehearsed the work for ten weeks. The production was marred by delays, threats of bankruptcy, and other technical issues. The Living Theatre opened The Cave at Machpelah at the end of June 1959 at their Sixth Avenue & 14th Street theater. It flopped, closing in July after seven performances. Malina was uncomfortable in her role as Sarah and Beck felt that the other actors could not match the play's complexity. Critics panned the play as being moralistic, too philosophical, and untheatrical. Its New York Daily News reviewer found it hard to follow, apart from its love triangle between Abraham, his wife Sarah, and her handmaiden slave Hagar. The New York Times wrote that Goodman got "lost in his dramatic structure" through the middle of the play, as if he lost interest, and despite some moments of majesty and inspiration ultimately did not accomplish the ideals Goodman had intended.
## Jonah
Originally written circa 1942, Jonah, subtitled "a biblical comedy with Jewish jokes culled far and wide", focuses on the biblical Jonah's life after escaping from the whale. The Angel of the Lord tells a reluctant Jonah to warn the city of Nineveh of its impending destruction. Jonah dallies and ends up inside a whale on a sea voyage. He escapes and completes his task, and the citizens of Nineveh repent and save the city. Feeling fooled, Jonah reprimands God, who imparts a lesson of forbearance.
Goodman first published the play in his 1945 fiction collection The Facts of Life. Composer Jack Beeson worked the play into a three-act opera libretto during his Rome Prize years (1948–1950), which went unpublished and unproduced. Jackson Mac Low and the "Prester John's Company" planned a production of Goodman's Jonah for June 1950. Goodman revised the play in 1955 and reprinted Jonah in his 1965 collection Three Plays. The American Place Theatre produced the play in February 1966 as a two-act musical with vaudeville stylings of his contemporaneous Jewish culture in New York City.
The 1966 American Place Theatre production, in Hell's Kitchen, New York City, ran for 24 performances. It was directed by Lawrence Kornfeld, scored by Meyer Kupferman, with scenic design and choreography by Remy Charlip and lighting by Roger Morgan. The production reproduced much of the literal detail of the Book of Jonah. As a "musical experiment in the dramatic field", Kupferman's score played throughout the performance, either as a focal song or dance, or as background music. The performance's 30 cast members, which included Earle Hyman and Sorrell Booke, spoke in a Yiddish accent and used Yiddishisms. Jonah is played as a stereotypical Jewish elder "philosopher-schlemiel", a pragmatic yet rebellious servant both defying God and ironically yielding to him. As one reviewer put it, Jonah has "the dilemma of the modern moralist who finds his message diluted by ready and uncritical acceptance and whose act of rebellion is rendered impotent by a public which embraces novelty in any form", making the rebel into a kind of clown. One critic would note autobiographical allusions between Goodman (the playwright and prominent social gadfly) and his character Jonah.
Critics responded negatively. Goodman's attempt to convert the Book of Jonah into a modern parable was incomplete, wrote the Congress Bi-Weekly. Reviewing for The New York Times, Stanley Kaufmann found the play inconsistent, with some charm and imagination that did not last throughout, and poorly executed satire. Wilfrid Sheed of Commonweal declared the first act "hopeless", having overused resignation humor of shrugs and mumbles. To The New Yorker's Edith Oliver, the play was an "untheatrical ... slovenly bore" whose comedy and dramatization did not land. The worst part of the playwright's "self-indulgence and confused medley of styles and purposes", continued Congress Bi-Weekly, was how the prophet-hero lacked clarity of purpose and attempted to convey Goodman's oversimplistic maxim that comic outsiders are society's sole truth-speakers. Critics compared Jonah's approach with other modern takes on Old Testament themes, such as The Flowering Peach and The Green Pastures.
## Cubist plays
Goodman wrote and published four "Cubist plays" to demonstrate his theory of literary structure from his 1954 book of literary criticism, The Structure of Literature. He called them "Cubist" due to his intention of abstracting the plays' plots from their structures, so that individual characters became archetypal embodiments of types of plots. The first three plays reference Greek tragedians: Structure of Tragedy, after Aeschylus; Structure of Tragedy, after Sophocles; and Structure of Pathos, after Euripides. Goodman's plays were meant to address structural elements of each: the austerity of Aeschylus, the ironic and psychological elements of Sophocles, and the existential pain and fate in Euripides. The fourth play, Little Hero, after Molière, follows tragic nobility, referencing the 17th-century French satirist, though a review said it had more in common with farce like Ubu Roi. The plays consist of a range of style and diction, including both the high style of the period as well as contemporaneous colloquialisms.
The theoretical basis of the plays came from Goodman's dissertation, The Formal Analysis of Poems, which he finished in 1940, but did not publish until 1954 (as The Structure of Literature) when he received his humanities Ph.D. He initially published the first three plays in early 1950 in the Quarterly Review of Literature. They were revised and republished in a small print run in 1970 as Tragedy & Comedy: Four Cubist Plays. Poet Macha Rosenthal, in his Poetry magazine review, praised the originality of the Cubist plays as "modern lyric-contemplative poems in dramatic guise" and said that their emotional saturation and immediacy belied their intellectual pretext.
## Known productions
- Dusk and Stop Light, The Poets' Theater, New York City Upper East Side, May 1948
- Faustina, Jackson Mac Low and members of the Resistance group, New York City East Village loft, June 1949
- Jonah, Prester John's Company (Jackson Mac Low), New York City, June 1950, presumed
- Childish Jokes: Crying Backstage, The Living Theatre, New York City, August 1951
- Faustina, The Living Theatre, Cherry Lane Theatre, New York City, May–June 1952
- The Young Disciple, The Living Theatre, New York City, October 1955
- The Cave at Machpelah, The Living Theatre, New York City, June–July 1959
- Jonah, American Place Theater, New York City, February–March 1966
- Stop-Light: Five Noh Plays, CHARAS Theater, New York City, December 1990
|
55,789,983 |
Olga FitzGeorge
| 1,130,924,011 |
English socialite, businesswoman, and granddaughter of Prince George, Duke of Cambridge
|
[
"1877 births",
"1928 deaths",
"19th-century English actresses",
"20th-century English businesspeople",
"20th-century English businesswomen",
"Deaths from embolism",
"English child actresses",
"English people of German descent",
"English socialites",
"English stage actresses",
"FitzGeorge family",
"House of Hamilton",
"People from Belgravia",
"People from Havant",
"People from Midhurst",
"People from Victoria, London",
"Wives of baronets"
] |
Olga FitzGeorge (Olga Mary Adelaide FitzGeorge Hamilton Lane; 11 June 1877 – 15 October 1928) was a British socialite, businessperson, and descendant of King George III through her grandfather, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. FitzGeorge was the only daughter and child of Rear Admiral Sir Adolphus FitzGeorge and his wife Sophia Jane Holden FitzGeorge.
Born in Athens while her father was serving with the Mediterranean Fleet, FitzGeorge was a goddaughter of Queen Olga of Greece and her great aunt Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck. During her childhood, FitzGeorge's parents allowed her to perform in plays for charitable events despite the misgivings of her great-grandmother Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge, and her grandfather, the Duke of Cambridge.
FitzGeorge was married first to Charles Edward Archibald Watkin Hamilton (later Sir Archibald Hamilton, 5th Baronet) in 1897. FitzGeorge was known for her lavish lifestyle, and she continued her extravagant behavior throughout the course of this marriage, which increased her husband's debts and caused marital strife when Hamilton attempted to limit her expenditures. In order to achieve financial independence, FitzGeorge established a manicure and beauty salon on New Bond Street in London despite its annoyance to both the Hamilton family and the British royal family. FitzGeorge's first marriage, which ended in a highly publicized divorce in 1902, produced two children: a son, George Edward Archibald Augustus FitzGeorge Hamilton, in 1898 and an unnamed daughter who died shortly after her birth. FitzGeorge's son died in 1918 while serving with the Grenadier Guards in France during World War I.
FitzGeorge married lawyer Robert Charlton Lane in 1905, and the couple had a daughter, Mary Alice Olga Sofia Jane Lane Hohler Scrivener, in 1919. In 1908 FitzGeorge made headlines for her alleged affair with Arthur Clark Kennedy and was named in his divorce proceedings with his second wife. FitzGeorge died of an embolism at age 51 in Rouen, France, in 1928 and was interred at her Glebe Manor estate in Warblington, Hampshire. In her will, she bequeathed £1,000 to Winchester College for the establishment of the George FitzGeorge Hamilton Fund to assist in the education of the children of Wykehamists who died in World War I. FitzGeorge's daughter Jane, who later married British ambassador Ronald Stratford Scrivener, died in 2014.
## Early life and family
Olga Mary Adelaide FitzGeorge was born on 11 June 1877 as the daughter and only child of Rear Admiral Sir Adolphus FitzGeorge (1846–1922) and his first wife Sophia Jane Holden FitzGeorge (1857–1920). She was born in Athens, where her father was serving with the Mediterranean Fleet of the Royal Navy. FitzGeorge was named for her two godmothers: the queen consort in her birthplace, Queen Olga of Greece (1851–1926), and her great aunt Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck (1833–1897). Queen Olga gifted FitzGeorge with a pearl heart at her baptism.
Through her father, FitzGeorge was a granddaughter of Prince George, Duke of Cambridge (1819–1904), Commander-in-Chief of the Forces from 1856 to 1895, and his wife Sarah Fairbrother (1816–1890). Because her paternal grandparents' marriage was in contravention to the Royal Marriages Act of 1772, FitzGeorge's father and her uncles Colonel George FitzGeorge (1843–1907) and Colonel Sir Augustus FitzGeorge (1847–1933) were ineligible to inherit the Dukedom of Cambridge. Also through her father, FitzGeorge was a male-line descendant of Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (1774–1850) and King George III (1738–1820). As a descendant of George III, FitzGeorge was also a first cousin twice-removed of Queen Victoria (1819–1901) and a first cousin once-removed of Queen Mary (1867–1953), who was the daughter of her godmother the Duchess of Teck. Through her mother, FitzGeorge was the granddaughter of Thomas Holden of Winestead Hall and his wife Penelope Sofiano Holden. Holden was a wealthy businessman from whom FitzGeorge's parents received much of their fortune.
## Childhood and adolescence
As a child, FitzGeorge's parents allowed her to perform in plays and musicals for the benefit of charitable causes. In June 1882 she and her father performed in three plays at the Corn Exchange in Newark-on-Trent to raise funds for the construction of a local hospital there.
FitzGeorge's grandfather, the Duke of Cambridge, was urged by his mother Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge, to interfere in FitzGeorge's upbringing by her parents, and discouraged them from allowing her to participate in performances and public events. In 1884 the Duke worried about FitzGeorge's presence at a charity bazaar hosted by her mother at St James's Palace, despite it being patronized by Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, and his wife Alexandra, Princess of Wales. The Duke wrote to FitzGeorge's father on 15 July 1884, insisting that she should be "quietly dressed" at the bazaar and that "appearing on the stage is not desirable for this nice little girl".
In 1886 Olga served as a bridesmaid at the wedding of her maternal aunt Hélène Cecil Holden to John Louis Mitchell. She also attended a state ball hosted by Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace in May 1895.
## First marriage
FitzGeorge was married first to Charles Edward Archibald Watkin Hamilton (10 December 1876 – 18 March 1939), later to become Sir Archibald Hamilton, 5th Baronet, on 18 December 1897. Hamilton was the son of Sir Edward Archibald Hamilton, 4th Baronet, and his wife Mary Elizabeth Gill.
Their wedding was held at St Peter's Church, Eaton Square, Belgravia, and the wedding ceremony was presided over by Reverend Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, who was assisted by FitzGeorge's great uncle Reverend Anthony Bailey and parish vicar Reverend John Storrs. FitzGeorge was given away by her father, and was attended by her cousins George FitzGeorge and Guy Holden and by eight bridesmaids: Violet Hodgson (her cousin), Baroness Fay de Steigar (Hamilton's cousin), Stella Faudel-Phillips, Wynford "Winnie" Kemball (daughter of General Arnold Burrowes Kemball), Lady Mary Pery, Lady Evelyn Bertie, and FitzGeorge's young cousins Iris and Daphne FitzGeorge. Hamilton's best man was a Mr. Earle.
FitzGeorge's veil of Honiton lace was a family heirloom previously worn by her mother, and was ornamented with orange blossoms specially sent from Cannes. She only wore one jewel, which was the pearl heart given to her at her baptism by her godmother Queen Olga of Greece. The train of her dress was carried by her pages, who wore sailor uniforms and hats labeled with "H.M.S. Olga." The wedding reception was held at the home of FitzGeorge's parents at 12 Eaton Square, Belgravia, and the couple honeymooned in Paris afterward.
Attendees at their wedding included FitzGeorge's grandfather the Duke of Cambridge, her uncle Colonel George FitzGeorge, the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of York, the Count and Countess of Casa Valencia, the Countess of Cottenham and her daughter Lady Mary Pepys, the Dowager Countess of Limerick, and her daughter Lady Florence Pery, the Countess of Lindsey, the Count and Countess de Morel, Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Stackpoole, the Baron and Baroness de Steigar, Sir Walter Barttelot, 2nd Baronet, and Lady Barttelot, General Sir Henry de Bathe, 4th Baronet, and Lady de Bathe, Lieutenant-General Julian Hall, and Admiral Sir Reginald Macdonald and Lady Macdonald.
FitzGeorge received a gold chain bracelet with sapphires and diamonds from the Prince and Princess of Wales; a diamond and green enamel double horseshoe brooch from her godmother Queen Olga of Greece; a diamond pendant from her grandfather the Duke of Cambridge; a white Brussels lace fan from Prince George, Duke of York and Mary, Duchess of York; a bottle of perfume in a silver case from Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; a white gauze fan inlaid with gold from her great aunt Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; two gold bangles with diamond pendants from Prince Victor Duleep Singh; a green enamel and gold muff chain from the Prince and Princess of Löwenstein-Wertheim; and a silver sugar caster from Prince Adolphus of Teck, Princess Adolphus of Teck, and Prince Alexander of Teck. Prince Adolphus and Prince Alexander were the sons of FitzGeorge's great aunt and godmother, the Duchess of Teck, who died the October preceding her wedding.
After their wedding, FitzGeorge and Hamilton resided at Rotherhill in Midhurst, Sussex. The following year, FitzGeorge and her husband held a celebration in honor of her grandfather the Duke of Cambridge at their residence in July 1898, which included Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, Maurice Gifford, and Sir Edward Archibald Hamilton, 4th Baronet.
FitzGeorge and Hamilton had two children George Edward Archibald Augustus FitzGeorge Hamilton (30 December 1898 – 18 May 1918) (he was later killed in an aerial raid by enemy aircraft in France in 1918, aged 19, during the Great War) and an unnamed daughter who was born and died on 5 May 1902. At the baptism of their son George, the Duke of Cambridge and the Duke and Duchess of York stood as sponsors in person. In 1900 a photographic portrait of FitzGeorge with her grandfather, father, and her son George on her knee, which was entitled "Four Generations" was published in multiple periodicals in the United Kingdom and the United States.
### Divorce
Prior to their marriage, FitzGeorge was known for her lavish lifestyle. She continued her extravagant behavior throughout the course of the marriage, which increased her husband's debts and caused marital strife when Hamilton attempted to limit her expenditures. In order to attain financial independence from Hamilton, FitzGeorge established a manicure and beauty salon on New Bond Street in London with her married name over the establishment's front door. Her business proved to be an annoyance for both her husband's family and the British royal family. Following its opening, Hamilton left and separated from FitzGeorge. In May 1901 Hamilton returned to his parents' residence at Devonshire Place while FitzGeorge resided at their marital residence at 15 Queens Mansions, Victoria Street in Victoria, London. Hamilton occasionally visited his wife and child, but his visits eventually ceased.
In response to his desertion, FitzGeorge filed for and was granted a decree of restitution of conjugal rights by Sir Francis Jeune in a divorce court on 28 July 1902. FitzGeorge was also granted custody of their son, George. Despite efforts by the royal family to reconcile FitzGeorge with her husband, she filed a petition for divorce from Hamilton. FitzGeorge was granted a divorce from Hamilton on 3 November 1902 on the grounds that her husband had abandoned FitzGeorge and engaged in extramarital misconduct with an unknown woman. Several of their wedding guests were present in the courtroom for their divorce ruling.
## Second marriage
Three years later, FitzGeorge married lawyer Robert Charlton Lane (26 January 1873 – 23 May 1943), son of Charles Thomas Lane, on 5 January 1905 in London. Following their marriage, FitzGeorge frequently traveled to New York. FitzGeorge and Lane had a residence at 1 South Eaton Place in Belgravia and an estate named Glebe Manor in Warblington near Havant in Hampshire.
In early 1908 FitzGeorge became involved in a divorce proceeding in Edinburgh between Arthur Clark Kennedy and his second wife, partly due to FitzGeorge's alleged relationship with Kennedy. Kennedy's wife claimed that FitzGeorge and Kennedy had traveled together to cities in Great Britain, Ireland, and France in 1906, and resided together in Bury St Edmunds in March and April of that year. FitzGeorge's own mother wrote a letter of sympathy to Kennedy's wife in which she stated, "I find we have no power to stop Olga's money. We cannot stop anybody doing anything, but can only pray for the best. Take care of yourself." Kennedy was not present for the divorce proceeding, and his wife was ultimately granted a divorce. Throughout the trial, FitzGeorge vacationed in Jamaica.
In 1916, during World War I, FitzGeorge's son George entered the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, and in late 1917 he obtained a commission as a Second lieutenant in the British Army's Grenadier Guards, in which his great-grandfather the Duke of Cambridge had served. Only a few months later, on 18 May 1918, George was killed by a bomb from an airplane at Warlincourt near Arras, France. He was interred at Warlincourt Halte British Cemetery near Saulty.
Following the war, FitzGeorge and Lane became the parents of a daughter, Mary Alice Olga Sofia Jane Lane (4 June 1919 – 20 September 2014). FitzGeorge's mother Sophia died on 3 February 1920. She bequeathed certain items of jewellery (a gold bracelet that had belonged to Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge, and other diamond ornaments) in life interest to FitzGeorge with the remainder to Jane. FitzGeorge's father (at the age of 76) married Margaret Beatrice Daisy Watson in October 1920 in Pimlico; he died on 17 December 1922 in London.
## Later life, death, and legacy
FitzGeorge died on 15 October 1928 at age 51 in Rouen, French Third Republic. After a tour of Bayeux and a two-day stay at the Vieux Logis on Rue Saint Romain in Rouen, FitzGeorge died suddenly of an embolism as she was boarding her car to depart for Le Havre. Her remains were transferred from Le Havre to Southampton on 17 October, and her funeral was held at Warblington Church on 19 October. FitzGeorge was interred at her Glebe Manor estate in Warblington.
FitzGeorge's will was proved in the Principal Probate Registry on 9 February 1929 by her named executors: her husband and Edgar Oliver Goss. In her will, FitzGeorge left a gold cup presented to her son George by the Duke of Cambridge to the officers' mess of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, £100 to the Princess Louise Home for Girls in Kingston Hill, annuities of £15 each to her nurses Emily Hawkins and Nanny Gertrude Mills, and £40 to Robert Walker. FitzGeorge also left £1,000 to Winchester College for the establishment of the George FitzGeorge Hamilton Fund to assist in the education of the children of Wykehamists who had died in World War I. She left unsettled property totaling £20,150.
FitzGeorge's daughter Jane married first to Edward Christopher Hohler (22 January 1917 – 15 February 1997), son of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Preston Hohler and Laline Annette Astell, on 14 November 1939 at St Thomas à Becket Church, Warblington. She and Hohler divorced in July 1961 in London. Jane then married Ronald Stratford Scrivener, son of Sir Patrick Scrivener, on 14 May 1962 in London. Scrivener served as the Ambassador of the United Kingdom to Panama. Jane died on 20 September 2014 at age 95, and her funeral service was held at St. Etheldreda's in Fulham. She had four children with her first husband, Edward Christopher Hohler:
1. Olga Mary Hohler Bland (11 October 1940 – 29 October 2019)
2. Philippa Caroline Jane Hohler Sanders Snowdon (born 13 January 1942)
3. Frederick Christopher Gerald Hohler (born 30 August 1943)
4. Robert Henry Adolphus Hohler (born 2 October 1947)
At the time of her death, Jane had 13 grandchildren and 13 great-grandchildren.
## Ancestry
|
42,351,247 |
Cyclone Hellen
| 1,167,542,972 |
2014 South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone
|
[
"2013–14 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season",
"Cyclones in Madagascar",
"Very intense tropical cyclones"
] |
Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hellen of March 2014 was one of the most powerful tropical cyclones in the Mozambique Channel on record, as well as the most intense of the 2013–14 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season. Hellen formed on March 26 in the northern portion of the channel, and the storm brought rainfall to coastal Mozambique while in its formative stages. While moving southeastward, it developed an organized area of convection over the center of circulation. Warm waters allowed Hellen to rapidly intensify while passing south of the Comoros, with a well-defined eye forming in the middle of the thunderstorms. The cyclone attained peak intensity March 30, with maximum sustained winds estimated 230 km/h (145 mph) according to the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center, Météo-France in La Réunion. Subsequently, Hellen weakened quickly due to dry air and land interaction with Madagascar, and the storm's eye dissipated. On March 31, the storm made landfall in northwestern Madagascar as a weakened cyclone, despite previous forecasts for the center to remain over water. By April 1, Hellen was no longer a tropical cyclone after most of the convection dissipated. The remnants turned to the west, moving over Mozambique without redeveloping, later dissipating on April 5.
Early in its existence, Hellen's rainfall in Mozambique destroyed hundreds of houses and a bridge. Flooding killed four people in the country, three of whom due to a home collapsing. Later, the cyclone passed south of the Comoros islands, causing flooding due to high storm surge and waves that killed one person. The storm forced 8,956 people to evacuate their homes due to the threat for landslides, while 901 houses were damaged or destroyed. On nearby Mayotte, high rainfall flooded rivers, sweeping one car away. In northwestern Madagascar, Hellen damaged or destroyed 611 houses, leaving 1,736 people homeless. The storm killed three people after capsizing a boat.
## Meteorological history
On March 25, 2014, a weak area of low pressure accompanied by broad, flaring convection became increasingly organized over Mozambique. Owing to favorable environmental conditions, featuring low wind shear, vorticity became more enhanced and symmetrical. A compact system, the low steadily organized as it emerged over the Mozambique Channel on March 26. Though continued land interaction initially hindered development, enhanced outflow supported convective development as it straddled the Mozambique–Tanzania border. With high sea surface temperatures in the storm's track, the JTWC anticipated further organization and issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 2000 UTC on March 26. Once further offshore on March 27, the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Météo-France in La Réunion classified the system as Disturbance 14. Drifting slowly eastward, a prominent feeder band developed along the system's eastern side; however, this band disrupted low-level inflow of warm, moist air, and suppressed convection over the circulation center.
Though convection later began to consolidate into a small central dense overcast (CDO) feature by March 28, continued disruption of the low-level inflow prevented much development. Météo-France noted that despite forecasting the storm to peak as a moderate tropical storm, with winds of 85 km/h (50 mph), there was potential for rapid intensification due to the storm's small size. Conversely, the JTWC noted that proximity to land and dry mid-level air, represented by surface outflow boundaries, could hamper significant development. Once further over the Mozambique Channel, the system became increasingly organized and the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 21S. Météo-France followed suit at 0000 UTC on March 29 and classified the cyclone as a moderate tropical storm, with the tropical cyclone warning center in Madagascar assigning the name Hellen. Hellen soon assumed an east-southeast track toward Madagascar, as a ridge established itself to the northeast. Throughout March 29, the storm became increasingly organized with an eye apparent on microwave satellite imagery.
Rapid to explosive intensification ensued during the later half of March 29 into March 30 at a rate Météo-France later referred to as "astounding". Deep convective banding wrapped around a ragged eye, which soon contracted to "pinhole" size. This prompted Météo-France to upgrade Hellen to a tropical cyclone with winds estimated at 155 km/h (100 mph) at 0000 UTC on March 30. Six hours later, they further upgraded the storm to an intense tropical cyclone with winds of 195 km/h (120 mph). Hellen attained its peak intensity between 1100 and 1500 UTC as a very intense tropical cyclone, with winds of 230 km/h (145 mph), gusts reaching 325 km/h (200 mph), and a barometric pressure of 915 mbar (hPa; 27.02 inHg). This ranked it as one of the most powerful storms over the Mozambique Channel on record. The storm featured a 20 km (12 mi) wide eye embedded within a symmetrical and intense CDO, spanning 240 km (150 mi) across. The JTWC estimated Hellen to have attained one-minute sustained winds of 250 km/h (155 mph), making it a high-end Category 4-equivalent cyclone on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, although this was lowered to 240 km/h (150 mph) in reanalysis.
After peak intensity, the cyclone's eye soon began to fill and cool as weakening ensued. Defying previous forecasts, Hellen continued on a southeasterly track toward Madagascar and the likelihood of it making landfall became apparent. By the end of March 30, Hellen's eye had collapsed and disappeared from satellite imagery, as the combination of dry air and land interaction took their toll on the storm. At about 0800 UTC on March 31, Hellen made landfall on Mitsinjo with winds of 110 km/h (70 mph), and the previously unfavorable conditions coupled with land interaction to induce rapid weakening. The ridge to the east turned Hellen to a southwest drift over land. By early on April 1, the convection largely dissipated as the center became difficult to locate, with peak winds dropping to 45 km/h (30 mph). As a result, Météo-France discontinued advisories that day, as did the JTWC. The remnants moved back over open waters, but were not expected to reorganize due to the poor nature of the convection. As the low continued to the west, the convection increased on April 4 while approaching the coastline of Mozambique, although the system failed to redevelop before moving onshore.
## Preparations and impact
During its formative stages, Hellen meandered around northern Mozambique and produced prolonged heavy rains over the region. The city of Pemba in Cabo Delgado Province was the hardest hit area, with the Messalo River over-topping its banks. Tagir Carimo, mayor of Pemba, described the rains as the heaviest he had seen in 20 years. More than 100 poorly constructed homes collapsed in the floods while severe erosion exposed and destroyed water pipes. A major bridge connecting Pemba to surrounding areas was washed away by the Messalo river. This isolated the northern portion of Cabo Delgado Province from the rest of the country, forcing ferries to transport cars. Three people died in the district of Cariaco when their home collapsed while a fourth drowned in Chiuba. Distributing assistance following the storm was disrupted by damaged roads.
### Comoro Islands
Heavy rains and storm surge caused significant damage on all three islands of the Comoros, with the worst occurring on Anjouan. There, 901 houses were damaged, of which about 20% were destroyed. Flooding displaced 389 people in Salamani where 33 mud-built homes were destroyed. Landslides isolated the villages of Chiconi, Hamaba, Koni-Djodjo, Miringoni, and Nioumachioi, and damaged a road between Ngandzalé and Domoni. On the island, 7,879 people had to evacuate their houses due to the risk of further landslides, some of whom went to schools set up as shelters while others stayed with family or friends. Storm surge on Mohéli flooded parts of Tsamia, Walla, and Zirindani, resulting in one fatality. Several houses were damaged on the island, and Djandro lost power due to a damaged power line. The Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport in Moroni on Grande Comore was closed for about 24 hours due to the storm. Also on the island, a road was damaged, and one house was flooded. Shortly after the storm, workers began repairing roads and distributing aid.
Though the center of Cyclone Hellen remained south of Mayotte, it prompted an "orange alert" on March 30 for the area due to the potential for hurricane-force gusts. The storm's rapid intensification caught most residents on the island off-guard, with widespread disruptions to traffic and electricity taking place. Wind gusts up to 100 km/h (62 mph) downed trees and power lines, blocking off roads while heavy rains caused significant flooding. A peak 24‐hour rainfall of 239 mm (9.4 in) was measured in Mtsamboro between March 29 and 30. In M'Tsangamouji, cars were swept away by a swollen river. Along the coast, waves up to 5 m (16 ft) damaged marinas in Dzaoudzi, Hagnoundrou, and Mamoudzou where skiffs were smashed against rocks or stranded.
### Madagascar
On March 31, a boat capsized off the coast of northwest Madagascar, killing three and leaving nine others missing. High seas washed away 20 canoes along the coast. Initial assessments of damage across Madagascar were initially hampered by poor weather and inaccessibility. The storm flooded 7,795 ha (19,260 acres) of rice fields across the country, as well as 114 ha (280 acres) of other crops, threatening harvests after a locust outbreak had occurred in the months prior to the storm. The storm also killed 23 zebu and damaged two dams. Cyclone Hellen destroyed 437 houses and damaged or flooded 174 others, leaving 1,736 people homeless during its passage. The storm also damaged two health facilities and five schools. Overall impact from Hellen was less than expected due to its weakening, with most telephone lines still intact.
Due to the storm affecting water access in northwestern Madagascar, there was concern for a disease outbreak, with a flu outbreak noted in Mahajanga. The national Red Cross utilized 54 volunteers to assist in the storm's aftermath, such as distributing kitchen kits and agriculture units. Residents donated 2 million ariary (\$800 USD) to the Red Cross, which were used to purchase medicines, while the government provided 600 kg (1,300 lb) of rice for affected residents.
## See also
- Cyclone Gillian, which rapidly intensified from a tropical low to a Category 5 cyclone in less than 48 hours in the Australian region just one week before Hellen.
- Other intense tropical cyclones in the Mozambique Channel
: Cyclone Funso in 2012 – 205 km/h (127 mph) and 925 mbar (925 hPa; 27.3 inHg)
: Cyclone Fanele in 2009 – 185 km/h (115 mph) and 930 mbar (930 hPa; 27 inHg)
: Cyclone Japhet in 2003 – 175 km/h (109 mph) and 935 mbar (935 hPa; 27.6 inHg)
- Cyclone Idai – A devastating tropical cyclone that affected the same regions in 2019
- Cyclone Belna
|
31,418,437 |
K-60 (Kansas highway)
| 1,126,207,218 |
State highway in Kansas
|
[
"State highways in Kansas",
"Transportation in Norton County, Kansas"
] |
K-60 is a 4.284-mile (6.894 km) north–south state highway in Almena-District 4 Township, Norton County, Kansas, United States. K-60's southern terminus is at U.S. Route 36 (US‐36) east of Norton and the northern terminus is at K-383 south of Almena. The route was established around 1930.
## Route description
K‐60 begins at an intersection with US‐36, roughly 11 miles (18 km) east of Norton and 19 miles (31 km) west of Phillipsburg. The highway heads north, surrounded by a grassland terrain marked with several fields. The road turns northwestward. After an intersection with Main Street, K-60 turns back northward towards Almena. The highway ends at an intersection with K-383 near the Kyle Railroad.
The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT), which is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state. As part of this role, KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways. These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic, which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year. In 2010, KDOT calculated that a total of 115 vehicles used the road daily, including 20 trucks. No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the nation's defence, mobility, and economy.
## History
K-60 was built and established between 1927 and 1931 by the Kansas State Highway Commission, which was at the time responsible for maintaining highways in Kansas. At this time, the road was surfaced with gravel. The entire route was paved between 1948 and 1950. Since then, the road's designation has not been changed.
## Major intersections
## See also
- List of state highways in Kansas
- List of highways numbered 60
|
56,010,065 |
Stenaelurillus guttiger
| 1,171,104,729 |
Species of spider
|
[
"Arthropods of Botswana",
"Arthropods of Mozambique",
"Arthropods of Zimbabwe",
"Salticidae",
"Spiders described in 1901",
"Spiders of South Africa",
"Taxa named by Wanda Wesołowska"
] |
Stenaelurillus guttiger (synonyms Aelurillus guttiger and Stenaelurillus natalensis) is a species of jumping spider in the genus Stenaelurillus that is native to southern Africa. It was first described in 1901 by Eugène Simon based on examples found in South Africa, and subsequently also identified in Botswana, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Initially allocated to the genus Aelurillus, the species was moved to its current genus in 1974. The spider is medium-sized, with a carapace that is between 2.0 and 2.75 mm (0.079 and 0.108 in) long and an abdomen that is between 1.8 and 2.9 mm (0.071 and 0.114 in) long. It is dark brown or brown, and has a pattern of white hairs on both the abdomen and carapace and a pattern of two stripes on the carapace. The abdomen has a white pattern of straight and V-shaped stripes and spots which varies between specimens. The colouring of the clypeus and legs can also range from yellow to dark brown depending on the particular example. It is distinguished from other species in the genus by the design of its sexual organs. The male has an embolus that is short and crab like. The female has a flat plate epigyne with widely separated copulatory openings and insemination ducts and a deep narrow pocket. Stenaelurillus guttiger feeds on termites, particularly Macrotermes and Odontotermes.
## Taxonomy
Aelurillus guttiger was first described by Eugène Simon in 1901. It was initially placed in the genus Aelurillus, which had been created by Simon in 1885. The genus name derives from the Greek word for cat. In 1974, it was moved to Stenaelurillus by D. J. Clark on the basis of its general appearance, and particularly, the similarity between the markings on this spider and those on the abdomen and carapace of Stenaelurillus albopunctatus. The genus Stenaelurillus had been first described by Simon in 1886, with the type species Stenaelurillus nigricaudus. In 2015, Wayne Maddison placed the genus in the subtribe Aelurillina in the tribe Aelurillini in the clade Saltafresia. Two years later, the genus was grouped with nine other genera of jumping spiders under the name Aelurillines by Jerzy Prószyński.
Meanwhile, in 2006, Charles R. Haddad and the Polish arachnologist Wanda Wesołowska identified a new species, Stenaelurillus natalensis. It was one of over 500 species identified by Wesołowska. This new species was generally similar to Stenaelurillus guttiger but differed in that the tip of the males's embolus was hidden and there was a chamber in the female's epigyne. In 2018, Dmitri V. Logunov and Galina N Azarkina found the sexual organs to be similar across the specimens of both species and consequently they combined them under the current name. The holotype for Stenaelurillus natalensis was designated the holotype for Stenaelurillus guttiger.
## Description
Stenaelurillus guttiger is a medium-sized spider. It has an overall shape that is typical for the genus but shows a high variation in patterns and colours. This does not seem to depend on geographic location with, for example, males with different colour legs and palpal bulbs often living in the same area.
The male spider has a pear-shaped brown or dark brown carapace that is covered in scales that is typically between 2.0 and 2.5 mm (0.079 and 0.098 in) long and 1.4 and 1.9 mm (0.055 and 0.075 in) wide. It is marked with two stripes made of white hairs that travel from front to back and, sometimes, two more that cross from side to side, and has a black eye field. The abdomen is shorter and wider, between 1.8 and 2.5 mm (0.071 and 0.098 in) long and between 1.35 and 2.0 mm (0.053 and 0.079 in) wide, and either brown or dark brown and covered in scales. It has a pattern that consists of a white stripe and V-shape on the front half and white spots on the rear half, sometimes one spot and sometimes three. Occasionally, the white hairs on the spiders rub off, removing the patterns. The chelicerae and clypeus may be dark brown, brown to dark brown, or yellowish brown to brown. In some examples, a sparse covering of white hairs covers the clypeus. The chelicerae may have a few short white hairs or a dense covering of long white hairs. The front and middle spinnerets are yellow the back ones dark brown. The legs may be yellow, brown or dark brown and the pedipalps are a combination of yellow and brown. The cymbium is a combination of brown and yellow with either brown or white hairs. The spider is distinguished from other members of the genus by its short embolus, shaped like a claw, sitting on a wide round base.
The female is similar in shape to the male but larger. It has a carapace that measures between 2.25 and 2.75 mm (0.089 and 0.108 in) in length and between 1.75 and 2.15 mm (0.069 and 0.085 in) in width and an abdomen that measures between 2.0 and 2.9 mm (0.079 and 0.114 in) in length and between 1.85 and 2.2 mm (0.073 and 0.087 in) in width. The colouration is similar to the male, but sometimes the patterns have less complexity and are less bright. For example, a specimen may have only one stripe and two spots on the abdomen. The eye field is orange-brown and the pedipalps are brown-yellow. The epigyne has a flat plate with widely separated lateral copulatory openings and a deep narrow pocket. Although it is similar to Stenaelurillus furcatus, it can be distinguished by the narrowness of the epigyne pocket and the way that the insemination ducts are spaced apart.
## Behaviour
The spider has primarily been found in sandy environments, but has been observed thriving in swamps and on plants. The species is a specialist hunter and preys on different types of termites, including members of the genera Macrotermes and Odontotermes. The spider also feeds on other prey like fruit flies and leafhoppers. The spider captures its prey by a process of grasping, holding, and injecting its captured prey with venom. It produces a specialised venom that is dedicated for its prey, unlike other species which produce more general-purpose venom. It shares a similar environment to Stenaelurillus modestus, but the two species do not seem to compete for food or space. Stenaelurillus guttiger has also been found foraging along with Habrocestum africanum and Langellurillus squamiger.
## Distribution
Stenaelurillus guttiger has one of the most extensive ranges of the genus, stretching across southern Africa. It was first identified in Makapansgat and Pretoria in South Africa. It has subsequently been found across the country, with examples coming from the provinces of Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West. It has been identified in Francistown, Botswana, initially from examples collected in 2006, as well as in Manicaland and Tsholotsho in Zimbabwe. It has also been found in Manica, Mozambique. The holotype is from Ndumo Game Reserve in KwaZulu-Natal.
|
359,129 |
Azusa Street Revival
| 1,154,939,892 |
Historic Pentecostal revival meeting
|
[
"1900s in California",
"1906 establishments in California",
"1906 in California",
"1910s in California",
"African Methodist Episcopal Church",
"African-American history in Los Angeles",
"Christian organizations established in 1906",
"Christian revivals",
"Pentecostalism in California"
] |
The Azusa Street Revival was a historic series of revival meetings that took place in Los Angeles, California. It was led by William J. Seymour, an African-American preacher. The revival began on April 9, 1906, and continued until roughly 1915.
On the night of April 9, 1906, Seymour and seven men were waiting on God on Bonnie Brae Street, "when suddenly, as though hit by a bolt of lightning, they were knocked from their chairs to the floor," and the other seven men began to speak in tongues and shout out loud praising God. The news quickly spread; the city was stirred; crowds gathered; services were moved outside to accommodate the crowds who came from all around; people fell down as they approached, and attributed it to God; people were baptized in the Holy Spirit and the sick were said to be healed.
The testimony of those who attended the Azusa Street Revival was "I am saved, sanctified, and filled with the Holy Ghost" in reference to the three works of grace of Holiness Pentecostals, the original branch of Pentecostalism. To further accommodate the crowds, an old dilapidated, two-story frame building at 312 Azusa Street in the industrial section of the city was secured. This building, originally built for an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church, had more recently been used as a livery stable, storage building and tenement house. In this humble Azusa Street mission, a continuous three-year revival occurred and became known around the world. Stanley H. Frodsham, in his book, With Signs Following, quotes an eye-witness description of the scene: The revival was characterized by spiritual experiences accompanied with testimonies of physical healing miracles, worship services, and speaking in tongues. The participants were criticized by some secular media and Christian theologians for behaviors considered to be outrageous and unorthodox, especially at the time. Today, the revival is considered by historians to be the primary catalyst for the spread of Pentecostalism in the 20th century.
## Background
### Los Angeles
In 1905, William J. Seymour, the one-eyed 34-year-old son of freed slaves, was a student of well-known Pentecostal preacher Charles Parham and an interim pastor for a small holiness church in Topeka, Kansas. Seymour inherited from Parham the belief that baptism with the Holy Spirit was the third work of grace, following the new birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace). Neely Terry, an African American woman who attended a small holiness church pastored by Julia Hutchins in Los Angeles, made a trip to visit family in Houston late in 1905. While in Houston, she visited Seymour's church, where he preached on receiving the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in other tongues, and though he had not experienced this personally, Terry was impressed with his character and message. Once home in California, Terry suggested that Seymour be invited to speak at the local church. Seymour received and accepted the invitation in February 1906, and he received financial help and a blessing from Parham for his planned one-month visit.
Seymour arrived in Los Angeles on February 22, 1906, and within two days was preaching at Julia Hutchins' church at the corner of Ninth Street and Santa Fe Avenue. During his first sermon, he preached that speaking in tongues was the first biblical evidence of the inevitable infilling in the Holy Spirit. On the following Sunday, March 4, he returned to the church and found that Hutchins had padlocked the door. Elders of the church rejected Seymour's teaching, primarily because he had not yet experienced the blessing about which he was preaching. Condemnation of his message also came from the Holiness Church Association of Southern California with which the church had affiliation. However, not all members of Hutchins' church rejected Seymour's preaching. He was invited to stay in the home of congregation member Edward S. Lee, and he began to hold Bible studies and prayer meetings there.
### North Bonnie Brae Street
Seymour and his small group of new followers soon relocated to the home of Richard and Ruth Asberry at 216 North Bonnie Brae Street. White families from local holiness churches began to attend as well. The group would get together regularly and pray to receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit. On April 9, 1906, after five weeks of Seymour's preaching and prayer, and three days into an intended 10-day fast, Edward S. Lee spoke in tongues for the first time. At the next meeting, Seymour shared Lee's testimony and preached a sermon on Acts 2:4 and soon six others began to speak in tongues as well, including Jennie Moore, who would later become Seymour's wife. A few days later, on April 12, Seymour spoke in tongues for the first time after praying all night long.
News of the events at North Bonnie Brae St. quickly circulated among the African American, Latino and white residents of the city, and for several nights, various speakers would preach to the crowds of curious and interested onlookers from the front porch of the Asberry home. Members of the audience included people from a broad spectrum of income levels and religious backgrounds. Hutchins eventually spoke in tongues as her whole congregation began to attend the meetings. Soon the crowds became very large and were full of people speaking in tongues, shouting, singing and moaning. Finally, the front porch collapsed, forcing the group to begin looking for a new meeting place. A resident of the neighborhood described the happenings at 216 North Bonnie Brae with the following words:
> They shouted three days and three nights. It was Easter season. The people came from everywhere. By the next morning there was no way of getting near the house. As people came in they would fall under God's power; and the whole city was stirred. They shouted until the foundation of the house gave way, but no one was hurt.
## Azusa Street
### Conditions
The group from Bonnie Brae Street eventually discovered an available building at 312 Azusa Street () in downtown Los Angeles, which had originally been constructed as an African Methodist Episcopal Church in what was then an impoverished part of town. The rent was \$8.00 per month. A newspaper referred to the downtown Los Angeles building as a "tumble down shack". Since the church had moved out, the building had served as a wholesale house, a warehouse, a lumberyard, stockyards, a tombstone shop, and had most recently been used as a stable with rooms for rent upstairs. It was a small, rectangular, flat-roofed building, approximately 60 feet (18 m) long and 40 feet (12 m) wide, totaling 2,400 square feet (220 m<sup>2</sup>), sided with weathered whitewashed clapboards. The only sign that it had once been a house of God was a single Gothic-style window over the main entrance.
Discarded lumber and plaster littered the large, barn-like room on the ground floor. Nonetheless, it was secured and cleaned in preparation for services. They held their first meeting on April 14, 1906. Church services were held on the first floor where the benches were placed in a rectangular pattern. Some of the benches were simply planks put on top of empty nail kegs. There was no elevated platform, as the ceiling was only eight feet high. Initially there was no pulpit. Frank Bartleman, an early participant in the revival, recalled that "Brother Seymour generally sat behind two empty shoe boxes, one on top of the other. He usually kept his head inside the top one during the meeting, in prayer. There was no pride there.... In that old building, with its low rafters and bare floors..."
The second floor at the now-named Apostolic Faith Mission housed an office and rooms for several residents including Seymour and his new wife, Jennie. It also had a large prayer room to handle the overflow from the altar services below. The prayer room was furnished with chairs and benches made from California Redwood planks, laid end to end on backless chairs.
By mid-May 1906, anywhere from 300 to 1,500 people would attempt to fit into the building. Since horses had very recently been the residents of the building, flies constantly bothered the attendees. People from a diversity of backgrounds came together to worship: men, women, children, Black, White, Asian, Native American, immigrants, rich, poor, illiterate, and educated. People of all ages flocked to Los Angeles with both skepticism and a desire to participate. The intermingling of races and the group's encouragement of women in leadership was remarkable, as 1906 was the height of the "Jim Crow" era of racial segregation, and fourteen years prior to women receiving suffrage in the United States.
### Services and worship
Worship at 312 Azusa Street was frequent and spontaneous with services going almost around the clock. Among those attracted to the revival were not only members of the Holiness Movement, but also Baptists, Mennonites, Quakers, and Presbyterians. An observer at one of the services wrote these words:
> No instruments of music are used. None are needed. No choir- the angels have been heard by some in the spirit. No collections are taken. No bills have been posted to advertise the meetings. No church organization is back of it. All who are in touch with God realize as soon as they enter the meetings that the Holy Ghost is the leader.
The Los Angeles Times was not so kind in its description:
> Meetings are held in a tumble-down shack on Azusa Street, and the devotees of the weird doctrine practice the most fanatical rites, preach the wildest theories and work themselves into a state of mad excitement in their peculiar zeal. Colored people and a sprinkling of whites compose the congregation, and night is made hideous in the neighborhood by the howlings of the worshippers, who spend hours swaying forth and back in a nerve racking attitude of prayer and supplication. They claim to have the "gift of tongues" and be able to understand the babel.
The first edition of the Apostolic Faith publication claimed a common reaction to the revival from visitors:
> Proud, well-dressed preachers came to "investigate". Soon their high looks were replaced with wonder, then conviction comes, and very often you will find them in a short time wallowing on the dirty floor, asking God to forgive them and make them as little children.
Among first-hand accounts were reports of the blind having their sight restored, diseases cured instantly, and immigrants speaking in German, Yiddish, and Spanish all being spoken to in their native language by uneducated black members, who translated the languages into English by "supernatural ability".
Singing was sporadic and in a cappella or occasionally there would be singing in tongues. There were periods of extended silence. Attenders were occasionally slain in the Spirit. Visitors gave their testimony, and members read aloud testimonies that were sent to the mission by mail. There was prayer for the gift of tongues. There was prayer in tongues for the sick, for missionaries, and whatever requests were given by attenders or mailed in. There was spontaneous preaching and altar calls for salvation, sanctification and baptism of the Holy Spirit. Lawrence Catley, whose family attended the revival, said that in most services preaching consisted of Seymour opening a Bible and worshippers coming forward to preach or testify as they were led by the Holy Spirit. Many people would continually shout throughout the meetings. The members of the mission never took an offering, but there was a receptacle near the door for anyone who wanted to support the revival. The core membership of the Azusa Street Mission was never many more than 50–60 individuals, with hundreds if not thousands of people visiting or staying temporarily over the years.
### Charles Parham
By October 1906, Charles Parham was invited to speak for a series of meetings at Azusa Street but was quickly un-invited.
Arriving at Azusa Street, [Parham] recoiled in disgust at the racial intermingling. He was aghast that black people were not in their "place," and simply could not abide "white people imitating unintelligent, crude negroisms of the Southland, and laying it on the Holy Ghost." Parham made his way through the crowd, stood at the pulpit, and delivered a stinging rebuke: "God is sick at his stomach!" He proceeded to explain that God would not stand for such "animalism." When it was clear that the majority of the Azusa Street Mission would not accept Parham's leadership, Parham left with an estimated two to three hundred followers and opened a rival campaign at a nearby Women's Christian Temperance Union building.
### Criticism
In a skeptical front-page story titled "Weird Babel of Tongues", a Los Angeles Times reporter attempted to describe what would soon be known as the Azusa Street Revival. "Breathing strange utterances and mouthing a creed which it would seem no sane mortal could understand", the story began, "the newest religious sect has started in Los Angeles". Another local paper reporter in September 1906 described the happenings with the following words:
> disgraceful intermingling of the races...they cry and make howling noises all day and into the night. They run, jump, shake all over, shout to the top of their voice, spin around in circles, fall out on the sawdust blanketed floor jerking, kicking and rolling all over it. Some of them pass out and do not move for hours as though they were dead. These people appear to be mad, mentally deranged or under a spell. They claim to be filled with the spirit. They have a one eyed, illiterate, Negro as their preacher who stays on his knees much of the time with his head hidden between the wooden milk crates. He doesn't talk very much but at times he can be heard shouting, "Repent," and he's supposed to be running the thing... They repeatedly sing the same song, "The Comforter Has Come."
The attendees were often described as "Holy Rollers", "Holy Jumpers", "Tangled Tonguers" and "Holy Ghosters". Reports were published throughout the U.S. and the world of the strange happenings in Los Angeles.
Christians from many traditions were critical, saying the movement was hyper-emotional, misused Scripture and lost focus on Christ by overemphasizing the Holy Spirit. Within a short time ministers were warning their congregations to stay away from the Azusa Street Mission. Some called the police and tried to get the building shut down.
### Apostolic Faith publication
Also starting in September 1906 was the publication of the revival's own newsletter, the Apostolic Faith. Issues were published occasionally up until May 1908, mostly through the work of Seymour and a white woman named Clara Lum, a member of the Apostolic Faith Mission. The Apostolic Faith was distributed without charge, and thousands of laypersons and ministers received copies worldwide. Five thousand copies of the first edition were printed, and by 1907 the press run reached over 40,000.
The Apostolic Faith publication reported the happenings at the Azusa Street Mission to the world. Its first issue's lead story was titled "Pentecost has Come". It contained a letter from Charles Parham, an article on Pentecost from Acts, and a series of anecdotes of people's experience within the revival. One edition in 1907 wrote, "One token of the Lord's coming is that He is melting all races and nations together, and they are filled with the power and glory of God. He is baptizing by one spirit into one body and making up a people that will be ready to meet Him when He comes". The Apostolic Faith brought increasing attention to the happenings at Azusa Street and the fledgling movement that was emerging from the revival.
## Legacy
By 1913, the revival at Azusa Street had lost momentum, and most of the media attention and crowds had left by 1915. Seymour remained there with his wife, Jennie, for the rest of their lives as pastors of the small African American congregation, though he often made short trips to help establish other smaller revivals later in life. After Seymour died of a heart attack on September 28, 1922, Jennie led the church until 1931, when the congregation lost the building.
### Sending of missionaries
As The Apostolic Faith and many secular reports advertised the events of the Azusa Street Revival internationally, thousands of individuals visited the mission in order to witness it firsthand. At the same time, thousands of people were leaving Azusa Street with intentions of evangelizing abroad. Reverend K. E. M. Spooner visited the revival in 1909 and became one of the Pentecostal Holiness Church's most effective missionaries in Africa, working among the Tswana people of Botswana.
A. G. Garr and his wife were sent from Azusa Street as missionaries to Calcutta, India, where they managed to start a small revival. Speaking in tongues in India did not enable them to speak the native language, Bengali. The Garrs later traveled to China where they arrived in Hong Kong and began to spread Pentecostalism in mainland China. They did this by working through other Protestant churches and organizations that had already been established. Garr significantly contributed to early Pentecostalism through his later work in redefining the "biblical evidence" doctrine and changing the doctrine from a belief that speaking in tongues was explicitly for evangelism to a belief that speaking in tongues was a gift for "spiritual empowerment".
Missionary Bernt Bernsten traveled to the area from North China to investigate the happenings after hearing that the biblical prophecy of Acts 2:4 was being fulfilled. Other visitors left the revival to become missionaries in remote areas all over the world. So many missionaries went out from Azusa (some thirty-eight left in October 1906) that within two years the movement had spread to over fifty nations, including Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, Holland, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, South Africa, Hong Kong, China, Ceylon and India. Christian leaders visited from all over the world.
### Birth of Pentecostal movement
By the end of 1906, most leaders from Azusa Street had spun off to form other congregations, such as the Apostolic Faith Church, 51st Street Apostolic Faith Mission, the Spanish AFM, and the Italian Pentecostal Mission. These missions were largely composed of immigrant or ethnic groups. The Southeast United States was a particularly prolific area of growth for the movement, since Seymour's approach gave a useful explanation for a charismatic spiritual climate that had already been taking root in those areas. Other new missions were based on preachers who had charisma and energy. Nearly all of these new churches were founded among immigrants and the poor.
Many existing Wesleyan-holiness denominations adopted the Pentecostal message, such as the Church of God in Christ and the Pentecostal Holiness Church, and are now Holiness Pentecostal denominations. Holiness Pentecostals, such as the Apostolic Faith Church, affirm three works of grace: (1) New Birth, (2) entire sanctification, and (3) Baptism with the Holy Ghost. The formation of new denominations also occurred, motivated by doctrinal differences between Holiness Pentecostals and their Finished Work Pentecostal counterparts, such as the Assemblies of God formed in 1914 and the Pentecostal Church of God formed in 1919—these represent Finished Work Pentecostal denominations. An early doctrinal controversy led to a split between Trinitarian and Oneness Pentecostals, the latter founded the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World in 1916 and the United Pentecostal Church in 1945.
Today, there are more than 500 million Pentecostal and charismatic believers across the globe, and it is the fastest-growing form of Christianity today. The Azusa Street Revival is commonly regarded as the beginning of the modern-day Pentecostal Movement.
|
4,616,601 |
Thomas of Bosnia
| 1,150,655,514 |
Bosnian king
|
[
"1461 deaths",
"15th-century Bosnian people",
"15th-century births",
"Bosnia and Herzegovina Roman Catholics",
"Bosnian monarchs",
"Converts to Roman Catholicism from the Bosnian Church",
"Kings of Bosnia",
"Kotromanić dynasty",
"Roman Catholic monarchs",
"Year of birth uncertain",
"Year of birth unknown"
] |
Stephen Thomas (Serbo-Croatian: Stefan Tomaš/Стефан Томаш, Stjepan Tomaš/Стјепан Томаш; c. 1411 – July 1461), a member of the House of Kotromanić, reigned from 1443 until his death as the penultimate king of Bosnia.
An illegitimate son of King Ostoja, Thomas succeeded King Tvrtko II, but his accession was not recognized by the leading magnate of the Kingdom of Bosnia, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. The two engaged in a civil war which ended when the King repudiated his wife, Vojača, and married the insubordinate nobleman's daughter, Catherine. Thomas and his second wife, both raised in the Bosnian Church tradition, converted to Roman Catholicism and sponsored construction of churches and monasteries throughout the kingdom.
Throughout his reign, Thomas waged a war with the Serbian Despotate over the lucrative mining town of Srebrenica and its surroundings, in addition to (or in conjunction with) multiple conflicts with his father-in-law. Moreover, he had a tense relationship with the menacing Ottoman Empire. After years of skirmishes and raids, Thomas appeared willing to lead the Christian coalition against the Turks, but received no assistance from fellow Christian rulers. Having failed to expand into Croatia proper, Thomas turned again to the east in 1458, arranging a match between his son Stephen and the Serbian heiress Helena. Bosnian control over the remnants of the Serbian Despotate lasted merely a month before the Ottoman conquest of the state. King Thomas' failure to defend Serbia permanently damaged his reputation in Europe. Wishing to improve his image among Europe's Catholics, Thomas turned against the Bosnian Church, thus becoming the first ruler of Bosnia to engage in religious persecution.
Thomas' sometime contradictory traits earned him both admiration and scorn from his contemporaries. His son Stephen succeeded him, and immediately proved more apt at dealing with the challenges of the time.
## Background
Thomas was the son of King Ostoja, who died in 1418, and his mistress, whose name is not recorded. He was a doubly adulterine child, as both his father and mother were married at the time of his birth. Thomas was raised as a member of the Bosnian Church, to which his parents adhered. Tvrtko II deposed Stephen Ostojić, Ostoja's only known legitimate child and successor, in 1421. Thomas' illegitimate older brother, Radivoj, unsuccessfully contested Tvrtko's rule with the help of the Ottoman Turks and the Kosača family, the leading magnates of the Kingdom of Bosnia.
The narrative sources refer to Thomas (as well as his father and brother) as a Kristić, which is thought to be the name of a cadet branch of the Kotromanić dynasty. Thomas was thus closely related to Tvrtko II, likely his first cousin.
Avoiding the limelight during the reign of Tvrtko II, Thomas lived with a commoner named Vojača and their children. He was loyal to King Tvrtko, and together the two took part in a skirmish in Usora, where Thomas was wounded. His loyalty likely influenced the childless and ailing King to ensure his succession; Thomas was certainly preferable to his brother Radivoj, whom Tvrtko detested. Count Hermann II of Celje, a descendant of the Kotromanić family once designated as heir presumptive, had died in 1435.
## Accession to coronation
Tvrtko II died in November 1443. The Stanak approved his choice of heir, and Thomas was duly elected king by 5 December. Like his predecessors, he added the royal name Stephen to his own. However, the kingdom's most powerful magnate, Grand Duke Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, refused to accept Thomas as king, and announced his support for Radivoj. The authorities of the neighbouring Republic of Ragusa immediately expressed concern about the situation. Kosača and Radivoj appealed to Ragusa not to recognize Thomas as king, but to no avail. Simultaneously, Hermann's grandson Ulrich II pressed his claim to the Bosnian throne and tried to gather support among Thomas's opponents. Because of this, Thomas hastened to send word of his accession to foreign rulers, including the German king Frederick IV, Ulrich's rival, and Ragusan and Venetian authorities, hoping to receive recognition. Ulrich was occupied with the feud waged against him by Frederick, as well as with the succession struggle in Hungary, where he had taken side with his cousin, queen dowager Elizabeth of Luxembourg and her infant son Ladislaus against the reigning monarch Vladislav I, leaving Thomas ample space of maneuver.
### Succession war
King Thomas acted resolutely to strengthen his position. In January 1444, he penetrated the Bosnian-held region of Zachlumia, ruled by the Kosačas. Kosača's nephew Ivaniš Pavlović accompanied him, and the Radivojević family, the discontented vassals of the Kosačas, joined them upon their arrival. The party soon took Drijeva, thus restoring the important customs town to the royal domain for the first time in three decades. Pressed by his simultaneous war with Venice, and receiving no help from the Ottoman Turks, Kosača agreed to a truce in March. Both sides hoped to buy time to regain strength for future clashes. King Thomas tried to exact the promise of help from Venice in the event of a Hungarian offensive against him, even offering 25-year-long control over some of his towns and mines to the Republic in return. However, throughout May successful negotiations with Hungary rendered this cession unnecessary. János Hunyadi's intercession with King Vladislaus I led to Hungarian recognition of Thomas in June, for which the grateful King of Bosnia promised Hunyadi free passage, shelter, an annual income and assistance in any matter. Thus, by summer, Thomas had secured his grip on the throne.
In July 1444, the Hungarian king informed Thomas of his intention to break the truce with the Ottomans. King Thomas decided to make the best of his membership in the Christian coalition. In May he had already conquered the lucrative silver mining town of Srebrenica, taken by the Ottomans from the Serbian Despotate, which in turn had taken it from Bosnia. He now decided to resume his war against the rebellious Kosača, an Ottoman tributary. The Turks were now ready to assist the Duke and broke into Bosnia, forcing the King to flee from Kozograd to Bobovac, and enabling Kosača to reverse all his losses. In August, the Ottomans restored Serbia to Đurađ Branković, who allied with Kosača against King Thomas. The destruction of the Hungarian army in November 1444 at the Battle of Varna, where King Vladislaus himself perished, left Thomas vulnerable. Forced again to rely solely on Venice, Thomas repeated his earlier offer, but the Republic declined and made peace with Kosača. In April 1445, Thomas lost Srebrenica and the entire Drina Valley to Branković. Ivaniš Pavlović came to his aid again, and the two advanced towards Pomorje. Thomas retook Drijeva, but his advance was suddenly halted, perhaps by another Turkish incursion or a truce. Hostilities finally ended in September.
### Conversion and marriage
Having failed to strengthen royal authority by force, King Thomas decided to seek another way to pacify the kingdom. A rapprochement with Kosača via marriage with his daughter Catherine was probably already envisaged in 1445, when Thomas improved relations with the Holy See in order to be cleared of the "stain of illegitimacy" as well as to receive an annulment of his union with Vojača. Pope Eugene IV responded affirmatively on 29 May. By that time, Thomas appears to have decided to join the Roman Catholic Church. Negotiations with Kosača intensified in the beginning of 1446. King Thomas was then finally converted from Bosnian Christianity to Roman Catholicism by Tommaso Tommasini, Bishop of Lesina; however, Cardinal Juan Carvajal only performed the baptism in 1457.
Thomas' intention to marry Kosača's daughter Catherine was made known in April, their lands and borders reverting to status quo ante bellum. The prospective bride, a Bosnian Christian, also had to convert to Catholicism for the marriage to proceed. These developments angered Ivaniš Pavlović and Petar Vojsalić, another vassal, but in the end no conflict with them took place. Elaborate festivities marked the royal wedding in mid-May in Milodraž, conducted by Catholic rite, followed by the couple's coronation in Mile. For the first time, a crown was sent from Rome to be placed on the head of a Bosnian king. The Bishop of Feltre and papal legate to Bosnia, another Tommaso Tommasini, fetched the crown from the Cathedral of Saint Domnius in Spalato in July, but it never reached Thomas.
As it facilitated alliances with Western rulers and came along with Western cultural influences (in art, architecture, music and fashion) that penetrated Bosnia, Roman Catholicism became the preferable faith early in Thomas' reign. Many Bosnian noblemen followed the King's example in converting to Catholicism, but some soon returned to the Bosnian Church; Kosača wrote that he considered conversion, but never went through with it. Churches and Franciscan monasteries sprang up throughout Bosnia during Thomas' reign, some erected by the King himself. Despite his efforts to project an image of a good Catholic king, Thomas' religious policy was not initially so resolute. He continued honoring Bosnian Christians and their clergy as his predecessors had done, which led to disputes with local Franciscans. Pope Eugene agreed that, for political reasons, King Thomas had to tolerate heretics.
## Peak
Peace brought unusual stability to Bosnia as well as security to Thomas. He retook Srebrenica once again in the autumn of 1446, and eventually struck a short-lived compromise with Branković by which the two would share the town and its mining revenues. It was not to last, however. Unfounded rumour had it that Hungarian noblemen considered offering the Holy Crown of Hungary to him, which testified to his growing reputation. The Ottomans, who wanted to weaken Bosnia by encouraging internal division, were very displeased by the kingdom's stability. At the request of Đurađ Branković, the Turks broke into both King Thomas' personal lands, and those of his father-in-law, in March 1448, plundering and burning towns. Kosača, who now called himself "Herzog of Saint Sava", was thus forced to side with Branković against his son-in-law and king. In mid-September, Branković's brother-in-law Thomas Kantakouzenos, leading an army that included Kosača himself, soundly defeated King Thomas.
King Thomas reconquered Srebrenica again in February 1449, but hostilities continued until 1451, when the King made peace again with his insubordinate father-in-law. The dispute was even taken before the Diet of Hungary. To finance this incessant warfare, as well as to sustain the royal court, King Thomas engaged in vigorous commerce and made business deals with Dalmatian traders. He relied heavily on his silver mining, but profited most from his salt trade monopolies.
### In-laws' conflict
In 1451 when Kosača sought to improve his own economy through a war with the Republic of Ragusa, Thomas refused to join either side, but still interceded with Pope Nicholas V to prevent his father-in-law's excommunication. However, Ragusa persisted and promised to return the favor by helping Thomas take Drijeva from Kosača, and Hodidjed from the Turks. In the summer, Thomas was even approached by Kosača's family, namely the King's brother-in-law Vladislav and mother-in-law Jelena, who were gravely offended when the Duke took his son's charming Sienese bride as his concubine. In mid-December, Thomas finally agreed with Ragusa on a pact against his infamous father-in-law, but the war ended abruptly when Hungary and the Ottomans signed a truce which specifically forbade the latter's tributary to attack Ragusa.
Open rebellion against Stjepan Kosača broke out in March 1452. Vladislav, along with his mother and grandmother, raised an army and took control over most of his father's territory. Thomas, Vladislav's king and brother-in-law, answered his call for help and arrived with his army the following month. Ragusa also joined them. However, King Thomas proved reluctant to attack and soon went back north to ward off a Turkish incursion. Kosača seized the opportunity to enlist help from Venice, which took Drijeva from Vladislav, and to entice uprisings against the rebels themselves. Thomas returned, as he had promised, chasing the Venetians from Drijeva and easily defeating his brother-in-law's enemies. The coalition then suddenly fell apart when it became clear that Vladislav would not hand over parts of his patrimony that Thomas claimed as his due, namely Drijeva and Blagaj, which was the Kosača seat and the key to Zachlumia.
New conflict emerged in 1453 upon the death of Petar Talovac, who had governed Croatia proper as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king. Both Thomas and his recently widowed father-in-law wished to gain control of Talovac's allodial land by offering marriage to his widow, Hedwig Garai; Kosača proposed himself, while Thomas suggested his son Stephen. Kosača invited Turks to Bosnia in autumn, but neither prevailed as Venice moved in to protect Talovac's heirs. They then made peace, realizing that the Ottomans, who had just stunned Europe by conquering Constantinople, would soon be at their gates as well. Another concern was the end of regency for the hitherto underage Hungarian king Ladislaus the Posthumous, which decreased the influence of Thomas' friend János Hunyadi, and led to the rise of Ulrich of Celje, who was supported by Kosača. After Ladislaus made Ulrich the new Ban of Croatia, the latter started seizing control of Croatian towns, which met strong opposition from Thomas. The Bosnian king feared that Ulrich would take Talovac's land and have his territory border Kosača's. Not wishing to break peace with his father-in-law yet again, the King turned to Venice for help.
### Christian coalition
The Holy See put King Thomas under its protection in 1455, and promised that he would be given back the lands taken by Turks and his treacherous magnates if the Christians defeated the Ottomans. In 1456, Thomas sent a letter to Pope Callixtus III asking him to find a bride for his son Stephen, hoping that the Holy See would provide him with a daughter-in-law of royal blood. Preparations were under way for another Ottoman attack on Hungary in the beginning of that year. Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottoman sultan, issued unusual demands to the King of Bosnia and his nobles, the Kosačas and the Pavlović family. He asked Thomas to send 10,000 loads of food, his father-in-law 8,000 and Petar Pavlović 4,000. Mehmed also demanded that they commit their troops and personally take part in the war on the Ottoman side. He also requested from Thomas the cession of four towns: two in the middle of Bosnia and two bordering Hungary and Venetian Dalmatia. This was all refused.
By now Thomas suspected that Mehmed also intended to conquer his kingdom. Therefore, he started taking more interest in a Christian coalition against the Turks, and cooperating more closely with his father-in-law. The lack of a firmer action against the Ottomans was blamed on Bosnian Christians, whom he described as being more inclined towards the Muslims than towards other Christians. The heavy Ottoman defeat by Hungarians at the Battle of Belgrade in July 1456 did nothing to alleviate Thomas' situation, as Mehmed started exerting an even greater pressure on Bosnia. In addition to financial extortion, Thomas was now forbidden to export silver, which Mehmed claimed for himself. This severe crippling of the Bosnian economy suffocated the kingdom.
The situation in Hungary took a sharp turn for the worse immediately after the celebrated victory over the Turks. The victorious commanders, including János Hunyadi, died of plague, Ulrich of Celje was murdered, and even the young King Ladislaus died suddenly the following year. The aged Đurađ Branković also died, his despotate passing to his son Lazar. Realizing that Hungary was drastically weakened, and that he had crossed the point of no return by refusing the Sultan's demands, Thomas decided to step forward to head the Christian coalition. In August 1456, Ragusa received an information from the King in the utmost secrecy: he was intent on declaring war on the Turks. He was far from capable of succeeding, and even suffered a Turkish raid in the beginning of 1457.
Pope Callixtus III took King Thomas very seriously: he ordered that the King of Bosnia be handed the Crusaders' cross, the papal flag and the crusading fund, marking him as the leader of the coalition in July 1457. However, Thomas relied not on his own dubious strength, but on the assistance of Western rulers. His emissaries to King Alfonso V of Aragon, Doge Francesco Foscari of Venice, Duke Francesco I Sforza of Milan, and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy all reported refusals of help. Cardinal Carvajal was sent to Bosnia to meet with King Thomas. Cardinal Giovanni Castiglione sceptically wrote that Carvajal would have been better off if he had stayed in Buda. Indeed, Carvajal found Thomas ill-equipped to deal with the enemy. The Pope became disillusioned with him, and transferred the leadership of the Christian coalition to the Albanian lord Skanderbeg.
## Fall into disrepute
### Expansion efforts
The ultimately failed crusading efforts did not preclude Thomas from seeking expansion. The death of the heirless Ulrich of Celje reopened the possibility of seizing Talovac lands, but his father-in-law moved more quickly, leading to a new brief cooling in their relations. However, in January 1458 a new opportunity arose on Bosnia's eastern border. The turmoil that followed the death of Lazar Branković enabled Thomas to retake the formerly Bosnian part of the Drina River valley, conquered by Lazar's father in the preceding decade, as well as to expand into its right bank. Thomas captured a total of eleven towns, keeping Srebrenica, Zvornik and Teočak for himself, and distributing the rest among the local nobility who swore fealty to him. He then turned his attention back to Croatia. He suggested to Venice that since the Hungarians had not yet appointed a new ban of Croatia, he and the Republic should split the banate among themselves. In June, he warned Venice that the new Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, Hunyadi's son, would not be a good neighbour to either Bosnia or Venice if he took hold of Croatia.
A large Turkish raid in February 1458 forced Thomas to sign a truce, despite his earlier crusading vows, but Mehmed no longer insisted on the cession of the four towns; he intended to conquer Serbia instead. At that time, King Thomas dropped the plan of having his son marry an illegitimate daughter of Francesco Sforza; the match with a bastard daughter of a duke was far beneath the King's expectations for Stephen. Instead, he successfully negotiated with Lazar's widow, the Byzantine princess Helena Palaiologina, about a marriage between Stephen and her oldest daughter, Helena. That way Thomas procured not only a daughter-in-law of imperial blood, but also found a way to extend the Kotromanić rule to the Despotate of Serbia, now reduced to the Smederevo Fortress and its surroundings, as Lazar had left no sons.
Thomas sent word of the plans to King Matthias, his feudal overlord, in October. In early December, Thomas himself went to meet Matthias at a diet in Szeged. Matthias was thrilled and urged Thomas to send his son as soon as possible. During Thomas' long absence, Turks broke into Bosnia and besieged Bobovac and Vranduk, but his son Stephen and brother Radivoj escaped. Thomas returned to Bosnia in mid-January 1459 and took up the fight against the attackers, even trying to eject them from Hodidjed. In mid-April, he raided the outskirts of Hodidjed and besieged the fort.
Meanwhile, Thomas' son had married Lazar's daughter and taken possession of Smederevo. Thomas boasted about his son being made despot, but the arrangement was cut short by the arrival of Mehmed at the head of a vast force before the walls of Smederevo. Terrified, Thomas' son and brother agreed to surrender the town and fortress on 20 June in exchange for safe conduct. Thomas and Radivoj were bitterly reproached by the Hungarian king. Matthias told all Europe that Thomas had sold the fortress of paramount importance to the enemy. Thomas took great pains to clear his name, explaining to Pope Pius II that Smederevo could not have been defended. The King sent a delegation to the Council of Mantua in July, promising to do his best to hold the Turks back and begging for help. The only ruler to provide assistance to Thomas was Bianca Maria Visconti, Duchess of Milan, who sent 300 men via Ancona.
### Religious persecution
Unlike in other Balkan states of the time, the politics of Bosnia were not dominated by religion, and its rulers as well as the common people were entirely indifferent to the religious beliefs of others. However, this changed in 1459 when the Ottoman threat became greater. Pope Pius II informed Thomas that he would not come to his aid as long as the Bosnian Church was tolerated. Thomas was anxious to appear as a good Catholic in the wake of Hungarian accusations of betraying the Christendom.
The decision Thomas took in 1459 made him the first Bosnian ruler to persecute people for their religious beliefs, a policy popes had long demanded by the Holy See. The Bosnian Church had been decimated by Catholic, and then even Orthodox, proselytization and its own low morale. Thomas' order that its clergy either convert or leave his domain was followed by confiscation of their considerable property, which probably helped him make the otherwise difficult decision. The persecution lasted almost two years. 12,000 people were forcefully converted, while forty members of the clergy fled to his father-in-law's domain. In 1461, he sent three men accused of heresy to be questioned by Cardinal Juan de Torquemada in Rome. The Bosnian Church was thus all but annihilated by King Thomas.
The persecution did little to restore Thomas' reputation in Catholic Europe. When possession of the formerly Talovac-held Čačvina Castle caused another feud with his father-in-law in 1459, Kosača accused him of having invited the Turks who plundered his land. The accusation reached Pope Pius, who ordered that the King be excommunicated if such a grave offense against Christian interests were proven. Though Thomas probably did invite the Turkish raiders, the excommunication never took place.
## Last years
The fall of Serbia meant that the eastern border of Thomas' realm was now the bulwark of Christendom. However, Bosnia was not Mehmed's priority. Thomas was forced to surrender northeastern Bosnia, namely Usora, Srebrenica, Zvornik and Teočak, in early 1460, allowing the Turks to cross the Sava to the Hungarian regions of Slavonia and Syrmia. Both Thomas and his father-in-law were aware that the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia was inevitable. They continued to seek foreign assistance, but were also preparing for a life in exile. However, this prospect did not help them settle their differences and put up a more effective defence.
Thomas, still estranged from his in-laws, fell ill in June 1461 and requested a physician from Ragusa. He died in July, aged around 50. He was buried in the royal mausoleum in Bobovac.
The circumstances of his death are unclear. Rumours circulated, first recorded by a gunsmith from Nuremberg, that the King's death was not natural. Specifically, it was said that his brother Radivoj and son Stephen had conspired against him. Later narratives also involved Mehmed and Matthias in the plot, with the Hungarian king as the mastermind. These rumours are generally dismissed by historians. Stephen succeeded him, to the benefit of the doomed kingdom, as the ruptures between the monarch and his nobles were finally healed.
## Personality and legacy
Thomas was a man of many contradictions. His good looks and noble comportment greatly impressed his contemporaries. The Italian condottiero Gaspare Broglio da Lavello (son of Angelo Tartaglia), whom he met in 1452, wrote that he had never met a prince more refined and dignified, surpassing even the intellectual humanist Federico da Montefeltro, Broglio's idol. At the same time, Thomas' inconstancy and lack of courage inspired disdain. He was capable of both great generosity and pettiness. Fickleness damaged his reputation abroad, while religious persecution and forced conversions caused disapproval at home; he was cursed in the early years of the Ottoman rule for robbing the indigenous Bosnian Church of its property.
Thomas' union with Vojača produced at least four children: Stephen (who succeeded him), a son who died as a child during a pilgrimage to Meleda, a daughter who married a Hungarian nobleman in 1451, and another daughter who married in 1451. With Catherine, who outlived both him and his kingdom, Thomas had a son named Sigismund in 1449 and a daughter named Catherine in 1453.
## Family tree
|
16,201,699 |
1978 European Super Cup
| 1,136,940,368 | null |
[
"1970s in Brussels",
"1970s in Liverpool",
"1978–79 in Belgian football",
"1978–79 in English football",
"1978–79 in European football",
"December 1978 sports events in Europe",
"International club association football competitions hosted by Belgium",
"International club association football competitions hosted by England",
"International sports competitions in Liverpool",
"Liverpool F.C. matches",
"R.S.C. Anderlecht matches",
"Sports competitions in Brussels",
"UEFA Super Cup"
] |
The 1978 European Super Cup was a football match played over two legs between Liverpool of England and Anderlecht of Belgium. The first leg was played at the Emile Versé Stadium, Brussels on 4 December 1978 and the second leg was played on 19 December 1978 at Anfield, Liverpool. It was the annual European Super Cup contested between the winners of the European Cup and the European Cup Winners' Cup. Liverpool were the reigning champions, while Anderlecht were appearing in the competition for the second time after winning the 1976 edition.
The teams qualified for the competition by winning the European Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup. Anderlecht won the 1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup beating Austrian team Austria Wien 4–0 in the final. Liverpool qualified by winning the 1977–78 European Cup. They beat Belgian team Club Brugge 1–0 in the final.
Watched by a crowd of 35,000 at the Emile Versé Stadium, Anderlecht took an early lead in the first half of the first leg when Franky Vercauteren and François Van der Elst scored. Liverpool midfielder Jimmy Case scored in between the Anderlecht goals. Anderlecht extended their lead in the second half courtesy of a Rob Rensenbrink goal to secure a 3–1 victory. A crowd of 23,598 saw Liverpool take the lead in the second leg at Anfield, when Emlyn Hughes scored. Anderlecht equalised in the second half when Van der Elst scored. A late goal by David Fairclough meant Liverpool won the second leg 2–1. Thus, Anderlecht won the tie 4–3 on aggregate to secure their second Super Cup triumph.
## Background
The European Super Cup was founded in the early 1970s, as a means to determine the best team in Europe and serve as a challenge to Ajax, the strongest club side of its day. The proposal by Dutch journalist Anton Witkamp, a football match between the holders of the European Cup and Cup Winners' Cup, failed to receive UEFA's backing, given the recent Cup Winners' Cup winners Rangers had been banned from European competition. Witkamp nonetheless proceeded with his vision, a two-legged match played between Ajax and Rangers in January 1973. The competition was endorsed and recognised by UEFA a year later.
Anderlecht qualified for the Super Cup by winning the 1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup. They beat Austrian team Austria Wien 4–0 in the final. The result meant Anderlecht won the competition for the second time after the first victory in 1976. Anderlecht were appearing in the competition for the second time after they won the 1976 edition.
Liverpool qualified for the competition as winners of the 1977–78 European Cup. They defeated Belgian team Club Brugge 1–0 in the 1978 to win the European Cup for the second consecutive season. They were the current holders of the Super Cup after beating German team Hamburger SV in the previous season's competition.
Both teams had exited the respective European competitions they were competing in before the competition. Anderlecht were eliminated in the second round of the 1978–79 European Cup Winners' Cup by eventual winners Barcelona. Anderlecht won the first leg 3–0, but a 3–0 victory by Barcelona in the second leg meant the tie went to extra-time and a subsequent penalty shootout, which they lost 4–1. Liverpool were competing in the 1978–79 European Cup and were eliminated in the first round by the eventual winners Nottingham Forest of England in the first round. Forest won the first leg 2–0 and a 0–0 draw in the second leg saw them progress at Liverpool's expense.
## First leg
### Summary
The first leg was held at the Emile Versé Stadium, the home ground of Anderlecht. It was the home side that opened the scoring in the 17th minute. Striker Rob Rensenbrink advanced down the right-hand side of the pitch and passed the ball across the Liverpool penalty area towards midfielder Franky Vercauteren who headed the ball into the Liverpool goal. Five minutes later, Anderlecht came close to extending their lead, but Benny Nielsen's shot was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence. Liverpool started to exert themselves upon the match following this and equalised in the 27th minute when midfielder Jimmy Case scored from the edge of the Anderlecht penalty area. Five minutes before half-time Anderlecht extended their lead. Defender François Van der Elst found space in the Liverpool defence and his shot beat Clemence in the Liverpool goal to give Anderlecht a 2–1 lead. Anderlecht defender Jean Thissen was shown a yellow card before the end of the half for a late tackle on Liverpool striker Kenny Dalglish.
Anderlecht began the second half the better of the two sides as they pushed forward in an attempt to extend their lead. Rensenbrink, in particular, was in good form as he caused numerous problems for Liverpool defender Emlyn Hughes, who started because of an injury to Phil Thompson after being absent himself for a lengthy period. Liverpool replaced David Johnson with midfielder Steve Heighway in an attempt to get back into the match but it was to no avail as Anderlecht extended their lead late in the second half when Rensenbrink scored. No further goals were scored and the referee Károly Palotai blew for full-time with the final score 3–1 to Anderlecht.
Liverpool manager Bob Paisley was critical of his team's performance in the first leg: "We threw it away, our attitude was wrong and we were careless. Anderlecht are a great team going forward, but we never attacked them as we should. Our approach seems to have gone a bit wrong and we've lost our scoring touch where earlier in the season our finishing was great."
### Details
## Second leg
### Summary
Anderlecht's 3–1 victory in the first leg meant that Liverpool needed to score two goals to force the tie into extra-time. Despite heavy fog at Anfield, the match went ahead and Liverpool opened the scoring in the 13th minute. A shot by midfielder Jimmy Case was saved by Anderlecht goalkeeper Nico de Bree, but the ball rebounded to Emlyn Hughes who scored to give Liverpool a 1–0 lead. Following the goal, the Liverpool fans chanted "Oggy, Oggy tell us who scored" towards goalkeeper Ogrizovic, as the heavy fog made it difficult to identify players. Ogrizovic made a number of vital saves to keep Liverpool's hopes alive, saving from François Van der Elst and Rob Rensenbrink.
Liverpool continued to attack to try to score the goal they needed to level the tie, but they were unable to do so with chances not being converted, including a shot by Kenny Dalglish, which was saved by de Bree. Liverpool were made to pay for their missed chances in the 71st minute when Van der Elst scored. A series of passes between him and Rensenbrink saw him in space in the Liverpool penalty area and his shot went into the Liverpool goal to level the score at 1–1 and extend Anderlecht's lead in the tie to 4–2. Liverpool scored in the 87th minute when a pass by defender Phil Thompson was headed down by Dalglish to substitute David Fairclough who scored to make the score 2–1. However, Liverpool were unable to find the third goal they needed to send the match into extra time. Thus, despite losing the match 2–1, Anderlecht won the Super Cup 4–3 on aggregate to become the first club to win the Super Cup for the second time.
Following the match, referee Nicolae Rainea explained his decision to play the match despite heavy fog: "When I went out there before kick-off I decided I could see well enough and so I decided to play. I am afraid many spectators would not get a very clear view but there was no time I had any thoughts of abandoning the game." Liverpool manager Bob Paisley was critical of the decision to play the match: "You can't play football in conditions like that, it's ridiculous." Paisley suggested the competition should be played in April when the weather was better: "I think a match like this, between two leading team should be played in better weather, say in April. I know it's difficult, but it's farcical when good players like these have to slither about in fog and can't see each other."
### Details
## Post-match
Anderlecht finished the 1978–79 Belgian First Division in second place, four points behind champions Beveren. Thus, they would compete in the 1979–80 UEFA Cup. Liverpool finished the 1978–79 First Division in first place, eight points clear of second-placed Nottingham Forest. Their domestic championship triumph meant they would compete in the European Cup the following season.
## See also
- Liverpool F.C. in European football
- R.S.C. Anderlecht in European football
|
51,425,356 |
Écoute (song)
| 1,153,285,876 | null |
[
"2016 singles",
"2016 songs",
"Alexandra Stan songs",
"Dance-pop songs",
"English-language Romanian songs",
"French-language songs"
] |
"Écoute" (French: "Listen") is a song by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her third studio album, Alesta (2016). Featuring the vocal collaboration of Romanian band Havana, it was sent to Italian radio stations on 1 July 2016 by Ego Music. The lyrics of the recording were written in both English and French by Nadir Tamuz, Alexandra Ţîrţîrău, Sorin Seniuc and Vanotek, with the track being produced by Luigi Enciu. "Ecoute" is a dance song, which incorporates tropical beats and oriental sounds in its instrumentation. According to Stan, the songwriting is based on the theme of limitless and unconditional love.
An accompanying music video for the single was uploaded onto Stan's YouTube channel on 31 May 2016, having surpassed the 10 million views limit the singer set to release a home video for her subsequent single, "Boom Pow" (2016). The visual—portraying Stan performing in front of a snowy landscape—was filmed in March 2016 by Khaled Mokhtar on the top of mountain square Transalpina at −15 °C, near locality Obârșia-Brezoi. Music critics were positive towards the track, comparing Stan's vocals to those of Inna and Fly Project on "Bad Boys" (2015) and "Jolie" (2016), respectively, but also praising it for being bilingual. "Écoute" charted within the top twenty in Romania and Poland's Dance Chart.
## Composition
"Écoute" was written by Nadir Tamuz, Alexandra Ţîrţîrău, Sorin Seniuc and Vanotek while being solely produced by Luigi Enciu. Lasting three minutes and sixteen seconds, it is a dance song which musically incorporates tropical beats, oriental elements and violins in its instrumentation. The recording commences with a calm rhythm, and develops in crescendo until the chorus is played. "Écoute" features lyrics written in both English and French, which—according to Stan—delve on "pure love, without barriers, which does not limit you". While Havana provides guest vocals for the track's second verse, Stan's "sexy" vocals in the song were compared by French website Aficia's Valentin Malfroy to those of Romanian singer Inna's on "Bad Boys" (2015) and Romanian band Fly Project's on "Jolie" (2016), with the publication further labeling its lyrics "effective without being complicated". Jonathan Currinn, writing in Outlet Magazine, felt that their vocals "harmonize perfectly giving so much fire that the icy backdrop [from the music video] melts away."
## Reception
Upon its release, "Écoute" was acclaimed by music critic Olivio Umberto. Writing for Italian publication RnB Junk, he praised the song for bringing "high-quality dance [music] in European discos", additionally feeling that it was "very desirable for Europe". He concluded, "The English language only serves to capture the listener's attention, since it concerns a very restricted part of the track." Commercially, the recording debuted at number seventy-eight on the Romanian Airplay 100 on 26 June 2016, gradually climbing to number sixteen on 21 August 2016, eventually claiming the place for the next two weeks before reaching its peak position at number fourteen on 11 September 2016. "Écoute" further charted at number eleven on Poland's Dance Chart.
## Promotion
Stan performed "Écoute" during various concerts that promoted the release of her album Alesta in Japan and Europe. Accompanied by Havana and a violinist, the singer has also sung the recording in a stripped-down version for Romanian radio stations Kiss FM, Pro FM and Radio 21 on 3 June 7 and 28 June 2016, respectively.
`An accompanying music video for the single was uploaded onto Stan's YouTube channel on 31 May 2016; it has surpassed the 10 million views limit the singer set to release a home video for her subsequent single, "Boom Pow" (2016). The visual was filmed in March 2016 by Khaled Mokhtar on the Transalpina mountain square near Romanian locality Obârșia-Brezoi, where Stan used to go with her family in her childhood. The clip was shot at −15 ̊C on the top of the square, where the entire producing team was brought to with a ratrak. For the shooting, they transformed the refuge of Transalpina Ski Resort's mountain rescuers in a make-up and dressing room.`
The visual opens with Stan moving out her jacket, while wearing a blonde wig. Subsequently, a mountain is presented, following which the singer is portrayed with a husky dog in front of a snowy landscape, sporting a white hoodie. Following this, footage with two horses running free is shown, with her tossing her hair in a similar way to the animals' shakes. Over the rest of the music video, Stan further performs to the song, while band Havana make a cameo appearance and are seen in several scenes interspersed through the clip.
Website Aficia confessed that the visual's "snowy landscapes give a winter dimension to the title, in opposition to the heat it could bring." While Info Music claimed that the husky and the white horse used for the music video were metaphors for purity and the singer's personality, respectively, Jonathan Currinn of Outlet Magazine explained that they add "perfect imagery into the clip". Olivio Umberto from RnB Junk was positive towards the visual, with him feeling that "the look, the scenery and clothing present Alexandra in all her beauty and sensuality, but always preserve a class of aura, without ever even getting close to vulgarity."
## Track listing
- Russian digital download
1. Écoute (featuring Havana) – 3:16
2. Écoute (featuring Havana) (Extended version) – 4:28
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the official music video.
Technical and composing credits
- Luigi Enciu – producer
- Nadir Tamuz – composer
- Alexandra Ţîrţîrău – composer
- Sergiu Musteaţă – mixing, mastering
- Sorin Seniuc – composer
- Vanotek – composer
Vocal credits
- Alexandra Stan – lead vocals
- Havana − featured artist
Visual credits
- Khaled Mokhtar – director
## Charts
## Release history
|
97,905 |
Lake Vostok
| 1,162,320,172 |
Antarctica's largest known subglacial lake
|
[
"2011 in Antarctica",
"2012 in Antarctica",
"2013 in Antarctica",
"Ancient lakes",
"Extreme points of Russia",
"Lakes of Antarctica",
"Lakes of Princess Elizabeth Land",
"Rift lakes",
"Russia and the Antarctic",
"Subglacial lakes"
] |
Lake Vostok (Russian: озеро Восток, ozero Vostok) is the largest of Antarctica's almost 400 known subglacial lakes. Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold, beneath Russia's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which is at 3,488 m (11,444 ft) above mean sea level. The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4,000 m (13,100 ft) under the surface of the ice, which places it at approximately 500 m (1,600 ft) below sea level.
Measuring 250 km (160 mi) long by 50 km (30 mi) wide at its widest point, it covers an area of 12,500 km<sup>2</sup> (4,830 sq mi) making it the 16th largest lake by surface area. With an average depth of 432 m (1,417 ft), it has an estimated volume of 5,400 km<sup>3</sup> (1,300 cu mi), making it the 6th largest lake by volume.
The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge. The liquid water depth over the ridge is about 200 m (700 ft), compared to roughly 400 m (1,300 ft) deep in the northern basin and 800 m (2,600 ft) deep in the southern.
The lake is named after Vostok Station, which in turn is named after the Vostok (Восток), a sloop-of-war, which means "East" in Russian. The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet. The continued research by Russian and British scientists led to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake in 1993 by J. P. Ridley using ERS-1 laser altimetry.
The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400,000 years, although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years. On 5 February 2012, a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3,768 m (12,400 ft) and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake.
The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3,406 m (11,175 ft). However, as soon as the ice was pierced, water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole, mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing. A new borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015. The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom. It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake's liquid layer, a fossil water reserve. Because Lake Vostok may contain an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years, the conditions could resemble those of ice-covered oceans hypothesized to exist on Jupiter's moon Europa, and Saturn's moon Enceladus.
## Discovery
Russian scientist Peter Kropotkin first proposed the idea of fresh water under Antarctic ice sheets at the end of the 19th century. He theorized that the tremendous pressure exerted by the cumulative mass of thousands of vertical meters of ice could decrease the melting point at the lowest portions of the ice sheet to the point where the ice would become liquid water. Kropotkin's theory was further developed by Russian glaciologist I. A. Zotikov, who wrote his PhD thesis on this subject in 1967.
Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa used seismic soundings in the region of Vostok Station made during the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet. Kapitsa was the first to suggest the existence of a subglacial lake in the region, and the subsequent research confirmed his hypothesis.
When British scientists in Antarctica performed airborne ice-penetrating radar surveys in the early 1970s, they detected unusual radar readings at the site which suggested the presence of a liquid freshwater lake below the ice. In 1991, Jeff Ridley, a remote sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London, directed the ERS-1 satellite to turn its high-frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap. The data from ERS-1 confirmed the findings from the 1973 British surveys, but these new data were not published in the Journal of Glaciology until 1993. Space-based radar revealed that this subglacial body of fresh water is one of the largest lakes in the world, and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica. Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in by integrating a variety of data, including airborne ice-penetrating radar imaging observations and space-based radar altimetry, and the discovery of the lake was published in the science journal Nature on 20 June 1996. It has been confirmed that the lake contains large amounts of liquid water under the more than 3-kilometer-thick (1.9 mi) ice cap. The lake has at least 22 cavities of liquid water, averaging 10 kilometers (6 mi) each.
The station after which the lake is named commemorates the Vostok (Восток), the 900-ton sloop-of-war ship sailed by one of the discoverers of Antarctica, Russian explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen. Because the word Vostok means "East" in Russian, the names of the station and lake also reflect the fact that they are located in East Antarctica.
In 2005 an island was found in the central part of the lake. Then, in January 2006, the discovery of two nearby smaller lakes under the ice cap was published; they are named 90 Degrees East and Sovetskaya. It is suspected that these Antarctic subglacial lakes may be connected by a network of subglacial rivers. Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling glaciologists propose that many of the subglacial lakes of Antarctica are at least temporarily interconnected. Because of varying water pressure in individual lakes, large subsurface rivers may suddenly form and then force large amounts of water through the solid ice.
## Geological history
Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 million years ago, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the early Cretaceous (about 125 million years ago). About 66 million years ago, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with marsupial fauna and an extensive temperate rainforest.
The Lake Vostok basin is a small (50-kilometer-wide (31 mi)) tectonic feature within the overall setting of a several-hundred-kilometer-wide continental collision zone between the Gamburtsev Mountain Range, a subglacial mountain range and the Dome C region. The lake water is cradled on a bed of sediments 70 meters (230 ft) thick, offering the possibility that they contain a unique record of the climate and life in Antarctica before the ice cap formed.
## Traits
The lake water is estimated to have been sealed off under the thick ice sheet about 15 million years ago. Initially, it was thought that the same water had made up the lake since the time of its formation, giving a residence time in the order of one million years. Later research by Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University suggested that the water of the lake is continually freezing and being carried away by the motion of the Antarctic ice sheet, while being replaced by water melting from other parts of the ice sheet in these high pressure conditions. This resulted in an estimate that the entire volume of the lake is replaced every 13,300 years – its effective mean residence time.
The coldest naturally occurring temperature ever observed on Earth, −89 °C (−128 °F), was recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983. The average water temperature is calculated to be around −3 °C (27 °F); it remains liquid below the normal freezing point because of high pressure from the weight of the ice above it. Geothermal heat from the Earth's interior may warm the bottom of the lake, while the ice sheet itself insulates the lake from cold temperatures on the surface.
Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment, one that is expected to be supersaturated with nitrogen and oxygen, measuring 2.5 litres (0.088 cu ft) of nitrogen and oxygen per 1 kg (2.2 lb) of water, that is 50 times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth's surface. The sheer weight and pressure around 345 bars (5,000 psi) of the continental ice cap on top of Lake Vostok is estimated to contribute to the high gas concentration.
Besides dissolving in the water, oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate. In clathrate structures, gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would become unstable if brought to the surface.
In April 2005, German, Russian, and Japanese researchers found that the lake has tides. Depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon, the surface of the lake rises about 12 mm (0.47 in). The lake is under complete darkness, under 355 bar (5,150 psi) of pressure, and expected to be rich in oxygen, so there is speculation that any organisms inhabiting the lake could have evolved in a manner unique to this environment. There is a 1 microtesla magnetic anomaly on the east coast of the lake, spanning 105 by 75 km (65 by 47 mi). Researchers hypothesize that the anomaly may be caused by a thinning of the Earth's crust in that location.
Living Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus micro-organisms have been found in Lake Vostok's deep ice core drillings; they are an extant surface-dwelling species. This suggests the presence of a deep biosphere utilizing a geothermal system of the bedrock encircling the subglacial lake. There is optimism that microbial life in the lake may be possible despite high pressure, constant cold, low nutrient input, potentially high oxygen concentration and an absence of sunlight. Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Enceladus may also harbor lakes or oceans below a thick crust of ice. Any confirmation of life in Lake Vostok could strengthen the prospect for the presence of life on icy moons.
## Research
Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world's longest ice cores in 1998. A joint Russian, French, and United States team drilled and analyzed the core, which is 3,623 m (11,886 ft) long. Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been assessed to be as old as 420,000 years. The assumption is that the lake has been sealed from the surface since the ice sheet was formed 15 million years ago. Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 100 m (300 ft) above the suspected boundary between the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake. This was to prevent contamination of the lake with the 60-ton column of Freon and kerosene used to prevent the borehole from collapsing and freezing over.
From this core, specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet, extremophile microbes were found, suggesting that the lake water supports life. Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500,000 years ago.
In January 2011, the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition, Valery Lukin, announced that his team had only 50 m (200 ft) of ice left to drill in order to reach the water. The researchers then switched to a new thermal drill head with a "clean" silicone oil fluid to drill the rest of the way. Instead of drilling all the way into the water, they said they would stop just above it when a sensor on the thermal drill detected free water. At that point, the drill was to be stopped and extracted from the bore hole. Removal of the drill would lower the pressure beneath it, drawing water into the hole to be left to freeze, creating a plug of ice in the bottom of the hole. Drilling stopped on 5 February 2011 at a depth of 3,720 m (12,200 ft) so that the research team could make it off the ice before the beginning of the Antarctic winter season. The drilling team left by aircraft on 6 February 2011.
By plan, the following summer, the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it. The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012. The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later, they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble, France, for analysis.
### Biology results
#### United Kingdom and United States
Scientists first reported evidence of microbes in the accretion ice in 1999. Since then, a different team led by Scott O. Rogers has been identifying a variety of bacteria and fungi from accretion ice (not from the subglacial water layer) collected during U.S. drilling projects in the 1990s. According to him, this indicates that the lake below the ice is not sterile but contains a unique ecosystem. Then Scott Rogers published in July 2013 that his team performed nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) sequencing and the results allowed deduction of the metabolic pathways represented in the accretion ice and, by extension, in the lake. The team found 3,507 unique gene sequences, and approximately 94% of the sequences were from bacteria and 6% were from Eukarya. Taxonomic classifications (to genus and/or species) or identification were possible for 1,623 of the sequences. In general, the taxa were similar to organisms previously described from lakes, brackish water, marine environments, soil, glaciers, ice, lake sediments, deep-sea sediments, deep-sea thermal vents, animals and plants. Sequences from aerobic, anaerobic, psychrophilic, thermophilic, halophilic, alkaliphilic, acidophilic, desiccation-resistant, autotrophic, and heterotrophic organisms were present, including a number from multicellular eukaryotes.
In 2020, Colby Gura and Scott Rogers extended their study of Lake Vostok accretion ice, as well as the basal ice flowing into the lake. They found that the basal ice contained an almost completely different community of organisms compared to those found in the lake accretion ice, indicating that they signified two completely different ecosystems. Additional bacteria and eukaryotes were reported. The highest diversity of organisms in the lake ice was significantly associated (p\<0.05) with higher concentrations of ions and amino acids. While their previous work indicated the presence of bacteria that inhabit fish intestines, no sequences from fish were found. However, in the 2020 study, they found an rRNA sequence that was \>97% similar to that from a rock cod common along the coast of Antarctica (Notothenia coriiceps). This is the first report of a fish species possibly residing in Lake Vostok. The fish is known to produce antifreeze proteins.
Microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle, UK, stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process, and not representative of Lake Vostok itself. The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice, rather than for life, so the drilling equipment was not sterilized. Also Sergey Bulat, a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina, Russia, doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake. He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world.
The contamination possibility has been refuted by Scott Rogers, because the control measures were rigorous, and the combinations of organisms found in each of the ice samples were consistent with organisms living in a cold lake and ice (including a sequence from an Antarctic rock cod), and were inconsistent with contamination introduced while sampling or from the lab procedures. Also, all of the lab procedures were performed in parallel with ice samples from Lake Erie, and the two resulting data sets were completely different. The Lake Erie sample exhibited many signals of human habitation, while the Lake Vostok ice samples exhibited no signals of human habitation. The Lake Erie sample also had an almost completely different profile of bacterial and eukaryotic phyla.
#### Russia and France
Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole, by constructing numerous DNA libraries, which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria they may belong to. Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water, and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid. So far, the scientists have been able to identify 255 contaminant species, but also have found an unknown bacterium when they initially drilled down to the lake's surface in 2012, with no matches in any international databases, and they hope it may be a unique inhabitant of Lake Vostok. However, Vladimar Korolev, the laboratory head of the study at the same institution, said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that uses kerosene—the antifreeze used during drilling—as an energy source.
Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water, uncontaminated by drilling fluid. Regardless of the contamination issues, in May 2013 the drilling facility at the Russian Vostok Antarctic station was declared a historic monument as "the result of the recognition of the achievements of the Russian research of Antarctica by the international scientific community, and of the unique operations on opening the subglacial Lake Vostok performed by Russian scientists on February 5, 2012."
In January 2015, the Russian press stated that Russian scientists have made a new "clean" borehole into Lake Vostok using a special 50-kilogram probe that collected about 1 liter of water not adulterated by the antifreezing fluid. The drilling technology used proved to be inappropriate to collect liquid water in general and clean samples in particular and results were unreported. It was predicted that the water would rise 30–40 m in the bottom part of the borehole, but in fact the water rose from the lake to a height of more than 500 m. In October of that same year, the work was suspended for that southern summer because of insufficient funding by the federal Russian government.
In 2019 the Russian government ordered that a new wintering complex be installed at the Lake Vostok research station, funded in part by Russian billionaire Leonid Mikhelson. This complex will be capable of supporting 35 people in the summer, 15 in the winter and will have 4 diesel generators with a capacity of 200 kilowatts each. The new complex, consisting of 133 modules, was delivered to Progress Station in December 2021 and will be transported to the Lake Vostok research station and installed over the next four years.
### Contamination due to drilling fluids
The drilling project has been opposed by some environmental groups and scientists who have argued that hot-water drilling would have a more limited environmental impact. The main concern is that the lake could become contaminated with the antifreeze that the Russians used to keep the bore hole from refreezing. Scientists of the United States National Research Council have taken the position that it should be assumed that microbial life exists in Lake Vostok and that after such a long isolation, any life forms in the lake require strict protection from contamination.
The original drilling technique employed by the Russians involved the use of Freon and kerosene to lubricate the borehole and prevent it from collapsing and freezing over; 60 short tons (54 t) of these chemicals have been used thus far on the ice above Lake Vostok. Other countries, particularly the United States and Britain, have failed to persuade the Russians not to pierce to the lake until cleaner technologies such as hot-water drilling are available. Though the Russians claim to have improved their operations, they continue to use the same borehole, which has already been contaminated with kerosene. According to the head of Russian Antarctic Expeditions, Valery Lukin, new equipment was developed by researchers at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute that would ensure the lake remains uncontaminated upon intrusion. Lukin has repeatedly reassured other signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System that the drilling will not affect the lake, arguing that on breakthrough, water will rush up the borehole, freeze, and seal the other fluids out.
Some environmentalist groups remain unconvinced by these arguments. The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has argued that this manner of drilling is a profoundly misguided step which endangers Lake Vostok and other subglacial lakes in Antarctica (which some scientists are convinced are inter-linked with Lake Vostok). The coalition has asserted that "it would be far preferable to join with other countries to penetrate a smaller and more isolated lake before re-examining whether penetration of Lake Vostok is environmentally defensible. If we are wise, the Lake will be allowed to reveal its secrets in due course."
Lukin claims that hot-water drilling is much more dangerous for the microbiotic fauna, as it would boil the living species, and disturb the entire structure of water layers of the lake. Additionally, hot-water drilling would have required more power than the Russian expedition could have generated at their remote camp. However, the water samples obtained by the Russian team were heavily contaminated with drilling fluid, so they reported in May 2017 that it was impossible at this time to obtain reliable data on the real chemical and biological composition of the lake water.
## See also
- Kola Superdeep Borehole
- Ledoyom
- List of lakes by volume
- Groundwater
|
29,898,318 |
Hurricane Norma (1981)
| 1,171,124,228 |
Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 1981
|
[
"1981 Pacific hurricane season",
"1981 in Mexico",
"1981 natural disasters in the United States",
"Category 3 Pacific hurricanes",
"Natural disasters in Texas",
"Pacific hurricanes in Mexico",
"Tropical cyclones in 1981"
] |
Hurricane Norma was one of the two hurricanes to make landfall during the 1981 Pacific hurricane season. It developed on October 8, strengthening into a tropical storm and later a hurricane. Norma moved slowly to the northwest and strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale. The storm recurved and accelerated to the northeast on October 11 and weakened to a Category 2. The next day, Norma made landfall near Mazatlán on October 12 and soon dissipated. The hurricane's remnants continued northeastward and entered the United States, crossing into central Texas before being absorbed by a frontal system on October 14. Norma caused \$24 million in crop damage and one death in Mexico, as well as up to 10 in (250 mm). In Texas, the storm produced flooding rains that killed five people, caused \$50 million in damage and caused many tornadoes. Rainfall was also reported as far inland as Kansas.
## Meteorological history
Early on October 8, a tropical depression had developed far from land. Initially, the storm moved west-northwest, but it turned to the northwest six hours after forming. Over sea surface temperatures of 82 °F (28 °C), the storm intensified into Tropical Storm Norma at 0600 UTC . By midday on October 9, the winds had reached 50 mph (85 km/h) and on 1800 UTC October 9, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center upgraded the storm into a hurricane and a well-defined eye became visible via satellite imagery.
Upon reaching hurricane strength, Norma began to undergo a period rapid intensification; it reached Category 2 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale six hours later. Later that day, the storm reached major hurricane status, a storm with winds of 111 mph (179 km/h) or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale. . The storm reached its peak of 125 mph (205 km/h) at 1800 UTC on October 10. Passing east of Socorro Island, the storm turned north and shortly thereafter north-northeast due to southwesterly flow over northwestern Mexico.
The storm began to accelerate while continuing to weaken; by 1200 UTC on October 11, the storm had weakened into a mid-level Category 2 hurricane. After briefly re-intensifying that night, Hurricane Norma made landfall just northeast of Mazatlan with winds of 105 mph (155 km/h) at 1000 UTC on October 12. Two hours later, advisories were discontinued as the center dissipated 46.5 mi (75 km) north of Mazatlan. However, a second area of low pressure formed over western Texas early on October 13. After producing heavy rains, the system was absorbed by a frontal system on October 14.
## Impact and aftermath
### Mexico
Four days before Norma moved through Sinaloa, Tropical Storm Lidia made landfall north of the area. Lidia killed 73 people and caused \$60 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) in damage. This prompted evacuations of 5,000 people, and limited the death toll of Hurricane Norma to one person, a fisherman drowned when his boat capsized in the storm. The hurricane caused more devastation in the flood-ravaged region. Six soldiers were guarding a government helicopter, five of these soldiers were washed away during a flash flood. Agriculture was disrupted, and cattle were killed, causing at least \$24 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) dollars in crop damage. The highest Mexican rainfall was 10.9 in (280 mm) in Plomosas/Rosario, Mexico. Torrential rains caused serious flooding north of Mazatlan. as well as ten nearby towns. Due to the damage from the storm, Antonio Toledo Corro, the Governor of Sinaloa, declared a state of emergency. Red Cross spokesperson noted that 5,000 residents need to be evacuated from low-lying areas.
### United States
The remnants of the storm moved into Texas and Oklahoma. The heavy rainfall caused two rivers, the Red River and Cedar Creek to reach flood-stage. A total of five people were killed in the United States, three of these deaths occurred when floodwaters swept their car off the road in Fort Worth. Nearby, flooding forced thousands of people to evacuate their homes, including 1,000 people in the cities of Lindsay and Breckenridge. Several tornadoes were reported in six counties, including an F2 tornado in McLennan that injured four people and caused \$25 million in damage. A F3 tornado was also reported in Navarro County, causing \$25,000 in property damage. During October 13 and 14, a total of 13 tornadoes were reported in northern Texas and southern Oklahoma.
Cedar Creek overflowed its banks and homes in low-lying areas of Abilene, Texas were covered in 6 ft (1.8 m) of water. In Gainesville, floodwaters swept a train off its track and an elephant was killed in a local zoo. In the same area, 200 people were evacuated due to the flooding. Waco reported power losses for two hours and \$2.8 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) in damage for churches and businesses. In Oklahoma, 60 bridges were washed away due to flooding, but no injuries or deaths were reported. In addition, a tornado struck a small town, causing minor damage to farms. The town of Bells reported winds of 75 mph (121 km/h). Total damage in Texas was estimated at \$50 million (equivalent to \$ million in ).
Across Texas, 13 in (330 mm) fell between Bridgeport and Denton and up to 20 in (510 mm) fell in areas near Abilene and Gainesville. The storm produced 17.9 in (450 mm) of rain in a three-day period, thus causing Madill to have its wettest October on record. In addition, 20.1 in (510 mm) of rain fell in Breckenridge, Texas. In eastern Kansas light rain fell, including .7 in (18 mm) near Perry Lake within a 24‐hour period.
Due to the damage from the hurricane in the United States, the Salvation Army disaster units were sent throughout the devastated area. To prevent looting, residents in Breckenridge organized watches; the National Guard soon patrolled the streets. In Abilene, the United States Red Cross worked to feed the homeless and supply them with drinking water until city water services was restored.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- List of Pacific hurricanes
- List of Texas hurricanes
|
6,164,795 |
All Through the Night (Jules Shear song)
| 1,168,274,234 |
1983 song by Jules Shear
|
[
"1980s ballads",
"1983 songs",
"1984 singles",
"Cyndi Lauper songs",
"Epic Records singles",
"Jules Shear songs",
"New wave ballads",
"Song recordings produced by Rick Chertoff",
"Songs written by Jules Shear",
"Synth-pop ballads"
] |
"All Through the Night" is a song written and recorded by Jules Shear for his 1983 album Watch Dog. It was produced by Todd Rundgren.
The song was covered by the rock band the Cars, who did not use it on any of their albums, and by Cyndi Lauper, who included it on her debut album She's So Unusual (1984). Lauper's version peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her fourth top five single in the U.S. An acoustic version was sung by Lauper on her 2005 album, The Body Acoustic, with additional vocals by Shaggy.
Shear said his own idea was that "All Through the Night" was a folk song, but that Lauper's electronic interpretation was more lucrative, paying for his New York apartment.
## Writing and composition
The song was written by Jules Shear for his 1983 debut solo album, Watch Dog. Produced by Todd Rundgren, the song was composed in a medium tempo. Lyrically, "All Through the Night" addresses the concept of love and its tug at heart-strings.
Shear recalled in an interview, "[it's] like a big bonus really. Cyndi Lauper does a song ('All Through the Night') that's on a solo record of mine. I just thought, 'No one's really going to hear this.' Then she does it, and it becomes a Top 5 song." "I'm just glad people know the songs, really. I think they're really good. The only problem is with people who don't know I wrote them. I do them and they think, 'God, he's doing that Cyndi Lauper song'", Shear said later.
## Reception
"All Through the Night" received little attention as Watch Dog never charted. Chris Woodstra from AllMusic highlighted the song when he reviewed Watch Dog. Dave DiMartino described it as "boasting". A reviewer from the Philadelphia Inquirer called it a "terribly good [song]".
## Cyndi Lauper version
American singer Cyndi Lauper recorded a version for her 1983 album She's So Unusual. Shear said he was surprised that his "folk song" was interpreted by Lauper as "a drum machine and techno thing". According to Lauper, she wanted it to be just like Shear's version, with a bit more of an acoustic sound. However, she changed her mind, saying that she wanted to remake it in her own style.
### Composition
For her cover version, Lauper transposed the key up a minor third to A-flat major, and kept the tempo at the same 96 beats per minute as the original. The song is set in common time. Lauper's voice spans an octave and a fourth between G<sub>3</sub> and D♭<sub>5</sub>. Jules Shear himself makes a guest appearance on Lauper's version, singing a wordless falsetto melody near the end, as well as the lower harmony in the choruses. The chorus was unintentionally altered by Lauper from the Shear version when she heard the upper harmony vocal and thought it was the lead vocal. The song follows up "Time After Time"'s love and its tug at heart-strings concept.
### Critical reception
Reception for her version was mostly positive. Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun-Times said that the song was the one that "showed her impressive range to best advantage." Cash Box said that "Cyndi Lauper strikes again with a strong vocal performance" and praised the "hypnotic keyboard melody" and "emotion charged harmonies." The Philadelphia Inquirer said that she had a "strong voice" in the song. However, another Philadelphia Inquirer review said that the song was "a not terribly good version of Jules Shear's terribly good [song]." Richard Harrington of The Washington Post believed that it was her most reflective song. Kevin East of Sensible Sound said that the song was "a heavy, melancholy tune." Leslie Gray Streeter of the Palm Beach Post said that the song was "lovely" and "delicate." Even Shear himself was a fan of Lauper's version, saying "The Cyndi Lauper thing where she did 'All Through the Night,' that was great because she did it so differently than the way I did. I liked that, too." However, the St. Petersburg Times did not like the song, saying that it was a "pedestrian filler number" on the album.
Kurt Loder of Rolling Stone said that Lauper "does an almost tasteful reading" of the song. Sal Cinquemani of Slant magazine said that the song emerged as one of "the greatest pop masterpieces of the '80s." Shear said that Lauper's version is his all-time favorite cover.
The song was later re-recorded by Lauper, for her album The Body Acoustic, an album in which she recorded acoustic versions of her favorite songs. This version included vocals by Shaggy. Charles Andrews of Audio/Video Revolution said of this version, "Acoustic guitar strumming continues into "All Through the Night" and then – whoa! – who's that toaster? It's Shaggy, ducking in and out with his own rapid-fire lyric take, an inspired bit of casting that turns the romantic ballad on its head." The song is also one of her more popular songs that she performs in live concerts.
### Chart performance
"All Through The Night" was released in the United States in September 1984. It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 49, and reached a peak position of five in its 10th week, becoming Lauper's fourth consecutive top five in the U.S. The song achieved some crossover success, peaking at number four on the Adult Contemporary chart for three weeks, and reaching a peak position of 38 on the Mainstream Rock Chart. "All Through the Night" made Lauper the first female singer to generate four top 10 hits in the Hot 100 from a debut album. The week ending January 19, 1985, while it was moving down the Hot 100, it was the biggest free-faller, falling from \#33 to \#64. In Canada, the single peaked at number seven on the RPM singles chart in December 1984, and was certified gold by the Music Canada in January 1985.
In the United Kingdom, the song did not perform as well as Lauper's previous releases. It debuted at number 82 on the UK Singles Chart in November 1984, peaking at number 64, staying only six weeks on the chart. The single performed similarly throughout the rest of Europe, peaking at number 16 in Switzerland, and at number 35 in Germany. It was more successful in Austria, where it peaked at number five, becoming her fourth consecutive top five in the country.
In Sweden "All Through The Night" made the year end charts for the Top 100 of 1985. On the ARC (American Radio Chart), "All Through The Night" reached \#3 and made the Top 100 songs of the year for 1984.
### Track listing
7" Single
1. "All Through the Night" – 4:33
2. "Witness" – 3:40
### Credits and personnel
- Cyndi Lauper – lead vocals
- Jules Shear – backing vocals
- Rick Chertoff – producer
- Anton Fig – drums
- Rob Hyman – keyboards, synthesizers
- Lennie Petze – executive producer
- Janet Perr – design, cover art concept
Credits adapted from the album liner notes.
### Charts
#### Weekly charts
#### Year-end charts
#### Certifications
## Other cover versions
Elliot Easton of American rock band the Cars helped produce Shear's version of "All Through the Night." Greek singer Nana Mouskouri also performed a cover version. Tori Amos performed the song at Royce Hall in 2005, with the recording featured on her "Bootleg" album series.
|
44,424,194 |
The Boat Race 1914
| 999,444,338 | null |
[
"1914 in English sport",
"1914 sports events in London",
"March 1914 sports events",
"The Boat Race"
] |
The 71st Boat Race took place on 28 March 1914. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the previous year's race. In this year's race, umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman, Cambridge won by 4+1⁄2 lengths in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds. The victory took the overall record to 39–31 in Oxford's favour. It would be the last race for six years following the outbreak of the First World War.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2015, broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1913 race by three-quarters of a length, and led overall with 39 victories to Cambridge's 30 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877).
Oxford's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races, his son Robert Bourne (who rowed four times from 1909 to 1912), and Harcourt Gilbey Gold (Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four-time Blue). Cambridge were coached by Stanley Bruce (who had rowed in the 1904 race). For the eleventh year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884, 1885 and 1886 races.
According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater, the Cambridge crew "rapidly developed into a crew which gave every promise of being quite sensationally fast." Conversely, he noted that Oxford suffered "from a dearth of material" which, followed by constant changes in the crew order, resulted in a "merely eight good men in a boat — and nothing more".
## Crews
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 9.25 lb (80.2 kg), 3.25 pounds (1.5 kg) per rower more than their opponents. The Oxford crew saw five participants return, including cox Henry Wells who was taking part in his fourth race. Cambridge's crew also included five participants with Boat Race experience, including Sidney Swann who was making his fourth appearance in the event. Swann and Ewart Horsfall had both won gold medals in the men's eight at the 1912 Summer Olympics, rowing for Leander Club. They defeated New College in the final for whom Arthur Wiggins, Beaufort Burdekin and Frederick Pitman rowed.
## Race
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford. In bright sunshine, a light wind and smooth water, umpire Pitman started the race at 2:20 p.m. Although rating slower than Oxford, Cambridge took a lead and were three-quarters of a length ahead by Craven Steps. They extended their lead to a length and a quarter by the Mile Post and continued to pull away as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge. According to Drinkwater, they took "things easy in the rough water" towards Barnes Bridge and went on to pass the finishing post four and a half lengths ahead, in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds. It was Cambridge's first victory since the 1908 race and took the overall record in the event to 39–31 in Oxford's favour. Drinkwater concluded that while "Oxford were a poor crew ... individually they had quite a lot of talent". By comparison, he noted that Cambridge "were a reasonably high-class crew ... but they lacked quickness".
It was the last race until 1920, as a result of the outbreak of the First World War, and first time since 1853 that there was a break in the annual tradition. During the conflict, at least 42 Blues were killed, including five of the 1914 participants: Dennis Ivor Day, cox L. E. Ridley, John Andrew Ritson and Gordon Garnett of the Cambridge crew, and Reginald William Fletcher from the Oxford boat.
|
44,295,827 |
The Tramp Dentists
| 1,167,835,100 |
1913 film by Allen Curtis
|
[
"1910s American films",
"1913 comedy films",
"1913 films",
"1913 lost films",
"1913 short films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American comedy short films",
"American silent short films",
"Films about dentistry",
"Lost American comedy films",
"Silent American comedy films",
"Universal Pictures short films"
] |
The Tramp Dentists is a 1913 American silent short comedy film released by the newly formed Joker productions by the Universal Film Manufacturing Company. Directed by Allen Curtis, the film's cast includes Max Asher, Lee Morris, Eddie Boland Joseph Singleton and Bobby Vernon. The film is centered on two tramps, Dusty and Weary, who take over a dentist shop and get rich through their untrained dentistry, extracting teeth with pincers and ice tongs. After earning a large amount of money, the tramps return to their old way of life. Released on October 29, 1913, this film was the second Joker comedy. The film received some criticism for its vulgar humor. The film had a wide national release in the United States, but the film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Two tramps, named Dusty and Weary, awake from their slumber in a hay stock and are overcome with thirst. The two drink from a horse trough and Dusty complains of toothache. The two go to the dentist office only to be kicked out. When the dentist departs on a cruise the two tramps then pose as dentists and occupy the office and pull teeth with pincers and tongs. When the rightful owners return they drive off again. The tramps continue in their venture and quickly make a large sum of money before they desire their old way of life. The two tramps then surrender the office to its rightful owners.
## Cast
- Max Asher
- Lee Morris
- Eddie Boland
- Joseph Singleton
- Bobby Vernon credited as Sylvion De Jardins
## Production
The term "tramp dentist" refers to an unskilled individual who practices dentistry. The appearance of the word and its usage was popularized in the 1890s and often applied as a literal definition of a tramp, a traveling long-term homeless person, who engages in dentistry. The term was not exclusive to the United States as noted in Tracey Adams's A Dentist and a Gentleman: Gender and the Rise of Dentistry in Ontario which refers to local blacksmiths and gunsmiths who would pull teeth and even create dentures of questionable effectiveness and quality. The single reel film was directed by Allen Curtis and released on October 29, 1913. The film was the second release of the newly formed Joker line of comedies, following The Cheese Special. The film was not heralded with as much fanfare, but records show that the film was still advertised in theaters in July 1914.
## Reception
The Moving Picture World reviewed the film as being a low comedy that featured "somewhat disgusting" dental humor with the extraction of teeth with pincers and ice tongs. A more direct review in response to the film's comedic antics came from a letter to the editor of The Motion Picture Story Magazine which appealed the vulgar antics in the film as going to alienate members the audience and risk their continued patronage. The film had a wide national release that was shown in theaters throughout the United States. Locations included Chicago, Illinois, Atlanta, Georgia, Oklahoma, Ohio, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Oregon, Wisconsin, and Kansas.
The Tramp Dentists is presumed lost, but the date of disappearance is unknown. If the film were to have survived in Universal's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal's silent era films in 1948.
|
249,329 |
Larry Doby
| 1,172,337,075 |
American baseball player (1923-2003)
|
[
"1923 births",
"2003 deaths",
"African Americans in World War II",
"African-American United States Navy personnel",
"African-American baseball coaches",
"African-American baseball managers",
"American League All-Stars",
"American League RBI champions",
"American League home run champions",
"American expatriate baseball people in Venezuela",
"American expatriate baseball players in Japan",
"Baseball players from Essex County, New Jersey",
"Baseball players from Paterson, New Jersey",
"Baseball players from South Carolina",
"Chicago White Sox coaches",
"Chicago White Sox managers",
"Chicago White Sox players",
"Chunichi Dragons players",
"Cleveland Indians coaches",
"Cleveland Indians players",
"Congressional Gold Medal recipients",
"Deaths from bone cancer",
"Deaths from cancer in New Jersey",
"Detroit Tigers players",
"Eastside High School (Paterson, New Jersey) alumni",
"Jackie Robinson",
"LIU Brooklyn Blackbirds baseball players",
"Major League Baseball center fielders",
"Major League Baseball players with retired numbers",
"Military personnel from South Carolina",
"Montreal Expos coaches",
"Montreal Expos scouts",
"National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees",
"New Jersey Nets executives",
"Newark Eagles players",
"People from Camden, South Carolina",
"San Diego Padres (minor league) players",
"United States Navy personnel of World War II"
] |
Lawrence Eugene Doby (December 13, 1923 – June 18, 2003) was an American professional baseball player in the Negro leagues and Major League Baseball (MLB) who was the second black player to break baseball's color barrier and the first black player in the American League. A native of Camden, South Carolina, and three-sport all-state athlete while in high school in Paterson, New Jersey, Doby accepted a basketball scholarship from Long Island University. At 17 years of age, he began his professional baseball career with the Newark Eagles as the team's second baseman. Doby joined the United States Navy during World War II. His military service complete, Doby returned to baseball in 1946, and along with teammate Monte Irvin, helped the Eagles win the Negro League World Series.
In July 1947, three months after Jackie Robinson made history with the Brooklyn Dodgers, Doby broke the color barrier in the American League when he signed a contract to play with Bill Veeck's Cleveland Indians. Doby was the first player to go directly to the majors from the Negro leagues. A seven-time All-Star center fielder, Doby and teammate Satchel Paige were the first African-American players to win a World Series championship when the Indians took the crown in 1948. He helped the Indians win 111 games (second-best in MLB history at the time) and the AL pennant in 1954, finished second in the American League Most Valuable Player (MVP) award voting and was the AL's RBI leader and home run champion. He went on to play for the Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers, and Chunichi Dragons before his retirement as a player in 1962.
Doby later served as the second black manager in the majors with the Chicago White Sox, and in 1995 was appointed to a position in the AL's executive office. He also served as a director with the New Jersey Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was selected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1998 by the Hall's Veterans Committee and died in 2003 at the age of 79.
## Early life
Doby was born in Camden, South Carolina, to David Doby and Etta Brooks. Doby's father served in World War I. David worked as a horse groomer and played semi-professional baseball, but drowned in an accident at age 37 in New York state. Doby's mother, who had divorced David before his death, moved to Paterson, New Jersey; Doby remained in Camden. He lived with his grandmother before moving to live with his father's sister and brother-in-law from 1934 to 1938. He attended Jackson School, which was segregated under South Carolina state law. His first opportunity to play organized baseball came as a student at Boylan-Haven-Mather Academy, a private school affiliated with the Methodist church. Richard Dubose, who had managed Doby's father and was known locally in African-American circles for his baseball expertise, gave Doby some of his first baseball lessons. Reflecting on his years growing up in South Carolina, including how he and playmates used worn down broom handles for bats, Doby said, "Growing up in Camden, we didn't have baseball bats. We'd use a tree here, a tin can there, for bases."
After completing eighth grade, Doby moved north to Paterson at the age of 14 to be reunited with his mother; she visited him weekly while he lived with one of her friends. At Paterson Eastside High School, Doby was a multi-sport athlete; as well as playing baseball and basketball, he was a wide receiver in football and lettered in track. After winning a state football championship, the Eastside team was invited to play in Florida, but the promoters would not allow Doby, the only black player on the team, to participate. Consequently, the team voted to forgo the trip as a gesture of support for Doby.
During summer vacation Doby played baseball with a black semi-pro team, the Smart Sets, where he played with future Hall of Fame shortstop Monte Irvin. He also had a brief stint with the Harlem Renaissance, a professional basketball team, as an unpaid substitute player. Upon completing high school, he accepted an athletic scholarship to play basketball at Long Island University Brooklyn (LIU). Doby had been dating Eastside classmate Helyn Curvy since his sophomore year and, according to Doby, being able to remain close to Paterson was the "main reason" he selected LIU.
In the summer before he enrolled at LIU, Doby accepted an offer to play for the Newark Eagles of the Negro National League (NNL) for the remainder of the 1942 season, and he transferred to Virginia Union University as a result.
## Negro leagues and World War II
Negro league umpire Henry Moore advised Newark Eagles' owners Abe and Effa Manley to give Doby a tryout at Hinchliffe Stadium in Paterson, which was successful; Doby joined the Eagles in 1942 at the age of 17 for \$300. The contract stated Doby would play until September when he would start classes at college; to protect his amateur status he signed using the alias "Larry Walker" and local reporters were told he originated from Los Angeles, California. On May 31, Doby appeared in his first professional game when the Eagles played against the New York Cubans at Yankee Stadium. In the 26 games where box scores have been found, Doby's batting average was .391. Doby recalled a game against catcher Josh Gibson and pitcher Ray Brown of the Homestead Grays:
> My first time up, Josh said, 'We're going to find out if you can hit a fastball.' I singled. Next time up, Josh said, 'We're going to find out if you can hit a curveball.' I singled. Third time up, Josh said, 'We're going to find out how you do after you're knocked down.' I popped up the first time after they knocked me down. The second time, I singled.
Doby's career in Newark was interrupted for two years for service in the United States Navy. Doby spent 1943 and part of 1944 at Camp Robert Smalls at the Great Lakes Naval Training School near Chicago. He appeared on an all-black baseball squad and maintained a .342 batting average against teams composed of white players, some of which featured major leaguers. He then went to Treasure Island Naval Base in San Francisco Bay, California. Before serving in the Pacific Theater of World War II, Doby spent time at Navy sites in Ogden, Utah and San Diego, California. He was stationed on Ulithi in the Pacific Ocean in 1945. Doby heard of Jackie Robinson's minor league contract deal with the Montreal Royals of the International League from his base on Ulithi listening to Armed Forces Radio, and as a result Doby saw real hope in becoming a Major League baseball player. While in Hawaii, Doby met fellow Navy man and future teammate Mickey Vernon. Vernon, then with the Washington Senators, was so impressed with Doby's skills he wrote to Senators owner Clark Griffith, encouraging Griffith to sign Doby should MLB ever allow integration. During his time in the Navy, Doby was described by his colleagues as quiet. Doby was discharged from the Navy in January 1946. In the summer of that year, Doby and Helyn Curvy were married.
After playing for the San Juan Senators in Puerto Rico, Doby rejoined the Eagles in 1946. He made the All-Star roster, batted .360 (fourth in the NNL), hit five home runs (fifth) and led the NNL in triples (six). Manager Biz Mackey led the Eagles, including Doby, Monte Irvin and Johnny Davis, to the Negro World Series championship over Satchel Paige and the Kansas City Monarchs in seven games to conclude the 1946 season. For the Series, Doby hit .372 with one home run, five RBIs, and three stolen bases. Many in the Negro leagues believed Doby or Irvin would be first to break the MLB color barrier, not Robinson. On considering a career in Major League Baseball, Doby said, "I never dreamed that far ahead. Growing up in a segregated society, you couldn't have thought that that was the way it was going to be. There was no bright spot as far as looking at baseball until Mr. Robinson got the opportunity to play in Montreal in '46."
## Major League Baseball career
### Integration of American League (1947)
Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck proposed integrating baseball in 1942, which had been informally segregated since the turn of the century, but this was rejected by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis. Veeck had begun the process of finding a young, talented player from the Negro leagues, and told a reporter in Cleveland that he would integrate the Indians' roster if he could find a black player with the necessary talent level who could withstand the taunts and pressure of being the first black athlete in the AL. The reporter suggested Doby, whom Veeck had seen at the Great Lakes Naval Training School. Doby's name was also mentioned when Veeck talked with reporters who covered the Negro leagues. Indians scout Bill Killefer rated Doby favorably and perhaps just as important for Veeck, reported Doby's off-field behavior was not a concern. The Dodgers rated Doby their top young Negro league prospect. But unlike the Brooklyn Dodgers' Branch Rickey, who signed Robinson one full season before bringing him to the National League, Veeck used a different strategy, letting Doby remain with the Eagles instead of bringing him through the Indians' farm system. He told the Pittsburgh Courier, "One afternoon when the team trots out on the field, a Negro player will be out there with it."
While Rickey declined to pay for the purchasing rights of Robinson while he played for the Kansas City Monarchs, Veeck was "determined to buy Doby's contract from the Eagles" and had no problem paying purchasing rights. Effa Manley, business manager for the Eagles, believed her club's close relationship with the New York Yankees might put Doby in a Yankees uniform, but they did not take interest in him. Veeck finalized a contract deal for Doby with Manley on July 3. Veeck paid her a total of \$15,000 for her second baseman—\$10,000 for taking him from the Eagles and another \$5,000 once it was determined he would stay with the Indians for at least 30 days. After Manley agreed to Veeck's offer, she stated to him, "If Larry Doby were white and a free agent, you'd give him \$100,000 to sign as a bonus." The press were not told that Doby had been signed by the Indians as Veeck wanted to manage how fans in Cleveland would be introduced to Doby. "I moved slowly and carefully, perhaps even timidly", Veeck said. The Eagles had a doubleheader on July 4 but Doby, who had a .415 batting average and 14 home runs to that point in the season, only played in the first as Veeck sent his assistant and public relations personnel member, Louis Jones, for Doby. The two took a train from Newark to Chicago where the Indians were scheduled to play the Chicago White Sox the next day.
On July 5, with the Indians in Chicago in the midst of a road trip, Doby made his debut as the second black baseball player after Robinson to play in the majors after establishment of the baseball color line. Veeck hired two plainclothes police officers to accompany Doby as he went to Comiskey Park. Player-manager Lou Boudreau initially had a hard time finding a place in the lineup for Doby, who had played second base and shortstop for most of his career. Boudreau himself was the regular shortstop, while Joe Gordon was the second baseman. That day, Doby met his new teammates for the first time. "I walked down that line, stuck out my hand, and very few hands came back in return. Most of the ones that did were cold-fish handshakes, along with a look that said, 'You don't belong here", Doby reminisced years later. Four of Doby's teammates did not shake his hand, and of those, two turned their backs to Doby when he tried to introduce himself. During warm-ups, Doby languished for minutes while his teammates interacted with one another. Not until Joe Gordon asked Doby to play catch with him was Doby given the chance to engage. Gordon befriended Doby and became one of his closest friends on the team.
Doby entered the game in the seventh inning as a pinch-hitter for relief pitcher Bryan Stephens and recorded a strikeout. In the 1949 movie The Kid from Cleveland, Veeck tells the story that Gordon struck out on three swings in his immediate at-bat after Doby to save face for his new teammate. However, Doby's second strike was the result of a foul ball, both the Associated Press and Chicago Tribune stated Doby struck out on five pitches instead of three, and in addition, Gordon was standing on third base during Doby's at-bat. From Pride and Prejudice: The Biography of Larry Doby:
> After the game, Doby quickly showered and dressed without incident in the Cleveland clubhouse. His escort, Louis Jones, then took him not to the Del Prado Hotel downtown, where the Indians players stayed, but to the black DuSable Hotel in Chicago's predominantly black South Side, near Comiskey Park. The segregated arrangement established a pattern, on Doby's first day, that he would be compelled to follow, in spring training and during the regular season, in many cities, throughout his playing career.
The Indians had a doubleheader against the White Sox on Sunday, July 6, for which 31,566 were in attendance; it was estimated that approximately 30 percent of the crowd were black. Some congregations of black churches let out early while others walked immediately from Sunday service to Comiskey Park. Boudreau had Doby pinch-hit in the first game but for the second, listed him a starter at first base, a position Doby was not expected to fill when the Indians brought him up to play at second base. Doby had played the position before with the Eagles but was without a proper mitt for first base and met much resistance when attempts were made to borrow one from teammates, including first baseman Eddie Robinson, whom Boudreau had asked Doby to replace that day. Doby said only because Gordon asked in the clubhouse to borrow one of the first baseman's mitts did he have one to use in the second game of the doubleheader as earlier direct requests from Doby were rejected. The mitt was loaned by a White Sox player. Boudreau recounts an incident where Robinson refused the mitt to Doby, but when asked by Indians traveling secretary Spud Goldstein, Robinson obliged. It was the only game Doby started for the remainder of the season. Doby recorded his first major league hit in four at-bats and had an RBI in a 5–1 Indians win.
A columnist wrote in the Plain Dealer on July 8: "Cleveland's man in the street is the right sort of American, as was evidenced right solidly once more by the response to the question: 'How does the signing of Larry Doby by the Indians strike you? Said the man in the street: Can he hit? ... That's all that counts." Conversely, Doby was criticized from players both active and retired. Noted former player Rogers Hornsby said, after watching Doby play one time in 1947:
> Bill Veeck did the Negro race no favor when he signed Larry Doby to a Cleveland contract. If Veeck wanted to demonstrate that the Negro has no place in major league baseball, he could have used no subtler means to establish the point. If he were white he wouldn't be considered good enough to play with a semi-pro club. He is fast on his feet but that lets him out. He hasn't any other quality that could possibly recommend him.
In his rookie year, Doby hit .156 (5-for-32) in 29 games. He played four games at second base and one each at first base and shortstop. Throughout the season, he talked with Jackie Robinson via telephone, the two encouraging each other. "And Jackie and I agreed we shouldn't challenge anybody or cause trouble—or we'd both be out of the big leagues, just like that. We figured that if we spoke out, we would ruin things for other black players." After his rookie season, Doby again pursued time on the basketball court and appeared with the Paterson Crescents of the American Basketball League after signing a contract in January 1948. He was the first black player to join the league.
### Cleveland Indians
#### 1948–1950
In 1948, Doby experienced his first spring training with the Indians in Tucson, Arizona. Unlike their white teammates, Doby, along with Satchel Paige and Minnie Miñoso, were not permitted to stay at the nearby Santa Rita hotel but instead stayed with a local black family and used a rental car provided by the Indians for transportation. During spring training, Doby read books concerning outfield play, and received instruction and encouragement from former Indians manager Tris Speaker and Indians' farm system director Hank Greenberg. Doby also credited Indians coach Bill McKechnie with helping him adjust to the majors and learning the outfield. In an exhibition game in Houston against the New York Giants, Doby hit a home run that "may have traveled 500 feet before landing far beyond the fence in center field." As Moore wrote in his biography of Doby, "With that home run, all doubts that Doby would make the 1948 Cleveland team vanished. That year, he played in 121 games and hit .301 for the season with 14 home runs and 66 RBIs. Throughout the regular season Doby was racially abused by opposing teams, and Veeck asked AL president Will Harridge for support in getting players to rein in their animosity towards Doby.
Doby played a major role in Cleveland's World Series victory against the Boston Braves. In Game 4 on October 9, Doby hit the first home run by a black player in World Series history. A picture featuring an embrace between Doby and white teammate Steve Gromek, who had pitched a complete game that day, was on the cover of the next day's Plain Dealer. Richard Goldstein of The New York Times called the photograph "a signature moment in the integration of Major League Baseball." Of the picture, Doby said, "The picture was more rewarding and happy for me than actually hitting the home run. The picture finally showed a moment of a man showing his feelings for me." The Indians defeated the Braves in six games and with it, Cleveland had its first World Series championship since the 1920 season. Doby's .318 batting average during the Series led the Indians. Nationally syndicated columnist Grantland Rice argued that without Doby and Gene Bearden, who had won 20 games that year, the Indians would have finished in fourth or fifth place. After the Series, Doby received a celebratory parade in Paterson, New Jersey, and during the offseason he, along with other teammates, appeared in the 1949 film The Kid From Cleveland. With additional income available due to the post-season run and Series championship, Doby and his wife attempted to buy a home in Paterson in an all-white neighborhood but were kept out by a petition from members of the community. The Dobys were allowed to purchase their desired home when the Paterson city mayor intervened on their behalf.
During the 1949 season, Doby was selected to his first MLB All-Star Game. He was one of five Indians selected by Boudreau and joined Jackie Robinson, Roy Campanella and Don Newcombe as the first black players to be amongst those chosen to participate in the 1949 All-Star Game. Boudreau fined Doby after he attempted to steal home with no outs and bases loaded in a game against the Yankees on July 20. Of the fine, Boudreau said, "It was not based only on that attempt to steal home. Larry has taken several unnecessary chances lately. This should make him more careful." His home run (24) and RBI (85) totals increased during the 1949 season, and by 1950, he was considered the best center fielder in the game by The Sporting News. By the first week in July, Doby's .370 batting average trailed only 1949 AL batting champion George Kell, who had a .375 average. He earned career-bests in batting average (.326), hits (164) and on-base percentage (OBP) (.442), while playing in 142 games. Doby hit the 100-RBI mark (102) for the first time in his career while his OBP led the AL. He finished eighth in AL MVP voting, highest among outfielders. At the end of the season, Cleveland signed him to a new, more lucrative contract. Doby was named by Cleveland sports writers as the Cleveland Baseball Man of the Year after the season, the first time a black player was chosen.
#### 1951–1955
Doby hit 20 home runs and 69 RBIs in 1951, both fewer than the previous season, and his batting average improved to .295. His 21-game hit-streak was the second-longest for the Indians that season, behind Dale Mitchell's mark of 23 games in a row. Indians general manager Hank Greenberg reduced Doby's salary due to the lower home run numbers despite Doby, who attributed the lower numbers to tightness in his legs, stating he would not accept a pay cut. Indians manager Al López confirmed that Doby was injury-riddled throughout the season, stating that he "was beset by first one injury and then another" including "a muscle tear in his thigh, a groin pull, an ankle twist." Doby received blame for the Indians' failure to win the AL pennant and was labeled a "loner" by some in the press, including Plain Dealer sports editor Gordon Cobbledick who in an article in Sport wrote "Larry's a mixed-up guy—a badly mixed-up guy" stemming from "the emotional impact of discovering racial prejudice against him." Cobbledick also took issue with Doby's assertion that opposing pitchers were knocking him down due to Doby being black. The assertion was confirmed by Sam Lacy, who wrote in the Baltimore Afro-American, "Statistics show that eight colored players in the two major leagues were hit by pitches a total of 68 times during the 1951 campaign, an average of 8+1⁄2 times per man. No other player was hit as many as eight times in the season."
One month before spring training for the 1952 season, Doby employed former Olympic track and field athlete Harrison Dillard to come to his home in New Jersey to prepare his legs in hopes of eliminating injuries, which had affected him the previous season. Dillard and the Indians' team doctor prescribed lower-body warm-ups to Doby before the start of each game. Leg injuries continued to bother Doby during the start of the season. On June 4, 1952, he hit for the cycle. By the end of the 1952 season, Doby was second in the AL in RBIs to teammate Al Rosen by one, 105 to 104. His .541 slugging percentage, runs scored (104), strikeout (111), and home run (32) totals were all highest in the AL.
Leading up to the 1953 season, Doby asked Greenberg and Indians management for a pay raise after earning \$22,000 the previous season. In early March, the raise was granted, and he was slated to make \$28,000 that year. For 1953, Doby had a .263 batting average, which was his lowest since joining the league in 1947. He led the AL in strikeouts for the second and final time in his career, a career-high 121 times, but hit 29 home runs and 102 RBIs on the year. He also had 96 walks, which was third in the AL.
For the sixth time in his major league career, Doby was named an All-Star during the 1954 season, one of five Indians named. The game was held at Cleveland's Municipal Stadium and featured the second-largest crowd to watch an All-Star Game (the largest was in 1935 at the same stadium). In what would prove his final career All-Star at bat, Doby hit a pinch-hit solo home run in the eighth inning to tie the game at 9–9; the AL squad went on to win, 11–9. His home run was the first hit by a black player in an All-Star Game. The game, which had a record 17 hits by the AL and was the highest-scoring All-Star Game until 1998, was called the best ever by All-Star Game founder Arch Ward. As the regular season resumed, Doby helped the Indians to win a franchise-record 111 games and the AL pennant. His regular season 32 home runs and career-high 126 RBIs were highest in the AL, which led to him finishing second in AL MVP voting. The Indians were swept in the 1954 World Series by Doby's former Eagles teammate Monte Irvin and the New York Giants.
In his last full season with the Indians in 1955, Doby was selected for his seventh consecutive and final All-Star Game. Doby's leg injuries affected him severely at this point in his career and he did not enter the game. He finished the 1955 season with 26 home runs and 75 RBIs while hitting .291 in 131 games, his fewest played since 1948. Not all in Cleveland were disappointed to see Doby leaving. Wrote one Plain Dealer columnist, Franklin Lewis: "He has been a controversial athlete. Highly gifted, he was frequently morose, sullen, and upon occasion, downright surly to his teammates ... He thought of himself, at the beginning, as the symbol of the Negro in his league." Doby responded, "I was looked on as a Black man, not as a human being. I did feel a responsibility to the Black players who came after me, but that was a responsibility, basically, to people, not just to Black people."
### Later years (1956–1960)
After spending nine seasons with Cleveland, Doby was traded on October 25, 1955, to the Chicago White Sox for Chico Carrasquel and Jim Busby. Chicago was looking for a consistent home run hitter after finishing the season with 116 home runs as a team. "The search is over for a long ball hitter. We've certainly needed a consistent one—and we've been eying Doby for some time", said White Sox vice president Chuck Comiskey. White Sox manager Marty Marion believed Doby's bat would be a welcome addition to his club when he said, "The guy used to murder us when we played Cleveland. He'll make a big difference in the number of one-run and two-run decisions we might lose." After winning a doubleheader against the Yankees on June 22, 1956, Doby and the White Sox swept New York, the first time since the 1945 season the Yankees had been swept in a four-game series. The White Sox won eight straight games, the longest winning streak in the AL to that point in the season, and had done so with the help of Doby's six home runs during the eight-game stretch. "You know, when we dealt for Doby, we weren't worried about Larry. We knew he'd come through", Comiskey said. Doby finished the season with a .268 batting average and led the team with 24 home runs and 102 RBIs. Chicago finished 1956 in third place in the AL with an 85–69 record.
In a game on August 20, 1957, against the Washington Senators, Doby helped preserve pitcher Bob Keegan's no-hitter with a backhand catch off a long line drive from Herb Plews, one of "two close calls" for Keegan that game. His 1957 home run total of 14 tied for the team-high, as he managed a .288 average and recorded 79 RBIs, second-highest on the team after former Indians teammate Minnie Miñoso. The White Sox finished second in the AL with a 90–64 record.
Doby was part of a December 3, 1957, multi-player trade between the White Sox and Baltimore Orioles, then was traded again on April 1 to Cleveland along with Don Ferrarese for Gene Woodling, Bud Daley, and Dick Williams. He appeared in 89 games with the Indians that season and had a .289 batting average, 13 home runs, and 45 RBIs. He was sent to the Detroit Tigers on March 21, 1959, in exchange for Tito Francona. Tigers general manager Rick Ferrell said, "this gives us some more power and we just hope Doby hits as well in Briggs Stadium this season as he has in other years." He hit .218 with four RBIs before Detroit sold the 35-year-old Doby to the White Sox on May 13 for \$20,000.
After 21 games with the White Sox, he was sent to Triple-A affiliate San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League after hitting .241 with no home runs and 9 RBIs. Doby fractured an ankle while sliding into third base after hitting a triple during a road game the Padres played against Sacramento, and was sent to a local hospital in Sacramento before going to Johns Hopkins Hospital for further evaluation. Doby worked out with the White Sox before the 1960 season but, due to nagging injuries, did not earn a roster spot. In late April he joined the Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League on a trial basis but was released by the team on May 6 after X-rays showed bone deterioration in his affected ankle.
Doby finished his 13-year major league career with a .283 batting average, accumulated 1,515 hits, 253 home runs and 970 RBIs in 1,533 games and 5,348 at-bats. Of his 1,533 career games, 1,146 of them were spent with the Indians. "I played against great talent in the Major Leagues and I played against great talent in the Negro Leagues. I didn't see a lot of difference", said Doby.
### Nippon baseball (1962)
Doby had participated in baseball clinics in 1962 as a member of a travel delegation from the U.S. Department of State. That year, Doby came out of retirement and became one of the first Americans to play professional baseball in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball league when he and Don Newcombe, a former teammate with the Newark Eagles, signed contracts with the Chunichi Dragons. Doby spent the season splitting his time between 1B (36 games) and RF (34 games) and batted .225 with 10 HR, 35 RBI, and 27 runs in 240 at bats. After the season, Doby returned to the U.S. in October and resumed his work as a liquor retailer.
## Managerial and executive appointments
After retiring as a player, Doby became a scout with the Montreal Expos in 1969 and served as a minor league instructor with the organization in 1970. He was batting coach under manager Gene Mauch from 1971 to 1973 and again in 1976. He managed various teams during five seasons of winter league baseball in Venezuela, including Águilas del Zulia during the 1970–71 winter season. Doby rejoined the Indians for the 1974 season as first base coach for manager Ken Aspromonte. When Aspromonte was fired after the 1974 season, the Indians named Frank Robinson the club's player-manager and baseball's first black manager.
After Robinson's hire as manager, Doby returned to work for the Expos. In 1976, Bill Veeck purchased the White Sox for a second time and hired Doby to be the team's batting coach. As a team, the White Sox finished the 1976 season with a .255 batting average, 586 runs scored and 73 home runs. By June 29, 1977, the team's average was .284, and had recorded 382 runs scored and 87 home runs. They finished the season second in team batting average (to the Yankees and Red Sox, each with a .281 average) and had 192 home runs and 844 runs scored as a team. After firing the White Sox's manager and former Doby teammate Bob Lemon, Veeck replaced him with Doby on June 30, 1978. At age 53, Doby became the second black manager in the majors after Robinson. "It's so nice to work for a man like Bill Veeck. You just work as hard as you can, and if the opportunity arises, you will certainly get the opportunity to fulfill your dreams", Doby said after being named White Sox manager.
To that point in the season, the White Sox had a 34–40 record. On July 1 in his first game as manager, the White Sox suffered a 10–0 loss to the Minnesota Twins but Doby won his second game, 8–5, the next day against the same team. The White Sox finished 71–90, including 37–50 under Doby, in what would be Doby's sole managerial role. Veeck hired player-manager Don Kessinger to succeed Doby after deciding not to re-hire Doby, although Kessinger resigned as manager in the second half of the 1979 season. After removing Doby from the manager's role and reassigning him to batting coach, the position Doby held before being named manager, Veeck said, "Larry will always have a role on this team in some capacity." He served in that role for one additional season and resigned in October 1979.
After retiring from baseball, Doby was named director of communications for the National Basketball Association's New Jersey Nets from 1980 to 1989 and also served as the Nets' director of community affairs until 1990. Doby was named special assistant to the AL's last president, Gene Budig, on April 17, 1995.
### Managerial record
## Second man
The New York Times wrote, "In glorifying those who are first, the second is often forgotten ... Larry Doby integrated all those American League ball parks where Jackie Robinson never appeared. And he did it with class and clout." During the 1997 season, when the long-departed Jackie Robinson's number 42 was being retired throughout baseball, and the still-living Doby was being virtually ignored by the media, an editorial in Sports Illustrated pointed out that Doby had to suffer the same indignities that Robinson did, and with nowhere near the media attention and implicit support. Scoop Jackson in 2007 wrote, in response to the tradition of MLB players wearing jerseys in homage of Robinson, "Second place finishers in America are suckers. And so are those who make the story of history less simple than it needs to be. This happens sometimes in America. Those who don't come first or don't do things a certain way get lost. They disappear." "Jackie got all the publicity for putting up with it (racial slurs). But it was the same thing I had to deal with. He was first, but the crap I took was just as bad. Nobody said, 'We're gonna be nice to the second Black,'" Doby said.
Doby served as one of the pallbearers at Robinson's funeral. As fellow Hall of Famer Joe Morgan wrote, "Anyone who knew Larry knew that he admired Robinson and was never jealous of the attention Robinson received." Former teammate Al Rosen said:
> Jackie was a college educated man who had been an officer in the service and who played at the Triple-A level. Jackie was brought in by Branch Rickey specifically to be the first black player in major league baseball. Larry Doby came up as a second baseman who didn't have time to get his full college education, and was forced to play a different position in his first major league season. I think, because of those circumstances, he had a more difficult time than Jackie Robinson. I don't think he has gotten the credit he deserves.
Doby experienced many prejudices during his time before, during, and after the majors. One incident took place during a game as Doby was sliding into second base when the shortstop from the opposing team spat tobacco juice on him. Doby called it the worst injustice he experienced on the field. He endured many racial slurs, from the stands and elsewhere, during games. He also received death threats. After he had retired as a player, Doby recalled memories of his days as a barrier-breaker. "You know why I hit so well in Washington and St. Louis? They were major Jim Crow seating parks and when I came to bat, I knew where the noise was coming from and who was making it. I felt like a quarterback with 5,000 cheerleaders calling his name. You know most of them couldn't afford to be there. I never forgot them."
Shortly after the Indians had honored Doby by naming a nearby street after him, The Plain Dealer columnist Bill Livingston wrote, "The Larry Doby way of pioneering was the same as the Jackie Robinson way in the National League, only Doby's debut occurred six short weeks later and with almost no advance preparation by Doby or the Indians." Doby threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the 1997 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, played at Jacobs Field. The decision to have the game in Cleveland coincided with the 1997 season marking the fiftieth anniversary of Robinson breaking baseball's color barrier. It was also 50 years and 3 days since Doby became the first black player in the American League.
## Hall of Fame
Doby was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame on March 3, 1998, by the Veterans Committee at the age of 74. "This is just a tremendous feeling. It's kind of like a bale of cotton has been on your shoulders, and now it's off", said Doby. When he received word about his election, it was by a telephone call from fellow Hall member Ted Williams. Upon hearing of Doby's election, Gene Mauch, said, "You have to be some kind of special person to go through what Larry and Jackie Robinson went through. They both are. I'm not too sure there's a player in the game today who could handle it."
He was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum on July 26, 1998. Doby became the first member born in South Carolina elected to the Hall. Although he was the first to play in MLB, Doby was the last member elected to the Hall of the four players to ever play in both a Negro league and MLB World Series, the others being Satchel Paige, Monte Irvin, and Willie Mays.
## Death and legacy
Doby and his wife, Helyn, had five children, six grandchildren and four great-grandchildren. When the Dobys moved to Montclair, Yogi Berra and his wife became neighborhood friends and children of the two families played baseball and football together. Doby had a kidney removed in 1997 after a cancerous tumor was detected. Helyn, married to Doby for 55 years, died in 2001 after a six-month battle with cancer.
Doby died on June 18, 2003, at his home in Montclair, New Jersey, at age 79 after suffering from cancer. When Doby died, President George W. Bush made the following statement:
> Larry Doby was a good and honorable man, and a tremendous athlete and manager. He had a profound influence on the game of baseball, and he will be missed. As the first African American player in the American League, he helped lead the Cleveland Indians to their last World Series title in 1948, became a nine-time All-Star and was voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1998. Laura joins me in sending our condolences to Larry's family during this difficult time.
MLB Commissioner Bud Selig (1992–2015) released a statement a day following Doby's death:
> Like Jackie, he endured the pain of being a pioneer with grace, dignity, and determination and eased the way for all who followed. He achieved another historic second 31 years later he became the second African-American to manage a big league club, following Frank Robinson.
Former MLB Commissioner Fay Vincent said:
> Larry's role in history was recognized slowly and belatedly. Jackie Robinson, who broke the color line first but in the same year, quite naturally received most of the attention. Larry played out his career with dignity and then slid gracefully into various front-office positions in basketball and then later in baseball. Only in the 90's did baseball wake up to the obvious fact that Larry was every bit as deserving of recognition as Jackie.
Long before Doby was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame came induction in the Indians Hall of Fame in August 1966. Later, in May 1973, he was inducted into the South Carolina Hall of Fame and in 2010, the New Jersey Hall of Fame. On August 10, 2007, the Indians paid tribute to Doby on Larry Doby Day by collectively using his number (14) on their uniforms. The franchise again honored him when in 2012, Eagle Avenue, next to the Indians' Progressive Field, was renamed "Larry Doby Way" in an on-field postgame ceremony. Among those present at the ceremony were former star pitcher Jim "Mudcat" Grant, Indians president Mark Shapiro, Cleveland mayor Frank Jackson, and various members of Doby's family. The Indians unveiled a life-sized bronze statue of Doby outside Progressive Field on July 25, 2015.
The city of Paterson, New Jersey, renamed the Eastside Park baseball field "Larry Doby Field" on June 1, 2002. The Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center has a section named the Larry Doby Wing. Of Berra, Doby said, "Yogi was one of the first opposing players to talk to me. As a catcher, Yogi talked to everybody. I finally had to tell the umpire: 'Please tell him to shut up. He asked me how my family was back in the first inning.'"
In 2011, the U.S. Postal Service announced that Doby would be one of the four baseball players (along with Ted Williams, Joe DiMaggio, and Willie Stargell) to appear on a postage stamp in 2012, as part of its "Major League Baseball All-Stars" series. The stamp was released July 21, 2012.
In 2013, the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honored Doby as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Navy during World War II.
In 2022, the Garden State Parkway's Brookdale North Service Area in Bloomfield, New Jersey was renamed the Larry Doby Service Area.
## See also
- List of Negro league baseball players
- List of first black Major League Baseball players
- List of Negro league baseball players who played in Major League Baseball
- American expatriate baseball players in Japan
- California Winter League
- Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League
- Venezuelan Professional Baseball League
- List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
- List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle
- List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders
- List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
- List of people on stamps of the United States
|
5,901,369 |
Heart of Stone (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)
| 1,146,101,517 | null |
[
"1995 American television episodes",
"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (season 3) episodes"
] |
"Heart of Stone" is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, and originally aired on February 6, 1995 in broadcast syndication. The story was written by Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe, while the episode was directed by Alexander Singer and the score was created by David Bell.
Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine, a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Galaxy; the Gamma Quadrant is home to an empire known as the Dominion, ruled by the shape-shifting Changelings. In this episode, Deep Space Nine's security chief Odo (René Auberjonois), a rogue Changeling who has rejected the Dominion, and Major Kira Nerys (Nana Visitor) are trapped together on a small moon, forcing Odo to admit he is in love with Kira; meanwhile, on the station, the Ferengi teenager Nog (Aron Eisenberg) tries to get Commander Benjamin Sisko's (Avery Brooks) support for his application to Starfleet Academy.
The character arcs launched in this episode, of Nog joining Starfleet and Odo dealing with his feelings for Kira, would be central to the two characters for the remainder of the series. The episode was the fourth most watched episode of the third season, with 8.3 million viewers, and received a mixed critical response.
## Plot
On board a runabout, Odo and Kira are in pursuit of a member of the terrorist group known as the Maquis. They follow the Maquis vessel to a small moon. Landing, they find the vessel is empty, and split up to search for the pilot. After a short while, Odo returns to find Kira with her foot caught in an expanding crystal mass that Odo is unable to remove.
As Kira is slowly being covered by the crystal, dangerous seismic tremors increase in the surrounding rock; Kira insists that Odo abandon her and flee to safety. He attempts to free her using an ultrasonic generator, and tells her about his past as they wait for the crystal to shatter. When the generator fails to work, and Kira is nearly engulfed in the crystal, Odo confesses his love for Kira. To his surprise, she says she is in love with him too.
Suspicious of Kira's response, Odo points a phaser at her, demanding to know who she really is. Kira and the crystal suddenly morph into a Changeling, one of the Founders of the Dominion (Salome Jens), who reveals that she stole the Maquis ship in order to try to convince Odo to return to the Dominion. She reveals the real Kira's location and transports away. Odo finds Kira and tells her of the Founder, but not of his feelings for her.
Meanwhile, on Deep Space Nine, Nog attempts to convince Commander Sisko to endorse his application to attend Starfleet Academy. Sisko is doubtful and suspects Nog is engaging in some underhanded scheme, especially since Nog's request was accompanied by the customary bribe Ferengi culture expects when making such requests. To test Nog's resolve, he gives him the task of counting the inventory of a cargo bay. Nog completes the task quickly but Sisko still has doubts.
Sisko tells Nog that he will not give him a recommendation. Nog confesses that he wants to do it so that he does not end up like his father Rom (Max Grodénchik), whose engineering skills are not valued by Ferengi culture. Sisko, stunned by the young Ferengi's upstanding ambitions, agrees to recommend Nog to the academy.
When Nog tells Rom and his uncle Quark (Armin Shimerman) of his intention to join Starfleet, Quark adamantly forbids it; but Rom, in an uncharacteristic act of courage, stands up to his brother and proudly grants his permission for Nog to join Starfleet.
## Production
Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe conceived the story and wrote the script for "Heart of Stone", and intended the Odo/Kira storyline to be the A-Plot. Behr later thought that the performances of Eisenberg and Brooks elevated the Nog/Sisko story to equal status and would result in a better reaction by fans. The idea of having a character trapped was taken from the Ken Kesey novel Sometimes a Great Notion in which a character is trapped under a log and drowned by rising water. Behr described the same scene in the 1971 film as "a great scene in a not so great movie". The episode was intended to be low budget, but heavy on characterisation. At one point it was intended for Odo to sing the 1955 Richard Berry song "Louie Louie", which the character described as a sea shanty, but producers couldn't acquire the rights in time.
The cast and crew were unhappy with the rock prop used in the episode. Visual effects supervisor Glenn Neufeld strapped Visitor's feet to the stage in order to ensure that the crystal didn't move. Different versions of the crystal were then applied for different scenes, with the larger versions incorporating a seat for the actress so that she could relax inside the prop between takes. The prop caused problems for Visitor due to her claustrophobia, which was the second time during season three that a Wolfe scripted episode had caused her these types of problems after "Second Skin". She also didn't like how it appeared on screen: "I thought it was going to look like my body turning to stone. Instead I looked like a big old hot fudge sundae, and my head was the cherry on top."
Director Alexander Singer admitted that the prop wasn't what they envisioned, and work was conducted on it post-production to improve it. Post-production was also problematic as there were several morphing scenes involving Odo and the female Founder, which required reactions by other actors. Neufeld said that none of what they were aiming for worked in post-production, but it was saved by the visual effects company VisionArt who managed to salvage the work. Jens agreed to re-appear as the female Founder she had previously appeared as in "The Search", and for her credit to only appear in the closing credits so as to avoid spoiling the twist in the Odo/Kira plot. Eisenberg was initially panicked by the script that showed Nog going to Starfleet Academy as he thought the character was being written out of the show, but executive producer Rick Berman assured him that it wouldn't be the case. He later said that the scene where Nog talks to Sisko about his father was his favourite scene in the series.
## Themes
Children had featured in Star Trek as major series characters since Wesley Crusher in Star Trek: The Next Generation. The character of Crusher had attended Starfleet Academy, but leaves Starfleet in the seventh-season episode "Journey's End", aired in February 1994. Jake Sisko was a minor character in Deep Space Nine, but had expressed a desire to be a writer rather than join Starfleet in the sixth episode of the third season, "The Abandoned". There was a desire to avoid the Crusher "chosen one" type storyline with Sisko, but after "The Abandoned" it was seen that there would no longer be a young character progressing through Starfleet as previously intended. Wolfe said that "Of Wesley, Jake, Alexander, and Nog, wouldn't it be funny if Nog were the one to end up as a Starfleet captain?". Ronald D. Moore agreed with the new character direction, saying that "Somehow, Captain Nog sounds cool".
Nog's progression through Starfleet was followed in later episodes, with the character promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Junior Grade by the time of the series finale, "What You Leave Behind". Odo's unrequited love for Kira had been hinted at throughout season three building up to the reveal in "Heart of Stone", which would be a repeating plot device up until the final episode of the series when Odo departs the crew.
## Reception
"Heart of Stone" was first broadcast on February 6, 1995, in broadcast syndication. It received Nielsen ratings of 8.3 million. This placed it in fourth place in the timeslot. This was an increase from the episode aired the previous week, as "Life Support" gained a rating of 8.2 million. It was the fourth most viewed episode of the season on first broadcast after "The Search", "Defiant" and "Meridian".
Several reviewers re-watched the episode after the end of the series. Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in October 2012. He had reservations about the episode up until the twist involving the Founder, and thought that Visitor's performance as Kira had been slightly off all episode. He thought that having Kira admit her feelings for Odo was rushed and was disappointed by it and felt it ruined what he had considered to be one of the best episodes of the season. He was pleased that Odo was as suspicious as he was, and the twist was made all the more striking by the performances. He felt that the Nog/Sisko story was just as good, having felt that Nog had been "off-putting" previously but the performance by Eisenberg in "Heart of Stone" was "amazing". He particularly praised Nog's monologue explaining his motives to join Starfleet, and said it was "terrific" as it was "exciting because it's unexpected".
Jamahl Epsicokhan of Jammer's Reviews, felt that the main Odo/Kira plot was "contrived" in that the female Founder stole a Maquis ship and set up the entire situation simply to attempt to convince Odo to return to his people. He said that the Nog and Sisko plot was "lightweight but amiable", and he gave the episode an overall score of 2.5 out of 4. Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for the website TrekNation, and also questioned the main plot. She wrote "what was the shapeshifter going to do if someone OTHER than Kira was in the runabout with Odo? Did she sit around and wait for the two of them to leave the station together?" She had further concerns about the direction of the Odo and Kira relationship, and described the romance as a "cop-out". She thought that Odo's declaration of his feelings felt forced, and that the plot featuring a crystal creature attacking a crew member reminded her of something from Star Trek: The Original Series.
In 2019, ScreenRant ranked this as one of the top ten episodes for the character Nog, noting how it allowed the character to stop seeming "aimless".
In 2018, SyFy recommend this episode for its abbreviated watch guide for the Bajoran character Kira Nerys. They note that this focuses on Kira and Odo, as they are stranded together and one is trapped, thus leading to a lot of discussion.
## Home media release
The first home media release of "Heart of Stone" was as a two episode VHS cassette alongside "Life Support" in the United Kingdom on June 12, 1995. This was followed in the United States and Canada with a single episode release on October 5, 1999. It was later released on DVD as part of the season three box set on June 3, 2003.
It was released on LaserDisc in the United States on October 26, 1999, paired with "Life Support". The disc was 12 inches with both sides used giving a runtime of 92 minutes, in NTSC format.
|
43,980,254 |
Wazir (film)
| 1,163,830,212 |
2016 action-thriller film directed by Bejoy Nambiar
|
[
"2010s Hindi-language films",
"2016 action thriller films",
"2016 crime thriller films",
"2016 films",
"Films directed by Bejoy Nambiar",
"Films scored by Shantanu Moitra",
"Films shot in Delhi",
"Films shot in Mumbai",
"Indian action thriller films",
"Indian crime thriller films",
"Indian detective films",
"Kashmir conflict in films",
"Reliance Entertainment films"
] |
Wazir () is a 2016 Indian Hindi-language neo-noir action thriller film directed by Bejoy Nambiar and produced by Vidhu Vinod Chopra. Written and edited by Abhijat Joshi and Chopra, the film stars Amitabh Bachchan and Farhan Akhtar alongside Aditi Rao Hydari, Manav Kaul and Neil Nitin Mukesh. John Abraham makes a special appearance. The film's dialogue and additional dialogue were written by Abhijeet Deshpande and Gazal Dhaliwal, respectively. The music was composed by several artists including Shantanu Moitra, Ankit Tiwari, Advaita, Prashant Pillai, Rochak Kohli and Gaurav Godkhindi, with the background score composed by Rohit Kulkarni. Sanu Varghese served as the film's cinematographer.
Based on an original story by Chopra, Wazir follows the story of a suspended Anti-Terrorism Squad officer who befriends a chess player who is a wheelchair user. The idea of the film came to Chopra in the 1990s and he started writing it in English with Joshi over a period of four years starting in 2000. It was supposed to be Chopra's first Hollywood film, with Dustin Hoffman playing the protagonist. However, its producer died and the film was shelved for nearly eight years. Chopra and Joshi later re-wrote the script so it could be produced as a Hindi film. Principal photography began on 28 September 2014.
Wazir opened on 8 January 2016 to mixed to positive reviews from critics who particularly praised the action sequences and the performances of both Bachchan and Akhtar, but criticised the predictable nature of the film. The film performed well at the box office, with approximate worldwide revenues of ₹78.69 crore (US\$12 million).
## Plot
Anti-Terrorism Squad officer Danish Ali (Farhan Akhtar) lives with his wife Ruhana (Aditi Rao Hydari) and little daughter Noorie. One day, while Danish is driving with his wife and daughter, he spots the terrorist Farooq Rameez and chases him. Noorie is killed in the ensuing shootout while Rameez escapes. Ruhana is shattered and blames Danish for Noorie's death. Danish later kills Rameez during a police operation, angering his seniors, who wanted Rameez alive to find out which politician he was going to meet. Subsequently, Danish is suspended from the ATS.
A grief-stricken Danish is about to kill himself at Noorie's grave when a mysterious van appears, driving off when Danish yells at it. Danish finds a wallet lying where the van was, goes to return it, and meets its owner, a handicapped chess master named Pandit Omkar Nath Dhar (Amitabh Bachchan), who turns out to have been Noorie's chess teacher. Pandit starts teaching Danish chess and tells him about Nina, Pandit's daughter who also died. Nina (Vaidehi Parashurami) had been teaching chess to Ruhi (Mazel Vyas), the daughter of a government minister, Yazaad Qureshi (Manav Kaul), and had fallen down the stairs at Qureshi's house and died. Pandit is convinced that her death was not an accident. Puzzled and intrigued, Danish tries to meet Qureshi, but cops at the minister's office threaten him with arrest. Danish later meets Ruhi at her school to ask her about Nina, but Ruhi is taken away by Qureshi who threatens her for talking to Danish. That night Pandit is brutally attacked by Wazir (Neil Nitin Mukesh), a hitman sent by Qureshi, who warns Pandit and Danish to stop chasing Qureshi.
Pandit leaves for Kashmir, where Qureshi is headed. Wazir calls Danish and threatens to kill Pandit right there. Danish frantically chases Pandit's van, but Wazir blows it up, killing Pandit. Determined to exact revenge and discover who Wazir is, Danish leaves for Kashmir without informing Ruhana and makes a plan with the Superintendent of Police Vijay Malik (John Abraham) to pull Wazir out. During Qureshi's speech, Malik detonates explosives hidden in a chandelier above the podium, causing a panic, and holds back the police to give Danish time to act. Qureshi escapes in the confusion and goes to where he and Ruhi are staying, but Danish breaks in and asks him about Wazir. Qureshi claims he does not know anybody called Wazir, when a crying Ruhi reveals to Danish that Qureshi is not her father – he is actually one of the militants who massacred her entire village and posed as her father when Indian Army troops arrived. Ruhi had told Nina this, so Qureshi killed Nina and staged it as an accident. Danish realises that Rameez and the other terrorists had come to meet Qureshi, and kills him. Subsequently, the ATS and Ruhi reveal to the media that Qureshi was actually a terrorist.
A few days later, while watching Ruhana's play – based on chess and dedicated to Pandit – Danish realises that Pandit was in fact the play's "weak pawn" who befriended a "strong rook" (Danish) who would kill a "wicked king" (Qureshi) to wreak revenge. Shocked by this epiphany, Danish finds Pandit's housekeeper, who says that she did not actually see Wazir on the night he attacked Pandit, but remembers an instruction about a USB pen-drive which Pandit had told her to give to Danish if he came looking for Wazir at all. The pen-drive contains a video of Pandit, who explains that Wazir never existed – he was just a persona created by Pandit, who knew that, due to his handicap, he was powerless against Qureshi, who he wanted dead. Pandit intentionally dropped his wallet near Noorie's grave so Danish could find it and befriend him. His knife wounds from Wazir's attack were self-inflicted, and he had used voice recordings to pose as Wazir on the phone. Pandit had sacrificed himself to ensure that Danish would kill Qureshi and get revenge for both of them. Shaken by the revelation, Danish and Ruhana reunite.
## Cast
- Amitabh Bachchan as Pandit Omkar Nath Dhar, Daanish's friend, and Nina's father
- Farhan Akhtar as Daanish Ali, Ruhana's husband
- Aditi Rao Hydari as Ruhana Ali, Daanish's wife
- Manav Kaul as Yazaad Qureshi
- Neil Nitin Mukesh as Wazir
- John Abraham as SP Vijay Mallik (special appearance)
- Nasir Khan as Rameez
- Prakash Belawadi as Deputy commissioner of police
- Vaidehi Parashurami as Nina Dhar, Daughter of Pandit Omkar Nath Dhar
- Anjum Sharma as Sartaj Singh, Daanish's colleague
- Murali Sharma as Mahesh
- Nishigandha Wad as Ruhana's mother
- Seema Bhargava as Pammi, the Pandit's housekeeper
- Avtar Gill as G.B. Singh, police commissioner
- Mazel Vyas as Ruhi
- Gargi Patel as Ruhi's minder
- Reem Shaikh (special appearance)
## Production
### Development
The idea of Wazir came to Vidhu Vinod Chopra after badminton player Syed Modi was murdered on 28 July 1988 in Lucknow. However, Chopra has said that the film is completely different from the incident. When Chopra met his eventual co-writer Abhijat Joshi in 1994, he told him about the idea of setting a thriller around two chess players. Chopra described the two characters as "Rakesh Maria and Viswanathan Anand playing chess". The script was later written by them in four years, between 2000 and 2004. It was supposed to be Chopra's first Hollywood film, with Dustin Hoffman playing the protagonist. In 2005, their producer Robert Newmyer suddenly died and the script was shelved.
Chopra saw Bejoy Nambiar's 2013 film, David; he was particularly impressed by the black-and-white portions of it. Chopra subsequently called Nambiar and expressed a desire to work with the director; Chopra had a cache of unfilmed scripts, and Nambiar selected the chess one. Chopra and Joshi then spent two years writing a Hindi version of it.
Both Chopra and Joshi consulted chess experts from America for the film. The cinematography of the film was done by Sanu Varghese, who had previously worked with Nambiar on David. The film's story was tweaked constantly during its seven-month editing period; both writers also served as editors. This was the first time since his 1989 picture Parinda that Chopra had edited a film. Joshi, who edited for the first time on Wazir, believes that "a film is rewritten on the editing table". Visual effects were used to hide Bachchan's legs, to make them look as if they ended below the knees. The makers of the film went through 40 to 50 wheelchairs to find one that would be comfortable for Bachchan over the long shoot. The working titles of the film were Do and Ek Aur Ek Do, and it received its final title, Wazir, in October 2014, based on the character of that name in the film.
### Casting
At the screening of Lakshya (2004), Chopra informed Farhan Akhtar about the script of Wazir, and wanted his feedback on it. Ten years later, in 2014, they met again, and Akhtar agreed to do the film because, as he later said, the revised script "moved me to my core". He went through intense training and put on eight kilograms of weight to play the role of an Anti Terrorist Squad officer. He also changed his diet and met some of his friends who were ATS officers for the preparation. He modeled his character in the film on Vishwas Nangare Patil, an Inspector-general of police from Kolhapur, Maharashtra. Akhtar agreeing for the role puzzled Chopra, who recalls: "At that time, Javed Akhtar (Farhan's father) and I were engaged in a public verbal duel. When I asked Farhan what made him agree to take up the role, he said, 'The script is so good that I will bear with you'". Chopra noted that while re-writing the film in Hindi, he and Joshi "realised the protagonist can't be American. We had to bring in our own sensibilities. Our cinema is more flamboyant. So the protagonist needed to be flamboyant too. We thought of making the chess master an Indian and approached [Amitabh] Bachchan for it". Bachchan had read the original script, and remembered it when Chopra came to him. Aditi Rao Hydari was cast after Nambiar saw her pictures when she had walked the ramp for a designer and Chopra saw her dancing. After this, she went through three set of auditions: dance, acting and a screen test. John Abraham and Neil Nitin Mukesh make extended cameo appearances in the film.
### Filming
Principal photography commenced on 28 September 2014 in Mumbai. Parts of the film were also shot in Delhi. Chopra claims that "some of the best lines in Wazir are improvised" on the set, including a joke about the Russian vodka and Russian girls between Bachchan and Akhtar. Akhtar did his own stunts in the film. He completed his schedule in March 2015 at Srinagar, while Bachchan filmed his remaining scenes the following month.
### Visual effects
Amitabh Bachchan's legs were removed below the knee in the film with the use of visual effects to show him handicapped. He wore black socks with marks on them during filming to aid in the eventual creation of the effects. Chopra was not happy with the initial effects work on the legs, so he had changes made to improve the results.
## Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack album was composed by a number of artists: Shantanu Moitra, Ankit Tiwari, Advaita, Prashant Pillai, Rochak Kohli and Gaurav Godkhindi. The background score was composed by Rohit Kulkarni while the lyrics were penned by Vidhu Vinod Chopra, Swanand Kirkire, A. M. Turaz, Manoj Muntashir and Abhijeet Deshpande. The album rights of the film were acquired by T-Series, and it was released on 18 December 2015. "Tere Bin", the first single track, was released individually on 4 December 2015, two weeks prior to the album. The video focuses on Farhan Akhtar and Aditi Rao Hydari; the song is sung by Sonu Nigam and Shreya Ghoshal and composed by Shantanu Moitra, with lyrics penned by Chopra. The next two single tracks were released at one-week intervals after the first: "Tu Mere Pass", the second single track, was composed and sung by Ankit Tiwari with lyrics by Manoj Muntashir, and the third, "Maula Mere Maula", was composed by Moitra, sung by Javed Ali and written by Chopra and Swanand Kirkire; its release date of 18 December coincided with the album's release. Fusion rock band Advaita made their film debut with the song "Khel Khel Mein". The track "Tere Liye" was written by A. M. Turaz and composed by Prashant Pillai. It was sung by Gagan Baderiya and Pillai himself. The song "Atrangi Yaari", composed by Rochak Kohli, was sung by Bachchan and Akhtar. The theme track of the film was composed by Gaurav Godkhindi.
### Critical response
Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama wrote: "Wazir has a fair mix of songs that are situational and also that could find popularity over a period of time. Though one isn't quite hunting for any solid chartbusters here, the music does work well in the context of the film." R.M. Vijayakar of India-West summed up with, "In short, three decent songs and three eminently forgettable songs makes for a mixed listening experience. Take it or skip it." Aelina Kapoor from Rediff.com commented, "Wazir has good situational soundtracks that don't aim to set any records but go well with the theme of the film."
## Release
Wazir was initially set to be released in the middle of 2015, and the first teaser of the film was attached with PK (2014). Its planned release date was moved to 2 October and then further to 4 December, but it was ultimately released in India and worldwide on 8 January 2016. The film was given a "UA" certificate with no cuts by the Central Board of Film Certification. The first poster of the film was released on 15 November 2015 via Bachchan's and Akhtar's Twitter accounts, each unveiling the other's look from the film. The official trailer of the film was released on 18 November. Chopra showed the complete film to as many as 70 Indian film programmers and distributors.
In pre-release publicity, Nambiar said, "Casting Mr. Bachchan, who has got such a strong persona, and limiting him in a wheelchair, was a big task for us to get used to". This remark was condemned as "disparaging and extremely condescending" by Javed Abidi, the founder of the Disability Rights Group. Nambiar subsequently apologised for hurting anyone's feelings. The film was released on DVD on 25 March 2016 and is also available on Netflix.
### Critical reception
The Indian Express gave the film 2.5/5 stars and wrote: "watching Farhan Akhtar and Amitabh Bachchan joust and manoeuver around each other is this film's high point". Srijana Mitra Das of The Times of India gave it 3.5/5 stars and opened with, "So, Wazir is a smart movie – which could have been way smarter". Subhash K. Jha gave it 4/5 stars, highlighted its "deviously clever script" and added, "In its 1 hour and 40 minutes of playing-time Wazir gives us no time to stop and ruminate." Sweta Kaushal of Hindustan Times, in a 3/5 review, wrote that "apart from the smart storyline, powerful performances are the backbone of Wazir", and commended both the lead and supporting actors. Baradwaj Rangan characterized the film as "a decent relationship drama, a silly thriller". Shubhra Shetty Saha of Mid-Day praised Bachchan's "amazing emotional precision" and said his performance was "the best thing about this film". However, he also decried the film's "lack of subtlety" and ended with "Wazir is a good, one-time watch."
Many critics felt the film started well but failed to follow through. Ananya Bhattacharya of India Today felt that the film had a "taut, gripping narrative" until the interval but "stumble[d]" in its second half. According to Rajeev Masand of News18 in a 2.5/5 star review, the film was "a consistently watchable but frankly far-fetched thriller that just isn't as smart as it ought to have been". Namrata Joshi of The Hindu called the film "lacklustre": "Despite starting off promisingly with slick production values and good performances to boot Wazir unravels badly, especially in the second half as it heads towards the climax." Raja Sen of Rediff.com gave the film 2/5 stars and characterized it as "obvious"; he said that "none of the character motives in this film actually add up". Saibal Chatterjee from NDTV wrote that "Wazir puts all its crucial cards on the table far too quickly, robbing itself of the shock factor that would have made all the difference between edge-of-the-seat suspense and tame by-the-numbers thrills." Rachit Gupta of Filmfare, in a 3/5 star review, was also unhappy with the film's predictability: "If you pay enough attention to the first half, you'll instantly guess how the end will pan out. So you're sitting in a thriller knowing what's coming up." Gupta added that the climax was convenient and "inane".
Among overseas reviewers, The Guardian's Mike McCahill gave the film three stars out of five, and described it as "a finely poised Bollywood policier". Abhinav Purohit of The National in Abu Dhabi also gave it three stars, and wrote that "overall, Wazir is sure to resonate well with the viewers".
### Box office
Wazir was the first Hindi film of the year. It earned a total of ₹55.7 million (US\$700,000) on 8 January 2016, the opening day of its release at the domestic box office, much of it from the Mumbai, Pune, Delhi NCR and Uttar Pradesh circuits. The film had a moderate opening at the overseas box office on its first day, and collected ₹40 million (US\$500,000).
Domestic revenues increased for each of the next two days of the film's opening weekend. On its second day the film earned ₹70 million (US\$880,000), and collected ₹82.4 million (US\$1.0 million) on its third, for an opening weekend total of ₹210 million (US\$2.6 million). Daily international revenues declined as the weekend progressed, with total overseas collections rising to Rs ₹73.6 million (US\$920,000) after two days, and ₹105 million (US\$1.3 million) after three.
Wazir earned ₹301 million (US\$3.8 million) at the domestic box office in its opening week, and ₹142 million (US\$1.8 million) in the overseas market, for a one-week total of ₹443 million (US\$5.5 million). The film recovered its production budget of ₹350 million (US\$4.4 million) in that first week. Wazir collected ₹62.9 million (US\$790,000) in domestic revenues in its second weekend, eventually becoming the first hit of 2016 at the Hindi film box office. By the end of its five-week theatrical run, the film had grossed an estimated ₹586 million (US\$7.3 million) domestically and ₹201 million (US\$2.5 million) internationally, for an approximate worldwide total of ₹787 million (US\$9.9 million).
|
61,047,074 |
Grumman S-2 Tracker in Australian service
| 1,172,798,433 |
The anti-submarine aircraft's service with the Royal Australian Navy
|
[
"1950s United States anti-submarine aircraft",
"Aircraft first flown in 1952",
"Australian naval aviation",
"Carrier-based aircraft",
"Grumman aircraft",
"High-wing aircraft"
] |
The Royal Australian Navy operated Grumman S-2 Tracker anti-submarine warfare aircraft from 1967 to 1984. The type flew from the aircraft carrier and shore bases. A total of 32 Trackers were purchased in two batches which were delivered in 1967 and 1977.
An order for 14 S-2E Tracker operational aircraft and two S-2A ground trainers was placed in 1964 as part of a project to reinvigorate the Navy's aviation capability. The aircraft were delivered in 1967 and began to enter service the next year. They proved successful in their intended role, and were also used for land-based patrols. They did not see combat, but operated from Melbourne across the Pacific region during training exercises and patrols. All but three of the S-2Es were destroyed by a deliberately lit fire in December 1976, and 16 S-2G Trackers were rapidly acquired to replace them. These aircraft entered service in 1977 and undertook the same tasks as the S-2Es. After Melbourne was decommissioned without replacement in 1982 the Government decided to dispose of the Trackers, and most of the fleet was sold in 1984.
## Acquisition
During the late 1950s the Australian Government and Royal Australian Navy (RAN) considered options to replace the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne, and her air group. While Melbourne had only been commissioned in 1955, the de Havilland Sea Venom fighters and Fairey Gannet maritime patrol aircraft operated by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) were becoming obsolete. It was believed that Melbourne was too small to operate more modern aircraft types, and the RAN investigated options to buy a larger carrier. The Government judged that the cost of a new aircraft carrier was too high, especially given the expense of the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force's (RAAF's) procurement programs at that time, and in November 1959 it was announced that the FAA would cease to operate fixed-wing aircraft in 1963.
As a result of intervention by the Minister for the Navy, Senator John Gorton, the Government eventually agreed to purchase new fixed-wing aircraft. Gorton had served as a fighter pilot in World War II and had a strong interest in his portfolio. In 1961 Gorton convinced the Cabinet to fund a program to reinvigorate the FAA, starting with the purchase of 27 Westland Wessex anti-submarine helicopters. At this time it was planned to retain Melbourne as a helicopter carrier, but in mid-1963 the Government gave the Navy permission to retain the Sea Venoms and Gannets in service until at least 1967. Minister for Defence Senator Shane Paltridge rejected a proposal from the Navy to purchase an Essex-class aircraft carrier from the United States Navy in June 1964, and the next month Melbourne undertook flight trials with Douglas A-4 Skyhawk fighters and Grumman S-2 Tracker anti-submarine aircraft during a visit to U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay in the Philippines. American Trackers had previously operated from Melbourne in 1957 and several other occasions. The July 1964 trials proved that Melbourne could safely operate both types without the need for major modifications.
In November 1964 Cabinet considered a proposal to modernise Melbourne and purchase 18 Skyhawks and 16 Trackers. It decided against acquiring Skyhawks, but agreed to the remainder of the project. Following further lobbying and staff work by the Navy, the Government eventually agreed to also purchase ten A-4G Skyhawks in early 1965. The cost of the Tracker acquisition was \$A16.4 million.
The Tracker order comprised 14 of the S-2E model, which were intended for operational service, and two former US Navy S-2A variants which were to be used as non-flying training aids and instructional airframes. The S-2E Tracker was a twin-engined aircraft with a crew of four. It could be armed with two homing torpedoes, two depth bombs or four depth charges within its weapons bay. 250 lb bombs or Mk 32 Zuni rockets could be mounted on its wings. The aircraft had a maximum range of 2,092 kilometres (1,300 mi) and could stay aloft for up to nine hours. Its sensors included a AN/APS 39 radar and a magnetic anomaly detector, which extended from the belly and tail of the aircraft respectively. They could also carry sonobuoys to track submarines. Trackers had first entered service with the US Navy in 1954, and 1,285 were eventually produced.
## Preparations
RAN personnel were trained to operate Trackers in North America during 1966 and 1967. The first RAN pilots to quality on the type were trained in Canada. Other pilots received training on the type at a US Navy facility at Corpus Christi, Texas. A detachment of maintenance personnel began a training program in the United States during mid-1966 and completed it late the next year.
The RAN decided to use a different flight-deck crew composition for its Trackers than the US Navy and Royal Canadian Navy. Both of these navies crewed their Trackers with a pilot as well as a co-pilot who doubled as the tactical coordinator (TACCO). As the RAN had a large number of highly experienced observers who had served on board Gannets, it decided to employ a single pilot and an observer who also served as the TACCO. This reduced the efficiency of the RAN's Trackers and increased the risk of accidents due to pilot fatigue. The other two members of the aircraft's crew were an observer and an air crewman.
Melbourne travelled to the United States to pick up her new aircraft in late 1967, and returned to Sydney with them on 22 November that year. They were offloaded and transported by road to Mascot Airport. After receiving mechanical checks and test flights, the Trackers flew to HMAS Albatross, the Navy's air base, later that year. Melbourne commenced a refit to prepare her to operate the Skyhawks and Trackers.
The Trackers were allocated to two flying squadrons. 816 Squadron was the primary operator, and flew the aircraft from Melbourne. 851 Squadron used Trackers for training purposes. 816 Squadron recommissioned with the type on 10 January 1968, followed by 851 Squadron on 2 September that year.
After Melbourne's refit was complete and the two squadrons had completed flight training, test flights of the S-2Es from the carrier began in March 1969. Landing was considered challenging, as there was only a 1.2-metre (3.9 ft) gap between the Tracker's right wing and Melbourne's island when aircraft landed on the right-hand side of the centreline. The trials proved successful, and the type was certified for operations from Melbourne.
The RAN also acquired a Tracker Weapons Systems Trainer to support the aircraft. This system was delivered in 1967, and was initially installed in a pair of trailers; one trailer carried cockpit and instrument consoles and the other a computer, electronics and a workshop. The Tracker Weapons Systems Trainer was badly damaged by a fire started in a tea urn before it entered service, and had to be sent back to the United States for repairs. After these were complete, the system was installed in a building at HMAS Albatross.
## Operational service
### S-2E Tracker
Melbourne's first deployment with her new air group commenced in May 1969. During an exercise conducted in this deployment, Skyhawks flying from the carrier made a simulated attack on an "enemy" force which had first been detected by Trackers. On the night of 2–3 June 1969, the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne and her escorts were involved in anti-submarine training exercises in the South China Sea. In preparation for launching a Tracker, Melbourne’s Captain Stevenson ordered the US destroyer, Frank E. Evans to plane guard station (aircraft rescue position), due to confusion the Melbourne hit Evans amidships at 3:15 am, the tragedy cutting the destroyer in two. The Tracker never took off, the Tracker it was to replace on patrol, had to bunny hop back to HMAS Albatross. 816 Squadron regularly operated from Melbourne throughout the early 1970s, and the Trackers proved successful in the anti-submarine role. During this period the aircraft carrier frequently made deployments across the Pacific. It was found that the Trackers could handle the same tasks as the RAAF's larger Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft, though the Trackers had shorter range and could not carry as many weapons. The aircraft's engines also proved to be extremely reliable.
On 10 February 1975 Tracker 853 was destroyed when it landed, the pilot thought it did a bolter (missed the wire), revved up and the pull of the wire slung it violently over the port side into the sea. All four members of the crew were rescued. This was the only loss of a RAN Tracker during flying operations.
Trackers conducted fisheries protection patrols from 1975, an operation called Operation Trochus. This task began on 6 March, when three Trackers from 851 Squadron began what was intended as a twelve month operation from Broome, Western Australia. 816 Squadron took over on 6 May 1975. The Trackers proved so successful, the Australian Government decided the flights would be extended. Responsibility for land-based maritime patrols was exchanged between the two squadrons until December 1980. After this time a civilian company conducted the patrols. The detachment moved to Darwin, Northern Territory at a date not specified in the sources.
Disaster struck the S-2E fleet on the evening of 4 December 1976 when a 19-year-old junior sailor from 851 Squadron deliberately started a fire in H hangar at HMAS Albatross. All but one of the aircraft had been placed in storage for the Christmas period; the remaining aircraft was under maintenance at Bankstown Airport. Despite very dangerous conditions, RAN personnel attempted to fight the fire and move aircraft from the hangar. These efforts were largely unsuccessful, and nine aircraft were destroyed or damaged beyond repair. The other three aircraft were damaged, of which only two were ever repaired. The 19-year old sailor responsible admitted to starting the fire. At his court martial he was found to have not been responsible for his actions due to mental illness.
### S-2G Tracker
The RAN was able to rapidly rebuild its Tracker fleet. An order for six ex-US Navy S-2G Trackers had been placed in October 1976 to modernise the force. This order was increased to sixteen S-2Gs soon after the fire. The US Government sold the aircraft at a discount of 97 percent of their value, and allowed a RAN team to select airframes from US Navy stores shortly after the order was placed. The US Navy also donated spare parts to Australia. The aircraft were refurbished and then flown to San Diego, where in March 1977 they were loaded onto Melbourne. The aircraft entered service shortly afterwards.
The S-2Gs' performance and features were similar to the S-2Es. Their sonic systems were upgraded during 1977 and 1978 to enable the use of more advanced sonobuoys. In 1978 Hawker de Havilland approached the Navy with a proposal to upgrade several of the Trackers' surveillance systems at a cost of between \$1 and \$1.5 million per aircraft. This proposal was rejected.
In mid-1977 Melbourne travelled to the United Kingdom with 816 Squadron aircraft embarked to participate in a fleet review organised to mark the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II. The ageing carrier took part in regular training exercises for the rest of the 1970s. Following an accident on 21 October 1980 in which a Skyhawk was destroyed due to a malfunction in Melbourne's catapult, Trackers were the only fixed-wing aircraft to operate from the carrier for the remainder of its career. In June 1981 a Tracker operating from Melbourne in the South China Sea spotted a boat carrying 99 Vietnamese refugees. The carrier rescued all of the refugees.
From November 1977 land-based Tracker patrols were expanded. The detachment at Darwin began conducting patrols to locate boats carrying refugees escaping from Vietnam. In 1980, the type also began to be used for anti-terrorism patrols around oil rigs in the Bass Strait. The later task continued until 31 December 1983.
Melbourne completed its final deployment in November 1981, and was decommissioned in June the next year. 816 Squadron was merged into 851 Squadron on 2 July 1982. 851 Squadron continued to use Trackers for maritime patrol tasks while the Government considered whether to purchase a new aircraft carrier or offer the aircraft for sale. It was eventually decided to not replace the carrier and sell the Trackers, and they were last flown in RAN service in December 1983. The Trackers were officially withdrawn from service in June 1984. The RAN's next dedicated anti-submarine and surveillance aircraft were Sikorsky S-70B-2 Seahawk helicopters. These helicopters began to enter service in 1988 and were operated from frigates.
All but two of the aircraft were subsequently sold to the United Aeronautical Corporation. The other aircraft were retained in Australia. Tracker 859 is preserved at the Fleet Air Arm Museum and the airworthy 844 was relocated to the HARS Aviation Museum in September 2019. Several other ex-RAN Trackers had been preserved in Australia or were in storage in the United States as of 2019.
## See also
- List of displayed Grumman S-2 Trackers
|
13,941,961 |
History of Shaktism
| 1,114,749,694 |
Aspect of history surrounding Shaktism
|
[
"Hindu denominations",
"Shaktism"
] |
The roots of Shaktism – a Hindu denomination that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi, the Hindu Divine Mother – penetrate deeply into India's prehistory. The Devi's earliest known appearance in Indian Paleolithic settlements is believed to go back more than 8000 years ago. The Badrinath Monastery, dated to about 7000 years ago, and its associated ritual site of Adi Shankara have been well studied.
Then came the refinement of her cult in the Indus Valley Civilisaztion
Shaktism as it exists today began with the literature of the Shankara Age, further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics, reached its full flower during the Khmer period, (1000CE) and continued to expand and develop thereafter. Devi Mahatmya, an important text in Shaktism, was composed around tenth or eleventh century CE. Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition.'" Other important texts include the Lalita Sahasranama, the Devi Gita, Adi Shankara's Saundaryalahari and the Tantras.
Recent developments related to Shaktism include the emergence of Bharat Mata ("Mother India") symbolism, the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus, and the prodigious rise of the "new" goddess Santoshi Mata following release of the Indian film Jai Santoshi Maa ("Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction") in 1975. As one commentator notes:
> Today just as 1000 years ago, images of the Goddess are everywhere in India. You'll find them painted on the sides of trucks, pasted to the dashboards of taxis, postered on the walls of shops. You'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes. Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward, looking up toward her feet. [...] In India, Goddess worship is not a 'cult,' it's a religion, [...] an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition. Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe.
## Early origins
To date, the earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India (near Prayagraj) belongs to the Upper Paleolithic, and carbon-dates to approximately 20,000 - 23,000 BCE. Also belonging to that period are some collections of colorful stones marked with natural triangles. Discovered near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh, they are similar to stones still worshiped as Devi by tribal groups in the area. Moreover, they "may demonstrate connections to the later Tantric use of yantras, in which triangles manifest a vital symbolism connected with fertility."
Thousands of female statuettes dated as early as c. 5500 BCE have been recovered at Mehrgarh, one of the most important Neolithic sites in world archeology, and a precursor to the great Indus Valley civilization. In Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, major cities of the Indus valley civilization, female figurines were found in almost all households indicating the presence of cults of goddess worship. Most figurines are naked and have elaborate coiffures. Some figurines have ornaments or horns on the head and a few are in poses that expose the genitals. Several small circular objects with holes in middle, possibly representing yoni, were also found. The objects and images found suggest that the goddess cults of Indus valley civilization were associated with fertility. A seal shows a male figure standing over a seated female figure with a sickle. It probably suggests an association between the female figure and crops, and possibly implies a ritual sacrifice where the blood of the victim was offered to the goddess for ensuring agricultural productivity.
Bhattacharya links the archaeological discoveries of Indus valley civilization to present-day Shaktism of later Hindu religion. Other scholars like David Kinsley and Lynn Foulston acknowledge some similarities between the cult of goddess in Indus valley civilization and Shaktism, but think that there is no conclusive evidence that proves a link between them.
According to Bhattacharya:
> The later Indus Valley population centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (c. 3300 - 1600 BCE) "sheltered a mixed population, the major section of which came from the adjacent villages to seek their fortune in the great cities. They also brought with them their own cults and rituals, the Female Principle of the agricultural communities, which formed the basis of Harappan [i.e., Indus Valley] religion. Some of the cults and rituals of the simpler peoples were adopted by the higher, but probably not in the original, unsophisticated form. They were given an aristocratic colour [that reflected their worshipers' more] elevated position in the society."
As these philosophies and rituals evolved in the northern reaches of the subcontinent, additional layers of Goddess-focused tradition were expanding outward from the sophisticated Dravidian civilizations of the south. The "cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion," Bhattacharyya notes. "The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion and their female deities eventually came to be identified with the Puranic Parvati, Durga or Kali. [...] The cult of the Sapta Matrika, or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may [also] be of Dravidian inspiration."
## Philosophical development
Shaktism as we know it began with the literature of the Vedic Age; further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics; reached its full flower during the Gupta Age (300-700 CE), and continued to expand and develop thereafter.
### Vedas
As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dispersed, its peoples mixed with other groups to eventually give rise to the Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 - 600 BCE). Female divinity continued to have a place in belief and worship, but generally in a more subordinate role, with goddesses serving principally as consorts to the great gods.
The most important of the female deities mentioned in the Vedas is Ushas. Number of hymns in the Vedas are dedicated exclusively to her. The three divine mothers mentioned in the Rig Veda from whom the Vedic gods took their birth are Aditi, Prithvi and Saraswati. Prithvi continued to exist in later Hinduism as Bhudevi (goddess of the earth). According to Bhattacharyya, "it may be said that Aditi was the most ancient mother of the gods, whose features [had already become] obscure even in the Vedic Age. [...] The Harappan [Mother Goddess] was probably reflected in [the Vedic] conception of Aditi, thought to be a goddess of yore even in the Rigveda itself." Indeed, Vedic descriptions of Aditi are vividly reflected in the countless so-called Lajja Gauri idols (depicting a faceless, lotus-headed goddess in birthing posture) that have been worshiped throughout India for millennia:
> In the first age of the gods, existence was born from non-existence. The quarters of the sky were born from she who crouched with legs spread. The earth was born from she who crouched with legs spread, and from the earth the quarters of the sky were born.
The historically recurrent theme of the Devi's all-encompassing, pan-sexual nature arises explicitly for the first time in such declarations as: "Aditi is the sky, Aditi is the air, Aditi is all gods. [...] Aditi is the Mother, the Father, and the Son. Aditi is whatever shall be born."
Also significant is the appearance, in the famous Rig Vedic hymn Devi Sukta, of two of Hinduism's most widely known and beloved goddesses: Vāc, identified with the present-day Saraswati; and Srī, now better known as Lakshmi. In the hymn, still recited by thousands of Hindus each day, the Goddess unambiguously declares:
> I am the Sovereign Queen; the treasury of all treasures; the chief of all objects of worship; whose all-pervading Self manifests all gods and goddesses; whose birthplace is in the midst of the causal waters; who in breathing forth gives birth to all created worlds, and yet extends beyond them, so vast am I in greatness.
### Upanishads
The great Kena Upanishad (c. 750-500 BCE) tells an early tale in which the Devi appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. It begins with the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu and Indra boasting and posturing in the flush of a recent victory over a demon hoard – until they suddenly find themselves bereft of divine power in the presence of a mysterious yaksha, or forest spirit. When Indra tries to approach and question the yaksha, it disappears, replaced by the Devi in the form of a "highly adorned" yakshini:
> It was Uma, the daughter of Himavat. Indra said to her, 'Who was that yaksha?' She replied, 'It is Brahman. It is only through the victory of Brahman that you have thus become great.' After that Indra and the devas realized the Truth [...] having known Brahman through such direct experience.
Significantly, Bhattacharyya notes that "a study of the extant yaksha and yakshini images [of this period] shows that the later images of the gods and goddesses were shaped after them."
The canonical Shakta Upanishads are much more recent, most dating between the 13th and 18th centuries, and generally relate to sectarian matters of Srividya worship. While their archaic Sanskrit usages "tend to create the impression that [they] belong to a hoary past, not one of the verses cast in the Vedic mold can be traced to a Vedic source."
### Epic period
While "no goddess of a purely Shakta character" is mentioned in the great Vaishnava epic Ramayana (c. 200 BCE - 200 CE), the Mahabharata (c. 400 BCE - 400 CE) is full of references that confirm the ongoing vitality of Shakta worship.
> Devi is also mentioned in Devyatharva sookta, Triporopanishad, and there are many verses in vedas regarding various forms of goddess. The main Goddess of the pantheon held as Durga the central goddess. Mahabharat The Great Epic thus refers to the goddess residing in the Vindhyas, the goddess who is fond of wine and meat ('') and worshiped by the hunting peoples." The ongoing process of Goddess-worshiping indigenous peoples "coming into the fold of the caste system [also brought with it] a religious reflex of great historical consequence."
However, it is in the Epic's Durga Stotras that "the Devi is first revealed in her true character, [comprising] numerous local goddesses combined into one [...] all-powerful Female Principle." Meanwhile, the great Tamil epic, Silappatikaram (c. 100 CE) was one of several literary masterpieces amply indicating "the currency of the cult of the Female Principle in South India" during this period – and, once again, "the idea that Lakshmi, Saraswati, Parvati, etc., represent different aspects of the same power."
### Puranas
Taken together with the Epics, the vast body of religious and cultural compilations known as the Puranas (most of which were composed during the Gupta period, c. 300 - 600 CE) "afford us greater insight into all aspects and phases of Hinduism – its mythology, its worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of God, its philosophy and superstitions, its festivals and ceremonies and ethics – than any other works."
Some of the more important Shakta-oriented Puranas include the Devi Purana and the Kalika Purana, in which Devi is described as "the supramental Prakriti" to whom the world owes its origin, "while she does not owe her origin to anything." By far, however, the most important Puranas from the Shakta standpoint are the Markandeya Purana, the Brahmanda Purana, and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, from which the key Shakta scriptures are drawn.
#### Devi Mahatmya
By far, the most important text of Shaktism is the Devi Mahatmya (also known as the Durga Saptashati, Chandi or Chandi-Path), found in the Markandeya Purana. Composed some 1,600 years ago, the text "wove together the diverse threads of already ancient memory and created a dazzling verbal tapestry that remains even today the central text of the Hindu Goddess." Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition.'"
As the earliest Hindu scripture "in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G", the Devi Mahatmya also marks the birth of "independent Shaktism"; i.e. the cult of the Female Principle as a distinct philosophical and denominational entity.
> The influence of the cult of the Female Principle [had already] placed goddesses by the sides of the gods of all systems as their consorts, and symbols of their energy or shakti. But the entire popular emotion centering round the Female Principle was not exhausted. So need was felt for a new system, entirely female-dominated, as system in which even the great gods like Vishnu or Shiva would remain subordinate to the goddess. This new system – containing vestiges of hoary antiquity, varieties of rural and tribal cults and rituals, and strengthened by newfangled ideas of different ages – came to be known as Shaktism.
#### Lalita Sahasranama
Within the Hindu genre of Sahasranamas (literally, "thousand-name" hymns, extolling the names, deeds and associations of a given deity), the Sri Lalita Sahasranama Stotra, or "Hymn to the Thousand Names of the Auspicious Goddess Lalita", is "a veritable classic, widely acknowledged for its lucidity, clarity and poetic excellence."
The Lalita Sahasranama is part of the Brahmanda Purana, but its specific origins and authorship are lost to history. Based upon textual evidence, it is believed to have been composed in South India not earlier than the 9th or later than the 11th century CE. The text is closely associated with another section of the Brahmanda Purana entitled Lalitopakhyana ("The Great Narrative of Lalita"), which extols the deeds of the Goddess in her form as Lalita-Tripurasundari, in particular her slaying of the demon Bhandasura.
The text operates on a number of levels, containing references not just to the Devi's physical qualities and exploits but also an encoded guide to philosophy and esoteric practices of kundalini yoga and Srividya Shaktism. In addition, every name and group of names within the Sahasranama is considered to have high mantric value independent of its content, and are often prescribed in sadhanas or prayogas to accomplish particular purposes.
#### Devi Gita
The late Puranic age saw the beginnings of Bhakti – "new religious movements of personalistic, theistic devotionalism" that would come to full fruition between 1200 and 1700 CE, and still in many ways define the mainstream of Hindu religious practice. The Devi Gita is an important milestone, as the first major Shakta "theistic work [to be] steeped in bhakti."
The Devi Gita is the final and best-known portion of the vast 11th-century scripture known as the Devi Bhagavata Purana, a text exclusively dedicated to the Devi "in her highest iconic mode, as the supreme World-Mother Bhuvaneshvari, beyond birth, beyond marriage, beyond any possible subordination to Shiva." Indeed, the Purana's "most significant contribution to the Shakta theological tradition is the ideal of a Goddess both single and benign."
The Devi-Bhagavata Purana retells the tales of the Devi Mahatmya in much greater length and detail, embellishing them with Shakta philosophical reflections, while recasting many classic tales from other schools of Hinduism (particularly Vaishnavism) in a distinctly Shakta light:
> The Devi-Bhagavata was intended not only to show the superiority of the Goddess over various male deities, but also to clarify and elaborate on her nature on her own terms. [...] The Goddess in the Devi-Bhagavata becomes less of a warrior goddess, and more a nurturer and comforter of her devotees, and a teacher of wisdom. This development in the character of the Goddess culminates in the Devi Gita, which "repeatedly stresses the necessity of love for the goddess, with no mention of one's gender, as the primary qualification," a view "inspired by the devotional ideals of Shaktism.
### Samkhya and Vedanta
As the first millennium wound to an end, "religious movements of the South began to exert tremendous influence on the North" – and the Southern contribution to Shaktism's emergence was significant:
> Korravai, the Tamil goddess of war and victory, was easily identified with Durga, [who] was also identified with the Bhagavati of Kerala and the eternal virgin enshrined in Kanyakumari. She was invoked in one or another of her nine forms, Navadurga, or as Bhadrakali. The Tamil tradition also associates her with Saraswati or Vāc, as also with Srī and Lakshmi. Thus in Durga the devotee visualised the triple aspects of power, beneficence and wisdom. In addition, many southern temples included shrines to the Sapta Matrika and "from the earliest period the South had a rich tradition of the cult of the village mothers, concerned with the facts of daily life.
The dualistic metaphysics of Tantric traditions indicates the influence of Samkhya on Tantra. Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of Prakriti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. Shakta philosophy also elaborated Samkhya theory on the phases of cosmic evolution (tattvas) by expanding the number of phases from 25 to 36 tattvas. "It is worthy of note that this scheme of tattvas enables the Shakta philosophy to solve the conundrum ... as to how the changeless Brahman becomes the changing universe, and how the One can become the Many. In the Shakta cosmogony the central idea is that Shakti issues out of the Absolute and is not different from Brahman, being [rather] the kinetic aspect of Brahman."
### Tantras
In most schools of Shaktism, the Tantras – a large genre of ritual manuals dating from as early as the 7th century CE and as late as the 19th century – are central scriptures. The Tantras "devised two main margas (paths of sadhana) to reach the same goal":
- Vamachara lineages generally favor external worship (puja, murtis, etc.) and permit use of the panchamakara (lit. "five substances", referencing certain controversial forms of worship) at various levels under controlled circumstances; and
- Dakshinachara lineages generally prefer internal worship (meditative techniques, etc.) and essentially disapprove of the panchamakara under any circumstances.
The proper path is generally determined by the guru based upon a given devotee's personal nature – i.e., as a tamasic pasu (i.e., an ordinary person not particularly given to spiritual pursuits, and mainly preoccupied with worldly matters); a rajasic vira (an active and vigorous spiritual seeker, qualified to "heroically" engage more intensive forms of sadhana); or a sattvic divya (a holy-natured person, having already achieved an extremely high level of spiritual maturity) – and various other factors.
Around 800 CE, Adi Shankara, the legendary sage and preceptor of the Advaita Vedanta system, implicitly recognized Shakta philosophy and Tantric liturgy as part of mainstream Hinduism in his powerful (and still hugely popular) hymn known as Saundaryalahari or "Waves of Beauty". Shankara, while "not a Shakta in the sectarian sense, [...] had a soft corner for Shakta religion, perhaps due to its popularity among the masses." Another important Shakta text often attributed to Shankara is the hypnotically exquisite Mahishasura Mardini Stotra, a 21-verse hymn derived from the Devi Mahatmya that constitutes "one of the greatest works ever addressed to the supreme feminine power."
By the thirteenth century, "the Tantras had assimilated a very large number of cults of various origins – regional, tribal and sectarian – [and] had assumed a completely Shakta character." From the fourteenth century onward, "the Shakta-Tantric cults had [...] become woven into the texture of all the religious practices current in India," their spirit and substance infusing regional and sectarian vernacular as well as Sanskrit literature.
## Rise of popular Shaktism
In the 18th and 19th centuries, "a good number of Shakta-Tantric works were composed" that "attempted to make the Tantric ideas popular among the masses." Notable examples include the Mahanirvana Tantra, characterized by its "special modernism" and "liberal outlook, especially towards women." Works of the prolific and erudite Bhaskararaya, the most "outstanding contributor to Shakta philosophy," also belong to this period and remain central to Srividya practice even today.
The great Tamil composer Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835), a Srividya adept, set one of that tradition's central mysteries – the majestic Navavarana Puja – to music in a Caranatic classical song cycle known as the Kamalamba Navavarna Kritis. "Dikshitar thus [threw] open the doors of [Srividya] to all those who are moved to approach the Divine Mother through devotional music." In the meantime an even greater wave of popular Shaktism was swelling in eastern India with the passionate Shakta bhakti lyrics of two Bengali-language court poets—Bharatchandra Ray (1712–1760) and Ramprasad Sen (1718/20–1781)—which "opened not only a new horizon of the Shakti cult but made it acceptable to all, irrespective of caste or creed." More than 80 Shakta poets appeared in Bengal after Ramprasad [and] by 1900 the number of Shakta lyrics exceeded 4,000. And the tradition still survives."
From this point onward, "Shaktism was evolving as a liberal, universal religion" that touched nearly every aspect of Indian life. The evolution "achieved a completeness" in the great Shakta saint Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886), "who held from his Shakta experience that the aim of all religions was the same and that the difference between the personal and the impersonal god was no more than that between ice and water."
Another major advocate of Shaktism in this period was Sir John Woodroffe (1865–1936), a High Court judge in British India and "the father of modern Tantric studies," whose vast oeuvre "bends over backward to defend the Tantras against their many critics and to prove that they represent a noble, pure, ethical system in basic accord with the Vedas and Vedanta." His complete works are still in print and remain influential to this day.
Ramakrishna's chief disciple Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) "inherited from Ramakrishna the Shakta-oriented, synthetic outlook which insisted on the cult of Shakti in the programme of national regeneration," and in fact "regarded the country as the living image of the Divine Mother" – an image that resonated throughout India's struggle for independence.
Another of India's great nationalists, Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950), later reinterpreted "the doctrine of Shakti in a new light" by drawing on "the Tantric conception of transforming the mortal and material body into [something] pure and divine," and setting a goal of "complete and unconditional surrender to the will of the Mother."
## Modern developments
In certain regards, Bhattacharyya notes, Shaktism has so infused mainstream Hinduism that it has "ceased to be a sectarian religion," and presents "no difficulty for anyone to accept its essence."
Shakta-oriented temples and pilgrimage sites draw ever-growing crowds and recognition. For example, in 2004 the monumental Meenakshi Amman Temple was shortlisted in the "New Seven Wonders of the World" competition. Meanwhile, the Vaishno Devi shrine in Jammu and Kashmir attracts record numbers of pilgrims – five million in the 2007 as of September.
The Indian film industry turns out scores of Shakta devotional films, perhaps none more famous than 1975's Jai Santoshi Maa ("Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction"), a low-budget box-office phenomenon that propelled a previously unknown deity, Santoshi Mata, to dizzying heights of devotional fervor. A 36-episode television miniseries in 2003 and a successful 2006 remake of the original film suggest that this "new" goddess's following continues to expand.
> As her film brought her to life, Santoshi Ma quickly became one of the most important and widely worshiped goddesses in India, taking her place in poster-art form in the altar rooms of millions of Hindu homes. [...] Yet it is hard to conceive that Santoshi Ma could have granted such instant satisfaction to so many people had she not been part of a larger and already well-integrated culture of the Goddess. Her new devotees could immediately recognize many of her characteristic moods and attributes, and feel them deeply, because she shared them with other goddesses long since familiar to them.
Some scholars also identify a Shakta influence in the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus "through Web sites, world tours, ashrams and devotional groups across the globe, devotional publications and videos." While some of these teachers represent conservative and patriarchal lineages of mainstream Hinduism, Pechilis notes that others – for example Mata Amritanandamayi and Mother Meera – operate in a strongly "feminine mode" that is distinctly bhaktic'' and Shakta in nature. She observes:
> Female gurus are understood by Hindu tradition and by their followers alike to be manifestations of the Goddess; that is, as perfect embodiments of shakti. [...] The nature, presence, and teaching of the Hindu female gurus is universal. As gurus, they distinctively blend the formality and authority of classical tradition with the spontaneity of interactive encounter, harmonizing personal experience and the ultimate.
|
36,942,111 |
Hurricane Leslie (2012)
| 1,171,889,397 |
Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 2012
|
[
"2012 Atlantic hurricane season",
"2012 disasters in Canada",
"Cape Verde hurricanes",
"Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Bermuda",
"Hurricanes in Canada",
"Natural disasters in Newfoundland and Labrador",
"Tropical cyclones in 2012"
] |
Hurricane Leslie was an Atlantic tropical cyclone that caused minor damage in Bermuda and Atlantic Canada in September 2012. The twelfth tropical cyclone of the annual hurricane season, Leslie developed from a tropical wave located nearly 1,500 miles (2,400 km) east of the Leeward Islands on August 30. About twelve hours later, it strengthened into Tropical Storm Leslie. Tracking steadily west-northwestward, it slowly intensified due to only marginally favorable conditions. By September 2, the storm curved north-northwestward while located north of the Leeward Islands. Thereafter, a blocking pattern over Atlantic Canada caused Leslie to drift for four days. Late on September 5, Leslie was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane. However, due to its slow movement, the storm causing upwelling, which decreased sea surface temperatures (SST's), weakening Leslie back to a tropical storm on September 7.
The storm drifted until September 9, when it accelerated while passing east of Bermuda. Relatively strong winds on the island caused hundreds of power outages and knocked down tree branches, electrical poles, and other debris. Slight re-intensification took place, with Leslie becoming a hurricane again, before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland on September 11. In Atlantic Canada, the storm brought heavy rainfall to both Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. In the latter, localized flooding occurred, especially in the western portions of the province. Also in Newfoundland, strong winds from Leslie ripped off roofs, destroyed trees, and left 45,000 homes without power. Additionally, a partially built house was destroyed and several incomplete homes were damaged in Pouch Cove. Overall, Hurricane Leslie caused \$10.1 million (2012 USD) in damage and no fatalities.
## Meteorological history
A tropical wave, which was accompanied by a broad surface low pressure area, emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa late on August 26. Tracking generally westward, the system remained disorganized for the next several days. By August 29, the system became increasingly organized as showers and thunderstorms concentrated toward the center. Based on Dvorak satellite classifications and scatterometer surface wind data, it is estimated that Tropical Depression Twelve developed at 0000 UTC on August 30, while located about 1,495 miles (2,406 km) east-southeast of the northern Leeward Islands. Situated to the south of a subtropical ridge, the system tracked west-northwestward over warm sea surface temperatures. As a result, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Leslie by 1200 UTC on August 30.
After becoming a tropical storm on August 30, the subtropical ridge caused Leslie to turn west-northwestward. By the early on August 31, the storm featured well-define outflow in all directions and the center of circulation was close to the main area of convection. Intensity estimates around that time indicated sustained wind speeds of 70 mph (110 km/h). However, intensification halted later on August 31 as wind shear increased over the storm, causing convection to become displaced from the center. Early on September 1, an eye-like feature appeared on satellite imagery; however, there was uncertainty as to whether or not the feature was displaced from the low-level center. The storm became increasingly disorganized, with the circulation displaced from the main convective area several hours later.
Relentless wind shear caused Leslie to weaken to slightly to a 60 mph (95 km/h) tropical storm, despite sea surface temperatures (SSTs) exceeding 84 °F (29 °C). Early on September 3, the storm decelerated and curved northwestward, while approaching a weakness in Bermuda high pressure ridge. Eventually, Leslie turned to a more northerly motion. A blocking pattern over Atlantic Canada caused the storm to drift at forward speeds under 5 mph (8.0 km/h) for four days. Wind shear also decreased, allowing Leslie to re-organize and strengthen into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 5. Six hours later, Leslie attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 80 mph (130 km/h). However, the slow movement of the storm caused upwelling – a process by which warm SSTs are replaced with colder waters. As a result, Leslie slowly began to weaken and fell to tropical storm intensity by early on September 8. Despite weakening, the storm's circulation expanded to a radius of more than 1,150 miles (1,850 km); the wind field also expanded, with tropical storm force winds reaching about 175 miles (282 km) in diameter from the center.
By early on September 9, the blocking pattern diminished as a broad mid- to upper-level trough and associated cold front moved off the East Coast of the United States. As a result, Leslie accelerated north-northeastward. Later that day, the storm passed about 130 miles (210 km) east of Bermuda. After leaving the region of upwelled waters, Leslie began to re-strengthen and became a hurricane again at 1200 UTC on September 10. Early on the following day, the storm reached its minimum barometric pressure of 968 mbar (28.6 inHg). However, a combination of cold SSTs, strong wind shear, and merging with a cold front caused the storm to become an extratropical cyclone at 0900 UTC on September 11, while located about 85 miles (137 km) south of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland. Leslie was operationally considered a tropical cyclone when it made landfall on the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland. The remnants of Leslie moved rapidly across Newfoundland and re-emerged into the Atlantic later on September 11. At 0600 UTC on the following day, the remnants of Leslie were absorbed into another larger extratropical storm over the Labrador Sea.
## Preparations and impact
### Bermuda
A few tropical cyclone warnings and watches were implemented in relation to Leslie. At 2100 UTC on September 6, a tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda. The watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning at 0900 UTC on September 8. By early on September 10, the warning was discontinued. On September 6, officials in Bermuda urged residents to "prepare for the worst". Schools prepared to close Friday as residents got ready for the approaching storm. "Leslie could be a historic storm for Bermuda as it is very large and forecast to intensify rapidly as it approaches," the Bermuda Emergency Measures Organization said. "The island could experience hurricane force winds for a sustained period of time, possibly up to two days."
However, the storm passed further east of Bermuda than initially predicted, causing only minor impact. Nonetheless, sustained winds of 39 mph (63 km/h) and a gust up to 54 mph (87 km/h) was reported in St. David's Island. At the same location, 3.15 inches (80 mm) of precipitation was recorded. Throughout Bermuda, scattered power outages affected hundreds of residents and tree branches and other debris fell on roads; at least one street pole was toppled in Hamilton.
### Canada
At 0600 UTC on September 10, a tropical storm watch was issued from Indian Harbour southward to Stones Cove, Newfoundland, and from Fogo Island to Charlottetown. Simultaneously, a hurricane watch was put into effect from Stones Cove to Charlottetown. By 1500 UTC on September 10, the tropical storm watches were discontinued. Around that time, a tropical storm warning was implemented from Indian Harbour to Triton. By late on September 11, all watches and warnings were discontinued. As a precaution, the town of Badger declared a state of emergency.
While still a tropical cyclone, Leslie produced 2 to 4 inches (51 to 102 mm) of rain across much of Nova Scotia, peaking at 6.5 inches (170 mm) in Shubenacadie. The rainfall likely contributed to the ongoing flooding in some areas of Nova Scotia. Similarly, 2 to 4 inches (51 to 102 mm) of precipitation was reported throughout much of Newfoundland, with a peak total of 4.25 inches (108 mm) in Cow Head. Localized flooding left some roads and bridges impassable and briefly isolated the Port au Port Peninsula from the mainland of Newfoundland. Due to winds up to 85 mph (137 km/h), Leslie ripped off roofs, destroyed trees, and left 45,000 homes without power, particularly on the Avalon Peninsula, in the southeast portion of Newfoundland.
`In Pouch Cove on the Avalon Peninsula, the storm destroyed a partially built house and damaged incomplete homes in the Pleasantville neighborhood of St. John's. Within the latter, several streets were closed, as crews cleaned up scattered debris. A portion of Memorial University of Newfoundland's campus was closed after glass littered a pedestrian walk. Later, the remnants of Leslie brought rainfall to Nunavut, bring 1.4 inches (36 mm) of precipitation to Iqaluit during a three-day period. Damage in Atlantic Canada reached 10 million CAD ($10.1 million USD).`
### Elsewhere
While passing to north of the Lesser Antilles, Leslie generated rough surf on various Leeward Islands, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. Leslie, combined with the remnants of Hurricane Isaac, also produced rip currents along the east coast of Florida, mainly from Nassau County south to Martin County. Additionally, the storm also brought rip currents to coastal Delaware and New Jersey between September 5 and September 6.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- List of Bermuda hurricanes
- Hurricane Igor
- Hurricane Fabian
- Hurricane Florence (2006)
- Hurricane Maria (2011)
|
2,040,018 |
Sony Music Publishing
| 1,172,377,172 |
American music publishing company
|
[
"1955 establishments in England",
"1995 establishments in the United States",
"American subsidiaries of foreign companies",
"EMI",
"Michael Jackson",
"Music publishing companies of the United Kingdom",
"Music publishing companies of the United States",
"Publishing companies based in New York City",
"Publishing companies established in 1955",
"Publishing companies established in 1995",
"Sony Music",
"Sony Music Publishing",
"Sony subsidiaries"
] |
Sony Music Publishing (formerly Sony/ATV Music Publishing) is the largest music publisher in the world, with over five million songs owned or administered as of end March 2021. US-based, it is part of the Sony Music Group, which is itself owned by Sony Entertainment. The company was formed as Sony/ATV in 1995 by the merger of the original incarnation of Sony Music Publishing and ATV Music, which was owned by late entertainer Michael Jackson. Jackson had purchased ATV Music, which included the Lennon–McCartney song catalog, in 1985.
In 2012, an investor consortium led by Sony/ATV Music Publishing acquired EMI Music Publishing to become the largest music publishing administrator in the world, with a library of over three million songs.
In April 2019, Jon Platt became CEO/Chairman of Sony/ATV Music Publishing after the contract of longtime CEO/Chairman Martin Bandier expired. In August 2019, management of Sony/ATV Music Publishing and Sony Music Entertainment were merged under the newly formed Sony Music Group.
## History of ATV Music
Associated Television (ATV) was a British television broadcasting company founded in 1955 by Lew Grade. Over the next two decades, ATV expanded through acquisitions to become an entertainment conglomerate with business lines in the record industry, music publishing and film production.
ATV entered the music industry in 1958 when it acquired 50% of Pye Records, a British record company. ATV expanded into music publishing in 1966 when it acquired 50% of New World Music and Jubilee Music, subsidiaries of Chappell & Co. ATV also acquired the other 50% of Pye Records, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of ATV, including Pye Record's publishing subsidiary Welbeck Music.
ATV acquired Northern Songs, publisher of the Lennon–McCartney song catalogue, in 1969. The catalog featured almost every song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. Northern Songs was co-owned by Lennon, McCartney, Brian Epstein and Dick James, who owned a controlling interest. In 1969, James offered to sell his shares to ATV. Lennon and McCartney then attempted to gain a controlling interest in the company. Their bid to gain control, part of a long and acrimonious fight, failed. The financial clout of Grade, their adversary in the bidding war, ensured that the songs written by the two Beatles passed into the control of ATV.
In 1970, ATV formed a joint publishing venture with Kirshner Entertainment, called ATV-Kirshner Music. The partnership agreement expired at the end of 1972 at which time ATV Music was formed to manage all of ATV's publishing interests, including Northern Songs. ATV Music remained a successful organization in the music industry throughout the 1970s, largely due to the performance of Northern Songs. ATV Music also entered into co-publishing agreements with Lennon and McCartney, whose contract with Northern Songs expired in 1973.
While ATV Music was successful, its parent company, now known as Associated Communications Corporation (ACC) began experiencing financial difficulties. From 1978 to 1981, ACC's profits declined due to losses in its film division, and share prices dropped dramatically. The main television arm of ATV lost its government-granted license in its then-current form and was restructured into Central Independent Television. In 1981, Grade entertained offers for Northern Songs, drawing interest from several bidders. McCartney, with Lennon's widow Yoko Ono, offered £21 million but the offer was declined by Grade who decided not to sell Northern Songs separately after other suitors, including CBS Songs, EMI Music Publishing, Warner Communications, Paramount Pictures and the Entertainment Co. showed interest in buying ATV Music as a whole.
Meanwhile, Australian businessman Robert Holmes à Court had been acquiring shares of ACC and launched a takeover bid in earnest in January 1982. Grade resigned as chairman and was replaced by Holmes à Court who successfully acquired a controlling interest in the company. After Holmes à Court assumed control of ACC, ATV Music was no longer for sale.
### Sale of ATV Music to Michael Jackson
In 1981, American singer Michael Jackson collaborated with Paul McCartney, writing and recording several songs together. Jackson stayed at the home of McCartney and his wife Linda during the recording sessions, becoming friendly with both. One evening while at the dining table, McCartney brought out a thick, bound notebook displaying all the songs to which he owned the publishing rights. Jackson grew more excited as he examined the pages. He inquired about how to buy songs and how the songs were used. McCartney explained that music publishing was a lucrative part of the music business. Jackson replied by telling McCartney that he would buy the Beatles' songs one day. McCartney laughed, saying "Great. Good joke."
Jackson was first informed that the ATV catalog was up for sale in September 1984 by his attorney, John Branca, who had put together Jackson's earlier catalogue acquisitions. Warned of the competition he would face in buying such popular songs, Jackson remained resolute in his decision to purchase them. Branca approached McCartney's attorney to query whether the Beatle was planning to bid. The attorney stated he wasn't; it was "too pricey." According to Bert Reuter, who negotiated the sale of ATV Music for Holmes à Court, "We had given Paul McCartney first right of refusal but Paul didn't want it at that time." Lennon's widow, Yoko Ono had been contacted as well but also did not enter bidding.
The competitors in the 1984 sale of ATV Music included Charles Koppelman and Marty Bandier's New York-based the Entertainment Co., Virgin Records, New York real estate tycoon Samuel J. LeFrak, and financier Charles Knapp. On November 20, 1984, Jackson sent a bid of \$46 million to Holmes à Court. Branca suggested the amount of the bid after having spent time evaluating the earnings of the catalogue and learning of another bid for \$39 million. Jackson was only interested in the music copyrights, but the package also included buildings, a recording studio and studio equipment. The two sides signed a non-binding memorandum of mutual interest in December 1984 and Jackson's team began a four-month process of verifying ATV Music's legal documents, financial reports, and every significant composition in the nearly 4000-song catalog.
The two sides began drafting contracts in January 1985 and follow-through meetings began on March 16. Jackson's team described the negotiations as frustrating, with frequent shifts of position by the seller. One Holmes à Court representative described the negotiations as a "game of poker". Jackson's team thought they had reached a deal several times, but new bidders would enter the picture or they would encounter new areas of debate. The prospective deal went through eight drafts. In May 1985, Jackson's team walked away from negotiations after having spent hundreds of hours and over \$1 million. In June 1985, they learned Koppelman/Bandier had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy the catalog for \$50 million.
But in early August, Holmes à Court contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson only raised his bid to \$47.5 million, but he had the advantage of being able to close the deal faster, having completed due diligence of ATV Music prior to any formal agreement. He also agreed to visit Australia as a guest of Holmes à Court and appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon. Holmes à Court included some more assets and agreed to establish a scholarship in Jackson's name at a U.S. university. Branca closed the deal and purchased ATV Music on Jackson's behalf for \$47.5 million on August 10, 1985. In October 1985, Jackson fulfilled his contract provision to visit Perth, Western Australia and appear on the telethon, where he spoke briefly and met with two children.
The only Beatles song in the Northern Songs catalog that was excluded from the sale was "Penny Lane", the rights to which were gifted by Holmes à Court to his then-teenage daughter Catherine before the sale, as it was her favorite Beatles song.
### Reactions to the acquisition
Jackson went on to use the Beatles' songs in numerous commercials, feeling that it would enable a new generation of fans to enjoy the music. McCartney, who had used the Buddy Holly song catalogue in commercials, felt saddened. Privately, Jackson was reported to have expressed exasperation at McCartney's attitude; he felt that the musician should have paid for the songs he had written. At the time, McCartney was one of the richest entertainers in the world, with a net worth of \$560 million and a royalty income of \$41 million. Jackson stated, "If he didn't want to invest \$47.5 million in his own songs, then he shouldn't come crying to me now."
Appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman shortly after Jackson died in 2009, McCartney spoke about Jackson's acquisition of the Beatles songs and the impact of it on their relationship:
> And which was, you know, that was cool, somebody had to get it, I suppose. What happened actually was then I started to ring him up. I thought, OK, here's the guy historically placed to give Lennon–McCartney a good deal at last. Cuz we got signed when we were 21 or something in a back alley in Liverpool. And the deal, it's remained the same, even though we made this company the most famous... hugely successful. So I kept thinking, it was time for a raise. Well you would, you know. [David Letterman: Yes, I think so.] And so it was great. But I did talk to him about it. But he kind of blanked me on it. He kept saying, "That's just business Paul." You know. So, "yeah it is", and waited for a reply. But we never kind of got to it. And I thought, mm.... So we kind of drifted apart. It was no big bust up. We kind of drifted apart after that. But he was a lovely man, massively talented, and we miss him.
Ono was pleased that Jackson had acquired Northern Songs and called it a "blessing". Speaking in November 1990, Ono stated, "Businessmen who aren't artists themselves wouldn't have the consideration Michael has. He loves the songs. He's very caring." She added that if she and McCartney were to own the songs, there would certainly be arguments. Ono explained that neither she nor McCartney needed that. "If Paul got the songs, people would have said, 'Paul finally got John.' And if I got them, they'd say, 'Oh, the dragon lady strikes again.'"
At least one Beatles song was covered by Jackson after acquiring publishing rights: "Come Together" from the album Abbey Road (primarily a Lennon composition) in 1986. The song was recorded for Jackson's 1987 album Bad but was scrapped and instead put on HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I eight years later. It was featured on the 1988 movie Moonwalker and also had an official video. It is not known if Jackson covered any other songs, as no bootlegs have been released.
## History of the first incarnation of Sony Music Publishing
Sony, which sought to diversify into music, films and games, acquired CBS Records Inc. in January 1988, and was later renamed as Sony Music Entertainment Inc. in January 1991. Shortly after the acquisition by Sony a music publishing division, CBS Music Publishing, was formed. CBS Records' previous publishing division, CBS Songs, had been sold to SBK Entertainment in 1986, and SBK ended being sold to EMI in 1989. Looking for further opportunities, Sony aimed to expand its music publishing interests. CBS Records acquired the Nashville music publisher Tree International Publishing in 1989. In addition to publishing agreements with Sony Music recording artists, further acquisitions included the Fred Fisher publishing catalog of 3,000 songs and Nile Rodgers' Chic Music, Inc.
## Merger of ATV Music with Sony Music Publishing
In 1995, Sony offered Jackson \$110 million for a 50% stake in a combined ATV and Sony Music Publishing joint venture. Following hurriedly arranged meetings and disagreements over the selling price, a deal was sealed by Jackson during a concert in Tokyo. Jackson had essentially sold half ownership of the Beatles' and others' songs for a large profit. Jackson's own songs, grouped in the Mijac catalog, were not included in the deal; that catalog remained with Warner/Chappell Music until 2012.
The new company was named Sony/ATV Music Publishing and became the second largest music publisher in the world. Michael P. Schulhof, President and CEO of Sony Corporation of America, welcomed the merger and praised Jackson for his efforts in the venture. "Michael Jackson is not only the most successful entertainer in history; he is also an astute businessman. Michael understands the importance of copyrights and the role they play in the introduction to new technologies." He added that Jackson recognizes Sony's "leadership in developing and realizing new technologies that serve to expand the creative horizon of artists such as himself". Administrative expertise was provided by Sony, who installed Paul Russell as chairman. Jackson was a company director and attended board meetings regularly. As each party in the arrangement held the power of veto, both sides would have to agree on a decision before it could be made. If either party disagreed on decisions, they would not be implemented.
In 2006, Sony gained operational control of Sony/ATV and obtained an option to buy half of Jackson's stake in the company at any time for a fixed price of \$250 million.
### Catalog acquisitions (2001–2007)
Sony/ATV Music Publishing continued to acquire song catalogs in the 21st century.
In November 2001, the company signed country singer Tony Martin to an exclusive songwriting and co-publishing deal. Through the deal, they acquired Martin's Baby Mae Music catalog of 600 songs, which includes Joe Diffie's "Third Rock from the Sun" and Jeff Carson's "Not on Your Love".
In July 2002, Sony/ATV Music Publishing bought veteran country music publisher Acuff-Rose Music for \$157 million. The venture included music publishing rights to 55,000 country music songs, including the music of Hank Williams, The Everly Brothers and Roy Orbison, and the master recordings of the defunct label Hickory Records. Sony/ATV revived Hickory Records as the in-house record label imprint in 2007, with distribution handled by Sony Music's RED Distribution. Sony/ATV also owns the masters of Dial Records, Four Star Records and Challenge Records.
Another company acquisition was made in 2007, when Sony/ATV purchased Famous Music, a music publishing business with song catalogue of more than 125,000 songs including "Moon River" and "Footloose", for \$370 million. The deal, sought by Viacom, included the assumption of around \$30 million of debt. The song catalogue also includes the hits of Eminem, Akon, Linda Perry, Björk, Shakira and Beck, as well as music from films released by Viacom divisions Paramount Pictures (which had founded Famous Music in 1928) and DreamWorks Pictures.
### Notable administration and distribution deals
Digital sheet music provider Musicnotes.com announced in June 2006 that it had signed a long-term distribution agreement with Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Musicnotes.com would produce and sell digital sheet music and guitar tablature for songs from Sony/ATV's extensive catalog. "As a music publisher, we are always looking for new and innovative ways to promote our songs and songwriters," Sony/ATV chairman and chief executive David Hockman announced in a statement.
On August 4, 2008, The Orchard secured a deal to globally digitally distribute and market the music catalog by Sony/ATV which includes: Sony Tree Productions, Hickory Records, and Masters International.
On June 27, 2017, Sony/ATV agreed to administer the music publishing rights of French motion picture company EuropaCorp, soon after acquiring 1,500 music copyrights from the studio. Other major studios that rely on Sony/ATV's administration include sister studio Sony Pictures (except the studio's 1993-2012 catalogue, which is owned by Anthem Entertainment), CBS and Showtime Networks (both since the acquisition of Famous Music), Discovery, Inc., 20th Century Studios and Fox Entertainment, All3Media, Entertainment One, A+E Networks, Endemol Shine Group, and Mattel.
In 2020 Sony Music/ATV formed a partnership with music licensing platform BeatStars, resulting in BeatStars Publishing- global online administration service for independent songwriters and producers, which allows users to register their songs and collect publishing administration royalties.
### Purchase of EMI Publishing in 2012 and 2018
In November 2011, Citigroup announced a deal to sell EMI in two pieces. Recorded music went to Vivendi's Universal Music Group for \$1.9 billion. EMI Music Publishing went to a Sony/ATV-led consortium for around \$2.2 billion. Other members of the Sony consortium included the Michael Jackson Estate (about 10% ownership), US media billionaire David Geffen, US investment firm Blackstone and Abu Dhabi state-owned investment fund Mubadala. The deal won European Union approval in April 2012, on condition that some catalogs be divested. The global publishing rights for Famous Music UK and Virgin Music were sold to BMG Rights Management in December 2012 for \$150 million.
While Sony/ATV acquired about 30% of EMI Publishing, it put up a much lower cash contribution. In exchange, it agreed to administer the entire catalog (including the former CBS Songs/SBK Entertainment music publishing catalog). Sony/ATV became the largest music publisher administrator company in the world with more than 3 million songs and estimated revenues of over US\$1.25 billion per year. After the acquisition, three EMI executives joined Sony/ATV international leadership team: Guy Moon, president of UK and European creative; Susanna Ng, Asia managing director; and Clark Miller, executive VP of international business affairs and global opportunitites.
Since 2012, Sony/ATV has administered Jackson's other publishing firm, Mijac, which includes songs written by Jackson himself (and others), and which used to be administered by competitor Warner/Chappell Music.
In July 2018, Sony/ATV bought out the Jackson estate's 10% stake in EMI for \$287.5 million. In November 2018, Sony acquired the Mubadala Investment Company's 60% equity interest in EMI Music Publishing for \$2.3 billion, based on an enterprise value of \$4.75 billion, without offering any concessions to the European Commission. The acquisitions would put the Columbia-Screen Gems catalog back under common ownership with Columbia Pictures, which had sold the rights to EMI in 1976. Following these transactions, Sony owned 100% of EMI Music Publishing.
### Acquisition of Jackson's stake by Sony in 2016
In September 2016, Sony acquired the Jackson estate's stake in Sony/ATV in a deal valued at around \$750 million. The Jackson estate retained its ownership of Mijac Music, which holds the rights to Michael Jackson's songs and master recordings. The revenue will be placed in trust for Jackson's children.
### Ownership of the Beatles' songs
In January 2017, McCartney filed a suit in United States district court against Sony/ATV Music Publishing seeking to reclaim ownership of his share of the Lennon–McCartney song catalogue beginning in 2018. Under US copyright law, for works published before 1978 the author can reclaim copyrights assigned to a publisher after 56 years. McCartney and Sony agreed to a confidential settlement in June 2017.
## Valuation
### Relevant value
A recent and relevant valuation is tied to Sony's acquisition of Jackson estate's stake in the company, completed on September 30, 2016 for \$750 million. This values Sony/ATV at between \$2.2 to \$2.4 billion (including debt).
### Previous estimates
Before the 2016 transaction with Sony, the reported value of Sony/ATV Music Publishing has varied across time and sources. Such valuations are uncertain, as illustrated by their wide variations, given a lack of actual transactions.
- In 2002, Forbes magazine estimated Jackson's 50% stake in the company, along with other music publishing ventures, to be worth \$450 million.
- The organization was valued at \$700 million in 2003.
- Industry experts valued the catalogue at between \$600 million and \$1 billion in 2004, based on the sales of rival catalogues. Charles Koppelman, a veteran music industry executive, stated that \$1 billion was more reflective of Sony/ATV Music Publishing's worth. "Buyers would be lining up around the block if it were ever put up for sale," he said. "And I'd be in the front of the line."
- In 2005, Jackson's defense attorney, Thomas Mesereau, claimed that the song catalogue had been valued at between \$4 billion and \$5 billion.
- As of 2007, Jackson's own financial documents stated that his 50% share of the catalogue was worth \$390.6 million, which would have made the entire catalogue worth \$781.2 million.
- In 2009, the value of the company was further estimated by Ryan Schinman, chief of Platinum Rye, to be \$1.5 billion.
## See also
- List of Sony Music Publishing artists
- Hickory Records
|
2,462,081 |
Mind Over Murder
| 1,166,357,415 | null |
[
"1999 American television episodes",
"Family Guy (season 1) episodes",
"Films directed by Roy Allen Smith"
] |
"Mind Over Murder" is the fourth episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on April 25, 1999. The episode features Peter after he is placed under house arrest, and decides to open his own bar in the family's basement. The bar immediately becomes a success among Peter's male friends when his wife, Lois, begins to sing and dance in front of them while wearing revealing clothing. Meanwhile, Stewie attempts to create a time travel device in order to escape the pain of teething.
The episode was written by Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan and directed by Roy Allen Smith, all series firsts. Much of the episode's humor is structured around cutaway sequences that parody popular culture, including those centered on The Chronicles of Narnia, Sesame Street, Homicide: Life on the Street, Mentos, and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. The title "Mind Over Murder" was inspired by 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense, which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder. The episode featured performances by guest stars Carlos Alazraqui, Butch Hartman, Alex Rocco, Leslie Uggams and Wally Wingert, along with several recurring voice actors for the series.
The episode received praise from IGN television critic Ahsan Haque for its storyline and use of cultural references.
## Plot
Stewie is in terrible pain from teething and cannot find comfort anywhere. When his mother Lois tells him that his pain will ultimately pass, it gives him the idea to build a machine that will move time forward to the point where his teething will have already stopped. Meanwhile, Lois tells Peter to drive their son Chris to his soccer match, then come right back to look after Stewie. However, Peter's friend Quagmire is there, and has brought beer, so Peter decides to ignore Lois and stay at the game. While there, another member of the crowd insults Chris. Enraged, Peter punches the individual in the face, only to discover that it is a pregnant woman who looks and sounds like a man.
Peter is put under house arrest for assault and soon begins to miss his friends. Peter has a vision of the Pawtucket Patriot, a fictional ale mascot, from his ale can label and on his advice opens a bar in his basement so that his friends can come to visit. The basement bar soon becomes a local hotspot. Lois is upset about this, until she gets a chance to sing on stage before an appreciative crowd. As she savors the spotlight over the next few days, Peter becomes increasingly uncomfortable with the attention she is getting, especially from the male patrons. Peter demands that she quit singing, but she refuses.
After his house arrest term ends, Peter is soon cornered by the neglected wives of his bar's patrons, and invites them to drag their husbands out from his bar. Meanwhile, Stewie's time machine plans are accidentally discovered by Lois, who shows them around to the bar's patrons. Angered and upset that his plans have been discovered, Stewie runs upstairs. Soon after, the wives storm the bar and Lois tells them that she only wants to feel appreciated and special, something to which all the other women relate. Meanwhile, Quagmire accidentally starts a fire.
Upstairs, Stewie takes drastic measures to protect his plans, programming the machine to go back in time before he drew them up. In the bar, Peter and Lois have a heart-to-heart conversation, and they do not immediately notice that the bar is burning. When they try to escape, the stairs become blocked and they are trapped. Stewie reverses time just as Peter is having an epiphany about how poorly he treats Lois, and seconds before the basement bar goes up in flames. They all travel back in time, to when Lois asked Peter to take Chris to the game. While he is getting ready, Peter trips on Stewie's time machine, destroying it and injuring his leg, thus preventing him from taking Chris to his soccer match, while Stewie is left to suffer with more teething pain.
## Production
"Mind Over Murder" was written by Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan and directed by Roy Allen Smith, all of whom made their series debut with this episode. Peter Shin, who has since supervised other episodes of the show, acted as supervising director. Writer Andrew Gormley and voice actor Mike Henry acted as staff writers in this episode, while Ricky Blitt and Chris Sheridan worked as the story editors. In addition to the regular cast, the episode featured the voices of actors Leslie Uggams, Wally Wingert, Alex Rocco and Carlos Alazraqui. Recurring guest voice actors included actress Lori Alan and writer and animator Butch Hartman.
The title "Mind Over Murder", like the titles of the first three episodes of the season, was inspired by 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense, which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder. This convention was dropped in the fifth episode of the season, "A Hero Sits Next Door", partly to make the episodes easier to distinguish by their titles.
## Cultural references
When Lois confronts Peter about the mess he is making in their house, he says he is terrible at housework. From this comes a cutaway which shows Peter doing the laundry. When he climbs into the machine in search of a missing sock, he falls into a wintry world where he encounters Mr. Tumnus from The Chronicles of Narnia.
While Peter is under house arrest, he states that he is getting bored with everything in the house, including the television shows, which he feels have blended together. A cutaway features Bert and Ernie from the children's television series Sesame Street, in a mix with the crime drama Homicide: Life on the Street.
When the Griffin family is watching television they see a commercial for Mentos-brand mints, which features the American stage actor John Wilkes Booth as he attempts to assassinate Abraham Lincoln.
When Stewie starts to feel pain around the inside of his mouth, Lois notices and states that he is teething. Stewie quickly responds by asking her to kill him, or to shake him like a British nanny, a reference to the Louise Woodward case.
## Reception
In his 2008 flashback review, Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the episode, rating it a 9/10, praising the "integration between the random jokes and the storyline", in comparison to later episodes. He criticized the "one-dimensional" nature of Stewie's character, but was impressed by the amount of story featured in this half-hour episode. In another article, Haque named Stewie's time machine plan from "Mind Over Murder" number five in his list of "Stewie's Top 10 Most Diabolical Evil Plans".
Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave the episode a mixed review, with a 55%. rating. Pierson praised the episode's plot, the handling of Peter and Stewie, and some of the cutaways. He criticized the relationship between Lois and Peter as unconvincing. At the end of his review he stated, "Family Guy doesn’t seem to have found the right balance yet between silliness and seriousness. So far its plots have been either irrelevant or emotionally unappealing. This was also a bit short on good jokes."
|
71,490 |
Vyacheslav Molotov
| 1,173,611,900 |
Soviet politician, statesman and diplomat (1890–1986)
|
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Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov (Russian: Вячесла́в Миха́йлович Мо́лотов, IPA: [vjɪtɕɪˈslaf mjɪˈxajləvjɪtɕ ˈmolətəf], ; 9 March [O. S. 25 February] 1890 – 8 November 1986) was a Russian and later Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik, and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s onward. He served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars from 1930 to 1941 and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956.
During the 1930s, he ranked second in the Soviet leadership, after Joseph Stalin, whom he supported loyally for over 30 years, and whose reputation he continued to defend after Stalin's death. As People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs in August 1939, Molotov became the principal Soviet signatory of the German–Soviet non-aggression pact, also known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. He retained his place as a leading Soviet diplomat and politician until March 1949, when he fell out of Stalin's favour and lost the foreign affairs ministry leadership to Andrei Vyshinsky. Molotov's relationship with Stalin deteriorated further, and Stalin criticised Molotov in a speech to the 19th Party Congress.
Molotov was reappointed Minister of Foreign Affairs after Stalin's death in 1953 but staunchly opposed Nikita Khrushchev's de-Stalinization policy, which resulted in his eventual dismissal from all positions and expulsion from the party in 1961 (after numerous unsuccessful petitions, Molotov was readmitted in 1984). Molotov defended Stalin's policies and legacy until his death in 1986 and harshly criticised Stalin's successors, especially Khrushchev.
## Early life and career
Molotov was born Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skryabin in the village of Kukarka, Yaransk Uyezd, Vyatka Governorate (now Sovetsk, Kirov Oblast), the son of a merchant. Contrary to a commonly-repeated error, he was not related to the composer Alexander Scriabin.
Throughout his teenager years, he was described as "shy" and "quiet" and always assisted his father with his business. He was educated at a secondary school in Kazan, where he became friends with fellow revolutionary Aleksandr Arosev. Molotov joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1906, and soon gravitated toward the organisation's radical Bolshevik faction, which was led by Vladimir Lenin.
Skryabin took the pseudonym "Molotov", derived from the Russian word molot (sledge hammer) since he believed that the name had an "industrial" and "proletarian" ring to it. He was arrested in 1909 and spent two years in exile in Vologda.
In 1911, he enrolled at St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute. Molotov joined the editorial staff of a new underground Bolshevik newspaper, Pravda, and met Joseph Stalin for the first time in association with the project. That first association between the two future Soviet leaders proved to be brief, however, and failed to lead to an immediate close political association.
Molotov worked as a so-called "professional revolutionary" for the next several years, wrote for the party press, and attempted to improve the organisation of the underground party. He moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War. It was in Moscow the following year that Molotov was again arrested for his party activity and was this time deported to Irkutsk, in eastern Siberia. In 1916, he escaped from his Siberian exile and returned to the capital city, which had been renamed Petrograd by the Tsarist regime since it thought that the old name sounded too German.
Molotov became a member of the Bolshevik Party's committee in Petrograd in 1916. When the February Revolution occurred in 1917, he was one of the few Bolsheviks of any standing in the capital. Under his direction Pravda took to the "left" to oppose the Provisional Government formed after the revolution. When Joseph Stalin returned to the capital, he reversed Molotov's line, but when Lenin arrived, he overruled Stalin. However, Molotov became a protégé of and a close adherent to Stalin, an alliance to which he owed his later prominence. Molotov became a member of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which planned the October Revolution and effectively brought the Bolsheviks to power.
In 1918, Molotov was sent to Ukraine to take part in the Russian Civil War, which had broken out. Since he was not a military man, he took no part in the fighting. In summer 1919, he was sent on a tour by steamboat of the Volga and Kama rivers, with Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya to spread Bolshevik propaganda. On his return, he was appointed chairman of the Nizhny Novgorod provincial executive, where the local party passed a vote of censure against him, for his alleged fondness for intrigue. He was transferred to Donetsk, and in November 1920, he became secretary to the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Bolshevik Party and married the Soviet politician Polina Zhemchuzhina.
Lenin recalled Molotov to Moscow in 1921, elevated him to full membership of the Central Committee and Orgburo, and put him in charge of the party secretariat. Molotov was voted in as a non-voting member of the Politburo in 1921 and held the office of Responsible Secretary. Alexander Barmine, a minor communist official, visited Molotov in his office near the Kremlin while he was running the secretariat, and remembered him as having "a large and placid face, the face of an ordinary, uninspired, but rather soft and kindly bureaucrat, attentive and unassuming."
Molotov was criticised by Lenin and Leon Trotsky, with Lenin noting his "shameful bureaucratism" and "stupid behaviour". On the advice of Molotov and Nikolai Bukharin, the Central Committee decided to reduce Lenin's work hours. In 1922, Stalin became General Secretary of the Bolshevik Party with Molotov as the de facto Second Secretary. As a young follower, Molotov admired Stalin but did not refrain from criticising him. Under Stalin's patronage, Molotov became a full member of the Politburo in January 1926.
During the power struggles after Lenin's death in 1924, Molotov remained a loyal supporter of Stalin against his various rivals: first Leon Trotsky, later Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev, and finally Nikolai Bukharin. In January 1926, he led a special commission sent to Leningrad (St Petersburg) to end Zinoviev's control over the party machine in the province. In 1928, Molotov replaced Nikolai Uglanov as First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party and held that position until 15 August 1929.
## Personality
Trotsky and his supporters underestimated Molotov, and the same went for many others. Trotsky called him "mediocrity personified," and Molotov himself pedantically corrected comrades referring to him as "Stone Arse" by saying that Lenin had actually dubbed him "Iron Arse." However, that outward dullness concealed a sharp mind and great administrative talent. He operated mainly behind the scenes and cultivated an image of a colourless bureaucrat.
Molotov was reported to be a vegetarian and teetotaler by the American journalist John Gunther in 1938. However, Milovan Djilas claimed that Molotov "drank more than Stalin" and did not note his vegetarianism although they had attended several banquets.
Molotov and his wife had two daughters: Sonia, adopted in 1929, and Svetlana, born in 1930.
## Soviet Premier
Addressing a Moscow communist party conference on 23 February 1929, Molotov emphasised the need to undertake "the most rapid possible growth of industry" both for economic reasons and because, he claimed, the Soviet Union was in permanent, imminent danger of attack. The argument over how fast to expand industry was behind the rift between Stalin and the right, led by Bukharin and Rykov, who feared that too rapid a pace would cause economic dislocation. With their defeat, Molotov emerged as the second most powerful figure in the Soviet Union. During the Central Committee plenum of 19 December 1930, Molotov succeeded Alexey Rykov as the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, the equivalent of a Western head of government.
In that post, Molotov oversaw the implementation of the First Five-Year Plan for rapid industrialisation. Despite the great human cost, the Soviet Union under Molotov's nominal premiership made large strides in the adoption and the widespread implementation of agrarian and industrial technology. Germany secretly purchased munitions that spurred a modern armaments industry in the USSR. Ultimately, that arms industry, along with American and British aid, helped the Soviet Union prevail in the Second World War.
### Role in collectivisation
Molotov also oversaw agricultural collectivisation under Stalin's regime. He was the main speaker at the Central Committee plenum in 10–17 November 1929, at which the decision was made to introduce collective farming in place of the thousands of small farms owned by peasants, a process that was bound to meet resistance. Molotov insisted that it must begin the following year, and warned officials to "treat the kulak as the most cunning and still undefeated enemy." In the four years that followed, millions of 'kulaks' (land-owning peasants) were forcibly moved onto special settlements to be used as slave labour. In 1931 alone almost two million were deported. In that year, Molotov told the Congress of Soviets "We have never refuted the fact that healthy prisoners capable of normal labour are used for road building and other public works. This is good for society; it is also good for the peasants themselves." The famine caused by the disruption of agricultural output and the emphasis on exporting grain to pay for industrialisation, and the harsh conditions of forced labour killed an estimated 11 million people.
Despite the famine, in September 1931, Molotov sent a secret telegram to communist leaders in the North Caucasus telling them the collection of grain for export was going "disgustingly slowly." In December, he travelled to Kharkiv, then the capital of Ukraine, and, ignoring warnings from local communist leaders about a grain shortage, told them that their failure to meet their target for grain collection was due to their incompetence. He returned to Kharkiv in July 1932, with Lazar Kaganovich, to tell the local communists that there would be no "concessions or vacillations" in the drive to meet targets for exporting grain. This was the first of several actions that led a Kyiv Court of Appeal in 2010 to find Molotov, and Kaganovich, guilty of genocide against the Ukrainian people. On 25 July, the same two men followed up the meeting with a secret telegram ordering the Ukrainian leadership to intensify grain collection.
### Temporary rift with Stalin
Between the assassination of Sergei Kirov, the head of the Party organization in Leningrad, in December 1934, and the start of the Great Purge, there was a significant but unpublicised rift between Stalin and Molotov. In 1936, Trotsky, in exile, noted that when lists of party leaders appeared in Soviet press reports, Molotov's name sometimes appeared as low as fourth in the list "and he was often deprived of his initials", and that when he was photographed receiving a delegation, he was never alone, but always flanked by his deputies, Janis Rudzutaks and Vlas Chubar. "In Soviet ritual all these are signs of paramount importance," Trotsky noted. Another startling piece of evidence was that the published transcript of the first Moscow Show Trial in August 1936, the defendants – who had been forced to confess to crimes of which they were innocent – said that they had conspired to kill Stalin and seven other leading Bolsheviks, but not Molotov. According to Alexander Orlov, an NKVD officer who defected to the west, Stalin personally crossed Molotov's name out of the original script.
In May 1936, Molotov went to the Black Sea on an extended holiday under careful NKVD supervision until the end of August, when Stalin apparently changed his mind and ordered Molotov's return.
Two explanations have been put forward for Molotov's temporary eclipse. On 19 March 1936 Molotov gave an interview with the editor of Le Temps concerning improved relations with Nazi Germany. Although Litvinov had made similar statements in 1934 and even visited Berlin that year, Germany had not then reoccupied the Rhineland. Derek Watson believed that it was Molotov's statement on foreign policy that offended Stalin. Molotov had made it clear that improved relations with Germany could develop only if its policy changed and stated that one of the best ways for Germany to improve relations was to rejoin the League of Nations. However, even that was not sufficient since Germany still had to give proof "of its respect for international obligations in keeping with the real interests of peace in Europe and peace generally." Robert Conquest and others believe that Molotov "dragged his feet" over Stalin's plans to purge the party and put Old Bolsheviks like Zinoviev and Kamenev on trial.
### Role in the Great Purge
After his return to favor, in August, Molotov supported Stalin throughout the purge, during which, in 1938 alone, 20 out of 28 People's Commissars in Molotov's Government were executed. After his deputy, Rudzutak, had been arrested, Molotov visited him in prison, and recalled years later that... "Rudzutak said he had been badly beaten and tortured. Nevertheless he held firm. Indeed, he seemed to have been cruelly tortured" ...but he did not intervene. During the Great Purge, he approved 372 documented execution lists, more than any other Soviet official, including Stalin. Molotov was one of the few with whom Stalin openly discussed the purges. When Stalin received a note denouncing the deputy chairman of Gosplan, G.I.Lomov, he passed it to Molotov, who wrote on it: "For immediate arrest of that bastard Lomov."
Before the Bolshevik revolution, Molotov had been a "very close friend" of a Socialist Revolutionary, Alexander Arosev, who shared his exile in Vologda. In 1937, fearing arrest, Arosev tried three times to ring Molotov, who refused to speak to him. He was arrested and shot. In the 1950s, Molotov gave Arosev's daughter his signed copies of her father's books, but later wished he had kept them. "It appears that it was not so much the loss of his 'very close friend' but the loss of part of his own book collection ... that Molotov continued to regret."
Late in life, Molotov described his role in purges of the 1930s, arguing that despite the overbreadth of the purges, they were necessary to avoid Soviet defeat in World War II:
> Socialism demands immense effort. And that includes sacrifices. Mistakes were made in the process. But we could have suffered greater losses in the war – perhaps even defeat – if the leadership had flinched and had allowed internal disagreements, like cracks in a rock. Had leadership broken down in the 1930s we would have been in a most critical situation, many times more critical than actually turned out. I bear responsibility for this policy of repression and consider it correct. Admittedly, I have always said grave mistakes and excesses were committed, but the policy on the whole was correct.
## Minister of Foreign Affairs
In 1939, Adolf Hitler's invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia, in violation of the 1938 Munich Agreement, made Stalin believe that Britain and France, which had signed the agreement, would not be reliable allies against German expansion. That made him decide instead to seek to conciliate Nazi Germany. In May 1939, Maxim Litvinov, the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, was dismissed; Molotov was appointed to succeed him. Relations between Molotov and Litvinov had been bad. Maurice Hindus in 1954 stated in his book Crisis in the Kremlin:
> It is well known in Moscow that Molotov always detested Litvinov. Molotov's detestation for Litvinov was purely of a personal nature. No Moscovite I have ever known, whether a friend of Molotov or of Litvinov, has ever taken exception to this view. Molotov was always resentful of Litvinov's fluency in French, German and English, as he was distrustful of Litvinov's easy manner with foreigners. Never having lived abroad, Molotov always suspected that there was something impure and sinful in Litvinov's broad-mindedness and appreciation of Western civilisation.
Litvinov had no respect for Molotov, regarding him as a small-minded intriguer and accomplice in terror.
`Molotov was succeeded in his post as premier by Stalin.`
At first, Hitler rebuffed Soviet diplomatic hints that Stalin desired a treaty; but in early August 1939, Hitler allowed Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop to begin serious negotiations. A trade agreement was concluded on 18 August, and on 22 August Ribbentrop flew to Moscow to conclude a formal non-aggression treaty. Although the treaty is known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, it was Stalin and Hitler, not Molotov and Ribbentrop, who decided the content of the treaty.
The most important part of the agreement was the secret protocol, which provided for the partition of Poland, Finland and the Baltic States between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union and for the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia (then part of Romania, now Moldova). The protocol gave Hitler the green light for his invasion of Poland, which began on 1 September.
The pact's terms gave Hitler authorisation to occupy two thirds of Western Poland and the whole of Lithuania. Molotov was given a free hand in relation to Finland. In the Winter War, a combination of fierce Finnish resistance and Soviet mismanagement resulted in Finland losing much of its territory but not its independence. The pact was later amended to allocate Lithuania to the Soviets in exchange for a more favourable border in Poland for Germany. The annexations led to horrific suffering and loss of life in the countries occupied and partitioned by both dictatorships. On 5 March 1940, Lavrentiy Beria gave Molotov, along with Anastas Mikoyan, Kliment Voroshilov and Stalin, a note proposing the execution of 25,700 Polish anti-Soviet officers in what has become known as the Katyn massacre.
In November 1940, Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to meet Ribbentrop and Hitler. In January 1941, British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden visited Turkey in an attempt to get the Turks to enter the war on the Allies' side. The purpose of Eden's visit was anti-German, rather than anti-Soviet, but Molotov assumed otherwise. In a series of conversations with Italian Ambassador Augusto Rosso, Molotov claimed that the Soviets would soon be faced with an Anglo–Turkish invasion of the Crimea. The British historian D.C. Watt argued that on the basis of Molotov's statements to Rosso, it would appear that, in early 1941, Stalin and Molotov viewed Britain, rather than Germany, as the principal threat.
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact governed Soviet–German relations until June 1941, when Hitler turned east and invaded the Soviet Union. Molotov was responsible for telling the Soviet people of the attack when he, instead of Stalin, announced the war. His speech, broadcast by radio on 22 June, characterised the Soviet Union in a role similar to that articulated by Winston Churchill in his early wartime speeches. The State Defence Committee was established soon after Molotov's speech. Stalin was elected chairman and Molotov was elected deputy chairman.
After the German invasion, Molotov conducted urgent negotiations with the British and then the Americans for wartime alliances. He took a secret flight to Scotland, where he was greeted by Eden. The risky flight in a high-altitude Tupolev TB-7 bomber flew over German-occupied Denmark and the North Sea. From there, he took a train to London to discuss the possibility of opening a second front against Germany.
After signing the Anglo–Soviet Treaty of 1942 on 26 May, Molotov left for Washington. He met US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and agreed on a lend-lease plan. Both the British and the Americans only vaguely promised to open a second front against Germany. On his flight back to the Soviet Union, his plane was attacked by German fighters and later mistakenly by Soviet fighters.
There is no evidence that Molotov ever persuaded Stalin to pursue a different policy from that on which he had already decided. Volkogonov could not find one case where any of the elite in government openly disagreed with Stalin.
There is some evidence that, although Stalin realised he needed Molotov, Stalin did not like him. Stalin's one-time bodyguard, Amba, stated: "More general dislike for this statesman robot and for his position in the Kremlin could scarcely be wished and it was apparent that Stalin himself joined in this feeling". Amba asked the question:
> "What then has made Stalin collaborate so closely with him? There are many more talented people in the Soviet Union and Stalin no doubt had the means to find them. Is he afraid of close collaboration with a more human and sympathetic assistant?"
At a jolly party, Amba recalled an incident whereby Poskryobyshev approached Stalin and whispered in his ear. Stalin replied, "Does it have to be right away?" Everybody realised at once that the conversation was regarding Molotov. In half an hour, Stalin was informed of Molotov's arrival. Although the whispered conversation between Molotov and Stalin only lasted five minutes, the merriment of the gathering evaporated as everybody talked in hushed tones. Amba stated, "Then the blanket left. Instantly the gaiety returned". Vareykis said that "a gentle angel has flown past": a Russian expression for when a sudden silence descends. Breaking the tension, Laurentyev quipped in a harsh Georgian accent, "Go, friendly soul". Out of those in attendance, Stalin laughed the loudest at Laurentyev's joke.
Stalin could be rude to Molotov. In 1942, Stalin took Molotov to task for his handling of the negotiations with the Allies. He cabled Molotov on 3 June:
> "[I am] dissatisfied with the terseness and reticence of all your communications. You convey to us from your talks with Roosevelt and Churchill only what you yourself consider is important, and omit all the rest. Meanwhile, the instance [Stalin] would like to know everything. What you consider important and what you think unimportant. This refers to the draft of the communiqué as well. You have not informed us whose draft it is, whether it has been agreed with the British in full and why, after all, there could not be two communiqués, one concerning the talks in Britain and one concerning the talks in the USA. We are having to guess because of your reticence. We further consider it expedient that both communiqués should mention among other things the creation of a second front in Europe and that full understanding has been reached in this matter. We also consider that it is absolutely necessary both communiqués should mention the supply of war materials to the Soviet Union from Britain and the USA. In all the rest we agree with the contents of the draft communiqué you sent us".
When Beria told Stalin about the Manhattan Project and its importance, Stalin handpicked Molotov to be the man in charge of the Soviet atomic bomb project. However, under Molotov's leadership, the bomb and the project itself developed very slowly, and he was replaced by Beria in 1944 on the advice of Igor Kurchatov. When Roosevelt's successor as U.S. President Harry S. Truman told Stalin that the Americans had created a bomb never seen before, Stalin relayed the conversation to Molotov and told him to speed up development. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet government substantially increased investment in the project. In a collaboration with Kliment Voroshilov, Molotov contributed both musically and lyrically to the 1944 version of the Soviet national anthem. Molotov asked the writers to include a line or two about peace. The role of Molotov and Voroshilov in the making of the new Soviet anthem was, in the words of the historian Simon Sebag-Montefiore, acting as music judges for Stalin.
Molotov accompanied Stalin to the Teheran Conference in 1943, the Yalta Conference in 1945, and, after the defeat of Germany, the Potsdam Conference. He represented the Soviet Union at the San Francisco Conference, which created the United Nations. In April 1945, shortly after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Molotov engaged in talks with the new American President Harry S. Truman; these talks, despite not being hostile, came to be mythologised decades later as an early crack in US-Soviet relations harbingering the beginning of the Cold War. Even during the wartime alliance, Molotov was known as a tough negotiator and a determined defender of Soviet interests. Molotov lost his position of First Deputy chairman on 19 March 1946, after the Council of People's Commissars had been reformed as the Council of Ministers.
From 1945 to 1947, Molotov took part in all four conferences of foreign ministers of the victorious states in the Second World War. In general, he was distinguished by an unco-operative attitude towards the Western powers. Molotov, at the direction of the Soviet government, condemned the Marshall Plan as imperialistic and claimed it was dividing Europe into two camps: one capitalist and the other communist. In response, the Soviet Union, along with the other Eastern Bloc nations, initiated what is known as the Molotov Plan. The plan created several bilateral relations between the states of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union and later evolved into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
In the postwar period, Molotov's power began to decline. A clear sign of his precarious position was his inability to prevent the arrest for "treason" in December 1948 of his Jewish wife, Polina Zhemchuzhina, whom Stalin had long distrusted. Molotov initially protested the persecution against her by abstaining from the vote to condemn her, but later recanted, stating: "I acknowledge my heavy sense of remorse for not having prevented Zhemchuzhina, a person very dear to me, from making her mistakes and from forming ties with anti-Soviet Jewish nationalists [...]" and divorced Zhemchuzhina.
Polina Zhemchuzhina befriended Golda Meir, who arrived in Moscow in November 1948 as the first Israeli envoy to the Soviet Union. There are unsubstantiated claims that, being fluent in Yiddish, Zhemchuzhina acted as a translator for a diplomatic meeting between Meir and her husband, the Soviet foreign minister. However, this claim (of being an interpreter) is not supported by Meir's memoir My Life. Presentation of her ambassadorial credentials was done in Hebrew, not in Yiddish. According to Meir's own account of the reception given by Molotov on 7 November, "Mrs. Zhemchuzhina has spent significant time during this reception not only talking to Golda Meir herself but also in conversation with Mrs. Meir's daughter Sarah and her friend Yael Namir about their life as kibbutzniks. They have discussed the complete collectivization of property and related issues. At the end Mrs. Zhemchuzhina gave Golda Meir's daughter Sarah a hug and said: 'Be well. If everything goes well with you, it will go well for all Jews everywhere.' "
Zhemchuzhina was imprisoned for a year in the Lubyanka and was then exiled for three years in an obscure Russian city. She was sentenced to hard labour, spending five years in exile in Kazakhstan. Molotov had no communication with her except for the scant news that he received from Beria, whom he loathed. Zhemchuzhina was freed immediately after the death of Stalin.
In 1949, Molotov was replaced as Foreign Minister by Andrey Vyshinsky but retained his position as First Deputy Premier and membership in the Politburo. Being appointed Foreign Minister by Stalin to replace the Jewish predecessor Maxim Litvinov to facilitate negotiations with Nazi Germany, Molotov was thus also dismissed from the same position at least in part because his wife was also of Jewish origin.
Molotov never stopped loving his wife, and it is said he ordered his maids to make dinner for two every evening to remind him that, in his own words, "she suffered because of me." According to Erofeev, Molotov said of her: "She's not only beautiful and intelligent, the only woman minister in the Soviet Union; she's also a real Bolshevik, a real Soviet person." According to Stalin's daughter, Molotov became very subservient to his wife. Molotov was a yes-man to his wife just as he was to Stalin.
## Postwar career
At the 19th Party Congress in 1952, Molotov was elected to the replacement for the Politburo, the Presidium, but was not listed among the members of the newly established secret body known as the Bureau of the Presidium, which indicated that he had fallen out of Stalin's favour. At the 19th Congress, Stalin said, "There has been criticism of comrade Molotov and Mikoyan by the Central Committee," mistakes including the publication of a wartime speech by Winston Churchill favourable to the Soviet Union's wartime efforts. Both Molotov and Mikoyan were falling out of favour rapidly, with Stalin telling Beria, Khrushchev, Malenkov and Nikolai Bulganin that he no longer wanted to see Molotov and Mikoyan around. At his 73rd birthday, Stalin treated both with disgust. In his speech to the 20th Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev told delegates that Stalin had plans for "finishing off" Molotov and Mikoyan in the aftermath of the 19th Congress.
Following Stalin's death, a realignment of the leadership strengthened Molotov's position. Georgy Malenkov, Stalin's successor in the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, reappointed Molotov as Minister of Foreign Affairs on 5 March 1953. Although Molotov was seen as a likely successor to Stalin in the immediate aftermath of his death, he never sought to become leader of the Soviet Union. A Troika was established immediately after Stalin's death, consisting of Malenkov, Beria, and Molotov, but ended when Malenkov and Molotov deceived Beria. Molotov supported the removal and later the execution of Beria on the orders of Khrushchev. The new Party Secretary, Khrushchev, soon emerged as the new leader of the Soviet Union. He presided over a gradual domestic liberalisation and a thaw in foreign policy, as was manifest in a reconciliation with Josip Broz Tito's government in Yugoslavia, which Stalin had expelled from the communist movement. Molotov, an old-guard Stalinist, seemed increasingly out of place in the new environment, but represented the Soviet Union at the Geneva Conference of 1955.
Molotov's position became increasingly tenuous after February 1956, when Khrushchev launched an unexpected denunciation of Stalin at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party. Khrushchev attacked Stalin over the purges of the 1930s and the defeats of the early years of the Second World War, which he blamed on Stalin's overly-trusting attitude towards Hitler and the purges of the Red Army command structure. Molotov was the most senior of Stalin's collaborators still in government and had played a leading role in the purges, so it became evident that Khrushchev's examination of the past would probably result in the fall from power of Molotov, who became the leader of an old-guard faction that sought to overthrow Khrushchev.
In June 1956, Molotov was removed as Foreign Minister; on 29 June 1957, he was expelled from the Presidium (Politburo) after a failed attempt to remove Khrushchev as First Secretary. Although Molotov's faction initially won a vote in the Presidium 7–4 to remove Khrushchev, the latter refused to resign unless a Central Committee plenum decided so. In the plenum, which met from 22 to 29 June, Molotov and his faction were defeated. Eventually he was banished, being made ambassador to the Mongolian People's Republic. Molotov and his associates were denounced as "the Anti-Party Group" but notably were not subject to such unpleasant repercussions that had been customary for denounced officials in the Stalin years. In 1960, he was appointed Soviet representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency, which was seen as a partial rehabilitation. However, after the 22nd Party Congress in 1961, during which Khrushchev carried out his de-Stalinisation campaign, including the removal of Stalin's body from Lenin's Mausoleum, Molotov, along with Lazar Kaganovich, was removed from all positions and expelled from the Communist Party. In 1962, all of Molotov's party documents and files were destroyed by the authorities.
In retirement, Molotov remained unrepentant about his role under Stalin's rule. He suffered a heart attack in January 1962. After the Sino-Soviet split, it was reported that he agreed with the criticisms made by Mao Zedong of the supposed revisionism of Khrushchev's policies.
## Later life
In 1968, United Press International reported that Molotov had completed his memoirs but that they would likely never be published. The first signs of Molotov's rehabilitation were seen during Leonid Brezhnev's rule, when information about him was again allowed to be included in Soviet encyclopaedias. His connection, support and work in the Anti-Party Group were mentioned in encyclopaedias published in 1973 and 1974, but eventually disappeared altogether by the mid-to-late-1970s. Later, Soviet leader Konstantin Chernenko further rehabilitated Molotov. In 1984, Molotov was even allowed to seek membership in the Communist Party. A collection of interviews with Molotov from the period 1969 to 1986 was published in 1993 by Felix Chuev as Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics.
In June 1986 Molotov was hospitalised in Kuntsevo Hospital in Moscow, where he eventually died, during the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev, on 8 November 1986. During his life, Molotov had suffered seven heart attacks, but survived to the age of 96. At the time of his death, he was the last surviving major participant in the events of 1917. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.
## Legacy
Molotov, like Stalin, was pathologically mistrustful of others and so much crucial information disappeared. As Molotov once said, "One should listen to them, but it is necessary to check up on them. The intelligence officer can lead you to a very dangerous position.... There are many provocateurs here, there, and everywhere." Molotov continued to claim in a series of published interviews that there never was a secret territorial deal between Stalin and Hitler during the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Like Stalin, he never recognized the Cold War as an international event. He saw the Cold War as more or less the everyday conflict between communism and capitalism. He divided the capitalist countries into two groups: the "smart and dangerous imperialists" and the "fools." Before his retirement, Molotov had proposed establishing a socialist confederation with the People's Republic of China. Molotov believed that socialist states were part of a larger, supranational entity. In retirement, Molotov criticized Nikita Khrushchev for being a "right-wing deviationist."
The Molotov cocktail is a term coined by the Finns during the Winter War, as a generic name used for a variety of improvised incendiary weapons. During the Winter War, the Soviet air force made extensive use of incendiaries and cluster bombs against Finnish civilians, troops and fortifications. When Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that they were not bombing but rather delivering food to the starving Finns, the Finns started to call the air bombs Molotov bread baskets. Soon they responded by attacking advancing tanks with "Molotov cocktails," which were "a drink to go with the food." According to Montefiore, the Molotov cocktail was one part of Molotov's cult of personality that the vain Premier surely did not appreciate.
Winston Churchill in his wartime memoirs lists many meetings with Molotov. Acknowledging him as a "man of outstanding ability and cold-blooded ruthlessness," Churchill concluded: "In the conduct of foreign affairs, Mazarin, Talleyrand, Metternich, would welcome him to their company, if there be another world to which Bolsheviks allow themselves to go." The former US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles said: "I have seen in action all the great international statesmen of this century. I have never seen such personal diplomatic skill at so high a degree of perfection as Molotov's."
Molotov was the only person to have shaken hands with Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Adolf Hitler, Rudolf Hess, Hermann Göring, and Heinrich Himmler. At the end of 1989 the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union and Mikhail Gorbachev's government formally denounced the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.
In January 2010, a Ukrainian court accused Molotov and other Soviet officials of organizing a man-made famine in Ukraine in 1932–33. The same Court then ended criminal proceedings against them, as the trial would be posthumous.
## Portrayals in media
- Luther Adler portrayed Molotov in the 1958 Playhouse 90 episode The Plot to Kill Stalin.
- Clive Merrison was cast as Molotov in the 1992 drama film Stalin.
- Michael Palin was cast as Molotov in the 2017 satire film The Death of Stalin.
- Russian actor Sergey Shanin portrayed a member of the Soviet Politburo named after, and closely resembling, Molotov in the 2023 video game Atomic Heart.
## Decorations and awards
- Hero of Socialist Labour (1943)
- Four Orders of Lenin (1940, 1943, 1945, 1950)
- Order of the Badge of Honour
- Medal "For the Defence of Moscow" (1944)
- Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
- Medal "For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
- Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" (1947)
- Medal "Veteran of Labour" (1974)
- Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" (1969)
- Jubilee Medal "Forty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1985)
- Order of the Red Banner (Mongolia)
## See also
- Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
- Molotov Line
- Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941
- Molotov cocktail
|
501,128 |
Honorius of Canterbury
| 1,079,044,790 |
7th-century Archbishop of Canterbury and saint
|
[
"653 deaths",
"7th-century Christian saints",
"7th-century English people",
"7th-century archbishops",
"Archbishops of Canterbury",
"Clergy from Rome",
"Gregorian mission",
"Kentish saints",
"Northumbrian saints",
"Year of birth unknown"
] |
Honorius (died 30 September 653) was a member of the Gregorian mission to Christianize the Anglo-Saxons from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism in 597 AD who later became Archbishop of Canterbury. During his archiepiscopate, he consecrated the first native English bishop of Rochester as well as helping the missionary efforts of Felix among the East Anglians. Honorius was the last to die among the Gregorian missionaries.
## Early life
A Roman by birth, Honorius may have been one of those chosen by Pope Gregory the Great for the Gregorian mission to England, although it seems more likely that he was a member of the second party of missionaries, sent in 601. It is not known if his name was given to him at birth or if he chose it when he became archbishop.
## Archbishop
In 627, Honorius was consecrated as archbishop by Paulinus of York at Lincoln. Honorius wrote to Pope Honorius I asking the pope to raise the see of York to an archbishopric, so that when one archbishop in England died, the other would be able to consecrate the deceased bishop's successor. The pope agreed, and sent a pallium for Paulinus, but by this time, Paulinus had already been forced to flee from Northumbria. When Paulinus, after the death of King Edwin of Northumbria in October 633, fled Northumbria, he was received by Honorius and appointed to the bishopric of Rochester. The papal letter is dated to June 634, and implies that news of Edwin's death had not reached the pope. This evidence may mean that the traditional date of Edwin's death may need to be moved to October 634. The papal letter may also mean that the traditional date of consecration for Honorius may need re-dating, as the long gap between 627, when he is said to have been consecrated, and 634, when he finally received a pallium, is much longer than usually found. It may be that Honorius was consecrated closer to 634. The papal letter to Honorius is given in the Ecclesiastical History of the medieval writer Bede.
Honorius consolidated the work of converting the English by sending Felix, a Burgundian, to Dunwich after Felix came to the archbishop and made known his desire to go to East Anglia as a missionary. Honorius may have consecrated Felix as the first bishop of East Anglia or Felix may have already been consecrated on the continent. The dating of this episode is unclear, but it is probably close to 631. It is possible that King Sigeberht of East Anglia, who converted to Christianity while he was in exile on the continent, had already met Felix and was behind Felix's journey to Honorius. As well as his help to Felix, Honorius consecrated the first Anglo-Saxon bishop, Ithamar of Rochester, and his successor was also a native of England.
Honorius had few conflicts with the Irish missionary efforts, and admired Aidan, one of the leading Irish clergy.
## Death and legacy
Honorius died on 30 September 653, the last of the Gregorian missionaries. He was buried at the Church of St Augustine in Canterbury. He was later revered as a saint, with his feast day being 30 September. His relics were translated to a new tomb in 1091, and around that same time a hagiography of his life was written by Goscelin. In the 1120s his relics were still being venerated at St Augustine's.
## See also
- List of members of the Gregorian mission
|
2,216,226 |
Ontario Highway 140
| 1,120,984,583 |
Ontario provincial highway
|
[
"Ontario provincial highways",
"Transport in Port Colborne",
"Transport in Welland"
] |
King's Highway 140, commonly referred to as Highway 140, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The highway connects Port Colborne near Lake Erie with Highway 406 in Welland, via the Main Street Tunnel. It was constructed in the early 1970s as part of the Welland Bypass project of the Welland Canal, which resulted in the severance of several highways and rail lines. Opened to traffic in late 1972, several months following the tunnel, Highway 140 has remained unchanged since, despite growing calls to resign it as an extension of Highway 406.
## Route description
Highway 140 begins at an intersection with Highway 3 on the eastern edge of Port Colborne. From there, Highway 3 continues east to Fort Erie; to the west it becomes Niagara Regional Road 3. The roadway carrying Highway 140 continues south of Highway 3 as a local road named Elizabeth Street, whereas Highway 140 travels north, to the west of forestland and a quarry. The highway parallels the Welland Canal throughout its length, always within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) of the waterway. Wooden high-tension powerlines parallel the highway until it diverges, curving towards the northeast immediately north of Chippawa Road. It travels diagonally for several kilometres before ascending on an overpass and crossing the former Canadian National Humberstone Subdivision tracks.
The highway gradually straightens to a north–south alignment as it crosses Highway 58A and a set of railway tracks, both of which travel beneath the nearby Welland Canal to the west. Continuing north, Highway 140 passes over Lyons Creek, which meanders northeast to converge with the Welland River west of the Niagara River. The highway ends approximately 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) north of this point at an intersection with Main Street (Niagara Regional Road 27). Main Street travels beneath the Welland Canal immediately west of Highway 140, providing a connection to Highway 406 on the opposite side. Because of its importance as both a through route past the canal and in linking Highway 140 with Highway 406, East Main Street between Highways 140 and 406 is maintained the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) as Highway 7146.
## History
The history of Highway 140 begins in May 1966, when the St. Lawrence Seaway Authority received Federal approval for the Welland Bypass, a 13.4-kilometre (8.3 mi) channel that would serve to bypass the canal through downtown Welland, where several crossings proved to be a hazard for shipping traffic and the shipping traffic an impediment to pedestrian and vehicular traffic. The new channel would be dug out and flooded, providing the opportunity for the construction of cheap cut and cover tunnels beneath the channel. By 1968, construction was underway on tunnels at East Main Street and at the Port Colborne – Welland townline.
Due to the numerous road disconnections that would take place as a result of the Welland Bypass, a new highway was proposed to link Welland with Port Colborne. One of the severed highways was Highway 58, which then followed Canal Bank Street south from Welland. In late 1970, the Department of Highways tendered contracts for the construction of the new highway on the east side of the bypass. Construction began from the north, reaching as far south as Ramey Road.
The section north of Townline Road was completed within a year. Around the same time, the third and final contract was tendered for the section north of Highway 3. On May 20, 1972, the Main Street Tunnel was opened to traffic at a morning ceremony featuring local officials and the Welland Police Association Pipe Band. Highway 140 was opened several months later, without ceremony, on October 5. It has remained unchanged since then, and was not affected by the provincial highway transfers in 1997 and 1998.
The various municipalities serviced by Highway 140, as well as Niagara Region, have called for four-laning the route and redesignating it as Ontario Highway 406. However, the MTO is committed to extending Highway 406 to Highway 58 southwest of Welland. On April 4, 2006, the MPP for Erie—Lincoln, Tim Hudak, introduced a Private Member's Bill. The Highway 406 to Port Colborne Act passed first reading, but was not brought up for a second reading.
## Major intersections
|
20,160,389 |
Borjomi (water)
| 1,172,805,808 |
Carbonated mineral water brand from country of Georgia
|
[
"Bottled water brands",
"Carbonated water",
"Food and drink in the Soviet Union",
"Mineral water in Georgia (country)",
"Soviet brands"
] |
Borjomi (Georgian: ბორჯომი) is a brand of naturally carbonated mineral water from springs in the Borjomi Gorge of central Georgia. The artesian springs in the valley are fed by water that filters from glaciers covering the peaks of the Bakuriani mountains at altitudes of up to 2,300 m (7,500 ft). The water rises to the surface without pumping and is transported by pipes to two bottling plants in the town of Borjomi.
The mineral springs of the Borjomi valley were known to locals for over a thousand years but did not reach wider recognition until the early 1800s, after the Russian Imperial Army stationed in the area became aware of the water's salubrious effects. By the 1890s, Borjomi had become famous throughout the Russian Empire, had earned the favor of the Russian imperial dynasty of Romanov and was being bottled in the Georgian estates of Grand Duke Mikhail of Russia. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and subsequent Soviet takeover of Georgia, the Borjomi enterprise was nationalized and the water was made into a top Soviet export.
Currently, "Borjomi" is produced by IDS Borjomi Georgia, which is part of IDS Borjomi International. In June 2022, the controlling company of IDS Borjomi International had to relinquish some of its shares to the Government of Georgia as part of a deal to comply with international sanctions. As a result, the Chairman of the Board of Directors of IDS Borjomi International became the representative of the Georgian government.
In 2005, the production of "Borjomi" reached 200 million bottles. In 2007, the international certification company Bureau Veritas granted "Borjomi" the international certificate of production safety and quality ISO 22000. Today, "Borjomi" is exported to 40 countries of the world.
The use of Borjomi water has been suggested by the Georgian and Russian researchers for complex treatment of several digestive diseases and diabetes mellitus.
## History
The mineral springs of the Borjomi valley were discovered over one thousand years ago. Seven large rock tubs discovered by archeologists dating back to the beginning of the 7th century attest to the availability and use of the spring waters, most likely for bathing purposes. The springs were abandoned before being rediscovered in the early 19th century. By that time, as a result of the incessant warfare, Borjomi and its environs had been depopulated and covered with impassable forests.
In 1829, when the Imperial Russian Army Kherson Grenadier Regiment was deployed in Borjomi for operations against the Ottoman Empire, Russian soldiers found mineral springs on the right bank of Borjomi river. Intrigued by the find, Colonel Pavel Popov, the commander of the regiment, ordered that the springs be cleaned and that the water be bottled and transported to the military base. Popov, who suffered from stomach disease tried the water first. Seeing positive results, he ordered the construction of rock walls around the spring and he had a bath house built nearby, along with a small cottage house for himself. In 1837, when the Kherson regiment was replaced by the Georgian grenadiers regiment, its medical doctor Amirov examined the water components and their effects, sending the first results of analysis to Saint Petersburg and Moscow. By 1841, the healing effects of Borjomi water were so famous that the viceroy of the Russian Tsar in the Caucasus Yevgeni Golovin brought his sick daughter to the springs for treatment. In light of the quick results of the treatment, he called the first spring Yekaterinsky (Russian: Екатерининский) after his daughter Yekaterina and the second Yevgeniyevsky (Евгеньевский) after himself.
Golovin also expedited the official transfer of the waters from the military to civil authorities. In 1850, a mineral water park was opened in Borjomi and in 1854, the authorities commissioned construction of the first bottling plant. Borjomi water gained popularity for its curing effects all over the Russian Empire and the government began building palaces, parks, public gardens and hotels to accommodate incoming tourists and patients. The commute from Tiflis to Borjomi usually took 8–9 hours by phaetons, however the new Mikhaylovo-Borjomi railroad built in 1894 significantly reduced the length of the journey. Renowned figures such as Anton Chekhov, Pyotr Tchaikovsky as well as members of the royal Russian family were among the common visitors of the springs. By that time, Borjomi was a rival of similar European spas, such as Vichy, frequented by Russian tourists, the fact that earned for Borjomi the reputation of "the Russian Vichy" and "the pearl of the Caucasus".
In 1894, Grand Duke Mikhail Romanov built a bottling plant in the Borjomi park which continued to operate until the 1950s. A glass factory followed in 1896. The income from the Borjomi waters enterprise contributed to the wealth of Mikhail's son and successor Nikolay, who was the richest of all Russian grand dukes by 1914. In 1854, 1,350 bottles of water were produced, by 1905 the number had reached 320,000 and by 1913 over 9 million bottles were sold. After the establishment of Soviet rule in Georgia, Borjomi was widely sold around the Soviet Union and was favored by Soviet leaders such as Joseph Stalin. Exploration of the Borjomi Gorge was conducted in 1927. Between then and 1982, 57 exploration wells (depths ranging from 18.4 m (60 ft) to 1,502 m (4,928 ft)) were drilled. In 1961, 423,000 bottles of Borjomi was exported to 15 countries including the United States, France and Austria. During the existence of the Soviet Union, Borjomi was recognized as the third best known brand of the USSR after the Volga car and Aeroflot airlines. In the 1980s, annual production of Borjomi water reached 400 million bottles. Production slowed with the collapse of the Soviet Union and economic stagnation in the independent Republic of Georgia. In 1995, bottling of Borjomi was restarted by the Georgian Glass and Mineral Waters Company (GG&MW), which increased the production forty-fold. According to the company, 80% of Borjomi produced that year was exported abroad—more than half of this amount to Russia. Despite counterfeit drinks being produced under the Borjomi label as a result of rising piracy during the 1990s, Borjomi water was able to reclaim its reputation by 2000 in a distinctive packaging campaign. The piracy also slowed due to the 1998 Russian financial crisis.
In May 2006, Russia banned imports of Georgian mineral waters, declaring them unsafe. The ban got lifted after 7 years in 2013. Georgia viewed this as an attempt to restrict access to the Russian market and making Borjomi a pawn in post-Soviet political power play. As a result of the ban, GG&MW lost GEL 25 million in 2006, but the company declared the crisis to have been overcome by 2008, with sales volumes reaching pre-2006 level. The sales and export of Borjomi mineral water dropped again by 30-40% starting from October 2008 due to the global financial crisis. But already in 2010 the company declared that sales figures of Borjomi were the same as the company had before the ban. In 2011 sales company sold 15% more Borjomi than they were selling before the ban. Today Borjomi is sold in 40 countries worldwide. Today, Borjomi in post-soviet countries is a number one brand in imported mineral water brand segment.
Borjomi is currently produced by the IDS Borjomi Georgia, which is a part of the International company - IDS Borjomi International, registered in Curaçao. As of June 13, 2022, the controlling company of IDS BORJOMI International transferred 7.73% of the company's share to the Government of Georgia free of charge. As a result, the Chairman of the Board of Directors of IDS BORJOMI International became the representative of the Government of Georgia.
Today, the company produces 3 products in the Borjom-Bakuriani valley:
• Borjomi
• Likani
• Bakuriani
## Features
Borjomi is a water of volcanic origin which is over 1,500 years old. It is pushed up to the surface from 1500m below ground by natural carbon dioxide pressure. Borjomi does not cool down before it reaches the surface and comes out at a temperature of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F). The Borjomi springs are located in the central part of the Adjara-Imereti mountain range of Greater Caucasus at an altitude of 760–920 m (2,490–3,020 ft) above sea level. The average depth of each of the nine spring wells is 1,200–1,500 m (3,900–4,900 ft).
In order to preserve the mineral composition of the springs, in 2006 the Georgian Ministry of Environment Protection and Natural Resources approved a production plan for 2006–2031 estimating 561,000 litres per day which allows bottling of over 1 million bottles a day using 10 wells in Borjomi Gorge. The wells are located in 3 exploitation lots: Central (in the vicinity of Borjomi town), Likani (in Likani village) and Vashlovani-Kvibisi (in villages Vashlovani and Kvibisi). The water received from the wells travels by a 25 km (16 mi) stainless steel pipeline to two bottling plants where it is cooled and bottled. The first plant specializes in glass bottling, the second in PET bottling.
The production of mineral water and the associated tourist economy in Borjomi and the nearby Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park make up 10 percent of Georgia's export trade. Construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline near the Borjomi has been controversial because of potential negative environmental and economic impacts on the region.
## Packaging
Borjomi comes in glass bottle sizes of 0.33 and 0.5 litres, plastic bottle sizes of 0.5 litre, 0,75l litres,1 litre and 1.25 litres and in 0.33 litre aluminum can. Glass bottles and PET bottles are screw-capped. The signature greenish color of the glass bottles (so-called Georgian Green) is based on a proprietary formula. As with other single-use plastic products, used water bottles make up a significant portion of Georgia's plastic pollution problem.
In February 2011, new packaging of Borjomi water presenting a new "modern look" was introduced, accentuating relief of the deer image and sign of the manufacturer on the label. In the end of 2019 Borjomi adopted a new design, following key design trends - simplicity and minimalism. The new bottles are more modern, feature the phrase "Georgian mineral water," and includes silver stripes.
## Awards
- 1907 SPA Grand Prix
- 1909 Kazan Grand Golden Medal
- 1911 Dresden Diploma of Honour
- 1940 Tallinn Golden Medal
- 1975 Budapest Diploma of Honour, World Exhibition
- 1998 Novosibirsk Golden Medal
- 1996, 1997, 1998 St. Petersburg Golden Medal
|
1,192,182 |
Richard Travis
| 1,149,396,120 |
Recipient of the Victoria Cross
|
[
"1884 births",
"1918 deaths",
"Burials at Couin New British Cemetery",
"New Zealand Army personnel",
"New Zealand World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross",
"New Zealand military personnel killed in World War I",
"New Zealand recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal",
"New Zealand recipients of the Military Medal",
"People from Ōpōtiki",
"Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)"
] |
Richard Charles Travis, VC, DCM, MM (born Dickson Cornelius Savage; 6 April 1884 – 25 July 1918) was a New Zealand soldier who fought during the First World War and was posthumously decorated with the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to Commonwealth forces.
Born in Ōpōtiki, Travis worked as a farm hand and horse breaker and, as a young man, led a transient existence after leaving home at the age of 21. He volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force following the outbreak of the First World War and served briefly at Gallipoli. He was later sent to France where he fought in the trenches along the Western Front, earning a reputation as scout and sniper and receiving awards for his gallantry. On 24 July 1918, he carried out a reconnaissance into "no man's land" prior to an attack by his battalion, destroying a wire obstacle that may have slowed progress for the advancing troops. During the attack itself, he made a solo foray to deal with two weapons pits that were delaying the advance. He was killed by shellfire the next day but his exploits of 24 July led to him being awarded the VC posthumously.
## Early life
Dickson Cornelius Savage, as he was called originally, was born in 1884. His father, James Savage, a former member of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary, had migrated to New Zealand from Ireland and farmed a block of land at Otara, a short distance from Ōpōtiki. His mother, Frances (née O'Keefe), had originally come from Sydney, Australia. The oldest boy out of seven children, Dickson Savage attended schools at Ōpōtiki but only completed the first four years of his education before his family took him out of school to work on the farm. He acquired various farming skills, but showed a particular talent for horse breaking, for which he earned a degree of local fame.
The impetuous Savage left home at age 21, after an argument with his father, and moved to Gisborne. He continued to work as a farmhand and further enhanced his reputation for horse breaking. Amid claims of impropriety with a local woman he moved on and, seeking a clean break, he changed his name to Richard Charles Travis. In 1910, he settled in Winton where he found work as a farmhand for Tom Murray, a local farmer, at his property around Ryal Bush. Sometime later he and Murray's daughter, Lettie, became engaged although the pair were not married before the war in Europe separated them.
## First World War
Less than a month after the outbreak of the First World War, Richard Travis sought to join the 7th (Southland) Mounted Rifles, a squadron of the Otago Mounted Rifles Regiment. Giving his occupation as "horsebreaker", he enlisted in Invercargill. His stature of 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) and weight 133 pounds (60 kg), with "a fresh complexion, blue eyes and fair hair", belied his military potential. He was attested on 20 August 1914 and after a short period of basic training Travis departed New Zealand along with the first contingent—known as the "Main Body"—of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) bound for Egypt.
### Gallipoli
Upon arrival in the Middle East in December 1914, the New Zealanders undertook further training at camps in Egypt, before taking part in the landing at Anzac Cove as part of the Gallipoli campaign on 25 April 1915. The Otago Mounted Rifles Regiment (including Travis' Southland Squadron) did not take part in the initial landing; instead they were sent as dismounted reinforcements the following month. Travis, who was part of the transport section and had responsibility for breaking in new horses, was not scheduled to proceed with the rest of the Southland Mounted Rifles Squadron. Instead he was to remain with the horses in Egypt. Nevertheless, exhibiting the same disregard for discipline that had gotten him in trouble earlier in his life, he stowed away upon the squadron's transport and joined them on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
Travis' unauthorised presence was soon discovered and disciplinary proceedings followed: he was returned to Egypt and received 14 days' confinement. Nevertheless, in October he was later able join up with the Southland Squadron as it rested on Lemnos after the Battle of Sari Bair before returning to Gallipoli to take part in the final month of the campaign before the Allied forces were evacuated in December 1915. While at Anzac Cove he established a reputation as a fine soldier who possessed the ability to move through "no man's land" unscathed.
### Western Front
Following their evacuation from Gallipoli, the New Zealanders returned to Egypt while the War Office considered their future deployment. After sustaining a knee injury while breaking in a horse, in March 1916, Travis was transferred to the infantry and was posted to the 8th (Southland) Company of the 2nd Battalion, Otago Infantry Regiment, New Zealand Division. When the division transferred to the European theatre, he sailed with it to France, arriving there in April, to serve in the trenches along the Western Front. After the 2nd Battalion entered the line near Armentières, Travis began conducting scouting missions at night into "no man's land" to gather intelligence on German positions and help in mapping the front. By the end of July 1916, he had been twice commended in brigade orders for his work in carrying out night patrols and recovering wounded soldiers. He had also been wounded, which saw him spend most of August in hospital receiving treatment.
In September 1916 he singlehandedly dealt with two German snipers that were firing upon a work party during the fighting on the Somme. He later received the Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM), the British Empire's second highest gallantry award, for this action, the published citation for his award also referring to him having "...on many occasions done very fine work." After this the 2nd Battalion moved to Flanders to hold the line during winter. Throughout the remainder of 1916 he progressed through the ranks, soon reaching the rank of sergeant, whereupon he was given responsibility for a sniper and reconnaissance section consisting of hand picked men, tasked with conducting reconnaissance of German lines and capturing prisoners to gain intelligence. His section quickly grew a reputation for being able to provide important intelligence on the strength and positions of the enemy. As a leader he was said to have a casual approach towards things such as dress and military protocol, however, he was resourceful, had a well-developed understanding of enemy courses of action and had a penchant for detailed planning.
In early December 1917 Travis was sent to England; this was intended to be for a period of three months but Travis agitated for an earlier return and rejoined his battalion, serving on the front lines near Polygon Wood in Flanders, in mid January 1918. Soon afterwards, Travis was awarded the Croix de Guerre from the Belgian government. During the German spring offensive of April 1918, Travis was wounded which required hospitalisation for over two weeks. At the end of the following month, he was awarded the Military Medal (MM) "for acts of gallantry in the field".
In July 1918, as part of the operations undertaken prior to the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, planned for August, the 2nd Battalion, Otago Infantry Regiment, was committed to operations around Rossignol Wood, to the north of Hébuterne, where a salient had developed in the German lines. Following the initial attacks, the Germans withdrew from their positions and Travis, with the reconnaissance section, set out to discover their new location. On 24 July the battalion was scheduled to launch its attack. Prior to stepping off, Travis crossed "no man's land" in daylight and destroyed a wire obstacle that threatened to block the path of the battalion's advance. Later, after the attack had been checked by heavy fire from a number of machine gun positions, seeing the danger, Travis approached two weapons pits alone and killed their occupants.
He was killed the following day in a German artillery barrage while accompanying an officer on an inspection of the battalion's positions. Well known among the New Zealand Division for his exploits, his death affected its morale. On 26 July 1918, he was interred in a grave near the small village of Couin, which is now the site of the Couin New British Cemetery. For his deeds on 24 July he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross (VC) in September 1918. The VC, instituted in 1856, was the highest award for valour that could be bestowed on a soldier of the British Empire. The citation for his VC read:
> For most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty. During 'surprise' operations it was necessary to destroy an impassable wire block. Serjt. Travis, regardless of personal danger, volunteered for this duty. Before zero hour, in broad daylight and in close proximity to enemy posts he crawled out and successfully destroyed the block with bombs, thus enabling the attacking parties to pass through. A few minutes later a bombing party on the right of the attack was held up by two enemy machine guns, and the success of the whole operation was in danger. Perceiving this Serjt. Travis with great gallantry and utter disregard of danger, rushed the position, killed the crews and captured the guns. An enemy officer and three men immediately rushed at him from a bend in the trench and attempted to retake the guns. These four he killed single handed, thus allowing the bombing party on which much depended to advance. The success of the operation was almost entirely due to the heroic work of this gallant N.C.O. and the vigour with which he made and used opportunities for inflicting casualties on the enemy. He was killed 24 hours later when, in a most intense bombardment prior to an enemy counter-attack, he was going from post to post encouraging the men.
## The medal
Although Lettie Murray was named as the beneficiary of Travis' will, executed in May 1918, the ownership of Travis' medals was disputed after the war due to the estrangement from his family. Eventually it was settled that the majority of his possessions, including his medals, belonged to Lettie. A close friend of Travis ensured that some personal effects went to the family. Travis' medals which, in addition to the VC, DCM, MM and Croix de Guerre, included the 1914–15 Star, British War Medal and the Victory Medal, were loaned to the Returned Services Association in Rotorua for a display in 1965 for the 50th anniversary of the Gallipoli campaign. Lettie donated the medals to the Southland Museum, in Invercargill, in 1974 after her death. The medals were placed on public display from 25 April 2006 to 2 July 2006.
## Legacy
Travis is remembered by a memorial at Ryal Bush, where he was living at the time of his enlistment in the NZEF, and by a plaque in Queen's Gardens in Dunedin. His service is also commemorated by the annual Dick Travis VC Memorial Shoot at the Karori Rifle Club, in Wellington. He was also the subject of a painting by Richard Wallwork. Additionally, Travis Barracks at Linton Military Camp and Travis Street in Napier are named after him, and in 2011, New Zealand Post issued a 60 cent stamp featuring Travis.
|
1,177,744 |
Walker (video game)
| 1,159,823,080 |
1993 video game
|
[
"1993 video games",
"Amiga games",
"Amiga-only games",
"Cancelled Sega Genesis games",
"Horizontally scrolling shooters",
"Psygnosis games",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games set in 2019",
"Video games set in Berlin",
"Video games set in Los Angeles",
"Video games set in the 1940s",
"Video games set in the 25th century",
"Video games set in the Middle East"
] |
Walker is a horizontally scrolling shooter video game developed by DMA Design and published by Psygnosis for the Amiga in February 1993. The player controls a bipedal mech and is tasked with killing advancing enemies in stages set in multiple time periods. Development of the game began after the release of Blood Money, but was scrapped in 1990 because the game was not coming together. By the end of the year, development had recommenced with a redesign, inspired by sprites originally intended for Blood Money. Ian Dunlop and Neill Glancy designed the game, and Raymond Usher wrote its soundtrack. The game was released to positive reviews with praise directed at the game's graphics and sound, but reviewers were critical towards the repetitiveness of the gameplay. Amiga Power ranked it among their top 100 Amiga games of 1993.
## Gameplay
Walker is a horizontal side-scrolling shooter that utilises 2D computer graphics. The player controls a bipedal mech to advance through the game's four stages, each consisting of two levels: 1944 Berlin, 2019 Los Angeles, contemporary Middle East, and 2420 Earth during "The Great War". Throughout the levels, the player uses the mech's machine guns to defeat waves of enemy infantry, tanks, and airships; the player advances to the next level upon killing all enemies. When the mech's guns are fired, the temperature indicator rises; when overheated, the guns must cool down over a short time before further use. The player has the ability to lock-on to enemies with their missiles. The mech's shield acts as the player's health and is depleted when enemies attack the mech. When the mech is destroyed, the player loses a life; when all three lives are lost, the game ends. At the end of each level, the player must defeat a boss. Unlike most side-scrolling games, Walker is controlled from right to left. The game features two difficulty levels: easy and arcade. Only the first two stages are playable in easy mode.
## Development
DMA Design founder David Jones began developing Walker following the release of Blood Money in 1989. The inspiration for the game's mech originated in a sprite from Lemmings (1991) originally designed for Blood Money. The graphics and animation for Walker were designed by Scott Johnston, who later worked on Hired Guns (1993). Johnston, a freelancer at the time, wrote a small program to correctly render the walker's head in position, which could then be altered in Deluxe Paint. In early 1990, Jones scrapped Walker because the design was not coming together, and began development on a new game called Gore!; this was soon scrapped. Following the completion of the Commodore 64 and TurboGrafx-16 ports of Shadow of the Beast, Jones hired Ian Dunlop and Neill Glancy to continue working on Walker; Glancy redesigned the game. Raymond Usher wrote the game's soundtrack.
Dunlop had been seeking contract work when he was hired by Jones. Glancy was working at a computer shop in Scotland when he met Dunlop, who was working on Walker at the time. "I had been working on pixel art games and projects for some years so offered to create an entire set of level graphics for the game", Glancy said. The Terminator (1984) and Akira (1988) influenced Glancy's design work, which he described as "the most complex pixel graphics [he] had ever made", due to the addition of motion blur and dynamic lighting. While Jones was impressed by Glancy's designs, he selected alternative designs by the art department at DMA Design because Glancy was not an employee.
Dunlop found that the large scale of the game necessitated small enemies, which were partly inspired by the characters of Lemmings. The game's control scheme consisted of a mouse controlling the guns and a keyboard or joystick controlling the mech's movements. Dunlop explained that this allowed the player to maintain freedom of the weapons while simultaneously moving the mech and felt that it "gave the gameplay a bit more depth and interest". In regards to the game's side-scrolling, the team took inspiration from their 1988 game Menace. When played on advanced Amiga models, Walker included a speech between the mech and its headquarters that had been recorded by Dunlop and Glancy over walkie-talkie.
The game's original concept included an underground base that connected all of the levels, but this element was scrapped by publisher Psygnosis due to financial constraints. Several additional levels were also cut from the game due to time restrictions, including one inspired by Prince of Persia (1989). Following Walker's launch in February 1993, Dunlop began working on a port for the Mega Drive, which was cancelled shortly thereafter. Glancy was also recruited to work on a sequel, Walker 2, which would have overhauled the visual quality of the first game and include a customisable mech. Planned for release on the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, it was eventually cancelled.
## Reception
Walker received positive reviews from critics upon release. Reviewers particularly directed praise at the game's graphics and sound design, though the gameplay was met with mixed reactions. James Price of Amiga Force named it "one of the most satisfying shoot-'em-ups", while Amiga Computing's Paul Roundell wrote that the developers "managed to combine the best elements of several games". The game received the "Amiga Action Accolade" from Amiga Action and was ranked 58th in Amiga Power's top 100 games of 1993.
Critics praised the game's graphical qualities. Amiga Computing's Roundell described the mech animation as "a pleasure to watch", and Amiga Force's Price called it "flawlessly animated". Mark Winstanley of Amiga Power praised the enemy animation, writing that he had "never seen ... soldiers die so needlessly and gratuitously". Andy Nuttall of Amiga Format applauded the game's subtle use of scrolling backgrounds. CU Amiga's Dan Slingsby found that the design of the military hardware was particularly pleasing. While David Upchurch of The One Amiga admired the mech's animation, he found that it "looks more like a mechanical chicken than a vicious killing machine".
The game's use of sound also garnered praise. Alan Bunker of Amiga Action wrote that the developers "realised the importance of sound and perfected it". CU Amiga's Slingsby found that the game's sound effects complemented the action of the gameplay. Amiga Power's Winstanley praised each element of the sound design, particularly lauding the subtle inclusions, such as music from enemy radios. Nuttall of Amiga Format felt that the developers dedicated "a lot of attention" to the game's sound design.
Reviewers were satisfied with the gameplay, though most were critical of the lack of variation. Roundell of Amiga Computing noted that the variety and speed of enemies ensures engaging gameplay. The One Amiga's Upchurch wrote that the game is "not ... for the faint-hearted". Price of Amiga Force described the controls as "rather innovative", though criticised the longevity of gameplay due to lack of variation. Amiga Format's Nuttall echoed similar remarks, noting the repetitiveness of gameplay. In a 2014 review, Graeme Virtue of Eurogamer felt that the right-to-left movement made the game memorable.
|
2,105,788 |
Blood Feud (The Simpsons)
| 1,150,985,433 | null |
[
"1991 American television episodes",
"The Simpsons (season 2) episodes"
] |
"Blood Feud" is the twenty-second and final episode of the second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on July 11, 1991. In the episode, Mr. Burns falls ill and desperately needs a blood transfusion. Homer discovers Bart has Burns' rare blood type and urges him to donate, thinking the Simpsons will be handsomely rewarded. After receiving the blood transfusion, Burns sends them a card with no money. Marge convinces Homer not to send an insulting reply to his boss, but when Bart mails the letter anyway, Burns is livid. He later forgives Homer and sends the Simpsons a giant Olmec carving to show his gratitude.
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman. Executive producer Sam Simon and writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss came up with the idea for the episode. A co-worker had recently needed a blood transfusion, and the writers thought it would be funny if Mr. Burns had one. Although Meyer was credited with writing the episode, Jean and Reiss re-wrote and polished the script. The episode includes the debut of the Olmec head Xtapolapocetl, which would become a common background prop in the Simpson home.
"Blood Feud" was part of the season two production run, but was completed behind schedule. It was originally broadcast on July 11, 1991, as part of "premiere week", the Fox Network's attempt to expand the typical 30-week prime time season and gain new viewers for the fall. In its original broadcast, the episode finished 24th in ratings for the week with a Nielsen rating of 10.8.
## Plot
Mr. Burns falls ill with a life-threatening condition called hypohemia — in which the body fails to produce enough blood — and needs a blood transfusion. Searching for a donor, Burns finds none of the employees at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant share his rare blood type, double O negative. Some even laugh about Burns' condition and refuse to reveal their blood type. Homer originally offers to donate some of his blood believing that he would get a reward for saving Burns' life, but discovers that his blood type is A positive. When discussing it with Marge, he learns that his son Bart is double O negative. Although Bart has second thoughts on donating blood Homer urges him to, promising that Burns will reward the Simpsons handsomely. After Bart reluctantly agrees and his donation saves Burns' life, Burns sends the Simpsons a thank-you card. Enraged at the paltry gesture, Homer writes an insulting reply, but Marge convinces him not to send it. The next morning, Homer finds the letter missing and learns Bart has mailed it.
When Homer fails to prevent the letter from reaching Burns' desk by attempting and failing to fill the mailbox with water, Burns receives the letter. Burns is initially impressed with the positive start of the letter, but before Homer can leave Burns' office, Burns reads the rest of the letter. Furious, Burns demands that Homer be beaten by thugs, but Smithers protests, insisting it is no way to return the favor the Simpsons performed for him. A remorseful Burns soon sends the family a colossal Olmec head of the god Xtapalapaquetl, which Bart likes. He also apologizes to Homer for misjudging him and gives him a copy of his book, Will There Ever Be A Rainbow?.
As the Simpsons stare at the head, they debate the lesson they have learned from the affair. Lisa suggests that perhaps there is no lesson. Homer observes that the recent events are "just a bunch of stuff that happened", though everyone agrees the past few days have been a memorable turn of events.
## Production
"Blood Feud" was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman. Executive producer Sam Simon and writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss came up with the idea for the episode while they were trying to fill up the rest of the production run. A co-worker had recently needed a blood transfusion, and the writers thought it would be funny if Mr. Burns had one. Although Meyer was credited with writing the episode, Jean and Reiss re-wrote and polished the script. Harry Shearer, the voice of Mr. Burns and Smithers, could not attend the table read for the episode, so his parts were read by Dan Castellaneta (the voice of Homer). "Blood Feud" includes a first act that is much longer than a normal episode of the show. The producers were going to end the act with Mr. Burns feeling better, but decided to extend it to show how the Simpson family was affected. "Blood Feud" ends with the family discussing what the message of the episode was, but decide that there was no message. The writers were having trouble conceiving an ending, but decided that since there was no point, they would discuss it. In his book Planet Simpson, Chris Turner writes that the ending is meant to openly mock the "notion of the tidy sitcom-style moral" and the "formulaic plots of sitcoms".
David Silverman describes the episode as "one of my very favorite episodes that I had the pleasure to direct". He notes that several "standard Homerisms" appear for the first time in the episode, such as Homer's conversations with his brain and his high-pitched "fairy voice". Silverman inserted a red herring into the episode in a scene where Mr. Burns says that he was rejuvenated. Silverman used a close-up of Burns when he says "blood of a young boy" in hopes of misleading viewers into thinking that the rest of episode would be about Burns seeking more of Bart's blood.
The episode includes the debut of the Olmec head Xtapolapocetl. After the episode, it was moved into the Simpsons' basement, where it has since reappeared as a prop in the background of several episodes, although never in a major role. The design was partially based on real Olmec heads, but changed to look more interesting and grotesque.
This is also the final episode to be mixed in stereo sound. Beginning with the season 3 premiere, the series would be mixed in Dolby Surround, until being discontinued in 2009.
## Cultural references
The composition and setting of the scene where Smithers and Dr. Hibbert discuss Mr. Burns' health is partially inspired by a scene from Citizen Kane where Kane talks to his wife Susan Alexander after she attempts suicide. Otto is heard humming "Iron Man" by Black Sabbath. The ghostwriter Mr. Burns hires mentions that he wrote "Like Hell I Can't". The title is a play on Sammy Davis, Jr.'s autobiography Yes, I Can. Homer mistells the story of "Androcles and the Lion", instead referring to it as "Hercules and the Lion". A mural in the post office resembles Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. Burns's line about getting "A frabulous, grabulous, zip-zoop-zabulous present" is similar to lines used in Dr. Seuss books. The scene where Homer dictates the angry letter to Mr. Burns, and the scene where he and Bart attempt to get it out of the mailbox, are inspired by the Honeymooners episode "Letter to the Boss".
The location of Springfield is displayed in this episode, however, the State initials are JI (J and I letters) or Jl (J and small L). While the location of the Simpsons have been kept a secret for over 20 years it has been revealed that they live in Oregon. This is displayed in the letter Homer receives from C.M.Burns. Address is 1000 Mammon Ln. Springfield, (Basically J and Line). and illegible zipcode.
## First broadcast
"Blood Feud" was part of the season two production run, but was completed behind schedule. It was originally broadcast on July 11, 1991, as part of the Fox Network's "premiere week". Fox aired new episodes of several of its top shows, including The Simpsons and Beverly Hills, 90210, in hopes of expanding the normal 30 week prime time season and gaining new viewers for the fall. Although "Three Men and a Comic Book" was the official season two finale, "Blood Feud" is considered part of the second season and was included in The Complete Second Season DVD boxset.
In its original broadcast, "Blood Feud" finished 24th in ratings for the week of July 8–14, 1991, with a Nielsen rating of 10.8. It was the second highest rated program on Fox after Beverly Hills, 90210. The episode beat a rerun of The Cosby Show, which aired at the same time on NBC, which had a Nielsen Rating of 10.3. Fox finished second overall on July 11, with an average rating of 10.4.
## Reception
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote, "One of those shows that people always talk about when discussing The Simpsons – and rightfully so. Homer's transformation from angry parent to a sensible, calm husband is excellent, as is his reaction to Bart posting his angry letter. Their attempts to retrieve the letter and Burns' eventual reaction are fabulous."
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote: "In many ways, 'Feud' seemed more derivative than usual. Not only did it resemble parts of 'Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish', but Homer's attempts to regain the letter before Burns reads it appears reminiscent of an episode of The Flintstones. Despite those similarities, 'Feud' still provided a very entertaining show. The program packed in a slew of hilarious moments, from Homer's description of a Bible story to his visit to the post office." Ben Rayner of The Toronto Star included "Blood Feud" in his list of the top ten episodes of The Simpsons, noting that "Homer's efforts to thwart the mail service still kill me 15 years later."
## In popular culture
The scene where Bart prank calls Moe and asks for a "Mike Rotch" (My crotch) was later used in the Weird Al Yankovic song "Phony Calls".
|
6,115,025 |
Frank Fetter
| 1,164,585,784 |
American economist (1863–1949)
|
[
"1863 births",
"1949 deaths",
"Austrian School economists",
"Cornell University alumni",
"Cornell University faculty",
"Economists from Indiana",
"People from Peru, Indiana",
"Presidents of the American Economic Association"
] |
Frank Albert Fetter (/ˈfɛtər/; March 8, 1863 – March 21, 1949) was an American economist of the Austrian School. Fetter's treatise, The Principles of Economics, contributed to an increased American interest in the Austrian School, including the theories of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and Ludwig von Mises.
Fetter notably debated Alfred Marshall, presenting a theoretical reassessment of land as capital. Fetter's arguments have been credited with prompting mainstream economists to abandon the Georgist idea "that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent...." A proponent of the subjective theory of value, Fetter emphasized the importance of time preference and rebuffed Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book, The Rate of Interest.
## Early life and education
Frank Fetter was born in Peru, Indiana to a Quaker family during the height of the American Civil War. Fetter proved an able student as a youth, as demonstrated by his acceptance to Indiana University in 1879 when he was only sixteen years old. At Indiana, he joined the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity. Fetter was on track to graduate with the class of 1883, but left college to run his family's bookstore upon news of his father's declining health. Working in the bookstore offered an opportunity for the young man to acquaint himself with some of the economic ideas that would later prove formative. Chief among the intellectual influences Fetter encountered at this time was Henry George's Progress and Poverty (1879).
After eight years, Fetter returned to academia and finally completed his B.A. in 1891. In 1892, Jeremiah W. Jenks—who had taught Fetter at Indiana University—acquired a teaching position at Cornell University at the new President White School of History and Political Science and subsequently secured a fellowship for Fetter at that institution. Fetter completed his Master of Philosophy degree the same year. Jenks then convinced Fetter to study, as Jenks himself had, under Johannes Conrad at the Sorbonne in Paris, France. Fetter earned his Ph.D. in 1894 from the University of Halle in Germany, where he wrote his doctoral dissertation, a critique of Malthusian population theory.
## Professional life
After earning his doctoral degree, Fetter accepted an instructorship at Cornell, but quickly left after being offered a position as a professor at Indiana University. In 1898, Stanford University lured him away from Indiana, but Fetter resigned from Stanford three years later over a dispute regarding academic freedom. After leaving Stanford in 1901, Fetter went back to Cornell, where he remained for ten years. In 1911, he again found himself in professional transition, accepting the position of chairman in an interdisciplinary department at Princeton University which incorporated history, politics, and economics. Fetter was the first chairman of Princeton University's Department of Economics and Social institutions.
Despite his ideological proximity and personal rapport with eminent Austrian School economists such as Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser, as well as his favorable reviews of works by Ludwig von Mises and F.A. Hayek, Fetter referred to himself, Thorstein Veblen, and Herbert J. Davenport more specifically as being members of the "American Psychological School." The appellation "Psychological School" is now generally considered to be synonymous with "Austrian School."
Fetter was a staunch opponent of Franklin D. Roosevelt's plan to end the gold standard and worked with other economists in lobbying against the move to a fiat currency. As some indication of Fetter's role in these efforts,
> In January 1933, a letter was sent to the president-elect, urging him not only to lower tariff barriers to revive international trade, but to maintain the gold standard "unflinchingly." The letter was signed by a number of prominent "traditional" economists, headed by the American "Austrian," Frank A. Fetter, of Princeton.
## Theoretical contributions in economics
### Land as capital
Fetter participated in a notable debate with English economist Alfred Marshall, both through his 1904 Principles of Economics and a number of journal articles in the American Economic Association's journals and in the Quarterly Journal of Economics. He contested Marshall's position that land is theoretically distinct from capital. Fetter argued that such a distinction was impractical, stating that,
> The notion that it is a simple matter to distinguish between the yield of natural agents and that of improvements is fanciful and confusing.... The objective classification of land and capital as natural and artificial agents is a task that always must transcend the human power of discrimination.
Fetter's stand on this issue further led him to oppose Georgist ideas like the land value tax. Mark Blaug, a specialist in the history of economic thought, credits Fetter and John Bates Clark with influencing mainstream economists to abandon the idea "that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent.... This is in fact the basis of all the attacks on Henry George by contemporary economists and certainly the fundamental reason why professional economists increasingly ignored him."
### Applications of subjective value theory
Fetter believed in the subjective theory of value, and thus supported a pure time preference theory of interest. Richard Ebeling wrote that Fetter "constructed a consistent theory of value, price, cost, and production in the context of emphasizing the time-valuational element in all consumption and production choices." According to Jeffrey Herbener, Fetter asserted that "just as the price of each consumer good is determined solely by subjective value, the rate of interest is determined solely by time preference."
Likewise, Herbener explains, this led Fetter to also conclude that "[t]he rental price of each producer good is imputed to it by entrepreneurial demand and is equal to its discounted marginal value product. The capital value of each durable good is equal to the discounted value of its future rents." Fetter's contribution to the Austrian subjectivist tradition, then, is that he "showed how this uniform, subjective theory of value implies the demise of socialist theories of labor exploitation, Ricardian theories of rent, and productivity theories of interest."
### Criticism of Fisher's theory of interest
In "Interest Theories, Old and New" (1914), Fetter criticized Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book, The Rate of Interest, a tome which had heavily influenced Fetter. As Murray Rothbard recounts, upon further review of Fisher's earlier work,
> ...Fetter discovered that the seeds of error were in Fisher's publication of 1907. Fisher had stated that valuations of present and future goods imply a preexisting money rate of interest, thereby suggesting that a pure time-preference explanation of interest involves circular reasoning. By way of contrast, and in the course of explaining his own pure time-preference, or "capitalization," theory of interest, Fetter showed that time valuation is prerequisite to the determination of the market rate of interest.
## Reception in academia
In 1909, at the age of forty-six, Fetter was awarded an honorary LL.D. from Colgate University, and he was made president of the American Economic Association in 1913. Additional honorary doctoral degrees were conferred on Fetter by Occidental College in 1930 and Indiana University in 1934. He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 1927, he was awarded the Karl Menger Medal by the Austrian Economic Society.
Fetter's treatise, Principles of Economics (1904), has been described by Herbener as "unsurpassed until Ludwig von Mises's treatise of 1940, Nationaloekonomie." In Rothbard's preface to the 1977 edition of Fetter's Capital, Interest, and Rent, he notes that he was first introduced to Fetter's work via a citation in Mises' Human Action and describes Fetter's views on interest and rent as being "Austrian" and influential on his own views.
> ...while reading Fetter's oeuvre in the course of writing my Man, Economy, and State... I was struck by the brilliance and consistency of his integrated theory of distribution and by the neglect of Fetter in current histories of economic thought, even by those that are Austrian oriented. For Fetter's systematic theory, while challenging and original (particularly his theories of interest and rent), was emphatically in the Austrian school tradition.
Upon Fetter's death in 1949, J. Douglas Brown, who would later be named Provost of Princeton University, wrote a "Memorial" to Fetter for the American Economic Review. He opened the tribute with the announcement that "with the death of Frank Albert Fetter the great company of American economists has suffered an irreparable loss."
## Books
- Versuch einer Bevölkerungslehre ausgehend von einer Kritik des Malthus'schen Bevölkerungsprinzips (Translation: "An Essay on Population Doctrine based on a Critique of the Population Principles of Malthus"). Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1894.
- The Principles of Economics. The Principles of Economics, With Applications to Practical Problems New York: The Century Co., 1905
- Source Book in Economics. New York: The Century Co., 1912.
- Economics, Volume 1: Economic Principles. Economic Principles New York: The Century Co., 1915.
- Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with, Vol. 1: Economic Principles. New York: The Century Co., 1916.
- Economics, Vol. 2: Modern Economic Problems. Modern Economic Problems New York: The Century Co., 1916. Revised 2nd edition, 1922.
- Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with, Vol. 2: Modern Economics. New York: The Century Co., 1917.
- Masquerade of Monopoly. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1931.
- Capital, Interest and Rent: Essays in the theory of distribution. Capital, Interest, and Rent: Essays in the Theory of Distribution Institute for Humane Studies. Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel, Inc., 1977.
## Articles
- "Recent Discussion of the Capital Concept" by Frank A. Fetter, Quarterly Journal of Economics, (1900)
|
173,330 |
FLCL
| 1,173,843,629 |
Anime series directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki
|
[
"2000 Japanese novels",
"2000 anime OVAs",
"2000 manga",
"2023 anime television series debuts",
"Action anime and manga",
"Adult Swim original programming",
"Animated television series about children",
"Animated television series about robots",
"Anime with original screenplays",
"Coming-of-age anime and manga",
"Dark Horse Comics titles",
"Extraterrestrials in anime and manga",
"Funimation",
"Gainax",
"IG Port franchises",
"Kodansha manga",
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"NUT (studio)",
"Production I.G",
"Revoroot",
"Science fiction anime and manga",
"Seinen manga",
"Surreal comedy anime and manga",
"Television series set in the future",
"Toho Animation",
"Tokyopop titles",
"Toonami",
"Upcoming anime television series"
] |
FLCL (Japanese: フリクリ, Hepburn: Furi Kuri, pronounced in English as Fooly Cooly) is an original video animation (OVA) anime series created and directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki, written by Yōji Enokido, and produced by the FLCL Production Committee, which consisted of Gainax, Production I.G, and King Records. FLCL is a story following Naota Nandaba, a twelve-year-old boy whose suburban life is disturbed by the arrival of the mysterious Haruko Haruhara. The six-episode series was released in Japan from April 2000 to March 2001 alongside a manga and novel adaptation.
In 2016, two new seasons totaling 12 episodes were announced as a co-production between Production I.G, Toho, and Adult Swim. The second season, FLCL Progressive, premiered on June 3, 2018 on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block, while the third season, FLCL Alternative, premiered on September 8, 2018. In Japan, Alternative and Progressive had theatrical screenings as compilation films with Alternative opening on September 7, 2018 and Progressive opening on September 28, 2018. The first episode of FLCL Alternative premiered unannounced on April Fools' Day 2018 at 12 a.m. ET on Toonami in Japanese with English subtitles as part of Adult Swim's annual stunt.
Two additional seasons were ordered by Adult Swim in 2022, titled FLCL: Grunge and FLCL: Shoegaze, respectively. Both seasons will premiere simultaneously in Northern America in 2023.
## Plot
The first season of FLCL is a coming-of-age story and revolves around Naota Nandaba, a 12-year-old, working-class boy living with his widower father and grandfather. His life in the city of Mabase is interrupted by the arrival of a Vespa-riding maniac named Haruko Haruhara. She runs over Naota then revives him with CPR before hitting him on the head with her left-handed, electric bass guitar (a blue, vintage Rickenbacker 4001) and proceeds to stalk him. Finding Haruko weaseling her way into his life as a live-in maid, Naota discovers that the head injury she caused created an "N.O." portal, which giant robots produced by a company known as Medical Mechanica emerge from periodically. The first of these robots is hit on the head by Haruko and becomes a friendly service robot later named Canti. Canti ingests Naota to assume the reddened form he first had when fighting the robots sent after him.
Haruko claims she is an alien investigator from the Galactic Space Police Brotherhood, and her presence places Naota and those around him in danger. The Interstellar Immigration Bureau's Commander Amarao, whom Haruko has a history with, asserts rather that she is an apathetic seductress seeking a space-manipulating being called Atomsk who was partially contained within Canti. Every time Naota is absorbed by Canti, Atomsk is gradually brought to Earth. As Atomsk is held in Medical Mechanica's custody and Haruko ultimately places Earth under threat, the company eventually turns their factory stationed on the planet into a doomsday terraforming device, attempting to have Naota and Canti absorbed by the doomsday device's Terminal Core. Haruko's plan fails as Naota ends up becoming Atomsk's host and then releases him into the universe after a brief battle that ends Medical Mechanica's attack on Earth. Haruko follows after Atomsk, and Mabase returns to some normalcy.
In the second season, FLCL Progressive, Haruko returns to Mabase years later after a failed attempt to contain Atomsk, although she did manage to absorb him. Placing herself as a middle school homeroom teacher, Haruko targets a 14-year-old girl named Hidomi Hibajiri through her classmate and eventual love interest Ko Ide. Haruko finds opposition in both the headphones Hidomi wears and Julia Jinyu, a more stoic offshoot of Haruko that splintered from her during her initial attempt to control Atomsk's power. Haruko eventually eats Julia to restore herself, and uses Ide to get to Hidomi. Like before, this causes conflict between Medical Mechanica and the Interstellar Immigration Bureau, as the latter was reverse-engineering Canti's technology to utilize the N.O. Channel's energies for their own use. Atomsk appears on Earth as planned, but Haruko ends up failing again with a freed Julia taking her leave. Haruko regains her composure and resumes her hunt for Atomsk as Hidomi and Ide begin their relationship while Mabase rebuilds after much of it was destroyed by Medical Mechanica.
In the third season, FLCL Alternative, Haruko enters the life of high school student Kana Koumoto and her friends as she became a mentor of sorts to Kana in helping the teen's transition into adulthood as Medical Mechanica begins its assault on Earth.
## Production
The first season of FLCL was directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki and produced by the FLCL Production Committee, which included Gainax, Production I.G, and Starchild Records.
Tsurumaki has said that he tried to "break the rules" of anime when making FLCL, for example, by choosing a contemporary Japanese band to provide the soundtrack, and patterning the style more after "a Japanese TV commercial or promotional video", creating a work that is "short, but dense-packed".
FLCL's localization director and script writer Marc Handler stated that localization of the script was the hardest part of the show. The in-jokes in the show included obscure pop culture references that had to be decoded and transferred to English audiences. One example was a reference to Cheerio, a discontinued soft drink in Japan, for the English release the choice was made to use a discontinued American soft drink at the time, Crystal Pepsi. Director Kazuya Tsurumaki responded to criticism of FLCL, stating "comprehension should not be an important factor in FLCL".
The Medical Mechanica building featured is in the shape of a large iron. The character Amarao describes Medical Mechanica's goal as the destruction of all thought. FLCL uses the iron as a symbolic breakdown of "thought" by smoothing out the wrinkles as equated to the removing of the brain's wrinkles. For English localization, the Japanese team had to explain the concept because a direct translation of script did not convey the ideology.
## Media
### Original video animation
The six-episode series was released in Japan from April 26, 2000 – March 16, 2001. It originally debuted in the United States on Adult Swim in August 2003, where it managed to gain a significant cult following and was widely acclaimed, despite its short length. The series would continue to air on the network in the following years, including reruns on the network's Toonami programming block from October 2013 to January 2014, and in April 2018. The series is also available via iTunes, adultswim.com and Funimation's website.
Six DVD compilations, each containing one episode, have been released in Japan by Gainax. In addition, a DVD collection box, containing all six DVD compilations, was released in Japan on August 13, 2005. Three DVD compilations were released by Synch-Point in North America. A DVD collection box, containing all the DVD compilations of the English episodes, was released on January 23, 2007, but have since gone out of print. In January 2010, Funimation announced that they had acquired the license for the series and would be releasing it on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in February 2011. Shortly after, it has been released in Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment on a 3-disc DVD set and on Blu-ray Disc. It is also licensed in the United Kingdom by MVM Films. The series also aired in the United States on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block from August 4 to August 13, 2003.
### Novels
A three-volume novel series adaptation was written by the anime's screenwriter, Yoji Enokido, illustrated by Kazuya Tsurumaki and Hiroyuki Imaishi, and published by Kadokawa Shoten. The novels were released in Japan in June 2000, October 2000, and March 2001 respectively. The English-language versions were published by Tokyopop and were released in North America on March 11, 2008; September 9, 2008; and March 10, 2009 respectively. The novels cover all 6 episodes of the anime, introducing elements that were not present in the original production.
### Manga
A two-volume manga adaptation was created by artist Hajime Ueda. The manga interprets the series with certain elements altered and removed, and tells the events of the anime using a reductive art style and unsteady pacing. Jack Kotin defended the unique artstyle of the manga, saying "It can be crudely drawn at times, but this style fits in well with the overall story and atmosphere...".
The manga was published by Kodansha and serialized in monthly Magazine Z. The two volumes were released on October 23, 2000 and August 23, 2001 respectively. The manga was re-released in bunkoban format with the two volumes labeled "Jō" (上, First) and "Ge" (下, Final) in two individual box sets titled "Kodansha Box". Jō volume was on May 7, 2007 and the Ge volume was released on June 4, 2007. An edited tankōbon version of the manga that was released in box sets, were released on January 10, 2012 and February 9, 2012 respectively.
The English-language editions of the manga was released by Tokyopop on September 16, 2003 and on November 4, 2003 respectively. In March 2011, Dark Horse Comics announced to re-release the manga in omnibus edition. The omnibus edition was released on May 16, 2012 and includes remastered story pages, a remastered script, and bonus color pages.
### Soundtracks
Six pieces of theme music are used for the episodes; five opening themes and one closing theme, all by Japanese rock band the Pillows. The battle themes are "Advice", "Little Busters" and "I Think I Can"; the opening themes are: "One Life", used in episode one, "Instant Music" in episodes two and three, "Happy Bivouac" in episode four, "Runners High", in episode five, and "Carnival" in episode six. The closing theme of each episode is "Ride on Shooting Star", used during ending sequences in which appears Yukiko Motoya and a Vespa.
Geneon Entertainment has released three original soundtracks encompassing the songs by the Pillows, and the score by composer Shinkichi Mitsumune. The first soundtrack, titled FLCL No.1: Addict (フリクリNo.1 アディクト), contains tracks featured in the first three episodes of FLCL. The soundtrack was released on October 4, 2000 in Japan and January 20, 2004 in the US. The second soundtrack, titled FLCL No.2: King of Pirates (フリクリNo.2 海賊王, Furi Kuri No.2 Kaizoku-ō), contains tracks featured in the last three episodes of FLCL. The soundtrack was released on July 25, 2001 Japan and September 7, 2004 in the US. This volume features several audio dramas, with the cast of FLCL playing the various parts. Due to the dramas included, this album acts as a sequel of sorts to the anime. The third soundtrack, titled FLCL No.3 (フリクリNo.3), is a compilation of the first two soundtracks, featuring only music by the Pillows. The released on June 8, 2005 and June 7, 2005 in the US. Unlike the previous two soundtracks, the songs are the original vocal versions from the band's LPs. A fourth album title FooL on CooL generation (フールオンクールジェネレーション) was released in September 2018 with music used in Progressive and Alternative.
## Reception
FLCL has received a mostly positive reception. The series has been described as "bizarre" and "surreal", and has been noted for its symbolic content, unusual plot, and its soundtrack composed by the Pillows. Its experimental nature has also been noted, which includes an entire scene made in the cutout animation style of animated American series South Park, or The Matrix-like camera rotation tricks.
Christopher McDonald of Anime News Network called it "downright hilarious" and "visually superb" with great music, citing the packaging of 2 episodes per DVD as the only weakness of Synch-Point's original release. Robert Nelson of THEM Anime Reviews gave the anime 4 out of 5 stars, stating "FLCL may not have a straightforward or deep plot. It may not have complex characterizations. Hell, it may not have any meaning. But FLCL does succeed in its true objective. It is fun to watch!" Chris Beveridge of Mania gave it an A−, stating "FLCL is something that allowed those involved to try a wide variety of styles and techniques and does come off as quite experimental. But nearly everything worked in their favor and you end up with three hours of nearly break neck speed action, comedy and commentary on modern life." Brian Ruh praised the series, stating "It was very frenetic and kept pushing the envelope on what was possible in Japanese animation."
IGN columnist Davis Smith reviewed the anime shortly after its English premiere. In the article, Smith praised the series' unusual story telling, extremely high quality animation and the soundtrack provided by the Pillows; rewarding the series a score of 9 out of 10 concluding, "Logic dictates that FLCL should be an undisciplined and unaffecting mess, given all the insanity that its creators are attempting to weld into a functioning whole. Yet while it's hard to explain exactly why, it works. It entertains me. At times, it makes me laugh; at times, it makes me a little misty-eyed; at times, it makes me want to scream and howl and light things on fire and break windows with baseball bats and yes, maybe even buy a Vespa. That's the kind of success that you just can't argue with."
From January 3 to February 7, 2012, Hayden Childs, of the online magazine The A.V. Club, composed a six-part weekly analysis and review of each FLCL episode in celebration of The Legend of Korra's then upcoming third season, a series that was heavily influenced by FLCL's animation style. In the article, Childs gave an extremely positive review of the series, understanding it as a surrealist inspired coming of age story, stating "For all of its wild and initially bewildering aspects, the major purpose of FLCL is the impressionistic and often naturalistic documentation of Naota's passage into maturity."
Avatar: The Last Airbender director Giancarlo Volpe has stated members of his staff "were all ordered to buy FLCL and watch every single episode of it."
Chainsaw Man creator Tatsuki Fujimoto has stated in his 3 million copies sold thank you letter to fans that Chainsaw man is a "wicked version of FLCL".
### Awards and acclaims
On August 12, 2003, a Time Warner press release noted the success of Cartoon Network: FLCL "ranked No. 42 among all shows on ad-supported cable among adults 18–34". Also in 2003, FLCL won third place for Best Animation Film at the Fantasia Festival. On February 24, 2007, FLCL was nominated for "Best Cast", and won "Best Comedy Series" and "Best Short Series" at the first American Anime Awards show. Anime Insider ranked FLCL 4th in their list of the best English-licensed anime of all time in November 2007.
## Sequel seasons
On August 31, 2015, Anime News Network reported that Production I.G may have been planning a continuation or remake of the OVA series after announcing their acquisition of the rights to FLCL from production studio Gainax. According to Hideaki Anno, his animation studio Khara was originally set to buy the rights to FLCL from Gainax before Production I.G. However, before the deal was finalized Gainax suddenly raised the asking price causing the deal with Khara to fall though.
On March 24, 2016 via Toonami's official Facebook and Tumblr pages it was announced that 12 new episodes of FLCL would be produced in cooperation with Production I.G. The episodes were split into two individual seasons: FLCL Progressive (フリクリ プログレ, Furikuri Purogure, "FLCL Progress") and FLCL Alternative (フリクリ オルタナ, Furikuri Orutana, "FLCL Alterna") which served as sequels to the popular series which were initially broadcast on Adult Swim in August 2003.
The synopsis of the first sequel season was published by Adult Swim:
> In the new season of FLCL, many years have passed since Naota and Haruhara Haruko shared their adventure together. Meanwhile, the war between the two entities known as Medical Mechanica and Fraternity rages across the galaxy. Enter Hidomi, a young teenage girl who believes there is nothing amazing to expect from her average life, until one day when a new teacher named Haruko arrives at her school. Soon enough, Medical Mechanica is attacking her town and Hidomi discovers a secret within her that could save everyone, a secret that only Haruko can unlock.
>
> But why did Haruko return to Earth? What happened to her Rickenbacker 4001 she left with Naota? And where did the human-type robot 'Canti' go?
FLCL Progressive, the sequel series, featured the return of original character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamato (as his respective role) and original series creator Kazuya Tsurumaki, who supervised the project. Hideto Iwai wrote the scripts, and Katsuyuki Motohiro served as chief director on the project, with each episode featuring a different director: Kazuto Arai, Toshihisa Kaiya, Yuki Ogawa, Yoshihide Ibata, Kei Suezawa, and Hiroshi Ikehata. The animation was produced mostly by Production I.G, but studios Production GoodBook and Signal.MD handled episodes 2 and 5, respectively. The Pillows contributed to the series soundtrack, although the score was primarily composed by R・O・N from music production company VERYGOO.
FLCL Alternative, the third season, once again saw the return of character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, composer R・O・N (with tracks by the Pillows), scriptwriter Hideto Iwai, and supervisor Kazuya Tsurukamki. Katsuyuki Motohiro, as well, returned as chief director, although Yutaka Uemara was the only director, and Kiyotaka Suzuki served as assistant director. Production I.G, Revoroot, and NUT produced the animation for the series.
FLCL Progressive premiered on June 3, 2018 on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block and concluded on July 7, 2018; FLCL Alternative premiered on September 8, 2018 and concluded on October 13, 2018. In Japan, Alternative and Progressive had theatrical screenings on September 7, 2018, and September 28, 2018, respectively. The first episode of FLCL Alternative unexpectedly premiered early at midnight on April Fools' Day on Toonami, airing entirely in Japanese with English subtitles. The day of the second season's US premiere, Toonami simultaneously announced via its Facebook page that they would be delaying the English subtitled versions of both new seasons until November 2018, in respect for the Japanese film format releases. Warner Bros. released FLCL Progressive on DVD on October 1, 2019. It later released FLCL Alternative on DVD along with a Blu-ray combo pack of both sequels on February 4, 2020.
Two additional seasons were ordered by Adult Swim in 2022, which were announced on Toonami's 25th anniversary, titled FLCL: Grunge and FLCL: Shoegaze, respectively. Both seasons will premiere in 2023.
|
5,311,222 |
Ridge Racer (1993 video game)
| 1,162,172,103 |
1993 video game
|
[
"1993 video games",
"Arcade video games",
"Cancelled PC games",
"Mobile games",
"Namco System 22 games",
"Namco arcade games",
"PlayStation (console) games",
"Ridge Racer",
"Single-player video games",
"Sony Interactive Entertainment games",
"Video games developed in Japan",
"Video games scored by Shinji Hosoe",
"Video games with custom soundtrack support",
"Zeebo games"
] |
is a 1993 racing video game developed and published by Namco. It was released initially on the Namco System 22 arcade system board and ported to the PlayStation console in 1994. It is the first title in the Ridge Racer series released for arcades and home consoles.
Development took eight months, and the game is based on a trend among Japanese car enthusiasts, which involves racing on mountain roads while drifting around corners. It was also the first arcade video game with 3D texture-mapped graphics, with its System 22 hardware capable of texture mapping and Gouraud shading. The first home version was released in Japan in 1994 as a launch title for the PlayStation; the versions for North America and Europe were released in 1995, also as a launch title for both regions. It was re-released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in 1997, and for the Greatest Hits and Platinum ranges in North America and PAL regions respectively the same year. Ridge Racer played a major role in establishing the new system and gave it an early edge over its nearest competitor, the Sega Saturn; it was considered a rival to Sega's Daytona USA.
Ridge Racer received a highly positive reception. Reviewers praised the 3D texture-mapped graphics, audio, drifting mechanics, and arcade racing gameplay, although some were critical of the lack of strong artificial intelligence and a multiplayer mode. The arcade version was followed in 1994 by a sequel, Ridge Racer 2, whereas the PlayStation sequel, Ridge Racer Revolution, was released in 1995 in Japan, and in 1996 in North America and PAL regions. The soundtrack was remixed and released on the Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11 album.
## Gameplay
Players choose a course, a car, a transmission (automatic or six-speed manual), and a song. The cars' specifications vary: some have a high top speed, others excel at acceleration or turning, and some present a balance of the three. Certain cars are named after other Namco games such as Solvalou, Mappy, Bosconian, Nebulasray, and Xevious. The racetrack can be observed from a first-person perspective or, for the PlayStation version, from a third-person perspective. Namco's NeGcon controller can be used to play the game. Because Ridge Racer is an arcade-style racing game, collisions cause no damage, and merely slow the player down. There is a time limit, which ends the race if counted down to zero.
A single course is featured comprising four configurations of increasing difficulty: Novice, Intermediate, Advanced and Time Trial (the latter two are extended). The player races eleven opponents except in Time Trial, where there is only one. The greater the difficulty, the faster the cars run; Time Trial is the fastest. Each race consists of three laps (two on the beginner course). Checkpoints that grant additional time when passed through are present throughout. In the PlayStation version, after every race is won, reversed ones become available, and an additional opponent is encountered in Time Trial: the 13th Racing (also known as the "Devil" car), the fastest car. On winning, the car is unlocked. The PlayStation version features a hidden "mirror" version of the tracks. It becomes a "mirror image" of itself; left turns become right turns and vice versa, and the surroundings switch sides of the road. In the arcade version, the winning player's score is saved in action-replay highlights after finishing the game.
In the PlayStation version, a mini-game of Galaxian can be played as the game loads. If won, eight additional cars become available. Once the game has loaded, the CD is only needed to play six music tracks. The disc can be replaced during gameplay, although the game does not update; regardless of what disc is inserted, there will always be six tracks, corresponding to the starting points of the tracks on the game disc.
## Development and release
At the Japan Amusement Machinery Manufacturers Association (JAMMA) 1992 Amusement Machine Show (AM Show) in Japan, held during 17–19 August, Namco debuted a racing game called Sim Drive for the Namco System 22 arcade system board. It was a sequel to Eunos Roadster Driving Simulator, a Mazda MX-5 driving simulation arcade game that Namco developed with Mazda and released in 1990. Its 3D polygon graphics stood out for the use of Gouraud shading and texture mapping. After a location test at the show, where it was previewed in the November issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly, Sim Drive had a limited Japanese release in December 1992, but did not get a mass-market release. It served as a prototype for Ridge Racer.
Ridge Racer had a development cycle of eight months. The development team was under pressure to complete it before their rivals, and designer Fumihiro Tanaka commented that "the other company" (Sega) was in the same position. Ridge Racer was originally planned to be an F1 racing game, but the concept was replaced with one based on a trend among Japanese car enthusiasts at the time. Namco Bandai's general manager, Yozo Sakagami, explained that they liked racing on mountain roads and did not want to slow down around corners, so drifted around them instead. Therefore, the team decided to create a game which allowed players to test their driving skills and experience cars' manipulation at high speeds while mastering drifting. The team did not worry about how Ridge Racer would be received outside Japan: Tanaka explained that it was a naïve time when Japanese developers could develop games for players in general, rather than for specific markets.
During the release for arcade system board, Namco described Ridge Racer as "the most realistic driving game ever". It featured three-dimensional polygon graphics with texture mapping. In Japan, the game was demonstrated at the 1993 AM Show, held in August 1993.
### Ridge Racer Full Scale
The Ridge Racer Full Scale arcade version was released along with the standard arcade version in 1993. This version was designed to give the player a more realistic driving experience. Players (a passenger could sit in the car next to the driver) sat inside an adapted red Eunos Roadster, the Japanese right-hand drive version of the Mazda MX-5 Miata and controlled the same car on-screen. The game was played in front of a 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, front-projected triple screen (which benefited from dimmed ambient lighting), with the wheel, gear stick and pedals functioning as the controls. The ignition key was used to start, the speed and RPM gauges were functional, and fans blew wind on the player from inside the air vents. Speakers concealed inside the car provided realistic engine and tyre sounds; overhead speakers provided surround music.
The Ridge Racer Full Scale cabinet cost £150,000 or \$000 (equivalent to \$0 in 2022) to purchase in 1994.
### PlayStation
Development of the PlayStation version began in April 1994. Because of the differences, it had to be produced essentially from scratch, and took nearly as long to develop as the arcade version, being half-complete in November. It was mostly complete by December, with the graphics 70 per cent finished. This version was developed by the same team. Because of technical limitations, it was difficult to program and run at a lower resolution, lower framerate (30 frames per second for NTSC, 25 for PAL), and was less detailed. Specialised graphics libraries were developed because it was felt the standard ones provided by Sony were too limited. Visual director Yozo Sakagami remarked that the hardest element to port was the experience of driving a car. It was felt that the NeGcon controller would provide a more analogue feel than the standard PlayStation controller. Sakagami was concerned about loading times because of the CD-ROM format; the team countered this by having all the data loaded into memory by the time the title screen appeared and having the player play a mini-game of Galaxian while waiting. Sakagami chose to include Galaxian because he was part of its arcade team and wanted to honour his former boss. Because CDs were cheaper to produce, the retail price was less than cartridge games despite an increase in development costs. 13th Racing's design was meant to be futuristic, according to Tanaka, because the team was considering the future of sports cars. The team settled on a black car "no-one had ever driven before", and at one point it was known as "The Cockroach" because of its performance. There was a rumour that the PlayStation version would include Ridge Racer 2's link-up mode, which Namco denied.
The PlayStation version was shown at the 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo event and was an innovation in the use of three-dimensional polygons. Ridge Racer was released in Japan on 3 December 1994, in North America on 9 September 1995, and in Europe on 29 September as a launch title for the PlayStation.
### Music
The soundtrack was produced at the same time as the game by Shinji Hosoe, with contributions from Nobuyoshi Sano and Ayako Saso, as the development team did not have enough time to produce them separately. Initially, the team did not plan to have music, but ended up producing techno, hardcore and gabber, which Tanaka believed helped players to enjoy a fun feeling while playing. Later Ridge Racer series composer Hiroshi Okubo believed techno would give a feeling of energy, journey, and speed, and commented that the genre was chosen because it embodied the game's "unrealistic speed and tension". This was commemorated by the release of Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11 by Victor Entertainment on 21 January 1994 in Japan, which features remixed versions of the themes.
## Reception
### Arcade
In Japan, Game Machine listed it on their 1 December 1993 issue as being the most-successful upright/cockpit arcade game of the month. It went on to be the highest-grossing dedicated arcade game of 1994 in Japan. In North America, Play Meter listed Ridge Racer to be the third most-popular arcade game in February 1994. In the United Kingdom, it was London's top-grossing arcade game in early 1994.
Upon release in arcades, Ridge Racer received critical acclaim, particularly for its graphics and sound. Following its AM Show demonstration in August 1993, Edge magazine said that the game's custom-designed real-time texture mapping and rendering system pumps out the most photorealistic image ever seen in the arcades. He also said that Namco managed to put Virtua Racing from Sega firmly in the shade with the release of own title. RePlay magazine praised the graphics, calling it "the first" video game with "next-generation computer texture-mapping" graphics. Following its European debut at the Amusement Trades Exhibition International (ATEI) in January 1994, Edge considered Ridge Racer the most visually impressive 3D game at the time. In March, Computer and Video Games writer Paul Rand gave high marks, remarking that it was "far and away the most realistic arcade game ever seen" on reviewing the arcade machine (based on the full-scale unit). Compared to Virtua Racing, he considered Ridge Racer to have the better "drop-dread stunning" graphics and Virtua Racing to have the better gameplay.
### PlayStation
In Japan, the PlayStation version sold 859,085 units by 1995. In the United States, it sold 609,422 units, including 60,958 bundled units and 548,464 standalone units. This adds up to 1,468,507 units sold in Japan and the United States.
The PlayStation port also received positive reviews from critics. In a review of its Japanese console release, GamePro called the PlayStation version "a near carbon copy of the original" and praised the graphics, soundtrack, and the entire game being loaded into the PlayStation's RAM, eliminating mid-game loading and giving the option of removing the game disc and using the PlayStation as a music CD player during gameplay. Although they criticised the graphical glitches and slowdown, the game was recommended. Next Generation applauded the conversion's faithful recreation of the arcade version, smooth graphics, and additional cars. Although they noted the lack of variety in the different cars' performance and the absence of a multiplayer mode as downsides, they found the game remarkable overall and commented that Ridge Racer was an early game for the PlayStation, and a rushed project at that, making it "an excellent harbinger of what's to come". GamePro's review of the later North American release judged that the game surpassed competitor Daytona USA in graphics, audio, and control responsiveness, and called it the best racing game to date for home systems. Commenting on the realism, Game Informer remarked that Ridge Racer better captures the feel of high performance car racing than any existing driving game.
Electronic Gaming Monthly's two sports reviewers praised the gameplay and music. Maximum commented that Ridge Racer has only one track and the game lacks the attractive crash sequences of Daytona USA, but they commented positively on the feeling of smoothness and speed, the "distinctly European" dance music, the engine sounds, and the unrealistically exaggerated driving manoeuvres. In 1996, two years after its release, IGN commented that the game has stood the test of time, but complained of lacking two-player mode and that the cars don't really vary in performances. AllGame's Shawn Sackenheim praised the game, particularly the graphics and audio. Coming Soon Magazine praised its "ultra fluid and very realistic" graphics, but criticised the game for being too short. The Electric Playground's Victor Lucas gave top marks, remarking: "The experience of playing RR supersedes the thrills generally attributed to playing other racing video games. I really can't stress enough how deserving of your video game dollars Ridge Racer is". Edge praised the "dazzling" graphics and "arcade-perfect" music.
Despite positive reviews, the game was criticised by 1UP.com for the arcade style of gameplay. The lack of artificial intelligence has received criticism - the movement of the computer-controlled cars is restricted to predetermined waypoints. The game was reviewed in 1995 in Dragon No. 221 by Jay & Dee in the "Eye of the Monitor" column, where Dee called it "just another racing game".
Ridge Racer was awarded Best Driving Game of 1995 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. In 1996, GamesMaster ranked the game 23rd on their "Top 100 Games of All Time."
### Legacy
It was listed as one of the best games of all time by Game Informer in 2001, Yahoo in 2005, Electronic Gaming Monthly in 2006, Guinness World Records in 2008 and 2009, NowGamer in 2010, and FHM in 2012.
According to RePlay and Play Meter magazines, Ridge Racer was the first arcade game with texture-mapped 3D graphics. Greg Reeves in Play Meter said the game's texture mapping combined "the depth, perspective, and distance" of Virtua Racing with the enhanced "scenery details" of OutRunners (1992), resulting in "scenery such as rocks, trees, and roads" that looked realistic.
Ridge Racer influenced the development of rival Sega's arcade game Daytona USA. Sega mandated that Daytona USA had to be better than Ridge Racer. Whereas Ridge Racer focused on simulation, Daytona USA instead aimed for "funky entertainment". Daytona USA shares some features with Ridge Racer, including a drifting mechanic.
Ridge Racer has been followed by many sequels and helped establish the PlayStation's popularity. IGN stated that Ridge Racer was "one of PlayStation's first big system pushers" and an excellent port of the arcade version that showed the true potential of Sony's 32-bit wonder. UGO Networks's Michael Hess and Chris Plante said that it set the stage for Gran Turismo by adding an option to choose between automatic and manual transmission. John Davison of 1UP.com said that Ridge Racer was an "unbelievable demonstration of what the PlayStation could do".
## Other releases
The PlayStation version was re-released for The Best, Greatest Hits, and Platinum ranges in 1997. A PC port was cancelled. Ridge Racer received a number of ports and spin-offs:
### Ridge Racer: 3 Screen Edition
A version with three screens was released for arcades to give a peripheral vision effect. The machine used multiple System 22 arcade boards to drive the additional monitors and was only available in the sit down version.
### Pocket Racer
Pocket Racer (ポケットレーサー, Poketto Rēsā) is a super deformed version with cars resembling Choro-Q models, aimed at children. Released in 1996 in Japan, it was only available in an upright cabinet version, and uses Namco System 11 hardware. A similar game is included in Ridge Racer Revolution using the same cars under the name Pretty Racer (also known as buggy mode), the inspiration for this game.
### Ridge Racer Turbo
R4: Ridge Racer Type 4 (released on 3 December 1998 in Japan, 1 May 1999 in North America, and on 1 September in Europe) includes a bonus disc containing a new version of the original Ridge Racer, called Ridge Racer Turbo in North America, Ridge Racer Hi-Spec Demo in Europe, and Ridge Racer Hi Spec Version (リッジレーサーハイスペックバージョン, Rijji Rēsā Hai Supekku Bājon) in Japan. It features improved graphics, runs at 60 frames per second (50 for PAL), as opposed to the original 30, and supports vibration feedback and the Jogcon controller. There is only one opponent (two in time trial boss races), and the White Angel from Ridge Racer Revolution appears in addition to the 13th Racing as a boss and unlockable car. A Time Attack mode is added, in which the player attempts to beat the time record with no opponent cars. This is distinct from Time Trial, where there are opponent cars.
### Mobile versions
A version for mobile phones (J2ME platform) was released on 31 December 2005. It received mixed reviews. GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann gave the game 6.1/10. He praised graphics as "somewhat impressive for a mobile game", but criticised the steering. Levi Buchanan of IGN gave Ridge Racer 6.2/10, complaining about the problematic controls and saying that the game without the analogue control "feels really lacking". In 2005, a version of Ridge Racer was released for mobile phones under the name Ridge Racer 3D (not to be confused with the later Ridge Racer 3D for the Nintendo 3DS). This version was ported to Zeebo in August 2009.
|
30,388,111 |
Harry Bassett
| 1,145,072,179 |
19th-century American Thoroughbred racehorse
|
[
"1868 racehorse births",
"1878 racehorse deaths",
"Belmont Stakes winners",
"Byerley Turk sire line",
"Racehorses bred in Kentucky",
"Racehorses trained in the United States",
"Thoroughbred family 24",
"United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees"
] |
Harry Bassett (1868–1878) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse, winner of the 1871 Belmont Stakes and an outstanding racehorse of the 19th century. He also won a number of other stakes races, and was named the Champion male of his age group in 1870, 1871 and 1872. He was retired to stud duties in New Jersey when his five-year racing career ended, having recorded 23 wins from 36 starts. Harry Bassett died in New Jersey in 1878 and was inducted into the United States Racing Hall of Fame in 2010.
## Breeding and early life
Harry Bassett was a chestnut stallion, foaled on 27 April 1868, that was sired by Lexington and out of the mare Canary Bird. Canary Bird was by the imported stallion Albion and out of the mare Panola, who was sired by the imported stallion Ainderby. Canary Bird's second dam, or maternal grandmother, was the imported mare Sweetbriar by Recovery. Harry Basset was bred either by R. A. Alexander or by A. J. Alexander, both of the Woodburn Stud of Woodburn, Kentucky, and was the second of Canary Bird's foals. He was sold at the 1869 S. D. Bruce yearling sale to trainer David McDaniel for \$315 ().
## Racing career
Harry Bassett was trained by his owner David McDaniel; his jockey was W. Miller. As a two-year-old he won the 1870 Nursery Stakes at Jerome Park Racetrack, the Central Stakes, the Kentucky Stakes, and the Saratoga Stakes. He made a total of four starts as a two-year-old of which he won three, placing third in the other.
Harry Bassett won the fifth running of the Belmont Stakes in 1871 at Jerome Park Racetrack in a time of 2 minutes 56 seconds. He carried 110 pounds (50 kilograms) pounds in the race, and won \$5,400 () for his owner. The race was run on June 10 over a distance of 1+5⁄8 miles (13 furlongs/2,600 meters) on a fast track. Harry Bassett won by three lengths from the second-placed finisher Stockwood; the third place went to August Belmont's By The Sea. This was the first of three consecutive wins of the Belmont Stakes by David McDaniel as both owner and trainer, as he went on to win the 1872 race with Joe Daniels and the 1873 race with Springbok.
As a three-year-old, Harry Bassett also won the Jerome Handicap, the Travers Stakes, the Reunion Stakes, the Kenner Stakes, the Champion Stakes and the Jersey Derby. During his three-year-old year Harry Bassett started 11 times and won eight, finishing second in the remaining three. At four he increased his win record to 14, with wins in the Westchester Cup and a victory in a 2 miles (3,200 m) heat, before he was beaten in the Monmouth Cup by Longfellow. He then won the 2+1⁄4 mile Saratoga Cup, in which he defeated Longfellow. His jockey in that race was James Rowe, Sr., who went on to become a leading trainer for James R. Keene. At age five, Harry Bassett started eight times, winning two, placing second in two, and third once. At six, he started four times, winning once and placing third once.
Harry Bassett's racing career spanned five years and ended with 23 wins from 36 starts; he finished second five times and third three times. His total earnings on the racetrack were \$55,920 (). He was awarded the title of Champion Two-Year-Old Male in 1870, the title of Champion Three-Year-Old Male in 1871, and the Champion Older Horse title in 1872.
## Stud record
When his racing career ended Harry Bassett was retired to McDaniel's stud farm in Trenton, New Jersey, where he sired stakes winners such as Bowstring and Lettina out of the imported mare Letty by imported Australian. Lettina won the Young America Stakes (Nashville), the Jackson Stakes and the Ladies Stakes in 1881, when she was two years old.
Harry Bassett died on October 27, 1878 at McDaniel's farm in New Jersey. He was inducted into the United States' National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 2010.
## Pedigree
## See also
- List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
|
1,123,253 |
1995 European Grand Prix
| 1,166,725,316 |
Formula One motor race, held 1995
|
[
"1995 Formula One races",
"1995 in German motorsport",
"European Grand Prix",
"October 1995 sports events in Europe",
"Sport in Rhineland-Palatinate"
] |
The 1995 European Grand Prix (formally the XL Grand Prix of Europe) was a Formula One motor race held on 1 October 1995 at the Nürburgring, Nürburg, Germany. It was the fourteenth race of the 1995 Formula One World Championship and the first to be held there since 1985. Michael Schumacher for the Benetton team won the 67-lap race starting from third position. Jean Alesi finished second in a Ferrari, with David Coulthard, who started the Grand Prix from pole position, third in a Williams car. This was also the last F1 race for three drivers: Massimiliano Papis, Gabriele Tarquini and Jean-Denis Délétraz.
Damon Hill, Coulthard's teammate, started the race in second, but dropped down to third behind Schumacher on the opening lap. Hill remained behind Schumacher for the majority of the race, before losing his front wing in a collision with Alesi and dropping back due to the resultant pit stop. He then spun off the track on lap 58 when running in fourth position, leading to his retirement from the race. Alesi looked set to win the race after starting the race with dry weather slick tyres on a damp track, but was held up in lapped traffic and overtaken by Schumacher two laps before the end of the race.
Schumacher's win retained his position at the top of the Drivers' Championship, 27 points ahead of Hill. With three races remaining, Schumacher only required a further three points to secure the championship. Benetton were now 20 points ahead of Williams in the Constructors' Championship following Schumacher's win.
## Background
The race marked the return to the Formula One calendar for the Nürburgring track after being off the calendar since the 1985 season, due to commercial disputes involving the circuit's promoters. Its return to the World Championship schedule was facilitated by a surge of interest in the sport throughout Germany as a result of Michael Schumacher's drivers' title in 1994. The 1994 European Grand Prix the previous year had been held at the Circuito de Jerez in Spain, a late replacement for the cancelled Argentine Grand Prix. This would be the third time that Formula One would utilise the short GP-Strecke layout rather than the 20 kilometre Nordschleife layout which was used until 1976.
Heading into the European Grand Prix, the 14th race of the season, Benetton driver Schumacher was leading the Drivers' Championship with 72 points, ahead of Williams driver Damon Hill in second on 55. Behind them were Hill's teammate David Coulthard on 39, Schumacher's teammate Johnny Herbert on 38, and Ferrari driver Jean Alesi on 34 points. In the Constructors' Championship, Benetton were leading with 100 points, with Williams second on 88 and Ferrari third on 62.
There was one driver swap heading into the race: Gabriele Tarquini replaced Ukyo Katayama at Tyrrell, the latter driver choosing not to race on doctors' advice following a crash at the earlier in the year. Katayama had sustained a strained neck and bruising in the crash, in which his car had rolled several times following a start line collision with Luca Badoer's Minardi.
Prior to the race weekend, Coulthard announced that he was moving to the McLaren team for the 1996 season. He had first signed a contract with McLaren in October 1994 before his full-time Williams drive for 1995 was confirmed, and his one-year deal with the latter was not renegotiated due to his McLaren commitment. McLaren also confirmed that Mika Häkkinen and Jan Magnussen would continue in their existing roles as race and test driver for the team respectively, leaving Mark Blundell without a team for 1996. Coulthard's deal was officially confirmed on the day of the race itself. Meanwhile, Coulthard's prospective replacement, Jacques Villeneuve, had tested a Williams for the first time since being confirmed as Hill's teammate for 1996, running for two days at the Monza circuit. The Jordan team had also announced that it would keep its driver pairing of Rubens Barrichello and Eddie Irvine for 1996 in the week before the race. However, Ferrari then announced that it had bought out Irvine's contract, and that he would be partnering Schumacher at the team for 1996. Jordan subsequently announced that Martin Brundle would move from the Ligier team to partner Barrichello instead.
Some teams brought upgrades to the cars into the race – the Williams team used the upgraded "B" versions of the FW17 chassis for the second time, after its début at the previous race in Portugal. McLaren also brought upgrades to coincide with the home race of their engine supplier, Mercedes. The team opted to amalgamate the "B" and "C" versions of its troublesome MP4/10 chassis, with a rear end and gearbox from the former. In addition, the Ferrari team brought a revised rear wing and sidepods for its 412T2 car, which both drivers agreed to be an improvement.
## Practice and qualifying
This was the first Formula One race to be held at the Nürburgring since the 1985 German Grand Prix, so an additional familiarisation session was held prior to the usual practice and qualifying sessions. In this session, Schumacher set a benchmark time of 1:20.418, ahead of Hill in second, Coulthard, Häkkinen, Heinz-Harald Frentzen (Sauber), Gerhard Berger (Ferrari) and the rest of the field. The drivers, were uninspired by the circuit: Schumacher described it as "dull" and "easy to learn, with no real challenges" and Coulthard predicted a processional race without much overtaking.
Two practice sessions were held before the race: on Friday morning and on Saturday morning. Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 45 minutes with weather conditions dry in the first session, but wet for the second session. Hill set the fastest time in the first session, posting a lap of 1:19.343, three-hundredths of a second quicker than teammate Coulthard in second place. The Benettons were third and fifth fastest; Schumacher ahead of Herbert, with Ferrari driver Gerhard Berger fourth, over a second behind Hill. Häkkinen rounded out the top six in his McLaren. The wet conditions for the second practice session meant that lap times were slower as there was less grip on the track. In the second session, Hill was again fastest with a time of 1:34.906. Coulthard was second, with Frentzen third in the Sauber, two seconds slower than Hill. The Ferraris were fourth and fifth, Berger in front of Alesi. Schumacher and Herbert were sixth and seventh respectively, with Barrichello eighth. Olivier Panis in the Ligier and Mika Salo in the Tyrrell rounded out the top ten, both three and a half seconds off the fastest lap time. Amongst the slower runners, Andrea Montermini suffered a worrying moment when his Pacific car shed its left-rear wheel, but he was able to return to his pit garage.
The was split into two one-hour sessions; the first of which was held on Friday afternoon and the second on Saturday afternoon. The fastest time from either session counted towards the drivers' final grid positions. Both sessions were interrupted by rain, which led to little action on the track. Coulthard took his third consecutive pole position in his Williams, with a time of 1:18.738. He was joined on the by teammate Hill, who was two-tenths of a second behind. Schumacher was third in the Benetton, four-tenths of a second slower than Coulthard, despite lapping fastest in the second part of qualifying. The time he set in the second part of qualifying was still slower than Coulthard and Hill's time set in the first part and he was third quickest overall. Behind the leading three, Berger was fourth with teammate Alesi in sixth. Eddie Irvine in the Jordan finished in fifth position. Herbert and Frentzen were on the fourth row on the grid, in seventh and eighth. Despite bringing car upgrades to the event, Häkkinen and Blundell could only qualify their McLarens ninth and tenth respectively. Tarquini qualified in nineteenth, four places behind teammate Salo, but admitted to feeling out-of-practice by Formula One standards. Several drivers went off the track during qualifying in the difficult conditions, including Panis and Montermini. Panis' crash was caused by a stuck throttle; the resultant damage to the car forced him to switch to the team's spare monocoque. The conditions during the first session were generally faster, with seventeen of the 24 drivers setting their fastest qualifying times in this period.
Media attention focussed on Coulthard outperforming Hill in qualifying for the fourth time in a row. As Hill was mathematically the only possible contender to challenge Schumacher for the championship, there was a question from the media as to whether Williams should use to give Hill pole position. In response, Coulthard said that he was "rather tired of questions about team orders", adding that "everyone wants to see is a motor race" and it wasn't fair of Williams to ask him to slow down if he was faster than Hill.
Following the session, Barrichello and Footwork driver Massimiliano Papis revealed that they expected to fail routine drugs tests they had just taken, as both had been taking decongestants, for nasal problems and a cold respectively, which contained the banned substance ephedrine. On Saturday, the team principals also met to discuss future changes to the sport: it was agreed that qualifying would be reduced to a single hour-long session for the 1996 season, and a reduction from seventeen to sixteen Grands Prix was confirmed.
### Qualifying classification
## Race
The track surface for the start of the race was damp, but dried up as the race progressed. The drivers were scheduled to go onto the track at 09:30 CET (GMT +1) for a 30-minute warm-up session, however the session was delayed until 10:05 CET due to fog and heavy rain. Several drivers went off the track during the session due to the wet weather conditions. Both Williams cars maintained their good performance from qualifying; Coulthard had the fastest time of 1:38.378 whilst Hill was third in the other Williams. Berger split them in the Ferrari for second position. Schumacher completed the top four, six-tenths of a second behind Coulthard. Approximately 90,000 spectators attended the circuit on race day.
Coulthard was forced to use the Williams , which had been set up for Hill for the race itself after he spun off the track during his , stalling the engine in the process. The race was scheduled to start at 14:00 CET, but Papis stalled his Footwork in the starting lights procedure, resulting in the start being aborted, with a new start time of 14:05 CET being planned. Many of the teams started the race with wet weather tyres, but the Ferrari and McLaren teams chose to fit their cars with dry weather slick tyres. The Ferrari mechanics also raised the ride height and increased the downforce levels on Alesi and Berger's cars on the grid, making them more competitive in the wet conditions.
Coulthard, from pole position, held onto the lead into the first corner, while Hill made a bad start and was overtaken by Schumacher in the run down to the corner. Irvine also passed Hill, but was later overtaken on in the opening lap. Further down the order, Frentzen was judged to have made a false start, while Papis took up his normal grid position instead of starting from the back as he should have done after stalling. Both drivers were given ten-second stop-and-go penalties in the early stages of the race. Papis' teammate, Taki Inoue, failed to take the start due to an electronic failure.
The McLarens and Berger's Ferrari slipped back in the early laps of the race, with both McLarens overtaken by the Pacific and Forti cars as they dropped down the order. The McLaren chassis handled badly in the wet conditions, while the throttle response of the Mercedes engine was also too abrupt to be driven effectively in the rain. Berger dropped to ninth place suffering from an incorrectly pressured set of tyres that left him with a handling imbalance. Alesi moved up to fourth position, overtaking Herbert on lap five and Irvine on lap eight. Berger and the McLarens moved back up the order as drivers made a pit stop for slick tyres. As the front-runners made their stops, Alesi ended up twenty seconds ahead of Coulthard, Schumacher and Hill. By the end of lap 17, most of the drivers had pitted for slick tyres and the running order had stabilised as Alesi led ahead of Coulthard, Schumacher, Hill, Berger and Irvine. Frentzen was outside the points in seventh, but on the next lap he collided with Pedro Diniz's Forti while trying to lap him, retiring from the race as a result. Panis and Blundell were also out by this stage, both having spun off the track on lap 15.
Near the front of the field, Hill was faster than third-placed Schumacher and began to catch him. Schumacher defended his position vigorously several times, but Hill eventually passed him. However, Hill then ran wide at the final corner and Schumacher overtook him. Coulthard, in the other Williams, began to suffer from excessive oversteer with his car's handling, dropping to fourth behind Schumacher and Hill, who passed him on laps 21 and 23 respectively. As Schumacher and the Williams drivers battled for position, Alesi was able to extend his lead at the front to 45 seconds. Alesi and Schumacher made their second pit stops on lap 34; Alesi took on enough fuel to finish the race, while Schumacher's was the second of three scheduled pit visits. Alesi exited from his pit stop just in front of third-placed Hill, who attempted to overtake Alesi on lap 40, the lap before his own pit stop was due to take place. In the process, the two cars made contact and Hill lost his front wing and had to pit to replace the damaged wing, losing time while driving around the track with his damaged car and rejoined behind Coulthard in fourth position. On the same lap, Berger retired with terminal engine problems. After his stop, Hill pushed hard in an attempt to catch Coulthard, but spun out of the race on lap 58. The impact with the tyre barrier was hard enough to cause a minor crack to a bone in his leg, but he escaped serious injury.
Schumacher made his final pit stop on lap 52 from second place, having caught up with Alesi during his third . He rejoined some distance behind the Ferrari, but set a fastest lap of 1:21.180 on lap 58, almost 1.7 seconds faster than Alesi's fastest lap of the race. Alesi's attempts to keep the lead were not helped by lapped traffic getting in his way, as well as losing five seconds at the Veedol chicane by running wide onto the gravel. In the closing laps, Schumacher caught Alesi, overtaking him on the outside of the chicane on lap 65. Schumacher opened the gap to two and a half seconds, and won the race after 67 laps to secure his seventh victory of the season in a time of 1:39:59.044.
Hill, watching from the side of the track, applauded Schumacher's win. Schumacher attempted to stop his car to give Hill a lift back to the , but was unable due to a slipping clutch. Alesi held position to finish second in his Ferrari, with Coulthard third – 35 seconds behind. Completing the points-scorers, Barrichello finished fourth, ahead of Herbert and Irvine. The latter two had battled for much of the race: they collided on lap 31, dropping both behind Barrichello and causing Herbert to make a pit stop for a new front wing; later, Irvine spun while attempting to lap Papis, allowing Herbert back in front. Outside the points, Brundle finished seventh for Ligier, ahead of the recovering Häkkinen, whose eighth position, two laps down on Schumacher, was a major disappointment for Mercedes in its home country. Minardi drivers Pedro Lamy and Luca Badoer finished ninth and eleventh, with Salo in tenth position, the latter making an unscheduled pit stop to change a punctured tyre after colliding with Jean-Christophe Boullion during the race. The Sauber driver retired as a result of damage sustained in this incident.
Papis, Diniz, Tarquini and Délétraz completed the field. Of the retirements, Roberto Moreno stopped his Forti with a driveshaft failure, while Montermini endured a fraught pitstop on lap 42. The Pacific team's fuel rig malfunctioned, and, in the confusion, refueller Paul Summerfield sustained a fractured left femur when he was hit by the car as it left its pit box. Montermini consequently ran out of fuel on lap 45.
As of 2023, this was the last race where a V12-engined car finished on the podium.
### Race classification
## Post-race
Journalist Alan Henry described the race as the best of the season to date, and even of recent memory, and suggested that Schumacher's performance could mark a watershed in which the German "crossed that indistinct dividing line separating the good from the great". Schumacher's win put him 27 points ahead of Hill in the Drivers' Championship, meaning he required only three more points from the remaining races of the season to win championship. Hill, meanwhile, would have to win all three Grands Prix, effectively meaning that the Championship was over.
Hill commented that "I am not going to be World Champion this year, but I'll be back. But I don't think I disgraced myself. I put up a good fight, did everything I could to win, and it didn't come off" and pledged to do his best to win the remaining races. Hill later said that the car's steering had felt stiff since his collision with Alesi, making it difficult to drive, but accepted the blame for his retirement from the race. In the weeks after the race, heavy criticism was directed towards Hill, in which BBC pundit Murray Walker felt that he had not been "forceful" enough in his battle with Schumacher. In an interview before the Pacific race, Brundle said that he needed to get more aggressive and "establish himself" as the number one driver at Williams.
Schumacher said that Hill only made "half-hearted attempts" to overtake during the race which led to him "getting into trouble". Alesi also blamed Hill for their collision, saying that "I do not know what happened with Damon [Hill]. I saw his nose alongside me, that's all. I was sideways [turning into the corner] and he hit me. He was too optimistic as normally you cannot do anything at that corner." At a Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) World Motor Sport Council meeting on 19 October to discuss driver etiquette, they opted against introducing new rules on the issue. Formula One's governing body emphasised that the International Sporting Code would be enforced on the basis that drivers are free to drive as they wish "provided they do not deliberately endanger another driver or repeatedly obstruct him on a straight", following incidents during the year involving Hill and Schumacher.
Alesi, despite his performance in the early stages of the race, was also criticised for losing his lead after letting Schumacher gain time on him in the final laps. Ferrari designer John Barnard later blamed Alesi's hesitance in lapped traffic for the loss of time, the rate of which Henry described as "inexplicable". Alesi blamed his inability to fend off Schumacher on his worn tyres, which had completed half a race distance as opposed to Schumacher's fresher set and on being held up by Häkkinen and Brundle's battle for seventh position in the closing laps. Alesi was also given the instruction to save fuel with 15 laps to go, suggesting that his one-stop strategy was the incorrect choice.
On 2 November 1995, the FIA announced that none of the drivers who took part in the anti-doping tests at the Portuguese and European Grands Prix had tested positive, including Barrichello and Papis. However, FIA Formula One Safety and Medical Delegate, Professor Sid Watkins, subsequently argued that as ephedrine had no effect on a driver's ability, the sport should not use exactly the same list as the International Olympic Committee in the future.
## Championship standings after the race
Both Schumacher and Benetton retained their positions at the top of the Drivers' and Constructors' championships following the race.
Drivers' Championship standings
Constructors' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
|
32,847,895 |
Battle of Suwon Airfield
| 1,141,249,873 |
Part of Korean War
|
[
"Aerial operations and battles of the Korean War",
"Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950",
"Battles of the Korean War",
"Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea",
"Battles of the Korean War involving the United States",
"History of Gyeonggi Province",
"June 1950 events in Asia"
] |
The Battle of Suwon Airfield was the first aerial battle of the Korean War occurring on June 27, 1950 over Kimpo Airfield and Suwon Airfield. The battle, between aircraft of the United States and North Korea, ended in a victory for the US Air Force after nine of its aircraft successfully shot down seven North Korean People's Air Force aircraft. It was the first direct engagement of the Air Battle of South Korea.
With the outbreak of the war two days earlier, the US forces were attempting to evacuate US civilians and diplomats from the city of Seoul, where a battle was ongoing between North and South Korean forces. Transport aircraft and ships, escorted by US fighter planes, were attempting to bring civilians out of the country as fast as possible. During these missions on June 27, US forces were attacked by North Korean aircraft in two separate incidents in the Seoul area. Despite being outnumbered, the better-built American aircraft outmaneuvered the North Koreans, quickly shooting down half of the attacking force.
The actions were among few air-to-air battles in the early phase of the war as the North Koreans, realizing their aircraft were outmatched, quickly stopped using them aggressively against the UN. The battle also signaled a turning point in the Jet age, as new, jet engine powered fighter aircraft had easily bested conventional fighters.
## Background
: Main Article: Initial Phase of Korean War
On the morning of June 25, 1950, ten divisions of the North Korean People's Army launched a full-scale invasion of the nation's neighbor to the south, the Republic of Korea. The force of 89,000 men moved in six columns, catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise, resulting in a rout. The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment, and was unprepared for war. The numerically superior North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38,000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south.
To prevent South Korea's collapse the United Nations Security Council voted to send military forces. The United States' Seventh Fleet dispatched Task Force 77, led by the fleet carrier USS Valley Forge; the British Far East Fleet dispatched several ships, including HMS Triumph'', to provide air and naval support. By June 27, the naval and air forces moving to Korea had authorization to attack North Korean targets with the goal of helping repel the North Korean invasion of the country.
With the US forces accepting the North Korean attack as an act of war, it became imperative to evacuate civilians and American diplomats from Korea, as the forces of the north and south were battling across the peninsula. On June 27 the South Koreans were losing the First Battle of Seoul. Most of South Korea's forces retreated in the face of the invasion. The North Koreans would capture the city the next day forcing the South Korean government and its shattered army to retreat further south.
In the meantime, US naval and air forces were evacuating US diplomats, military dependents, and civilians by ship and air transport, hoping to get American civilians out of the country "by any means." Civilians were being gathered at Suwon Airfield and Kimpo Airfield in Seoul, before moving to Inchon and out of the country. These airlifts and convoys were being escorted by aircraft from the United States, which was operating its aircraft from bases in Japan. The two Koreas had very small air forces of their own, with the North Koreans' 132 aircraft organized into the 1st Air Division. At the early phase in the war, these aircraft were used boldly to the North Koreans' advantage.
## Battle
### First sortie
On the morning of June 27, a flight of five F-82 Twin Mustangs of the 68th Fighter Squadron and 339th Fighter Squadron, 8th Fighter Wing commanded by US Major James W. Little were escorting four C-54 Skymaster aircraft out of Kimpo. Little, a flying ace with experience in World War II, was the commander of the 339th Squadron. The four transports were unarmed and filled with civilians from the Seoul area, en route to Japan.
Around 12:00, a flight of five Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) Lavochkin La-7 appeared at an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,000 m). The North Korean aircraft were headed for Kimpo Airfield with the intention of attacking US transports. Spotting the transport aircraft, the five North Korean planes immediately descended on them and began opening fire, scoring several hits. The North Koreans then began opening fire on the five US fighters guarding the transport aircraft. Little ordered the US aircraft to return fire, and personally fired the first shot against the North Koreans.
The North Korean aircraft split off into two groups, with two climbing rapidly into the clouds and the remaining three descending. Two F-82s piloted by Lieutenant Charles B. Moran (tail number 46-357) and Lieutenant William G. Hudson (tail number 46-383) followed the ascending pair. The two North Korean aircraft maneuvered around Moran's aircraft and opened fire, damaging the tail of his plane. Hudson responded by attacking the lead plane, forcing it to ascend further. Hudson's shots struck the aircraft in the fuselage and right wing.
The North Korean pilot subsequently bailed out of the aircraft, though the navigator remained in it and was killed when the aircraft crashed. Moran, in the meantime, had stalled while attempting to avoid the second North Korean plane, and when his aircraft recovered he was able to quickly shoot down the second North Korean aircraft which had accelerated in front of his. Little then dove his aircraft to engage the three remaining North Korean aircraft, quickly shooting one down while attempting to assist Moran.
The US planes, which were faster and more maneuverable than the North Korean aircraft, easily outperformed them. Within several minutes, three victories were claimed; one each by Little, Hudson, and Moran. The remaining two North Korean planes immediately fled. The US aircraft, in the meantime, suffered damage from the dogfight though none was shot down. Fire broke out in Little's cockpit but in spite of this he rallied the other aircraft and continued to escort them to their destination in Japan.
Conflicting reports initially made it impossible to determine who had made the first kill, which would be the first North Korean plane shot down by the United Nations forces in the war. Later research indicated Hudson had successfully shot down the first aircraft. The exact timing of Hudson and Moran's victories remains unclear, and it is possible each scored a victory within seconds of the other. For his determination in leading the flight, though, Little was awarded a Silver Star Medal.
### Second sortie
Word of the dogfight spread throughout the area, and an air alert was quickly posted over Seoul. In response, four F-80C Shooting Star aircraft of the 35th Fighter-Bomber Squadron under Captain Raymond E. Schillereff were posted in the skies over Seoul to counter any North Korean aircraft appearing in the area. The F-80s were jet engine-powered fighter aircraft which would easily defeat all of the aircraft known in the North Koreans' air force.
Early in the afternoon, the North Korean aircraft returned in larger numbers to attack the air transports. A flight of eight Ilyushin Il-10s appeared in the airspace between Seoul and Inchon, attempting to ambush transport aircraft while still on the ground at the airfields. The F-80s spotted the North Korean planes and engaged them. The North Korean aircraft split into two groups of four and quickly destroyed a Republic of Korea Air Force T-6 Texan parked on the tarmac at Kimpo.
#### First US jet-aircraft victory
The four F-80 aircraft were able to attack the North Koreans from a greater distance. With a minimal amount of maneuvering, the US aircraft rushed the North Korean formation and quickly shot four of them down; two by Lieutenant Robert E. Wayne, one by Lieutenant Robert H. Dewald, and one by Schillereff. These victories were the first for US Air Force jet-powered fighters in history.
The four remaining North Korean pilots immediately retreated to the north. The aircraft likely staged at Pyongyang Air Base, and informed their superiors. No additional North Korean aircraft were spotted in the area for the rest of the day. By the end of the day the US aircraft from the three squadrons had flown 163 sorties.
## Aftermath
The battle was the first air-to-air dogfight between the United Nations and North Korea in the war. The North Koreans were unsuccessful in attempting to shoot down the air transports and in the end none of the refugees in the evacuation was injured by the North Koreans. In all, the operation saw 2,001 people, including 1,527 US nationals, evacuated from the peninsula ahead of the wider war.
The battle was also considered a sign of the US's arrival into the Jet age, the Il-10, which had been considered a high quality and effective conventional aircraft in World War II had been easily outmatched by the F-80 and its jet engine. The engagement was a rare example of an air-to-air battle at the early phase of the war, and North Korean forces became much more cautious when deploying their aircraft in battle, knowing they were easily outnumbered and outmatched by UN forces. For the next several months, the UN forces enjoyed air supremacy, operating their air forces in support of ground combat virtually unopposed. The public perception of the F-80s, which had to this point been cautious, improved with news of the victories.
|
4,074,670 |
Safety (gridiron football score)
| 1,169,396,246 |
Scoring play in gridiron football
|
[
"American football terminology",
"Canadian football terminology"
] |
In gridiron football, the safety (American football) or safety touch (Canadian football) is a scoring play that results in two points being awarded to the scoring team. Safeties can be scored in a number of ways, such as when a ball carrier is tackled in his own end zone or when a foul is committed by the offense in their own end zone. After a safety is scored in American football, the ball is kicked off to the team that scored the safety from the 20-yard line; in Canadian football, the scoring team also has the options of taking control of the ball at their own 35-yard line or kicking off the ball, also at their own 35-yard line. The ability of the scoring team to receive the ball through a kickoff differs from the touchdown and field goal, which require the scoring team to kick the ball off to the scored upon team. Despite being of relatively low point value, safeties can have a significant impact on the result of games, and Brian Burke of Advanced NFL Stats estimated that safeties have a greater abstract value than field goals, despite being worth a point less, due to the field position and reclaimed possession gained off the safety kick.
Safeties are the least common method of scoring in American football but are not rare occurrences – a safety has occurred around once every 14 games in the history of the National Football League (NFL), or about once a week under current scheduling rules. A much rarer occurrence is the one-point (or conversion) safety, which can be scored by the offense on an extra point or two-point conversion attempt: these have occurred at least twice in NCAA Division I football since 1996, most recently at the 2013 Fiesta Bowl, though no conversion safeties have occurred since 1940 in the NFL. A conversion safety by the defense is also possible, though highly unlikely. Although this has never occurred, it is the only possible way a team could finish with a single point in an American football game.
## Scoring a safety
### American football
In American football, a safety is scored when any of the following conditions occur:
- The ball carrier is tackled or forced out of bounds in his own end zone.
- The ball becomes dead in the end zone, with the exception of an incomplete forward pass, and the defending team is responsible for it being there.
- The offense commits a foul in its own end zone.
### Canadian football
In Canadian football, a safety touch is scored when any of the following conditions occur:
- The ball becomes dead in the goal area of the team in possession of the ball
- The ball touches or crosses the dead line or a sideline in goal after having been directed from the field of play into the Goal Area by the team scored against or as the direct result of a blocked scrimmage kick.
- The ball carrier is penalized for intentional grounding or an offside pass in his own goal area.
## Resuming play after a safety
### American football
After a safety is scored, the ball is put into play by a free kick. The team that was scored upon must kick the ball from their own 20-yard line and can punt, drop kick, or place kick the ball. In professional play, a kicking tee cannot be used – however, a tee can be used in high school or college football. Once the ball has been kicked, it can be caught and advanced by any member of the receiving team, and it can be recovered by the kicking team if the ball travels at least 10 yards or a player of the receiving team touches the ball.
### Canadian football
After scoring a safety touch, the scoring team has the option of taking control of the ball and beginning play from their own 35-yard line, kicking the ball off from their 35-yard line, or accepting a kickoff from the team that conceded the score. When the scored-against team kicks off, it comes from the 35-yard line under amateur rules and from the 25-yard line under CFL rules. If a kickoff is chosen it must be a place kick, and the ball can be held, placed on the ground, or placed on a tee prior to the kick. As in American football, the ball must go at least ten yards before it can be recovered by the kicking team.
## Elective safeties
In American football, intentionally conceded safeties are an uncommon strategy. Teams have utilized elective safeties to gain field position for a punt when pinned deep in their own territory and, when ahead near the end of a game, to run down the clock so as to deny the other team a chance to force a turnover or return a punt. Teams have also taken intentional safeties by kicking a loose ball out the back of their end zone, with the intent of preventing the defense from scoring a touchdown.
Elective safeties are more common in Canadian football, where they can result in better field position than a punt. The 2010 Edmonton Eskimos surrendered a Canadian Football League (CFL)-record 14 safeties, a factor that led CFL reporter Jim Mullin to suggest increasing the value of the safety touch from two to three points as a deterrent.
## Conversion safeties (one-point safeties)
### Scored by the offense
In American football, if a team attempting an extra point or two-point conversion (officially known in the rulebooks as a try) scores what would normally be a safety, that attempting team is awarded one point. This is commonly known as a conversion safety or one-point safety. The first known occurrence of the conversion safety was in an NCAA University Division (now NCAA FBS) game on October 2, 1971, scored by Syracuse in a game at Indiana. On a failed point-after-touchdown kick, an Indiana player illegally batted the ball in the end zone (a spot foul defensive penalty). There are two other known occurrences of the conversion safety in Division I college football – a November 26, 2004, game in which Texas scored against Texas A&M, and the 2013 Fiesta Bowl in which Oregon scored against Kansas State. In both games, the point-after-touchdown kick was blocked and recovered by the defense, which then fumbled or threw the ball back into its own end zone. A conversion safety has occurred once in Division I-AA (now NCAA FCS) where Nevada scored a conversion safety against North Texas on September 21, 1991 and twice in Division II: once by Morningside College on November 9, 1996, against Northern Colorado, and once by Emory and Henry College on October 8, 2022, against University of Virginia's College at Wise. There are also at least four known NCAA Division III occurrences, the first being on October 20, 1990, scored by DePauw University against Anderson University; the second on October 23, 1993, scored by Salisbury State against Wesley College; the third on November 11, 2000, scored by Hamline University against St. Thomas-Minnesota, and the most recent scored by Bluffton University against Franklin College (Indiana) on November 9, 2013. One-point safeties have also occurred in a NAIA game and two junior college games.
No conversion safeties have been scored in the NFL since 1940, although it is now slightly more likely after the rule change in 2015 which allowed the defense to take possession and score on a conversion attempt. Before 2015, the only scenario in which a one-point safety could have been scored in the NFL would have involved, on a conversion attempt in which the ball was not kicked by the offense, the defense then kicking or batting a loose ball out of its own end zone without taking possession of the ball, giving the offense a one-point safety.
### Scored by the defense
A conversion safety can also be scored by the defense. This scoring play has never occurred; to accomplish this, the team attempting the try must somehow be forced back to its own end zone. A possible scenario in the NFL and NCAA would involve a turnover while attempting a conversion, followed by the defending team's ball-carrier fumbling while en route to the attempting team's end zone, with the attempting team finally recovering the ball and, after establishing possession outside the end zone, downing it in its own end zone (this scenario is not possible in high school football, as a turnover would end the conversion attempt; such a conversion safety could occur only if the offense maintains possession). While such a conversion safety has never been scored by the defense, it is the only possible way under current rules in which a team could finish with a single point in an American football game.
## See also
- List of safety records
- Touchback
- Own goal
|
10,765,681 |
Delaware Route 24
| 1,159,226,488 |
State highway in Sussex County, Delaware, United States
|
[
"State highways in Delaware",
"Transportation in Sussex County, Delaware"
] |
Delaware Route 24 (DE 24) is a state highway located in Sussex County, Delaware. The route runs from Maryland Route 348 (MD 348) at the Maryland border east of Sharptown, Maryland, east to an intersection with DE 1 in Midway, between Lewes and Rehoboth Beach. Along the way, DE 24 passes through Laurel, Millsboro, and Long Neck. DE 24 intersects U.S. Route 13 (US 13) in Laurel, US 113/DE 20 and DE 30 in Millsboro, and DE 5 and DE 23 in Long Neck. DE 24 features an alternate route, DE 24 Alternate (DE 24 Alt.), that runs to the north of the route from US 113 in Stockley to DE 24 near Midway. DE 24 was built as a state highway throughout the 1920s, with completion of the entire route by 1931. DE 24 was assigned onto its current alignment by 1936. DE 24 Alt. was designated by 2006.
## Route description
DE 24 begins at the Maryland border, where the road continues west into that state as MD 348. From the state line the route heads east on two-lane undivided Sharptown Road. The road heads through agricultural areas with some woods and homes, crossing Cod Creek before curving to the northeast and crossing Tussocky Branch. DE 24 runs to the south of Laurel Airport and passes homes, crossing Little Creek to the north of Horseys Pond before it enters the town of Laurel. At this point, the route turns north onto West Street and runs through residential areas. DE 24 curves east and becomes West Market Street, crossing the Delmarva Central Railroad's Delmarva Subdivision line at-grade as it continues into the downtown area of Laurel. At the Central Avenue junction, the route becomes East Market Street and runs southeast, bending east onto East 4th Street and heading through areas of homes to the south of Records Pond. At the eastern edge of Laurel, DE 24 comes to an intersection with US 13.
Past Laurel, DE 24 heads east on Laurel Road through farmland with some woodland and homes, crossing James Branch. The route then passes to the north of Trap Pond State Park, with Trap Pond Road heading south to provide access to the state park. The road continues east through a mix of farms and woods with occasional residences, reaching an intersection with Millsboro Highway in Mission. Here, DE 24 turns north onto Millsboro Highway, with the road running northeast. Farther along, residential development increases as the road crosses into the town of Millsboro. At this point the road name becomes Laurel Road as it passes homes and reaches an intersection with US 113/DE 20. Past this intersection, DE 24 turns north-northeast on Washington Street. The two routes split into a one-way pair that heads north, following Main Street eastbound and Washington Street westbound. The road crosses the Delmarva Central Railroad's Indian River Subdivision line at-grade. The one-way pair heads through the downtown area of Millsboro, rejoining along two-way Main Street and crossing Indian River to the east of Millsboro Pond. A short distance later, the route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 30.
Past the DE 30 intersection, DE 24 heads northeast on John J. Williams Highway, soon curving to the east. The road runs through farmland with some woods and homes, passing through a Mountaire Farms chicken plant and briefly gaining a center left-turn lane. The route continues through rural areas as a two-lane road and crosses Swan Creek and Warwick Gut, bending to the northeast and passing northwest of the Nanticoke Indian Museum before coming to an intersection with DE 5 northwest of Oak Orchard. At this point DE 5 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 24. The road heads north through residential and commercial development with some fields as it enters the Long Neck area, where it intersects DE 23. Here, DE 5 splits from DE 24 by turning northwest onto DE 23, and DE 24 continues north through a mix of farms, woods, and residential neighborhoods, crossing Guinea Creek and passing the Baywood Greens golf course. The road runs through Angola and passes east of Burton Pond before it curves to the northeast, crossing Love Creek on the Eugene D. Bookhammer Bridge. The route continues northeast, widening to four lanes at the Mulberry Knoll Road intersection, and intersects DE 1D/DE 24 Alt. Here, DE 1D turns northeast to join DE 24 and the two routes pass homes and businesses as a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. DE 24/DE 1D becomes a four-lane undivided road and then a divided highway as it comes to its end at an intersection with DE 1 in Midway, located between the cities of Lewes and Rehoboth Beach.
The section of DE 24 east of US 113 serves as part of a primary hurricane evacuation route from the Oak Orchard and Long Neck areas to points inland while the section of DE 24 between US 13 and Millsboro Highway serves as part of a secondary hurricane evacuation route from the coastal areas. The portions of the route between Townsend Street and Delaware Avenue in Laurel and Christ Church Road and Trap Pond Road east of Laurel are designated as part of the Nanticoke Heritage Byway, a Delaware Byway. DE 24 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 34,023 vehicles at the DE 30 intersection to a low of 1,681 vehicles at the intersection with Dickerson Road west of Laurel.
## History
By 1920, what is now DE 24 existed as a state highway between Mission and Phillips Hill, with the remainder of the route existing as an unimproved county road. At this time the road was under contract as a state highway between Laurel and Pepper and from Phillips Hill to east of Millsboro. The sections under contract were completed by 1924 and the remainder of present-day DE 24 was proposed as a state highway a year later. Completion of these final segments occurred by 1931. DE 24 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border west of Laurel and DE 14 (now DE 1) in Midway by 1936. In 1940, a new bridge was built over Love Creek as part of improving the route east of Millsboro for traffic heading to the beaches in the summer.
On April 16, 2018, the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT) unveiled plans to widen DE 24 to four lanes between the Love Creek bridge and DE 1 along with adding left turn lanes and improving intersections. This project is planned in order to improve safety and reduce traffic congestion along the road. Construction on the first phase between Mulberry Knoll Road and DE 1 began on March 3, 2020 and was completed in early 2022. Construction on the second phase between the Love Creek bridge and Mulberry Knoll Road began in March 2022; construction is scheduled to be finished in 2024.
A two-lane bypass of DE 24 is being built to the north of Millsboro, running from the intersection of US 113 and DE 20, which will be converted to an interchange, east across Millsboro Pond, DE 30, and Hollyville Road to an intersection with DE 24 east of Millsboro. The bypass is being built to reduce congestion on the section of DE 24 through Millsboro. A groundbreaking ceremony took place on March 31, 2023, with Governor John Carney, U.S. Senator Tom Carper, DelDOT secretary Nicole Majeski, and local officials in attendance. Construction of the Millsboro bypass is planned to be completed in the early part of 2025.
## Major intersections
## Delaware Route 24 Alternate
Delaware Route 24 Alternate (DE 24 Alt.) is an alternate route of DE 24 between US 113 in Stockley and DE 24 in Midway. The route heads east from US 113 on two-lane undivided Speedway Road, passing to the north of Georgetown Speedway. DE 24 Alt. reaches a roundabout with Zoar Road/Bethesda Road and heads southeast onto Zoar Road, passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes and crossing the Delmarva Central Railroad's Indian River Subdivision line. The road continues east through more areas of farms, woods, and residences, turning north and east before crossing DE 30 in Zoar. The route heads east-northeast through more rural areas, turning north onto Hollyville Road. DE 24 Alt. turns northeast and comes to a junction with DE 5 in Hollyville. The road continues east as Hollymount Road and intersects DE 23 in Hollymount. Here, DE 24 Alt. turns north to join DE 23 on Beaver Dam Road and the two routes continue through agricultural and wooded areas with residential developments, curving to the northeast and crossing Bundicks Branch. In Five Points the road intersects DE 1D, with DE 23 turning to the north and DE 24 Alt. continuing northeast along with DE 1D on Plantation Road, which soon becomes a divided highway. The two routes curve southeast immediately to the south of the intersection between US 9/DE 404 and DE 1 and head through a mix of farmland and residential development as an undivided road. Finally, the road reaches an intersection with DE 24 where DE 24 Alt. ends and DE 1D turns northeast to join DE 24. DE 24 Alt. was designated by 2006.
Major intersections
## See also
|
30,717,912 |
Angry Dad: The Movie
| 1,169,057,135 | null |
[
"2011 American television episodes",
"The Simpsons (season 22) episodes",
"Works about animation"
] |
"Angry Dad: The Movie" is the fourteenth episode of the twenty-second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 20, 2011. In this episode, Bart wins many awards for his new short film based on his web cartoon series Angry Dad, which was first introduced in "I Am Furious (Yellow)", while Homer takes credit for the film during acceptance speeches.
"Angry Dad: The Movie" was written by John Frink and directed by Matthew Nastuk, with Ricky Gervais, Halle Berry, Russell Brand, Maurice LaMarche, Nick Park and J. B. Smoove guest starring. Cultural references in the episode include Pixar, Toy Story, Wallace and Gromit, Kung Fu Panda, Ms. Pac-Man and the 68th Golden Globe Award ceremony.
The episode was viewed in an estimated 6.35 million households, with a 2.8 Nielsen rating, marking a slight rise in audience from the previous episode, while the episode was the twenty-fifth most viewed show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18–49.
Critical reception of the episode was generally positive, with critics praising the episode's use of visual gags and cultural references.
## Plot
After Bart once again recklessly causes damage to the home while the rest of the family are out on Saturday, he is surprised by a visit from Mr. Millwood. It turns out Millwood's very successful chair-design company seized the rights to Bart's "Angry Dad" Internet series when the provider company went bankrupt. Millwood offers Bart a chance to make a film adaptation of "Angry Dad". Bart accepts, and Millwood takes him to film studio animators. Homer is soon offered the opportunity to voice Angry Dad, as the voice actor from the original Angry Dad series has dropped out of frustration of never being paid. The film is test screened to a horrible reception. Lisa convinces Bart to remove all of the parts the audience did not like, thus making the Angry Dad a short film. The film is shortly thereafter nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Short.
At the Golden Globe ceremony, Angry Dad wins, and Homer angers Bart by pushing him out of the way and taking all the credit despite not being professional or supportive of the film before it was a hit. Homer takes credit at many other awards ceremonies. Angry Dad soon receives an Academy Award nomination for Best Animated Short Film. Out of frustration against Homer for taking the credit, Bart attempts to distract Homer from going by making him and Marge go on an attraction tour in Los Angeles while he and Lisa attend the awards. However, Homer gets recognized by the friendly Rollin' 80 street gang who take him to the ceremony. Homer arrives in time to see Angry Dad win the Oscar. Bart goes up to accept the Oscar and thanks Lisa for having the idea to make the film into a short film, the animation studio, and Homer. Touched by this, Homer gets up on stage with Bart and apologizes to him for taking all the credit, and the two agree to cut up the Oscar and give a piece to everyone on the animation team. Bart asks if Homer had gotten a replacement from the Academy, but Homer confides to him that the Award is only five dollars on eBay, while Maggie is sucking on the replacement.
## Production
Angry Dad first appeared in the season 13 episode "I Am Furious (Yellow)". In the show, it is a comic book and web series that Bart created based on Homer's constant fits of rage. In this episode, Bart and Homer make a short film about the character, which wins a number of awards. Executive producer Al Jean said it is "a bit of a satire of the different Oscar acceptances where two people clearly race to the stage to get there first, and Homer and Bart are fighting to be the one that accepts." Academy Award winner Halle Berry guest starred as herself. She was designed to be wearing a similar dress to the one she wore at the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. Ricky Gervais appeared as himself, his second guest appearance on the show after season 17's "Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife". Comedian Russell Brand guest starred as himself.
## Cultural references
This episode of The Simpsons featured multiple references to animation and Hollywood. Pixar is referenced in the episode as "Mixar". Herman Millwood and the Aerochair are a spoof of furniture company Herman Miller, which made the Aeron chairs that were very popular with the dot-com bubble-era web startups. The "1999" segment features the song "Bye Bye Bye" by NSYNC. The short film Condiments serves as a parody of the Pixar film Toy Story, and the song "You've Got an Enemy" (sung by Castellaneta impersonating Randy Newman) references "You've Got a Friend in Me". Willis and Crumble parodies Wallace and Gromit, and uses the same style of stop-motion animation. Nick Park, the creator of Wallace and Gromit, has a voice cameo as himself. Multiple other short film fragments further lampooned other movies including some French adult animated films The Triplets of Belleville and Persepolis. The episode also references Ricky Gervais's controversial hosting stunt at the 68th Golden Globe Awards, with a sign featuring a picture of him alongside a caption reading "Do Not Allow This Man To Host".
## Reception
In its original American broadcast, "Angry Dad: The Movie" was viewed by an estimated 6.35 million households, with a 2.8 Nielsen rating and 8 share of the audience among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The episode marked a slight rise in the ratings from the previous episode, "The Blue and the Gray". "Angry Dad: The Movie" was the twenty-fifth most viewed show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18–49.
"Angry Dad: The Movie" received generally positive reviews from critics, with many of them praising the "visual gags" featured in the episode.
TV Squad writer Brad Trechak praised the episode's use of Hollywood references writing that "that's what good episodes of 'The Simpsons' are made of". He also praised Gervais's performance calling his two monologues "classic".
The A.V. Club's Rowan Kaiser praised the multiple references layered in the episode commenting that they saved the episode from being "mediocre". Despite this, he criticized the plot commenting that it did not come "from the heart of the show". He ultimately gave the episode a B−.
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly mostly praised the short films competing against "Angry Dad" calling them "the truly amusing stuff" and adding that Condiments was a "very accomplished replication of Pixar". However, he was critical of the guest stars, noting that, "None of them were very funny, but that was the joke — they were parodying the toadying tone of awards patter. Well, Brand and Berry were; Gervais seemed to have improvised a lot of Gervais-y stream-of-jokiness blather that he may well have intended to be funny".
Aly Semigran of MTV praised the episode for its animation parodies, writing, "Sure, Toy Story and Wallace and Gromit might enjoy more Oscar love than their animated brethren, but The Simpsons send-ups were nothing if not a brilliant tip-of-the-hat to all of those films". Screen Rant called it the best episode of the 22nd season.
The episode was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour) at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to the Futurama episode "The Late Philip J. Fry".
|
7,193,403 |
Typhoon Nida (2004)
| 1,164,805,092 |
Pacific typhoon in 2004
|
[
"2004 Pacific typhoon season",
"2004 disasters in the Philippines",
"2004 in Japan",
"Tropical cyclones in 2004",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in Japan",
"Typhoons in the Philippines"
] |
Typhoon Nida, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Dindo, was the fourth tropical cyclone and second named storm of the 2004 Pacific typhoon season. Nida was the second super typhoon of the 2004 season, reaching a peak intensity of 160 miles per hour (260 km/h). Forming southeast of the Philippines, the storm strengthened as it moved northwest. The typhoon brushed the eastern Philippines causing heavy rains across the island archipelago. Nida later accelerated northeast, missing Japan to the east while becoming an extratropical cyclone. A total of \$1.3 million (2004 USD) in damage occurred, and Nida left 31 fatalities.
## Meteorological history
On May 12, a persistent area of thunderstorms formed within a monsoon trough 220 miles (350 km) southwest of Palau. Satellite imagery revealed a weak low-level circulation. Initially, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) forecast the storm to not strengthen. The following day, forecasters saw that the storm was strengthening and upgraded the system to tropical depression status. Forecasters at the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration designated the storm as Tropical Depression Dindo.
At the time of formation, the depression was located 190 miles (310 km) east of Palau as it moved west northwest at 3 mph (4.8 km/h). Quickscat satellite imagery showed the depression's winds were near 29 mph (47 km/h) and increasing. Satellite imagery later the showed deep convection organizing over the low-level circulation. The depression underwent rapid intensification as it became a tropical storm late in the morning on May 14 and was assigned the name Nida by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). Still intensifying, the storm turned northwest where it reached typhoon status later that night.
Curving west-northwest at 7 mph (11 km/h), Typhoon Nida attained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane. On May 16, Nida became a super typhoon as its winds reached 165 mph (266 km/h). At its peak, its highest winds extended 35 miles (56 km) from the center. Satellite imagery showed the storm developed a defined eye measuring 25 miles (40 km) wide. On May 17, the center of Nida passed over Catanduanes Island, Philippines.
After making landfall, Nida weakened and then turned more northward and slowed down. Re-entering the warmer waters of the Western Pacific Ocean, Nida's winds restrengthened to 150 mph (240 km/h). During the night of May 18, the typhoon began to weaken. Infrared satellite imagery showed the eye being obscured by high cirrostratus clouds, indicative of the weakening typhoon. The eyewall became significantly disorganized as Nida continued to recurve to the northeast.
Nida accelerated northeast and its maximum sustained winds weakened to 90 mph (140 km/h). Interacting with an upper level low pressure system over Japan, the typhoon became elongated. Nida weakened below typhoon strength as the center passed 290 miles (470 km) south of Tokyo, Japan. By May 21, Nida transitioned to an extratropical cyclone. The JMA continued to track the remnants of Nida as it weakened northeast of northern Japan.
## Preparations and impact
In the Philippines, evacuation centers were opened to accommodate 2,986 people. The typhoon approach cancelled ferry operations stranding 15,057 passengers. In Taiwan, forecasters at the Central Weather Bureau issued a typhoon warning as forecast models predicted a high probability of the typhoon hitting Taiwan. The warnings interrupted the preparations for the inauguration of President Chen Shui-bian.
In the Philippines, winds were clocked at 100 knots (190 km/h) at Virac. on Catanduanes Island at 6 a.m. local time on May 17. The pressure at that location fell to 965 millibars (28.5 inHg). Structural damage was severe as the typhoon damaged or destroyed over 700–4,000 homes displacing 11,000 people. In Guimba, Nueva Ecija, Nida spawned a tornado that caused moderate damage. After the storm, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo placed eight providences under a state of emergency.
Nida produced heavy rainfall across the eastern Philippines. Rainfall up to 10.6 inches (270 mm) was reported in Ombao while Naga City received 5.9 inches (150 mm) of rain. The rest of the Philippines received 104 to 372 millimetres (4.1 to 14.6 in) of rain. 31 fatalities (20 confirmed, 11 unaccounted for) were reported during Nida's landfall. In Camotes island, nine people drowned and five were declared missing when a ferry boat sank during the storm. Elsewhere offshore, 13 crewmen were rescued when their ship ran aground near Luzon. In all, the typhoon left \$1.3 million in damage across the eastern Philippines.
In Japan, heavy rains produced by the outer bands of Nida triggered flash flooding and landslides in Fukushima Prefecture. Several highways were shut down due to rising waters or debris and a few homes also were inundated. In Mito, Ibaraki, 360 homes were left without power after high winds knocked down electrical wires. A 10 m (33 ft) section of highway in the city also collapsed. In addition to the structural damage caused by Nida, the poor weather conditions created during its passage resulted in several canceled flights by Japan Air Commuter. In Minamidaitō, Okinawa, a weather station operated by the WMO reported winds gusting to 71 mph (114 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 972 millibars (28.7 inHg). Rainfall total at the station was 1.25 inches (32 mm) with the highest at 2.79 inches (71 mm). There were no reports of damage.
## See also
- Other tropical cyclones named Nida
- Other tropical cyclones named Dindo
- Typhoon Noul (2015)
|
299,288 |
Lurgan
| 1,161,210,033 |
Town in County Armagh, Northern Ireland
|
[
"Civil parish of Shankill, County Armagh",
"Lurgan",
"Townlands of County Armagh",
"Towns in County Armagh"
] |
Lurgan () is a town in County Armagh, Northern Ireland, near the southern shore of Lough Neagh. Lurgan is about 18 miles (29 km) south-west of Belfast and is linked to the city by both the M1 motorway and the Belfast–Dublin railway line. It had a population of about 28,634 (38,198 District Area) at the 2021 UK census and is within the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon district. For some purposes, Lurgan is treated as part of the "Craigavon Urban Area" along with neighbouring Craigavon and Portadown.
Lurgan is characteristic of many Plantation of Ulster settlements, with its straight, wide planned streets. It is the site of a number of historic listed buildings including Brownlow House and Lurgan Town Hall. Lurgan Park is the largest urban park in Northern Ireland.
Historically the town was known as a major centre for the production of textiles (mainly linen) after the Industrial Revolution, and it continued to be a major producer of textiles until that industry steadily declined in the late 20th century.
The development of the 'new city' of Craigavon had a major impact on Lurgan in the 1960s when much industry was attracted to the area.
## History
The name Lurgan is an anglicisation of the Irish name An Lorgain. This literally means "the shin", but in placenames means a shin-shaped hill or ridge (i.e. one that is long, low and narrow). Earlier names of Lurgan include Lorgain Chlann Bhreasail (anglicised Lurganclanbrassil, meaning "the long low ridge of Clanbrassil") and Lorgain Bhaile Mhic Cana (anglicised Lurganvallivackan, meaning "the long low ridge of McCann's settlement"). The Mac Cana (McCanns) were a sept of the O'Neills and Lords of Clanbrassil before the Plantation of Ulster in the early 17th century.
About 1610, during the Plantation and at a time when the area was sparsely populated by Irish Gaels, the lands of Lurgan were granted to the English lord William Brownlow and his family. Initially the Brownlow family settled near the lough at Annaloist, but by 1619, on a nearby ridge, they had established a castle and bawn for their own accommodation, and "a fair Town, consisting of 42 Houses, all of which are inhabited with English Families, and the streets all paved clean through also to water Mills, and a Wind Mill, all for corn."
Brownlow became MP for Armagh in the Irish Parliament in 1639. During the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Brownlow's castle and bawn were destroyed, and he and his wife and family were taken prisoner and brought to Armagh and then to Dungannon in County Tyrone. The land was then passed to the Mac Cana clan and the O'Hanlons. In 1642, Brownlow and his family were released by the forces of Lord Conway, and as the rebellion ended they returned to their estate in Lurgan. William Brownlow died in 1660, but the family went on to contribute to the development of the linen industry which peaked in the town in the late 17th century.
Theobald Wolfe Tone would often pass through Lurgan on his journeys, writing in 1792 "Lurgan green as usual".
### The Great Famine
A workhouse was built in Lurgan and opened in 1841 under the stipulations of the Poor Law which stated that each Poor Law Union would build a workhouse to give relief to the increasing numbers of destitute poor. In 1821 the population of Lurgan was 2,715, this increased to 4,677 by 1841. There were a couple of reasons for this large growth in population. Firstly the opportunities provided by the booming linen industry led many to abandon their meagre living in rural areas and migrate to Lurgan in the hope of gaining employment. Secondly the ever-expanding town gave tradesmen the opportunity to secure work in the construction of new buildings such as Brownlow House.
The large numbers of poor workers migrating to the town inevitably resulted in over-crowding and a very low standard of living. When the potato crop failed for a second time in 1846 the resulting starvation led to a quickly overcrowded workhouse which by the end of 1846 exceeded its 800 capacity. In an attempt to alleviate the problem a relief committee was established in Lurgan as they were in other towns. The relief committees raised money by subscription from local landowners, gentry and members of the clergy and were matched by funds from Dublin. With these monies food was bought and distributed to the ever-increasing numbers of starving people at soup kitchens. In an attempt to provide employment and thereby give the destitute the means to buy food, Lord Lurgan devised a scheme of land- drainage on his estate.
The so-called 'famine roads' were not built in Lurgan to the same extent as the rest of Ireland, although land owners also provided outdoor relief by employing labourers to lower hills and repair existing road. During the period 1846 to 1849 the famine claimed 2,933 lives in the Lurgan Union alone. The Lurgan workhouse was situated in the grounds of what is now Lurgan Hospital and a commemorative mural can be seen along the adjacent Tandragee Road.
### New city
The town grew steadily over the centuries as an industrial market town, and in the 1960s, when the UK government was developing a programme of new towns in Great Britain to deal with population growth, the Northern Ireland government also planned a new town to deal with the projected growth of Belfast and to prevent an undue concentration of population in the city. Craigavon (a name unpopular with the Nationalist community) was designated as a new town in 1965, intended to be a linear city incorporating the neighbouring towns of Lurgan and Portadown. The plan largely failed, and today, 'Craigavon' locally refers to the rump of the residential area between the two towns. The Craigavon development, however, did affect Lurgan in a number of ways. The sort of dedicated bicycle and pedestrian paths that were built in Craigavon were also incorporated into newer housing areas in Lurgan, additional land in and around the town was zoned for industrial development, neighbouring rural settlements such as Aghacommon and Aghagallon were developed as housing areas, and there was an increase in the town's population, although not on the scale that had been forecast.
The textile industry remained a main employer in the town until the late twentieth century, with the advent of access to cheaper labour in the developing world leading to a decline in the manufacture of clothing in Lurgan.
### The Troubles
Lurgan and the associated towns of Portadown and Craigavon made up part of what was known as the "murder triangle"; an area known for a significant number of incidents and fatalities during The Troubles. By 2010 the town was one of the few areas in Northern Ireland where so-called dissident republicans have a significant level of support. The legacy of the Troubles is continued tension between Roman Catholics and Protestants, which has occasionally erupted into violence at flashpoint 'interface areas'.
On 5 March 1992, a 1,000 lb truck bomb, believed to have been planted by the IRA, exploded in Main Street causing mass damage to commercial properties.
On 5 February 2020, the PSNI found a bomb on a lorry. The Continuity Irish Republican Army admitted they had planted it. They expected the lorry to be put on a North Channel ferry in January 2020.
## Geography
Lurgan sits in the north-eastern corner of County Armagh in a relatively flat part of Ireland by the south east shore of Lough Neagh, on the border with County Down and less than 2 miles from the border of County Antrim. The two main formations in north Armagh are an area of estuarine clays by the shore of the lough, and a mass of basalt farther back. The earliest human settlements in the area were to the northwest of the present day town near the shore of the lough. When the land was handed to the Brownlow family, they initially settled near the lough at Annaloist, but later settled where the town was eventually built. The oldest part of the town, the main street, is built on a long ridge in the townland (baile fearainn) of Lurgan. A neighbouring hill is the site of Brownlow House, which overlooks Lurgan Park.
### Townlands
Like the rest of Ireland, the Lurgan area has long been divided into townlands, whose names mostly come from the Irish language. Lurgan sprang up in the townland of the same name. Over time, the surrounding townlands have been built upon and they have given their names to many roads and housing estates. The following is a list of townlands within Lurgan's urban area, alongside their likely etymologies:
Shankill parish:
- Aghnacloy ()
- Ballyblagh (from Baile Bláthach meaning "flowery townland")
- Demesne (an English name – this townland was carved out of Drumnamoe and others, and includes Lurgan Park)
- Derry (from Doire meaning "oak grove")
- Dougher (formerly Doucharron, probably from An Dubhcharn, Dúcharn meaning "the black cairn")
- Drumnamoe (from Druim na mBó meaning "ridge of the cows")
- Knocknashane (formerly Knocknashangan, from Cnoc na Seangán meaning "hill of the ants")
- Lurgantarry (from Lurgain an tSamhraidh meaning "summer ridge" or "ridge of the summer grazing")
- Shankill (from Seanchill meaning "old church" or Seanchoill meaning "old wood")
- Taghnevan (formerly Tegnevan, from Teach Neamhain meaning "Neamhan's house" or "Neamhan's church")
- Tannaghmore North & Tannaghmore South (from an Tamhnach Mór meaning "the big grassy field")
- Toberhewny (from Tobar Shuibhne meaning "Sweeney's well" or Tobar Chainnigh meaning "Cainneach's well")
- Tirsogue (from Tír Sídheóg meaning "land of the fairies")
Seagoe parish:
- Ballynamony (from Baile na Mónadh meaning "townland of the bog")
- Drumnakelly (from Dromainn Uí Cheallaigh meaning "O’Kelly's ridge")
- Silverwood (an English name – formerly called Killinargit, from Coill an Airgid meaning "wood of the silver")
- Turmoyra (from Tír Maighre meaning "land of the salmon")
### Climate
Lurgan has a temperate climate in common with inland areas in Ireland. Summer temperatures can reach the 20s °C and it is rare for them to go higher than 30 °C (86 °F). The consistently humid climate that prevails over Ireland can make temperatures feel uncomfortable when they stray into the high 20s °C (80–85 °F), more so than similar temperatures in hotter climates in the rest of Europe.
## Governance
Lurgan is part of the Upper Bann constituency for the purpose of elections to the UK Parliament at Westminster. This has long been a safe unionist seat and the current MP is Carla Lockhart of the Democratic Unionist Party.
Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont are elected from six-member constituencies using proportional representation and using the same constituencies as for Westminster.
Lurgan town commissioners were first elected in 1855, and they were replaced by Lurgan Urban District Council following the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898. This effectively ended landlord control of local government in Ireland. The town council was abolished when local government was reformed in Northern Ireland in 1973 under the Local Government (Boundaries) Act (Northern Ireland) 1971 and the Local Government Act (Northern Ireland) 1972. These abolished the two-tier system of town and county councils replacing it with the single-tier system. Lurgan was placed under the jurisdiction of Craigavon Borough Council, and remained so until a new act streamlined and merged the various districts in 2015. Today Lurgan forms part of the new Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon District. The Lurgan area contains the following wards: Church, Donaghcloney, Knocknashane, Magheralin, Mourneview, Parklake, and Waringstown.
Seven councillors are elected to represent the Lurgan electoral area on the Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council. The councillors for the DEA are:
## Demography
For census purposes, Lurgan is not treated as a separate entity by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA). Instead, it is combined with Craigavon, Portadown and Bleary to form the "Craigavon Urban Area". A fairly accurate population count can be found by combining the data of the electoral wards that make up the Lurgan urban area. These are Church, Court, Drumnamoe, Knocknashane, Mourneview, Parklake, Taghnevan and Woodville.
On the day of the last census (21 March 2021) the combined population of these wards was 31,068. The latest religious data published is from 2011 with an estimated population of 25,069 (27 March 2011) Of this population:
- 62.2% were from a Catholic background, and 33.7% were from a Protestant or other Christian background
The town is divided along ethnic/political/sectarian lines with entire housing areas being almost exclusively Nationalist/Catholic/Irish or almost exclusively Unionist/Protestant/British. The north end of the town centre is considered Nationalist/Catholic, the south end is considered Unionist/Protestant, with the "invisible dividing line" starting at the end of Market Street and the beginning of High Street at Windsor Avenue and Union Street. In the 1980s there were two Unionist/Protestant enclaves in the north end of the town, Gilpinstown and Wakehurst. They have both since changed to become Nationalist/Catholic areas as Unionists/Protestants gradually moved out.
There was a Synagogue at 49 North Street for the Lurgan Hebrew Congregation, founded prior to 1906 by Joseph Herbert (originally Herzberg) from Tukums in Latvia, but this closed in the 1920s around the time of the founder's death.
## Economy
Lurgan has historically been an industrial town in which the linen industry predominated as a source of employment during the Industrial Revolution, and is said to have employed as many as 18,000 handloom weavers at the end of the 19th century, a figure significantly higher than the town's resident population at the time. That particular branch of the textile industry declined as consumer tastes changed, but other textiles continued to be produced in the town providing a major source of employment until the 1990s and 2000s when the textile industry across the UK suffered a major decline as a result of outsourcing to low wage countries.
The large Goodyear fan-belt factory at Silverwood Industrial Estate was a product of the Craigavon development when large tracts of land in Lurgan, Portadown, and areas in between were zoned off for exclusive industrial use. The Goodyear factory closed in 1983 after failing to make a profit, resulting in the loss of 750 jobs. The facility was later partly occupied by Wilson Double Deck Trailers and DDL Electronics. Silverwood Industrial Estate continues to host other manufacturing and light engineering firms. Other industrial areas in the town are Annesborough and Halfpenny Valley (Portadown Road) industrial estates; areas in which growth has been limited compared to other industrial estates in the Craigavon Borough.
A key component of the Craigavon development was a central business district halfway between Lurgan and Portadown that would serve as the city centre for the whole of the new city. What was built was an office building, a court house, a civic building, and a small shopping centre alongside several acres of parkland that were developed around the newly created balancing lakes that also serve as part of the area's drainage system. In the 1990s, the shopping centre was significantly expanded to form what is now Rushmere Retail Park, containing many major retail stores. This has had a detrimental effect on the retail trade in Lurgan in the same way that out-of-town shopping developments in other parts of Northern Ireland have damaged other traditional town centres. The town's Chamber of Commerce is not functioning and has remained dormant despite numerous attempts to revive it.
## Culture and community
### Cultural references
There is a figure of speech used in Ireland – to have a face as long as a Lurgan spade – meaning "to look miserable". The origins of this expression are disputed. One theory is that a "Lurgan spade" was an under-paid workman digging what is now the Lurgan Park lake. Another theory is that it could be from the Irish language lorga spád meaning the shaft (literally "shin") of a spade.
The ballad Master McGrath concerns a greyhound of that name from Lurgan which became an Irish sporting hero. The dog was bought in Lurgan by the Brownlow family, and the song also mentions his owner Charles Brownlow, referred to in the lyrics as Lord Lurgan. Master McGrath won the Waterloo Cup hare coursing competition three times in 1868, 1870 and 1871 at a time when this was a high-profile sport. A post mortem found that he had a heart twice the size of what is normal for a dog of his size. He is remembered all over the town, including in its coat of arms. The dog was named McGrath after the kennel boy responsible for its care. A statue of him was unveiled at Craigavon Civic Centre in 1993, over 120 years after his last glory in 1871. The statue was relocated to Lurgan town centre in 2013. A festival is also held yearly in his honour. A Lurgan pub is also named after Master McGrath.
The town is a frequent recipient of derision by the BBC Northern Ireland comedy panel show The Blame Game.
### Community facilities
Oxford Island is a nature reserve on the shore of Lough Neagh that includes Kinnego Marina and the Lough Neagh Discovery Center, which is an interpretive visitor centre offering information about the surrounding wildlife, conference facilities, and a café.
Lurgan Park, a few hundred yards from the main street, is the largest urban park in Northern Ireland and the second-largest in Ireland after Phoenix Park, Dublin. It used to be part of the estate of Brownlow House, a 19th-century Elizabethan-style manor house. In 1893, the land was purchased by Lurgan Borough Council and opened as a public park in 1909 by Earl Aberdeen, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. It includes a sizeable artificial lake and an original Coalbrookdale fountain. Today the park is home to annual summer events such as the Lurgan Agricultural Show, and the Lurgan Park Rally, noted as the largest annual motor sport event in Northern Ireland and a stage in the Circuit of Ireland rally. Mount Zion House in Edward St, formerly the St Joseph's Convent, is now a cross-community centre run by the Shankill Lurgan Community Association/Community Projects. It is funded by the Department for Social Development, the EU Special Programme for Peace and Reconciliation, and the Physical and Social Environment Programme.
## Landmarks
Lurgan town centre is distinctive for its wide main street, Market Street, one of the widest in Ireland, which is dominated at one end by Shankill (Anglican) Church in Church Place. A grey granite hexagonal temple-shaped war memorial sits at the entrance to Church Place, topped by a bronze-winged statue representing the spirit of Victorious Peace. A marble pillar at the centre displays the names of over 400 men from the town who lost their lives in the First World War.
The rows of buildings on either side of Market Street are punctuated periodically by large access gates that lead to the space behind the buildings, gates that are wide enough to drive a horse and cart through. The town's straight planned streets are a common feature in many Plantation towns, and its industrial history is still evident in the presence of many former linen mills that have since been modified for modern use.
At the junction of Market Street and Union Street is Lurgan Town Hall, a listed building erected in 1868. It was the first site of the town's library in 1895, was temporarily used as a police station from 1973 and is today available for conferences and community functions.
Brownlow House, known locally as 'Lurgan Castle', is a distinctive mansion built in 1833 with Scottish sandstone in an Elizabethan style with a lantern-shaped tower and prominent array of chimney pots. It was originally owned by the Brownlow family, and today is owned by the Lurgan Loyal Orange District Lodge. A former lodge to the Brownlow House estate became the Brownlow Arms Hotel on Market Street, run by the McCaffrey family, which served as the US 5th Army's Officers' Mess during WW2 but closed in the early 1960s. The adjacent Lurgan Park, now a public park owned by Craigavon Borough Council, used to be part of the same estate. The park is the venue for the Lurgan Park Rally.
### Religious sites
The site of what is now Shankill cemetery served as a place of worship over the centuries. It began in ancient times as a simple double ring fort, the outline of which is still noticeable, and is today an historic burial site holding the remains of people who lived in the earliest days of the town's existence, including the Brownlow family. Dougher cemetery is another old graveyard that was donated to the Catholic people by the Brownlows following passage of the Catholic Relief Act.
The two most prominent modern places of worship are Shankill Parish Church in Church Place and St Peter's Church in North Street, the steeples of which are visible from far outside the town.
Shankill Parish Church belongs to the Anglican Church of Ireland. The original church was established at Oxford Island on the shore of Lough Neagh in 1411, but a new church was built in Lurgan on the site of what is now Shankill Cemetery in 1609 as the town became the main centre of settlement in the area. It was eventually found to be too small given the growth of the town, and the Irish Parliament granted permission to build a replacement in 1725 one mile away on the 'Green of Lurgan', now known as Church Place, where it stands to this day. It is believed to be the largest parish church in Ireland, and contains the only set of change ringing bells in County Armagh.
Following passage of the Catholic Relief Act, Charles Brownlow granted a site to the Roman Catholic parish priest the Reverend William O'Brien in 1829 for the construction of a church on Distillery Hill, now known as lower North Street. It was there that work began in 1832 on what is now St Peter's Church.
In 1966, another Catholic church, St Paul's, was built at the junction of Francis Street and Parkview Street. This was a radical departure from traditional church architecture with its grey plaster finish, copper roof, slim spire, hexagonal angles and modern design throughout. Many of its architectural features such as the copper roof and gray plaster finish are shared by the neighbouring St Paul's School. It was designed to cope with the extra demand for worship space following the growth of the surrounding Taghnevan and Shankill housing estates.
The first Methodist church was built in Nettleton's Court, Queen Street in 1778. It was found to be too small and a new church was built on High Street in 1802, and replaced by a newer building in front of it in 1826. This High Street Mehtodist Church was extensively renovated in 1910 and stands to this day sporting a simple facade.
## Education
It was the late 19th century that saw the development of formal education in Lurgan and a significant move away from the less organised hedge schools of before.
Today, schools in Lurgan operate under the Dickson Plan, a transfer system in north Armagh that allows pupils at age 11 the option of taking the 11-plus exam to enter grammar schools, with pupils in comprehensive junior high schools being sorted into grammar and non-grammar streams. Pupils can get promoted to or demoted from the grammar stream during their time in those schools depending on the development of their academic performance, and at age 14 can take subject-based exams across the syllabus to qualify for entry into a dedicated grammar school to pursue GCSEs and A-levels.
As is common in Northern Ireland, most of the schools in Lurgan are attended mainly by children from one or other of the two main ethno-religious blocs, reflecting the existence of deep-seated ethnic, sectarian and political divisions in society. Some schools are in the Catholic 'maintained' sector, i.e. maintained by the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools, and others are controlled directly by the state. Directly controlled state schools generally have a predominantly Protestant intake.
### Primary education
- Lurgan Model Primary School (Controlled) - this school was part of the national schools programme proposed in 1831 in which each county in Ireland would have at least one school that would serve as an example to other national schools in the area and as a teacher training establishment (although teacher training did not take place at this particular school). Initially it had a multi-denominational intake, offered such services as night classes and industry-relevant vocational courses, and was enthusiastically supported by William Brownlow who is thought to have brought the school to the town. It was undermined, however, by church interests, which were opposed to its lack of ecclesiastical control, and criticism of the efficiency of its management, hence losing much of its earlier prestige as the premier educational establishment in the town. It is now co-educational, non-denominational and accepts pupils irrespective of race or religion.
- St. Francis' Primary School and Bunscoil Naomh Proinsias (Catholic Maintained)
- St Teresa's Primary School (Catholic Maintained)
- St Anthony's Primary School (Catholic Maintained)
- Tannaghmore Primary School (Catholic Maintained)
- Tullygally Primary School (Catholic Maintained)
- Carrick Primary School (Controlled)
- Dickson Primary School (Controlled)
- King's Park Primary School (Controlled)
### Post-primary education
- Lurgan College - a co-ed 14–18 grammar school, was established in 1873 as an all-boys school to provide what was known as 'classical education' as opposed to the more practical vocational education on offer at the Model School. Its initial charter included a provision that "no person being in Holy Orders, or a minister of any religious denomination shall at any time interfere in the management of the said school, or be appointed to serve as master" and that no religious instruction was to take place during school hours.
- St Ronan's College - A co-ed secondary school for 11-18 year olds. It was formed from the merger of St Mary's Junior High School, St Paul's Junior High School, and St Michael's Grammar School. St Mary's Intermediate School was built on Kitchen Hill after land was acquired from the Sisters of Mercy in 1955 and was opened in 1959 as an all-girls school. The nearby all-boys St Paul's Intermediate School was opened in 1962.
- Lurgan Junior High School - A co-educational 11-14 High School.
A number of people from Lurgan also attend Lismore Comprehensive School and Brownlow Integrated College in Craigavon.
- Southern Regional College - Lurgan Technical College was renamed Lurgan College of Further Education, and subsequently merged with Portadown CFE and Banbridge CFE into the larger Upper Bann Institute of Further and Higher Education (UBIFHE). Further education in the region was consolidated further when this institution was merged with other FE colleges in Armagh, Newry and Kilkeel to form the Southern Regional College. It offers vocational courses as an alternative to A-Levels, and adult education services.
### Special needs education
Ceara School provides education for pupils aged 3 through 19 who have severe learning difficulties.
## Sport and leisure
### Facilities
Lurgan has two 18-hole golf courses, an artificial ski slope and an equestrian centre for show jumping.
### GAA
Lurgan has a large GAA presence, with Gaelic football being played by clubs Clan na Gael CLG, Clann Éireann GAC, Éire Óg CLG, Sarsfields GAC (Derrytrasna), St Mary's GAC (Aghagallon), St Michael's GAC (Magheralin), St Paul's GFC, St Peter's GAC and Wolfe Tone GAC, Derrymacash. There is also a well-respected girls camogie club at Clann Éireann, and boys hurling club Seán Treasy's, which has been amalgamated at a youth level with Portadown's St Malachy's, to create North Armagh Hurling.
### Football
The town is home to NIFL Premiership club Glenavon, established in 1889 and based at Mourneview Park. In 1952, Glenavon became the first club outside Belfast to win the Irish League title, and picked up a further two titles in 1957 and 1960. NIFL Premier Intermediate League club Dollingstown play at nearby Planters Park.
Lurgan also has a strong footballing scene in the lower leagues, with clubs such as Lurgan Town, Oxford Sunnyside and Craigavon City representing the area in the intermediate divisions of the Mid-Ulster Football League, while Derryhirk United, Hill Street, Lurgan BBOB and Goodyear play in the junior divisions.
Lurgan Celtic previously played in the NIFL Championship and Premier Intermediate League, but following financial difficulties, the club resigned from league football on 15 August 2019, and will resume senior activities from Mid-Ulster Junior Division 3 for the 2020–21 season.
### Other sport
Boxing is a common sport amongst children and adults of all ages and gender, with clubs such as South Paw Boxing and Fitness club and The Fitness Factory being popular choices.
Cricket has two clubs, Lurgan Cricket Club and Victoria Cricket Club. Rugby union is played by Lurgan RFC, who share their Pollock Park ground with Lurgan Cricket Club.
Tennis is played by Lurgan Tennis Club which is in Lurgan Park. Lurgan Golf Club is an 18-hole challenging parkland course bordering on Lurgan lake.
The Lurgan Park Rally, inaugurated in 1980, was one of the largest motorsport events on the island of Ireland. However, the event has been on hiatus since 2017.
Lawn Bowls. Lurgan Park is home to Lurgan Bowling Club who field teams in the NIBA,the NIWBA and the Veterans leagues.
## Railway links
Lurgan railway station opened by the Ulster Railway on 18 November 1841, connecting the town to Belfast Great Victoria Street in the east and Portadown and Armagh in the west. The Great Northern Railway of Ireland provided further access to the west of Ulster which was then closed in the 1950s and 1960s from Portadown railway station.
Presently Lurgan railway station is run by Northern Ireland Railways with direct trains to Belfast Great Victoria Street and as part of the Dublin-Belfast railway line. The Enterprise runs through Lurgan from Dublin Connolly to Belfast Central, and a change of train may be required at Portadown to travel to Newry or Dublin Connolly.
Railway access at Sydenham links into George Best Belfast City Airport on the line to Bangor.
## Road transport and public services
Lurgan is situated by the M1 motorway connecting the town to Belfast. Bus services, provided by Translink, arrive and depart on a regular basis from bus stops on Market Street to Belfast, Portadown, Armagh, Dungannon, and surrounding areas.
Electricity is supplied by Northern Ireland Electricity which was privatised in 1993 and is now a subsidiary of ESB Group. The gasworks used to be in North St., but there is no longer any town gas since it was abolished in Northern Ireland in the 1980s by the Thatcher government for being uneconomical, although it was restored to the greater Belfast area in 1996. Water is supplied by Northern Ireland Water, a public owned utility.
## Media
Lurgan is served by two weekly local newspapers. The Lurgan Mail, published by Johnston Publishing (NI), reports news and sport from around the local area. The 'Lurgan and Portadown Examiner' which reported local news and sport was owned by Observer Newspapers NI Ltd, based in Dungannon. This business closed in 2017 and the newspaper ceased publication.
## Notable people
### Living people
- Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943) - Northern Irish astrophysicist, discovered the first radio pulsars.
- Barry Douglas (born 1960) - classical pianist and conductor; has residences in Paris and Lurgan.
- Jim Harvey (born 1958) - Lurgan-born professional footballer; assistant manager of the Northern Ireland football team; played for Glenavon, Arsenal and Tranmere Rovers.
- Geraldine Heaney (born 1967) - Lurgan-born Canadian women’s ice hockey player and Olympic gold medallist.
- Gayle Williamson (born 1980) - Miss Northern Ireland 2002; and Miss United Kingdom 2002
- Neil Lennon (born 1971) - football player and manager
- Jonathan Magee (born 1972) - academic and former footballer
### Deceased people
- Edward Costello (1887-1916) - took part in the Easter Rising in April 1916, received a fatal bullet wound to the head on 25 April and died in Jervis Street Hospital, Dublin.
- John Cushnie (1943-2009) - broadcaster and panellist on BBC Radio 4 show Gardeners' Question Time; presented BBCNI TV show The Greenmount Garden.
- Field Marshal Sir John Dill (1881–1944) - British commander in World War I and World War II; later a diplomat; born in Lurgan
- William McFadzean (1895–1916) - soldier; died when he threw himself on a box of primed grenades prior to the Battle of the Somme and was awarded the Victoria Cross.
- Len Ganley (1943-2011) - MBE, a world championship snooker referee; was a resident of the town.
- Billy Hanna (c. 1929–1975) - founder and first commander of the Ulster Volunteer Force's Mid-Ulster Brigade; native of Lurgan. He was shot dead outside his home in the Mourneview estate by members of his own organisation.
- Sammy Jones (1911–1993) - professional footballer who made over 100 appearances for Blackpool and received one cap for the Irish national team; born in Lurgan
- James Logan (1674–1751) - born in Lurgan; became an American colonial statesman and scholar, secretary to his friend William Penn, and was noted as a jurist, political philosopher, and botanist.
- Cecil Maguire (1930–2020) - Irish landscape and figurative artist.
- Richard McGhee (1851–1930) - Irish Protestant Nationalist home rule politician; Land League and trade union activist; Member of Parliament (United Kingdom) for more than 20 years.
- Rosemary Nelson (1958–1999) - human rights solicitor; killed by a loyalist car bomb
- Martin O'Hagan (1950-2001) - journalist for Sunday World newspaper; murdered on 28 September 2001 in front of his wife near his own home in the town.
- George William Russell (1867–1935) - writer; wrote under pseudonym Æ; Anglo-Irish supporter of the nationalist movement in Ireland; critic, poet, painter, mystical writer, and was at the centre of a group of followers of theosophy in Dublin for many years.
- Philip Felix Smith (1825–1906) - soldier; recipient of the Victoria Cross; birth is recorded in the parish of Shankill at St. Peter's RC Church, Lurgan.
- Norman Uprichard (1928–2011) - goalkeeper who began his career playing Gaelic Football with St. Peter's GAC. His decision to sign for Glenavon cost him a league medal under the GAA's now-defunct 'Rule 27'. He was finally awarded his medal by St. Peter's in 2004. He went on to play for Swindon Town, Portsmouth and Southend United at club level, and won 18 caps for Northern Ireland at international level.
## See also
- List of towns in Northern Ireland
- List of villages in Northern Ireland
- List of townlands in County Armagh
|
67,558,133 |
Charles Irving (surgeon)
| 1,158,214,805 |
Scottish naval surgeon and inventor
|
[
"18th-century British inventors",
"18th-century births",
"18th-century deaths",
"18th-century surgeons",
"Naval surgeons",
"People from Dumfries and Galloway",
"Year of birth unknown",
"Year of death uncertain"
] |
Charles Irving () was a Scottish naval surgeon and inventor. In 1770, he introduced a method for distillation of seawater to the Royal Navy, and was awarded the sum of £5,000 () for his method in 1772. His apparatus for distilling seawater was used on the second voyage of James Cook and on the 1773 expedition by Constantine John Phipps towards the North Pole, in which Irving participated both as surgeon and as scientific collaborator of Phipps. He was later involved in British colonial enterprises in Central America that included an attempt to establish a crown colony on the Mosquito Shore, but his plans were thwarted by Spanish intervention.
## Early life
Irving was the son of William Irving of Gribton (c. 1738–1800), at Gribton estate, Holywood, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, and Katherine Menzies of Enoch. One of his brothers was civil servant Thomas Irving. It is not known how Charles Irving became a surgeon, and he was not licensed by the Royal College of Physicians. In 1768, while living in Pall Mall, London, he employed freedman Olaudah Equiano (also known as Gustavus Vassa) as a hairdresser from February to May. According to Equiano's autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Irving was an "excellent master" who allowed him to attend schools in the evening.
## Distillation of seawater
Irving introduced a method for distillation of seawater to the Royal Navy in 1770. The following January, while Irving was junior surgeon on HMS Arrogant, he demonstrated his apparatus to the Admiralty at Spithead. Although Irving's device was very similar to one proposed earlier by James Lind, the latter co-signed a certificate declaring the method to be both new and efficient. Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty, had two bottles of this water analyzed by Richard Watson, who made experiments comparing Irving's water with other fresh and distilled water and found it to be "not wholly free from saline particles; but it probably contains them in so small a portion, as to not injure its salubrity to any sensible degree." The scientist Joseph Priestley tasted some of the water during a dinner hosted by Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland and reported it was "perfectly sweet, but ... wanted the briskness and spirit of fresh spring water". Irving was awarded £5,000 () by Parliament for his method on 11 May 1772.
The distillation apparatus, which allowed sea water to be distilled while cooking food, was installed on both ships of James Cook's second voyage, HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure. During the preparations for the voyage, Cook additionally tested and rejected a new fire-hearth also proposed by Irving. When naturalist Joseph Banks withdrew from the expedition, Irving visited Johann Reinhold Forster on 26 May 1772 and asked him whether he would like to go instead. When Forster agreed, Irving relayed this to Philip Stephens, First Secretary of the Admiralty, starting the process that ended with Forster's appointment as naturalist on Cook's second voyage. During the journey, Forster investigated the efficiency of Irving's apparatus and commented at length in his journals about prior achievements of others, and also made some suggestions for improvement. In his journal, not published until 1982, he commented "But [facts about Lind's method] seem not to have fallen under the knowledge of the Members of the House of Commons, or Mr Irwin [sic] must have found a method of representing his way of distilling fresh water from Seawater as a quite new one, or both may be the case."
## Expedition towards the North Pole
In 1773, on the initiative of Daines Barrington, who adhered to the belief of Samuel Engel that there was an ice-free region near the pole, Sandwich initiated an expedition with the aim of reaching the North Pole. HMS Racehorse, commanded by Constantine John Phipps, and HMS Carcass, commanded by Skeffington Lutwidge, were to pass between Spitsbergen and Greenland and sail as far north as possible, while keeping away from the coasts. Should they reach the pole, they were to return home. Irving, who was described by Joseph Banks as "well acquainted with the desiderata of Zoology", was employed as surgeon on the Racehorse, and Equiano joined him, employed both as an able seaman by the Navy and as Irving's personal assistant. Irving's apparatus was successfully used on board, operated by Equiano. Irving also assisted Phipps in measurements of the water temperature in different depths, using a thermometer invented by Lord Charles Cavendish, and, realising the inadequacies of their methods, devised an insulated bottle, called the Irving bottle. However, this method also did not provide accurate measurements. Irving used a barometer to measure the heights of mountains in Spitsbergen and on Amsterdam Island. The expedition made it as far north as 80°48′N, but could not advance further due to ice.
Phipps's 1774 report on the expedition, A voyage towards the North Pole, contains an appendix written by Irving about the distillation apparatus that is dismissive of Lind's contribution, causing the latter to publish a response refuting some of Irving's claims.
## Colonial ventures and death
In 1775, Irving hosted in London a delegation of Mosquito Indians from the British-controlled Mosquito Shore and attempted to become superintendent of the territory. Irving had the ambition to establish a British crown colony with 30,000 colonists on the Mosquito Shore, but Lord Dartmouth was careful not to support this plan openly, opting to encourage private investments and the purchase of land from the Mosquito king instead. On 13 November 1775, Irving and his business associate, Alexander Blair, accompanied by Equiano and the Mosquito Indians who had travelled to London, sailed from London to the West Indies on the Morning Star, arriving in Jamaica in January 1776. There, aided by Equiano's language abilities, they bought recently arrived slaves from West Africa, probably slaves from Bonny transported on the African Queen, with the eventual plan being to establish a sugar plantation supervised by Equiano. After their arrival at Black River, the Morning Star was seized by Spanish guarda costas (coast guards). Irving and Blair, having lost £3,723 (), petitioned the British government to have the ship returned but failed. In 1779–1781, Irving took part in British invasions of modern Nicaragua, involving the Mosquito people and finding other routes than that of the San Juan Expedition but the British soon became less interested in the Mosquito shore. Irving is reported to have died in 1794 in Jamaica, a year repeated in various sources, although Equiano erroneously claimed he died from eating poisoned fish in 1776 or 1777. Benjamin Moseley called him "the late Doctor Charles Irving" as early as 1787 and the 1791 Statistical Account of Scotland mentions him in the past tense. The website of the "Equiano's World" project at York University, directed by Paul Lovejoy, states "died 1780s".
## Name and misidentification
Irving, whose name also appears in other forms, including Irvine and Irwin, has sometimes been confused with Christopher Irving, who was given £500 by the Board of Longitude for his invention of the marine chair, a device to help with astronomy at sea. However, Christopher Irving died in 1764 in Barbados.
|
1,476,856 |
Baconsthorpe Castle
| 1,071,579,482 |
Grade I listed castle in Norfolk, UK
|
[
"Baconsthorpe",
"Castles in Norfolk",
"Country houses in Norfolk",
"English Heritage sites in Norfolk",
"Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk",
"Grade I listed ruins",
"Ruined castles in England",
"Ruins in Norfolk",
"Scheduled monuments in Norfolk"
] |
Baconsthorpe Castle, historically known as Baconsthorpe Hall, is a ruined, fortified manor house near the village of Baconsthorpe, Norfolk, England. It was established in the 15th century on the site of a former manor hall, probably by John Heydon I and his father, William. John was an ambitious lawyer with many enemies and built a tall, fortified house, but his descendants became wealthy sheep farmers, and being less worried about attack, developed the property into a more elegant, courtyard house, complete with a nearby deer park.
## Remains
By the end of the 16th century, the Heydons were spending beyond their means and the castle had to be mortgaged. Nonetheless, new formal gardens and a decorative mere were constructed alongside the house. Sir John Heydon III fought alongside the Royalists in the English Civil War and in retaliation was declared delinquent by Parliament in 1646. His fortunes did not recover and he began to demolish Baconsthorpe in 1650 in order to sell off its stonework. The outer gatehouse was turned into a private home and continued to be occupied until 1920, when one of its turrets collapsed. In the 21st century, the ruins of the castle are managed by English Heritage and open to visitors.
The remains of the castle consist of a moated inner court with mere to the north and an outer court and an outermost court to the south. The main surviving buildings are the inner, fortified gatehouse, dating from the 15th century, the long building used for wool manufacture, and the outer gatehouse, first built in the 16th century but much altered in later years. The outermost court holds part of the original barn, a large building that would have symbolised the Heydons' lordship of the manor.
## History
### 15th century
Baconsthorpe Castle was established by the Heydon family in the 15th century. The village of Baconsthorpe lay between Holt and Norwich, and was named after the local Bacon family. The village had two manor houses, the first in the main village and the other, called Wood Hall, on the outskirts. William Baxton had come from a relatively humble background, but by around 1400 he had bought the Bacon family's lands in the area, including half of the Wood Hall estate. William probably began the construction of the castle, then termed Baconsthorpe Hall, starting to construct the moated platform and the inner gatehouse around 1460.
William's son, John Heydon I, continued to develop the property and acquire more land around the area, changing his family name in the process to disguise his lower social origin. John was initially the political client of the William de la Pole, the Duke of Suffolk; after the duke's death, John Dudley, the Earl of Warwick became his next patron. John was an ambitious lawyer, and came to be hated and feared across the region as his power increased. By the time of his death in 1479, the inner gatehouse was completed and work on the courtyard house begun, creating the basis of a tall, fortified house. The castle demonstrated John's political aspirations and was intended to impress his peers in the region.
Sir Henry Heydon continued his father's work on the castle. Henry married into London money and became a wealthy sheep farmer, being knighted in 1485. He completed the castle's main house, service court and north-east tower. In the process, perhaps being less worried than his father about any attack on his property, he altered the character of Baconthorpe to produce what the historians Jacky Hall and Paul Drury term an "upmarket, courtyard house".
### 16th century
Over the course of the 16th century, the Heydons became one of the leading families in Norfolk, marrying well, practising law and enjoying the profits from their sheep and the wool trade – their products were sold in England and exported to the Netherlands. Sir John Heydon II inherited Baconsthorpe in 1504 but primarily lived at Saxlingham; after a pause in construction, he finished the construction of Baconsthorpe's north court and turned the east range of the castle into a wool factory before his death in 1550. His son, Sir Christopher I, then built the outer gatehouse and barn around 1560, and in 1561 was formally given a licence to crenellate the castle and create a 300-acre (120 ha) deer park alongside it.
The Heydons by then lived in lavish style, Sir Christopher maintaining a household of 80 servants and a coach drawn by two horses.
The castle was inherited by Sir William Heydon II in 1579, but by then the wool trade was in decline and the family was building up debts. Sir William sold off parts of the estate to cover his father's debts, but his business projects in London failed and he was forced to sell off further lands. Baconsthorpe was mortgaged, and under pressure from his creditors, William attempted to sell part of the estate in 1590. His son, Sir Christopher II, disagreed with this plan to dispose of what he regarded as his inheritance, and the father and son fell out. William threatened to demolish the castle, Christopher appealed to the Privy Council, and the matter went to court in 1593, a few months before William's death the same year.
Once Christopher II had inherited Baconsthorpe, he renovated the inner gatehouse and created a large mere and a formal garden around the south-east side of the castle, although he mainly resided at Saxlingham, west of Cromer. Christopher had little interest in business, preferring to engage in military pursuits and to study astrology – he hosted the mathematician Henry Briggs and the astronomer John Bainbridge at Baconsthorpe. Christopher had inherited debts of £11,000 from his father, in addition to his own debts of £3,000, and was fined £2,000 for his part in Essex's Rebellion of 1601. His financial situation did not improve. First Baconsthorpe and then his other estates had to be mortgaged.
### 17th – 21st centuries
Baconsthorpe passed to Christopher's eldest son Sir William in 1623, but William died four years later during the Île de Ré expedition, leaving it to his younger brother, Sir John III. John became the Lieutenant General of the Ordnance and when civil war broke out in 1642, he fought on the side of King Charles I. In response, Parliament seized his lands and he was declared delinquent in 1646. He bought his estates back, but began to demolish Baconsthorpe around 1650 in order to sell off the stonework.
John III died in debt in 1653, leaving the castle to his son, Charles Heydon, who continued to dispose of the stone: 29 cartloads were sold the following year for £30, for reuse at Felbrigg Hall. Charles' brother, William Heydon III, sold the estate to a Mr Bridges, and then onward to a doctor called Zurishaddai Lang, who lived in the outer gatehouse. The Norfolk landowner John Thruston Mott bought the estate in 1801, and the gatehouse continued to be occupied until 1920, when one of the turrets collapsed. Although the mere was still water-filled in 1839, it was subsequently drained.
In 1940, the castle's owner, the politician Sir Charles Mott-Radclyffe, placed the site into the care of the Ministry of Public Works. In the 1950s and 1960s, the site was cleared of ivy and other vegetation, the stonework consolidated and archaeologically surveyed, before being opened to the public. The mere was dredged and refilled in 1972 and further archaeological excavations were carried out. In the 21st century, Baconsthorpe Castle is managed by English Heritage and protected under UK law as Grade I and Grade II listed buildings and as a scheduled monument.
## Architecture
Baconsthorpe Castle, located north of Baconthorpe village in a valley formed by the River Glaven, is approached on the remains of a raised causeway from the south. The site consists of a moated inner court and a mere to the north, with an outer and an outermost court to the south.
During the 16th century, the surrounding area formed pasture for sheep, although it is now used mainly for arable farming.
### Outer and outermost courts
The outer and outermost courts lie progressively to the south of the outer court of the castle. The outermost court currently forms part of a farmyard and is subdivided by a low wall. A 16th-century barn lines its western edge. The barn is now 32 by 8 metres (105 by 26 ft) in size, but may originally have been up to 69 metres (226 ft) long, with three sets of large cart doors. The barn was intended both to impress visitors and to symbolize the Heydons' lordship of the manor – the exterior facings of the barn are superior on the south and east sides, where they would have been seen by those entering the castle. A row of cottages originally faced the barn on the other side of the court.
The ruined outer gatehouse that forms the entrance to the outer court was built from expensive knapped flint in a Perpendicular Gothic style. It consisted of a gate-passage, with rooms and octagonal turrets on either side and a large chamber on the first floor. When the gatehouse was converted into a residence in the 17th century, it was heavily altered: a three-storey porch was added to the front with wings on either side and additional rooms at the back of the building, but the porch was removed in the early 19th century, when crenellations were added. A wall originally ran round the outside of the outer court, which was used as a walled garden after the conversion of the gatehouse.
### Inner court
The inner court rests on a square earth platform 65 metres (213 ft) across, surrounded by a water-filled moat up to 15 metres (49 ft) wide. The eastern edge of the moat meets with the 16th-century mere, about 90 by 110 metres (300 by 360 ft) across, which is fed by two streams and dammed on the eastern side. Beyond the mere lie the remains of a large, dammed pond, 30 metres (98 ft) across, which may have been designed as a decorative water feature to be viewed from the castle. A bridge on the south side links the inner and outer courts; originally the second part of the bridge formed a protective drawbridge.
The inner court is 55 by 56 metres (180 by 184 ft), surrounded by an external curtain wall up to 5 metres (16 ft) tall in places, protected by seven square and circular mural towers. The main entrance was through the southern bridge and the inner gatehouse, but the central north tower originally held a postern gate leading to another bridge over the northern edge of the moat, of which only the brick pier foundations survive. The castle was protected with gun loops: six double embrasures to the west of the gatehouse, a gun loop in the north-west square tower, and several larger gun loops in the northern section of the curtain wall. Inside the court, gun loops in the cellar beneath the hall covered the entrance itself. The militarily inspired design of the inner court drew on earlier medieval architectural traditions and was intended to reinforce the Heydons' status and symbolise their aspirations to nobility.
The inner gatehouse is three storeys high, and like the rest of the inner court, built of flint rubble and brick faced with knapped flint. It has a gate passage with a two-storey vaulted porch. Two sets of chambers lay on either side of the passage, probably providing living space for the steward and the porter. The rooms above were fitted with fireplaces, garderobes and a small chapel to form a set of high quality, luxurious living space, possibly for the Heydons or their relations. The building could have been defended in case of attack. The south-west corner of the inner court held a courtyard house that was attached to the gatehouse and would have incorporated the castle's great hall. The northern part of the court probably formed a separate, private garden in the later period.
The north-east side of the inner court formed a service court, with kitchens and similar facilities, including a well. The eastern side of the inner court was adapted for the wool industry in the 16th century. This included the construction of a long, two-storey building along the curtain wall, 38 by 8 metres (125 by 26 ft). This was used for processing wool, with a turnstile at the north end for shearing sheep, and space on the first floor for weavers and finishers; the southern end may have held a wooden sink for washing wool, or alternatively been a drying floor and granary for the castle brewhouse and bakehouse. The three-storey north-east tower was also later used for processing wool, including fulling.
### Garden
To the south-east, off the inner court, are the remaining earthworks of a formal garden on a raised platform, 80 by 65 metres (262 by 213 ft) across. The garden had a raised walkway round a square pond, 35 by 32 metres (115 by 105 ft) in size.
## See also
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in England
|
4,846,976 |
Washington State Route 539
| 1,168,655,457 |
North–south state highway in Washington
|
[
"1969 establishments in Washington (state)",
"Bellingham, Washington",
"State highways in Washington (state)",
"Transportation in Whatcom County, Washington",
"U.S. Route 99"
] |
State Route 539 (SR 539, named the Guide Meridian) is a north–south state highway in the U.S. state of Washington. The highway travels through northwestern Whatcom County and connects Interstate 5 (I-5) in Bellingham with Lynden and the Canadian border near Langley, British Columbia.
The Guide Meridian, named for the guide meridian that it follows while traveling due north–south, was originally a plank road constructed in the late 1880s. It was replaced with a gravel road in the 1910s and a paved highway later that decade by the Whatcom County government. The Guide Meridian was absorbed into the state highway system and designated as Secondary State Highway 1B (SSH 1B) in 1937, which was later supplemented with the creation of U.S. Route 99 Alternate in 1952. Both designations were replaced with SR 539 in 1969 following the completion of I-5 in Bellingham.
The majority of SR 539 between Bellingham and Lynden was expanded to a four-lane highway with turn lanes over two phases in the late 2000s. The project included construction of several roundabouts and a new bridge over the Nooksack River near Lynden on an accelerated schedule to accommodate traffic ahead of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.
## Route description
SR 539 begins as a continuation of Meridian Street north of downtown Bellingham at an interchange with I-5 near the Bellis Fair Mall. The highway travels along the east side of the mall and through a retail and commercial district, passing near the Whatcom Community College campus and the Cordata business park. After leaving Bellingham city limits near the residential areas of the Cordata neighborhood, SR 539 becomes the Guide Meridian Road, so named because it follows the "guide meridian" plotted for surveying that runs 12 miles (19 km) east of the Willamette Meridian.
The four-lane highway continues north through the rural Laurel area and passes the campus of Meridian High School. After crossing Fourmile Creek and passing through a roundabout with Ten Mile Road, SR 539 gains a grass median with a cable barrier as it heads north towards Lynden. In the southern outskirts of the city, the highway reaches a roundabout with SR 544, which travels northeast to the towns of Everson and Nooksack. SR 539 continues north and crosses over Wiser Lake on a causeway and the Nooksack River on a pair of steel truss bridges before reaching Lynden.
The Guide Meridian travels through the western outskirts of Lynden and passes through an industrial area and near the Northwest Washington Fair and Events Center. The highway leaves Lynden and narrows to two lanes before reaching an intersection with SR 546. After traversing another stretch of farmland, SR 539 reaches the Lynden–Aldergrove Border Crossing on the Canadian border, where it terminates. The highway widens to accommodate two separate lanes for trucks and NEXUS pass-holders and is split into two roads with a duty-free store in the middle. The border crossing is open from 8 a.m. to midnight and is the fourth-busiest border crossing in the state, with 509,467 vehicles entering the United States in 2017. Beyond the border, the road becomes British Columbia Highway 13, which continues north to Aldergrove and an interchange with the Trans-Canada Highway east of Langley.
The entire route of SR 539 from Bellingham to the Canadian border is perfectly straight and runs due north–south. It serves as an alternate route between Bellingham and British Columbia, bypassing the busier Blaine border crossings. The entire highway is listed as part of the National Highway System, a national network of roads identified as important to the national economy, defense, and mobility; it is also designated as a Highway of Statewide Significance by the state legislature. SR 539 is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), which conducts an annual survey on state highways to measure traffic volume in terms of annual average daily traffic. Average traffic volumes on the highway in 2016 ranged from a minimum of 1,400 vehicles at the Canadian border to a maximum of 37,000 vehicles near Bellis Fair Mall. The Guide Meridian corridor is also served by several Whatcom Transportation Authority bus routes connecting Bellingham to Lynden, Everson, Nooksack, and Sumas.
## History
### Early roads
The Guide Meridian was preceded by a plank road that was built by the Whatcom County government in stages between 1884 and 1885 and fully graded in 1890. By November 1891, it stretched 12 miles (19 km) and cost an estimated \$6,000 per mile to construct. It was destroyed several times by forest fires, including a major fire in 1897 that required using 80,000 board feet of lumber to replace the burned sections.
The Guide Meridian was later reconstructed as a gravel road from Bellingham to the Canadian border in the early 1910s and maintained by a local citizen named John C. Anderson, who received praise from local newspapers for the quality of the road. The section of the Guide Meridian within Bellingham city limits, named Meridian Street, was paved by the city government in 1914. The following year, the county government began a \$68,800 improvement program, which included a new bridge over the Nooksack River near Lynden and 5 miles (8.0 km) of pavement between Bellingham and Laurel. The paved Guide Meridian was opened on September 14, 1915, ahead of the Northwest Washington Fair, and the new Nooksack River bridge was completed the following month. The new bridge measured 383 feet 3 inches (116.81 m) in length, the longest of any steel bridge in the Pacific Northwest at the time.
The planked approaches to the Nooksack River bridge were deemed too narrow for automobile traffic and widened by 8 feet (2.4 m) in 1919. Further paving projects on sections of the Guide Meridian were contracted by the county government between 1920 and 1932, completing a paved highway from Bellingham to the Canadian border. The British Columbia government announced plans in 1931 to link the improved Guide Meridian to the Fraser Highway via a new paved highway.
### State and national highway
The Guide Meridian was added to the state highway system in 1937 as Secondary State Highway 1B (SSH 1B), connecting the Canadian border with Primary State Highway 1 (PSH 1), also signed as U.S. Route 99 (US 99) in Bellingham. Several bills in the 1930s proposed elevating the Guide Meridian to a primary state highway, but they were not advanced by the state legislature. In 1951, the Nooksack River bridge near Lynden was disassembled and moved 30 miles (48 km) upstream to Mosquito Lake Road as part of a widening project on the Guide Meridian.
In 1952, the American Association of State Highway Officials approved the creation of US 99 Alternate, which would run concurrent to SSH 1B from Bellingham to the Canadian border. The designation came shortly before the completion of the Aldergrove highway (signed as British Columbia Highway 13).
After the completion of the Bellingham Freeway (part of I-5) in December 1960, SSH 1B was truncated to a new interchange at the north end of Meridian Street. During the 1964 state highway renumbering, SSH 1B was replaced by US 99 Alternate and PSH 1 was provisionally renumbered to US 99 before being replaced outright by I-5. US 99 and its alternate routes were decommissioned in 1969, leaving SR 539 to replace SSH 1B when the new state highway system was codified by the state legislature in 1970.
### Modern widening
The state government began planning a major expansion of SR 539 to a four-lane highway in the late 1980s to accommodate local population growth and increased cross-border freight traffic. The corridor had been studied for widening in 1970 due to a high rate of fatalities compared to other rural highways in the state, but the projected traffic volumes did not justify expansion at the time. In 1979, the state government funded a \$1.4 million project to widen the southernmost section of SR 539 to four lanes with a turn lane between I-5 and Kellogg Road.
The highway was later identified as among the state's most dangerous, with 714 collisions and nine deaths from 1988 to 1993 and 314 collisions and three deaths from 1999 to 2003. The first major phase of the project, covering 4.62 miles (7.44 km) between Horton Road in Bellingham to Ten Mile Road near Laurel, was approved for design work in 1999.
Construction of the first phase was originally planned to begin in 2003, but funding issues and negotiations with property owners for expanded right-of-way slowed progress. The project began construction in June 2007 after it was allocated additional funding from the state legislature's transportation package. The widened, four-lane roadway with center turn lanes was completed in November 2008, including new traffic signals at three intersections, several detention ponds, and two bridge replacements, at a total cost of \$66.3 million.
The second phase, covering 6.54 miles (10.53 km) of SR 539 between Ten Mile Road and Badger Road (SR 546) in Lynden at a cost of \$89.2 million, was included in the 2003 Nickel Funding Package passed by the state legislature. It was originally scheduled to be completed in 2013, but a supplemental legislative package approved in 2004 advanced \$60.4 million in funding for the project so it would be completed in time for the 2010 Winter Olympics to be held in nearby Vancouver. While several alternative options were considered for the SR 539 corridor, including carpool lanes and improving parallel roads, WSDOT chose to largely re-use the four-lane roadway configuration with turn lanes already planned for the first phase. The section would, however, include five roundabouts at existing intersections to improve safety and prevent long backups at signals near Lynden.
The project was later scaled back to remove the roundabout at Badger Road and the widened roadway beyond southern Lynden due to a projected increase in land and construction costs. Construction of the second phase began in March 2008 under a \$54 million contract awarded by WSDOT that included a new bridge over the Nooksack River and widening of four other bridges. The new Nooksack River span, a 300-foot (91 m) steel truss bridge carrying two lanes of southbound traffic, began construction in April 2009. To avoid placing piers in the river, each half of the bridge was built from the shore and joined together in September. It was the first truss bridge to be built in Washington state since the completion of a span over the Snake River on U.S. Route 12 east of Pasco in 1986. The bridge opened to traffic on February 9, 2010, days before the opening ceremonies of the 2010 Winter Olympics.
The first roundabout on SR 539, located at Ten Mile Road, began construction in March 2009 and opened on May 16, 2009, after several delays due to rainy weather. A second roundabout was opened at Pole Road (SR 544) on August 17, ahead of the Northwest Washington Fair, and was followed by a third at Wiser Lake Road in October. The final roundabout was opened on December 7 at River Road on the north side of the Nooksack River bridge. Construction on the second phase was completed in July 2010 with the installation of cable median barriers to prevent head-on and crossover collisions. Since the installation of roundabouts and cable median barriers, collisions on SR 539 have increased but injuries have declined from 96 between 2000 and 2010 to 23 between 2010 and 2018. Plans to widen the remainder of the highway to the Canadian border were adopted by the county government in 2013, but remain unfunded.
## Major intersections
|
14,371,248 |
HMS Exmouth (1901)
| 1,136,555,608 |
Pre-dreadnought battleship of the British Royal Navy
|
[
"1901 ships",
"Duncan-class battleships",
"Ships built on the River Mersey",
"World War I battleships of the United Kingdom"
] |
HMS Exmouth was a Duncan-class pre-dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy. Built to counter a group of fast Russian battleships, Exmouth and her sister ships were capable of steaming at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph), making them the fastest battleships in the world. The Duncan-class battleships were armed with a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and they were broadly similar to the London-class battleships, though of a slightly reduced displacement and thinner armour layout. As such, they reflected a development of the lighter second-class ships of the Canopus-class battleship. Exmouth was laid down by Laird Brothers at Birkenhead in August 1899, launched in August 1901, and completed in May 1903.
Exmouth served as a flagship for various fleets including the Mediterranean Fleet, the Channel Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet from her commissioning in 1903 until the start of the First World War in 1914. Originally she was to join the 6th Battle Squadron and serve in the Channel Fleet, but this squadron was temporarily disbanded and she joined the 3rd Battle Squadron at Scapa Flow. Exmouth participated in the Northern Patrol and was then moved to the newly reformed 6th Squadron in late 1914, where she bombarded the German-occupied port at Zeebrugge in late November.
In mid-1915, the ship was transferred to the Dardanelles campaign, where she supported operations ashore. She was thereafter moved to Greece and later to the East Indies Station starting in March 1917. She performed convoy escort duties in the Indian Ocean between Colombo and Bombay before returning to the United Kingdom, calling at The Cape and Sierra Leone. She arrived at Devonport in August 1917, and paid off to provide crews for antisubmarine vessels. Exmouth remained in reserve at Devonport until April 1919, and was used as an accommodation ship beginning in January 1918. She was placed on the sale list in April 1919 and sold for scrapping to Forth Shipbreaking Company on 15 January 1920.
## Design
The six ships of the Duncan class were ordered in response to the Russian Peresvet-class battleships that had been launched in 1898. The Russian ships were fast second-class battleships, so William Henry White, the British Director of Naval Construction, designed the Duncan class to match the purported top speed of the Russian vessels. To achieve the higher speed while keeping displacement from growing, White was forced to reduce the ships' armour protection significantly, effectively making the ships enlarged and improved versions of the Canopus-class battleships of 1896, rather than derivatives of the more powerful Majestic, Formidable, and London series of first-class battleships. The Duncans proved to be disappointments in service, owing to their reduced defensive characteristics, though they were still markedly superior to the Peresvets they had been built to counter.
Exmouth was 432 feet (132 m) long overall, with a beam of 75 ft 6 in (23.01 m) and a draft of 25 ft 9 in (7.85 m). The Duncan-class battleships displaced 13,270 to 13,745 long tons (13,483 to 13,966 t) normally and up to 14,900 to 15,200 long tons (15,100 to 15,400 t) fully loaded. Her crew numbered 720 officers and ratings. The Duncan-class ships were powered by a pair of 4-cylinder triple-expansion engines that drove two screws, with steam provided by twenty-four Belleville boilers. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The Duncan-class ships had a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph) from 18,000 indicated horsepower (13,000 kW). This made Exmouth and her sisters the fastest battleships in the world for several years. At a cruising speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), the ship could steam for 6,070 nautical miles (11,240 km; 6,990 mi).
Exmouth had a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) 40-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft. The ships also mounted a secondary battery of twelve 6-inch (152 mm) 45-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to ten 12-pounder 3 in (76 mm) guns and six 3-pounder 47 mm (1.9 in) guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with four 18-inch (457 mm) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull.
Exmouth had an armoured belt that was 7 in (178 mm) thick; the transverse bulkhead on the aft end of the belt was 7 to 11 in (178 to 279 mm) thick. Her main battery turrets' sides were 8 to 10 in (203 to 254 mm) thick, atop 11 in (279 mm) barbettes, and the casemate battery was protected with 6 in of Krupp steel. Her conning tower had 12-inch-thick sides. She was fitted with two armoured decks, 1 and 2 in (25 and 51 mm) thick, respectively.
## Service history
### Pre-World War I
HMS Exmouth was laid down by Laird Brothers at Birkenhead on 10 August 1899. She was floated out on 31 August 1901, when she was named by Lady Alice Stanley, wife of Lord Stanley, Financial Secretary to the War Office, who afterwards gave a speech. She arrived at the Nore in May 1902, and was armed and completed for sea at Chatham Dockyard. After delays due to labour problems, she was completed in May 1903. Exmouth commissioned at Chatham Dockyard on 2 June 1903 for service in the Mediterranean Fleet. She returned to the United Kingdom in May 1904, and on 18 May 1904 recommissioned as Flagship, Vice Admiral, Home Fleet, serving as flagship of Sir Arthur Wilson. When the Home Fleet was redesignated as the Channel Fleet, she continued to serve as the fleet flagship. She transferred her flag in April 1907, was reduced to a nucleus crew, and entered the commissioned reserve to begin a refit at Portsmouth Dockyard.
Her refit complete, she recommissioned on 25 May 1907 to serve as Flagship, Vice Admiral, Atlantic Fleet. In July 1908, Exmouth visited Canada during the Quebec Tercentenary, in company with her sister ships Albemarle, Duncan, and Russell. On 20 November 1908 she transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet to serve as flagship there, and underwent a refit at Malta in 1908–1909. Under a fleet reorganization of 1 May 1912, the Mediterranean Fleet became the 4th Battle Squadron, First Fleet, Home Fleet, and changed its base from Malta to Gibraltar. Exmouth became Flagship, Vice Admiral, Home Fleet, in July 1912. In December 1912, the battleship Dreadnought replaced Exmouth in the 4th Battle Squadron, and Exmouth began a refit at Malta. Upon completion of her refit, Exmouth recommissioned on 1 July 1913 at Devonport Dockyard with a nucleus crew to serve in the commissioned reserve with the 6th Battle Squadron, Second Fleet. She was assigned duties as a gunnery training ship at Devonport.
### World War I
When World War I began in August 1914, plans originally called for Exmouth and the battleships Agamemnon, Albemarle, Cornwallis, Duncan, Russell, and Vengeance to combine in the 6th Battle Squadron and serve in the Channel Fleet, where the squadron was to patrol the English Channel and cover the movement of the British Expeditionary Force to France. However, plans also existed for the 6th Battle Squadron to be assigned to the Grand Fleet, and, when the war began, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Fleet, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, requested that Exmouth and her four surviving sister ships of the Duncan class (Albemarle, Cornwallis, Duncan, and Russell) be assigned to the 3rd Battle Squadron in the Grand Fleet for patrol duties to make up for the Grand Fleet's shortage of cruisers. Accordingly, the 6th Battle Squadron was abolished temporarily, and Exmouth joined the 3rd Battle Squadron at Scapa Flow on 8 August 1914. Exmouth, Russel, and Albemarle were the only ships in a condition to immediately join Jellicoe, so they left without the rest of the squadron on 5 August. They arrived in Scapa Flow on the night of 7–8 August. Exmouth worked with the Grand Fleet's cruisers on the Northern Patrol.
In October, Exmouth went to Devonport for refit. When the Grand Fleet dreadnought battleship Audacious struck a mine north of Ireland on 27 October, Exmouth, which was moored in Lough Swilly, was sent to tow her to safety. By the time she arrived, however, Audacious had to be abandoned, and she shortly thereafter capsized and exploded. Exmouth and her four Duncan-class sisters, as well as the battleships of the King Edward VII class, temporarily were transferred to the Channel Fleet on 2 November 1914 to reinforce that fleet in the face of Imperial German Navy activity in the Channel Fleet's area. The following day, the German fleet raided Yarmouth; at the time, Exmouth and the rest of the 3rd Squadron were dispersed on the Northern Patrol, and were thus unavailable during the German attack.
On 13 November 1914, the King Edward VII-class ships returned to the Grand Fleet, but Exmouth and the other Duncans stayed in the Channel Fleet, where they reconstituted the 6th Battle Squadron on 14 November 1914. This squadron was given a mission of bombarding German submarine bases on the coast of Belgium, and was based at Portland, although it transferred to Dover immediately on 14 November 1914. However, due a lack of antisubmarine defenses at Dover, particularly after the harbour's anti-submarine boom was swept away in a gale, the squadron returned to Portland on 19 November 1914. Exmouth and Russell bombarded Zeebrugge, which was used by German submarines on passage from their base at Bruges, on 23 November 1914, The two ships left Portland on 21 November accompanied by eight destroyers, a group of trawlers, and a pair of airships to observe the fall of shot, though the airships failed to arrive in time for the operation. Exmouth and Russell closed to 6,000 yards (5,500 m) of the port and shelled the harbour, the railroad station, and coastal defences. The two ships fired some 400 shells in total and observed several fires ashore; reports from Dutch observers indicated significant damage had been inflicted, but the attack achieved very little and discouraged the Royal Navy from continuing such bombardments. The 6th Battle Squadron returned to Dover in December 1914, then transferred to Sheerness on 30 December 1914 to relieve the 5th Battle Squadron there in guarding against a German invasion of the United Kingdom.
#### Dardanelles campaign
Between January and May 1915, the 6th Battle Squadron was dispersed. Exmouth left the squadron when she transferred to the Dardanelles on 12 May 1915 for service in the Dardanelles Campaign as Flagship, Rear Admiral, supporting squadron, flying the flag of Rear Admiral Nicholson. She steamed to the Mediterranean with the battleship Venerable; the British hoped to take advantage of the experience both ships' crews had gained in bombarding coastal positions in Belgium. She was fitted with extra-heavy anti-torpedo nets for this service. After the torpedoing and sinking of battleships HMS Goliath, HMS Triumph, and HMS Majestic, all within the space of two weeks in May 1915, she was the only battleship allowed to remain off the Gallipoli Peninsula beaches at Kephalo on the island of Imbros. This was a result of her heavy anti-torpedo nets, which were believed made it safer for her to remain on station than any of the other battleships.
On 4 June, Exmouth, the battleship Swiftsure, and the protected cruiser Talbot went to Cape Helles to support an Allied attack on the Turkish-held heights at Achi Baba. Reports of enemy submarines in the area forced the ships to steam in circles to avoid being targeted, which reduced their accuracy. The ground forces were unable to break through the Ottoman lines, so the attack was called off. By July, the anchorage at Kephalo had received an anti-submarine boom, which improved the security of Exmouth's station. She supported another Allied attack on the Ottoman positions at Achi Baba in August, which also failed.
#### Later operations
Exmouth left the Dardanelles in November 1915 and transferred to the Aegean Sea to become Flagship, 3rd Detached Squadron, a force based at Salonika that had been organized to assist the French Navy in blockading the Aegean coast of Greece and Bulgaria and to reinforce the Suez Canal Patrol. On 28 November 1915, she took aboard personnel of the British Belgrade Naval Force as they were being evacuated from Serbia. From September to December 1916 she served in the Allied force supporting Allied demands against the government of Greece, which at the time was ruled by the pro-German Constantine I, who had decided to remain neutral at the outbreak of war. In August 1916, a pro-Allied group launched a coup against the monarchy in the Noemvriana, which the Allies sought to support. Exmouth participated in the seizure of the Greek fleet at Salamis and landed Royal Marines at Athens on 1 December 1916. The British and French troops were defeated by the Greek Army and armed civilians and were forced to withdraw to their ships, after which the British and French fleet imposed a blockade of the royalist-controlled parts of the country.
Exmouth transferred to the East Indies Station in March 1917, where she performed convoy escort duties in the Indian Ocean between Colombo and Bombay. In June 1917, she ended this service to return to the United Kingdom, calling at Zanzibar, The Cape and Sierra Leone during the voyage. She arrived at Devonport in August 1917, and paid off to provide crews for antisubmarine vessels. Exmouth remained in reserve at Devonport until April 1919, and was used as an accommodation ship beginning in January 1918. Exmouth was placed on the sale list in April 1919 and sold for scrapping to Forth Shipbreaking Company on 15 January 1920. Her hull was scrapped in the Netherlands.
|
9,308,202 |
Mutilated chessboard problem
| 1,147,913,208 |
On domino tiling after removing two corners
|
[
"Logic puzzles",
"Mathematical chess problems",
"Tiling puzzles",
"Unsolvable puzzles"
] |
The mutilated chessboard problem is a tiling puzzle posed by Max Black in 1946 that asks:
> Suppose a standard 8×8 chessboard (or checkerboard) has two diagonally opposite corners removed, leaving 62 squares. Is it possible to place 31 dominoes of size 2×1 so as to cover all of these squares?
It is an impossible puzzle: there is no domino tiling meeting these conditions. One proof of its impossibility uses the fact that, with the corners removed, the chessboard has 32 squares of one color and 30 of the other, but each domino must cover equally many squares of each color. More generally, if any two squares are removed from the chessboard, the rest can be tiled by dominoes if and only if the removed squares are of different colors. This problem has been used as a test case for automated reasoning, creativity, and the philosophy of mathematics.
## History
The mutilated chessboard problem is an instance of domino tiling of grids and polyominoes, also known as "dimer models", a general class of problems whose study in statistical mechanics dates to the work of Ralph H. Fowler and George Stanley Rushbrooke in 1937. Domino tilings also have a long history of practical use in pavement design and the arrangement of tatami flooring.
The mutilated chessboard problem itself was proposed by philosopher Max Black in his book Critical Thinking (1946), with a hint at the coloring-based solution to its impossibility. It was popularized in the 1950s through later discussions by Solomon W. Golomb (1954), George Gamow and Marvin Stern (1958), Claude Berge (1958), and Martin Gardner in his Scientific American column "Mathematical Games" (1957).
The use of the mutilated chessboard problem in automated reasoning stems from a proposal for its use by John McCarthy in 1964. It has also been studied in cognitive science as a test case for creative insight, Black's original motivation for the problem. In the philosophy of mathematics, it has been examined in studies of the nature of mathematical proof.
## Solution
The puzzle is impossible to complete. A domino placed on the chessboard will always cover one white square and one black square. Therefore, any collection of dominoes placed on the board will cover equal numbers of squares of each color. But any two opposite squares have the same color: both black or both white. If they are removed, there will be fewer squares of that color and more of the other color, making the numbers of squares of each color unequal and the board impossible to cover. The same idea shows that no domino tiling can exist whenever any two squares of the same color (not just the opposite corners) are removed from the chessboard.
Several other proofs of impossibility have also been found. A proof by Shmuel Winograd starts with induction. In a given tiling of the board, if a row has an odd number of squares not covered by vertical dominoes from the previous row, then an odd number of vertical dominoes must extend into the next row. The first row trivially has an odd number of squares (namely, 7) not covered by dominoes of the previous row. Thus, by induction, each of the seven pairs of consecutive rows houses an odd number of vertical dominoes, producing an odd total number. By the same reasoning, the total number of horizontal dominoes must also be odd. As the sum of two odd numbers, the total number of dominoes—vertical and horizontal—must be even. But to cover the mutilated chessboard, 31 dominoes are needed, an odd number. Another method counts the edges of each color around the boundary of the mutilated chessboard. Their numbers must be equal in any tileable region of the chessboard, because each domino has three edges of each color, and each internal edge between dominoes pairs off boundaries of opposite colors. However, the mutilated chessboard has more edges of one color than the other.
If two squares of opposite colors are removed, then the remaining board can always be tiled with dominoes; this result is Gomory's theorem, after mathematician Ralph E. Gomory, whose proof was published in 1973. Gomory's theorem can be proven using a Hamiltonian cycle of the grid graph formed by the chessboard squares. The removal of any two oppositely colored squares splits this cycle into two paths with an even number of squares each. Both of these paths are easy to partition into dominoes by following them. Gomory's theorem is specific to the removal of only one square of each color. Removing larger numbers of squares, with equal numbers of each color, can result in a region that has no domino tiling, but for which coloring-based impossibility proofs do not work.
## Application to automated reasoning
Domino tiling problems on polyominoes, such as the mutilated chessboard problem, can be solved in polynomial time, either by converting them into problems in group theory, or as instances of bipartite matching. In the latter formulation, one obtains a bipartite graph with a vertex for each available chessboard square and an edge for every pair of adjacent squares; the problem is to find a system of edges that touches each vertex exactly once. As in the coloring-based proof of the impossibility of the mutilated chessboard problem, the fact that this graph has more vertices of one color than the other implies that it fails the necessary conditions of Hall's marriage theorem, so no matching exists. The problem can also be solved by formulating it as a constraint satisfaction problem, and applying semidefinite programming to a relaxation.
In 1964, John McCarthy proposed the mutilated chessboard as a hard problem for automated proof systems, formulating it in first-order logic and asking for a system that can automatically determine the unsolvability of this formulation. Most considerations of this problem provide solutions "in the conceptual sense" that do not apply to McCarthy's logic formulation of the problem. Despite the existence of general methods such as those based on graph matching, it is exponentially hard for resolution to solve McCarthy's logical formulation of the problem, highlighting the need for methods in artificial intelligence that can automatically change to a more suitable problem representation and for knowledge representation systems that can manage the equivalences between different representations. Short proofs are possible using resolution with additional variables, or in stronger proof systems allowing the expression of avoidable tiling patterns that can prune the search space. Higher-level proof assistants are capable of handling the coloring-based impossibility proof directly; these include Isabelle, the Mizar system, and Nqthm.
## Related problems
A similar problem asks if a wazir starting at a corner square of an ordinary chessboard can visit every square exactly once, and finish at the opposite corner square. The wazir is a fairy chess piece that can move only one square vertically or horizontally (not diagonally). Using similar reasoning to the mutilated chessboard problem's classic solution, this wazir's tour does not exist. For example, if the initial square is white, as each move alternates between black and white squares, the final square of any complete tour is black. However, the opposite corner square is white. This sort of tour of a chessboard also forms the basis of a type of puzzle called Numbrix, which asks for a tour in which the positions of certain squares match given clues. The impossibility of a corner-to-corner tour shows the impossibility of a Numbrix puzzle with the clues 1 in one corner and 64 in the opposite corner.
De Bruijn's theorem concerns the impossibility of packing certain cuboids into a larger cuboid. For instance, it is impossible, according to this theorem, to fill a 6 × 6 × 6 box with 1 × 2 × 4 cuboids. The proof uses a similar chessboard-coloring argument to the mutilated chessboard problem.
|
60,306 |
Cryptic Writings
| 1,170,845,890 | null |
[
"1997 albums",
"Albums produced by Dann Huff",
"Alternative metal albums by American artists",
"Capitol Records albums",
"Megadeth albums"
] |
Cryptic Writings is the seventh studio album by American heavy metal band Megadeth. Released on June 17, 1997, through Capitol Records, it was the band's last studio album to feature drummer Nick Menza. His departure would mark the end of the band's longest lasting lineup to date, having recorded four studio albums. Megadeth decided to produce the record with Dann Huff in Nashville, Tennessee, because they were not satisfied with their previous producer Max Norman. The album features twelve tracks with accessible song structures, specifically aimed for radio airplay. The lyrics were also altered, in order to make the music more inclusive for wider audience. These changes were met with mixed opinions from music critics, who noted the band moving away from their thrash metal roots.
The album debuted at number 10 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in October 1997 for shipping 500,000 copies in the United States. The first 500,000 copies of Cryptic Writings in the U.S. were released with silver background album cover. A remixed and remastered version, featuring four bonus tracks, was released in 2004. Seven years after its original release, the album sold 850,000 copies in the United States and won widespread praise from rock radio programmers. The song "Trust" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 1998 Grammy Awards and became the band's highest charting song on Billboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks.
## Background and recording
In 1992 Megadeth released Countdown to Extinction, which contained songs with compact, accessible structures that resulted with strong sales and significant radio airplay. 1994's Youthanasia and 1997's Cryptic Writings followed a similar route, with the latter spawning four top 20 hits. Frontman Dave Mustaine, speaking about the band's commercial breakthrough, said: "I think a lot of our success now has to do with the fact that we're willing to study the marketplace and educate ourselves. Most musicians don't get the opportunity to go into the market with educated strategy. Fortunately, for us, our management educated us on how to study what's current without losing our integrity and to keep on edge while staying at the forefront of what's important right now."
According to guitarist Marty Friedman, it took the band a year to prepare the record "from note one to mixing". A lot of the material was written during the tour and some of it afterwards. As Friedman said, the songs came together naturally because the band wasn't rushed to get a record out. The album was produced by Dann Huff, who had his producing debut with Megadeth. The band chose to work with Huff because they were not satisfied with Max Norman, the producer of their previous record. Mustaine explained why he decided to quit the collaboration with Norman: "Max came up with this bullshit formula that every song had to be 120 beats per minute to get on the radio. When people make drastic decisions to do things like that and it backfires, it usually ends up, in one way or another, costing them their jobs."
Before the start of the recording sessions, bassist David Ellefson stated that the band doesn't want their seventh studio album to sound like anything they have already recorded. Instrumentally, the band introduced a more melodic mix than the previous albums, filled with crunchy riffs and speedy guitar solos. In addition, Mustaine re-evaluated the band's songwriting techniques, recasting some lyrics to better reflect the sales and radio airplay environment of then's rock arena. According to him, many of the song's lyrics were altered in order to make the music "a little more inclusive of people who aren't into dying and evil". Ellefson commented that this album was a natural progression in Megadeth's sound. He further stated that they were not trying to leave behind their thrash metal and heavy metal roots, but to broaden their musical horizons.
## Artwork and release
The symbol depicted on the cover is a veve, a voodoo sign. According to Ellefson, the original concept for the album's cover was very different, however, it was changed at the last minute. According to Menza, "The original album title was going to be Needles and Pins. The cover was supposed to be a girl holding a Kewpie with a bunch of pins in it... she's stabbing the doll with a syringe in the chest. That didn't fly." The title derives from the song "Needles and Pins" by The Searchers, used as incidental music in "Use the Man". Aside from being a lyric, Ellefson stated that there was not really any correlation between the title and the music on the album. The first 500,000 copies of Cryptic Writings in the United States were released with an album cover featuring a silver background. These releases also included a Vic Rattlehead collectible card which promoted "The Cryptic Writings Of Megadeth", an issue run by Chaos Comics. Later US pressings features the same artwork with a black background instead. The black background album cover is also featured in the remasters.
The album sold 75,000 copies in its first week of release and debuted at number 10 on Billboard 200. Four months after its release, the record was certificated gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping half million copies in the US, of which 383,000 were sold according to Nielsen Soundscan. Two years after its original release, the album sold 850,000 copies in the United States and won widespread praise from rock radio programmers. However, Cryptic Writings did not enjoy particular chart success on international level. It only managed to peak at number two on the Finnish Albums Chart, where it charted for eleven weeks. Elsewhere, it didn't enter into the top 10. It eventually received a gold certification from the Canadian Music Association for shipping 50,000 copies.
A remixed and remastered version, featuring four bonus tracks, was released in 2004 through Capitol Records as part of the group's reissued back catalogue. According to the liner notes of the remastered version of Cryptic Writings, Dave Mustaine had to alter many lyrics at the request of their new manager, Bud Prager. The liner notes suggest that Mustaine was not a fan of the changes, but other interviews indicate the band actively sought and eventually accepted Prager's advice for the album. "I figured maybe this guy (Prager) could help me get that intangible number one record I wanted so badly", Mustaine wrote in the liner notes.
## Composition
Mustaine pointed out that four of the album's 12 tracks are "fast, hard and crunchy". Referring to the musical direction of the album, MTV's writer P.R. Flack noted that "The Disintegrators" and "FFF" were rooted in the thrash metal genre, and ranked them among the fastest tracks on the record. Neil Arnold of Metal Forces highlighted the tune "Vortex", which according to him, features some of the album's best guitar work. However, a number of songs, particularly "I'll Get Even" and "Use the Man", carried a more rock-oriented sound, which contributed to the album's diverse style. Lyrically, the album does not have a distinct subject matter, but focuses on numerous themes instead. "She-Wolf" tells of a "wicked temptress with mystic lips and lusting eyes", while "Mastermind" has been stated by Mustaine as being about "the computerization of the world."
"Trust" was released as the record's lead single. The song was developed from "Absolution", an instrumental track recorded on a demo during the studio sessions of their previous album. "Trust" peaked at number five on the US Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, thus becoming the band's highest charting song on that chart. It was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the 1998 Grammy Awards. "Almost Honest" was the second single of the album, and like its predecessor, entered the top ten on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart, peaking at number eight. Mustaine stated that the song is about how people treat one another, which contains a message that "it's difficult for people to be honest". Billboard's Chuck Taylor commented that the song contains catchy hooks and the band's "signature guitar howl" and classified it "somewhere between Def Leppard and Bon Jovi". "Use the Man" and "A Secret Place" were released as the third and fourth single, respectively. "Use the Man" (which started with a snippet of The Searchers' "Needles and Pins", which was removed in the 2004 remaster) is about drug addiction, while "A Secret Place" describes losing touch with reality. "Have Cool, Will Travel" is about school shootings; in the remastered version, a snippet of the schoolyard song "The Wheels on the Bus" was added to its introduction.
Three extended plays were released in support of Cryptic Writings. Two of these featured live recordings from the ensuing tour while the other was a studio EP which featured instrumental versions of several album tracks. The live releases were entitled Live Trax and Live Trax II, the first being released on June 30, 1998.
## Critical reception
Music critics were divided on the record. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, reviewing the album for AllMusic, reacted unenthusiastically toward it. He criticized Mustaine's ability to write more "ambitious" material and opined that the band "sounds better playing thrash." However, Erlewine did admire the band's desire to experiment with their sound. Rolling Stone was more generous toward Cryptic Writings. Reviewer Jon Wiederhorn commented that the album "should thrill Metallica fans who felt screwed by that band's thrashless 1996 album, Load." Dean Golemis of the Chicago Tribune panned the album for being "predictable and annoying" and assumed that Megadeth were "destined to follow Metallica's leap into mainstream sounds". Author Thomas Harrison also noted the album for not making as much impact as their previous studio releases.
Consumable Online's Simon Speichert wrote positively about the record, qualifying it as "pure, solid heavy metal". He noted that the album contains various kinds of tunes and named it "one of the best metal records of 1997". Neil Arnold from Metal Forces observed that Cryptic Writings is not "a bad record", though it comes "pale" in comparison to their 1994 opus Youthanasia. Arnold went on to comment that the album confirms Megadeth are "no longer a thrash band". Wolfgang Schäfer, from the German metal magazine Rock Hard, stated that Cryptic Writings followed the musical direction of its predecessors. He described the album as a "balanced mix of typical Megadeth rockers and some experimental songs".
## Touring
Megadeth supported the album with a world tour that started in the summer of 1997. The Misfits were the opening act of these live shows, one of which was the band's first all-acoustic performance that took place in Argentina. The following summer, the group participated in Ozzfest '98 for the dates in the United States. These live shows were the last for drummer Nick Menza, who was fired subsequently. Menza began to suffer knee problems and escalating pain during the tour. He was diagnosed with a tumor and underwent surgery which waylaid him briefly. However, the tumor was benign and Menza was eager to rejoin his bandmates, who had continued the tour with Jimmy DeGrasso. Although DeGrasso was hired as a temporary replacement, he stayed with the band for the recording of their next two studio albums. Menza stated that Mustaine had dismissed him from the band two days after his knee surgery via phone call telling him that his services "were no longer needed". On the other hand, Dave Mustaine believed that Menza had lied about his injury.
## Track listing
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine except where noted.
NOTE: – "Reckoning Day" & "Peace Sells" were joined together as one track with the running length of 8:19.
## Personnel
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Singles
## Certifications
|
41,094,300 |
2005 Football League One play-off final
| 1,141,267,703 | null |
[
"2004–05 Football League One",
"2005 Football League play-offs",
"EFL League One play-off finals",
"Hartlepool United F.C. matches",
"May 2005 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"Sheffield Wednesday F.C. matches"
] |
The 2005 Football League One play-off final was an association football match which was played on 29 May 2005 at Millennium Stadium, Cardiff, between Hartlepool United and Sheffield Wednesday. It determined the third and final team to gain promotion from Football League One to the Football League Championship. The top two teams of the 2004–05 Football League One season, Luton Town and Hull City, gained automatic promotion to the Championship, while the teams placed from third to sixth place in the table took part in play-off semi-finals. The winners of these semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2005–06 season in the Championship. The losing semi-finalists were Tranmere Rovers and Brentford.
The referee for the match, which kicked off in front of 59,808 spectators, was Phil Crossley. Late in the first half, Craig Rocastle played a one-two with Lee Peacock before crossing to Jon-Paul McGovern who scored to put Sheffield Wednesday ahead at half-time. Early in the second half, a long throw-in from Ritchie Humphreys found first-half substitute Eifion Williams who equalised for Hartlepool. Jon Daly, who had been on the pitch for a minute, scored to put Hartlepool into the lead with a header from Gavin Strachan's free-kick in the 71st minute. In the 81st minute, Drew Talbot was brought down in the penalty area by Chris Westwood which the referee adjudged to have been a foul: he awarded a penalty to Sheffield Wednesday and sent off Westwood. Steven MacLean took the spot kick which Hartlepool goalkeeper Dimitrios Konstantopoulos was unable to keep out. With three minutes remaining, McGovern shot over the Hartlepool bar and regular time ended with score at 2–2, sending the match into extra time. Four minutes into the first period of additional time, Glenn Whelan scored it 3–2 to Sheffield Wednesday and Talbot secured the victory for Sheffield Wednesday when he scored in the 120th minute to make it 4–2 to see his side promoted to the Championship.
In their following season, Sheffield Wednesday finished in 19th place in the Championship, three places above the relegation zone. Hartlepool ended their next season in 21st position in League One and were relegated to League Two for the 2006–07 season.
## Route to the final
Sheffield Wednesday finished the regular 2004–05 season in fifth place in Football League One, the third tier of the English football league system, one place ahead of Hartlepool United. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the Football League Championship and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third team to be promoted. Sheffield Wednesday finished fourteen points behind Hull City (who were promoted in second place) and twenty-six behind league winners Luton Town.
Hartlepool United's opponents in their play-off semi-final were Tranmere Rovers with the first match of the two-legged tie taking place on 13 May 2005 at Victoria Park in Hartlepool. In the 32nd minute, Jon Daly flicked on a long throw from Ritchie Humphreys, and Adam Boyd struck a shot past goalkeeper John Achterberg. Boyd doubled his tally on 68 minutes: after a one-two with Joel Porter, Boyd scored with a curling shot from 20 yards (18 m). Eugène Dadi's late shot for Tranmere was cleared off the goal-line by Matty Robson and the match ended 2–0. The second leg of the semi-final was held at Prenton Park near Tranmere four days later. The first half ended goalless but second-half goals from Ryan Taylor and David Beresford made it 2–0 to Tranmere and levelled the aggregate score, sending the game into extra time. With no addition to the score, the tie went to a penalty shootout. Dimitrios Konstantopoulos, the Hartlepool goalkeeper, saved strikes from both Taylor and Ian Sharps, and although Mark Tinkler missed his spot kick, Humphreys' goal secured a 6–5 penalty win and passage to the final.
Sheffield Wednesday faced Brentford in the other play-off semi-final and the first leg was contested at Hillsborough in Sheffield on 12 May 2005. Jon-Paul McGovern put the home side ahead in the 11th minute: he received the ball from a James Quinn backheel before striking past Stuart Nelson in the Brentford goal, despite Sam Sodje's attempt to clear it off the line. McGovern also struck the Brentford crossbar in a first half dominated by Sheffield Wednesday. The second half was more evenly matched and with no further goals, the match ended 1–0. The second leg, played at Griffin Park in Brentford, took place four days later. The Sheffield Wednesday goalkeeper David Lucas made a save from Deon Burton allowing his side to make a quick break from which they won a free-kick. Paul Heckingbottom took the set piece and his pass allowed Lee Peacock to score with a header. Soon after half-time, Chris Brunt scored from another free-kick, this time after taking a deflection off Brentford defender Chris Hargreaves. Andy Frampton scored a late consolation goal with a volley but the match ended 2–1 to Sheffield Wednesday who progressed to the Millennium Stadium with a 3–1 aggregate victory.
## Match
### Background
Neale Cooper, the Hartlepool manager, left the club in May 2005 "by mutual consent" with his side needing only a draw in their final league game to secure a place in the play-offs. Martin Scott took over as caretaker manager, and led Hartlepool to the play-offs after securing a 2–2 draw against Bournemouth. His counterpart for the final, Paul Sturrock, had taken over with Sheffield Wednesday in September 2004 with the club in 14th place in League One.
This was the fifth time in six years that Hartlepool had been involved in the play-offs but the first time they had progressed to the final. They had been promoted to the third tier when they finished as runners-up in the 2002–03 Third Division season but had never played in the second tier of English football. Sheffield Wednesday were making their first appearance in the play-offs and had played in League One since suffering relegation in 2002–03 season. In the matches between the clubs during the regular season, both teams won their home games, with Sheffield Wednesday winning 2–0 at Hillsborough in November 2004 and Hartlepool winning 3–0 at Victoria Park the following April. Boyd was the leading scorer for Hartlepool with 26 goals in all competitions (22 in the league, 3 in the FA Cup and 1 in the League Cup), followed by Porter with 15 (14 in the league and 1 in the FA Cup) and Antony Sweeney with 14 (13 in the league and 1 in the League Cup). Steven MacLean was leading marksman for Sheffield Wednesday having scored 18 goals (all in the league) during the regular season.
Sheffield Wednesday were considered favourites to win the match by bookmakers. Both teams adopted a 4–4–2 formation. The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom on Sky Sports.
### Summary
The match kicked off at around 3 p.m. on 29 May 2005 in front of 59,808 spectators at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, around 41,000 of them Sheffield Wednesday supporters. Sheffield Wednesday dominated the early stages but their only attempt on goal was a shot from Brunt in the 16th minute at Konstantopoulos. Sweeney then passed Gavin Strachan's corner to Boyd who struck the ball over the Wednesday goal from around 12 yards (11 m). Hartlepool's Thomas Butler was replaced through injury in the 31st minute by Eifion Williams before Porter's lob was too high. Glenn Whelan's through-ball then found Peacock but his shot on the turn went over Hartlepool's bar. Late in the first half, Craig Rocastle played a one-two with Peacock before crossing to McGovern who scored to put Sheffield Wednesday ahead at half-time.
No personnel changes were made by either side during the interval and Hartlepool controlled the opening stages of the second half. In the 47th minute, a long throw-in from Humphreys found Williams who equalised for Hartlepool. Robson made a run in the 52nd minute and despite beating McGovern, struck his shot high over the bar as the second half became a more evenly matched contest. Darren Craddock then came on in the 61st minute to replace Michael Barron for Hartlepool and nine minutes later, Porter pulled up with an injury and was replaced by Jon Daly. Within a minute, the substitute had scored to put Hartlepool into the lead with a header from Strachan's free-kick. On 75 minutes, Sheffield Wednesday made a triple-substitution with Pat Collins, MacLean and Drew Talbot coming on for Alex Bruce, Quinn and Peacock. Talbot's first attempt on goal was a bicycle kick. In the 81st minute, he was then brought down in the penalty area by Westwood which the referee adjudged to have been a foul: he awarded a penalty to Sheffield Wednesday and sent off Westwood. MacLean took the spot kick which Konstantopoulos was unable to keep out. With three minutes remaining, McGovern shot over the Hartlepool bar and regular time ended with score at 2–2, sending the match into extra time.
Four minutes into the first period of additional time, a mistake from Nelson allowed Whelan to strike the ball across the Hartlepool goalkeeper and into the goal to make it 3–2 to Sheffield Wednesday. Hartlepool gradually sent more players forward but Talbot secured the victory for Sheffield Wednesday when he scored in the 120th minute to make it 4–2 to see his side promoted to the Championship.
### Details
## Post-match
Sturrock said he was "relieved, tired and in need of a drink" but paid his respect to the opposing team, noting "credit to Hartlepool, they came out and rolled on top of us". His counterpart Scott noted that "Wednesday played well, we played well, but when you lose three players injured and one is sent off you feel it isn't your day ... We have overachieved again and we have gone one step farther than last year." Westwood described the decision of the referee to send him off as "life-changing". He said: "I just hope the ref is happy ... I have been told several times by people who are nothing to do with our club that it wasn't a penalty. The ball bounced in his favour, we both scrambled for it and Talbot went down. He looked for it, but that's his job." In an interview to commemorate the 15th anniversary of their win, Sheffield Wednesday's captain Lee Bullen noted that team-bonding was a key part of their success. Players were contractually obliged to live within 15 miles (24 km) of Sheffield, and team-bonding exercises prior to the final included a canoeing trip. On their journey back to Sheffield, gridlocked roads meant the players were able to disembark their team coach and start "a conga on the M4".
In their following season, Sheffield Wednesday finished in 19th place in the Championship, three places above the relegation zone. Hartlepool ended their next season in 21st position in League One and were relegated to League Two for the 2006–07 season.
|
308,856 |
The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)
| 1,167,957,911 |
2004 film by Joel Schumacher
|
[
"2000s American films",
"2000s British films",
"2000s English-language films",
"2004 films",
"2004 romantic drama films",
"American historical romance films",
"American nonlinear narrative films",
"British musical films",
"British nonlinear narrative films",
"British romantic drama films",
"Films about opera",
"Films based on The Phantom of the Opera",
"Films based on adaptations",
"Films based on multiple works",
"Films based on musicals",
"Films directed by Joel Schumacher",
"Films partially in color",
"Films set in 1870",
"Films set in 1871",
"Films set in 1919",
"Films set in Paris",
"Films set in the 1870s",
"Films shot at Pinewood Studios",
"Films with screenplays by Joel Schumacher",
"Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber",
"Odyssey Entertainment films",
"Warner Bros. films"
] |
The Phantom of the Opera is a 2004 musical romantic drama film based on Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical of the same name, which in turn is based on the 1910 French novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra by Gaston Leroux. Produced and co-written by Lloyd Webber and directed by Joel Schumacher, it stars Gerard Butler in the title role, with Emmy Rossum, Patrick Wilson, Miranda Richardson, Minnie Driver, and Jennifer Ellison in supporting roles.
The film was announced in 1989, although production did not start until 2002 due to Lloyd Webber's divorce and Schumacher's busy career. It was shot entirely at Pinewood Studios, with scenery created with miniatures and computer graphics. Rossum, Wilson and Driver had singing experience, but Butler had none and was provided with music lessons prior to filming. The Phantom of the Opera grossed \$154.6 million worldwide, and received neutral reviews from critics, but was well received by audiences. Critics praised the visuals and acting, particularly the performances of Butler and Rossum, but criticized the writing, directing and unnecessary deviations from the stage version.
## Plot
In 1919, a public auction is held to clear a dilapidated Paris opera house's vaults. The elderly Count Raoul de Chagny bids against Madame Giry, the retired ballet instructor of the theatre, for a papier-mâché music box shaped like a barrel organ with the figure of a cymbal-playing monkey, attached to it. The auctioneer presents a repaired chandelier, relating it to "the strange affair of the Phantom of the Opera". As it is hoisted up to the roof, the story moves back to 1870.
The theatre prepares for the performance of the grand opera Hannibal, headed by a soprano, Carlotta Giudicelli. One of the dancers, Christine Daaé, recognizes Viscount Raoul de Chagny as a childhood sweetheart and wonders if he will also acknowledge her, but he leaves without seeing her. Theatre manager Monsieur Lefèvre plans to retire, leaving the theatre under the ownership of Richard Firmin and Gilles André, who introduce their patron, the young Raoul.
Carlotta refuses to perform after being tormented for three years by the theatre's resident "Opera Ghost", a mysterious figure said to live in the catacombs below. Facing the performance's cancellation, Madame Giry suggests that Christine be the lead actress. Christine displays her singing talent and is a massive success on opening night.
Christine tells her best friend Meg, Giry's daughter, that she is being coached by a tutor she calls the "Angel of Music". Christine reunites with Raoul, in whom she confides that she has been visited by the Angel of Music her deceased father promised he would send her after his death. Raoul, however, dismisses Christine's story. That night, the masked Opera Ghost, known as the "Phantom", appears before Christine from her dressing room mirror, spiriting her to his underground lair. After the Phantom shows Christine a mannequin of her dressed in a wedding dress he made for her, Christine faints and sleeps in the Phantom's lair. This point presumes that Christine has been missing.
Once Christine awakes and sees the Phantom, she removes his mask out of curiosity. The Phantom reacts violently and covers his face with his hand. After the duo has a moment of understanding, Christine returns the front to the Phantom, and the latter then returns her to the theatre unharmed but orders the managers to make her the lead in Il Muto. However, the managers choose Carlotta instead. During the performance, the Phantom switches Carlotta's throat spray, causing her to sing out of tune, and Christine replaces her. The Phantom encounters stagehand Joseph Buquet and hangs him above the stage. Christine and Raoul flee to the roof, declaring their love for each other. The Phantom, now heartbroken after witnessing the whole scene, vows revenge.
Three months later, in 1871, Christine and Raoul announced their engagement at a New Year masquerade ball. The Phantom crashes the ball and orders his opera, Don Juan Triumphant, to be performed. Upon seeing Christine's engagement ring, the Phantom steals it and flees, pursued by Raoul, but Giry stops him. Giry explains that when she was younger, she met the Phantom, a deformed young boy, billed in a freak show and abused by the owner. When the Phantom rebelled and strangled the owner to death, Giry helped him evade the resulting mob and hid him within the opera house. The next day, Christine visits her father's tomb with the Phantom posing as his spirit to win her back, but Raoul intervenes. The Phantom and Raoul duel with each other before Raoul eventually knocks the Phantom down and flees with Christine.
Raoul and the managers plan to capture the Phantom during his opera. The Phantom murders the lead tenor, Ubaldo Piangi, and takes his place to sing with Christine. Christine unmasks the Phantom during their passionate duet, revealing his deformity to the horrified audience. The Phantom then abducts Christine and retreats as he causes the chandelier to crash and sets the opera house on fire to cover his tracks, but a mob forms to hunt him down with the police. Giry leads Raoul to the Phantom's lair to rescue Christine, while Meg also leads the pack.
The Phantom has Christine wear the wedding dress and proposes marriage. Christine tries to reason with him by admitting that she only fears his malicious acts, not his appearance. When Raoul arrives, the Phantom threatens to kill him unless Christine weds him. Her hear going out the Phantom, Christine kisses him. Moved by her compassion, the Phantom allows the lovers to leave. Comforted by the music box, the Phantom weeps alone, and Christine lets him keep her engagement ring to remember her by. He then escapes before the mob and the police arrive, with Meg finding only his discarded mask.
Back in 1919, Raoul visits the recently deceased Christine's grave and places the Phantom's music box before it. Before leaving, he notices a freshly laid rose with Christine's ring tied to its stem by a black ribbon, implying that the Phantom is still alive and will always love her.
## Cast
- Gerard Butler as The Phantom
- Emmy Rossum as Christine Daaé
- Patrick Wilson as Raoul de Chagny
- Miranda Richardson as Madame Giry
- Minnie Driver as Carlotta Giudicelli
- Margaret Preece as Carlotta's singing voice except for "Learn to Be Lonely"
- Simon Callow as Gilles André
- Ciarán Hinds as Richard Firmin
- Victor McGuire as Ubaldo Piangi
- Jennifer Ellison as Meg Giry
- Murray Melvin as Monsieur Reyer
- Kevin McNally as Joseph Buquet
- James Fleet as Monsieur Lefèvre
- Ramin Karimloo as Gustave Daaé
- Paul Brooke as Auctioneer
## Production
### Development
Warner Bros. purchased the film rights to The Phantom of the Opera in early 1989, granting Andrew Lloyd Webber total artistic control. Despite interest from A-list directors, Lloyd Webber and Warner Bros. instantly hired Joel Schumacher to direct; Lloyd Webber had been impressed with Schumacher's use of music in The Lost Boys. The duo wrote the screenplay that same year, while Michael Crawford and Sarah Brightman were cast to reprise their roles from the original stage production. Filming was set to begin at Pinewood Studios in England in July 1990, under a \$25 million budget.
However, the start date was pushed to November 1990 at both Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam, Germany and Barrandov Studios in Prague, Czech Republic. Production for The Phantom of the Opera was stalled with Lloyd Webber and Brightman's divorce. "Everything got tied up in settlements", Schumacher reflected. "Then my career took off and I was really busy." As a result, The Phantom of the Opera languished in development limbo for Warner Bros. throughout the 1990s. In February 1997, Schumacher considered returning, but eventually dropped out in favour of Batman Unchained, Runaway Jury and Dreamgirls. The studio was keen to cast John Travolta for the lead role, but also held discussions with Antonio Banderas, who undertook vocal preparation and sang the role of the Phantom in the TV special Andrew Lloyd Webber: The Royal Albert Hall Celebration.
Schumacher and Lloyd Webber restarted development for The Phantom of the Opera in December 2002. It was then announced in January 2003 that Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Group had purchased the film rights from Warner Bros. in an attempt to produce The Phantom of the Opera independently. As a result, Lloyd Webber invested \$6 million of his own money. The Phantom of the Opera was produced on an \$80 million budget. Warner Bros. was given a first-look deal for distribution; when the principal cast was chosen in June 2003, Warner Bros. paid under \$8 million to acquire the North American distribution rights.
### Casting
Hugh Jackman was among those considered for the role of Phantom, but he faced scheduling conflicts with Van Helsing. "They rang to ask about my availability", Jackman explained in an April 2003 interview, "probably about 20 other actors as well. I wasn't available, unfortunately. So, that was a bummer." "We needed somebody who has a bit of rock and roll sensibility in him", Andrew Lloyd Webber explained. "He's got to be a bit rough, a bit dangerous; not a conventional singer. Christine is attracted to the Phantom because he's the right side of danger." Director Joel Schumacher had been impressed with Gerard Butler's performance in Dracula 2000. Prior to his audition, Butler had no professional singing experience and had only taken four voice lessons before singing "The Music of the Night" for Lloyd Webber.
Katie Holmes, who began working with a vocal coach, was the front-runner for Christine Daaé in March 2003. She was later replaced by Anne Hathaway, a classically trained soprano, in 2004. However, Hathaway dropped out of the role because the production schedule of the film overlapped with The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement, which she was contractually obligated to make. Hathaway was then replaced with Emmy Rossum. The actress modeled the relationship between the Phantom and Christine after Suzanne Farrell and George Balanchine. Patrick Wilson was cast as Raoul based on his previous Broadway theatre career. For the role of Carlotta, Minnie Driver devised an over-the-top, camp performance as the egotistical prima donna. Despite also lacking singing experience, Ciarán Hinds was cast by Schumacher as Richard Firmin; the two had previously worked together on Veronica Guerin. Ramin Karimloo, who later played the Phantom as well as Raoul on London's West End, briefly appears as the portrait of Gustave Daaé, Christine's father.
### Filming
Principal photography lasted from 15 September 2003 to 15 January 2004. The film was shot entirely using eight sound stages at Pinewood Studios, where, on the Pinewood backlot, the bottom half exterior of the opera was constructed. The top half was implemented using a combination of computer-generated imagery (CGI) and a scale model created by Cinesite. The surrounding Paris skyline for "All I Ask of You" was entirely composed of matte paintings. Cinesite also created a miniature falling chandelier, since a life-size model was too big for the actual set.
Production designer Anthony D. G. Pratt was influenced by French architect Charles Garnier, designer of the original Paris opera house, as well as Edgar Degas, John Singer Sargent, Gustave Caillebotte, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Schumacher was inspired by Jean Cocteau's Beauty and the Beast (1946), where a hallway is lined with arms holding candelabra. The cemetery was based on the Père Lachaise and Montparnasse. Costume designer Alexandra Byrne utilized a limited black, white, gold and silver color palette for the Masquerade ball in spite of the lyrics indicating that it is a multicolored affair in which mauve, puce, green, and yellow are some of the colors worn by attendees.
## Reception
### Release
The Phantom of the Opera was released in the United Kingdom on 10 December 2004 and the United States on 22 December 2004. With a limited release of 622 theaters, it opened at tenth place at the weekend box office, grossing \$6.5 million across five days. After expanding to 907 screens on 14 January 2005 the film obtained the 9th spot at the box office, which it retained during its 1,511 screens wide release on 21 January 2005. The total domestic gross was \$51.2 million. With a further \$107 million earned internationally, The Phantom of the Opera reached a worldwide total of \$154.6 million. A few foreign markets were particularly successful, such as Japan, where the film's ¥4.20 billion (\$35 million) gross stood as the 6th most successful foreign film and 9th overall of the year. The United Kingdom and South Korea both had over \$10 million in receipts, with \$17.5 million and \$11.9 million, respectively.
### Accolades
Anthony Pratt and Celia Bobak were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction, as was John Mathieson for Best Cinematography. However, both categories were awarded to The Aviator. Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyricist Charles Hart were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song ("Learn to Be Lonely") but lost to "Al otro lado del río" from The Motorcycle Diaries. The song was also nominated for the Golden Globe but it lost to Alfie'''s "Old Habits Die Hard". In the same ceremony, Emmy Rossum was nominated for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, losing to Annette Bening in Being Julia. At the Saturn Awards, Rossum won for Best Performance by a Younger Actor, while The Phantom of the Opera was nominated for Best Action/Adventure/Thriller Film and Alexandra Byrne was nominated for Costume Design.
### Critical reception
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 33%, based on reviews from 171 critics, with an average score of 5.01/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "The music of the night has hit something of a sour note: critics are calling the screen adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber's popular musical histrionic, boring and lacking in both romance and danger. Still, some have praised the film for its sheer spectacle." On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 40 out of 100 based on 39 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Despite having been impressed with the cast, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote that "Teen romance and operetta-style singing replace the horror elements familiar to film-goers, and director Joel Schumacher obscures any remnants of classy stage spectacle with the same disco overkill he brought to Batman Forever." Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com believed that Phantom of the Opera "takes everything that's wrong with Broadway and puts it on the big screen in a gaudy splat."
In a mixed review for Newsweek, David Ansen praised Rossum's performance, but criticized the filmmakers for their focus on visual design rather than presenting a cohesive storyline. "Its kitschy romanticism bored me on Broadway and it bores me here—I may not be the most reliable witness. Still, I can easily imagine a more dashing, charismatic Phantom than Butler's. Rest assured, however, Lloyd Webber's neo-Puccinian songs are reprised and reprised and reprised until you're guaranteed to go out humming." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly believed Schumacher did not add enough dimension in adapting The Phantom of the Opera. "Schumacher, the man who added nipples to Batman's suit, has staged Phantom chastely, as if his job were to adhere the audience to every note".
Roger Ebert, who gave the film three stars out of four, reasoned that "part of the pleasure of movie-going is pure spectacle—of just sitting there and looking at great stuff and knowing it looks terrific. There wasn't much Schumacher could have done with the story or the music he was handed, but in the areas over which he held sway, he has triumphed." In contrasting between the popularity of the Broadway musical, Michael Dequina of Film Threat magazine explained that "it conjures up this unexplainable spell that leaves audiences sad, sentimental, swooning, smiling—in some way transported and moved. Now, in Schumacher's film, that spell lives on."
In a 2013 interview with Hollywood.com, Cameron Mackintosh, a co-producer on the stage musical who had nothing to do with this movie, said "I would have wanted to do the film differently. This new version which we’ve done (a touring production with reimagined staging) is dangerous and gritty. It combines the world of upstage and the lair below. You see two different worlds. That would have been my approach to the film." In a 2021 interview with Variety, Andrew Lloyd Webber revealed that he personally felt director Joel Schumacher made a mistake in casting Gerard Butler. He said "The Phantom was too young, and the whole point of the Phantom is he needs to be quite a bit older than Christine."
## See also
- The Phantom of the Opera'' (2004 soundtrack)
|
2,550,622 |
Live to Tell
| 1,173,650,948 |
1986 single by Madonna
|
[
"1980s ballads",
"1986 singles",
"1986 songs",
"Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Cashbox number-one singles",
"European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles",
"Madonna songs",
"Number-one singles in Italy",
"Pop ballads",
"RPM Top Singles number-one singles",
"Sire Records singles",
"Song recordings produced by Madonna",
"Song recordings produced by Patrick Leonard",
"Songs written by Madonna",
"Songs written by Patrick Leonard",
"Songs written for films",
"Warner Records singles"
] |
"Live to Tell" is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album, True Blue (1986). The song was originally composed by Patrick Leonard as an instrumental for the score of Paramount's film Fire with Fire, but Paramount rejected it. Leonard then presented the track to Madonna, who decided to use it for At Close Range, a film starring her then-husband Sean Penn. Madonna wrote the lyrics, co-composed the melodies and co-produced it with Leonard. "Live to Tell" was released as True Blue's lead single on March 26, 1986, by Sire Records; afterwards, it was included on Madonna's compilation albums The Immaculate Collection (1990), Something to Remember (1995), and Celebration (2009). A pop ballad, the song includes instrumentation from guitars, keyboards, drums and a synthesizer, while the lyrics deal with deceit, mistrust and childhood scars; Madonna also recalled in an interview that she thought about her relationship with her parents while writing the lyrics.
Upon release, the song was acclaimed by music critics, who frequently referred to it as one of her best ballads. It was also commercially successful, becoming Madonna's third number one in the US Billboard Hot 100, and her first number one on the Adult Contemporary chart. The music video, directed by James Foley, shows the singer in a more demure, toned down appearance, inspired by actresses such as Grace Kelly, intercut with clips from the movie. "Live to Tell" was included on three of Madonna's concert tours. The performance at 2006's Confessions Tour caused controversy as it had the singer hanging from a mirrored cross simulating a crucifixion; religious groups condemned the number as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church. Madonna responded saying that her main intention with the performance was to bring attention to the millions of children dying in Africa. "Live to Tell" has been covered by a handful of artists, particularly for tribute albums.
## Background and release
In 1985, after Madonna concluded The Virgin Tour, she approached producers Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray and asked them to write some songs with her and produce her third studio album, True Blue (1986). The first songs Madonna and Leonard worked on for the album were "Love Makes The World Go Round" and "Live to Tell". This last one was originally composed as an instrumental by Leonard for the score of Paramount's film Fire with Fire; "my managers represented the guy who was directing [the film]; it was his first film. I saw a little piece [of the film], and I had the script. I wrote a theme and I said, 'what if I could get Madonna to write the lyrics for it?'", Leonard recalled. Paramount, however, rejected the track, believing it was inappropriate for the film, and that Leonard was incapable of creating a proper score; afterwards, Leonard presented the instrumental to Madonna, who decided to use it for At Close Range, the new film starring her then-husband Sean Penn.
Madonna wrote all the lyrics, added some melodies, and composed the bridge. She recorded a demo of the song on a cassette and presented it to the film's director James Foley, who listened to it, liked it and enlisted Leonard to compose the film's score, as suggested by the singer. At the same time, Leonard was working with Michael Jackson on some transcriptions for his album Bad (1987), when he received a phone call from Penn asking him to come to Foley's home. When the producer got there, he was asked by Penn who would sing the track, since it was written from a man's perspective. He decided to use Madonna, and used the vocals from the demo for the final version, adding some backup drums only. Of why he chose to use the demo's vocals, Leonard explained: "it was so innocent and so shy. It's as naive, as raw as can be and that's part of what gave it all its charm". In a 1986 interview, Madonna further added that the mood on the song was inspired by a different facet of her image makeover and her desire to focus on something different. In the United States, "Live to Tell" was released on March 26, 1986, almost three months before True Blue, released on June 30. In Europe, it was released on April 14. Afterwards, it was included on Madonna's compilation albums The Immaculate Collection (1990), Something to Remember (1995), and Celebration (2009).
## Composition
"Live to Tell" is a pop ballad whose background instrumentation features a keyboard, a synthesizer, a funk guitar and a mix of synthesized and real drumming. According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Inc., the song's written in the key of F major, set in common time, and moves at a moderate tempo of 112 beats per minute. It begins with an instrumental introduction, performed by a synthesizer with the bass pedals set on D minor, before the key suddenly changes to its relative major, F. Madonna's vocal range spans almost one octave from F<sub>3</sub> to D<sub>4</sub>. As she begins to sing the first verse, the bass pedal changes to C major, then back to F during the chorus, and back to D minor during the closure. This process is repeated during the second verse and chorus, which abruptly ends in a silence with only the "low and lifeless" sound of the synthesizer, set in D minor. Madonna then starts to sing the bridge "If I ran away, I'd never have the strength" between the tonal keys of D and F, closing with the repetition of the chorus until the song gradually fades out.
Lyrically, "Live to Tell" portrays the complexity of deceit and mistrust; According to authors Freya Jarman-Ivens and Santiago Fouz-Hernández, in Madonna's Drowned Worlds (2004), it is about "childhood scars", and counts with an "extreme" emotional pitch. On another note, Boston.com's Scott Kearnan added that it's about "bearing the burden of some enigmatic secret and coping with a painful past", while Nick Levine from Digital Spy argued that it was about child abuse. Dave Marsh wrote on The Heart of Rock & Soul that the archetype of songs like "Live to Tell" is The Platters' "The Great Pretender" (1965). In an interview about the song, Madonna herself revealed the lyrics talk about "my relationship with my parents and the lying that went on. The song is about being strong, and questioning whether you can be that strong but ultimately surviving".
## Critical reception
Upon release, "Live to Tell" was acclaimed by music critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, for Allmusic, called it a "tremendous" ballad that "rewrites the rules of adult contemporary crossover"; from the same website, Stewart Mason deemed it "unlike anything Madonna had recorded up to that point", and said it proved "[she]'s a genuinely talented singer [...] one of her all-time strongest vocal performances". Jim Farber, from Entertainment Weekly, referred to it as "her best ballad to date". Adam Sexton wrote in Desperately Seeking Madonna: In Search Of The Meaning Of The World's Most Famous Woman, that "Live to Tell" made a "provocative companion" to "Papa Don't Preach", True Blue's second single; "[Madonna] appropriately measured the safety of silence against the urge to unburden herself". Sexton also complimented the production, saying that the "music itself suggests a threatened annihilation, a fact that makes it more haunting". Allen Metz and Carol Benson, authors of The Madonna Companion: Two Decades of Commentary, felt it "expanded" the singer's musical horizons; they added that "Live to Tell" was a "compelling" track, in which Madonna sings with "moving conviction". J. Randy Taraborrelli, author of Madonna: An Intimate Biography, was pleased with the track, denoting it as a "vehicle of growth" for the artist. Rolling Stone's Davitt Sigerson was not impressed and dismissed it as a "'Both Sides Now' rewrite".
Writing for PopMatters, Peter Piatkowski said it was a "simultaneously cold and emotional" song, filled with "maturity and ambition", as well as a "very deliberate effort to present Madonna as a mature and serious artist". On her review of True Blue for Yahoo!, Stacy Mannion classified "Live to Tell" as a "powerful [...] strange, but beautiful" ballad with a "bluesy feel". Erika Wexler from Spin, described it as "dark and moody, dense with dramatic mystery", and highlighted the way in which the singer "very theatrically conveys a dreamy fatalism". According to Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani, the song was "not only a brave first single, but a statement in and of itself. ['Live to Tell'] rewrote the rules of what a lead single could sound like". While reviewing The Immaculate Collection on its 25th anniversary, People's Drew Mackie said it was "easily one of Madonna’s better ballads". For Edna Gundersen from USA Today, it's a "moody heart-tugger" that "may be her best song ever". On his review of Something to Remember, J. D. Considine, for The Baltimore Sun, noted that "[Madonna] does it all through phrasing, pushing ahead of the accompaniment at some points and dragging behind the beat at others to reflect the character's emotional turmoil". For Stereogum, Tom Breihan noted that "as a singer, Madonna has never been a powerhouse like Whitney Houston, but she’s a communicator. She speaks volumes with tone and phrasing [...] ['Live to Tell'] takes the sound of big mid-’80s pop and somehow makes it intimate". Cash Box called it a "restrained yet emotionally powerful ballad."
Retrospective reviews towards "Live to Tell" have been largely positive, and it is now considered one of Madonna's best songs. For Parade, Samuel R. Murrian considered it to be the singer's "finest, most emotional ballad" that has "her strongest-ever lyrics", as well her third best song. Jude Rogers, from The Guardian, named it her ninth greatest song, highlighting its lyrics and referring to it as "the best thing Madonna’s done in cinema, despite the mediocrity of the film that it’s from". For Glamour's Christopher Rosa it's Madonna's sixth best; "a melodramatic shot of emotion that highlights her signature throaty vocals". Andrew Unterberger for Billboard, and Chuck Arnold for Entertainment Weekly, placed it at number 18 and 17 of their rankings of Madonna's singles, respectively; the former named it "the first truly great Madonna ballad", while according to the latter, it found her "displaying greater depth and maturity than ever before". Scott Kearnan considered "Live to Tell" Madonna's 21st best single and wrote: "With 'Crazy for You', [Madonna] proved she could nail a hit ballad: for teenage girls to slow dance to at prom. But 'Live to Tell' broadened her appeal with adult audiences". Sal Cinquemani deemed it the artist's fifth best: "[Her] first and, arguably, most dramatic reinvention was scored by this spare and haunting ballad", that also includes one of her "richest" vocal performances.
## Chart performance
On April 12, 1986, Billboard reported that "Live to Tell" was one of the most added songs on radio stations, which gave it an "outstanding" debut on the Hot 100 at number 49. One week later, it debuted at number 28 on both the Hot Adult Contemporary and Hot 100 Airplay charts. On May 10, it was reported that "Live to Tell" was the single with the most airplay in reporting radio stations, 229 out of 230; seven days later, it became Madonna's seventh consecutive top-five single. On June 7, "Live to Tell" reached the top of the Hot 100, becoming Madonna's third chart-topper; it spent one week in this position. "Live to Tell" was Madonna's third number-one in less than 18 months, as well as her second one taken from a movie, following "Crazy for You". The song also became a crossover success, topping the Hot Adult Contemporary chart for three weeks. On Billboard's Top Pop Singles and Top Dance Sales Singles year-end charts, "Live to Tell" peaked at number 35 and 37, respectively. On the year-end Adult Contemporary chart, the song was ranked at number 12. In Canada, the single debuted at number 79 of the RPM singles chart, the week of April 12, 1986. Eventually, "Live to Tell" peaked at number one the week of May 24. It was ranked at the second position of the 1986 RPM Singles year-end chart.
In the United Kingdom, the single debuted at number 10 on the Singles Chart on April 26, eventually peaking at number two behind Falco's "Rock Me Amadeus"; it remained in the chart for a total of 12 weeks. One month later, it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 331,000 copies. According to Music Week magazine, over 271,897 copies of the single have been sold in the United Kingdom as of 2008. "Live to Tell" also saw success throughout Europe: it reached the first position in Italy and Greece; in Ireland and Norway, the single peaked at number two; in Belgium, Denmark, and the Netherlands, "Live to Tell" reached the third position of the charts. In France, the single reached the chart's sixth position, and was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique for shipment of 250,000 copies. In New Zealand and Australia, the song peaked at number 7 and 6, respectively.
## Music video
The music video for "Live to Tell" was directed by James Foley and used as a publicity campaign for At Close Range; it alternates shots of Madonna singing alone in a darkened room with scenes from the movie that, according to Jeremy G. Butler in Television: critical methods and applications (2002), indicate the conflict Sean Penn's character goes through and feels. After having starred in the film Shanghai Surprise, Madonna decided to tone down her appearance, inspired by actresses such as Grace Kelly and Brigitte Bardot, and held this look for the music video. Her make-up was "heavy but very tasteful"; her hair "elegant", shoulder-length, wavy and golden blond; her clothes consisted of a simple, "demure" 1930s-style floral dress. It was her first music video to not feature dance routine, but a "tinge of real-world storytelling", showing her as a narrator.
Jeffrey F. Keuss, author of Your Neighbor's Hymnal: What Popular Music Teaches Us about Faith, Hope, and Love (2011), wrote that "there is something in that loneliness [from the video] that makes it feel like the most authentic thing [Madonna] has ever done", comparing the shots of her singing alone to Carl Theodor Dreyer's 1928 film The Passion of Joan of Arc, and the cover artwork for Sinéad O'Connor's second studio album I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got (1990). Butler added that, through her singing, Madonna appears to speak to Penn's character, addressing his problems directly like the chorus of a classical tragedy. Peter Piatkowski gave a positive review of the clip, describing it as "gorgeous and stylish", feeling it "matched the song’s intense moodiness". Tom Breihan said it was the only video in which the singer "gives as much screen time to a mustachioed Christopher Walken as it does to [herself]", and that it displayed one of her "many image reinventions". It was considered Madonna's 17th best music video by Samuel R. Murrian, and can be found on the 2009 video compilation Celebration: The Video Collection.
## Live performances and controversy
Madonna has performed "Live to Tell" on three of her concert tours: Who's That Girl (1987), Blond Ambition (1990) and Confessions (2006). On the first one, she sang the song standing motionless in a single spotlight, dressed in a black ensemble with tassels, golden tips and ribbing, designed by Marlene Stewart. For the Los Angeles Times, Robert Hilburn noted that the artist sang "with a delicate, embracing feeling that few of even her biggest fans would have imagined possible five years ago". Two different performances can be found on the videos Who's That Girl: Live in Japan, filmed in Tokyo on June, and Ciao Italia: Live from Italy, filmed in Turin on September.
For the Blond Ambition World Tour, it was performed in a medley with "Oh Father" from Like a Prayer (1989), and given a Catholic theme: the stage was set up to resemble a cathedral with votive candles, while Madonna wore black vestments and sang knelt down in a prie-dieu. On his review of the Uniondale concert, Jon Pareles from The New York Times praised the singer's "throaty" vocals during the number. Three different performances can be found in Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90, taped in Yokohama, Blond Ambition World Tour Live, taped in Nice, and in the documentary Madonna: Truth or Dare.
On the Confessions Tour, Madonna sang "Live to Tell" hanging from a mirrored cross, simulating a crucifixion; her outfit consisted of purple pants, a red blouse and a crown of thorns. The screen behind her showed a running tally of the number 12,000,000, and "dire" statistics about children dying of AIDS in Africa. The number generated a negative reaction from religious groups: German prosecutors in Düsseldorf threatened to sue the singer for blasphemy, while the performance done at Rome's Olympic Stadium —located near the Vatican— was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church. A spokesperson for the Catholic Church in England and Wales said believers would be offended by the number; "the crucifixion is at the heart of the story of God becoming man and suffering to redeem us. To use it as a stage prop is a banal perversion of that magnificent event". Madonna stood by the number, claiming that Jesus wouldn't be mad at "the message I’m trying to send", and elaborated in a statement:
> "There is a segment in my show where three of my dancers 'confess' or share harrowing experiences from their childhood that they ultimately overcame. My 'confession' follows and takes place on a Crucifix that I ultimately come down from. This is not a mocking of the church. It is no different than a person wearing a Cross or 'Taking Up the Cross' as it says in the Bible. My performance is neither anti-Christian, sacrilegious or blasphemous. Rather, it is my plea to the audience to encourage mankind to help one another and to see the world as a unified whole. I believe in my heart that if Jesus were alive today he would be doing the same thing.
>
> My specific intent is to bring attention to the millions of children in Africa who are dying every day, and are living without care, without medicine and without hope. I am asking people to open their hearts and minds to get involved in whatever way they can. The song ends with a quote from the Bible's Book of Matthew: 'For I was hungry and you gave me food. I was naked and you gave me clothing. I was sick and you took care of me and God replied, 'Whatever you did for the least of my brothers... you did it to me.'
>
> Please do not pass judgment without seeing my show".
Despite the controversy, critical reception towards the number ranged from lukewarm to negative; Leslie Gray Streeter, from The Palm Beach Post, who gave the overall concert a positive review, opined that it "slowed down, in an unsatisfying way" in "preachy" performances such as "Live to Tell". Writing for The Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot opined that "now that everyone from Kanye West to Madonna way back in the '80s has flirted with this particular brand of sacrilege, crucifixion just isn't what it used to be in the Shock and Awe department". The staff from The Philadelphia Inquirer panned the number for being "disappointingly static" and a "most desperate attempt to shock". The performance from the August 15–16 London concerts was included on the singer's live album The Confessions Tour (2007).
## Covers
In 1992, American guitarist Bill Frisell covered "Live to Tell" in his fourth album, Have a Little Faith. Six years later Blonde Ambition released an EP with 6 different hi-NRG remixes of the single. New wave band Berlin covered "Live to Tell" for 1999's Virgin Voices: A Tribute to Madonna, Vol. 1; during an interview with CNN, the band's lead vocalist Terri Nunn explained that "[Madonna]'s influenced a lot of people [...] maybe not me, because I'm not a fan. But a lot of bands are", adding that "Live to Tell" is the only song from Madonna that she "would touch". Italian singer Lucrezia made an uptempo dance version of the song that was remixed by David Morales; it peaked at number two for two weeks on Billboard's Hot Dance Club Play and included in the 2001 album Logic Pride, Vol. 4. Canadian jazz singer Carol Welsman recorded "Live to Tell" for her eponymous 2007 album. Other covers of the song on tribute albums include Semi Moore on The Material Girl: A Tribute to Madonna (2000); an instrumental version on The String Quartet Tribute to Madonna (2002); a folk version by Winter Flowers on 2007's Through the Wilderness, and a hi-NRG version by Melissa Totten on her 2008 album Forever Madonna. Tori Amos has also performed the song on many tours throughout her career. American darkwave band Ego Likeness released a cover of the track in 2023.
## Track listing and formats
- US / Canada / Germany / UK 7" single
1. "Live to Tell" (7" Edit) – 4:37
2. "Live to Tell" (Instrumental) – 5:49
- US / Canada / Germany / UK 12" Maxi-Single
1. "Live to Tell" (LP Version) – 5:49
2. "Live to Tell" (7" Edit) – 4:37
3. "Live to Tell" (Instrumental) – 5:49
- Germany / UK Reissue CD Maxi-Single (1995)
1. "Live to Tell" (LP Version) – 5:49
2. "Live to Tell" (7" Edit) – 4:37
3. "Live to Tell" (Instrumental) – 5:49
## Credits and personnel
- Madonna – lyrics, producer, vocals
- Bruce Gaitsch – guitar
- Patrick Leonard – drum programming, keyboard, producer
- Jonathan Moffett – drums
- Michael Verdick – audio mixing, engineer
- Herb Ritts – photography
- Jeri McManus – design
Credits adapted from the album and 12" single liner notes.
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
|
15,825,487 |
Capture of Savannah
| 1,171,736,077 |
Battle of the American War of Independence
|
[
"1778 in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"1778 in the United States",
"Battles in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War 1775–1779",
"Battles involving Great Britain",
"Battles involving the United States",
"Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"History of Savannah, Georgia"
] |
The Capture of Savannah, sometimes the First Battle of Savannah (because of the siege of 1779), or the Battle of Brewton Hill, was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29, 1778 pitting local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units, holding the city, against a British invasion force, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. The British capture of the city led to an extended occupation and was the opening move in the British southern strategy to regain control of the rebellious Southern provinces by appealing to the relatively strong Loyalist sentiment there.
General Sir Henry Clinton, the Commander-in-Chief, North America, dispatched Campbell and a 3,100-strong force from New York City to capture Savannah, and begin the process of returning Georgia to British control. He was to be assisted by troops under the command of Brigadier General Augustine Prevost that were marching up from Saint Augustine in East Florida. After landing near Savannah on December 23, Campbell assessed the American defenses, which were comparatively weak, and decided to attack without waiting for Prevost. Taking advantage of local assistance he flanked the American position outside the city, captured a large portion of Major General Robert Howe's army, and drove the remnants to retreat into South Carolina.
Campbell and Prevost followed up the victory with the capture of Sunbury and an expedition to Augusta. The latter was occupied by Campbell only for a few weeks before he retreated to Savannah, citing insufficient Loyalist and Native American support and the threat of Patriot forces across the Savannah River in South Carolina. The British held off a Franco-American siege in 1779, and held the city until late in the war.
## Background
In March 1778, following the defeat of a British army at Saratoga and the consequent entry of France into the American Revolutionary War as an American ally, Lord George Germain, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote to General Sir Henry Clinton that capturing the southern colonies was "considered by the King as an object of great importance in the scale of the war". Germain's instructions to Clinton, framed as recommendations, were that he should abandon Philadelphia and then embark upon operations to recover Georgia and the Carolinas; whilst making diversionary attacks against Virginia and Maryland.
### British preparations
In June and July 1778 Clinton removed his troops from Philadelphia back to New York. In November, after dealing with the threat of a French fleet off New York and Newport, Rhode Island, Clinton turned his attention to the South. He organized a force of about 3,000 men in New York and sent orders to Saint Augustine, the capital of East Florida, where Brigadier General Augustine Prevost was to organize all available men and Indian agent John Stuart was to rally the local Creek and Cherokee warriors to assist in operations against Georgia. Clinton's basic plan, first proposed by Thomas Brown in 1776, began with the capture of the capital of Georgia, Savannah.
Clinton gave command of the detachment from New York to Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. The force consisted of two battalions (the 1st and 2nd) of the 71st Regiment of Foot, the Hessian regiments von Wöllwarth and von Wissenbach, and four Loyalist units: one battalion from the New York Volunteers, two from DeLancey's Brigade, and one from Skinner's Brigade. Campbell sailed from New York on November 26 and arrived off Tybee Island, near the mouth of the Savannah River, on December 23.
### American defenses
The State of Georgia was defended by two separate forces. Units of the Continental Army were under the command of Major General Robert Howe, who was responsible for the defense of the entire South, and the state's militia companies were under the overall command of Georgia Governor John Houstoun. Howe and the Georgia authorities had previously squabbled over control of military expeditions against Prevost in East Florida, and those expeditions had failed. These failures led the Continental Congress to decide in September 1778 to replace Howe with Major General Benjamin Lincoln, who had negotiated militia participation in events surrounding the British defeat at Saratoga. Lincoln had not yet arrived when word reached Howe that Clinton was sending troops to Georgia.
In November 1778, British raids into Georgia became more and more threatening to the state's population centers. Despite the urgency of the situation, Governor Houstoun refused to allow Howe to direct the movements of the Georgia Militia. On November 18, Howe began marching south from Charleston, South Carolina with 550 Continental Army troops, arriving in Savannah late that month. He learned that Campbell had sailed from New York on December 6. On December 23, sails were spotted off Tybee Island. The next day, Governor Houstoun assigned 100 Georgia militia to Howe.
A council of war decided to attempt a vigorous defense of Savannah although it was thought that they were likely to be significantly outnumbered by the British and hoped to last until Lincoln's troops arrived. The large number of potential landing points forced Howe to hold most of his army in reserve until the British had actually landed.
## Order of battle
### Continentals
- Commanding Officer, Major General Robert Howe
- 4th Georgia Regiment
- 500–550 Georgia and South Carolina Militia led by Brigadier General Isaac Huger
### British
- Commanding Officer, Lieutenant Colonel Sir Archibald Campbell
- 71st Regiment of Foot (Highland Scots/Fraser's Highlanders)
- 4 Battalions of German Mercenaries
- North Carolina Royalist Battalion
- South Carolina Royalist Battalion
- New York Volunteers
- Artillery, commanded by Lieutenant Ralph Wilson
- Detachments from No. 1 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
- No. 2 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
- Detachments from No. 3 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
- Detachments from No. 4 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
- Detachments from No. 8 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
## Battle
The place Campbell selected for landing was Girardeau's Plantation, located about 2 miles (3.2 km) below the city. When word reached Howe that the landing had started on December 29, he sent a company of Continentals to occupy the bluffs above the landing site. Campbell realized that the bluffs would need to be controlled before the majority of his forces could land, and dispatched two companies of the 71st Regiment to take control of them. The Continentals opened fire at about 100 yards (91 m). The British, rather than returning fire, advanced rapidly with bayonets fixed, denying the Continentals a second shot. The Continentals retreated after they had killed four and wounded five at no cost to themselves. By noon, Campbell had landed his army and began to proceed cautiously toward the city.
Howe held a council that morning and ground was chosen at which to make a stand. About one-half-mile (0.7 km) south of the city he established a line of defense in the shape of an open V, with the ends anchored by swampy woods. On the left, Howe placed Georgia Continentals and militia under Samuel Elbert, while on the right, he put South Carolina Continentals and militia under Isaac Huger and William Thomson. The line was supported by four pieces of field artillery, and light infantry companies guarded the flanks. Most of Howe's troops, including the Continentals, had seen little or no action in the war.
When Campbell's advance companies spotted Howe's line around 2:00 pm, the main body stopped short of the field and Campbell went to see what he was up against. He viewed Howe's defenses as essentially sound, but a local slave told him that there was a path through the swamp on Howe's right. Campbell ordered Sir James Baird to take 350 light infantry and 250 New York Loyalists and follow the slave through the swamp, while he arrayed his troops just out of view in a way that would give the impression he would attempt a flanking maneuver on Howe's left. One of his officers climbed a tree to observe Baird's progress. True to the slave's word, the trail came out near the Continental barracks, which had been left unguarded sice the Continentals were unaware they had been flanked. When they reached position, the man in the tree signaled by waving his hat, and Campbell ordered the regulars to charge.
The first sounds of battle Howe heard were musket fire from the barracks, but these were rapidly followed by cannon fire and the appearance of charging British and German troops on his front. He ordered an immediate retreat, but it rapidly turned into a rout. His untried troops hardly bothered to return fire, some throwing down their weapons before attempting to run away through the swampy terrain. Campbell reported, "It was scarcely possible to come up with them, their retreat was rapid beyond Conception." The light infantry in the Continental rear cut off the road to Augusta, the only significant escape route, which forced a mad scramble of retreating troops into the city itself. The Georgia soldiers on the right attempted to find a safe crossing of Musgrove Creek, but one did not exist, and many of the troops were taken prisoner. Soldiers who did not immediately surrender were sometimes bayoneted. Colonel Huger managed to form a rear-guard to cover the escape of a number of the Continentals. Some of Howe's men managed to escape to the north before the British closed off the city, but others were forced to attempt swimming across Yamacraw Creek; an unknown number drowned in the attempt.
## Aftermath
Campbell gained control of the city at the cost to his forces of seven killed and seventeen wounded; including the four men killed and five wounded during preliminary skirmishing. Campbell took 453 prisoners, and there were at least 83 dead and 11 wounded from Howe's forces. The number of men who drowned during the retreat has been estimated at about 30. When Howe's retreat ended at Purrysburg, South Carolina he had 342 men left, less than half his original army. Howe would receive much of the blame for the disaster, with William Moultrie arguing that he should have either disputed the landing site in force or retreated without battle to keep his army intact. He was exonerated in a court martial that inquired into the event, but the tribunal pointed out that Howe should have made a stand at the bluffs or more directly opposed the landing.
General Prevost arrived from East Florida in mid-January and soon sent Campbell with 1,000 men to take Augusta. Campbell occupied the frontier town against minimal opposition, but by then General Lincoln had begun to rally support in South Carolina to oppose the British. Campbell abandoned Augusta on February 14, the same day a Loyalist force en route to meet him was defeated in the Battle of Kettle Creek. Although Patriot forces following the British were defeated at the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek, the Georgia backcountry remained in Patriot hands.
Campbell wrote that he would be "the first British officer to [rend] a star and stripe from the flag of Congress." Savannah was used as a base to conduct coastal raids which targeted areas from Charleston, South Carolina to the Florida coast. In the fall of 1779, a combined French and American siege to recapture Savannah failed and suffered significant casualties. Control of Georgia was formally returned to its royal governor, James Wright, in July 1779, but the backcountry would not come under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston. Patriot forces recovered Augusta by siege in 1781, but Savannah remained in British hands until 11 July 1782.
|
25,439,126 |
Vulva
| 1,172,501,129 |
External genital organs of the female mammal
|
[
"Human female reproductive system",
"Mammal female reproductive system",
"Pelvis",
"Vulva"
] |
The vulva (: vulvas or vulvae; derived from Latin for "wrapper" or "covering") consists of the external female sex organs. The vulva includes the mons pubis (or mons veneris), labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibular bulbs, vulval vestibule, urinary meatus, the vaginal opening, hymen, and Bartholin's and Skene's vestibular glands. The urinary meatus is also included as it opens into the vulval vestibule. Other features of the vulva include the pudendal cleft, sebaceous glands, the urogenital triangle (anterior part of the perineum), and pubic hair. The vulva includes the entrance to the vagina, which leads to the uterus, and provides a double layer of protection for this by the folds of the outer and inner labia. Pelvic floor muscles support the structures of the vulva. Other muscles of the urogenital triangle also give support.
Blood supply to the vulva comes from the three pudendal arteries. The internal pudendal veins give drainage. Afferent lymph vessels carry lymph away from the vulva to the inguinal lymph nodes. The nerves that supply the vulva are the pudendal nerve, perineal nerve, ilioinguinal nerve and their branches. Blood and nerve supply to the vulva contribute to the stages of sexual arousal that are helpful in the reproduction process.
Following the development of the vulva, changes take place at birth, childhood, puberty, menopause and post-menopause. There is a great deal of variation in the appearance of the vulva, particularly in relation to the labia minora. The vulva can be affected by many disorders which may often result in irritation. Vulvovaginal health measures can prevent many of these. Other disorders include a number of infections and cancers. There are several vulval restorative surgeries known as genitoplasties, and some of these are also used as cosmetic surgery procedures.
Different cultures have held different views of the vulva. Some ancient religions and societies have worshipped the vulva and revered the female as a goddess. Major traditions in Hinduism continue this. In Western societies, there has been a largely negative attitude typified by the medical terminology of pudenda membra, meaning parts to be ashamed of. There has been an artistic reaction to this in various attempts to bring about a more positive and natural outlook, such as work from British, American, and Japanese artists. While the vagina is a separate part of the anatomy, it has often been used synonymously with vulva.
## Structure
The main structures of the vulva are: the mons pubis, the labia – labia majora and labia minora, the external parts of the clitoris – the clitoral hood and the glans, the urinary meatus, the vaginal opening and hymen, and Bartholin's and Skene's vestibular glands. Other features include the pudendal cleft, pubic hair, sebaceous glands, the vulval vestibule, and the urogenital triangle.
### Mons pubis
The mons pubis is the soft mound of fatty tissue at the front of the vulva, in the pubic region covering the pubic bone. Mons pubis is Latin for "pubic mound" and is present in both sexes to act as a cushion during sexual intercourse, and is more pronounced in the female. The variant term mons veneris ('mound of Venus') is used specifically for females. The lower part of the mons pubis is divided by a fissure – the pudendal cleft – which separates the mons pubis into the labia majora. After puberty, the clitoral hood and the labia minora can protrude into the pudendal cleft in a variable degree. The mons and labia majora become covered in pubic hair at puberty.
### Labia
The labia majora and the labia minora cover the vulval vestibule. The outer pair of folds, divided by the pudendal cleft, are the labia majora (Neo-Latin for "larger lips"). They contain and protect the other structures of the vulva. The labia majora meet at the front at the mons pubis, and meet posteriorly at the urogenital triangle (the anterior part of the perineum) between the pudendal cleft and the anus. The labia minora are often pink or brownish black, relevant to the person's skin color.
The grooves between the labia majora and labia minora are called the interlabial sulci, or interlabial folds. The labia minora (smaller lips) are the inner two soft folds, within the labia majora. They have more color than the labia majora and contain numerous sebaceous glands. They meet posteriorly at the frenulum of the labia minora, a fold of restrictive tissue. The labia minora meet again at the front of the vulva to form the clitoral hood, also known as the prepuce.
The visible portion of the clitoris is the clitoral glans. Typically, this is roughly the size and shape of a pea, and can vary in size from about 6 mm to 25 mm. The size can also vary when it is erect. The clitoral glans contains as many nerve endings as the much larger homologous glans penis in the male, which makes it highly sensitive. The only known function of the clitoris is to focus sexual feelings. The clitoral hood is a protective fold of skin which varies in shape and size, and it may partially or completely cover the clitoris. The clitoris is the homologue of the penis, and the clitoral hood is the female equivalent of the male foreskin, and may be partially or completely hidden within the pudendal cleft.
### Vestibule
The area between the labia minora where the vaginal opening and the urinary meatus are located is called the vulval vestibule, or vestibule of the vagina. The urinary meatus is below the clitoris and just in front of the vaginal opening which is near to the perineum. The term introitus is more technically correct than "opening", since the vagina is usually collapsed, with the opening closed. The introitus is sometimes partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. The hymen will usually rupture during the first episode of vigorous sex, and the blood produced by this rupture has been seen to signify virginity. However, the hymen may also rupture spontaneously during exercise or be stretched by normal activities such as the use of tampons and menstrual cups, or be so minor as to be unnoticeable, or be absent. In some rare cases, the hymen may completely cover the vaginal opening, requiring a surgical procedure called a hymenotomy. On either side of the back part of the vaginal opening are the two greater vestibular glands known as Bartholin's glands. These glands secrete mucus and a vaginal and vulval lubricant. They are homologous to the bulbourethral glands in the male. The lesser vestibular glands known as Skene's glands, are found on the anterior wall of the vagina. They are homologues of the male prostate gland and are also referred to as the female prostate.
### Muscles
Pelvic floor muscles help to support the vulvar structures. The voluntary, pubococcygeus muscle, part of the levator ani muscle partially constricts the vaginal opening. Other muscles of the urogenital triangle support the vulvar area and they include the transverse perineal muscles, the bulbospongiosus, and the ischiocavernosus muscles. The bulbospongiosus muscle decreases the vaginal opening. Their contractions play a role in the vaginal contractions of orgasm by causing the vestibular bulbs to contract.
### Blood, lymph and nerve supply
The tissues of the vulva are highly vascularised and blood supply is provided by the three pudendal arteries. Venous return is via the external and internal pudendal veins. The organs and tissues of the vulva are drained by a chain of superficial inguinal lymph nodes located along the blood vessels.
The ilioinguinal nerve originates from the first lumbar nerve and gives branches that include the anterior labial nerves which supply the skin of the mons pubis and the labia majora. The perineal nerve is one of the terminal branches of the pudendal nerve and this branches into the posterior labial nerves to supply the labia. The pudendal nerve branches include the dorsal nerve of clitoris which gives sensation to the clitoris. The clitoral glans is seen to be populated by a large number of small nerves, a number that decreases as the tissue changes towards the urethra. The density of nerves at the glans indicates that it is the center of heightened sensation. Cavernous nerves from the uterovaginal plexus supply the erectile tissue of the clitoris. These are joined underneath the pubic arch by the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. The pudendal nerve enters the pelvis through the lesser sciatic foramen and continues medial to the internal pudendal artery. The point where the nerve circles the ischial spine is the location where a pudendal block of local anesthetic can be administered to inhibit sensation to the vulva. A number of smaller nerves split off from the pudendal nerve. The deep branch of the perineal nerve supplies the muscles of the perineum and a branch of this supplies the bulb of the vestibule.
### Variations
There is a great deal of variation in the appearance of female genitals. Much of this variation lies in the significant differences in the size, shape, and color of the labia minora. Though called the smaller lips they can often be of considerable size and may protrude outside the vagina or labia majora. This variation has also been evidenced in a large display of 400 vulval casts called the Great Wall of Vagina created by Jamie McCartney to fill the lack of information of what a normal vulva looks like. The casts taken from a large and varied group of women showed clearly that there is much variation. Pubic hair also varies in its color, texture, and amount of curl.
Researchers from the Elizabeth Garret Anderson Hospital, London, measured multiple genital dimensions of 50 women between the ages of 18 and 50, with a mean age of 35.6:
## Development
### Prenatal development
In week three of the development of the embryo, mesenchyme cells from the primitive streak migrate around the cloacal membrane. Early in the fifth week the cells form two swellings called the cloacal folds. The cloacal folds meet in front of the cloacal membrane and form a raised area known as the genital tubercle. The urorectal septum fuses with the cloacal membrane to form the perineum. This division creates two areas one surrounded by the urethral folds and the other by the anal folds. These areas become the urogenital triangle and the anal triangle. The area between the vagina and the anus is known as the clinical perineum.
At the same time a pair of swellings on either side of the urethral folds known as the genital swellings develop into the labioscrotal swellings. Sexual differentiation takes place, and at the end of week 6 in the female, hormones stimulate further development and the genital tubercle bends and forms the clitoris. The urethral folds form the labia minora and the labioscrotal swellings form the labia majora. At this time the sexes still cannot be distinguished. The appearance of the external genitalia is similar in male and female embryos until the twelfth week and even then is difficult to distinguish.
The uterovaginal canal or genital canal, forms in the third month of the development of the urogenital system. The lower part of the canal is blocked off by a plate of tissue, the vaginal plate. This tissue develops and lengthens during the third to fifth months and the lower part of the vaginal canal is formed by a process of desquamation or cell shedding. The end of the vaginal canal is blocked off by an endodermal membrane which separates the opening from the vestibule. In the fifth month the membrane degenerates but leaves a remnant called the hymen.
Organs in the male and female with a shared common ancestry are said to be homologous. The clitoral glans is homologous to the male glans penis, and the clitoral body and the clitoral crura are homologous to the corpora cavernosa of the penis. The labia majora is homologous to the scrotum; the clitoral hood is homologous to the foreskin, and the labia minora is homologous to the spongy urethra. The vestibular bulbs beneath the skin of the labia minora are homologous to the corpus spongiosum, the tissue of the penis surrounding the urethra, and to the bulb of the penis. Bartholin's glands are homologous to the bulbourethral glands in males.
### Childhood
The newborn's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones. The labia majora are closed. These changes disappear over the first few months. During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when oestrogen production has increased.
### Puberty
Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes. The structures of the vulva become proportionately larger and may become more pronounced. Pubarche, the first appearance of pubic hair develops, firstly on the labia majora, and later spreads to the mons pubis, and sometimes to the inner thighs and perineum. Pubic hair is much coarser than other body hair, and is considered a secondary sex characteristic. Pubarche can occur independently of puberty. Premature pubarche may sometimes indicate a later metabolic-endocrine disorder seen at adolescence. The disorder sometimes known as a polyendocrine disorder is marked by elevated levels of androgen, insulin, and lipids, and may originate in the fetus. Instead of being seen as a normal variant it is proposed that premature pubarche may be seen as a marker for these later endocrine disorders.
Apocrine sweat glands secrete sweat into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor, which some consider to act as an attractant sex pheromone. The labia minora may grow more prominent and undergo changes in color. At puberty the first monthly period known as menarche marks the onset of menstruation. In prepubertal girls the skin of the vulva is thin and delicate, and its neutral pH makes it prone to irritation. The production of the female sex hormone estradiol (an estrogen) at puberty, causes the perineal skin to thicken by keratinising, and this reduces the risk of infection. Estrogen also causes the laying down of fat in the development of the secondary sex characteristics. This contributes to the maturation of the vulva with increases in the size of the mons pubis, and the labia majora and the enlargement of the labia minora.
### Pregnancy
In pregnancy the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues. Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged. After childbirth a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.
### Menopause
During menopause, hormone levels decrease, which causes changes in the vulva known as vulvovaginal atrophy. The decreased estrogen affects the mons, the labia, and the vaginal opening and can cause pale, itchy, and sore skin. Other visible changes are a thinning of the pubic hair, a loss of fat from the labia majora, a thinning of the labia minora, and a narrowing of the vaginal opening. This condition has been renamed by some bodies as the genitourinary syndrome of menopause as a more comprehensive term.
## Function and physiology
The vulva has a major role to play in the reproductive system. It provides entry to, and protection for the uterus, and the right conditions in terms of warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. The external organs of the vulva are richly innervated and provide pleasure when properly stimulated. The mons pubis provides cushioning against the pubic bone during intercourse.
A number of different secretions are associated with the vulva, including urine (from the urethral opening), sweat (from the apocrine glands), menses (leaving from the vagina), sebum (from the sebaceous glands), alkaline fluid (from the Bartholin's glands), mucus (from the Skene's glands), vaginal lubrication from the vaginal wall and smegma. Smegma is a white substance formed from a combination of dead cells, skin oils, moisture and naturally occurring bacteria, that forms in the genitalia. In females this thickened secretion collects around the clitoris and labial folds. It can cause discomfort during sexual activity as it can cause the clitoral glans to stick to the hood, and is easily removed by bathing. Aliphatic acids known as copulins are also secreted in the vagina. These are believed to act as pheromones. Their fatty acid composition, and consequently their odor changes in relation to the stages of the menstrual cycle.
### Sexual arousal
The clitoris and the labia minora are both erogenous areas in the vulva. Local stimulation can involve the clitoris, vagina and other perineal regions. The clitoris is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure. Sexual stimulation of the clitoris (by a number of means) can result in widespread sexual arousal and, if maintained, can result in orgasm. Stimulation to orgasm is optimally achieved by a massaging sensation.
Sexual arousal results in a number of physical changes in the vulva. During arousal vaginal lubrication increases. Vulva tissue is highly vascularised; arterioles dilate in response to sexual arousal and the smaller veins will compress after arousal, so that the clitoris and labia minora increase in size. Increased vasocongestion in the vagina causes it to swell, decreasing the size of the vaginal opening by about 30%. The clitoris becomes increasingly erect, and the glans moves towards the pubic bone, becoming concealed by the hood. The labia minora increase considerably in thickness. The labia minora sometimes change considerably in color, going from pink to red in lighter skinned women who have not borne a child, or red to dark red in those that have. Immediately prior to an orgasm, the clitoris becomes exceptionally engorged, causing the glans to appear to retract into the clitoral hood. Rhythmic muscle contractions occur in the outer third of the vagina, as well as the uterus and anus. Contractions become less intense and more randomly spaced as the orgasm continues. The number of contractions that accompany an orgasm vary depending on its intensity. An orgasm may be accompanied by female ejaculation, causing liquid from either the Skene's gland or bladder to be expelled through the urethra. The pooled blood begins to dissipate, although at a much slower rate if an orgasm has not occurred. The vagina and vaginal opening return to their normal relaxed state, and the rest of the vulva returns to its normal size, position and color.
### Distance between vagina and clitoral glans
The distance of the frenula clitoridis at the clitoral glans from the urinary meatus located in the vaginal opening, the so-called CUMD (clitoral-urinary meatus distance), is measured. In the 1920s, Marie Bonaparte conducted surveys among women to find out whether they get an orgasm during coitus. The causes of lack of sexual arousal were known to be aversion or psychological inhibitions. Among the test subjects, there were women who, with a man they loved and desired, "felt the greatest pleasure at certain tender touches", but were nevertheless not sufficiently aroused during coitus. Bonaparte examined the distance between the clitoris and the vagina in 200 women. In 69% of the women, the CUMD was 1.25 to 2.25 cm, most of whom experienced the sexual act as satisfying. In 10% of the women, the CUMD was 2.5 cm, 21% measured 2.75 to 3.5 cm. All the women with a large gap stated that they did not experience satisfying pleasure from penile penetration, although some were very sensitive to "precise stroking by the man". Bonaparte concluded from this an anatomical causal connection between a large CUMD and "vaginal frigidity" explaining why only women with the clitoral glans close to the vagina (so that it is continuously touched by the penis) were able to experience "the highest sexual pleasure" during coitus.
A study by Carney Landis and colleagues in 1940 includes statements to this effect: "On the physical side orgasm capacity is related to clitoris-meatus distance." (Landis et al. 1940).
In 2011, Kim Wallen and Elisabeth Lloyd reviewed Bonaparte's research and confirmed an inverse correlation between CUMD and orgasm through intercourse. In methods taught since the 1970s by Betty Dodson, the sexual arousal of the woman during vaginal intercourse is to be ensured by the woman independently stimulating her vulva and clitoris continuously with her hands or possibly with a vibrator. According to Kim Wallen, the CUMD says nothing about a happy sex life, rather that a large gap gives couples an opportunity "to be a bit more inventive in how they have sex."
## Clinical significance
### Irritation
Irritation and itching of the vulva is called pruritus vulvae. This can be a symptom of many disorders, some of which may be determined by a patch test. The most common cause of irritation is thrush, a fungal infection. Vulvovaginal health measures can help to prevent many disorders including thrush. Infections of the vagina such as vaginosis and of the uterus may produce vaginal discharge which can be an irritant when it comes into contact with the vulvar tissue. Inflammation as vaginitis, and vulvovaginitis can result from this causing irritation and pain. Ingrown hairs resulting from pubic hair shaving can cause folliculitis where the hair follicle becomes infected; or give rise to an inflammatory response known as pseudofolliculitis pubis. A less common cause of irritation is genital lichen planus, another inflammatory disorder. A severe variant of this is vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome which can lead to narrowing of the vagina, or vulva destruction. Many types of infection and other diseases including some cancers may cause irritation.
### Sexually transmitted infections
Vulvar organs and tissues can become affected by different infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses, or infested by parasites such as lice and mites. Over thirty types of pathogen can be sexually transmitted, and many of these affect the genitals. Most STIs do not produce symptoms or symptoms may be mild and not be indicative of an STI. The practice of safe sex can greatly reduce the risk of infection from many sexually transmitted pathogens. The use of condoms (either male or female condoms) is one of the most effective methods of protection.
Bacterial infections include: chancroid – characterised by genital ulcers known as chancres; granuloma inguinale showing as inflammatory granulomas often described as nodules; syphilis –the primary stage classically presents with a single chancre, a firm, painless, non-itchy ulcer, but there may be multiple sores; and gonorrhea that very often presents no symptoms but can result in discharge.
Viral infections include human papillomavirus infection (HPV) – this is the most common STI and has many types. Genital HPV can cause genital warts. There have been links made between HPV and vulvar cancer, though HPV most often causes cervical cancer. Genital herpes is mostly asymptomatic but can present with small blisters that break open into ulcers. HIV/AIDS is mostly transmitted through sexual activity, and the vulva in some cases can be affected by sores. A highly contagious viral infection is molluscum contagiosum which is transmissible on close contact and causes water warts.
Parasitic infections include trichomoniasis, pediculosis pubis, and scabies. Trichomoniasis is transmitted by a parasitic protozoan and is the most common non-viral STI. Most cases are asymptomatic but may present symptoms of irritation and a discharge of unusual odor. Pediculosis pubis commonly called crabs, is a disease caused by the crab louse an ectoparasite. When the pubic hair is infested the irritation produced can be intense. Scabies, also known as the "seven year itch", is caused by another ectoparasite, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, giving intense irritation.
### Cancer
Malignancies can develop in the glabrous and hair-bearing parts of the vulva. Based on the cellular origin and histology, vulvar cancers are classified into squamous cell carcinomas, melanomas, basal cell carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, sarcomas and invasive extramammary Paget's disease. Squamous cell carcinomas represent the most common variant of vulvar cancers and account for approximately 75%. These are usually found in the labia particularly the labia majora. The second most common vulvar cancer is basal cell carcinoma, which rarely spreads to regional lymph nodes or distant organs. The third most common subtype is vulvar melanoma. Studies have shown that vulvar melanomas appear to have a different tumor biology and mutational characteristics compared to skin melanomas, which has a direct impact on the medical treatment of vulvar melanomas.
Signs and symptoms of vulvar cancer can include: itching, or bleeding; skin changes including rashes, sores, lumps or ulcers, and changes in vulvar skin coloration. Pelvic pain might also occur especially during urinating and sex. However, a significant proportion remains asymptomatic in early disease stages, often delaying its diagnosis. As such, 32% of women with vulvar melanoma already have regional involvement or distant metastases at the time of diagnosis, which significantly impacts prognosis.
Surgery (with or without removal of regional lymph nodes) is usually the primary treatment modality. Typically, a wide-local excision is performed, in which the tumor is excised including a safety-margin of healthy tissue to ensure its entire removal, which is confirmed by a pathologist. In more advanced disease, a (partial) vulvectomy may need to be performed in order to remove some or all of the vulva. Advanced-stage melanomas can be treated with checkpoint inhibitors.
### Other
Labial fusion, also called labial adhesion, is the fusion of the labia minora. This affects a number of young girls and is not considered unduly problematic. The condition can usually be treated using creams, or it may right itself with the release of hormones at the onset of puberty.
Vulvodynia is chronic pain in the vulvar region. There is no single identifiable cause. A subtype of this is vulvar vestibulitis but since this is not thought to be an inflammatory condition it is more usually referred to as vestibulodynia. Vulvar vestibulitis usually affects pre-menopausal women.
A number of skin disorders such as lichen sclerosus, and lichen simplex chronicus can affect the vulva. Crohn's disease of the vulva is an uncommon form of metastatic Crohn's disease which manifests as a skin condition showing as hypertrophic lesions or vulvar abscesses. Papillary hidradenomas are nodules that can ulcerate and are mostly found on the skin of the labia or of the interlabial folds. Another more complex ulcerative condition is hidradenitis suppurativa which is characterised by painful cysts that can ulcerate, and recur, and can become chronic lasting for many years. Chronic cases can develop into squamous cell carcinomas. An asymptomatic skin disorder of the vulval vestibule is vestibular papillomatosis which is characterised by fine, pink projections from either the epithelium of the vulva or from the labia minora. Dermatoscopy can distinguish this condition from genital warts. A subtype of psoriasis, an autoimmune disease, is inverse psoriasis in which red patches can appear in the skin folds of the labia.
### Childbirth
The vulvar region is at risk for trauma during childbirth. During childbirth, the vagina and vulva must stretch to accommodate the baby's head (approximately 9.5 cm (3.7 in)). This can result in tears known as perineal tears in the vaginal opening, and other structures within the perineum. An episiotomy (a pre-emptive surgical cutting of the perineum) is sometimes performed to facilitate delivery and limit tearing. A tear takes longer to heal than an incision. Tears and incisions may be repaired using sutures that may be layered. Among the methods of hair removal evaluated for pre-surgeries, pubic hair shaving known as prepping, was seen to increase the risk of surgical site infections. No advantages have been demonstrated in the routine shaving of pubic hair prior to childbirth.
### Surgery
Genitoplasties are plastic surgeries that can be carried out to repair, restore or alter vulvar tissues, particularly following damage caused by injury or cancer treatment. These procedures include vaginoplasty which can also be performed as a cosmetic surgery. Other cosmetic surgeries to change the appearance of external structures include labiaplasties. Some of these procedures, vaginoplasties and labiaplasties, are also carried out as sex reassignment surgeries.
The use of cosmetic surgeries has been criticized by clinicians. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that women be informed of the risks of these surgeries. They refer to the lack of data relevant to their safety and effectiveness and to the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation, dyspareunia, adhesions, and scarring. There is also a percentage of people seeking cosmetic surgery who may be suffering from body dysmorphic disorder and surgery in these cases can be counterproductive.
## Society and culture
### Altering the female genitalia
In some cultural practices, particularly in the African Khoikhoi and Rwanda cultures, the labia minora are purposefully stretched by repeated pulling on them and sometimes by attaching weights. Labia stretching is a recognised, familial cultural practice in parts of Eastern and Southern Africa. This is a desired and encouraged practice by the women (starting at puberty) in order to promote better sexual satisfaction for both parties. The achieved extensions can hang down below the labia majora for up to seven inches. Children in the African diaspora practise this too, so it occurs within immigrant communities in, for example, Britain, where a BBC report labelled it a hidden form of child abuse The girls are subject to familial and social pressure to conform.
In some cultures, including modern Western culture, women have shaved or otherwise removed the hair from part or all of the vulva. When high-cut swimsuits became fashionable, women who wished to wear them would remove the hair on either side of their pubic triangles, to avoid exhibiting pubic hair. Other women prefer to retain their vulva hair. The removal of hair from the vulva is a fairly recent phenomenon in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, usually in the form of bikini waxing or Brazilian waxing, but has been prevalent in many Eastern European and Middle Eastern cultures for centuries, usually due to the idea that it may be more hygienic, or originating in prostitution and pornography. Hair removal may include all, most, or some of the hair. French waxing leaves a small amount of hair on either side of the labia or a strip directly above and in line with the pudendal cleft called a landing strip. Islam teaching includes Muslim hygienical jurisprudence a practice of which is the removal of pubic hair.
Several forms of genital piercings can be made in the vulva, and include the Christina piercing, the Nefertiti piercing, the fourchette piercing, and labia piercings. Piercings are usually performed for aesthetic purposes, but some forms like the clitoral hood piercing might also enhance pleasure during sex. Though they are common in traditional cultures, intimate piercings are a fairly recent trend in Western society. Other forms of permanent modifications of the vulva for cultural, decorative or aesthetic reasons are genital tattoos or scarification (so-called "hanabira").
Female genital surgery includes laser resurfacing of the labia to remove wrinkles, labiaplasty (reducing the size of the labia) and vaginoplasty. In September 2007, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) issued a committee opinion on these and other female genital surgeries, including "vaginal rejuvenation", "designer vaginoplasty", "revirgination", and "G-spot amplification". This opinion states that the safety of these procedures has not been documented. The ACOG and the ISSVD recommend that women seeking these surgeries need to be informed about the lack of data supporting these procedures and the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation, dyspareunia, adhesions, and scarring.
With the growing popularity of female cosmetic genital surgeries, the practice increasingly draws criticism from an opposition movement of cyberfeminist activist groups and platforms, called the labia pride movement. The major point of contention is that heavy advertising for these procedures, in combination with a lack of public education, fosters body insecurities in women with larger labia in spite of the fact that there is normal and pronounced individual variation in the size of labia. The preference for smaller labia is a matter of a fashion fad and is without clinical or functional significance.
The most prevalent form of non-consensual genital alteration is that of female genital mutilation. This mostly involves the partial or complete removal of genital organs. Female genital mutilation is carried out in thirty countries in Africa and Asia with more than 200 million girls being affected, and some women (as of 2018). Nearly all of the procedures are carried out on young girls. The practices are also carried out globally among migrants from these areas. Female genital mutilation is claimed to be mostly carried out for cultural traditional reasons.
### Etymology
The word vulva is Latin for "womb". It derives from the 1540s in referring to the womb and female sexual organs, from the earlier volvere meaning to turn, roll or revolve, with further derivatives such as used in volvox, and volvulus (twisted bowel). The naming of the female (and male) genitals as pudenda membra, meaning parts to be ashamed of, dates from the mid-17th century. The naming influenced the general perception of the vulva and this is shown in depicted gynaecological procedures. The examiner shown in the Obstetrical examination dated 1822, is adopting the compromise procedure where the woman's genitals cannot be seen.
### Terminology
In 2021, a study in the UK showed that few are able to label the structure of the vulva correctly.
There are many sexual slang terms used for the vulva. Cunt, a medieval word for the vulva and once the standard term, has become a vulgarism, and in other uses one of the strongest offensive and abusive swearwords in English-speaking cultures. The word has been replaced in normal usage by a few euphemisms including pussy (vulgar slang) and fanny (UK) which used to be a common pet name. In the UK these terms have other non-sexual meanings that lend themselves to double entendres, such as pussy which is used as a term of endearment for a pet cat – pussy cat. In North American informal use the term pussy can also refer to a weak or effeminate man, and fanny is a term used for the buttocks. Other slang terms are muff, snatch, twat, and crotch. Vagina is often used as a synonym for vulva even though it is a separate part of the anatomy.
### Religion and art
Some cultures have long celebrated and even worshipped the vulva. During the Uruk period (c. 4000–3100 BC), the ancient Sumerians regarded the vulva as sacred and a vast number of Sumerian poems praising the vulva of Inanna, the goddess of love, sex, and fertility, have survived. In Sumerian religion, the goddess Nin-imma is the divine personification of female genitalia. Vaginal fluid is always described in Sumerian texts as tasting "sweet" and, in a Sumerian bridal hymn, a young maiden rejoices that her vulva has grown hair. Clay models of vulvas were discovered in the temple of Inanna at Ashur.
Some major Hindu traditions such as Shaktism, a goddess-centred tradition, revere the vulva and vagina under the name yoni. The goddess as Devi is worshipped as the supreme deity. The yoni is a representation of the female deity and is found in many temples as a focus for prayer and offerings. It is also represented symbolically as a mudra in spiritual practices, including yoga.
Sheela na gigs are figurative carvings of naked women displaying an exaggerated vulva. They are found in ancient and medieval European contexts. They are displayed on many churches, but their origin and significance is debatable. A main line of thinking is that they were used to ward off evil spirits. Another view is that the sheela na gig was a divine assistant in childbirth. Starr Goode explores the image and possible meanings of the Sheela na gig and Baubo images in particular, but writes also about the recurring image worldwide. Through hundreds of photographs, she demonstrates that the image of a female displaying her vulva is not specific to European religious art or architecture, but that similar images are found in the visual arts and in mythical narratives of goddesses and heroines parting their thighs to reveal what she calls, "sacred powers." Her theory is that "the image is so rooted in our psyches that it seems as if the icon is the original cosmological center of the human imagination."
L'Origine du monde ("Origin of the world") painted by Gustave Courbet in 1866 was an early Realist painting of a vulva that only became exhibited many years later. The painting was commissioned by Ottoman diplomat Halil Şerif Paşa. The woman used as the model for the painting was probably Halil's lover Constance Quéniaux. However another potential model is Marie-Anne Detourbay, who was also a lover of Halil Şerif Pasha.
Japanese sculptor and manga artist Megumi Igarashi has focused much of her work on painting and modelling vulvas and vulva-themed works. She has used molds to create dioramas – three-dimensional models of her vulva with the hope of demystifying the female genitals.
An art installation called The Dinner Party by feminist artist, Judy Chicago, portrays a symbolic history of famous women. The dinner plates each depict an elaborate vulval form and they are arranged in a triangular vulva shape. Another installation was made by British artist Jamie McCartney who used the casts of four hundred vulvas to create The Great Wall of Vagina in 2011. The vagina casts are life-size. Explanations written by the project's sexual health adviser accompany these. The purpose of the artist was to "address some of the stigmas and misconceptions that are commonplace".
## Additional images
|
2,815,852 |
Pine Island Glacier
| 1,171,091,768 |
Large ice stream, fastest melting glacier in Antarctica
|
[
"Articles containing video clips",
"Ice streams of Antarctica",
"West Antarctica"
] |
Pine Island Glacier (PIG) is a large ice stream, and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica, responsible for about 25% of Antarctica's ice loss. The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay, Amundsen Sea, Antarctica. It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and United States Navy (USN) air photos, 1960–66, and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in association with Pine Island Bay.
The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10% of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream.
An iceberg about twice the size of Washington, DC broke off from the glacier in February 2020. Pine Island Glacier's ice velocity has accelerated to over 33 feet per day.
The ice stream is extremely remote, with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera, nearly 1,300 km (810 mi) away. The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force.
## Ice sheet drainage
The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest mass of ice on earth, containing a volume of water equivalent to 57 m (187 ft) of global sea level. The ice sheet forms from snow which falls onto the continent and compacts under its own weight. The ice then moves under its own weight toward the edges of the continent. Most of this transport to the sea is by ice streams (faster moving channels of ice surrounded by slower moving ice walls) and outlet glaciers. The Antarctic ice sheet consists of the large, relatively stable, East Antarctic Ice Sheet and a smaller, less stable, West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is drained into the sea by several large ice streams, most of which flow into either Ross Ice Shelf, or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. Pine Island and Thwaites Glaciers are two major West Antarctic ice streams which do not flow into a large ice shelf. They are part of an area called the Amundsen Sea Embayment. A total area of 175,000 km<sup>2</sup> (68,000 sq mi), 10 percent of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, drains out to the sea via Pine Island Glacier, this area is known as the Pine Island Glacier drainage basin.
## Weak underbelly of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
The Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers are two of Antarctica's five largest ice streams. Scientists have found that the flow of these ice streams has accelerated in recent years, and suggested that if they were to melt, global sea levels would rise by 1 to 2 m (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in), destabilising the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet and perhaps sections of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.
In 1981 Terry Hughes proposed that the region around Pine Island Bay may be a "weak underbelly" of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. This is based on the fact that, unlike the majority of the large West Antarctic ice streams, those flowing into the Amundsen Sea are not protected from the ocean by large floating ice shelves. Also, although the surface of the glacier is above sea level, the base lies below sea level and slopes downward inland, this suggests that there is no geological barrier to stop a retreat of the ice once it has started.
## Acceleration and thinning
The Pine Island glacier began to retreat in the 1940s. Prior to this retreat, the grounding line of Pine Island Glacier was located on a prominent seabed ridge. This ridge now acts as a barrier, restricting the amount of relatively warm circumpolar deep water that can reach the thickest ice.
The speed of Pine Island Glacier increased by 77 percent from 1974 to the end of 2013, with half of this increase occurring between 2003 and 2009. This speed up has meant that by the end of 2007 the Pine Island Glacier system had a negative mass balance of 46 gigatonnes per year, which is equivalent to 0.13 mm (0.0051 in) per year global sea level rise. In other words, much more water was being put into the sea by PIG than was being replaced by snowfall. Measurements along the centre of the ice stream by GPS demonstrated that this acceleration is still high nearly 200 km (120 mi) inland, at around 4 percent over 2007. It has been suggested that this recent acceleration could have been triggered by warm ocean waters at the end of PIG, where it has a floating section (ice shelf) approximately 50 km (31 mi) long. It has also been shown that PIG underwent rapid thinning during the Holocene, and that this process may continue for centuries after it is initiated.
As the ice stream accelerates it is also getting steeper. The rate of thinning within the central trunk has quadrupled from 1995 to 2006. If the current rate of acceleration were to continue the main trunk of the glacier could be afloat within 100 years.
The ice front stayed in a more or less stable position from 1973 to 2014, with a 10 km retreat in 2015.
## Subglacial volcano
In January 2008, British Antarctic Survey (BAS) scientists reported that 2,200 years ago a volcano erupted under the Antarctic ice sheet. This was the biggest Antarctic eruption in the last 10,000 years. The volcano is situated in the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier. The eruption spread a layer of volcanic ash and tephra over the surface of the ice sheet. This ash was then buried under the snow and ice. The date of the eruption was estimated from the depth of burial of the ash. This method uses dates calculated from nearby ice cores. The presence of the volcano raises the possibility that volcanic activity could have contributed, or may contribute in the future, to increases in the flow of the glacier. In 2018 it was found that there is a substantial volcanic heat source beneath Pine Island Glacier approximately half as large as the active Grimsvötn volcano on Iceland. The same year a study was published concluding that the bedrock below WAIS was uplifted at a higher rate than previously thought, the authors suggested this could eventually help to stabilize the ice sheet.
## Climate engineering
Pine Island Glacier, as well as the better known Thwaites Glacier, can both substantially exacerbate future sea level rise. Consequently, some scientists, most notably Michael J. Wolovick and John C. Moore, have suggested stabilizing them via climate engineering aiming to block warm water flows from the ocean. Their first proposal focused on Thwaites, and estimated that even reinforcing it physically at weakest points, without building larger structures to block water flows, would be among "the largest civil engineering projects that humanity has ever attempted", yet only 30% likely to work.
## History of fieldwork
### On the ice
Due to the remoteness of Pine Island Glacier, most of the information available on the ice stream comes from airborne or satellite-based measurements.
The first expedition to visit the ice stream was a United States over-snow traverse, which spent around a week in the area of PIG during January 1961. They dug snow pits to measure snow accumulation and carried out seismic surveys to measure ice thickness. One of the scientists on this traverse was Charles R. Bentley, who said "we didn't know we were crossing a glacier at the time." PIG is around 50 km (31 mi) wide at the point visited and at ground level cannot be visually distinguished from the surrounding ice. This expedition was called the "Ellsworth Highland Traverse".
In the 2004–2005 field season a team of nine, using a British Antarctic Survey (BAS) Twin Otter aircraft equipped with ice-penetrating radar, completed an aerial survey of PIG and its adjacent ice sheet. The team of seven British and two Americans flew 30 km grid patterns over the PIG until January 5, mapping the sub-glacial terrain of an area roughly the size of Nevada.
Due to the remoteness of PIG and the logistical difficulties of caching enough fuel for the 2004–05 expedition and future project(s), BAS used the resources of the United States Antarctic Program (USAP) and their ski-equipped LC130 aircraft. After many weeks of weather delays the first four men arrived from McMurdo Station on 9 November 2004, and began to establish camp and build a skiway for the C130s. The remaining members of the team arrived from Rothera Research Station 10 days later in a Twin Otter.
Because of unusually good weather in the area that season the survey completed flying their grids by mid-January, and began flying 15 km grids of Thwaites Glacier for a USAP expedition who had been experiencing unusually poor weather in their area that year. Flying over Antarctica's Pine Island Glacier on October 14, 2011, in a DC-8 research plane, scientists participating in NASA's IceBridge mission discovered a massive crack running about 29 kilometers (18 mi) across the glacier's floating tongue. The rift is 80 metres (260 feet) wide on average and 50 to 60 meters (160 to 200 ft) deep.
Another team from the British Antarctic Survey arrived at the ice stream on 8 December 2006 for the first of two field seasons. In the second field season, they spent three months there from November 2007 to February 2008. Work on the glacier included radar measurements and seismic surveys.
In January 2008 Bob Bindschadler of NASA landed on the floating ice shelf of PIG, the first ever landing on this ice shelf, for a reconnaissance mission to investigate the feasibility of drilling through around 500 m (1,600 ft) of ice, to lower instruments into the ocean cavity below. It was decided that the small crevasse free area was too hard for further landings and so further fieldwork had to be postponed. Therefore, two Global Positioning System (GPS) units and a weather station were positioned as near as possible to PIG.
In the 2011–2012 field season, after five weeks of delays, the camp staff was finally able to establish the Main Camp just before New Year. The following week, Bindschadler and his team were able to arrive. Due to additional weather delays, the helicopters were not able to arrive by the NSF 'drop dead' date and the field season was cancelled. Limited science was still accomplished by the team thanks to a series of flights by KBA back onto the glacier; conditions had changed drastically since the last Twin Otter flights.
The British Antarctic Survey deployed a small team of four during the 2011–12 summer field season to carry out a series of seismic and radar surveys on PIG. They also installed a series of overwintering GPS stations. During the season, a separate BAS team travelled to the field party's location and installed an overwintering autonomous VLF station. This was followed by a radar traverse upstream using snowmobiles. This survey linked previous radar lines.
### From the sea
The first ship to reach Pine Island Glacier's ice shelf, in Pine Island Bay, was the USS/USCGC Glacier in 1985. This ship was an icebreaker operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The mission, known as Deep Freeze, had scientists on board who took sediment samples from the ocean floor.
During the summer field season, over two months from January to February 2009, researchers aboard the U.S. Antarctic Program research vessel Nathaniel B. Palmer reached the ice shelf. This was the second time that the Palmer had successfully made it up to the glacier, the first time being in 1994. In collaboration with the British, the scientists used a robotic submarine to explore the glacier-carved channels on the continental shelf as well as the cavity below the ice shelf and glacier. The submarine, known as Autosub 3, was developed and built at the National Oceanography Centre in the UK. It completed six successful missions, travelling a total of 500 km (310 mi) under the ice shelf. Autosub is able to map the base of the ice shelf as well as the ocean floor and take various measurements and samples of the water on the way. The success of Autosub 3 was particularly notable because its predecessor Autosub 2 was lost beneath the Fimbul Ice Shelf on only its second such mission.
## See also
- List of Antarctic ice streams
- List of glaciers in the Antarctic
- Sif Island
|
20,505,839 |
AMI-tv
| 1,173,185,087 |
Canadian specialty TV channel
|
[
"Digital cable television networks in Canada",
"Disability mass media",
"English-language television stations in Canada",
"Public television in Canada",
"Television channels and stations established in 2009"
] |
AMI-tv is a Canadian, English-language, digital cable specialty channel owned by the non-profit organization Accessible Media. AMI-tv broadcasts a selection of general entertainment programming with accommodations for those who are visually or hearing impaired, with audio descriptions on the primary audio track and closed captioning available across all programming.
It was launched on January 29, 2009 by a consortium of Canwest, Accessible Media and Bell Media. Later on, Shaw Media acquired Canwest's shares of AMI-tv in 2010 while the latter acquired Bell's shares in 2011 when Bell Canada gained 100% control of its channels. Accessible Media became the sole owner of AMI-tv in 2016 following Corus Entertainment's acquisition of Shaw Media. From that point on, AMI-tv airs some its selected original programming alongside imported programming from other properties.
Along with acquired content, AMI-tv also broadcasts original series on accessibility- and disability-related topics, and has occasionally broadcast simulcasts of news and sporting events in its open described video format.
AMI-tv is licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) as a discretionary "must-carry" service; it must be carried on the lowest level of service by all licensed digital cable, satellite television, and IPTV providers in Canada. On December 16, 2014, AMI launched a French-language version of the network, AMI-télé, under a second Category A licence.
## History
### Licensing
On March 27, 2007, the CRTC held a public hearing to consider twelve applications from applicants requesting mandatory distribution for their television services in the basic package of all digital television service providers in Canada. Among those twelve applicants was the National Broadcast Reading Service (NBRS), a non-profit organization that operates the reading service VoicePrint, which is also a "must-carry" service. The NBRS proposed a service known as The Accessible Channel (TAC), a 24-hour English-language channel that would be devoted to providing programming of interest to those who are blind or visually impaired, in a format accessible to those individuals.
The NBRS believed that visually impaired viewers had difficulties locating television programming with described video due to a number of factors, such as the small amount of described programming on Canadian television at the time (an estimated 3%) and difficulties accessing the second audio program (SAP) on which described video is typically carried (either due to a lack of knowledge, or television service providers being unable to correctly deliver SAP feeds to subscribers). As such, the NBRS proposed TAC to be a consistent location for accessible programming; TAC planned to broadcast all of its programming in an "open format", with described video occupying the primary audio track—allowing viewers otherwise unable to use SAP to listen to programming with described video. In conjunction with the channel, the NBRS also planned to maintain online listings of programs with described video across all Canadian broadcasters.
On July 24, 2007, the CRTC approved the NBRS's application to operate The Accessible Channel; the commission recognized (as per an earlier report) that "television is a key tool for social integration for all citizens, including persons with disabilities" and that the low amount of described content on television (along with the technical issues NBRS cited) made it difficult for the visually impaired to find accessible television programming. The commission also considered TAC to be complementary with the Broadcasting Act, which called for the introduction of accessible programming into Canada's broadcasting system as resources become available.
### Launch
At a gala coinciding with the United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities on December 3, 2008, the NBRS announced that The Accessible Channel would officially launch in January 2009. The organization also announced that TAC would carry closed captioning on all of its programming: while the CRTC's standard conditions of licence for digital services at the time only mandated that 90% of programming be captioned, the NBRS felt that committing to caption all of its programming was consistent with its goal to make TAC an "inclusive" service. The Accessible Channel subsequently launched on January 29, 2009.
To reflect its expansion beyond VoicePrint, the National Broadcast Reading Service was renamed Accessible Media Inc. (AMI) in 2010. On January 30, 2012, as part of an effort to unify AMI's services under one brand, TAC was renamed AMI-tv. VoicePrint followed suit on March 5, 2012, becoming AMI-audio.
On December 4, 2012, AMI-tv launched a high definition feed on the MTS Ultimate TV service in Manitoba.
### French version
In January 2013, when the CRTC opened a new round of applications for must-carry channels, AMI submitted an application for a French-language sister channel of AMI-tv known as AMI-tv Français, which would have a similar format to its English-language counterpart. AMI justified the need for the channel by noting that the three provinces which host the majority of Canada's francophone population—New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec—had above-average levels of vision loss and other vision-related conditions. On August 8, 2013, the CRTC approved the application; the commission recognized that given the impact of AMI-tv's English service, a French service would have an equivalent impact on Canada's francophone community.
The service launched on December 16, 2014, as AMI-télé.
### Changes in ownership
When AMI-tv launched, it was owned by a consortium made up of various other Canadian specialty services and producers; Showcase acting as manager partner in 50% (owned by Canwest), Accessible Media at 20%, and MuchMusic at 10%. On October 27, 2010, Shaw Communication acquired Canwest's 50% stake in AMI-tv. In 2011, MuchMusic sold 10% of its stake of AMI-TV to each of Shaw Media and Accessible Media, leading the two companies to each own 50% in AMI-tv.
On January 13, 2016, Accessible Media announced that it would acquire Shaw Media's 50% ownership interest in AMI-tv. The purchase was in relation to Corus Entertainment's pending acquisition of Shaw Media. The acquisition had been approved by the CRTC on March 23, 2016 to allow the sale of certain Shaw Media properties so that the purchase could clear regulatory barriers. On December 20, 2016, the CRTC approved Accessible Media's full ownership of AMI-tv and it was purchased by Accessible Media on January 1, 2017.
## Programming
AMI-tv carries a general entertainment lineup of programming including sitcoms, television dramas, films, talk shows, and documentaries. Although AMI-tv is primarily aimed at adults, formerly a limited amount of programming broadcast during morning hours was aimed at children, including such programs as Little Bear and Franklin. The majority of programming on AMI-tv are Canadian productions supplied in conjunction with other major Canadian broadcasters such as the CBC and Bell Media; a smaller portion of programming is also sourced from foreign broadcasters and studios, but in any case, no more than 33% of its programming can be supplied by a single broadcaster, and at least 50% of its programming must contain audio descriptions produced by companies other than AMI. Until the launch of the dedicated channel AMI-télé, it also aired four hours a week of French-language programming in the same format.
AMI-tv also produces and airs original programming, primarily dealing with accessibility- and disability-related topics. Examples have included its 2011 documentary A Whole New Light, which focused on Canada's contributions to the research of vision loss, Milestones of Champions: The Journeys of Canada's Paralympians, focusing on the stories of notable Canadian athletes in the Paralympic Games, the cooking show Four Senses, and Employable Me. In these programs, audio description is integrated into the programs' main dialogue and narration.
AMI-tv has collaborated with other Canadian broadcasters to simulcast events on the network with open described video. In conjunction with CBC Television, the network provided audio descriptions and simulcasts of coverage of events such as the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, the 2011 federal election, the 2011 Gemini Awards, Canada Day festivities in Ottawa in 2012, and the 32nd Genie Awards. In conjunction with coverage of the games carried by CTV and Rogers properties, AMI-tv also offered coverage of the 2012 Summer Paralympics, including simulcasts of daily highlight shows with described video, and a daily program featuring interviews with athletes. The latter was hosted by AMI reporters Carrie Anton (who was a member of Canada's gold medal-winning goalball team at the 2000 Summer Paralympics) and Gary Steeves, both of whom are blind. AMI-tv's involvement in the Paralympics continued for the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi, this time in conjunction with CBC Sports and the Canadian Paralympic Committee.
In September 2012, AMI-tv partnered with Sportsnet to broadcast three Toronto Blue Jays Major League Baseball games with described video provided by Sportsnet 590 correspondent Sam Cosentino, which included additional commentary such as explanations of on-screen graphics. Blue Jays president Paul Beeston praised AMI's involvement, stating that "to our knowledge, we are the first sports organization to have our games provided through this revolutionary approach to accommodating the needs of the blind and low-vision community." AMI-tv Blue Jays coverage was expanded for the 2013 season, with Cosentino joined by veteran sportscaster Jim Van Horne.
Paralympic sledge hockey player Greg Westlake hosts Level Playing Field, a television newsmagazine and interview series on disability issues in sports.
|
38,820,297 |
Fantasy (1938 magazine)
| 1,067,415,394 |
UK pulp science fiction magazine
|
[
"Defunct science fiction magazines published in the United Kingdom",
"Fantasy fiction magazines",
"George Newnes Ltd magazines",
"Magazines disestablished in 1939",
"Magazines established in 1938",
"Magazines published in London",
"Pulp magazines",
"Science fiction magazines established in the 1930s"
] |
Fantasy was a British pulp science fiction magazine which published three issues in London between 1938 and 1939. The editor was T. Stanhope Sprigg; when the war started, he enlisted in the RAF and the magazine was closed down. The publisher, George Newnes Ltd, paid respectable rates, and as a result Sprigg was able to obtain some good quality material, including stories by John Wyndham, Eric Frank Russell, and John Russell Fearn.
## Publication history
The first U.S. science fiction (sf) magazine, Amazing Stories, was imported into the U.K. from its launch in 1926, and other magazines from the U.S. market were also available in the U.K. from an early date. However, no British sf magazine was launched until 1934, when Pearson's launched Scoops, a weekly in tabloid format aimed at the juvenile market. Soon Haydn Dimmock, Scoops' editor, began to receive more sophisticated stories, targeted at an adult audience; he tried to change the magazine's focus to include more mature fiction but within twenty issues falling sales led Pearson's to kill the magazine. The failure of Scoops gave British publishers the impression that Britain could not support a science fiction publication.
Despite this failure, only a year later, Newnes., the publisher of The Strand magazine, decided to launch a group of four genre pulp magazines, and to include a science fiction title in the group. The plan was the idea of T. Stanhope Sprigg, a young editor who had joined Newnes in 1934. Sprigg had help from Walter Gillings, a British science fiction reader who had been active in fan circles since the early 1930s, in searching for good submissions, and was able to obtain stories from Eric Frank Russell and John Russell Fearn, but although the other three titles—Air Stories, War Stories, and Western Stories—were launched in 1935 and 1936, the science fiction title was much delayed. Sprigg recalled later that Newnes issued a memo specifying the requirements for the stories; it was "so restricting that it threw would-be contributors into a complete tizzy". The project was placed on hold after fifteen months.
Gillings subsequently persuaded The World's Work, a subsidiary of William Heinemann, to launch a science fiction pulp magazine titled Tales of Wonder in 1937. This was successful enough to convince Newnes to go ahead with the original plan, and Fantasy was launched in July 1938, with an issue dated only with the year. Another issue appeared six months later and a third and final issue in June 1939, again dated only with the year; Sprigg enlisted as a pilot when World War II started, and although a fourth issue had been prepared, it was clear that paper rationing was coming, and Newnes decided to close down the magazine.
## Contents and reception
The lead story for the first issue was "Menace of the Metal Men", by A. Prestigiacomo; this was a 1933 reprint from the British edition of Argosy, but the other stories in the issue were all new. Contributors included John Wyndham, Eric Frank Russell, and John Russell Fearn, and a couple of writers who were not known in the science fiction world but who had contributed to Newnes' other magazines: J.E. Gurdon and Francis H. Sibson. There was an article on interplanetary travel by P.E. Cleator, which continued a series of articles he had published in Scoops. Newnes paid competitive rates for fiction, so they were able to attract good quality submissions, many of which were subsequently reprinted in the U.S. These included Wyndham's "Beyond the Screen" (described by sf historian and critic Sam Moskowitz as "an engrossing story"); Halliday Sutherland's "Valley of Doom"; and Eric Frank Russell's "Vampire from the Void", which was reprinted in Fantastic in 1972, having been submitted there by Russell's agent as if it were a new story. When the editor, Ted White, was told that the story was over thirty years old, he initially denied that it was possible, but ultimately accepted that it was a reprint: science fiction historian Mike Ashley comments that this indicated Russell's fiction "stood well the test of time".
The main artist for Fantasy was Serge Drigin, a Russian-born artist who worked for Pearson's and had been responsible for all the covers for Scoops; Drigin did interior artwork and all three covers. Though his work has been described as "crude" and "mediocre", science fiction art historian Robert Weinberg regards the cover for the second issue, illustrating "Winged Terror" by G.R. Malloch, as "highly effective and easily the best thing he ever did".
## Bibliographic details
Fantasy was printed in pulp format, 128 pages, and priced at 1/-. All three issues were edited by T. Stanhope Sprigg and published by Newnes. There was no volume numeration; each issue was dated only with the year.
|
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The Sopranos
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American crime drama television series
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The Sopranos is an American crime drama television series created by David Chase. The story revolves around Tony Soprano (James Gandolfini), a New Jersey-based Italian-American mobster, portraying his difficulties as he tries to balance family life with his role as the leader of a criminal organization. This is explored during his therapy sessions with psychiatrist Jennifer Melfi (Lorraine Bracco). The series features Tony's family members, mafia colleagues, and rivals in prominent roles—most notably his wife Carmela (Edie Falco) and his protégé/distant cousin Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli).
The pilot was ordered in 1997, and the show premiered on HBO on January 10, 1999. The series ran for six seasons totaling 86 episodes until June 10, 2007. Broadcast syndication followed in the U.S. and internationally. The Sopranos was produced by HBO, Chase Films, and Brad Grey Television. It was primarily filmed at Silvercup Studios in Long Island City in Queens, New York City, and on location in New Jersey. The executive producers throughout the show's run were David Chase, Brad Grey, Robin Green, Mitchell Burgess, Ilene S. Landress, Terence Winter, and Matthew Weiner.
The Sopranos is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential television series of all time, and has been credited with helping to start the Second Golden Age of Television. The series won a multitude of awards, including Peabody Awards for its first two seasons, 21 Primetime Emmy Awards, and five Golden Globe Awards. It has been the subject of critical analysis, controversy, and parody, and has spawned books, a video game, soundtrack albums, podcasts and assorted merchandise. Several members of the show's cast and crew were largely unknown to the public but have since had successful careers. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America named The Sopranos the best-written TV series of all time, while TV Guide ranked it the best television series of all time. In 2016 and 2022, the series ranked first in the Rolling Stone list of the 100 greatest TV shows of all time.
In March 2018, New Line Cinema announced that they had purchased a film detailing The Sopranos background story, set in the 1960s and 1970s during, and in the wake of, the Newark riots. The 2021 film The Many Saints of Newark is written by David Chase and Lawrence Konner and directed by Alan Taylor. The film also stars Michael Gandolfini, the son of Tony Soprano actor James Gandolfini, as a young Tony Soprano.
## Premise
Primarily set in New Jersey and New York City, the series follows Tony Soprano, a North Jersey–based Italian-American mobster, who tries to balance his family life with his role as boss of the Soprano family. Suffering from panic attacks, Tony engages in therapy sessions with psychiatrist Jennifer Melfi off and on throughout the series. At various points in the series, Tony finds himself at odds with his uncle Junior, his wife Carmela, other mobsters within the Soprano family, and the New York City–based Lupertazzi family, putting his life at risk on multiple occasions.
## Production
### Conception
David Chase had worked as a television writer and producer for more than 20 years before creating The Sopranos. He had been employed as a staff writer or producer for several television series, including Kolchak: The Night Stalker, Switch, The Rockford Files, I'll Fly Away, and Northern Exposure. He had also co-created the short-lived original series Almost Grown in 1988. He made his television directorial debut in 1986 with the "Enough Rope for Two" episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents. He also directed episodes of Almost Grown and I'll Fly Away in 1988 and 1992, respectively. In 1996, he wrote and directed the television film The Rockford Files: Punishment and Crime. He served as showrunner for I'll Fly Away and Northern Exposure in the 1990s. Chase won his first Emmy Award in 1978 for his work on The Rockford Files (shared with fellow producers) and his second for writing the 1980 television film Off the Minnesota Strip. By 1996, he was a coveted showrunner.
The story of The Sopranos was initially conceived as a feature film about "a mobster in therapy having problems with his mother". Chase got some input from his manager Lloyd Braun and decided to adapt it into a television series. He signed a development deal in 1995 with production company Brillstein-Grey and wrote the original pilot script. He drew heavily from his personal life and his experiences growing up in New Jersey, and has stated that he tried to apply his own "family dynamic to mobsters". For instance, the tumultuous relationship between series protagonist Tony Soprano and his mother Livia is partially based on Chase's relationship with his own mother. He was also in psychotherapy at the time and modeled the character of Jennifer Melfi after his own psychiatrist.
Chase had been fascinated by organized crime and the mafia from an early age, witnessing such people growing up. He also was raised on classic gangster films such as The Public Enemy and the crime series The Untouchables. The series is partly inspired by the Richard Boiardo family, a prominent New Jersey organized crime family when Chase was growing up, and partly on New Jersey's DeCavalcante family. He has mentioned American playwrights Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams as influences on the show's writing, and Italian director Federico Fellini as an important influence on the show's cinematic style. The series was named after high school friends of his.
Chase and producer Brad Grey pitched The Sopranos to several networks; Fox showed interest but passed on it after Chase presented them the pilot script. They eventually pitched the show to Chris Albrecht, president of HBO Original Programming, who decided to finance a pilot episode which was shot in 1997. Chase directed it himself. They finished the pilot and showed it to HBO executives, but the show was put on hold for several months.
During this time, Chase, who had experienced frustration for a long period with being unable to break out of the TV genre and into film, considered asking HBO for additional funding to shoot 45 more minutes of footage and release The Sopranos as a feature film. In December 1997, HBO decided to produce the series and ordered 12 more episodes for a 13-episode season. The show premiered on HBO on January 10, 1999, with the pilot, The Sopranos.
#### Baer v. Chase
North Jersey prosecutor and municipal judge Robert Baer filed a breach of contract lawsuit against Chase in Trenton, New Jersey federal court, alleging that he helped to create the show. Baer lost the suit, but he won a ruling that a jury should decide how much he should be paid for services as a location scout, researcher, and story consultant. Baer argued that he had introduced Chase to Tony Spirito, a restaurateur and gambler with alleged mob ties, and Thomas Koczur, a homicide detective for the Elizabeth, New Jersey Police Department. Chase had conducted interviews and tours with both, which strongly inspired some characters, settings, and storylines portrayed in The Sopranos. On December 19, 2007, a federal jury found against Baer, dismissing all of his claims.
### Casting
Many of the actors on The Sopranos are Italian American, like the characters they portray, and many appeared together in films and television series before joining the cast of The Sopranos. The series has 27 actors in common with the 1990 Martin Scorsese gangster film Goodfellas, including main cast members Lorraine Bracco, Michael Imperioli, and Tony Sirico.
The casting directors were Georgianne Walken and Sheila Jaffe. The main cast was put together through a process of auditions and readings. Actors often did not know whether Chase liked their performances or not. Michael Imperioli beat out several actors for the part of Christopher Moltisanti; he said that Chase had "a poker face, so I thought he wasn't into me, and he kept giving me notes and having me try it again, which often is a sign that you're not doing it right." Chase said that he wanted Imperioli because of his performance in Goodfellas.
James Gandolfini was invited to audition for the part of Tony Soprano after casting director Susan Fitzgerald saw a short clip of his performance in the 1993 film True Romance. Lorraine Bracco played the role of mob wife Karen Hill in Goodfellas, and she was originally asked to play the role of Carmela Soprano. She took the role of Dr. Jennifer Melfi instead because she wanted to try something different and felt that the part of the highly educated Dr. Melfi would be more of a challenge for her. Tony Sirico had a criminal history, and he signed on to play Paulie Walnuts so long as his character was not to be a "rat". Sirico had originally auditioned for the role of Uncle Junior with Frank Vincent, but Dominic Chianese landed the role.
Chase was impressed with Steven Van Zandt's humorous appearance and presence after seeing him induct The Rascals into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997, and invited him to audition. Van Zandt, a guitarist in Bruce Springsteen's E Street Band, had never acted before. He auditioned for the role of Tony Soprano, but HBO felt that the role should go to an experienced actor, so Chase wrote a new part for him. Van Zandt eventually agreed to star on the show as consigliere Silvio Dante, and his real-life spouse Maureen was cast as his on-screen wife Gabriella.
The cast of the debut season of the series consisted of largely unknown actors, with the exception of Bracco, Chianese, and Nancy Marchand, but many cast members were noted for their acting ability and received mainstream attention for their performances. Subsequent seasons saw established actors Joe Pantoliano, Robert Loggia, Steve Buscemi, and Frank Vincent join the starring cast, along with well-known actors in recurring roles such as Peter Bogdanovich, John Heard, Robert Patrick, Peter Riegert, Annabella Sciorra, and David Strathairn.
Several well-known actors appeared in one or two episodes, such as Lauren Bacall, Daniel Baldwin, Annette Bening, Polly Bergen, Sandra Bernhard, Paul Dano, Charles S. Dutton, Jon Favreau, Janeane Garofalo, Hal Holbrook, Tim Kang, Elias Koteas, Ben Kingsley, Linda Lavin, Ken Leung, Julianna Margulies, Sydney Pollack, Wilmer Valderrama, Alicia Witt, and Burt Young. Ray Liotta, who was eventually cast as two of the Moltisanti brothers in The Many Saints of Newark film prequel, was approached by Chase at one point to appear in third or fourth seasons of the show, but the plan didn't work out.
### Crew
Series creator and executive producer David Chase served as showrunner and head writer for the production of all six seasons of the show. He was deeply involved with the general production of every episode and is noted for being a very controlling, demanding, and specific producer. He wrote or co-wrote between two and seven episodes per season and would oversee all the editing, consult with episode directors, give actors character motivation, approve casting choices and set designs, and do extensive but uncredited rewrites of episodes written by others. Brad Grey served as executive producer alongside Chase but had no creative input on the show. Many members of the creative team behind The Sopranos were handpicked by Chase, some being old friends and colleagues of his; others were selected after interviews conducted by producers of the show.
Many of the show's writers had worked in television before joining the writing staff of The Sopranos. The writing team and married couple Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess worked on the series as writers and producers from the first to the fifth season; they had previously worked with Chase on Northern Exposure. Terence Winter joined the writing staff during the production of the second season and served as executive producer from season five onwards. He practiced law for two years before deciding to pursue a career as a screenwriter, and he caught the attention of Chase through writer Frank Renzulli.
Matthew Weiner served as staff writer and producer for the show's fifth and sixth seasons. He wrote a script for the series Mad Men in 2000 which was passed on to Chase, who was so impressed that he immediately offered Weiner a job as a writer for The Sopranos. Cast members Michael Imperioli and Toni Kalem portray Christopher Moltisanti and Angie Bonpensiero respectively, and they also wrote episodes for the show. Imperioli wrote five episodes of seasons two through five, and Kalem wrote one episode of season five.
Other writers included Frank Renzulli, Todd A. Kessler (co-creator of Damages), writing team Diane Frolov and Andrew Schneider who worked with Chase on Northern Exposure, and Lawrence Konner, who co-created Almost Grown with Chase in 1988. In total, 20 writers or writing teams are credited with writing episodes of The Sopranos. Of these, Tim Van Patten and Maria Laurino receive a single story credit, and eight others are credited with writing a sole episode. The most prolific writers of the series were Chase (30 credited episodes, including story credits), Winter (25 episodes), Green and Burgess (22 episodes), Weiner (12 episodes), and Renzulli (9 episodes).
Many of the directors had previously worked on television series and independent films. The most frequent directors of the series were Tim Van Patten (20 episodes), John Patterson (13 episodes), Allen Coulter (12 episodes), and Alan Taylor (9 episodes), all of whom have a background in television. Recurring cast members Steve Buscemi and Peter Bogdanovich also directed episodes of the series intermittently. Chase directed the pilot episode and the series finale. Both episodes were photographed by the show's original director of photography Alik Sakharov, who later alternated episodes with Phil Abraham. The show's photography and directing is noted for its feature film quality. This look was achieved by Chase collaborating with Sakharov. "From the pilot, we would sit down with the whole script and break the scenes down into shots. That's what you do with feature films."
### Music
The Sopranos is noted for its eclectic music selections and has received considerable critical attention for its effective use of previously recorded songs. Chase personally selected all of the show's music with producer Martin Bruestle and music editor Kathryn Dayak, sometimes also consulting Steven Van Zandt. The music was usually selected once the production and editing of an episode was completed, but on occasion sequences were filmed to match preselected pieces of music.
The show's opening theme is "Woke Up This Morning" (Chosen One Mix), written by, remixed and performed by British band Alabama 3. With few exceptions, a different song plays over the closing credits of each episode. Many songs are repeated multiple times through an episode, such as "Living on a Thin Line" by The Kinks in the season three episode "University" and "Glad Tidings" by Van Morrison in the season five finale "All Due Respect". Other songs are heard several times throughout the series. A notable example is "Con te partirò", performed by Italian singer Andrea Bocelli, which plays several times in relation to the character of Carmela Soprano. While the show utilizes a wealth of previously recorded music, it is also notable for its lack of originally composed incidental music, compared with other television programs.
Two soundtrack albums containing music from the series have been released. The first, titled The Sopranos: Music from the HBO Original Series, was released in 1999. It contains selections from the show's first two seasons and reached No. 54 on the U.S. Billboard 200. A second soundtrack compilation titled The Sopranos – Peppers and Eggs: Music From The HBO Series, was released in 2001. This double-disc album contains songs and selected dialogue from the show's first three seasons. It reached No. 38 on the U.S. Billboard 200.
### Sets and locations
The majority of the exterior scenes taking place in New Jersey were filmed on location, with the majority of the interior shots filmed at Silvercup Studios in New York City, including most indoor shots of the Soprano residence, the back room of the strip club Bada Bing!, and Dr. Melfi's office. The pork store was called Centanni's Meat Market in the pilot episode, an actual butchery in Elizabeth, New Jersey. After the series was picked up by HBO, the producers leased a building with a storefront in Kearny, New Jersey which served as the shooting location for exterior and interior scenes for the remainder of production; renamed Satriale's Pork Store. After the series ended, the building was demolished.
The strip club Bada Bing! was owned and operated by Silvio Dante on the show, and is an actual strip club on Route 17 in Lodi, New Jersey. Exteriors and interiors were shot on location except for the back room. The club is called Satin Dolls and was an existing business before the show started. The club continued to operate during the eight years that the show was filmed there, and a business arrangement was worked out with the owner. Locations manager Mark Kamine recalls that the owner was "very gracious" as long as the shooting did not "conflict with his business time".
Scenes set at the restaurant Vesuvio, owned and operated in the series by character Artie Bucco, were filmed at a restaurant called Manolo's located in Elizabeth for the first episode. After the destruction of Vesuvio within the context of the series, Artie opened a new restaurant called Nuovo Vesuvio; exterior scenes set there were filmed at an Italian restaurant called Punta Dura located in Long Island City. All the exterior and some interior shots of the Soprano residence were filmed on location at a private residence in North Caldwell, New Jersey.
### Title sequence
Tony Soprano is seen emerging from the Lincoln Tunnel and passing through the tollbooth for the New Jersey Turnpike. Numerous landmarks in and around Newark and Jersey City, New Jersey, are then shown passing by the camera as Tony drives down the highway. The sequence ends with Tony pulling into the driveway of his suburban home. Chase has said that the goal of the title sequence was to show that this particular mafia show was about New Jersey, as opposed to New York, where most similar dramas have been set.
In the first three seasons, between Tony leaving the tunnel and passing through the toll plaza, the show had a shot of the World Trade Center towers in Tony's right side-view mirror. After the September 11 attacks, this shot was removed and replaced with a more generic shot, beginning with the show's fourth season.
In a 2010 issue of TV Guide, the show's opening title sequence ranked No. 10 on a list of TV's top 10 credits sequences, as selected by readers.
A parody of the opening sequence was used in an episode of The Simpsons. In "Poppa's Got a Brand New Badge", a variation on the sequence is used, with Fat Tony leaving a Springfield tunnel instead of Tony. Fat Tony then continues to drive through Springfield to the same soundtrack as the original.
## Cast and characters
The Sopranos features a large cast of characters, many of whom get significant amounts of character development. Some only appear in certain seasons, while others appear (sporadically or constantly) throughout the entire series. All characters were created by David Chase unless otherwise noted.
Tony Soprano (James Gandolfini) is the series's protagonist. Tony is one of the capos of the New Jersey–based DiMeo crime family, at the beginning of the series; he eventually becomes its undisputed boss. He is also the patriarch of the Soprano household. Throughout the series, Tony struggles to balance the conflicting requirements of his family with those of the Mafia family he controls. Because he is prone to bouts of clinical depression and reflex syncope, after a fainting spell (triggered by a panic attack), Tony's physician refers him for treatment by psychiatrist Dr. Jennifer Melfi (Lorraine Bracco), in the show's first episode.
She treats Tony to the best of her ability even though they routinely clash over various issues. Melfi is usually thoughtful, rational, and humane—a stark contrast to Tony's personality. Tony, a serial womanizer, occasionally divulges his sexual attraction to Dr. Melfi; Melfi harbors some degree of attraction to Tony, too, but never admits or acts on it. Melfi is drawn to the challenge of helping such an unusual client and naively assumes that their doctor-patient relationship will not affect her personal life in any way.
Adding to Tony's complicated life is his relationship with his wife Carmela (Edie Falco), which is strained by his constant infidelity and her struggle to reconcile the reality of Tony's business, of which she is often in denial, with the affluent lifestyle and higher social status it brings her. Both have up-and-down relationships with their two children: the intelligent-but-rebellious Meadow (Jamie-Lynn Sigler), and underachiever Anthony Jr. ("A.J.") (Robert Iler), whose everyday teenage issues are further complicated by their eventual knowledge of their father's criminal activities and reputation.
The starring cast includes members of Tony's extended family, including: his disapproving, manipulative mother, Livia (Nancy Marchand); his aimless, histrionic older sister, Janice (Aida Turturro); his paternal uncle Corrado "Junior" Soprano (Dominic Chianese), nominal boss of the crime family following the death of then-acting boss Jackie Aprile Sr. (Michael Rispoli); Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli), his immature and hot-headed cousin and protégé and his maternal cousin Tony Blundetto (Steve Buscemi).
Both Livia and Janice are scheming, treacherous, shrewd manipulators with major-yet-unaddressed psychological issues of their own. The single-mindedly ambitious Uncle Junior is chronically frustrated by having not been made boss of the DiMeo family, despite old-school mob traditions entitling him to the position by seniority. He feels his authority is perpetually undermined by Tony's greater influence in the organization, and barely contains his seething jealousy at having to watch both his younger brother (Tony's father) and now Tony leapfrog him in the organization. As their professional tensions escalate, Uncle Junior employs increasingly desperate, behind-the-scenes measures to solve his problems with Tony, who still idolizes his uncle, and wants to retain Junior's affection and approval.
Uncle Junior and Christopher are fixtures in Tony's real family, as well as his crime family, so their actions in one realm often create further conflicts in the other. Christopher, an entitled, insecure DiMeo associate who is as ambitious as he is insubordinate and incompetent, is also a chronic substance abuser. Tony Blundetto is a well-respected DiMeo family soldier who returns after completing a lengthy prison sentence; he leaves prison committed to "going straight" (to Tony's dismay), but also has an intense violent streak.
Those in Tony's closest circle within the DiMeo crime family include Silvio Dante (Steven Van Zandt). Silvio is Tony's consigliere and best friend. He runs the family's strip club headquarters, and other businesses. Paulie "Walnuts" Gualtieri (Tony Sirico), a tough, short-tempered, aging soldier who is fiercely loyal to Tony and Salvatore "Big Pussy" Bonpensiero (Vincent Pastore), a veteran gangster who runs an automotive body shop. Paulie "Walnuts" and "Big Pussy" (often called just "Pussy") have worked with Tony and his father. Also in Tony's criminal organization are: Patsy Parisi (Dan Grimaldi), and Furio Giunta (Federico Castelluccio). Patsy is a soft-spoken soldier with a head for figures; Furio, an Italian national who joins the family later in the series, serves as Tony's violent enforcer and bodyguard.
Other significant characters in the DiMeo family include Bobby "Bacala" Baccalieri (Steven R. Schirripa); Richie Aprile (David Proval); Ralph Cifaretto (Joe Pantoliano); Eugene Pontecorvo (Robert Funaro); and Vito Spatafore (Joseph R. Gannascoli). Bobby is a subordinate of Uncle Junior's whom Tony initially bullies, but later accepts into his inner circle. Ralph is a clever, ambitious top-earner; but his arrogant, obnoxious, disrespectful, and unpredictably violent tendencies turn Tony resentful. Richie Aprile is released from prison in season 2, and quickly makes waves. Pontecorvo is a young soldier who becomes a "made" man alongside Christopher. Spatafore works his way up through the ranks to become top earner of the Aprile crew but is secretly gay.
Friends of the Soprano family include Herman "Hesh" Rabkin (Jerry Adler); Adriana La Cerva (Drea de Matteo); Rosalie Aprile (Sharon Angela); Angie Bonpensiero (Toni Kalem), along with Artie (John Ventimiglia) and Charmaine Bucco (Kathrine Narducci). Hesh is an invaluable adviser and friend to Tony, as he was when Tony's father ran things. Adriana is Christopher's loyal and long-suffering girlfriend; the two have a volatile relationship but appear destined to stay together. Christopher often ignores Adriana's advice and winds up regretting it. Rosalie is the widow of previous DiMeo boss Jackie Aprile Sr. and a very close friend of Carmela. Angie is Salvatore Bonpensiero's wife. She later goes into "business" for herself, and quite successfully.
Artie and Charmaine are childhood friends of the Sopranos, and owners of the popular restaurant Vesuvio. Charmaine wishes to have no association with Tony and his crew due to fears that Tony's criminal ways will ultimately ruin everything she and Artie have achieved. Artie, however—a law-abiding, hard-working man—is drawn to his childhood friend Tony's glamorous, seemingly carefree lifestyle. Charmaine bitterly resents Artie's chronic tendency to disregard her wishes while catering to Tony's; their marriage suffers greatly as a result. Charmaine also had a brief sexual encounter with Tony (when he and Carmela had temporarily broken-up) when all four were teenagers.
John "Johnny Sack" Sacramoni (Vince Curatola), Phil Leotardo (Frank Vincent) and "Little" Carmine Lupertazzi Jr. (Ray Abruzzo) are all significant characters from the New York City–based Lupertazzi crime family, which shares a good amount of its business with the Soprano organization. Although the Lupertazzis' and DiMeos' interests are often at odds, Tony maintains a cordial, business-like relationship with "Johnny Sack", preferring to make mutually beneficial deals, not war. Johnny Sack's second-in-command and eventual successor, Phil Leotardo, is less friendly and harder for Tony to do business with. Little Carmine is the son of the family's first boss and vies for power with its other members.
## Episodes
### Season 1 (1999)
When Tony Soprano collapses after suffering a panic attack, he begins therapy with Dr. Jennifer Melfi. Details of Tony's upbringing—with his father's influence looming large on his development as a gangster, but more so that of Tony's mother, Livia, who is vengeful, narcissistic, and possibly psychopathic—are revealed. His complicated relationship with his wife Carmela is also explored, as well as her feelings regarding her husband's cosa nostra ties. Meadow and Anthony Jr., Tony's children, gain increasing knowledge of their father's mob dealings. Later, federal indictments are brought as a result of someone in his organization talking to the FBI.
Tony's uncle Corrado "Junior" Soprano, who controls his own crew, orders the murder of Brendan Filone and the mock execution of Christopher Moltisanti, associates of Tony's, as a reprisal for repeated hijackings of trucks under Corrado's protection. Tony defuses the situation by allowing his uncle to be installed as boss of the family (following the death of previous boss Jackie Aprile from cancer), while Tony retains actual control of most dealings from behind the scenes. Corrado discovers the subterfuge, after talking to Livia and falling for her subtle manipulation, and he orders an attempt on Tony's life. The assassination is botched and Tony responds violently, before confronting his mother for her role in plotting his downfall; she appears to have a psychologically triggered stroke as a result. Junior is arrested by the FBI on charges related to the federal indictments before Tony gets a chance to murder him in retaliation.
### Season 2 (2000)
Jackie's brother Richie Aprile is released from prison, proving to be uncontrollable in the business arena, siding more with Junior than Tony, despite the fact that Tony is the acting boss of the family after Junior's arrest. Richie starts a relationship with Janice, Tony's sister, who has arrived from Seattle to take care of their mother. "Big Pussy" returns to New Jersey after a conspicuous absence.
Christopher Moltisanti becomes engaged to his girlfriend Adriana La Cerva, despite his past abuse. Matthew Bevilaqua and Sean Gismonte, two low-level associates dissatisfied with their perceived lack of success in the Soprano crew, try to make a name for themselves by attempting to kill Christopher as a favor to Richie, even though he didn't ask them to. Their plan fails and Christopher kills Sean, but Christopher is critically wounded. He manages to recover after surgery. Tony and Big Pussy locate Matthew and kill him. A witness to the murder goes to the FBI and identifies Tony, but later retracts his statement.
Junior is placed under house arrest as he awaits trial. Richie, frustrated with Tony's authority over him, entreats Junior to have Tony killed. Junior feigns interest, then informs Tony of Richie's intentions, leaving Tony with another problem to address. However, the situation is defused unexpectedly when Janice kills Richie in a violent argument; Tony and his men conceal all evidence of the murder, and Janice returns to Seattle.
After a food poisoning incident that causes vivid dreams, Tony finally comes to terms with his suspicion that Big Pussy might be an FBI informant. He manages to search Pussy's bedroom under false pretenses and discovers damning evidence. Tony kills Pussy on board a boat (with assistance from Silvio Dante and Paulie Gualtieri), disposing of his body at sea.
### Season 3 (2001)
Following the "disappearance" of Richie Aprile, the return of the ambitious Ralph Cifaretto, having spent an extended period of leisure time in Miami, marks the third season. He renews a relationship with Rosalie Aprile, the widow of Jackie Aprile Sr. With Richie assumed to have joined the Witness Protection Program, Ralph unofficially usurps control over the Aprile crew, proving to be an exceptionally dexterous earner. While Ralph's competitive merit would seemingly have him next in line to ascend to capo, his insubordination inclines Tony not to promote him and he instead gives the promotion to the unqualified but competent Gigi Cestone, causing much resentment and tension between him and Ralph.
Ralph ultimately crosses the line when, in a cocaine-induced rage, he gets into a confrontation with his pregnant girlfriend Tracee and beats her to death. This infuriates Tony, who had come to care for the girl, to the point where he violates the traditional mafia code by beating Ralph in front of the entire family. Bad blood temporarily surfaces between the two but is shortly resolved after Ralph apologizes. Cestone suffers a fatal heart attack, thereby forcing Tony to reluctantly promote Ralph to capo.
After getting arrested at the airport for stolen airplane tickets that Tony gave her, Livia is set to testify against him in court. Before that can happen, Livia dies of a stroke and Tony has to deal with his complicated feelings surrounding their relationship. Junior is diagnosed with stomach cancer; following surgery and chemotherapy, it goes into remission.
One night after work, Dr. Melfi is raped by a stranger in a parking complex. After police mishandle evidence, the suspect is released from custody without facing charges. Dr. Melfi struggles with the fallout of the assault and the notion that she could ask Tony to deal out his brand of justice, which she ultimately decides against. Meanwhile, Tony begins an affair with Gloria Trillo, who is also a patient of Dr. Melfi. Their relationship is brief and tumultuous.
Rosalie's son Jackie Aprile Jr. becomes involved with Meadow and then descends into a downward spiral of recklessness, drugs, and crime. Tony initially attempts to act as a mentor to Jackie and encourages him to stay in school, but he becomes increasingly impatient with Jackie's escalating misbehavior, particularly as Jackie's relationship with Meadow begins to become serious. Inspired by a story from Ralph about how Tony, Jackie Sr., and Silvio Dante got made, Jackie and his friends Dino Zerilli and Carlo Renzi make a similar move and attempt to rob Eugene Pontecorvo's Saturday night card game so they can gain recognition from the family.
The plan takes a turn for the worse when Jackie panics and kills the card dealer, provoking a shoot-out. Dino and Carlo are killed, but Jackie manages to escape. Tony decides to let Ralph handle the decision regarding Jackie Jr.'s punishment, but he strongly implies that he thinks Ralph should kill Jackie. Despite his role as a surrogate father, Ralph decides to have Jackie Jr. killed when other members of the crew play up how badly Jackie had disrespected him.
A.J. continues to get in trouble at school—despite success on the football team—which culminates in his expulsion and his parents considering sending him to military school. When he suffers a panic attack, his second after the one his old school failed to report, Tony realizes A.J. can't attend military school and he blames himself. Meadow is hit hard by Jackie Jr.'s death, resorting to drinking and then storming out of his funeral reception.
### Season 4 (2002)
New York underboss Johnny Sack becomes enraged after learning Ralph Cifaretto joked about his wife's weight. He seeks permission from boss Carmine Lupertazzi to have Ralph clipped, but is denied. Johnny orders the hit anyway. Tony receives the okay from Carmine to hit Johnny for insubordination. Junior Soprano tips Tony to use an old outfit in Providence for the work. After catching his wife eating sweets secretly instead of following her diet, Johnny Sack talks it out with her and then calls off the hit on Ralph, averting bloodshed.
Tony and Ralph invest in a racehorse named Pie-O-My, who wins several races and makes them both a great deal of money. When Ralph's 12-year-old son Justin is severely injured in an archery accident, Tony comes to believe Ralph burned Pie-O-My in a stable fire to collect \$200,000 in insurance money. Tony confronts Ralph and Ralph denies setting the fire. The two engage in a violent brawl, culminating in Tony strangling Ralph to death. Tony and Christopher dispose of the body and tell the rest of the crew that the likely culprit for Ralph's disappearance is Johnny Sack.
While he is leaving court, Junior is hit in the head with a boom mic and falls down several steps. Tony advises him to take advantage of the opportunity, act mentally incompetent and employ it as a ruse for not continuing the trial. When that fails, Eugene Pontecorvo intimidates a juror, resulting in a deadlocked jury, forcing the judge to declare a mistrial.
Following the death of Bobby Baccalieri's wife, Janice pursues a romantic relationship with him. Bobby is initially reluctant to move on, but after an incident with his kids and Anthony Jr. trying to summon his deceased wife's ghost, he becomes more receptive to Janice's advances.
Christopher's addiction to heroin deepens, prompting his associates and family to organize an intervention, after which he enters a drug rehabilitation center. Adriana's friend Danielle Ciccolella is revealed to be an undercover FBI agent named Deborah Ciccerone-Waldrup, who tells Adriana the only way for her to stay out of prison for cocaine distribution at her bar is to become an informant. Adriana reluctantly agrees and starts sharing information with the FBI.
Carmela, whose relationship with Tony is tense due to financial worries and Tony's infidelities, develops a mutual infatuation with Furio Giunta. Furio, incapable of breaking his personal moral code and that of the Neapolitan mafia, clandestinely returns home to Italy. After Tony's former mistress calls their home, Carmela throws Tony out. As a result, their plan to buy a beach house falls through and Tony pesters the owner until he gets his deposit back.
Anthony Jr. starts attending a new high school, with Tony suggesting he needed to pull some strings to get him in. A.J. gets a girlfriend but is intimidated by her family's wealth. Meadow initially struggles with her ex-boyfriend's death. As she considers taking a gap year or switching schools, she sees a therapist that Dr. Melfi recommended. Eventually, Meadow finds a worthwhile cause by volunteering at a law center. She gets an apartment with some roommates and starts dating again. Her relationship with Carmela becomes strained after several arguments. Both the kids take their parents' separation hard, with A.J. asking to live with his dad instead of his mom.
Tony decides to quit therapy, thinking he isn't making any progress. He thanks Dr. Melfi for all her help and they part amicably. Stuck in a deadlock over a deal with the Lupertazzi family, Tony is approached by Johnny Sack with a proposal to murder Carmine. He considers it, even after managing to reach an agreement with Carmine, but he later becomes suspicious of Johnny's intentions and turns him down.
### Season 5 (2004)
A string of new characters is introduced, including Tony's cousin Tony Blundetto, who simultaneously along with other Mafiosi, is released from prison. Among the others released are former DiMeo crime family capo Michele "Feech" La Manna, Lupertazzi family capo Phil Leotardo, and semi-retired Lupertazzi consigliere Angelo Garepe. Tony offers Tony B a job, but he respectfully declines, as he is determined to lead a straight life. He initially begins to take courses to earn a degree in massage therapy and aspires to open up a massage parlor. After Carmine Lupertazzi dies of a stroke, his death leaves a vacancy for the boss of the Lupertazzi family, which will soon be fought over by underboss Johnny Sack and Carmine's son Carmine Lupertazzi Jr. After Feech proves to be an insubordinate presence, Tony arranges for him to be sent back to prison by setting him up with stolen property, violating his parole.
The war between Johnny Sack and Carmine Jr. begins when Johnny has Phil kill "Lady Shylock" Lorraine Calluzzo. Tony B's attempt to stay straight comes to a head when he gets into a brawl with his employer. Angelo, who was a good friend to Tony B in prison, and Lupertazzi capo Rusty Millio offer Tony B the job of taking out Joey Peeps in retaliation for Lorraine's death. Tony B initially declines but, desperate to earn, accepts the job. He catches Joey outside a bordello, shoots him, and quickly flees the scene. Johnny believes Tony B is involved and retaliates by having Phil and his brother Billy Leotardo kill Angelo. Tony B finds the Leotardo brothers and opens fire, killing Billy and wounding Phil.
Separated from Carmela, Tony is living at his parents' house. Carmela, the sole authority figure in the home, becomes frustrated as her rules lead A.J. to resent her so she allows him to live with his father. She has a brief relationship with Robert Wegler, A.J.'s guidance counselor; he breaks it off abruptly when he suspects that she is manipulating him to improve A.J.'s grades. Tony and Carmela reconcile; Tony promises to be more loyal and agrees to pay for a piece of real estate Carmela wishes to develop.
Tony gets Meadow's boyfriend Finn De Trolio a summer job at a construction site, which is run by Aprile crew capo Vito Spatafore. Finn comes in early one morning and catches Vito performing fellatio on a security guard. Vito tries to buddy up to Finn so that he keeps quiet, but Finn soon quits the job out of fear.
After covering up a murder that occurred at The Crazy Horse, Adriana is arrested and pressured by the FBI to start sharing more relevant information about the family to avoid being charged as an accomplice. Rather than taking the risk of wearing a wire, Adriana confesses to Christopher and tries to persuade him to co-operate and become an informant against Tony. A grief-stricken Christopher instead informs Tony, who has Silvio pick up Adriana under the pretense of taking her to the hospital to see Christopher after he supposedly tried committing suicide, but Silvio instead drives her out to the woods and executes her. Adriana's betrayal and subsequent execution are too much for Christopher to handle and he briefly relapses into drug use to deal with the pain.
Phil Leotardo and his henchmen beat Benny Fazio while trying to acquire the whereabouts of Tony B; Phil also threatens to have Christopher taken out if Tony B's whereabouts are not disclosed soon. To pacify New York and give his cousin a painless death, Tony tracks Tony B to their Uncle Pat's farm and executes him. Phil is furious that he did not get the opportunity to do it himself. Tony and Johnny meet at Johnny's house in a reconciliatory manner, but Johnny is arrested by Federal agents, while Tony escapes.
### Season 6 (2006–07)
A senile and confused Uncle Junior shoots Tony one night in his house. Rendered comatose, Tony dreams he is a salesman on a business trip who mistakenly exchanges his briefcase and identification with a man named Kevin Finnerty. Tony's recovery from the shooting changes his outlook and he tries to mend his ways. However, he is faced with more problems in his business and personal life.
Once Tony is out of the hospital, Johnny Sack's daughter is about to get married and the Soprano family attends the wedding. Johnny is approved to leave prison for six hours to attend, but he is humiliated by having to pay for the metal detectors and the presence of U.S. marshals at the event. As his daughter is about to drive away with her husband, Johnny's time expires and the marshals publicly take him back to prison. In a moment of weakness and despair, Johnny bursts into tears as he is handcuffed, dismantling the remaining respect his and Tony's crews had for him.
Vito Spatafore is outed as gay after running into a friend making collections at a New York gay nightclub. The rumor spreads quickly, and once word gets to Meadow that everyone else knows, she tells Tony and Carmela about the incident between Finn and Vito. Finn is forced to tell Tony's entire crew what happened with Vito and the security guard at the construction site, solidifying their suspicions about Vito's sexuality. Tony is urged to deal with the problem by the intensely homophobic Phil Leotardo, now the acting boss of New York, whose cousin is married to Vito.
Once Vito is confronted by other members of the crew, he flees to a New Hampshire town, where he poses as an author and starts a romantic relationship with a male cook at a local diner. Despite finally living an authentic life, Vito misses the benefits his old job afforded him, so he eventually returns to New Jersey. He asks Tony to allow him to return to work, making a case that he could bring in a lot of money in Atlantic City. Vito visits his wife and children and continues to maintain that he is not a homosexual.
Tony mulls over the decision to let him back into the crew, as well as whether to let him live. When Tony fails to act, Phil intervenes and brutally executes Vito. When one of the members of the New York family, Fat Dom Gamiello, pays a visit to the Jersey office and won't stop making jokes about Vito and his death, Silvio Dante and Carlo Gervasi kill Fat Dom out of anger at his disrespect. Once more, it appears that the families are on the verge of an all-out war.
During the first half of the season, Christopher and Little Carmine head to Los Angeles in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to try to sign Ben Kingsley for a slasher film they are trying to make called Cleaver, which is a mix of The Godfather and Saw. While in Los Angeles, Chris goes back to drinking and using cocaine for a short period, and he robs famous actress Lauren Bacall. When Cleaver comes out, Carmela is upset that the boss, who is based on Tony, sleeps with his underling's girlfriend, who seems to be based on Christopher's ex Adrianna. Tony's negative portrayal in the movie further strains his relationship with Christopher, along with the fact that Christopher had an affair with realtor Julianna Skiff, a woman Tony was romantically interested in. When Christopher's new girlfriend Kelli Lombardo accidentally gets pregnant, they decide to get married in Las Vegas. Later they welcome a baby girl.
Tony considers killing several of his associates for relatively minor infractions, including Paulie Gualtieri. Christopher is unable to thrive in the business because of his addiction, deflecting his problems by relapsing and killing his friend from Narcotics Anonymous and co-writer of Cleaver, J. T. Dolan. He is then seriously injured in a car accident while driving under the influence of narcotics. Tony, the sole passenger, finally loses patience with Christopher's failings and suffocates him. He later tries to justify his actions by bringing up the infant car seat that was impaled by a branch in the accident, implying that Christopher was a danger to his daughter.
A.J. is dumped by his fiancée and he slips into depression, culminating in a suicide attempt in the backyard pool. After spending some time in a mental institution, he returns home but is still haunted by existential questions and he ultimately decides to join the army. Tony and Carmela come up with a movie set job to keep him from enlisting, with Tony promising he'll one day finance A.J.'s nightclub. Dr. Melfi is convinced by colleagues that Tony is making no progress and may even be using talk therapy to excuse his own actions and as practice for manipulative behavior. She drops him as a patient and he fully quits therapy.
Johnny dies from lung cancer while imprisoned, and Phil officially takes over the Lupertazzi family after having his rivals killed. Phil renews his past feud with Tony and refuses to compromise with New Jersey on a garbage deal. When Tony assaults a Lupertazzi soldier for harassing Meadow while she was on a date, Phil initiates open war on the Soprano crew. He orders the executions of Bobby Baccalieri, who is shot to death; Silvio Dante, who ends up comatose; and Tony, who goes into hiding. Since Phil won't back down until Tony is executed, a deal is eventually brokered whereby the rest of the Lupertazzi family agrees to ignore the hit on Tony, allowing him to go after Phil without fear of repercussions. FBI agent Dwight Harris informs Tony of Phil's location, allowing Tony to have him killed.
Tony starts suspecting that Carlo Gervasi, a capo from New Jersey, has become an informant in an attempt to help out his son, who has recently been arrested for dealing ecstasy. Tony meets his lawyer, who informs him that subpoenas are being delivered to New Jersey and New York crews alike. Tony visits Uncle Junior for the first time since the shooting, and although he doesn't forgive him, he comes to understand the full extent of his dementia and that his uncle likely hadn't meant to kill him.
Tony plans to have a quiet dinner at a diner with his family. As Meadow arrives at the door, the camera cuts to Tony. A bell signals the door opening, Tony looks up and the show smash cuts to black; after a few seconds, the credits roll in silence.
## Influence and legacy
### Ratings
The Sopranos was a major ratings success throughout its run, despite being aired on premium cable network HBO, which had been available in significantly fewer American homes than regular networks. The show frequently attracted equal or larger audiences than most popular network shows of the time. The Nielsen ratings for the first four seasons are not entirely accurate, as Nielsen reported aggregate numbers for cable networks prior to January 2004, meaning that people who were included in the ratings estimates were actually watching HBO channels other than the main one on which The Sopranos aired.
### Critical response
The Sopranos has been hailed by many critics as the greatest and most groundbreaking television series of all time. The writing, acting, and directing have often been singled out for praise. The show has also received considerable attention from critics and journalists for its technical merit, music selections, cinematography, and willingness to deal with difficult and controversial subjects including crime, family, gender roles, mental illness, and American and Italian-American culture.
The Sopranos is credited for creating a new era in the mafia genre deviating from the traditional dramatized image of the gangster in favor of a simpler, more accurate reflection of ordinary day-to-day mob life in a suburb. The series sheds light on Italian family dynamics through the depiction of Tony's tumultuous relationship with his mother. Edie Falco's character Carmela Soprano is praised in Kristyn Gorton's essay "Why I Love Carmela Soprano" for challenging Italian-American gender roles. New Yorker editor David Remnick described The Sopranos as mirroring the "mindless commerce and consumption" of modern America. The series has an overall rating of 92 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, and 94 out of 100 on Metacritic.
The Sopranos has been called "perhaps the greatest pop-culture masterpiece of its day" by Vanity Fair contributor Peter Biskind. Remnick called the show "the richest achievement in the history of television." In 2002, TV Guide ranked The Sopranos fifth on their list of the "Top 50 TV Shows of All Time," while the series was only in its fourth season. In 2007, Channel 4 (UK) named The Sopranos the greatest television series of all time.
The first season of the series received overwhelmingly positive reviews. Following its initial airing in 1999, The New York Times stated, "[The Sopranos] just may be the greatest work of American popular culture of the last quarter century." In 2007, Roger Holland of PopMatters wrote, "the debut season of The Sopranos remains the crowning achievement of American television."
Time Out New York's Andrew Johnston had high praise for the series, stating: "Together, Chase and his fellow writers (including Terence Winter and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner) produced the legendary Great American Novel, and it's 86 episodes long." Johnston asserted the preeminence of The Sopranos as opposed to The Wire and Deadwood in a debate with television critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz, both of whom would later include The Sopranos in their 2016 book titled TV (The Book) as the 2nd greatest American television series of all time, behind only The Simpsons and ahead of The Wire, with Seitz considering the show's ending to be the greatest ending for any television show.
In November and December 2009, many television critics named The Sopranos the best series of the decade and all time in articles summarizing the decade in television. In numbered lists over the best television programs, The Sopranos frequently ranked first or second, almost always competing with The Wire. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Sopranos No. 2 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time, In the same year, the Writers Guild of America named it the best-written television series of all time and TV Guide ranked it as the greatest show of all time.
A 2015 The Hollywood Reporter survey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named The Sopranos as their \#6 favorite show. In 2016 and 2022, Rolling Stone ranked it first on the magazine's list of 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In September 2019, The Guardian ranked the show first on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stating that it "hastened TV's transformation into a medium where intelligence, experimentation and depth were treasured" and describing it as "something to aspire to" for anyone currently making TV. In 2021, Empire ranked The Sopranos at number three on their list of The 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.
Certain episodes have frequently been singled out by critics as the show's best. These include the pilot, titled "The Sopranos", "College" and "I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano" of the first season; "The Knight in White Satin Armor" and "Funhouse" of the second; "Employee of the Month", "Pine Barrens" and "Amour Fou" of the third; "Whoever Did This" and "Whitecaps" of the fourth; "Irregular Around the Margins" and "Long Term Parking" of the fifth and "Members Only", "Join the Club", "Kennedy and Heidi", "The Second Coming", "The Blue Comet" and "Made in America" of the sixth season.
Chase's decision to end the last episode abruptly with just a black screen was controversial. While Chase has insisted that it was not his intention to stir controversy, the ambiguity over the ending and question of whether Tony was murdered has continued for years after the finale's original broadcast and has spawned numerous websites devoted to finding out his true intention.
### Awards and nominations
The Sopranos won and was nominated for many awards throughout its original broadcast. It was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in every year it was eligible and is the first cable TV series to receive a nomination for the award. After being nominated for and losing the award in 1999, 2000, 2001, and 2003 (losing the first time to The Practice and the last three to The West Wing), The Sopranos won the award in 2004, and again in 2007. Its 2004 win made The Sopranos the first series on a cable network to win the award, while its 2007 win made the show the first drama series since Upstairs, Downstairs in 1977 to win the award after it had finished airing. The show earned 21 nominations for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and won the award six times, with creator David Chase receiving three awards. The Sopranos won American Film Institute's Drama Series of the Year Award in 2001.
The Sopranos won at least one Emmy Award for acting in every eligible year except 2006 and 2007. James Gandolfini and Edie Falco were each nominated six times for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress, respectively, both winning a total of three awards. Joe Pantoliano won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2003, and Michael Imperioli and Drea de Matteo also won Emmys in 2004 for their supporting roles on the show. Other actors who have received Emmy nominations for the series include Lorraine Bracco (in the Lead Actress and Supporting Actress categories), Dominic Chianese, Nancy Marchand, Aida Turturro, Tim Daly, John Heard, Annabella Sciorra and Steve Buscemi, who was also nominated for directing the episode "Pine Barrens".
In 1999 and 2000, The Sopranos earned two consecutive George Foster Peabody Awards. Only two other series have won the award in consecutive years: Northern Exposure (1991 and 1992) and The West Wing (1999 and 2000). The show also received numerous nominations at the Golden Globe Awards (winning the award for Best Drama Series in 2000) and the major guild awards (Directors, Producers, Writers, and Actors).
In 2001, the American Psychoanalytic Association presented the producers and writers with an award for "the artistic depiction of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy" and also presented Lorraine Bracco with an award for creating "the most credible psychoanalyst ever to appear in the cinema or on television."
### Influence on television industry
The Sopranos has been characterized by critics as one of the most influential artistic works of the 2000s and has been cited as helping to turn serial television into a legitimate art form on the same level as feature films, literature, and theater. Time Magazine editor James Poniewozik wrote in 2007, "This mafia saga showed just how complex and involving TV storytelling could be, inspiring an explosion of ambitious dramas on cable and off."
Maureen Ryan of PopMatters described The Sopranos as the most influential television drama ever. "No one-hour drama series has had a bigger impact on how stories are told on the small screen, or more influence on what kind of fare we've been offered by an ever-growing array of television networks."
Hal Boedeker stated in PopMatters in 2007 that the series was "widely influential for revealing that cable would accommodate complex series about dark characters. The Sopranos ushered in Six Feet Under, The Shield, Rescue Me, and Big Love." Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan said in 2013 shortly after Gandolfini's death, "Without Tony Soprano, there would be no Walter White."
Weiner said that when he became a writer for The Sopranos after having written the Mad Men pilot, "Whatever I had intended [Mad Men] to be ... was very different after seeing how seriously David Chase took human behavior. Real human behavior", giving "Maidenform" and how Peggy Olson's baby affects her as examples.
The series helped establish HBO as producers of critically acclaimed and commercially successful original television series. Michael Flaherty of The Hollywood Reporter has stated that The Sopranos "helped launch [HBO's] reputation as a destination for talent looking for cutting-edge original series work."
### Depiction of stereotypes
The show has frequently been accused of perpetuating negative stereotypes about Italian Americans. Several major organizations have voiced their concern that The Sopranos presents a very distorted and harmful stereotype of Italian Americans and their cultural values, including the National Italian American Foundation, Order Sons of Italy in America, Unico National, and the Italic Institute of America.
In 2000, officials in Essex County, New Jersey, denied producers permission to film scenes in the South Mountain Reservation, which is county-owned property, by Essex County, New Jersey Executive James Treffinger, who argued that the show depicts Italian Americans "in stereotypical fashion". In 2002, organizers of the New York City Columbus Day Parade won an injunction preventing Mayor Michael Bloomberg from inviting cast members of The Sopranos to participate in the parade.
Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind conducted a national survey in August 2001 that polled 800 people, out of which 37% said that they watched the show regularly, and 65% of this group (192 people, or 24% of the total) disagreed that the show negatively portrayed Italian Americans. Professor William Roberts, who was associated with the poll, said that "The show's inflated image of organized crime casts a shadow over both the state [of New Jersey] and its Italian American community."
He further stated "The show helped to perpetuate one of the more problematic and stereotypical images of Italian Americans. Both Italian and Italian American cultures have much more diverse and interesting heritages than the American public generally realizes." Humanities professor Camille Paglia, herself an Italian American, has spoken negatively about The Sopranos, arguing that its depiction of Italian Americans was inaccurate, inauthentic, and dated.
Chase has defended his show, saying that "It is not meant to stereotype all Italian Americans, only to depict a small criminal subculture".
### Parodies and commercials
Actors from The Sopranos have reprised their roles, or at the very least parodied their roles, in various other media. Tony Sirico and Steve Schirripa appear in two separate Muppet-related Christmas specials, A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa and Elmo's Christmas Countdown, parodying their roles on The Sopranos. Sirico also appeared in a series of commercials for Denny's in-character as Paulie Gualtieri, a nod to the restaurant chain's mention in "Pine Barrens". James Gandolfini appeared on Weekend Update as a "New Jersey Resident" on the October 2, 2004, episode of Saturday Night Live to comment on the recent resignation of New Jersey governor Jim McGreevey. Gandolfini's character went unnamed, and hosts Tina Fey and Amy Poehler insisted at the segment's conclusion that he was "unidentified", but the character was clearly meant to be Tony Soprano.
#### 2022 Chevrolet commercial
Jamie-Lynn Sigler and Robert Iler reprised their roles as Meadow and A.J. Soprano in a Chevrolet television commercial initially broadcast in 2022 during Super Bowl LVI. David Chase directed the commercial and treated it as a continuation of The Sopranos story. At Chase's insistence, former Sopranos director of photography Phil Abraham performed the filming. The ad recreates the opening-title sequence of The Sopranos, with Meadow driving a Silverado EV (as opposed to Tony's Chevrolet Suburban) and meeting A.J. at Bahrs Landing, featured in The Many Saints of Newark. Along the way, she passes some Sopranos landmarks including Satriale's. Chase wanted the commercial to continue the intrigue surrounding The Sopranos finale: besides the visual allusion to the episode with Meadow's parking, Chase intentionally left open why Meadow and A.J. were at the restaurant and who they could be meeting there.
## Merchandise
### Home media
The first four seasons of The Sopranos were released on VHS in five-volume box sets which lack bonus material.
All six Sopranos seasons were released as DVD box sets, with the sixth season released in two parts. A complete series box set was released in 2008.
The sixth season was released on Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD in 2006 and 2007. The first season was released on Blu-ray in 2009. A complete series box set was released in 2014.
### Companion books
Three companion books, written by Allen Rucker, were published during The Sopranos' run:
- The Sopranos: A Family History (2000) discusses the history of the fictional crime family and Tony Soprano's childhood, while providing photos, information about the Sopranos cast, and a synopsis of the show's first two seasons. Second and third editions of the book were later released, which provide updates through the show's third and fourth seasons, respectively.
- The Sopranos Family Cookbook (As Compiled by Artie Bucco) (2002) features Southern Italian recipes (from cookbook author Michele Scicolone), photos, and additional lore from the series.
- Entertaining with the Sopranos (As Compiled by Carmela Soprano) (2006) features Neapolitan-based recipes (from Michele Scicolone) and "Soprano-approved tips" on "picking the ideal location, choosing tasteful decorations, whipping up the best drinks, and selecting the right music."
On September 17, 2020, Michael Imperioli and Steve Schirripa signed a deal with HarperCollins book imprint William Morrow and Company to write an oral history of the show; the book, titled Woke Up This Morning: The Definitive Oral History of The Sopranos, was released on November 2, 2021.
### Soundtracks
Two official soundtrack compilations were released featuring music used in The Sopranos:
- The Sopranos: Music from the HBO Original Series (1999) contains music selections from the show's first two seasons.
- The Sopranos: Peppers & Eggs – Music from the HBO Original Series (2001) contains music selections and character dialogue from the show's first three seasons.
### Video game and pinball
A video game based on the series, titled The Sopranos: Road to Respect, was developed by 7 Studios and released by THQ for the PlayStation 2 in November 2006. The game features the voices and likenesses of key Sopranos cast members.
In 2005, Stern Pinball released a Sopranos pinball machine designed by George Gomez.
### Podcasts
Several cast members of The Sopranos have started podcasts regarding the series. Michael Imperioli and Steve Schirripa began hosting a podcast called Talking Sopranos on April 6, 2020, where the two provide inside info as they follow The Sopranos series episode-by-episode and interview cast and crew from the series. By September 2020, the podcast had reached over five million downloads. In May 2021, the podcast won a Webby Award for Best Television & Film Podcast by method of "People's Voice Winner".
Drea de Matteo and Chris Kushner began hosting a re-watch podcast on March 13, 2020, called Made Women; in July, the podcast was retooled and renamed Gangster Goddess Broad-Cast.
## Film
In March 2018, New Line Cinema announced that they had purchased a film detailing The Sopranos background story, set in the 1960s and '70s during, and in the wake of, the Newark riots. The 2021 film, The Many Saints of Newark, was written by David Chase and Lawrence Konner and directed by Alan Taylor. Alessandro Nivola was cast in the film as Christopher Moltisanti's father Dickie, and Michael Gandolfini, James Gandolfini's son, as the younger version of Tony Soprano. Vera Farmiga, Jon Bernthal, Ray Liotta, Corey Stoll, Billy Magnussen and John Magaro are other cast members.
The film was initially scheduled to be released on September 25, 2020, however, the film's release was delayed multiple times due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States; it was released on October 1, 2021, in theaters and on HBO Max.
Chase has expressed interest in producing a sequel to The Many Saints of Newark that follows Tony Soprano in his 20s, provided he could collaborate with former Sopranos writer Terence Winter. Upon hearing this, Winter replied he would do it "in a heartbeat. Absolutely."
|
72,483,037 |
University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition
| 1,173,560,363 |
1953–1975 archaeological project in Greece
|
[
"Archaeological expeditions",
"Archaeological projects",
"Archaeology of Greece",
"Messenia",
"University of Minnesota"
] |
The University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition (UMME) was an archaeological expedition in Messenia, Greece, conducted between 1953 and 1975. It was devised and begun by William McDonald, who also served as its director for most of its duration.
The project had its origins in the decipherment of Linear B in the early 1950s, and the consequent realisation that the Linear B tablets unearthed at the site of Pylos in Messenia – where McDonald had excavated since 1939 – had been the centre of a Mycenaean polity that controlled sites across the region. In the early 1950s, McDonald, soon joined by Richard Hope Simpson, carried out field surveys to match the toponyms given in the Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos to then-undiscovered archaeological sites in Messenia. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the project expanded to survey 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) of territory, gathering records of habitation from the Neolithic to the Medieval periods.
The UMME's work established Messenia as one of the best-studied regions of Mycenaean Greece, and has been cited as an inspiration for numerous other archaeological projects in Greece. Its distinctive methods included the involvement of specialists in scientific fields, such as geologists and botanists, as well as its diachronic perspective, including the study of the modern human geography and anthropological investigation as a means of generating hypotheses about the ancient exploitation and habitation of the region.
Between 1969 and 1975, the expedition carried out the excavation of Nichoria, a Mycenaean and Early Iron Age site in southern Messenia, which proved a significant source of information about the end of the Bronze Age in Greece, as well as a proving ground and case study for the use of scientific, multi-disciplinary methods in archaeological excavation. Animal bone remains found at the site have become significant in reconstructing the diets of people in Mycenaean and Early Iron Age Greece, and a debated source of evidence for social changes at the end of the Mycenaean period.
## Background and rationale
In a later reflection on the project, McDonald stated that the inspiration for the Minnesota Messenia Expedition came in 1953. McDonald had been working on the excavations of the so-called "Palace of Nestor" at Ano Englianos (now known as "Pylos") in Messenia, which had commenced under the joint directorship of the American archaeologist Carl Blegen and Konstantinos Kourouniotis [el], an archaeologist representing the Greek Archaeological Service, in the spring of 1939. The project at Pylos took on a significant role in the decipherment of Linear B, the writing system used in Mycenaean Greece. On April 3, 1939, the excavation's first trench hit an area later known as the Archives Complex, which contained over 600 tablets and fragments. McDonald, who was supervising the digging, spent several days along with Blegen excavating them by hand, receiving his director's tribute in the excavation write-up for his "circumspection, perseverance and long-suffering in spending so many days on his hands and knees in positions of extreme discomfort."
Interrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War, the excavations resumed in 1952. Kourouniotis had died in 1945, leaving Blegen in sole charge of the excavations: his successor at Archaeological Service, Spyridon Marinatos, focused his efforts primarily on fieldwork in the wider Messenia region. On May 19 1953, the British scholar Michael Ventris wrote to Blegen, offering a transcription and translation of the Linear B tablet PY Ta 641 found at Pylos the previous year. Ventris' translation of this tablet served as near-conclusive proof that he had correctly deciphered Linear B, that Linear B encoded a form of Greek. In turn, the translation signalled the possibility of reading the archive of Linear B tablets that Blegen, with McDonald's assistance, had begun to unearth at Pylos. The Pylos tablets revealed a large number of toponyms, and gave hints as to the political organisation of the Mycenaean state centred on Pylos – in particular, its organisation into a "Hither Province" and a "Further Province".
Blegen, along with Ventris' collaborator John Chadwick and other scholars, saw the need for a greater understanding of the Mycenaean-era sites and settlements of Messenia, in order to match the toponyms listed in the Linear B tablets with the sites to which they related. While some field survey work had been carried out in Messenia during the first half of the 20th century, the number of known sites was comparatively low, and the quality of survey variable across different parts of the region. In 1935, the German archaeologist Georg Karo had been able to list only twenty-two plausibly-dated Mycenaean sites, most of which were in turn derived from the survey conducted by the Swedish Natan Valmin [Wikidata], who had focused his efforts on the Soulima Valley in the north of the region. Other small-scale surveys had taken place in the 1930s and 1940s, principally two investigations by the American Jerome Sperling and the German Ernst Meyer in the north of Messenia, while Blegen had surveyed the region around the Bay of Navarino in early 1939. However, there was little understanding of how settlements had been distributed between these disconnected areas. Blegen therefore suggested that McDonald make a large-scale survey of Messenia, aiming in particular to identify 'towns' contemporary with the Linear B tablets.The British landscape archaeologist John Cherry would later chart another line of inspiration for the UMME in McDonald's interest in the historicity of the Homeric epics, pointing to McDonald's 1942 article 'Where Did Nestor Live?', which attempted to use evidence from the Iliad and Odyssey to argue for the site of Ano Englianos as the home of Homer's Nestor. Indeed, McDonald's later collaborator, Richard Hope Simpson, would publish several works in the same methodological vein, including his Ph.D. thesis and his co-authored 1970 volume The Catalogue of the Ships in Homer's Iliad, both of which attempted to find the archaeological analogues of the toponyms used in the so-called "Catalogue of Ships" in the second book of the Iliad, and the publication of the UMME's findings would include the Trojan War as an historical event on its chronological chart.
## The survey project (1953–1968)
### McDonald's first surveys (1953–1959)
In the earliest surveys, the main approach was to identify toponyms in Classical writers, particularly Homer, Strabo and Pausanias, and to attempt to cross–reference the descriptions of the places given in the ancient sources with the most likely sites for ancient settlement, given the surveyors' interpretation of the modern topography. McDonald and his collaborators largely looked for material dated to the LH IIIB period (c. 1300 – c. 1180 BCE), contemporary with the destruction of the palace at Pylos and the Linear B tablets discovered there. While these expeditions did not formally take place under the UMME name, McDonald and Hope Simpson would later include them under that label in their retrospective assessments of the development of the project.
McDonald's first surveys took place over two weeks in 1953, covering an area 5 to 10 kilometres (3.1 to 6.2 mi) in radius around the site of the Palace of Nestor, accompanied by Charalambos Christophilopoulos, a Messenian who had studied archaeology under Kourouniotis. He returned for four months in 1955, surveying the coastal region between Kyparissia and Methoni alongside Dionysios Androutsakis, the foreman of Blegen's excavations at Pylos. Finally, McDonald's receipt of a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1958–1959 allowed him to undertake a further series of expeditions with Androutsakis during 1958, from Korone to the Alfeios river. In other respects, McDonald experienced logistical and financial difficulties, later writing of his frustrations from having "practically no assured funding, and collegial attitudes ranging from cooperation to apathy to obstructionism." The Greek Archaeological Service issued annual permits for the work, and supervised the project's activities via its ephors for the Western Peloponnese.
In the spring of 1959, McDonald was joined by Richard Hope Simpson, with whom he developed the surveying methods that would characterise the project over its duration. These included large-scale, extensive survey (what McDonald called "regional exploration"), initially conducted by using a Land Rover to drive around Messenia and coming across sites by happenstance. Other distinctive methods of the UMME included a focus on identifying sites through surface finds rather than excavating them, a diachronic focus that collected and reported on evidence of habitation from the Neolithic until the Medieval period, and the attempt to find explanations for the patterns of site distribution and function observed through survey. The survey's approach would later be referred to as 'the Hope Simpson method', a label which McDonald resisted, writing in retrospect that "field strategies were not imposed by one collaborator but were gradually evolved by joint experience and discussion".An early indicator of the project's diachronic nature was the presence throughout the 1959 season of Peter Topping, director of the Gennadeion Library in Athens, who was researching the medieval habitation of Messenia. The later project's interdisciplinary nature was also foreshadowed by the two weeks in which Diomedes Charalambous, a geologist from the University of Athens, took part in the expedition, using an auger to uncover evidence of coastline changes since the Bronze Age.
McDonald and Hope Simpson undertook a final, short expedition in July 1960, checking the results of their survey with the assistance of Hope Simpson's frequent collaborator John Lazenby [Wikidata], before publishing their initial findings in the American Journal of Archaeology.
### The University of Minnesota Messenia Expedition (1961–1968)
The UMME name was first formally used for the expedition from the 1961 season onwards. McDonald and Hope Simpson were joined on this expedition by three members of the University of Minnesota faculty: Jesse Fant, a civil engineer; Herbert E. Wright, a geologist; and Fred Lukermann, a geographer. During this period, the project received more regular funding: from the Louis W. and Maude Hill Family Foundation in 1962, 1964 and 1967; from the Bollingen Foundation of New York in 1963; and from various private donors. The expeditions' directors later wrote that all of these "should be credited with a crucial part in the UMME project."
As the project progressed, its scale and disciplinary range increased, inspired by contemporary projects in the Middle East (particularly the "Prehistoric Project", which surveyed in Iraq, Iran and Turkey, led by Robert Braidwood and Bruce Howe, and Robert McCormick Adams' Diyala Basin Archaeological Project), and in the New World (particularly the Teotihuacan Valley Project under William T. Sanders).McDonald and Hope Simpson expected all of the project's specialists to spend time working and socialising together, to read each other's work, and to become as familiar as possible with each other's area of expertise. The project secured the assistance of the Royal Hellenic Air Force to create aerial photographs of the region of Messenia, which were then interpreted by Fant (and later William Loy, who joined the project as a geographer and cartographer in 1965,) to identify potential ancient sites: McDonald and Hope Simpson later estimated that this allowed them to reduce their false positive rate for site identification below 50%, in contrast to over 90% from surface survey alone. While Hope Simpson and McDonald focused on the surface pottery, Fant surveyed for ancient roads while Wright attempted to reconstruct the paleotopography of the region. In total, the 1961 season uncovered around 150 probable Mycenaean sites.
The expedition returned to Messenia between March 25 and July 21, 1963, with the additional participation of the botanist Willem van Zeist; John Lazenby and his brother Stephen, an officer in the Royal Navy; Demetrios Christodoulou of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization; the ceramics specialist Frederick R. Matson; and Eskil Broburg, a graduate student at the University of Minnesota who served as the expedition's photographer. In 1964, Lukermann carried out investigations into the ancient population distribution, while Matson and Hope Simpson carried out anthropological investigations of contemporary ceramics manufacture on the island of Sifnos. Hope Simpson led the field survey between 1964 and 1968, also serving as acting director of the project from 1966 to 1968 as a result of McDonald's illness. He was assisted throughout by Fant; in 1964 by Lazenby; in 1965 by Roger Howell, a student at the British School at Athens; in 1967 by McDonald and in 1968 by two graduate students, Nancy Wilkie and Nancy Spencer. Loy, then Luckermann's Ph.D. student, assisted Hope Simpson with the 1966 field survey.
The findings of the project, which eventually surveyed around 3,800 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi) of Messenia, were published in the multidisciplinary volume The Minnesota Messenia Expedition: Reconstructing a Bronze-Age Regional Environment in 1972, edited by McDonald and Rapp. Reviewing the work in the American Journal of Archaeology, L. Vance Watrous [Wikidata] credited it, along with Blegen's volumes from the Pylos excavations, as having established Messenia as "the best-documented region of prehistoric Greece", an estimation echoed by the Mycenaean scholar Sterling Dow. In total, the project found 215 prehistoric sites and a further 98 inhabited between the Classical and medieval periods. The project estimated the overall population of Mycenaean Messenia at around 50,000, a figure McDonald reaffirmed in a 1979 article co-written with Joan Carothers.
## The excavation of Nichoria (1969–1975)
The excavation of Nichoria was conceived as the second phase of the Minnesota expedition, and as an opportunity to test in detail the large-scale hypotheses generated by the survey project. During the UMME survey, the site was suggested by John Chadwick as a possible location for the settlement known in the Linear B as 𐀵𐀗𐀶𐀀𐀑𐀁 (ti-mi-to-a-ke-e): the capital of Pylos' 'Further Province' and an important site for the flax industry, as well as the region's coastal defence.
McDonald first identified the prehistoric site of Nichoria in October 1958, and conducted test excavations there in 1959 with Nicholas Yalouris, ephor of the Western Peloponnese for the Greek Archaeological Service, to assess the suitability of the site for a full-scale excavation. Excavations, under the permits of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, took place between 1969 and 1973, with processing work continuing until 1975, and were published in three volumes between 1978 and 1983.The site of Nichoria, which included a settlement and associated cemeteries, covered around 50,000 square metres (5.0 ha), centred around a 500m ridge that has been described as "perhaps the most eroded site ever to be excavated in Greece". Approximately 4,600 square metres (0.46 ha), or 9.2%, of the site was excavated in total. After an initial eight-week season in 1969, focusing on test excavations in seven areas of the site, work in 1970–1971 focused on the areas labelled in 1969 as I–IV, uncovering the remains of a tholos tomb (since known to scholarship as the "UMME" or "MME" tholos) and evidence of habitation from the Early Helladic period (c. 3100 – c. 2000 BCE) into the Early Iron Age.
The excavators found evidence of the abandonment of the site around 750 BCE, and suggested that this may have been a consequence of the defeat of the Messenians by the Spartans in the First Messenian War.
The excavation of Nichoria was particularly notable for its use of the scientific approaches of the 'New Archaeology' (now generally known as 'processual archaeology') developed in the 1960s. In the initial 1969 season, the whole site was surveyed by magnetometer, allowing the excavators to estimate the overall size of the ancient settlement at approximately 40,000 square metres (4.0 ha). The excavators experimented with the use of photogrammetry to produce maps of the site, and employed both dry sieving and wet sieving, then unusual in classical archaeology, to process soil samples, allowing the recovery of small fragments of artefacts as well as archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological remains. Attempts were also made to carbon-date some of the remains, which helped to indicate some of the limitations of the use of this technique in the Aegean region.
## Notable participants
- William McDonald (1953–1975, field director)
- Richard Hope Simpson (1959–1975, acting field director 1966–1968)
- George Rapp (1966–1975, assistant director)
- Herbert E. Wright (1962–1968)
- Willem van Zeist (1963–1968)
- John Chadwick (assisted with analysis throughout, and in the field briefly in 1968.)
- Cynthia Shelmerdine (excavated at Nichoria 1972–1975)
- Nancy Wilkie (1968–1975)
- Sterling Dow (1963)
## Legacy
John Cherry described the UMME as a "watershed" in the understanding of Bronze-Age Greece. It has been described as "the first truly multidisciplinary archaeological expedition in Greece", and credited with "kick-starting" the practice of regional studies in that country. It was the first of numerous regional landscape surveys in Greece, such as the Southern Argolid Survey and the Berbati Valley Project, which often adopted a more intensive survey methodology while maintaining the UMME's interdisciplinary, diachronic approach. In particular, the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project, which began in 1990, aimed to build on the material collected by the UMME; its director, Jack Davis, later cited the 1972 "Mycenaean Geography" conference at the University of Cambridge, centred on the results of the UMME, as the source of his interest in Messenia. Specifically, Davis hoped to complement the UMME's collection of large-scale, low-resolution information with more detailed, intensive survey of smaller areas of the region.
The survey expeditions significantly expanded the corpus of known Mycenaean sites, particularly those outside palatial centres like Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos, few of which had previously been excavated. The surveys carried out directly by the UMME were complemented by contemporary work by Spyridon Marinatos, who largely focused on funerary sites, and Natan Valmin, who surveyed and excavated in the region of Malthi. By the completion of the UMME survey, more tholos tombs were known in Messenia than had been known in all of Greece before 1940. The UMME's approach was later criticised for its reliance on aerial photography and the investigators' intuition to identify areas for survey, which led to uneven coverage and a tendency to miss smaller sites, particularly those whose location did not conform to the surveyors' expectations, but also described as "a prodigious influence on the development of archaeology in Greece", which "permitted for the first time the systematic examination of Mycenaean geography."
The UMME's findings were significant in the debate over the end of the Mycenaean period, sometimes termed the Late Bronze Age collapse. The excavations at Nichoria, in particular, have been described as "fundamental" for the understanding of the transition between the Bronze Age and Iron Age in Greece, as well as for the development of the Greek polis. At the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1180 BCE), many Mycenaean sites, including the Palace of Nestor, were destroyed by fire, and the palatial system of administration that had characterised later Mycenaean civilisation ceased to exist. The UMME observed significantly fewer sites that could be dated to the LH IIIC period (c. 1180 – c. 1050 BCE), postdating the "collapse", than those that could be dated to the LH IIIB period preceding it, and these observations have been taken as evidence of demographic decline, either through mortality or emigration. However, the expedition also observed a large amount of continuity in site use and habitation on either side of the LH IIIB/IIIC divide, which suggested to McDonald and Hope Simpson that any collapse in the society of Mycenaean Messenia could not have been total. They also argued that their evidence weighed against then-popular theories for the reasons behind the end of the palatial system, including an external "Dorian Invasion" or a widespread uprising against palatial rule. The question of Messenia's population in the final decades of the Late Bronze Age remains controversial: in 2017, the archaeologist Sarah C. Murray wrote that "the record of intensive survey data, especially that from the period between the thirteenth and eighth century BCE, is deeply problematic for reconstructing accurate population figures."
### The animal bones from Nichoria
The project's interest in zooarchaeology and the recovery of animal bones made Nichoria into an important site for the study of diet in Mycenaean and Iron Age Greece. Initial examination by the expedition's animal-bone specialists, Robert Sloan and Mary Ann Duncan, suggested that the primary meat consumed at Nichoria during the Mycenaean period came from goats, followed by sheep, pigs and cattle. This provided a contrast with the proportion of animals mentioned in the Linear B tablets, where cattle and sheep predominated – a difference which Cynthia Shelmerdine, one of the UMME's archaeologists, suggested as a reflection of the greater interest of palace-based scribes in these animals, which had more direct economic importance to the palace. Sloan and Duncan also observed a significant increase in the proportion of cattle bones in the Early Iron Age, accounting for around 35% of the animals recorded versus 20% in the Mycenaean period, which they connected with a shift towards the use of cattle for meat, rather than for milk.
In the late 1980s, the British archaeologist Anthony Snodgrass used the results from Nichoria to argue for a "pastoral hypothesis" to explain the apparent drop in observed settlement numbers throughout Greece between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Under this hypothesis, large, permanent, archaeologically-visible settlements were abandoned in favour of transient pastoralism, which Snodgrass justified by the apparent rise in the proportion of cattle reared and consumed at Nichoria during this period. However, later studies by Elizabeth Mancz, who completed a PhD on the material in the 1980s, and Flint Dibble, who reviewed and reassessed the bones in the early 21st century, questioned the underlying data. Both Mancz and Dibble suggested that the apparent increase in the ratio of cattle bones is best explained by taphonomic processes, specifically chemical and attritional weathering, which had a disproportionate effect on later chronological layers (which lay closer to the surface) and the smaller bones of goats and sheep, and so artificially inflated the apparent proportion of cattle in the Early Iron Age samples vis-à-vis those from the Bronze Age. In addition, archaeobotanical evidence suggests that all of the subsistence plants cultivated at Nichoria during the Bronze Age continued to be grown during the Early Iron Age, which has led to the general rejection of the "pastoral hypothesis" by scholars.
|
1,811,907 |
The Rescue (Doctor Who)
| 1,173,708,790 | null |
[
"1965 British television episodes",
"Doctor Who serials novelised by Ian Marter",
"Fiction set in the 25th century",
"First Doctor serials"
] |
The Rescue is the third serial of the second season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by outgoing story editor David Whitaker and directed by Christopher Barry, the serial was broadcast on BBC1 in two weekly parts on 2 January and 9 January 1965. In the serial, the time travellers the First Doctor (William Hartnell), Ian Chesterton (William Russell), and Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) befriend Vicki (Maureen O'Brien), an orphan girl marooned on the planet Dido who is being threatened by an apparent native of Dido called Koquillion (Ray Barrett) while awaiting rescue.
The Rescue was written as a short vehicle to introduce Vicki as the new companion, replacing the Doctor's granddaughter, Susan. Vicki underwent several name changes throughout production. The serial was produced in a six-episode block with the following, The Romans, and was the first story produced in Doctor Who's second production block. For the score, Barry reused the work of Tristram Cary from his previous serial, The Daleks. The Rescue maintained the high viewership of the previous serial, with 12 and 13 million viewers. Reviews were generally positive, with praise for the performances and dialogue, despite some criticism of the simple plot and obvious resolution. The serial was later novelised and released on VHS and DVD.
## Plot
The First Doctor (William Hartnell), Ian Chesterton (William Russell), and Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) are still missing the Doctor's granddaughter Susan Foreman when the TARDIS lands on a planet the Doctor eventually recognises as Dido, a world he has visited before. The trio soon encounter two survivors of a space crash, Vicki (Maureen O'Brien) and Bennett (Ray Barrett), who are awaiting a rescue ship that is due to arrive in three days time. Vicki and Bennett live in fear of Koquillion (Barrett), a bipedal inhabitant of Dido, who is stalking the area. Koquillion encounters the time travellers and attacks, pushing Barbara over a cliff and temporarily trapping Ian and the Doctor. Vicki finds Barbara injured and rescues her from Koquillion, and they share reminiscences. Vicki's father was among those who died when the survivors of the crash, save Bennett and Vicki, were lured to their deaths by the natives of Dido. She is evidently very lonely, having befriended an indigenous Sand Beast (Tom Sheridan) for company. However, when Ian and the Doctor reach the ship, tempers are fraught because Barbara mistook the Sand Beast for a threat and killed it.
The Doctor enters Bennett's room, and finds things are not as they seem. The supposedly crippled Bennett is missing, and a tape recorder hides his absence. He finds a trap door in the floor of the cabin and follows it to a temple carved from rock where he unmasks Koquillion as Bennett. Bennett reveals he killed a crewmember on board the ship and was arrested, but the ship crashed before the crime could be radioed to Earth. It was he who killed the crash survivors and the natives of Dido to cover his crime. He has been using the Koquillion alias so that Vicki would back up his story, and had hoped the planet would be destroyed when his version of events was given. Just as Bennett is about to kill the Doctor, two surviving native Didonians arrive and force Bennett to his death over a ledge. They then stop the signal to prevent the Rescue Ship reaching their planet. With no living family and nothing left for her on Dido, Vicki is welcomed aboard the TARDIS.
## Production
### Conception and writing
The Rescue was written as a short vehicle to introduce Vicki as the new companion, replacing the Doctor's granddaughter, Susan. Producer Verity Lambert had originally booked Pamela Franklin to portray Jenny (originally called Saida) in the previous serial, The Dalek Invasion of Earth, and continue as Susan's replacement; however, Lambert soon changed her mind, and outgoing script editor David Whitaker was commissioned to write a two-part serial to introduce Vicki. Whitaker was officially commissioned on 1 November 1964, the day after his script editor contract with the BBC had expired. The Rescue was the first story under new script editor Dennis Spooner, though he was not credited. Earlier names given to Vicki were Valerie, Lukki, and Millie; the latter was inspired by Millie Small, but the name was considered too similar to comedian Millicent Martin. The draft script for the serial was titled Doctor Who and Tanni, referring to another name considered for Vicki.
The Rescue used the same production team as the following serial, The Romans, and the two were formed to create a single six-episode production block. Christopher Barry was selected to direct the two serials; he was unimpressed with the scripts for The Rescue. With budgeting tight, Barry decided to reuse the score from his previous serial, The Daleks, composed by Tristram Cary. Cary was initially hesitant, having had negative experiences with the reuse of his music in the past. Music from the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh episodes of The Daleks were used in The Rescue; the sound of a Dalek death was reused for the death of Sandy the sand beast in the second episode.
### Casting and characters
After the potential for Franklin's casting expired, Lambert requested camera tests for Maureen O'Brien and Denise Upson to portray Vicki; the two auditioned on 14 September 1964 at the BBC Television Centre, and O'Brien was eventually cast. When O'Brien met with the show's creator Sydney Newman, he told her that they were considering having her cut her hair and dye it black. O'Brien refused, saying, "Why don't you just get Carole Ann Ford back?" O'Brien had just come out of drama school when she was cast as Vicki; it was her first television acting job. Barry originally offered the role of Bennett to Bernard Archard, but he was unavailable. Ray Barrett was cast in the role, described as a "Jekyll and Hyde character". Barry had seen Barrett on television and noted his name due to his rugged face, and "dug him out of the book" when the time came. Barrett played Bennett as a "normal, straight human being" so as not to give the ending away. To preserve the mystery, Koquillion was credited in the first episode as being played by "Sydney Wilson", a name made up by the production team in tribute to two of the creators of Doctor Who, Sydney Newman and Donald Wilson. When designing Koquillion, costume designer Daphne Dare took inspiration from a close-up of a fly. Tom Sheridan was cast to play the voice communicating from the rescue ship, the sand creature, and a Didonian. An agreement was made for Sheridan to be credited as 'Space Captain' only, and he ultimately did not portray a Didonian.
### Filming
The Rescue was the first in a new production block of Doctor Who; the first production block had lasted for 52 weeks, with the final two stories—Planet of Giants and The Dalek Invasion of Earth—held back to open the second season. The regular cast took a six-week break before beginning production on The Rescue. Model filming for the serial began on 16 November 1964 at BBC Television Film Studios on Stage 2. The model spaceships were designed by Raymond Cusick—both in flight and wrecked—and created by Shawcraft Models in ten days. Cusick had found a cheap material he called "reeded hardboard", which was spray-painted silver and used for the outside of the craft prop. Model shots of the TARDIS falling off the mountain were filmed on 17 November.
Rehearsals for the first episode took place from 30 November to 3 December 1964 at the London Transport Assembly Rooms in Wood Green. O'Brien encountered difficulties learning her lines, and became worried when other cast members were able to rehearse without their scripts by the second day. Carole Ann Ford visited on O'Brien's first day to wish her luck. The first episode was recorded on 4 December at Riverside Studios; it overran by 15 minutes. There was a happy atmosphere among the cast, including a picnic in Hartnell's dressing room. After Barrett fell asleep in the studio, the cast and crew left and switched off the lights to make him believe that he had slept all night. Rehearsals for the second episode took place from 7–10 December, with recording on 11 December. In the scene where Barbara shoots the sand beast, the powder in the prop detonated prematurely, and Hill was treated for shock and a sore face. The Dido temple was a large set that was lit in such a way to create a dark atmosphere; dark drapes and smoke were also used.
## Reception
### Broadcast and ratings
The Rescue was broadcast on BBC1 in two weekly parts on 2 January and 9 January 1965. It continued the high ratings of The Dalek Invasion of Earth, with 12 million viewers for the first episode. It was the eleventh most-watched programme of the week, and the top-rated BBC1 show in London and northern England. The second episode had higher ratings, with 13 million viewers, ranking it eighth for the week. The Appreciation Index rose from 57 to 59 across the two episodes. On 13 December 1966, a retention order was issued that included both episodes of The Rescue to be retained by the BBC. However, both episodes were wiped: the first on 17 August 1967 and the second on 31 January 1969. BBC Enterprises had retained telerecordings of both episodes and returned them to the BBC in 1978.
### Critical response
After the first episode's broadcast, T.C. Worsley of the Financial Times felt that the Koquillion was lacking compared to the Daleks, but appreciated its name. At the BBC's Programme Review Board after the second episode, Sydney Newman said that O'Brien had "made a great impact" on the show, noting that her performance had improved others.
Retrospective reviews were generally positive. In The Discontinuity Guide (1995), Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping wrote that the serial "just about works" as an introduction to Vicki, "but it's too inconsequential to sustain any real interest". In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker described the story as "one of the best examples of character-driven drama from this period of the series' history", praising the character of Vicki, though noting that some parts of the plot remained unexplained. In A Critical History of Doctor Who (1999), John Kenneth Muir lauded O'Brien's performance despite Vicki being "a fairly obvious Susan surrogate", and enjoyed the emotional scenes and climax. In 2008, Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times described the serial as a "neglected gem" with a strong debut for Vicki and many production improvements, though noted that the mystery was "a tad obvious". In 2009, DVD Talk's Stuart Galbraith IV felt that the story was strong with a "smart, if somewhat predictable climax and resolution" that worked due to the dialogue. Cliff Chapman of Den of Geek found the serial "charming" and praised the performances, writing that the serial was only let down by its "weak and convenient resolution". Dreamwatch appreciated the pacing but felt that the story was lacking in comparison to The Romans.
## Commercial releases
Ian Marter began adapting the script from The Rescue into a novelisation, but died near completion; Nigel Robinson completed the manuscript. Robinson recalled having to make very few changes to Marter's work, but noted that he cut an entire scene from the first chapter discussing fellatio, as Marter "did have a tendency to see how much he could get away with". The novelisation was published in August 1987 in paperback by Target Books and in hardback by W. H. Allen. The cover was designed by Tony Clark. An audiobook version of the novelisation was published by AudioGO on 1 April 2013, read by Maureen O'Brien.
The Rescue was released on VHS as a double-pack with The Romans by BBC Video in September 1994, with the cover designed by Andrew Skilleter. It was released on DVD in a slipcase with The Romans on 23 February 2009; the Region 1 release followed on 7 July 2009. The serial was released on Blu-ray on 5 December 2022, alongside the rest of the show's second season as part of The Collection.
|
21,605,855 |
Myrmecia nigriceps
| 1,169,028,754 |
Species of ant
|
[
"Endemic fauna of Australia",
"Hymenoptera of Australia",
"Insects described in 1862",
"Myrmeciinae",
"Taxa named by Gustav Mayr"
] |
Myrmecia nigriceps, also known as the black-headed bull ant, is a species of ant endemic to Australia. A member of the genus Myrmecia in the subfamily Myrmeciinae, it was first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. These ants are large, varying from 19 to 23 millimetres (0.75 to 0.91 in) in length. However, colonies contain workers that are much smaller, usually half the size of normal workers. The queens are the largest while the males are the smallest, which can be easily identified due to their small mandibles.
Mainly nocturnal M. nigriceps is found in hot hilly areas and woodland, nesting underground in mounds. The ant's diet consists of sweet liquids from flowering plants and invertebrate prey, which are fed to the carnivorous larvae. Spiders are known to eat these ants, and echidnas consume the larvae and pupae. Like other Myrmecia species, M. nigriceps ants possess a powerful and painful sting, and the venom is capable of inducing allergic reactions in sensitive people.
## Taxonomy
First identified by Gustav Mayr in 1862, Mayr provided the first description of M. nigriceps in his journal Myrmecologische Studien. The species was described under the binomial name Myrmecia nigriceps, based on syntype workers collected from Gayndah and Sydney. In 1907, Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel treated M. nigriceps as a variant of M. vindex, but he eventually treated it as a synonym in 1910. M. nigriceps was revived as a full species in 1933 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler, on the basis that it is distributed throughout Australia and its average size is greater than M. vindex. Scottish born Australian entomologist John S. Clark published one synonym – Myrmecia fasciata, now considered a junior synonym. M. nigriceps is a member of the genus Myrmecia, a part of the primitive subfamily Myrmeciinae; most ancestors of the genus are only found in fossils, with the exception of the dinosaur ant (Nothomyrmecia macrops).
Myrmecia nigriceps is a member of the M. gulosa species group, which is the largest species group of the nine groups described. The specific name, nigriceps, is a combination of the Latin words niger, meaning "black", and caput, meaning "head". This references the distinctive black head of the ant. With this said, M. nigriceps is commonly known as the black-headed bull ant.
## Description
The size of worker ants varies from 19 to 23 millimetres (0.75 to 0.91 in). However, colonies contain very small workers, usually less than half the size of normal sized workers. Despite this, it is not known if M. nigriceps is polymorphic, due to little differences in morphology between the workers in comparison to Formicinae ants and Pheidole, with soldiers having enormous heads. The queens are the largest, measuring around 24 to 26 millimetres (0.94 to 1.02 in), and males being around similar sizes to worker ants at 18 to 20 millimetres (0.71 to 0.79 in). The head and gaster are black, and the thorax, node, and postpetiole are either red or yellowish red, while the antennae and legs are either yellow or testaceous. The mandibles and clypeus are also yellow. The hair is short and yellow in colour, erect on the body and suberect on the legs. The pubescence (short, fine, soft hair) is white and abundant all over the postpetiole and gaster. The head is almost as broad as its total length, and the mandibles are longer than the head with 13 teeth present.
The queen is similar in appearance to the worker, but they are the largest members of the colony. The hair is more abundant, and the head is broader. The mandibles are shorter and broader, although they are still as long as the head. The wings are yellowish in colour and translucent in appearance. Males are the smallest members of the colony and can be easily identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles. The hairs on males are the longest and most abundant among the worker and queen castes, with a long and broad head.
Myrmecia nigriceps is similar in appearance to M. vindex, but several morphological characters distinguish these two species from each other. For example, M. nigriceps is generally larger than M. vindex, and its head is either black or dark brown; the head is broader and more rectangular in workers. The thorax and pedicel are noticeably darker and brownish red. The nests and behaviour, however, of both ants are similar to each other.
## Distribution and habitat
Myrmecia nigriceps is distributed throughout Australia, but the ant is absent from areas in central Australia and the northern Australian coast. The range of M. nigriceps extends from Queensland and down into New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. It is also found in South Australia and Western Australia. Colonies are found in deserts, coastal areas, plateaus, woodland, native vegetation, hot hilly areas covered with scrubby vegetation and in rehabilitated sites, at elevations ranging from 300 to 460 metres (1,000 to 1,500 ft).
Myrmecia nigriceps is a mound constructing species, although colonies can be found under logs. Workers decorate the nest with a variety of items, including lateritic pebbles and soil crumbs, in a similar fashion of meat ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus) nests. Other items used for nest decorating include small stones and plant material.
## Behaviour and ecology
Myrmecia nigriceps ants are crepuscular and nocturnal foragers, searching for food during the night. Workers are found foraging on Eucalyptus trees and is sympatric with many species. Adults are nectarivores, feeding on sweet liquids from plants and the larvae are carnivorous, feeding on captured invertebrates and other ants such as Camponotus workers and males. Cockroaches, such as Platyzosteria castanea and Platyzosteria ruficeps, can repel attacks by M. nigriceps by discharging a secretion that disorientates the attacking workers. Workers begin to forage one hour before sunset, with peak activity occurring during the twilight hours. These ants have excellent vision, having the largest eye lenses and photoreceptors than any other Myrmecia ant. These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away, sensitive to motion and will rapidly charge towards any moving objects to attack it.
These ants are preyed on by the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), and by spiders in the genus Zenodorus, particularly Zenodorus metallescens. Blindsnakes are known to consume the larvae and pupae of these ants. Colonies are also a host for M. inquilina, a social parasite that lays its eggs inside the colony.
Myrmecia nigriceps is an extremely aggressive ant, and larger colonies may rival other colonies of a different Myrmecia species (such as M. gulosa) in terms of fierceness and pugnacity. While the mandibles cause little to no pain in humans, the ant is equipped with a painful and powerful sting that is found at the end of the gaster. Like other ants, the sting is not barbed, and workers are able to sting multiple times without injuring themselves. With a median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) of 7.3 mg/kg, the venom is relatively weak in comparison to other Myrmecia ants, whose LD<sub>50</sub> is much lower. However, in a 2011 study, at least one patient had an allergic reaction to M. nigriceps venom. This study also concluded that many other Myrmecia species can cause anaphylaxis, as well as the Green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica). In the Starr sting pain scale, a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four-point scale, the sting of M. nigriceps was ranked as two in pain, described as "painful". M. nigriceps ants are able to enter colonies they do not reside in without being attacked; this may be due to these ants failing to recognise foreigners, or the consequences of ignoring workers from other colonies is low.
Nuptial flight occurs after rain for several days, taking place between December and March. The males and virgin queens emerge from their nest, and unlike other species who mate on the ground or climb onto nearby trees or branches to fly off from, the reproductive alates will fly from the nest. Recorded nuptial flights usually took place on hilltops. M. nigriceps queens are not known to seal up their entrance during colony foundation, unlike other Myrmecia species such as M. regularis. Workers can live exceptionally long, with an average lifespan of 2.2 years; maximum longevity in workers varied from 2.1 to 2.4 years.
## See also
- List of Myrmecia species
- List of ants of Australia
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12,527,061 |
Zainab Salbi
| 1,172,671,505 |
Iraqi-American women's rights activist (born 1969)
|
[
"1969 births",
"Alumni of the London School of Economics",
"American Muslim activists",
"American Muslims",
"American feminist writers",
"American humanitarians",
"American podcasters",
"American television talk show hosts",
"American women podcasters",
"American women's rights activists",
"American writers of Iraqi descent",
"George Mason University alumni",
"Iraqi Muslims",
"Iraqi emigrants to the United States",
"Iraqi feminists",
"Iraqi humanitarians",
"Iraqi women writers",
"Iraqi women's rights activists",
"Iraqi writers",
"Living people",
"Organization founders",
"People from Baghdad",
"Postmodern feminists",
"Proponents of Islamic feminism",
"Women founders",
"Women humanitarians",
"Women podcasters",
"Writers from Baghdad"
] |
Zainab Salbi (Arabic: زينب سلبي; born 1969) is an Iraqi American women's rights activist, writer, television show host, and podcaster. She is the co-founder of Women for Women International, a non-profit organization that helps women affected by sexual violence and conflict. She hosted Through Her Eyes and \#MeToo, Now What? television shows, about issues affecting women. From 2022 she hosted the Redefined podcast.
In her 2005 memoir Between Two Worlds: Escape from Tyranny: Growing Up in the Shadow of Saddam, Salbi recounted her early life: Born in Baghdad to a father who later became Saddam Hussein's personal pilot, her family arranged her marriage and emigration to the United States, in order to remove her from the proximity of Hussein, who had started showing unwanted attention to her. After an abusive marriage in the U.S., she divorced her husband and started her humanitarian career. She is also the author of the nonfiction book The Other Side of War: Women's Stories of Survival & Hope which documents the stories of women survivors of war.
## Early life and education
Salbi is a Muslim woman born in 1969 in Baghdad, Iraq who grew up with her younger brother. In 1971, she moved to the Mansour district with her parents. Her mother was a biology teacher while her father was an airline pilot. Her mother Alia was a secular Muslim. When Salbi was 11, her father became the personal pilot for Saddam Hussein, who then regularly visited the family at their home while he was president of Iraq. The Iran-Iraq War occurred during her childhood, including missile attacks on Baghdad. She studied languages at an Iraqi university.
In 1990, at the age of 20, Salbi was sent to the United States for an arranged marriage after her mother became concerned about the attention she received from Hussein. She left the marriage after her husband became abusive but could not return to Iraq due to the start of the first Gulf War. She moved to Washington, D.C., worked as a translator, and married Palestinian-American lawyer Amjad Atallah. In 1996, she became a US citizen and completed her bachelor's degree in sociology and women's studies at George Mason University. She has a 2001 master's degree in development studies from the London School of Economics.
## Career
While studying at George Mason University, Salbi learned about the systematic rape during the Bosnian war. In 1993, with Atallah, she launched Women for Women International. Salbi began serving as president, initially with a focus on supporting women in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia expanding to Iraq in 2003. The program linked sponsors in North America with women in Bosnia. Salbi led the organization until her resignation in 2011, during which time its humanitarian and development efforts helped 315,000 women and distributed over \$108 million in direct aid and micro-credit loans. Among the 185 countries that Women for Women International focused on were Afghanistan, Bosnia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kosovo, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sudan, and Iraq.
Salbi is an activist who speaks about sexual violence in conflict. She contributed the 2003 report Winning the Peace Conference Report: Women’s Role in Post-Conflict Iraq published by Women Waging Peace and the Woodrow Wilson Center. She later testified before the United States Congress about the contents of the report. By 2006, Salbi had appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show six times discussing the work of Women for Women International. The same year, the organization was awarded the \$1.5 million Hilton Humanitarian Prize. In January 2005, it produced a report presenting findings from a survey of 1,000 Iraqi women. The report conveyed women's concerns about their safety during the war.
In 2015, Salbi launched the TLC Arabia talk show The Calling, with Oprah Winfrey appearing on the first show. The show was broadcast in 22 countries in the Middle East and North Africa and focused on Arab and Muslim women. In response to her television work, Salbia has been called the "Oprah of the Middle East" and "The Voice of Arabia". In 2016, she launched The Zainab Salbi Project, an original series with Huffington Post. As the host, she dealt with social issues from different parts of the world. In February 2018, she started hosting the PBS television shows \#MeToo, Now What?. The five part series explored how positive change could occur after the aftermath of the MeToo movement, examining issues of gender, race, and social class. As the host, Salbi interviewed political commentator Angela Rye, writer Ijeoma Oluo, activist Nadine Strossen, and a former Alamo Drafthouse Cinema's blog editor who was accused of sexual assault. In 2018, Salbi hosted the Yahoo! News show Through Her Eyes with Zainab Salbi, focusing global issues affecting women.
Salbi is the author of the 2005 memoir Between Two Worlds: Escape from Tyranny: Growing Up in the Shadow of Saddam that documents her childhood, her family's proximity to Saddam Hussein, her arranged marriage, escape from Iraq to the United States, marital abuse, and the start of her humanitarian career. Salbi is the author of the 2006 nonfiction book The Other Side of War, which documents the stories of women who have lived through conflict and inequality and succeeded in community leadership and business. She is also the author of the 2018 self-help book Freedom Is an Inside Job. In 2022, she joined the online mindfulness and spirituality platform FindCenter and began to host the center's podcast Redefined.
## Awards and recognition
In 1995, President Bill Clinton honored Salbi at the White House for her humanitarian work and identified her as a "21st Century Heroine". Time magazine named her Innovator of the Month in March 2005 and she was later profiled for her work as philanthropist. In April the same year, Salbi received a Forbes magazine Trailblazer Award. In 2012, she was one of Barclays' Women of the Year. In 2011, Salbi received a Visionary Leadership Award from the International Festival of Arts & Ideas and was identified as one of the Top 100 Women Activists and Campaigners for her role in setting up Women for Women International by The Guardian. Salbi was identified as an influential Arab woman by Arabian Business, and one of the 100 Global Thinkers in the World by Foreign Policy. With almost 24,000 followers, Fortune identified Salbi as one of the Most Influential Women on Twitter in 2014, noting her women-focused humanitarian work. Gulf Business declared her one of the 100 Most Powerful Arabs in 2019, noting her role leading Women for Women International. Salbi was selected as a jury member of The Hilton Humanitarian Prize in 2020 and 2021.
She has honorary doctorates from the University of York (2014), George Mason University (2019) and Glasgow University (2019). She received the Eleanor Roosevelt Val-Kill Award in 2019 for her writing and television work to advance awareness of issues affecting women. In 2005 she was given the Human Security Award by the University of California, Irvine's Blum Centre for Poverty Alleviation.
## Books
- Between Two Worlds: Escape from Tyranny: Growing Up in the Shadow of Saddam, 2005, ,
- Hidden in plain sight: growing up in the shadow of Saddam, London: Vision, 2006. ,
- The Other Side of War: Women's Stories of Survival & Hope Washington, D.C: National Geographic, 2006. ,
- If You Knew Me You Would Care New York: PowerHouse Books, 2012. ,
- Freedom Is an Inside Job: Owning Our Darkness and Our Light to Heal Ourselves and the World, Sounds True, Incorporated, 2018. ,
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