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ATL (film)
| 1,172,601,313 |
2006 American comedy-drama film by Chris Robinson
|
[
"2000s American films",
"2000s English-language films",
"2000s high school films",
"2000s hip hop films",
"2006 directorial debut films",
"2006 films",
"African-American films",
"American comedy-drama films",
"American coming-of-age films",
"American teen comedy films",
"American teen romance films",
"Culture of Atlanta",
"Films about drugs",
"Films produced by Will Smith",
"Films scored by Aaron Zigman",
"Films set in Atlanta",
"Films shot in Atlanta",
"Hood films",
"Overbrook Entertainment films",
"Roller skating films",
"Warner Bros. films"
] |
ATL is a 2006 American coming-of-age comedy-drama film, and the feature film directorial debut of music video director Chris Robinson. The screenplay was written by Tina Gordon Chism from an original story by Antwone Fisher, and is loosely based on the experiences of the film's producers Dallas Austin and Tionne "T-Boz" Watkins growing up in Atlanta, Georgia (ATL). The film is a coming-of-age tale concerning Rashad, played by Atlanta native and hip hop artist T.I. (credited as Tip Harris) in his film debut, and his friends in their final year in high school and on the verge of adulthood. The film also stars Antwan Andre Patton, more commonly known as Big Boi of the hip hop group OutKast, Evan Ross, Jackie Long, Jason Weaver, Lauren London, and Mykelti Williamson.
ATL was the first feature film for its director and the majority of its cast. Filmed in Atlanta, Georgia in summer 2005, many celebrities from the city make cameo appearances, including Bone Crusher, Jazze Pha, Killer Mike, and Monica. ATL received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the performances and soundtrack, but criticized the direction and formulaic script. It has since become a cult film among the rap community.
## Plot
Rashad Swann is a teen living in Mechanicsville, Atlanta, Georgia with his Uncle George, and his little brother, Ant. He and his brother were raised by George since their parents died in a car accident, and they work with him as part of his custodial company. When not working or finishing his last semester of high school, Rashad spends most of his time with his friends.
Rashad is a talented artist but does not see much of a future in that field as he has become accustomed to working the family business, cleaning offices and building spaces. Benjamin “Esquire” Gordon, Rashad's best friend, goes to Mount Paran Academy, a private school on the opposite side of town from where they live, and has dreams of attending Brinton University, an Ivy League college after senior year. However, he finds out that he will need a letter of recommendation from someone of high stature to better his chances of acceptance at said school.
Unlike Esquire, Rashad attends Mechanicsville High School, on the opposite side of the city. Along with his other two friends, one being Teddy, who is 21 years old and has yet to graduate, and the other being Brooklyn, who's from New York, and always has to constantly remind the group of where he's from. Rashad's younger brother Ant, also attends, Rashad tries his best to keep the promise he made to his parents which was to keep his little brother on the right path, but he usually fails because of Ant's hard-headed nature. Rashad and his friends are a month away from graduating high school and they're all at the same point in their lives, pondering on what's the next step.
While hanging with his friends at a Waffle House, Rashad encounters the mysterious New New along with her friends Veda & Star, twins who have a knack for stealing clothes from the mall. Rashad inquires about what school New New attends since she's only around when the group is hanging out. Rashad and his friends are also a skate crew called “The Ones” at Cascade, a skating rink which they attend every Sunday Night, they're on a quest to win Skate Wars, a skating competition that could secure them bragging rights for the remainder of the Summer. As Brooklyn quits another job, the group goes to the local community swimming pool, and are informed by New New that Big Booty Judy is throwing a party to celebrate their upcoming graduation from High School. While at the pool Ant encounters Marcus’ cousin Austin, who quit school to sell drugs for his cousin, he then introduces Ant to Marcus.
At the graduation party, Rashad and New New make their moves on each other, and after a misstep with Rashad's ex Tonya, they state their attractions toward one another. As Veda & Star get caught by their mother Gayle for stealing clothes at the mall, New New would have to leave the party prematurely as they all come together, but Rashad offers to give her a ride home. As he gives her a ride home in his Chevrolet El Camino they kiss each other. Esquire has since developed a disliking for Rashad's new love interest, considering her and the twins bad company.
Ant becomes more and more involved with Marcus and begins to sell for him. Rashad tries to talk sense into Ant after he skips his history class by showing him the money he's been saving up ever since their parents passing, so Ant can get out of Mechanicsville and have a shot at attending college when he graduates High School. At school, Ant meets up with Jay who inquires about the drugs that Ant is selling, but the youth lies and says he doesn't sell. Ant then informs his friends that he knows Jay is a narc. As Ant is having sex with Tondie in the backseat of a car, he sees Austin getting beat up by Marcus as he was short on some drug money.
At work one day, Esquire meets John Garnett, a millionaire. During a game of golf, the two get to know each other and become friends, with Esquire seeing an opportunity to obtain the letter of recommendation that he so desperately needs. When Esquire goes to Garnett's house to have dinner and receive the letter, he meets his daughter Erin, who turns out to be New-New. Esquire wants to tell Rashad about Erin but is conflicted when Erin says that she will reveal to her father where Esquire is really from, as he lied to Garnett about it while they were playing golf.
Ant becomes reckless and eventually ends up selling drugs to Jay, who tips off the police. Ant is then arrested after the police raid his locker. Marcus bails him out of jail and tells him he will have to put in some overtime to recoup the money and drugs the police took. Ant and Rashad have a fight after the former's arrest and are broken up by Uncle George, who then ends up arguing with Rashad after suggesting that maybe him selling drugs might not be a bad thing.
During what seems to be a normal Sunday night at the skating rink, Erin's lies suddenly catch up with her as her father shows up at Cascade and takes her back home. The next day she drives to Rashad's house to try to explain herself and apologize but Rashad doesn't want to hear anything she has to say, effectively breaking up with her. Feeling betrayed, he then alienates his friends after realizing that Esquire knew about Erin after realizing she was driving the same car sitting in the driveway of John Garnett's house. Esquire, feeling guilty about the way he obtained the letter, decides to return it to Garnett, and reveals the truth about himself much to the chagrin of Garnett. On the Last Sunday Night, Esquire attempts to make peace with Rashad and he, along with the rest of their friends, pleads with him to attend Skate Wars.
Rashad initially refuses the offer, but changes his mind after speaking to Uncle George. Before he can attend he gets a call from Marcus who is looking for Ant, as he failed to check in after he was robbed of the money he was supposed to use to pay off his debt after his arrest. Marcus corners Ant and is about to shoot him but Rashad tracks the two down and after a confrontation Ant is shot in the neck. At the hospital, Rashad and Ant reconnect. Rashad and his friends make peace as well, each going on to succeed in their endeavors.
Teddy finally graduated from High School and opened up his own gold teeth shop called “Gangsta Grillz.” Brooklyn was finally able to secure a long-term job. After a change of heart from John Garnett, Esquire received a “mysterious” Letter of Recommendation to attend Brinton University, the Ivy League school of his dreams. Veda & Star still remained at the skating rink causing trouble every Sunday night. Uncle George let go of the dating sites, went to church, and found a girlfriend. New New was finally able to convince her parents to let her attend Spelman College with Rashad glad she'd still be close to him. After his ordeal with Marcus, Ant finally stopped trying to become a drug dealer and got himself together in school, becoming an honors student. Rashad was able to take his artistic talents and draw for the comics section of the newspaper, realizing his father's prediction of when he'd finally put his skates down.
## Cast
- T.I. as Rashad Swann, the narrator of the story and director Richard Slade. Chris Robinson had directed Harris' first music video four years prior to the creation of ATL, and was very impressed by his charisma and presence. "But on this film he came to the table, worked so hard and never tried to be T.I.—he became Rashad." On being a part of the film's production, Harris said he felt "it was the most honest representation of my culture and my city ever to be put on screen and the largest production to be ever filmed in Atlanta, so I [feel] somewhat obligated."
- Evan Ross as Anton "Ant" Swann, Rashad's younger brother. ATL marks Ross' film debut, which he says actually made his first foray easier, since it was also co-star T.I.'s debut. "It's his first movie too, and that has been good because we’ve been able to find ways of doing it together that has made it a lot easier for each of us."
- Lauren London as Erin “New New” Garnett, Rashad's love interest and John Garnett's daughter. The character of New-New was loosely based on R&B group TLC's "T-Boz as a kid," said London. "I talked to her about my character... she explained to me how it was when she was young—the attitude and the flavor. And it's funny, a lot of people say that I act like she used to act at the skating rink.” Director Robinson was impressed by London and "everything from her look, to the fact that she's new. And there's just so much truth in her, and she doesn't know how to lie yet as an actress. It was perfect."
- Jackie Long as Benjamin "Esquire" Gordon, Rashad’s childhood best friend. The character of Esquire was inspired by a friend of producer Austin's, who worked at a country club but would tell his friends he worked at a hot dog joint. "And you'd think his family had money, but he lived in the projects." Long auditioned a year prior to shooting the film at the director's home in California. "And he was a long shot but he came in and he became that character," said Robinson.
- Jason Weaver as Teddy, a close friend of Rashad's. Weaver impressed producer Austin in his previous film Drumline enough to get a role in ATL. The director felt that Weaver, the veteran of the young cast, and his experience would be helpful to the other cast members.
- Albert Daniels as Brooklyn Bridges, a New York transplant and another one of Rashad's friends. Robinson had known Daniels since he was a fifteen-year-old production assistant on his music video shoots in New York. "He was an annoying little kid who got fired every time he was a P.A. because he was so inquisitive. But every time they fired him I'd bring him back because I felt like he always had something." Eight years later, Robinson ran into Daniels at a poetry reading in New York City, and told him to audition for the film. Daniels didn't have any money to get to Atlanta where he had to audition, so he hustled money doing poetry in subways, and bought a bus ticket to get there.
- Big Boi as Marcus, the drug dealer Ant begins to work for. He serves as the antagonist of the film, as he plans to lure Ant from Rashad for his own profit. The film also marked Big Boi's film debut. As said by director Robinson in reference to Big Boi's performance, "he wasn't the normal kind of a bad guy. He put so much charisma and flavor behind it. We loved it."
- Keith David as John Garnett, Erin's father and Esquire's acquaintance. He is unaware of the fact that Esquire is lying about who he really is.
- Mykelti Williamson as “Uncle” George Swann, Rashad and Ant's uncle and guardian. George means well but he is very stingy with his snacks so he keeps them locked up in his room or labels them "Property of George". When Rashad and Ant fall out about Ant's drug dealing, George says things to Rashad he doesn't mean but they later make up.
- April Clark as Tondie, Ant's girlfriend. At first, she was rude to Ant when he would try to talk to her. After he begins to become more popular, she begins to develop a crush on him and asks him to be her boyfriend.
- Khadijah Haqq as Veda, New New's friend and Star's twin sister.
- Malika Haqq as Star, New New's friend and Veda's twin sister.
- Lonette McKee as Priscilla Garnett, Erin's mother and John Garnett's wife.
- Markice Moore as Austin, Ant's friend and Marcus' cousin.
- Tae Heckerd as Tonya, Rashad's ex-girlfriend.
- Tasha Smith as Gayle, Veda and Star's mother.
- Monique "Whyte Chocolate" Harris-Ford as Sexy Pizza Customer.
- Buffie Carruth as Big Booty Judy.
- Monica as Monica The Waitress
- Big Gipp as himself. (Cameo)
- Bone Crusher as himself
- Killer Mike as himself
- Jazze Pha as himself
## Soundtrack
The music for ATL was to be released in the form of a soundtrack album, however during the recording process of the soundtrack, the focus shifted towards T.I.'s fourth studio album King; featuring singles such as “What You Know” and “Ride Wit Me” the album ultimately served as the soundtrack to the film.
Among other songs featured during the film include:
- ”Git Up, Git Out” by Big Boi and André 3000 (Outkast) along with Goodie Mob's Cee-Lo Green and Big Gipp, from Outkast's 1994 debut album, Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik.
- Lyfe Jennings's “Must Be Nice”.
- Aaliyah's “At Your Best (You Are Love)”.
- ”Georgia” by Ludacris and Field Mob featuring Jamie Foxx, sampling Ray Charles' “Georgia on My Mind”. Foxx was chosen to feature on the song after playing Charles in the 2004 biopic Ray.
## Production
ATLs story is loosely based on material by producers Dallas Austin and Tionne Watkins, who set out to describe their experiences growing up on the south side of Atlanta in the early '90s. Watkins and producer Jody Gerson approached James Lassiter with the idea of a story about a skating rink that many involved in the Atlanta music scene had started at, and how all of these people would attend the rink every Sunday night in their teen years.
Chris Robinson''', a renowned music video director, was contacted with an offer to direct Austin and Watkins' visualization, and took on his first feature with ATL. The film's producers decided Robinson would be well-suited for the project because of his ability to capture the music-driven aspects of the film, as provided by his experience in the field. They also cited his talent in storytelling. According to producer Austin, "a lot of music video directors can't capture the story, so what we'd do was turn on the directors' tapes, turn down the music and just watch to see if we could find the story. Chris was far and away the best." About making ATL his first feature, Robinson stated that "as a music video director, I'd get a lot of scripts that had to do with really big visual pictures. But I wanted to start off doing something that had heart." After being hired, Robinson traveled to Atlanta and spent time with Austin to try to soak up the vibe and energy of the unique city.
Open auditions were held in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York to comb the crowd for candidates who could compose the film's ensemble cast. Robinson had already decided he wanted relatively unknown actors to perform in the film. Once the cast was assembled, Robinson had his actors converge in Atlanta for six weeks to rehearse the script and familiarize themselves with each other. "All this young black talent out there, all these young black actors who don't get a shot or who have to wait years to get their shot, are getting their shot in this film, and they're bringing it."
Three months prior to the start of production, the actors gathered at Atlanta's Skatetown to begin training for the skating sequences in the film. Some had never been on roller skates before. Vaughn Newton, the actors' skate captain, worked with them rigorously, usually practicing five hours a day. “Lauren and the twins, Malika and Khadijah, adapted very quickly," said Newton. "The guys came along a little slower. Al Be, Jason and Jackie Long developed very fast. T.I. was determined to learn. They were all great students and very supportive of each other.”
In addition to the main cast, Robinson decided to include numerous cameos in the film, generally involving people popular in the Atlanta music scene, a core element of the movie. Music producer Jazze Pha played the skating rink's DJ; Rico Wade, a part of the Atlanta-based production team Organized Noize, who also frequented Jellybeans in the early '90s, made an appearance as well. R&B singer Monica, a protégé of producer Austin's, also plays a Waffle House waitress in the film. A few of the south's most sought after music video models made appearances as well including 'Whyte Chocolate' also known as Monique Harris-Ford. There are also cameos from rappers Bone Crusher, Konkrete, and Killer Mike.
Dallas Austin coordinated the music for the film, which executive producer Timothy M. Bourne says is "all new music that's rooted in the Atlanta vibe." Austin had already produced his first feature with Drumline in 2002, and wanted to be sure ATL would be similarly authentic to the culture of his hometown by using its current hip-hop scene as the story's backdrop. Music in the environment of the rink was the way Austin pitched the film "as a way to make a musical without putting Singin' in the Rain on the screen... without the kids breaking into song. I'm determined to show Hollywood and New York the culture from the South."
Under the working title "Jellybean", the film was shot over a span of six weeks in fifty-two locales throughout the city of Atlanta. Filming took place in the summer, sometimes in temperatures over a hundred degrees, challenging the cast and crew's ability to stay motivated. "A lot of times we had to motivate each other to say 'listen, up your game. Go hard,'" said Robinson. "And sometimes we needed to step back, take a breath, so we could get through."
### Design
Chris Robinson and Robb Buono, the film's production designer, decided that the script was composed of two distinct parts—the reality of the teens' lives and the time they spent at the skating rink. According to Buono, "we wanted to look at it [the rink] through rose colored glasses, because when you think back on your memories of that time period—no matter what age you are—you see everything bigger. Our goal was to make that roller skating rink a character that grows as we keep coming back, and each time it's more magical—a Saturday Night Fever-like contrast to the reality of life.” Robinson and Buono chose to shoot at the Cascade Family Skating Rink in Atlanta after visiting and witnessing the energy and excitement of the rink. However, the filmmakers felt Cascade's interior design was too bland and decided it should be redesigned.
Buono chose black and red for the rink's new color palette. Red was used for its intensity and energy, and black was utilized because the rink would appear larger. Additionally, usage of black would contrast more boldly with the red colors. The ceiling above the rink was removed for lighting purposes. The rink floor was also refinished with darker colors to provide better light reflection. Rigging for the lights became an artistic challenge for Buono. Working with the art department, the rigging electrics and the rigging grips, he designed a wagon wheel effect that moved with the motion of the skating and allowed the lights to be programmed, aesthetically lighting both ends of the rink and capturing the action of the skating sequences. The skate rental section, arcade and snack bar were redesigned at the rink as well, so that the areas besides the skating floor wouldn't feel monotonous. “We did every inch of that rink,” said Buono. “The carpet on the walls, painting the ceiling, putting in the lights, painting the snack bar, changing the color of the tables. We used a lot of neon and bold bright colors.”
## Release
### Box office
ATL was released on March 28, 2006 in 1,602 theatres across the U.S. The film grossed at \$11,554,404, and ranked third at the box office behind Ice Age: The Meltdown at one and Spike Lee's Inside Man at two; the film's opening weekend was a success. Its second weekend profits were considerably lower, as the film only earned \$3,710,215, enough for it to reach seventieth place on the list of widely released films with the biggest weekend drops in the last twenty-six years. The film made less money in the following weekends, and by the end of its theatrical run ATL had accumulated a total of \$21,170,563. After the theater take of approximately 50%, ATL earned around half of its production cost, producing a significant loss.
### Home video
The film was released in the U.S. on DVD and HD-DVD July 18, 2006. DVD features include a behind-the-scenes featurette, deleted scenes, star T.I.'s music video for his single "What You Know," and the film's theatrical trailer. The film was also released on Blu-ray on November 14, 2006.
## Reception
### Critical response
ATL received generally positive reviews from critics. At Allmovie, the film was given three stars, and critic Derek Armstrong, in a positive review of the film, stated that the film is only an average coming of age story "because some substance must take a backseat to all this beautifully crafted style." Melissa Walters at BlackFilm.com, while believing some of the writing to be clichéd and the story familiar, also called the film "heartfelt, genuine, and enjoyable." Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars in his Chicago Sun-Times review, declaring the film "warm" and praising the screenplay's "unforced, genuine affection for its characters."
IGN.com gave the film a 4/5 rating, naming Robinson's directorial debut "masterful." On Metacritic the film a had a weighted average score of 63 out of 100 based on 25 reviews. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film averaged a 62% approval rate based on 86 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Strong lead performances and catchy musical interludes rescue this coming-of-age story from its formulaic script and uneven direction.". Ruthe Stein from the San Francisco Chronicle called the film one of the better kind of its genre, praising the performances of the young cast, and the film's star T.I. in particular. At Yahoo! Movies, based on 13 reviews the film has averaged a B− by the critics standards.
Not all reviews of the picture were so enthusiastic. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly graded the film a B−, saying that while the skating scenes are a blast, the film stumbles when it attempts to be too much for too many audiences. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times said he was surprised that with so many untested actors rounding out the main cast, "the most amateurish thing about it is the script." Genzlinger also called the screenplay cliché-marred and predictable, while giving credit to the young actors of the film. He was also critical of Chris Robinson's direction, stating that he "can't stay with a scene long enough to let his actors build momentum." At The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Bob Longino provided a negative review of the movie, pointing it out as "boring, uninteresting, and slow". Longino said that T.I. and Big Boi's performances improved as the film progressed, and that there were a few laugh-out-loud comedic moments in the film.
### Accolades
## Possible sequel
On January 7, 2015, Chris Robinson posted a teaser poster of the sequel on Instagram with the main cast in it confirming that a sequel is in the works. On March 4, 2015, T.I. confirmed on his Instagram that an ATL 2'' is set to be released. In 2021, after years of being believed to be in development hell, Robinson posted a teaser trailer for the sequel featuring most of the original main cast.
## See also
- List of hood films
|
67,498,162 |
Punctelia graminicola
| 1,138,159,081 |
Species of lichen
|
[
"Fungi without expected TNC conservation status",
"Lichen species",
"Lichens described in 1942",
"Lichens of Africa",
"Lichens of Argentina",
"Lichens of Brazil",
"Lichens of Mexico",
"Lichens of the United States",
"Punctelia",
"Taxa named by Maurice Bouly de Lesdain"
] |
Punctelia graminicola is a species of foliose (leafy) lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It grows on rocks, and, less frequently, on bark in North America, South America, and East Africa. It has a blue-grey thallus measuring up to about 15 cm (6 in), covered with tiny pores called pseudocyphellae. Sometimes the lichen forms small lobes that project out from the surface. Fruiting bodies are uncommon in this species; if present, they resemble small cups with a brown internal disc measuring 3–10 mm (0.1–0.4 in) in diameter. A lookalike species, Punctelia hypoleucites, is not readily distinguishable from Punctelia graminicola by appearance or habitat alone; these species can only be reliably differentiated by examining the length of their conidia (asexual spores).
First described in 1942 from specimens collected in New Mexico by Brother Arsène Brouard, the type specimen, stored in Dunkirk, was destroyed during World War II. After that, the name was relegated to synonymy with Punctelia subrudecta. In 1980, the species became known as Parmelia semansiana after studies published by William and Chicita Culberson; a couple of years later it was transferred to the new genus Punctelia, created to contain Parmelia-like species with pseudocyphellae on the thallus surface. Its name was changed again after, in 2001, some of Brouard's collections were rescued from disposal at a local landfill. Among this material were duplicates of the original collection that used the original epithet graminicola.
## Taxonomy
The lichen was first formally described in 1942 as a new species by French lichenologist Maurice Bouly de Lesdain, as Parmelia graminicola. The type specimens were collected by Brother Arsène Brouard, a Lasallian Catholic monk, in 1935 from two sites near Las Vegas, New Mexico, at an altitude of 1,900 m (6,200 ft). The specific epithet graminicola suggests a close association with grasses, as gramini refers to the grass family Gramineae, while the ending -cola indicates a dweller or inhabitant, and is usually used to imply the habitat. However, Bouly de Lesdain noted that the lichen was found growing on mosses and the spikemoss Selaginella. Bouly de Lesdain kept this material, and other collections sent to him by Brouard, at his private herbarium in Dunkirk. The herbarium was destroyed during the bombing of Dunkerque in World War II, and his collections were destroyed. After the loss of the type material, the name Parmelia graminicola was often later relegated to synonymy with Punctelia subrudecta. In his original description of Parmelia graminicola, Bouly de Lesdain had noted its similarity to P. subrudecta.
In 1980, William and Chicita Culberson reported their observations on the differences in the length of the conidia in populations of Parmelia hypoleucites collected from Arizona and Mexico. They noted that the long-form conidia morphs (P. hypoleucites) grew on bark and had a range restricted to woodlands of the Mexican highlands, while the short-form conidia morphs grew on rocks and were widespread in south-central North America, with few occurrences in regions with the long-form morph. They used this dimorphism to distinguish the short-form morph as a distinct species, P. semansiana, using the larger of Müller's specimens as the type of this new species. Hildur Krog transferred Parmelia semansiana and 21 other Parmelia species with rounded (punctate) pseudocyphellae to the newly circumscribed genus Punctelia in 1982.
In 2001, after Robert Shaw Egan discovered that some of Brouard's collections had been rescued from being disposed at a local (New Mexico) landfill, the specimens were transferred to Arizona State University and curated. Among the lichens were specimens collected in 1935 close to the Chimayó dam, thus at the same time and place as some of the specimens on which the species description of Parmelia graminicola was based; Egan suggested that they are isotypes (i.e. duplicates of the holotype) or isosyntypes (i.e., duplicates of syntypes) of the original specimens. P. semansiana was found to be identical with P. graminicola.
## Description
The thallus of Punctelia graminicola measures 3.0–14.5 cm (1.2–5.7 in) in diameter. It comprises irregularly branched lobes, often crowded or overlapping, measuring 2–4 mm (0.08–0.16 in) wide. The upper thallus surface is blue-grey to greenish-grey, often with brown margins, and usually smooth and without pruina. Herbarium specimens tend to turn brown. Pseudocyphellae on the thallus surface range in number from occasional to abundant. They are circular to irregularly shaped, measuring 0.03–0.6 by 0.03–0.4 mm. The medulla is white. Propagules such as isidia or soralia are absent in this species, but sometimes the lichen forms lobules – small lobes (lacinulae) on the lobe margins that project out from the surface. Adriano Spielmann and Marcelo Marcelli have noted that Punctelia graminicola has a broad species concept, as it include individuals both with and without lacinulae. The thallus undersurface ranges in color from pale tan to light to medium brown, with sparse, light-colored rhizines. These rhizines are completely covered by a cortex.
The upper cortex is paraplenctenchymatous; this means that it is made of a type of tissue in which the hyphae are oriented in all directions, analogous to the parenchyma of plants. Depending on the dimensions of the thallus, the upper cortex is between 3 and 7 cells thick. It comprises three distinct layers: the top layer is made of small rounded cells that contact the epicortex; the lower layer is itself organised into two layers of larger, thicker-walled cells with a gelatinous appearance. Covering the upper cortex is a thin epicortex, which is continuous even over the pseudocyphellae. The pseudocyphellae are formed from the inside to outside of the thallus. Hyphae in the medulla are organized in circular groups at specific sites of the thallus; these groups of hyphae push the algal cells towards the upper cortex—rupturing both cortex and epicortex—and exposing the medulla. The size of the pore gradually increases as the cortical cells around the inside perimeter disintegrate and the medullary hyphae grow into the pore area.
Punctelia graminicola occasionally makes apothecia, although they are absent or immature in some individuals. They are cup shaped with a brown disc measuring 3–10 mm (0.1–0.4 in) in diameter. There are often abundant pseudocyphellae on the folded margins of the apothecia. The ascospores are more or less spherical to broadly ellipsoid, translucent, and measure 7–14 by 6–9 μm. Depending on the individual lichen, pycnidia can be rare or abundant. They are immersed in the thallus surface, resembling brown to black dots. They produce conidia that are usually like short, translucent rods and have a length of 5–6 by 1 μm; in rare instances the conidia are hooklike (unciform).
The expected results of standard lichen spot tests for Punctelia graminicola are K+ (yellow), C−, KC−, P−, and UV− in the upper cortex; the cortex contains atranorin as a minor or trace component, and chloroatranorin in trace amounts. In the medulla, spot test results are K−, KC+ (red), C+ (red), P−, and UV−, indicating the presence of lecanoric acid.
Punctelia hypoleucites is quite similar in appearance, and can be reliably distinguished from Punctelia graminicola by the length of its conidia (11–12 μm). Unlike Punctelia graminicola, which grows on both rock and bark (the latter much less frequently), Punctelia hypoleucites only grows on bark.
## Habitat and distribution
Punctelia graminicola grows on rocks, or on mosses that are on rocks. It has been recorded growing on a wide variety of rocks: basalt, conglomerate, granite, limestone, rhyolite, sandstone, schist, and volcanic. Much less frequently, it grows on bark. Recorded bark substrates include Fouquieria, Cupressus, and Quercus. In the United States, Punctelia graminicola occurs in the central US east to the Appalachians. It is common in the Great Plains region, extending to the southwestern part of the country. The Culbersons note that in the US, the lichen is only commonly found on trees in the centre of its range, while being largely confined to rock in the peripheries of its range. They suggest that the lichen "is primarily adapted to life on rock, extending substrate tolerance to bark only under the most favorable ecological conditions".
In Mexico Punctelia graminicola is widely distributed across the northern and central parts of the country. Its range continues south into Central America. In South America, its distribution includes Argentina and Brazil. In East Africa (where it was recorded as P. semansiana), it is rare; it is known from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.
|
27,324,038 |
The War for Late Night
| 1,147,957,380 |
Book by Bill Carter
|
[
"2010 Tonight Show conflict",
"2010 non-fiction books",
"Books about Los Angeles",
"Books about television",
"Conan O'Brien",
"Jay Leno",
"Works about public relations"
] |
The War for Late Night: When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy is a 2010 non-fiction book written by The New York Times media reporter Bill Carter. It chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late-night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O'Brien and Jay Leno. It is a sequel to Carter's 1994 book The Late Shift, which detailed the struggle for the hosting spot on The Tonight Show between David Letterman and Jay Leno in the early 1990s following the retirement of Johnny Carson. It was first published on November 4, 2010, by Viking Press.
The book received a generally favorable reception from reviewers including Associated Press, BusinessWeek, The Buffalo News, New York Magazine, Star Tribune, The Hollywood Reporter, The Washington Post, Entertainment Weekly, New York Post, Los Angeles Times, Time, and ABC News. The Las Vegas Review-Journal said, "The War for Late Night ... offers an exhaustive, eye-opening, how-could-he-possibly-know-that look at the late-night feud that ultimately was a muddled victory for Leno: He won back The Tonight Show, but his ratings have fallen below O'Brien's."
## Background
Author Bill Carter previously wrote The Late Shift, a book about the 1991-92 conflict between Jay Leno and David Letterman to decide who would succeed Johnny Carson as host of The Tonight Show. The book was well received by critics from publications including The New York Times Book Review, and The Christian Science Monitor.
## Research
Carter researched for the book during 2010. He had secured a publishing deal for the book by January of that year. Carter confirmed to Gillian Reagan of Business Insider that in his research, he tried to gather information from multiple viewpoints. He said, "I'm reaching out to everyone I possibly can to get every side of the story." Carter said that he was remaining neutral about the 2010 Tonight Show conflict. "I obviously have to reach out to all sides", he said. "For the longest time, I personally tried to watch as many episodes of all the shows as I could to get sense of each show, and what each guy does. I don't just pick one and stick with that guy." Carter researched the impact of financial decision-making on the controversy. He said he had known Leno for a long time, and O'Brien since he began working for NBC, and that these connections gave him the benefit of familiarity.
## Contents
The War for Late Night chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late-night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O'Brien and Jay Leno. Carter gives biographical description of other late-night television personalities, including David Letterman, Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Craig Ferguson, Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert. As host of Late Night with Conan O'Brien, O'Brien decided to remain with NBC after attempts by ABC and Fox to attract him to their networksas NBC executives had told O'Brien that he would become host of The Tonight Show after Leno's retirement. While hosting The Tonight Show and analyzing ratings results, O'Brien told his manager Gavin Polone that he feared that Leno might be moved back to the program. Carter's book contains details of O'Brien's and Leno's contracts, and describes O'Brien's emotional state during the 2010 conflict. According to Carter, Leno had an advantage during negotiations because of a stronger contract agreement with NBC, which gave Leno the option to sue NBC if his program was canceled.
NBC executives tried to solve the problem so that both Leno and O'Brien would keep their jobs. Jeff Gaspin, the chairman of NBC Universal Television, instructed both parties that he did not wish to make a difficult decision but that the most appropriate solution was to move Leno back to his previous timeslot and push O'Brien to 12:05. Carter details a heated exchange between NBC executive Jeff Zucker and O'Brien's agent Rick Rosen during which Zucker told O'Brien's representatives he could enforce O'Brien's contract and "ice him for two years", after details of the conflict were leaked to the media. The author cites O'Brien's disappointment with the perceived unfairness of the situation, and quotes O'Brien's comments at a meeting with NBC Entertainment and Universal Media Studios chairman Marc Graboff and Jeff Gaspin, "I know how hard I worked for this. It was promised to me. I had a shitty lead-in." Carter recounts how affiliates of NBC complained to the network about the poor ratings performance of Leno's program The Jay Leno Show. O'Brien asked the two NBC executives, "What does Jay have on you? What does this guy have on you people? What the hell is it about Jay?"
Carter writes about how the "Team Coco" movement and fans impacted O'Brien following the controversy, "The outpouring of support made Conan feel as if he was starring in his own version of the movie It's a Wonderful Life, both because he was allowed to see a 'Tonight Show' where he never existed and because the support made him realize he really was 'the richest man in town.'" O'Brien was hurt by the fact that Leno did not communicate directly with him during the fiasco. Carter also says that compared to the eventual payout to O'Brien of \$45 million, NBC would have suffered a financial loss of \$235 million if O'Brien had left the company in 2004 to host a talk show for another network. O'Brien moved from NBC to host his own late night program on TBS. Carter's work concludes with an interview from comic Jerry Seinfeld, who favored Leno; Seinfeld argues that O'Brien should have remained at NBC.
## Reception
Writing for New York Post, Larry Getlen wrote, "Veteran journalist Bill Carter details the vicious recent battle over The Tonight Show, showing how Leno was hardly the devious schemer he was made out to be, and how O’Brien was not always the angelic innocent the media portrayed, as he and his team aggressively pursued the show at every opportunity." Jon Bershad of Mediaite commented, "It’s as tense and exciting as expected." Writing for TV Squad, Joel Keller analyzed Carter's comparison of Leno's legal contract with O'Brien's, and wrote that the author "paints a picture of Leno and his producer, Debbie Vickers, as pragmatists and Conan as a cockeyed idealist". Joe Flint of Los Angeles Times commented about changes in the media industry since Carter's prior book The Late Shift, "The only difference is that the media world has changed a lot then, and while The Late Shift had a lot of inside dirt and drama that was news to everyone but the most hardcore industry insiders, this time around the soap opera played out on TV and in the media." James Poniewozik of Time wrote, "There are lots of juicy bits, but the big takeaway: the guy with the best contract, wins", and called the book, "Bill Carter's Jaypocalypse dirt-disher". Writing for ABC News, journalist Sheila Marikar commented, "Bill Carter's new book, 'The War for Late Night,' reveals what happened behind the scenes, the expletives that were hurled during closed-door discussions, the roller coaster that O'Brien, Leno, and their cohorts rode during that tumultuous time."
Frazier Moore of Associated Press wrote, "He plays this latest late-night conflagration right down the middle. He keeps the story moving almost cinematically, crosscutting from one personality to another, deftly and revealingly presenting different points of view." Writing for BusinessWeek, Jim Windolf gave the book a rating of three stars out of a possible five, and commented, "Bill Carter has become the Bob Woodward of the 11:35 time slot." Paula Duffy of HULIQ News described the book as "a juicy tell-all". Dylan Stableford of TheWrap called the book "a must-read" for fans of Conan O'Brien. Jeff Simon of The Buffalo News called the book a "definitive history" of the 2010 Tonight Show conflict. Willa Paskin wrote for New York Magazine that Carter, "spoke with enough people involved in the situation to provide an account so detailed, it even includes re-created conversations and dialogue". Neal Justin of Star Tribune commented on the author's neutrality in his writing style, "The next time network TV executives stumble into an ugly behind-the-scenes battle, they should consider hiring Bill Carter to negotiate. The veteran New York Times media reporter has a way of sharing juicy stories without painting anyone as a complete saint or sinner, a feat he pulls off again in his latest book, 'The War for Late Night: When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy'".
Nate Jones wrote for Time magazine, "There are no landmark surprisesJay Leno comes off as affably opportunistic, Conan O'Brien as a tragic self-dramatist with a little bit of a martyrdom complexbut it's a worthwhile look at the procedural negotiations that led to last winter's messy divorce." The Hollywood Reporter said, "Bill Carter's book reveals explosive new details about the Jay Leno-O'Brien debacle." Kyle Anderson of MTV.com wrote, "the story takes an amazingly candid look at the conversations and arguments that went on behind the scenes. It even takes you to the moment when O'Brien decides that he has to walk away from 'The Tonight Show.'" Paul Schwartzman of The Washington Post wrote that it "is a great read and an example of narrative journalism's power when practiced by a reporter steeped in his subject matter." Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly gave Carter's book a rating of B−, and wrote, "In the end, Carter presents a pretty compelling argument that while the fourth-place network lost the public relations war, it probably won the late-night battle." Speaking on his program The Howard Stern Show, host Howard Stern said of Carter's writing style, "It is just endlessly fascinating the way he paints this picture."
## Film adaptation
On January 19, 2010, during O'Brien's last week of shows, guest Quentin Tarantino jokingly suggested that he direct a sequel to The Late Shift, cast O'Brien as himself and make it a revenge movie in the style of his film Kill Bill with the title Late Shift 2: The Rolling Thunder of Revenge. The Toronto Star reported in February 2010 that a sequel to The Late Shift film was in planning stages. In the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, O'Brien said he wished that actress Tilda Swinton could portray him in the film, an idea in which Swinton subsequently expressed interest.
When asked in a June 2010 interview with Movieline about the prospects of a film adaptation, Carter responded in the negative, saying, "Not really. Nothing serious. Let's put it this way: There have always been people kicking it around because they think it's funny ... Letterman made a ... joke saying that Max von Sydow should play him. So, you know, people are just kicking it around like that." Actor Bob Balaban, who portrayed NBC executive Warren Littlefield in The Late Shift said he would like to portray Jeff Zucker, and said Jason Alexander would also be a good choice to play Zucker. Andy Richter jokingly told Movieline that he would want Justin Bieber to portray him in a film adaptation of the book.
## See also
- 2010 Tonight Show conflict
- Conan
- Conan O'Brien Can't Stop
- Late Night with Conan O'Brien
- The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour
- The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien
|
17,159,071 |
Treaty of Butre
| 1,121,794,049 |
1656 treaty between the Netherlands and Ahanta
|
[
"1656 in Africa",
"1656 in the Dutch Republic",
"1656 treaties",
"Dutch Gold Coast",
"History of Ghana",
"Political history of the Netherlands",
"Treaties of the Dutch Republic"
] |
The Treaty of Butre between the Netherlands and Ahanta was signed at Butre (historical spelling: Boutry), Dutch Gold Coast on 27 August 1656. The treaty regulated the jurisdiction of the Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company over the town of Butre and the surrounding country of Upper Ahanta, creating a Dutch protectorate over the area, and permitting the establishment of Fort Batenstein. The treaty lasted until the Dutch departure from the Gold Coast in April 1872.
## Background
The country of Ahanta, in what is now the Western Region of the Republic of Ghana, comprised a regional power in the form of a confederacy of chiefdoms which had come in early contact with the European nations settling on the Gold Coast for the purpose of trade.
In the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch West India Company and the Swedish Africa Company were competitors in the Ahanta area of the Gold Coast. The Dutch had been active in Athana and resident in neighboring Axim since 1642, the Swedish in Butre since 1650. The European powers allied themselves with African states and chiefs in order to gain a sustainable dominance in the area.
In their efforts to dislodge the Swedish from Butre, the Dutch struck up different tactical alliances with the chiefdoms of Ahanta and the state of Encasser, a political entity of which little is known.
After the Dutch had driven the Swedish out of Butre, the director general of the Dutch West India Company, with headquarters in St. George d'Elmina in the central Gold Coast, decided that it would be beneficial to negotiate a treaty with the local political leadership in order to establish a peaceful long-term relationship. The Ahanta leaders found it equally beneficial to enter into such an agreement. The 1656 treaty signalled the definitive switch in European jurisdiction in the area until 1872.
The treaty and the terms of the protectorate turned out to be very stable, most likely in part because the Dutch never had the intention to interfere in the affairs of the Ahanta states. That is, except for the town of Butre, where they built a fort (Fort Batenstein). The treaty could be interpreted as a treaty of friendship and cooperation, rather than as a treaty establishing a Dutch protectorate. The Dutch worked in close cooperation with the local chief, who was also second in line in the political leadership of what became known as the Kingdom of Ahanta and had its capital at the nearby seaside town of Busua.
In 1837 the king of Ahanta, Baidoo Bonsoe II (Badu Bonsu II), rebelled against the Dutch government and killed several officers, including acting governor Hendrik Tonneboeijer. The Dutch government used the treaty as the basis for military action and an expeditionary force was sent to Ahanta. In the war that followed King Baidoo Bonsoe II was killed. The Dutch reorganised the Ahanta state, after the rebellion, appointing the chief of Butre as regent, keeping the country under close control with an enlarged military and civilian presence.
When the Dutch transferred their possessions on the Gold Coast to the British on 6 April 1872, the treaty of 1656 was still in effect, having regulated political relations between the Dutch and Ahanta for more than 213 years. The treaty was one of the oldest and one of the longest functioning treaties between an African and a European state.
With the Dutch possessions, the British took over all legal obligations including the existing treaties and contracts. After the transfer the British started to develop their own policies towards the now united Gold Coast possessions. Ahanta resisted the British take-over, with the result that the British Royal Navy bombed Butre in 1873 to achieve a political submission. In 1874 Britain declared the entire Gold Coast – including Ahanta – a Crown Colony, de jure and de facto ending all former diplomatic and legal obligations.
## Content
### Title
The treaty is titled "Dedication of Upper Ahanta and Butre" (Opdracht van Hooghanta ende Boutry), which immediately indicates the nature of the contract, namely the establishment of a protectorate.
### Location and date
The treaty was signed by both the Ahanta and the Dutch delegates at Butre on 27 August 1656 and took effect immediately.
### Contracting partners
The contracting parties on the Dutch side were: the Dutch West India Company, for itself, and by way of its director general representing the States General, the sovereign power of the country, for the Republic of the United Netherlands. Signatories were Eduard Man, fiscal, and Adriaan Hoogenhouck, commissioner in the service of the Dutch West India Company.
The contracting partners on the Ahanta side were Cubiesang, Aloiny, Ampatee and Maniboy, "chiefs of the Country Anta". They were also the signatories of the treaty, together with Ladrou, Azizon, Guary, and Acha. Harman van Saccondé, Menemé, and Rochia, "captain of Boutry" are mentioned as additional parties in the treaty, and they ratified the treaty, together with Tanoe.
### Terms
Being a dedication, the treaty is rather unilateral in its terms. Ahanta declared that in view of former good relations with the Dutch government established in the past at neighbouring Axim, and in view of the adverse circumstances caused by the war with Encasser, it was decided to invite the Dutch director general at Elmina to come to Butre and "accept possession of that what was offered him". Ahanta placed itself under the protection of both the States General of the United Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company. This was done on the condition that the Dutch fortified and defended the places under their protection, and kept the Ahanta free from the dangers of war.
## See also
- Treaty of Asebu (1612)
- Treaty of Axim (1642)
|
22,049,959 |
HMS Lowestoffe (1761)
| 1,165,832,248 |
British fifth-rate frigate
|
[
"1761 ships",
"Frigates of the Royal Navy",
"Maritime incidents in 1801",
"Ships built in Deptford",
"Shipwrecks of the Bahamas"
] |
HMS Lowestoffe was a 32-gun fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy. Built during the latter part of the Seven Years' War, she went on to see action in the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary War, and served often in the Caribbean. A young Horatio Nelson served aboard her shortly after passing his lieutenant's examination.
Originally commissioned near the end of the Seven Years' War, Lowestoffe patrolled in British waters until 1773, when it underwent repairs. She was recommissioned in 1777 and served throughout the American War of Independence, including at the Battle of San Fernando de Omoa. After the bulk of the fighting ended, she returned home to Portsmouth in 1782, and did not see battle for the next decade. She spent most of her later years in British and Mediterranean waters, winning particular glory for her part in an engagement with two French frigates in 1795. Her final duties were back in the familiar waters of the West Indies, where she was wrecked in 1801 while escorting a convoy in the Caicos Islands.
## Construction and commissioning
Sir Thomas Slade based his design for Lowestoffe on that of HMS Aurora, which was a former French vessel named Abenakise. (The Admiralty routinely "took the lines", i.e., drew up blueprints, of captured vessels, and these blueprints were available to designers such as Slade.)
Lowestoffe was the only ship built to her design, though over a decade later the Navy would have two more frigates, HMS Orpheus and HMS Diamond, built to a modification of the design of Lowestoffe and Abenakise. She was ordered on 15 February 1760 from Thomas West, Deptford Dockyard, with West contracted to launch her within 12 months, at a cost of £11.0.0d per ton. Lowestoffe was laid down on 9 May 1760, launched on 5 June 1761 and completed by 1 August 1761. She officially received the name Lowestoffe on 28 October 1760. She had cost a total of £7,715 1s 10+3⁄4d to build, coming in just slightly under the contracted price of £7887. The Navy spent a further £4,281 7s 8d on having her fitted out.
## Career
Commissioned late in the Seven Years' War, she saw little action under her first captain, Walter Stirling, and the Navy paid her off in 1762. Lowestoffe was initially moored at Portsmouth. Then in early 1763 she was armed and stored, sailing on 26 July 1763 under the command of her new captain James Baker.
After spending some time cruising in the English Channel and stopping neutral merchants for inspections, Baker sailed Lowestoffe to Madeira and then on to the West Indies. She arrived at Carlisle Bay on 13 September, and then sailed on to Antigua. During her time at Carlisle Bay, Lowestoffe carried out patrols between Barbados and Antigua.
She was part of a squadron under Rear Admiral Tyrrell. Four vessels of the squadron, Princess Louisa, Lowestoffe, Virgin and Beaver, shared in the prize money arising from the seizure in January and February 1764 of several vessels engaged in illicit trade near Dominica. The seized vessels were the Sarah, Union, Mary Anne, Pastora, Elizabeth, Two Sisters, and June and Betsey.
Baker died on 31 March 1765. His successor, Joseph Norwood, sailed Lowestoffe home to be paid off in August 1766. Lowestoffe underwent a small repair at Sheerness between December 1766 and April 1767, and after a period out of service was recommissioned again in June 1769 under Captain Robert Carkett. Carkett returned her to the West Indies in October that year, returning in May 1773 to Britain after four years at Jamaica. She was paid off in 1773, and reduced to a 28-gun Sixth Rate.
### American War of Independence
Lowestoffe now underwent a large repair. She was recommissioned under Captain William Locker in early 1777 and prepared for service in the Leeward Islands. Joining her for this voyage was a young Lieutenant Horatio Nelson, who had passed his examination on 9 April, and was joining the Lowestoffe as her second lieutenant. Also serving on the Lowestoffe at this time was Cuthbert Collingwood, who would go on to have an enduring friendship with Nelson, serving with him on a number of occasions, including at the Battle of Trafalgar. The ship sailed in early May, escorting a convoy to the West Indies, where they arrived in mid July. She was coppered at Jamaica and then went on a number of cruises, capturing an American sloop with a cargo of rice in August 1777.
A second cruise saw the capture of an American privateer, and a notable incident for Nelson. Lowestoffe sent her boat and first lieutenant to take over the prize, but the seas were too rough to allow the American to be boarded, so the lieutenant returned. Nelson stepped forward and volunteered to make an attempt; he succeeded.
On 25 March 1778 Lowestoffe captured the sloop Swan, Daniel Smith, Master. She was of 60 tons, had a crew of seven men, and was carrying a cargo of molasses.
By the time of Lowestoffe's third cruise, Nelson had taken command of the ship's tender, the schooner Little Lucy. Locker and the Lowestoffe spent the rest of 1778 and the early part of 1779 carrying out routine cruises and patrols, until Captain Christopher Parker replaced him in March 1779. Locker, who had by now been ill for some time, had recommended Nelson to Sir Peter Parker, who found a space for Nelson aboard his flagship, the 50-gun HMS Bristol. Nelson joined her as third lieutenant on 1 July 1778.
On 8 February 1779, Lowestoffe captured the Vigilant, near the Bite (or Bight) of Leogan. The 70 ton sloop was sailing from Dominique to Philadelphia with a cargo of sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, cotton and salt. John English was her master and she had a crew of five men.
Lowestoffe became part of Captain John Luttrell's squadron and carried out operations in the Bay of Honduras in October and November 1779. On 17 October Lowestoffe, together with Pomona, Charon, and Porcupine participated in the successful British attack on the Fort of San Fernandino de Omoa. During the attack Lowestoffe exchanged fire with the fort. While she was doing this she ran aground. Her immobility made her an easy target for the fort's guns. Eventually boats were able to pull Lowestoffe off, but not before she had sustained extensive damage. She had contributed a landing party to the assault on the fort and in all lost three men killed and five wounded. As a result of the battle the British ships captured two Spanish prizes with a cargo of bullion worth in excess of \$3,000,000. Lowestoffe and Pomona also shared in the prize money for the St. Domingo and her cargo, which included 124 serons (crates) of indigo.
On 26 March 1780 Lowestoffe captured the small sloop Fortune, of 25 tons, off Cape Francois. Under the command of William Nevill, she had a crew of three and was sailing from North Carolina to Cape Francois with provisions. Also in early 1800 Lowestoffe captured the Danish brig Diana, which was sailing from St. Domingo to St. Thomas with a cargo of mahogany. Then on 15 June Lowestoffe, Phoenix and Pomona captured the brig Delaware, William Collins, Master. She was of 120 tons, armed with guns and had a crew of 53 men. She was sailing from Philadelphia to Port-au-Prince, with a cargo of flour and fish. More importantly, they also captured the French navy cutter Sans Pareil, of 16 guns and 100 men, as she was sailing from Martinique to Cap-Français. She was the former British privateer Non Such.
Later Lowestoffe detained a Danish schooner sailing from Acuba to Jacquemel with a cargo of cattle. She also recaptured the British brig John, which a French privateer had taken, and herself took a Spanish brig sailing from La Guaira to Tenerife with a cargo of cocoa and spices.
On 26 September Lowestoffe and Pallas captured two small vessels. One was the sloop Fair Henrietta, of 70 tons, sailing from Philadelphia to Cape Francois with a load of lumber and bricks. The second was the brig St. Salvadore, with a crew of 13 men, sailing from New Orleans to Havana with a cargo of lumber. In late 1800 or early 1801 Lowestoffe captured a Spanish brig (name unknown) of 110 tons, laden with sugar and staves.
Between 2 and 4 October Lowestoffe survived a hurricane that badly damaged numerous British warships. The hurricane also caused Barbadoes, Scarborough and Victor to founder, i.e., to be lost at sea with all hands.
Captain Christopher Parker transferred into Diamond on 1 November 1780, Captain James Cornwallis briefly to replace him on Lowestoffe. Cornwallis requested and received a transfer to HMS Badger five weeks later. His successor was Captain Thomas Haynes. Under Haynes, Lowestoffe and Janus captured the sloop Dispatch, Giles Sagg, Master, on 18 January 1781, off Heneauge. She was 60 tons, and carried four guns and a crew of 14 men. She was on her way from Port-au-Prince to Philadelphia with a cargo of coffee and sugar.
Haynes left in May 1781 to take over the 64-gun third rate Ruby. Her next captain was George Stoney, with Captain Thomas Windsor replacing him on 31 January 1782. Windsor sailed Lowestoffe home and paid her off at Portsmouth. She was laid up there for nine months, before being moved to the River Thames.
### The years of peace
Robert Batson, of Limehouse carried out a great repair on Lowestoffe between July 1783 and March 1786. She returned to service in the English Channel in October 1787 under Captain Edmund Dodd. She sailed to the Mediterranean in May 1788, before returning to Britain where Captain Robert Stopford briefly took command in November 1790. Lowestoffe was paid off later that year and was fitted out at Plymouth between July 1792 and January 1793. Lowestoffe was then recommissioned in December 1792 under Captain William Wolseley.
### French Revolutionary War
Lowestoffe sailed to the Mediterranean in May 1793, joining Hood's fleet then blockading Toulon. She joined a flying squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee to act against French forces in the Mediterranean. On 30 September 1793, Linzee took his squadron, including Lowestoffe, into the Gulf of San Fiorenzo to attack the redoubt of Forneilli on Corsica. Lowestoffe fired two broadsides at a tower at Mortella Point that protected the deep entrance to the gulf. The fire caused the tower's French defenders to abandon the tower and its three guns, allowing a landing party from Lowestoffe under the command of Lieutenants Francis Annesley and John Gibb to capture the tower. Linzee, however, delayed his assault on the city until he could bring his larger ships into action. These larger ships bombarded the town from 1 October, but sustained considerable damage from the garrison, which forced Linzee to withdraw.
Lowestoffe remained in the area, supporting British operations against the French garrisons on Corsica during 1794. On 7 March 1794 Captain Charles Cunningham took over command from Wolsely. A little over a month later, on 13 April Lowestoffe captured the Etoile du Nord. HMS Dido, Aimable and Imperieuse shared in the capture. Lowestoffe then was among the British warships that shared in the capture, on 24 May, of the French brigs Jacobin and Natine.
Captain Benjamin Hallowell replaced Cunningham on 12 August. Hallowell commanded Lowestoffe during the Naval Battle of Genoa on 14 March 1795, during which she received some damage from long range shots from the French fleet. Captain Robert Gambier Middleton replaced Hallowell in June 1795.
#### Dido and Lowestoffe defeat Minerve and Artémise
Admiral Hotham then sent Lowestoffe, with the 28-gun Dido under Captain George Henry Towry, to reconnoitre the French fleet at Toulon. While off Menorca on 24 June 1795 the two frigates encountered two French frigates, the 42-gun Minerve and the 36-gun Artémise . The French were initially wary, but when they realised that they were larger and stronger than the British vessels, the French captains manoeuvred to attack. Minerve attempted to run down Dido but when Dido turned to avoid the impact Minerve's bowsprit became entangled in Dido's rigging, costing Dido her mizzenmast and colours. Lowestoffe came along the port side of the Frenchman to discharge a broadside that carried away Minerve's foremast and topmasts, crippling her. Lowestoffe pursued the retreating Artémise, which eventually escaped. Lowestoffe returned to Minerve, firing on her until she struck. Lowestoffe had three men wounded, the Dido six killed and 15 wounded. Minerve lost about 10 percent of her crew of over 300 men. The British took Minerve into service as the 38-gun frigate HMS Minerve. The weight of Minerve's broadside alone was greater than that of the two British frigates together, making the battle a notable victory; the Royal Navy duly awarded each of the two captains a Naval Gold Medal. In 1847, Naval General Service Medals with clasps "Lowestoffe 24 June 1795" or "Dido 24 June 1795" were awarded to six surviving crew members.
## Later service
Captain Robert Plampin relieved Middleton in December 1795, going on to serve with a squadron under Thomas Troubridge. After a refit in Britain, Lowestoffe escorted convoys in the West Indies.
On 14 September 1796 she captured Lesou. Lowestoffe was also among the vessels that in late 1799 captured the Spanish letter of marque Navarra (alias Diligent). Diligent was of 150 tons and was armed with eight guns. She was sailing from Bilboa to Veracruz with a cargo of wine, iron and writing paper. Lowestoffe also shared in the capture of the Spanish "zartan" Ambrosia, which was sailing from Cadiz for Veracruz with a cargo of 26.5 tons of quicksilver and 10 tons of writing paper. Lowestoffe alone captured the Spanish brig San Francisco, of 90 tons, sailing from Campeachy to Havana with a cargo of sugar and logwood.
## Loss
Lowestoffe sailed from Kingston, Jamaica on 22 July 1801, and met a convoy five days later at Port Antonio. The escorts consisted of Lowestoffe, Acasta, the sloop Bonetta, and the schooners Musquito (or Muskito), and Sting.
While Lowestoffe was sailing through the Caicos passage late on 10 August, Pamplin realised that the strong currents known to run through the channel had reversed direction and Lowestoffe was running into shallow waters. He attempted to avoid grounding, but to no avail, and the Lowestoffe ran broadside onto Little Inagua ("Heneaga") Island. The crew threw stores and equipment overboard to lighten the ship, and boats came from other ships in the convoy to try to pull her off. The attempts to refloat her failed and her crew abandoned her by mid-afternoon. The only casualties were five men who drowned when their boat capsized in the surf. The change in currents also caused the wreck of five, or six merchantmen.
In the late afternoon of 11 August Acasta left Bonetta and three of her own boats to help the wrecked vessels and then took command of the convoy.
The subsequent court-martial at Port Royal on 3 September ruled that a sudden change in the current after dark had caused the loss. The board acknowledged that Pamplin had sailed in a judicious manner and exonerated him and his officers from blame both for the loss of Lowestoffe and the vessels in convoy.
In April 1803 the officers and crew of Lowestoffe and of Bonetta received payment for the salvage of the specie that Lowestoffe was carrying.
|
11,120,779 |
Chaparral 2F
| 1,170,698,528 |
Group 6 racing car by Chaparral
|
[
"Chaparral racing cars",
"Group 6 (racing) cars"
] |
The Chaparral 2F is a Group 6 sports prototype designed by Jim Hall and Hap Sharp and built under their company Chaparral Cars. Built with the intention to compete in the World Sportscar Championship, it competed in the 1967 season, with a best finish of first at the BOAC 500, driven by Phil Hill and Mike Spence. The 2F, alongside its Can-Am sibling the 2E, had a heavy influence in dictating the direction of Formula One car design in the late 1960s and early 1970s. With the amounts of mechanical grip the car and tires could provide approaching their respective limits, there was a larger emphasis on aerodynamic efficiency with race car designer Colin Chapman quick to include them on his Formula One cars.
## Background
The importance and role of aerodynamics in motorsports was not particularly well understood in the 1960s; privateer Michael Mayer attemtped what was the first implementation of an airfoil at the 1956 1000 km of Nürburgring with his Porsche 550. He mounted a wing just above the driving position, later being forced by scrutineers to remove it. Jim Hall of Chaparral Cars, with his degree from the California Institute of Technology in mechanical engineering, saw the potential in using lift-generating airplane wings as a means to generate downforce to increase the performance of his cars. Hall first realized the role of reversing lift-generating structures in the winter of 1963, where his first race car, the Chaparral 2, was experiencing issues with lift at the front of the car. As Hall experimented and changed the bodywork, he discovered that further modifying the bodywork to generate reverse lift, or downforce, could drastically improve lap times. The luxury of having a private racetrack nearby meant Hall's development of his aerodynamics progressed much more rapidly than that of other teams.
In 1965, Jim Hall, alongside colleagues at General Motors (GM), collaborated in experimenting with rear aero structures, which resulted in a small adjustable rear wickerbill being mounted onto the rear of Chaparral's 2C for the 1965 United States Road Racing Championship, where it proved to be highly successful. The 2C's rear wickerbill was adjustable by a third pedal within the driver's cockpit, and with that the 2C became the first racing car in the world to feature active aerodynamics.
The 2C's evolution in the 2 series, the 2E, took the concept even further, with a full-blown rear wing mounted at the rear of the chassis, high above the driving position. Another aerodynamic innovation was the changing of the radiator position from the front of the nose to the sides of the car, freeing up space at the front and allowing the nose to act as a miniature Venturi tunnel in one of the first uses of ground effect in motorsport, giving the car balance between front and rear downforce. The 2E would almost win the inaugural 1966 Can-Am season championship, having been narrowly defeated by John Surtees in a Lola T70. Jim Hall and Hap Sharp were encouraged by the 2E's results, which included a 1–2 finish at Laguna Seca.
With the success of the 2E in the Can-Am championship, Hall decided to implement his rear wing structure into the 2D's successor. The 2D was a closed-roof version of the Chaparral 2, which had been Chaparral's primary race car from 1963 to 1965 in the World Sportscar Championship (WSC). Introduced for the 1966 season of the WSC, the 2D was oft stricken with mechanical issues, with a single win coming at the 1966 1000 km of Nürburgring. The third original 2 chassis was converted into a single 2F, with the other 2D being converted into a 2F later on in the 1967 World Sportscar Championship season.
Hall's connection to Chevrolet began in 1962, at the unveiling of the Chevrolet Corvair Monza GT at Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin. The concept car's semi-monocoque piqued his interest, and thus began his relationship with Frank Winchell, the Monza GT's designer. Winchell was simultaneously running a program in his department at General Motors to develop a mid-engined Chevrolet Corvette, featuring an automatic transaxle. Hall further courted GM when their research and development department requested to use his track, Rattlesnake Raceway, for testing after Ralph Nader published his book Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile in 1965, which alleged that the American automobile industry was ignoring safety features when designing cars. The relationship never extended to a full on factory-backed effort, with GM engineer Jim Musser saying "We stayed in the background because we weren't meant to be racing at the time. We never sponsored the Chaparral program with cash. We did provide bits and pieces, and they did lots of our testing, from which we both benefited." Among those bits and pieces was the transmission for the 2F, a Chevrolet 3-speed automatic transaxle, replacing the previous Cooper and Colotti manual transmissions they had previously used. Despite Musser's assertions that Chaparral was never officially or unofficially supported by GM, there still remained much speculation within the racing community as to what capacity Hall and Sharp were involved with GM.
## Specifications
The 2F did not carry over the 2E's aluminum tube-frame chassis, with Hall and Sharp instead opting to continue with the fiberglass semi-monocoque, and General Motors supplied Chaparral with Chevrolet's "Porcupine" 427 big-block V8 engine, and a 3-speed automatic transaxle. The 427-aluminum block was fitted with Weber 58IDM carburetors that allowed it to produce 392 kW (533 PS; 526 hp) at 6,000 rpm, far more power than the 427s found in production versions. The nose's Venturi-like structure was retained, along with the side-mounted radiators. The large rear wing struts were attached onto the suspension uprights, so that the downforce generated by the wing acted directly on the tires, shifting weight-bias rearwards too. The positioning of the radiators on the side also meant that a roof-mounted intake was no longer needed, with cold air flowing straight to the engine. With the longer endurance races of the World Sportscar Championship in mind, centerlock wheels also replaced the 2D's bolt-on wheels. Initially, only a single chassis was constructed, but a 2D that retired at the 1967 12 Hours of Sebring was later converted into a second 2F chassis. Like its previous iterations, the rear wing was hydraulically actuated by a third pedal within the driver's cockpit, with a high-downforce mode and a low-drag mode. A small luggage compartment was also included in the front of the car, which was required by Group 6 regulations.
## Racing history
The 2F debuted at the opening round of the 1967 World Sportscar Championship, the 1967 24 Hours of Daytona. It qualified second with a time of 1:55.36, close behind the pole-sitting Ford GT40 Mk II of Dan Gurney, and in front of numerous Ferraris entered, which included several factory-backed efforts along with several factory-backed Fords. Phil Hill led the early stages of the race, the 2F's downforce and power playing in Chaparral's favor on Daytona's steep banks. Hill later came in to change seats with Mike Spence, who handed the car back to Hill on the 88th lap. Hill's stint did not last long, when he came into turn six he ran over debris of segments of where the track had disintegrated, despite resurfacing attempts prior to the race. The following loss of traction caused Hill to strike the upper barrier on the infield banking twice, damaging several suspension components which were repaired when Hill limped back to the pitlane. The 2F came out for a few more laps, but eventually retired four hours into the race. Hill partially took the blame for the crash, citing his excessive exit speed from turn six, however, mentioned that Spence failed to inform him of the conditions at turn six. Prior to retiring, Hill did manage to capture the fastest lap, almost equalling his qualifying time with a 1:55.69.
At the following round at the Sebring International Raceway, Hill was admitted to hospital after practice with appendicitis, with Jim Hall replacing him. The 2F had several mechanical issues during practice, with Hill twenty-one seconds slower than the Ford GT40 Mk IVs, with Spence barely getting any practice time either. When it came to the race though, the 2F proved to be very quick, lowering the lap record several times throughout the race. The Chaparral exchanged the lead with the Fords several times, as the latter needed to pit more often due to fuel pump issues. Come the eighth hour, Hall came in to hand over the wheel to Spence, however, the transmission was already overheating, and Spence retired after a few laps with differential failure, ending their Sebring campaign.
The team flew over to Europe and based themselves in General Motor's Rüsselsheim am Main factory for the remaining European races. The next event, the 1967 1000 km of Monza, saw Spence qualifying on pole. The 2F had already shown that it was a credible threat to the Ferrari 330 P3s and Ferrari P4s entered, posting the fastest time during practice, a 2:53.8, three-tenths ahead of Lorenzo Bandini's works P4. The 2F took advantage of the rolling start, leading away the field with Bandini and Mike Parkes closely behind. Shortly before the one-hour mark, Spence pitted, feeling significant vibrations at the rear of his car. Initially, it was suspected to be a tire that had been losing air, but after replacing the tire the vibration continued. Spence pitted once more, this time the cause of the vibrations turned out to be a universal joint failure in the drive shaft coupling. Their Monza race ended with another mechanical retirement.
Hill was on pole for the 1967 1000 km of Spa-Francorchamps, and local favorite Jacky Ickx lined up beside him on the front row. Ickx's prowess in wet weather conditions was on full display as rain began and continued to fall on race day, quickly taking the lead at the start, with fellow Belgian Willy Mairesse in his Ferrari 412 P close behind. Spence could not replicate the 2F's pace in the dry, due in part to Hall instructing the drivers not to operate the adjustable wing due to their wet weather inexperience. Paul Hawkins in his Lola T70 Mk III passed him on the fifth lap, and the 2F was fifth by the tenth lap. Ickx and Mairesse both commanded a significant lead over the rest of the field, and Spence pitted on the seventeenth lap for fuel and to swap seats with Hill. Another mechanical failure struck the team, with the engine's battery system failing. The battery system was successfully repaired; Hill rejoined two laps down. Several other cars including the leaders pitted soon thereafter, shaking up the order, although Ickx soon retook the lead. Spence took the reins again shortly before the halfway mark, this time without a hitch. A few laps later Mairesse crashed out in his Ferrari, leaving Ickx's teammate Dick Thompson to run by himself. As the rain lightened, the rear airfoil of the 2F was put to good use, with Spence clocking the fastest lap of the race, a 4:03.5. No sooner had he done this he came into the pits with another transmission failure, ending their race.
Hap Sharp stood in for Spence for the 51st Targa Florio, where Italian favorite Nino Vaccarella was fastest in practice. In the race, several retirements from the front saw the 2F running fourth despite its unsuitability to a road course but was still almost ten minutes behind the leading Porsche 910. Hill and Sharp were careful not to push the car too hard, with Le Mans approaching they could not afford to damage or destroy a chassis. A slow puncture that began at the Collesano corner on the ninth lap brought their race to a close. Sharp did have a spare tire, but it was for the front tires only, whereas the puncture had occurred at the rear. The 2F, despite not being Italian, was met with a sympathetic crowd upon their retirement.
Hill qualified on pole for the 1967 1000 km of Nürburgring, just over half a minute ahead of Jacky Ickx, slowest in the Group 6 category, and almost ten seconds ahead of John Surtees' Aston Martin-powered Lola T70. A of cars were entered, with dedicated race cars and club racers alike. This made for a hectic start, where the almost-stock sports cars had the better of the purpose-built race cars when it came to the Le Mans-style start, where drivers would run to their car and start their engines before taking off. Hill, Surtees, and Ickx all struggled getting off the start line, with Hill fiddling to get his safety harness on properly, and Surtees and Ickx both having trouble starting their engines. Hill set off on a charge once he finally settled in, passing a significant number of cars on his first lap, working his way up to third by the second lap. Hill also managed to set the lap record on his second lap, despite the significant number of backmarkers, clocking an 8:42.1. By the fourth lap, Surtees and Ickx were seventh and ninth, respectively, with only Jo Siffert in front of Hill. Hill took the lead on the ninth lap, having mistakenly thought that he was leading on the previous laps. Come the eleventh lap, Hill pitted, much to the surprise of his pit crew who were not expecting him. Once again, transmission troubles struck the 2F, giving the team their fifth retirement of the season.
Both 2F chassis were fielded for the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans, with the No. 7 piloted by Hill and Spence, and the No. 8 piloted by Bob Johnson and Bruce Jennings. The first couple of qualifying sessions saw the 2F top the timing charts, with a 3:27.4 and 3:24.7 on Wednesday and Thursday, respectively. Hill looked set to be on pole, but Bruce McLaren posted a 3:24.4 towards the evening, taking pole away just as qualifying ended. Spence was to take the start but got away slowly as Ronnie Bucknum of Shelby American took the lead in his Ford GT40 Mk II. Spence climbed back through the places, running third by the seventh hour. The No. 8 of Johnson and Jennings retired shortly before 11 p.m, after their battery and starter motor gave out. The No. 8 also faced mechanical issues as the wing became stuck in the high-downforce position, significantly crippling their straight-line speed. The remaining 2F would remain in or near the podium places in the early hours of the morning, despite its hinderance, but pitted shortly after 5 a.m. after a transmission seal broke. Instead of opting to retire, Hall decided it would be better to attempt a repair. The regulations stipulated that only two persons could work on a car while it was in the pits, and Hall predicted a full transmission replacement, necessitated by the way the 2F was designed, would take two to three hours with the available manpower. Almost three hours later, the 2F re-emerged 17th, and was met with an ovation from the crowd. However, the gearbox would fail for good almost an hour later, and with that both 2Fs were out of the race.
At the final round at the BOAC 500, the transmission's frailty had finally been resolved, with strengthened drive shafts, seals and bearings finally arriving. Qualifying saw the 2F almost a second back from the pole-sitting Lola T70 Mk II of Jack Brabham and Denny Hulme. The 2F had a slow start as usual, but Spence would be leading by the end of the first hour. Spence pitted half an hour later to hand over the car to Hill and for fuel. This allowed Pedro Rodríguez in his Mirage M1 to briefly lead, until he in turn pitted and handed the lead to Jo Siffert in his Porsche 910. By the second hour, Hill was running second behind Siffert, and closing in on the Swiss driver. A rear puncture in the third hour delayed Hill's charge, and a quick pitstop allowed Hill to rejoin in second, as Siffert had just pitted allowing Chris Amon to take the lead in his Ferrari 330 P4. As Amon pitted later for refueling and the driver change, Hill inherited the lead. Spence took over just before the halfway mark from Hill, dropping him to third behind Amon's teammate Jackie Stewart and Siffert's teammate Bruce McLaren. Spence quickly passed the Porsche of McLaren but could not close the gap to the 330 P4 of Stewart. Paul Hawkins had a spin at the fourth hour, significantly damaging the rear bodywork, so much so that it was in danger of falling off completely. This created a dire situation within the Ferrari pit crew, Stewart, who was leading, was also due in for a fuel and driver change but there were not enough people to service both cars simultaneously. Hawkins was serviced first, and as a result Amon lost significant amounts of time as well as the lead to Spence, to Mauro Forghieri's displeasure. Shortly before the fifth hour, Spence made his last pit stop for fuel and changed seats with Hill, re-emerging almost twenty seconds ahead of Amon's Ferrari. Amon would later pit right before the end for a quick refuel and to switch places with Stewart, allowing Hill to take the checkered flag. Hill and Stewart had lapped the rest of the field in what was Hill and Spence's last victory in motorsports, the former retiring, and the latter fatally crashing during practice for the 1968 Indianapolis 500.
A move by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile to outlaw cars with displacements of 7 L (427 cu in) in 1968 meant that the 2F was no longer eligible for racing in the World Sportscar Championship, with Chaparral turning their efforts to the Can-Am series. Jim Hall, who raced Chaparral's Can-Am cars, broke his legs in an accident whilst piloting a Chaparral 2G at the last race of the 1968 Can-Am season; he would not race again but still continued to build race cars for customers.
## Legacy
Jim Hall and Hap Sharp's rear airfoil preceded the ones in Formula One and provided much of their inspiration. The several Formula One drivers that participated in the 1967 World Sportscar Championship witnessed the performance and pace of the 2F, despite its mechanical troubles, increasing the interest in the implementation of aerodynamic features such as rear airfoils that the 2E had initiated. The burgeoning interest was led by a desire to increase mechanical grip as Formula One engines became increasingly more powerful for the tires they raced on, and cars were approaching the limit to how much mechanical grip they could extract solely from the tires. A wide array of rear airfoils appeared at the rear of several 1968 Formula One cars from the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, although winglets had been trialed by Colin Chapman (who is credited with ushering in wings to Formula One) earlier at that year's Monaco Grand Prix. Throughout the season, more and more teams arrived at grand prix with wings. The adjustable nature of Hall and Sharp's rear wings is also similar to the drag reduction system implemented in Formula One, where a driver at the press of a button is able to reduce their car's drag coefficient by opening the rear wing to aid in overtaking in designated zones.
As the rear airfoils of varying designs and shapes proliferated, numerous crashes and accidents related to the wings saw the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile step in and set limits on the size and the structural rigidity of wings. Jochen Rindt was one of the most vehement opponents of the wings, opposing them both on safety grounds and on the principle that they did not belong on Formula One cars. Rindt had a large shunt at the 1969 Spanish Grand Prix due to the failure of his high rear wing, suffering cuts and broken bones within his face. Rindt then raced in a car that was voluntarily devoid of all wing-like devices for the 1970 Italian Grand Prix, where he would suffer a fatal crash during practice in his Lotus 72.
## Racing results
### Complete World Sportscar Championship results
(key) Races in bold indicates pole position. Races in italics indicates fastest lap.
|
458,437 |
Governors Island
| 1,173,547,561 |
Island in New York City
|
[
"American Civil War prison camps",
"American Revolution on the National Register of Historic Places",
"Aviation in New York City",
"Car-free islands of the United States",
"Closed installations of the United States Army",
"Forts in Manhattan",
"Forts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)",
"Governors Island",
"Islands of Manhattan",
"Islands of New York City",
"National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan",
"Neighborhoods in Manhattan",
"New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County",
"Parks in Manhattan",
"Prison islands",
"Tourist attractions in Manhattan"
] |
Governors Island is a 172-acre (70 ha) island in New York Harbor, within the New York City borough of Manhattan. It is located approximately 800 yards (730 m) south of Manhattan Island, and is separated from Brooklyn to the east by the 400-yard-wide (370 m) Buttermilk Channel. The National Park Service administers a small portion of the north end of the island as the Governors Island National Monument, including two former military fortifications named Fort Jay and Castle Williams. The Trust for Governors Island operates the remaining 150 acres (61 ha), including 52 historic buildings, as a public park. About 103 acres (42 ha) of the land area is fill, added in the early 1900s to the south of the original island.
The native Lenape originally referred to Governors Island as Paggank ("nut island") because of the area's rich collection of chestnut, hickory, and oak trees; it is believed that this space was originally used for seasonal foraging and hunting. The name was translated into the Dutch Noten Eylandt, then Anglicized into Nutten Island, before being renamed Governor's Island by the late 18th century. The island's use as a military installation dates to 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, when Continental Army troops raised defensive works on the island. From 1783 to 1966, the island was a United States Army post, serving mainly as a training ground for troops, though it also served as a strategic defense point during wartime. The island then served as a major United States Coast Guard installation until 1996. Following its decommissioning as a military base, there were several plans for redeveloping Governors Island. It was sold to the public for a nominal sum in 2003, and opened for public use in 2005.
Governors Island has become a popular destination for the public, attracting more than 800,000 visitors per year as of 2018. In addition to the 43-acre (17 ha) public park, Governors Island includes free arts and cultural events, as well as recreational activities. The New York Harbor School, a public high school with a maritime-focused curriculum, has been on the island since 2010. The island can only be accessed by ferries from Brooklyn and Manhattan, and there are no full-time residents as of 2022. The island was only accessible to the public during the summer until 2021, when it started operating year-round.
## Etymology
The Native Lenape refer to the island as Paggank, Pagganck, or Pagganack. All of these names literally translate to "Nut Island", likely in reference to the many chestnut, hickory, and oak trees on the island. The Dutch explorer Adriaen Block called it Noten Eylandt, a translation, and this was Anglicized into Nutten Island, a name that continued to be used until the late 18th century. The name "Governor's Island", with an apostrophe, stems from the British colonial era, when the colonial assembly reserved the island for the exclusive use of New York's royal governors. The current name without an apostrophe was made official in 1784.
## History
### Colonial period
Governors Island was initially much smaller than it is today. It had many inlets along its shoreline, and groves of hardwood trees, from which the island's native name is derived. There is insufficient evidence as to whether Governors Island contained any permanent Lenape settlements, or was used mainly for hunting and gathering. In 1524, the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was perhaps the first European to observe what was then called Paggank. One hundred years later, in May 1624, Noten Eylandt was the landing place of the first settlers in New Netherland. They had arrived from the Dutch Republic with the ship New Netherland under the command of Cornelius Jacobsen May, who disembarked on the island with thirty families in order to take possession of the New Netherland territory. For this reason, the New York State Senate and Assembly recognize Governors Island as the birthplace of the state of New York, and also certify the island as the place on which the planting of the "legal-political guaranty of tolerance onto the North American continent" took place.
In 1633, the fifth director of New Netherland, Wouter van Twiller, arrived with a 104-man regiment on Noten Eylandt, and later commandeered the island for his personal use. He secured his farm by drawing up a deed on June 16, 1637, which was signed by two Lenape leaders, Cacapeteyno and Pewihas, on behalf of their community at Keshaechquereren, situated in present-day New Jersey. Van Twiller cultivated a farm on the island, even building a windmill on the land, until he returned to the Netherlands in 1642. The windmill was demolished possibly by 1648, when colonial governor Peter Stuyvesant burned it down after seeing it in inoperable condition. Following this, Noten Eylandt is said to have been used as a recreation ground by the Dutch between 1652 and 1664. There is little other documentation on the use of the island during the Dutch colonial period, other than the fact that it has remained in public ownership since van Twiller left New Netherland.
New Netherland was conditionally ceded to the English in 1664, and the English renamed the settlement New York in June 1665. By 1674, the British had total control of the island. At this point, the eastern shore of the island was separated from Brooklyn by a shallow channel that could be easily traversed at low tide. This became known as Buttermilk Channel, since farm women would use the channel to travel to Manhattan island in boats and sell buttermilk. By 1680, Nutten Island contained a single house and pasture to be used by colonial governors for raising sheep, cattle, and horses.
The British started calling Nutten Island "Governor's Island" (with an apostrophe) in 1698 and reserved the island for the exclusive use of colonial governors. Four years later, when Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury took office as New York colonial governor, he built a mansion on Governor's Island, though evidence of this mansion no longer exists. Later, governor William Cosby used the island as a preserve to breed and hunt pheasants. Other governors leased out the island for profit, and for a short period around 1710, Governor's Island was designated as a quarantine station for Palatine (German) refugees arriving from England on their way to Germantown on the Hudson. Otherwise, Governor's Island mostly remained untouched until the American Revolutionary War started in 1775.
### American Revolution
The first plans for fortifications on Governor's Island were made in 1741, in anticipation of a war with France, but the fortifications were never built. The island was first used by a military encampment in 1755 during the French and Indian War, when Sir William Pepperell led the 51st Regiment of Foot onto Governor's Island. Other regiments soon followed, and by the mid-1760s, there was documentation of a fort on the island as well as several surrounding earthworks. Further plans to improve the fortifications on Governor's Island were devised in 1766 by British military engineer John Montresor. These plans were never realized, even though the British had asked for funding for these fortifications in 1774.
After the American Revolution started, Continental Army General George Washington assigned General Charles Lee to create a defensive plan for New York Harbor. Lee's plan called for several defensive forts in Brooklyn, in Manhattan's Battery, and on Governor's Island. On the night of April 9, 1776, Continental Army General Israel Putnam came to the island to add earthworks and 40 cannons, in anticipation of the return of the British, who had fled New York City the year before. The island's defenses continued to be improved over the following months, and on July 12, 1776, the defenses engaged HMS Phoenix and HMS Rose as they made a run up the Hudson River to the Tappan Zee. Even though the British were able to travel as far north as the Tappan Zee, the colonists' cannon inflicted enough damage to make the British commanders cautious of entering the East River, and the fortifications contributed to the success of Washington's retreat from Brooklyn to Manhattan after the Battle of Long Island, when the British Army attempted to take Brooklyn Heights during the largest battle of the war, around August 27, 1776.
In what appeared to be a strategic miscalculation, the rebels' munitions caused little to no damage to the British ships that were waiting some 2 miles (3.2 km) downstream. Two days after the British withdrawal to Manhattan, the Continental Army forces withdrew from Brooklyn and Governor's Island, and the British took back Governor's Island. From September 2 to 14, 1776, the new British garrison engaged volleys with Washington's guns on the Battery in front of Fort George in Manhattan. On September 6, the Americans' unsuccessful attempt to detonate the submersible Turtle at the island was the first documented submarine attack in history. The fort, along with the rest of New York City, was held by the British for the rest of the war until Evacuation Day in 1783. During this time, the British continued to improve Governor's Island's defenses.
### Late 18th through 19th centuries
#### Late 18th century to War of 1812
At the end of the Revolution, Governor's Island was transferred from the Crown to the state of New York. The island saw no military usage, instead being used as a hotel and racetrack. The quality of the fortifications, which were mostly made of earth, began to decline. The name of Nutten Island was changed to "Governors Island" by act of the United States legislature on March 29, 1784. Governors Island was conveyed to the New York State Board of Regents in 1790 "for the encouragement of education ... unless needed for military purposes." Little else is known about the island's use during this time.
By the mid-1790s, increased military tensions renewed an interest in fortifying New York Harbor, and a U.S. congressional committee had drawn a map of possible locations for the First System of fortifications to protect major American urban centers. Governors Island was one of the first locations where defenses were built. As such, the agreement with the Board of Regents was voided in 1794, and some \$250,000 in federal funding was allocated to the construction of defenses on Governors Island in 1794 and 1795. Fort Jay was built starting in 1794 on the site of the earlier Revolutionary War earthworks. Work proceeded despite concerns that Fort Jay's low elevation made it vulnerable to being captured. Fort Jay, a square four-bastioned fort, was made of earthworks and timber, two impermanent materials that deteriorated soon after the threat of war went away, and by 1805 it had significantly degraded. Ownership of the island was transferred to the federal government on February 15, 1800.
Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams, placed in charge of New York Harbor defenses in the early 1800s, proposed several new fortifications around the harbor as part of the Second System of fortifications. Unlike the First System defenses, the new fortifications were to be made of masonry to preclude deterioration, and they included increased firepower and improved weaponry. Fort Jay was rebuilt from 1806 to 1809 in its current five-pointed star shape, and was renamed Fort Columbus shortly afterward. A second major fortification, Castle Williams, was a circular battery built between 1807 and 1811 on a rocky shoal extending from the northwest corner of the island, to the north of Fort Columbus. A third fortification, the South Battery or Half-Moon Battery (now building 298), was built to the south of Fort Columbus on the island's eastern shore in 1812. The War of 1812 commenced shortly after the completion of these defenses, though the fortifications never saw combat.
#### Mid-19th century and Civil War
After the War of 1812, the island did not see much development. Rather, it was used for garrisoning troops starting c. 1821. The troops garrisoned on the island were deployed to wars four times in the rest of the 19th century. The New York Arsenal, a military division that dealt with artillery and was separate from the Army, moved to the island in 1832 and started constructing an armory building three years later. Construction of structures for the Arsenal continued for several decades. To distinguish the Arsenal's and the Army's structures, the former's buildings were designed in the Greek Revival style, such as the Admiral's House built in 1843.
The Army still retained a military presence on the island, and in the 1830s, it constructed several new buildings, such as officers' barracks and a hospital. The Army also added masonry seawalls and opened an "administrative and training center" starting from the 1850s. The erection of the recruiting center and barracks resulted in the creation of Nolan Park, to the east for Fort Columbus. Together with these changes, a grassy area was cleared between Fort Columbus and Castle Williams to allow better vantage points should defensive attacks be launched. Other Army structures included a muster station that operated throughout the Mexican–American War and American Civil War, as well as a music school. Still, most of the troops continued to live in tents. To accommodate Army personnel's religious requirements, a small Gothic Revival chapel for Protestants was built on Governors Island in 1846.
No new permanent buildings were built specifically for the Civil War, though a temporary hospital was built. The hospital treated victims of cholera and yellow fever in epidemics during the 1850s and 1860s. During the war, Governors Island was used mostly as a support facility to muster soldiers, though the fortifications were still operational. Castle Williams held Confederate prisoners of war and Fort Columbus held captured Confederate officers. The austere accommodations frequently held over a thousand prisoners, and they frequently escaped and swam across to "mainland" Manhattan. In 1863, in the midst of the New York City draft riots, protesters unsuccessfully attempted to take over the island when Army troops were deployed to Manhattan.
After the war, Castle Williams was used as a military stockade and became the East Coast counterpart to military prisons at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and Alcatraz Island, California. Infrastructure and facilities were repaired, unused structures were destroyed, and in 1875 a new munitions warehouse was built north of Fort Columbus. Significant development occurred on the formerly undeveloped northern and eastern sides of the island: the old wood-frame barracks outside Fort Columbus were replaced, and new officers' quarters were built in Nolan Park, east of Fort Columbus. The seawalls on the north and west sides of the island were rehabilitated or extended to create additional buildable land. During this period of expansion, in 1870, a particularly severe yellow fever epidemic occurred on the island, sickening hundreds and requiring a quarantine. The structures that hosted yellow fever patients were later demolished. Despite these changes, in 1873 Fort Columbus and Castle Williams were still described as operable.
In 1878, Fort Columbus became a major Army administrative center, and Army officers' families started to move in. Other recreational options on the island were tennis courts in Nolan Park; a South Battery community garden; golf links; and a promenade for bicycling. A cemetery was also present on the island, and initially hosted yellow fever and cholera victims, but interments were halted in 1878 and all of the remains were moved to Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn by 1886. The secluded ambiance of Governors Island was altered somewhat when the first solid waste incinerator in the U.S. was built on Governors Island in 1885. Subsequent construction in the 1890s and 1900s added several officers' residences to the island. Starting in 1888, there was a movement to convert Governors Island into a public park for Lower Manhattan residents. Though park proponents argued that Central Park and Prospect Park were too far away for Lower Manhattan residents, the plan did not succeed.
### Army operation in the 20th century
#### Expansion and World War I
The Army started planning to expand the island in the late 1880s and the 1890s. The U.S. Secretary of War, Elihu Root, contemplated such an expansion so that the island would have enough space to accommodate a full battalion. Using material excavated from the first line of the New York City Subway, the Army Corps of Engineers added 4.787 million cubic yards (3,660,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of fill, extending Governors Island to the south. The work was mostly finished by 1909-1910 and was declared complete by January 1913. When the project was finished, it expanded the island's total area by 103 acres (0.42 km<sup>2</sup>), to 172 acres (0.70 km<sup>2</sup>).
Secretary Root also retained the services of Beaux-Arts architect Charles Follen McKim to redesign nearly every structure on Governors Island, as well as create a plan for the island's topography. McKim presented plans in 1902 and 1907 to tear down all of the old buildings and provide for symmetrical building layouts. These plans were never executed.
In addition, Root changed Fort Columbus's name back to its historic title, Fort Jay, in 1904. The Chapel of St. Cornelius the Centurion replaced the former chapel in 1907.
The newly constructed southern part of Governors Island was initially used as an airstrip. In the world's first over-water flight in October 1909, Wilbur Wright flew from Governors Island, over the west side of Manhattan, then back to the island. The following year, Glenn Curtiss completed a flight from Albany to New York City by landing on the island. An aviation training center even operated from 1916 to 1917. In honor of these aviators, the Early Birds Monument at Liggett Hall was dedicated in 1954.
Despite the island's expansion, little development happened immediately, but significant construction occurred during World War I. Governors Island is sometimes mentioned as the location of the United States' first overt military action during the war, on April 6, 1917, when troops from the island captured German vessels in New York Harbor minutes after the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany. Barracks, tents, and temporary wooden buildings were built on the original northern portion of the island, while the new southern section housed warehouses and other ancillary facilities which collectively stored \$75 million worth of material. The structures were all connected by the 8-mile (13 km) Governors Island Railroad, which consisted of numerous sidings for shunting. The railroad had been reduced to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) and was dubbed the "World's Shortest Railroad" by the time it was torn up in 1931. A buried railroad truck was dug up on the island in 2014, possibly the remains of a handcar.
#### Mid-20th century
In 1920, upon the end of World War I, the Army restructured its internal organization so that Governors Island was now the headquarters of the Second Corps Area. Few structures were built immediately after the end of the war, though the Army maintained the existing buildings and continued to utilize the island as a military prison. Some of the wooden barracks structures deteriorated rapidly, prompting objections from congressional delegations. A school for Army soldiers' children was opened on Governors Island in 1926.
In 1927, General Hanson Edward Ely commenced a major program to build several mostly Georgian revival structures on Governors Island. The new structures included a movie theater, a YMCA, an "officer's club", and a public school. The three-story Liggett Hall (also known as Building 400), a military barracks spanning nearly the entire width of the original island, was built on the site of former World War I warehouses, and was one of the world's largest barracks upon its completion in 1928. Afterward, the Army hired McKim, Mead & White to build a "barracks district" near Liggett Hall. During the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration landscaped much of the island and reinforced many existing structures, hiring up to 5,000 workers in the process. Some of the WPA's projects included the restoration of the General's House, as well as the eradication of invasive Japanese beetles. The Army also incrementally repaved Governors Island's roads so they could accommodate modern vehicles, and constructed garages.
An Army community developed on Governors Island during the mid-20th century. The island had three chapels in addition to the movie theater, YMCA, and "officer's club". Recreation was also popular; one common sport was polo, a relic from the 19th century when travel on the island was by horseback. In 1920, a polo playing field was established on the island's Parade Ground. Though a golf course had been built in 1903 near Fort Jay, a new polo-and-golf course called the Governors Island Golf Course was built circa 1925–1926. The course was located on the grounds of Fort Jay, and was sometimes called the "world's crookedest" golf course due to its enclosed nature in a confined space. Tennis courts and swimming pools were also present on Governors Island. Different groupings of recreational areas were generally located according to military hierarchy. The number of houses of worship increased as a Roman Catholic church was built in 1942, followed by a synagogue in 1959.
World War II resulted in another hierarchical change on Governors Island, turning it into an administrative center. In 1939, the island became the headquarters of the U.S. First Army, and two years later the Eastern Defense Command was also established on the island. In conjunction, 72 temporary structures were erected on the island. Governors Island became a U.S. Army recruitment center in 1941, and was processing 1,500 recruits daily by 1942. This volume proved to be overwhelming due to the island's isolation. In October 1942 the recruitment station was moved to Grand Central Palace, near Grand Central Terminal. Following the end of World War II in 1945, Governors Island continued to be the U.S. First Army's headquarters, and few substantive changes were made. Some buildings were razed in the southwest corner of the island, and an administrative office was destroyed to make way for a parking lot, but overall the building layout remained relatively untouched.
#### Infrastructure
Prior to the construction of Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn in 1930, the island was considered as a site for a municipal airport. In 1927, U.S. Representative and future New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia advocated for a commercial airport to be placed in Governors Island, since it was closer to Manhattan than the proposed site of Floyd Bennett Field. A bill in the U.S. House to create a Governors Island airport was voted down. The island also hosted the Governors Island Army Airfield for some time after World War II until the 1960s.
In 1940, work started on the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, which passes underwater offshore of the island's northeast corner. A ventilation building designed by McKim, Mead & White is connected to the island by a causeway. Initially, Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority chairman Robert Moses had proposed a bridge across the harbor, but the War Department quashed the plan, calling it a possible navigational threat to the Brooklyn Navy Yard located upriver. A subsequent plan to build a ramp from Governors Island to the bridge was rejected as well. The Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel opened to traffic in 1950 without any other physical connection to the island.
#### Decommissioning
In 1963, Department of Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara started studying the feasibility of closing redundant military installations, especially naval ship yards, in order to save money. The Department of Defense announced in May 1964 that it was considering closing Fort Jay, the Brooklyn Navy Yard, and the Brooklyn Army Terminal. Despite protests from workers at the three facilities, McNamara announced that November that Fort Jay would be one of nearly a hundred military installations that would be closed. In February 1965, the United States Coast Guard announced that it had asked for permission to move to Fort Jay in order to consolidate its facilities within New York City. The Coast Guard saw the island as an opportunity to consolidate and provide more facilities for its schools, and as a base for its regional and Atlantic Ocean operations.
### Coast Guard operation
On December 31, 1965, the Army base was formally decommissioned and the installation became a Coast Guard base. At that point, most of the World War II-era buildings on the island's southern tip were still standing. The Coast Guard consolidated its operations at Governors Island, making the island the Coast Guard's largest installation. The island was used as a base of operations for the Atlantic Area Command and its regional Third District command. By 1985, the island had a population of 4,000 personnel and 1,000 family members. It was also homeport for U.S. Coast Guard cutters, including USCGC Gallatin (WHEC-721), USCGC Morgenthau (WHEC-722), and USCGC Dallas (WHEC-716).
The Coast Guard split the island's operations among seven divisions, and began making various improvements such as adding a boat marina and the world's first search-and-rescue training school. By 1972, the Coast Guard had opened some apartment blocks on the southern portion of Governors Island, which replaced the temporary World War II-era buildings on that site. The golf course and open space in the center of the island were preserved during this wave of development. Liggett Hall was converted to classrooms, and other historic structures were preserved and restored. A community of Coast Guard members began to develop on the island, and it came to include a fire and police department, banks, stores, churches, an elementary school, a movie theater, a motel, a bowling alley, and a Burger King fast-food restaurant.
During this time, several notable events took place at Governors Island. During Liberty Weekend in 1986, President Ronald Reagan traveled to the island for a ceremony to relight the Statue of Liberty upon completion of the statue's restoration. On December 8, 1988, Reagan and President-elect George Bush met with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev on the island, in Reagan's last U.S.-Soviet summit as president. In July 1993, the United Nations held discussions between Haitian political leaders at the South Battery, which resulted in the Governors Island Accord being signed. The Coast Guard era also coincided with two landmark designations. On February 4, 1985, a 92-acre (370,000 m<sup>2</sup>) portion of Governors Island was designated a National Historic Landmark. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission created the Governors Island Historic District on June 18, 1996.
The United States Department of Transportation, the parent of the Coast Guard, identified the Governors Island base for closure in 1995. The move was part of a series of Coast Guard base closures that would collectively save \$100 million a year. Governors Island alone cost \$60 million a year to maintain. By 1996, the Coast Guard had relocated all functions and residential personnel to offices and bases, but left a caretaker detachment to jointly maintain the island with the General Services Administration (GSA) while its future was determined. Other federal agencies were loath to take control of the island. Upon the announcement of the base's closure in 1995, President Bill Clinton offered to give up the island for \$1 if Mayor Rudy Giuliani and Governor George Pataki could agree to reserve the island for public use. The city was initially reluctant to take up Clinton's offer because it would not have been financially beneficial to the city. The issue was exacerbated when the Balanced Budget Act was passed in 1997, stipulating that the GSA sell the island at a fair market value by 2002. The island's sale was expected to net the federal government \$500 million.
### Redevelopment
#### Early proposals
With the announcement of the Coast Guard base's closure, officials and developers began offering plans for development. Mayor Giuliani considered building a casino and hotel on Governors Island. Other plans entailed preserving the island as a museum; converting it into a public park; establishing a free-trade zone; and building an educational campus, a prison, an amusement park, a golf courses, or even a nightclub district. In 1996, the Van Alen Institute hosted an ideas competition called "Public Property", attracting over 200 submissions. An agreement between the city and state to maintain the island for public use was reached in 2000. Throughout this time, the federal government continued to maintain the island for \$20 million a year.
In a last-minute act while in office, President Clinton designated a 22-acre (8.9 ha) area, including Fort Jay and Castle Williams, as Governors Island National Monument on January 19, 2001. The monument would be administered by the National Park Service. The following year, it was announced that Governors Island would become public property, though the transfer of the island was delayed due to the 2002 New York gubernatorial election. On January 31, 2003, the rest of the island's 150 acres, as well as 32 acres (13 ha) of underwater land, were sold for a "nominal sum" (reported to be \$1) and placed under the management of a joint city-state agency, the Governors Island Preservation and Education Corporation (GIPEC). The transfer included deed restrictions which prohibit permanent housing or casinos on the island. The agreements also stipulated that 40 acres (16 ha) of land had to be used as parkland, and another 50 acres (20 ha) had to be used for "educational, civic or cultural" purposes. In practice, the deed restriction precludes most long-term development on Governors Island.
Progress on redevelopment was slow, but in early 2006, Governor George Pataki and Mayor Michael Bloomberg launched a competition for ideas to preserve Governors Island. During this period, the National Park Service and GIPEC began conducting restorations on parts of Governors Island. Major construction was necessary to convert the island for public use, such as repairs to the seawall and removal of asbestos. By 2006, the GIPEC had awarded leases to its first two tenants. The public was first allowed to visit the island in 2005, and eight thousand visitors came that year. At first, Governors Island was only open during summer weekends, except for a few concerts. Bikes and ferry services were made free in order to attract visitors. Art exhibits were later added.
#### Phase 1 and 2 renovations
In mid-2007, GIPEC announced five finalist design teams, namely West 8, Diller Scofidio + Renfro, Rogers Marvel Architects, Quennell Rothschild & Partners, and SMWM. West 8 ultimately won the contest. The plan included 87 acres (35 ha) of open space, as well as provided for the restoration of the historic district and a new park on the island's southern portion. Artificial hills were part of West 8's plan for the island, as were free bicycle rentals. Since the island was windy, West 8 designed their proposed topography to provide moments of shelter. Some plans were not implemented; these included an aerial gondola system designed by Santiago Calatrava, as well as a proposal by Center for Urban Real Estate (CURE) at Columbia University to physically connect Manhattan to Governors Island using landfill. A proposal to convert Castle Williams into a theater in the style of London's Globe Theatre was designed by architect Norman Foster in 2005, but was deemed unsuitable for the castle's design. Additionally, in 2008, there were unrealized plans to relocate the security and ticketing checkpoints for the Liberty Island and Ellis Island tourist ferries from the Battery to Governors Island, bringing as many as 500,000 additional people to Governors Island each year.
The number of tenants on Governors Island started to increase, though they numbered fewer than 1,000 as of 2014. In 2009, a 3-acre (12,000 m<sup>2</sup>) commercial organic farm, operated by the non-profit organization Added Value, was launched. In 2010, the Urban Assembly New York Harbor School relocated from Bushwick, Brooklyn, to building 550 on Governors Island. Also opened that year were artist studios run by the Lower Manhattan Cultural Council and housed in a portion of Building 110. Demolition of old structures on Governors Island began in 2008 with the destruction of a derelict motel. In April 2010, the city took control of the island's development, and GIPEC was succeeded by the Trust for Governors Island. The city also unveiled a new master development plan that preserved the historic north end of Governors Island, developed the middle and southern portions of the island as a park, and reserved the western and eastern sections for private development. The administration of Mayor Michael Bloomberg had provided funding for the first phase of construction. Construction on the \$260 million park started May 24, 2012, and the Coast Guard-era military housing complexes were demolished.
As part of phase 1 of the master plan, Soissons Landing was upgraded with new ferry docks and a waiting plaza, while the Parade Ground was regraded for lawn sports, while the Historic District gained concessions. In 2013, construction started on a new potable water connection (which replaced a locally illegal connection from the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel) as well as repairs to the seawall. The 6-acre (2.4 ha) Liggett Terrace courtyard was built in 2014, as was Hammock Grove and a new play structure. The Oyster Pavilion opened in June 2015, followed by the 10-acre (4.0 ha) Hills section of the park in July 2016. The island became more popular over the years. While it attracted 275,000 visitors in 2009, over 800,000 people came to the island in 2018.
#### Later modifications
In September 2016, the Trust for Governors Island and the New York City Economic Development Corporation started an online survey to develop ideas for Governors Island as a year-round destination. Two years later, mayor Bill de Blasio opened a formal process to rezone the remaining un-redeveloped portions of Governors Island for dormitory, office, or educational use. The proposed rezoning drew opposition from activists who wanted Governors Island to be kept largely as-is. Also in 2018, the city's government held the NYCx Governors Island Connectivity Challenge, asking three companies to test out 5G technology on Governors Island; if the project was successful, the city's government would pursue a wider rollout of 5G in New York City.
In September 2019, the Lower Manhattan Cultural Council's expanded Arts Center at Governors Island opened in a renovated former ordnance warehouse at the north end of the island. The new Arts Center features gallery, exhibition, and performance space as well as studio areas for up to 40 artists. The opening of the Arts Center added LMCC to the island's community of year-round tenants, which also includes Billion Oyster Project, an organization to restore New York Harbor's oyster population and biodiversity; the Urban Assembly New York Harbor School, a high school focused on maritime vocational education; and QC NY, a destination day spa. In October 2019, city officials proposed constructing a climate change research center on the island. In March 2020, the Trust for Governors Island issued a Request for Proposals seeking arts and culture organizations to become year-round tenants in two historic buildings in Nolan Park.
The American Indian Community House, a non-profit that works to improve the well-being of the American Indian community, and increase the visibility of the culture of the urban American Indian. The AICH uses the Admiral's House to present exhibitions, performances, and other cultural and educational programs.
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City during 2020, the start of the island's 2020 visitor season was delayed from May 1 to July 15, and a timed ticketing system was implemented for the season, limiting visitation to 5,000 per day. In September 2021, mayor Bill de Blasio announced that the island would operate year-round rather than from May through October. Though there were no full-time residents at the time, the Trust for Governors Island started expanding nighttime access to the island following the announcement. Additionally, two organizations announced plans to host about a dozen residents by 2022. The QC NY spa opened inside a former barracks on the north side of the island in March 2022, and the Gitano Island beach club opened that July.
## Geography
Today, Governors Island comprises 172 acres (70 ha) of land. About 22 acres (9 ha) are operated by the National Park Service while the rest are under the jurisdiction of The Trust for Governors Island. The island is about 400 yd (370 m) west of Brooklyn and 800 yd (730 m) south of Manhattan. Politically it is part of the borough of Manhattan, and shares the ZIP Code 10004 with the blocks around South Ferry in Manhattan. Governors Island contains several named streets, mostly in the northern part of the island. The entirety of the island is surrounded by a waterfront promenade.
Governors Island's shape is roughly characterized as resembling an ice cream cone. The 69-acre (28 ha) northern part of the island is original and can be described as the ice cream, while the artificial 103-acre (42 ha) southern section can be described as the cone. Functionally, the island is bisected by Division Road and Liggett Hall, which separate the NPS-operated northern section from the parkland in the southern section. The highest natural point on Governors Island is 40 feet (12 m) above mean water level at the base of Fort Jay, in the northern portion of the island. The southern section formerly was lowland located a maximum of 13.5 feet (4.1 m) above mean sea level, but since the construction of the new parkland in the 2010s it has contained the Hills, which range from 26 to 70 feet (7.9 to 21.3 m) high. This construction, part of the island's Park and Public Space Master Plan, included various measures to make the island more resilient against the effects of climate change, like raising much of the south island out of the 100-year flood plain, and replacing the old sea wall with a layer of rip-rap to better mitigate wave action.
## Notable structures
### Fortifications
Several fortifications were built on Governors Island to protect New York Harbor. These worked in conjunction with Castle Clinton at the southern tip of Manhattan, as well as Fort Wood on Liberty Island, and Fort Gibson on Ellis Island. The existing fortifications were meant to protect the city during the War of 1812.
Fort Jay, located at the center of the original (northern) portion of Governors Island, is the oldest, having been built in 1794. It was built on the highest point of the island, with a glacis sloping down from all sides. The initial fortifications degraded to such a point that they were replaced in 1806. Fort Jay was initially named for New York governor John Jay, but after being rebuilt, was known as Fort Columbus until about 1904. The rebuilt fort, which reused the original glacis and many of the original walls, comprised "an enclosed pentagonal work, with four bastions of masonry, calculated for one hundred guns", and initially included a 230-person brick barracks. Though Fort Jay has been renovated multiple times throughout its history, its current appearance largely stems from renovations in the 1830s. The walls of Fort Jay are made of sandstone and granite, with an arrow-shaped ravelin on the northern wall. The fortification is surrounded by a moat that is now dry.
Castle Williams was built from 1807 through 1811 on the northwestern corner of the island, on what was then a submerged rock. Named for USACE chief engineer Jonathan Williams, it is a cylindrical four-tiered sandstone building measuring 40 feet (12 m) high by 210 feet (64 m) in diameter. The walls taper from 8 to 7 feet (2.4 to 2.1 m) from bottom to top. The building is four-tiered, with 13 casemates on each tier each having a capacity of two cannons, for a total capacity of 104 cannons. Two structures inside the southern side of the fort were removed in 1900.
A third structure, called the South Battery or Half-Moon Battery, is located at the southeast corner of the original island near Buttermilk Channel, and was built before the War of 1812. The arrowhead-shaped South Battery contained 13 barbette guns, mounted on the parapet and facing Buttermilk Channel, as well as a barracks inside. It was then used as an officer's mess and Catholic chapel by 1878; as a court-martial room by the 1880s; and as an amusement hall after a 1904 renovation. From the 1930s, South Battery was also used as an officers' club.
### Open landscapes
#### Northern portion
There are four open landscapes in the historic northern part of Governors Island. The northernmost is the glacis of Fort Jay, a treeless grassy area that slopes down from all sides of the fort. The glacis formed a buffer between the walls of Fort Jay and the moat at the bottom of the slope. The glacis contained a polo field, as well as the Governors Island Golf Course.
To the southeast of Fort Jay is Nolan Park, a formal trapezoidal area with tree-lined walks that is surrounded by former officers' quarters and administrative buildings. The park's eastern border curves southwest toward the southern end of the area, while the western and northern borders are roughly perpendicular to each other. Nolan Park's current configuration dates to the 1870s, and it was named after Major General Dennis E. Nolan, who was First Army's commander from 1933 to 1936. A bandstand formerly existed on the site.
Governors Island's Parade Ground is located directly west of Nolan Park and south of Fort Jay, and is about 13 acres (5.3 ha). The parade ground slopes downward, away from Fort Jay and toward the waterfront to the south. It was used as both a military training ground and as an execution site for prisoners stockaded at Castle Williams. The golf course formerly extended into the parade ground, though remnants of the golf course still exist.
The fourth open landscape is the triangle between Clayton and Hay Roads, also known as Colonels Row Green or Hay Park, located southwest of Fort Jay and northeast of Liggett Hall. It was created in the early 20th century and forms a wedge shape between Hay Road to the east, which forms the island's original southwest shoreline, and Clayton Road and Liggett Hall to the southwest.
#### Southern portion
The southern portion of Governors Island includes a park that covers more than 43 acres (17 ha). The north end of the park contains Hammock Grove, a landscaped area of rolling hills with over 60 tree species. The grove's hills are located up to 27 feet (8.2 m) above mean sea level, preventing it from flooding. The grove itself is 10 acres (4.0 ha) and contains 50 hammocks. Immediately to the west is the 14-acre (5.7 ha) Play Lawn, which contains two turf fields that can be used for baseball. The paths in this portion of Governors Island are meandering, in a style similar to Frederick Law Olmsted's designs of Central Park and Prospect Park, which incorporate winding paths to reinforce a secluded atmosphere.
The south end of the park contains the Hills section of Governors Island, which covers 10 acres. The Hills consists of four hills that are 26 to 70 feet (7.9 to 21.3 m) high, and are made partially of reclaimed debris from the demolition of the island's former residential towers. From shortest to tallest, the hills are the 26-foot Grassy Hill; the 40-foot (12 m) Discovery Hill, with site-specific artwork; the 40-foot Slide Hill, which contains four long slides; and the 70-foot Outlook Hill, which contains an observation area with view of New York Harbor. The Hills includes over 41,000 shrubs and 860 new trees. The Hills cost \$70 million to build; the construction of the Hills was funded in part by Google CEO Eric Schmidt, who donated \$15 million.
At the southernmost tip of Governors Island is Picnic Point. This area contains grills and picnic tables close to the waterfront.
### Other structures
When the Coast Guard abandoned Governors Island in 1996, there were 49 buildings built before 1917, mostly in the northern part of the island, and 121 buildings built after 1917, mostly in the southern part. The southern part was mostly residential and industrial, while the northern part was mixed-use. The island was relatively low-density with extensive open space.
#### Residential
Governors Island contains several clusters of low-rise officers' housing, now mostly unoccupied, though some structures are used as exhibits or for administrative purposes. The two largest sections of housing in the historical northern part of the island are Colonel's Row (buildings 403–410), as well as the structures around Nolan Park (buildings 1–20).
Nolan Park contains several structures that are historical in their own right. The Admiral's House/Commanding Officer's Quarters (building 1), a two-story Colonial Revival brick house built in 1843, is listed separately on the NRHP and as a city landmark. To the north is the Governor's House (building 2), a two-story Georgian brick house built c. 1805–1813. The southeast corner of Nolan Park contains the Block House (building 9), a two-story Greek Revival building built in 1843, which served initially as a post hospital and later as administrative offices and officers' quarters. Buildings 3-5 (built in the 1850s), 6-11 and 14-18 (built in 1878–1879), and 19-20 (built in the 1890s) all served as two-company officers' quarters. Building 12, a three-story Georgian Revival brick apartment complex, was constructed in 1928 or 1931 to house the 16th Infantry Regiment.
The eastern side of Colonel's Row contains eight individual officers' quarters numbered 403 from north to south, which initially faced the original shoreline southwest of Hays Road. The first structures to be built, buildings 405–408, were designed in accordance with the same Quartermaster General plans, and were built in 1893-1895 as two-family duplexes. This was followed by buildings 403–404, built in 1904-1906 also to the same plan. The two-and-a-half-story building 409, a Colonial Revival structure, was designed as Bachelor Officers' Quarters and was completed in 1910, while building 410 was built as a duplex officer's quarters in 1917 and is the only structure of the Modified Arts and Crafts design on the island.
The southwestern side of Colonel's Row is dominated by Liggett Hall (building 400), a three-to-four-story barracks that spans nearly the entire width of Governors Island, measuring 1,023 feet (312 m) long with two 225-foot-long (69 m) wings extending south. Initially built in 1930 for the 16th Infantry, it was among the largest military barracks in the world when completed, and was the first Army building intended to house an entire regiment. The building contains a ground-level arcade that bisects the first and second floors, as well as an annex to the southeast. Two nearly identical Georgian Revival structures, building 550 (now the New York Harbor School) to the north and building 333 to the south, are located directly adjacent to Liggett Hall. The three-story structures are both U-shaped with the wings surrounding a front courtyard; they were built in 1932 as detachment housing for the First Army before being used by the Coast Guard as classrooms. Nearby are a smaller pair of nearly identical 3+1⁄2-story family housing blocks for the 16th Regiment, built in 1940. These consist of building 555 to the north of building 550, and building 315 near the southern waterfront south of the YMCA and theater.
Several other residential structures exist throughout the northern part of Governors Island. Buildings 111 and 112, a pair of three-story neo-Georgian structures on the island's east side, were built in 1934 to a design by Rogers & Poor. These served as officers' quarters for the 16th Regiment, accommodating additional officers once Liggett Hall was full. Inside Fort Jay were four buildings numbered 202, 206, 210, and 214; these were nearly identical Greek Revival barracks that housed soldiers at the fort. The north side of the island, between Castle Williams to the west and Soissons Dock to the east, contains the Fort Jay Nurses' Quarters (building 114), a 2+1⁄2-story neo-Georgian brick-with-concrete structure designed by Rogers & Poor; this later became bachelor officers' quarters as well. Officers' quarters were also located in building 135, a former storehouse along the northeastern waterfront built in 1835.
Formerly, residential apartment blocks ranging up to 11 stories tall were located on the southern half of Governors Island. There were 594 total apartments each with 2 to 5 bedrooms, spread out across three apartment complexes. Unlike the housing on the island's north side, these structures were not historically protected. The largest of these structures, the 11-story, 165-unit Cunningham Apartments (building 877), was located on the island's north side. Built in 1968, it was imploded in 2013, something uncommon in the city.
Many of the former residences located in Nolan Park and Colonels Row now serve as seasonal homes to a variety of arts and culture organizations that typically offer free programs for visitors during the Island's public season. During the 2020 season, indoor programs were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. As a result, many of the organizations based in the former homes joined the Governors Island Residency Initiative to offer the houses as free workspace for artists and cultural workers.
#### Religious
Religious practice on Governors Island dates to the opening of the first chapel in 1846. There later came to be three houses of worship on Governors Island. The Chapel of St. Cornelius the Centurion (building 13), a two-story limestone structure in the southern part of Nolan Park, was designed by Charles C. Haight and built in 1907, replacing the old 1846 chapel. Throughout the chapel's history, chaplains have been assigned by several different entities, namely the Army, Coast Guard, and Trinity Church. Maintenance was performed by Trinity Church until 1986, when it turned operations over to the Coast Guard under condition that Trinity Church would resume maintenance duties if and when the Coast Guard left the island.
A Catholic church called Our Lady, Star of the Sea was built in 1942. The one-story clapboard structure is located at Clayton and Comfort Roads on the north shore of Governors Island.
A synagogue housing Congregation Shaare Shomayim was established in 1960 in what is known as building S-40. The one-story clapboard building, located east of Barry Road on the island's east shore, was initially a "temporary" building used for storage.
#### Office and storage
Several buildings were built as part of the Arsenal but have not been used as residential structures, instead being utilized for office or storage space. These include buildings 104 and 107, originally used as storehouses; 105, a two-winged structure used as an armory and office; and 110, used as a quartermaster's depot and storehouse. Building 110 is now home to the Lower Manhattan Cultural Council's Arts Center at Governors Island, which opened in September 2019. All were built in brick from the 1850s through 1870s. Buildings 106 (pump house) and 108 and 109 (offices) were built during the 1940s in the same style as the other structures, though building 109 replaced a wooden structure built in 1918. Pershing Hall (building 125), a three-story brick building north of buildings 107 and 108 on the northern waterfront, served as the headquarters for the First Army when built in 1934.
The waterfront contains several buildings, including building 130, the original Arsenal workshop, as well as building 134, a modern structure which hosted offices for USCG Group: Station New York.
Governors Island also has several small vehicular garages of varying styles. Most of these garages were built in the 1930s and 1940s during the WPA's renovations of the island.
#### Service structures
The northwest side of the island hosts building 515, the former Post Hospital, later used as enlisted bachelors' housing. The three-story brick-and-limestone building was constructed in 1935 to a Neo-Georgian design by McKim, Mead & White. Nearby is the Tampa Memorial Library (building S-251), a one-story rectangular wooden building. Constructed in 1908, it originally served as a storehouse and was renamed after the sinking of the cutter in 1918.
The area around the South Battery, south of the Parade Ground, includes several former service structures. Building 301, a single-story brick building near the waterfront, housed an elementary school called PS 26. It was originally built in 1934, though two wings were added in 1959–1960. To the west is building 324, constructed in 1926 as the Army YMCA. The War Department Theater (building 330), a two-story 700-seat theater built in 1937–1939, is located west of the YMCA, facing the southern portion of Governors Island.
Formerly located near the South Battery was the former Governors Island Guest House/Super 8 Motel in building 293. The one-and-a-half-story brick building was originally a quarters built in 1871–1872. The abandoned motel was demolished in 2007–2008 to expand the Parade Ground. On the southern part of Governors Island was building 785, which included a fast-food restaurant and a bowling alley. Building 902 houses several FDNY fire protection vehicles.
### Monuments
The Monumental Setting for Bronze Plaque, a brick monumental bench with stone trim between buildings 406 and 407, was built by the WPA in 1938. The Early Birds Monument, originally dedicated in 1954 south of Liggett Hall, is a bronze cast of a Wright Brothers' plane's propeller on a granite base that commemorates early aviation on the island.
## Operations
### Management
Three organizations work in partnership to maintain the island: the National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy, the Trust for Governors Island, and Friends of Governors Island.
#### National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy
The National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy, a 501(c)3 non-profit organization, is responsible for managing the 22 acres (8.9 ha) that comprise the Governors Island National Monument. It works with the National Parks of New York Harbor (a branch of the National Park Service) in a public-private partnership, and is the official nonprofit partner for the National Parks of New York Harbor. The Conservancy was founded in 2003 because the NPS is legally prohibited from operating its own business ventures. The National Park Service owns and operates the monument itself.
#### Trust for Governors Island
The Trust for Governors Island, legally the Governors Island Corporation, is a nonprofit organization of the city government that is responsible for managing the redevelopment for the rest of the island. Its predecessor, the Governors Island Preservation and Education Corporation (GIPEC), was founded in 2003, when Governors Island was sold to the public. At the time, GIPEC was a partnership between the city and the state. In April 2010, the city entered an agreement to take full control of the island's development from the state of New York. GIPEC was then dissolved and superseded by the Trust for Governors Island. The Trust is charged with the planning, redevelopment, and ongoing operations of the 150 acres (61 ha) of the island not included in the National Monument.
#### Friends of Governors Island
The Friends of Governors Island is the private nonprofit organization that manages the island's operations and programming. It was founded as the Governors Island Alliance in 1995, following the Coast Guard's decision to vacate the island. The Alliance and its 50 member organizations led a campaign to return the island to New York for public purposes. Since 2014 the Alliance has been an independent non-profit, and in 2016 it was renamed Friends of Governors Island. The Friends run volunteer and membership programs, raise money and perform advocacy for the island.
### Working dogs
Governors Island employs working dogs to chase the Canada geese off of the island. The working dogs provide a humane geese disbursement method for the super flocks of Canada geese that migrate through the New York Harbor. Before the dog program started in 2015, attempts to use R/C cars, strobe lights, and a special laser to chase the geese all failed. Chasing the geese from the island helps avoid the large amount of bird droppings they leave behind, as well as mitigates their aggressive nature. Keeping the super-flocks off the island helps protect both other bird species and park visitors, as Canada geese are known to be hostile during nesting season. The Working Dogs program began in January 2015 when Jim Reed, Director of Park and Public Space, adopted Max, a Border Collie who came from a failed career as a farm dog.
As of 2019 the Governors Island working dog team is composed of four dogs. A Border Collie named Quinn was added to the team of working dogs in 2017, followed by a Border Collie named Chip in mid-2018 and a mini Aussie named Aspen in late 2018. The dogs are popular on social media with a growing following. In addition to their duties chasing geese, the dogs serve as ambassadors to Governors Island guests.
### Cannonball removal
The majority of cannonballs and shells from the island's military history had already been removed by the 21st century. In 1900, the government sold 5,635 tons of cannonballs to an iron dealer who intended on smelting the iron in order to build trains and other machinery. More were sold in 1942 and smelted down to support World War II manufacturing efforts. Cannonballs continue to be found: for example, a 350-pound cannonball was found near Soissons Landing in 2012 and deemed to not be at risk of explosion. Inactivated cannonballs are available for viewing near Fort Jay.
## Activities
Activities on the island include free National Park Service tours of the National Monument, bike riding, picnicking, art installations, fairs, festivals, and concerts. The northern half contains Governors Island National Monument as well as the Governors Island Historic District. The southern half contains the 43-acre park constructed and operated by the Trust for Governors Island.
### Recurring activities
Various free activities are offered on Governors Island. The houses around Nolan Park and Colonels row host arts, culture and educational exhibits during typical public seasons. Downtown Boathouse has offered free kayaking classes at Pier 101. In addition, there are several NPS-operated walking tours and self-guided tours of Governors Island's historic landmarks. Other public programs and exhibits are available, including an adventure playground operated by play:groundNYC called The Yard, as well as a compost site run by Earth Matter called the Compost Learning Center and a functioning urban farm, the Teaching Garden, run by GrowNYC.
Some activities require additional fees. QC NY, an Italian-based day spa spanning two buildings on the north side of the island, contains a courtyard with heated pools and lawn chairs overlooking Manhattan; it offers personal treatments in addition to its saunas. Collective Retreats, a glamorous camping or "glamping" retreat, allows its guests to use the island three hours before the island opens to the general public each day, and several tiers of accommodations and activities are provided at progressively higher prices. Though Collective Retreats can accommodate about 70 campers per night, there are no full-time residents on the island as of 2022. For travel throughout the island, Blazing Saddles rents out bikes and pedicabs, and there are also three Citi Bike bike-sharing stations on the island.
### Events
Many events take place on Governors Island during a typical public season including outdoor films, food and art festivals, runs, concerts, and a pumpkin patch in October.
The Governors Island Art Fair, run by the art collective 4heads and now known as Portal: Governors Island Art Fair, has taken place annually on the island during weekends in September since 2007. Originally located in buildings on Colonel's Row, the event has also hosted artists in Castle Williams and Fort Jay. Many concerts have also taken place on the island. For instance, the Rite of Summer Festival, a series of free concerts, has been held on the island throughout the summer since 2011. The Jazz Age Lawn Party, a two-day-long Prohibition-era cosplay event, is also hosted on the island. In September 2019, the Longines Global Champions Tour, a globe-traveling equestrian jumping league, made its New York debut on Governors Island.
Past attractions have included a Dutch festival called Goverthing in 2009, as well as a French carnival in 2013 that contained 19th- and 20th-century rides. Several previous large concerts have also been held on Governors Island. These include the inaugural Governors Ball Music Festival in 2011, though it moved to Randalls Island for subsequent seasons.
## Public access
As of 2021, Governors Island is open year-round, operating from 7 a.m. to 6:15 p.m. seven days a week. Until 2015, Governors Island was publicly accessible only on summer weekends and was rarely open during nighttime except during concerts. From 2015 to 2020, the island was open seven days a week, but only from May through October.
### History
The first public boat service to Governors Island was instituted in 1794, when John Hillyer was given a franchise to operate a rowboat line to the island, collecting a fare of three cents per person. The Army took over the franchise as passenger traffic grew, operating barges from South Ferry or the Battery in Manhattan. The first recorded port of departure at the Battery, located south of what is now Castle Clinton, opened in 1854. At that point, there were two barges that each had a maximum capacity of 12 people. Test runs of steamboat service started in 1844, and they supplanted the former open-barges by 1879. Many of the passengers were employees at the New York Armory on Governors Island. By 1879, an "ugly little tug" that charged 15-cent fares for travel to the island was replaced with a steamboat.
Around 1897, it was announced that the ferry service would be overhauled to accommodate the expanded Army presence on the island. Three new ferryboats with capacity of 823 passengers and 21 cars were added in 1925–1929. Two of these were replaced in 1956 with larger vessels that could hold 1,100 passengers and 32 cars.
Public ferry access from Manhattan started in 2005; at the time, the ferry was free on weekends. Starting in 2010, weekend ferry service commenced between Governors Island and Brooklyn Bridge Park's Pier 6 at Atlantic Avenue. In June 2011, NY Waterway started service to points along the East River. On May 1, 2017, that route became part of NYC Ferry's East River route. A new 400-person vessel named Governors 1 as delivered in 2019 in anticipation of large crowds, supplementing the existing vessel Lt. Samuel Coursen. The same year, NYC Ferry added a weekend-only shuttle from Pier 11/Wall Street to Governors Island, replacing the East River and South Brooklyn service to the island.
### Current services
Governors Island has two ferry landings: Soissons Landing and Yankee Pier. Soissons Landing, located at the northern shore of the island, contains two slips. The current cast-iron piers of Soissons Landing were built in 1947 and commemorate the Battle of Soissons during World War I, during which over half of the 16th Regiment were killed. Building 148, a brick waiting room built in 1917, is located directly to the west. Ferries travel from here to Slip 7 at the Battery Maritime Building, located adjacent to the Staten Island Ferry Whitehall Terminal in Manhattan's Financial District. The ride is about 7 minutes long. These ferries are operated by HMS Ferries for The Trust for Governors Island and operate daily when the island is open.
Ferries also operate to Yankee Pier on the southeastern side of the island, which is served by two ferry routes. One route is operated by HMS Ferries for The Trust on weekends and travels to Red Hook as of the 2020 season (though it traveled to Pier 6 of Brooklyn Bridge Park prior to 2020). The second route is the Governors Island route operated by NYC Ferry; during summer weekends, the route travels to Pier 11/Wall Street in Manhattan's Financial District, where it meets the other six NYC Ferry routes. Starting in November 2021, NYC Ferry has run the South Brooklyn route from Yankee Pier during the winter and on summer weekdays. The South Brooklyn route travels to Red Hook; Piers 1 and 6 of Brooklyn Bridge Park; Pier 11/Wall Street; and Corlears Hook in Manhattan.
Ferries operated by the Trust run half-hourly. As of 2022, the Trust charges a round-trip fare of \$4 per person; children, seniors, and certain groups of adults ride for free, and no fare is charged during weekend mornings. While the ferry to Manhattan runs seven days a week, the ferry to Brooklyn runs only on weekends. NYC Ferry services run half-hourly and charge \$2.75 for a one-way trip, with one free transfer to another route.
The main ferryboat operated by the Trust is the Samuel S. Coursen, a passenger and vehicular ferry built for the Army in 1956 and named for soldier Samuel S. Coursen. A second vessel, Governors 1, entered service in 2019; it can carry 400 passengers and can travel at up to 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph). As of 2023, the Trust is replacing the Coursen with a battery-electric vessel carrying up to 1,200 people.
## Notable people
- Neal Adams (1941–2022), comic book and commercial artist; born on the island
- Withers A. Burress (1894–1977), commanding general of the 100th Division during World War II; finished his military career as commander of the First United States Army at Fort Jay from 1952 to 1954.
- Winfield Scott Hancock (1824–1886), United States Army officer and a Democratic nominee for President of the United States; died at the island while in command of the Military Division of the Atlantic
- Peter Marzio (1943–2010), former director of Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
- Smothers Brothers (Tom Smothers born 1937 and Dick Smothers born 1939), entertainers; born on the island
## See also
- List of Civil War prisons and camps
- List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan on islands
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on smaller islands
|
20,222,702 |
Ryan Burge (footballer)
| 1,173,197,325 |
English footballer (born 1988)
|
[
"1988 births",
"Barnet F.C. players",
"Birmingham City F.C. players",
"Doncaster Rovers F.C. players",
"Eastleigh F.C. players",
"English Football League players",
"English businesspeople in fashion",
"English expatriate men's footballers",
"English expatriate sportspeople in Japan",
"English expatriate sportspeople in Spain",
"English men's footballers",
"Expatriate men's footballers in Japan",
"Expatriate men's footballers in Spain",
"Footballers from Cheltenham",
"Hyde United F.C. players",
"Jerez Industrial CF players",
"Living people",
"Men's association football midfielders",
"National League (English football) players",
"Newport County A.F.C. players",
"Oxford United F.C. players",
"Port Vale F.C. players",
"Sutton United F.C. players",
"Tercera División players",
"Worcester City F.C. players"
] |
Ryan James Burge (born 12 October 1988) is an English former footballer who played as a midfielder in the English Football League and National League.
In his teenage years he had trials for clubs as far apart as the Netherlands, Japan, and England. He was under contract at Birmingham City, Barnet and Japanese side Machida Zelvia. He joined the Glenn Hoddle Academy in Spain in summer 2009. From there he was sent out to Worcester City, Jerez Industrial, Doncaster Rovers, and Oxford United to gain first team experience. In June 2011 he signed with Port Vale via Hyde (partners of the Hoddle Academy). He left Port Vale in April 2013 after falling out with the club's management, and signed with Newport County for the 2013–14 season. After over 18 months out of the game, he signed with Sutton United in February 2016, and was an influential presence in midfield, helping the club to win promotion as champions of National League South at the end of the 2015–16 season, he left the club in December 2016 and joined Eastleigh for a brief spell four months later.
## Career
### Early career
Born in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, Burge scored 60 goals in a single season for Cheltenham YMCA as a child. He later spent a year at West Bromwich Albion, before playing alongside Daniel Sturridge at Cadbury Athletic. He also had a spell with Coventry City, and trialled for Ajax in the Netherlands, before trialling with Manchester United.
### Birmingham City
After being tracked by both Manchester United and Manchester City, he began his professional career at Birmingham City, where he signed a three-year contract at the age of 17. Following the departure of manager Steve Bruce, Burge was released by Birmingham in March 2008. He went on trial at League Two club Hereford United and League One side Cheltenham Town. He was verbally offered a short-term contract by Cheltenham manager Keith Downing, but the deal collapsed after Downing was replaced as the Cheltenham manager by Martin Allen. He instead joined up with League Two side Barnet. He made his debut for Barnet in the 4–0 home defeat by Notts County on 15 November 2008. This was the only appearance he made before his time there was disrupted by appendicitis, which ruled him out for four weeks. The club released him in January 2009.
### Searching for a new club
In February 2009, Burge travelled to Japan, the birthplace of his step-mother, in the hope of securing a contract with a J-League club. He spent a week trialling with Division Two side Avispa Fukuoka, followed by a trial period at Division One outfit Oita Trinita. Top-flight sides F.C. Tokyo and Sagan Tosu also expressed an interest in Burge, as he was tested at Kokushikan University against players such as Hidetoshi Nakata. He later joined third-tier side Machida Zelvia, where he made a handful of appearances. Burge said that the clubs in Japan appreciate inexperienced but technical players and "they don't just go for big lumps that head it and kick people".
### Glenn Hoddle Academy
In July 2009, Burge was forced to return to England in order to renew his visa to stay in Japan. He participated in a pre-season friendly against Malmesbury Victoria for Conference Premier side Forest Green Rovers. He was offered a contract, but rejected it and joined the Glenn Hoddle Academy in Spain on a two-year deal, stating he felt it would help to improve his technical skill. Burge scored the quickest goal in the academy's history, netting against Spanish side San Fernando after just 12 seconds. In March 2010, Burge played once for Conference South club Worcester City, by arrangement with the Academy. In the 2010–11 season, Burge played for Jerez Industrial, the Spanish Tercera División club connected with the Glenn Hoddle Academy. He became established in central midfield after he recovered from numerous injury problems. He was sent off twice in 13 games and won the club's Player of the Month award for October 2010. They were in contention for promotion to the Segunda División B when a November 2010 article on the BBC Sport website described Burge as "the current star of the side".
### Doncaster Rovers
Burge moved to Championship club Doncaster Rovers on a short-term deal on transfer deadline day, 31 January 2011. He made his Doncaster debut as a second-half substitute in a 6–0 home defeat to Ipswich Town on 15 February 2011. That was to be his only appearance for the club. On 17 March 2011, Burge joined League Two team Oxford United on loan for the rest of the season, after impressing in a reserve game against Colchester United which Oxford won 2–0. He went straight into the starting line-up for the match against Crewe Alexandra two days later, and provided the assist for James Constable's winning goal. His first performance at Oxford received praise in the local media. A week later, Steve MacLean opened the scoring against Burton Albion, but Burge reportedly claimed the goal after the ball took a deflection off his heel on its way into the net for what would have been his first Football League goal. In mid-April 2011 he was recalled by Doncaster, and a few weeks later they offered him a new deal.
### Hyde to Port Vale
In June 2011 he signed a two-year deal with Micky Adams' Port Vale. The League Two club had to pay Hyde a small undisclosed fee, as the Conference North side secured his contract from their partnership with the Glenn Hoddle Academy. He missed the start of the 2011–12 season with a knee injury, and in November 2011 it was revealed that he would have to undergo surgery to correct the problem. He did not feature in matchday squads for the rest of the season, and was transfer listed in May 2012. The door to the first team remained open though, after Burge had an encouraging and injury-free pre-season.
He came off the bench on 14 August 2012 – his first competitive game for twelve months – and "pulled the strings to help Vale control the second half" in a League Cup defeat to Championship side Burnley. He made his long-awaited league debut at Vale Park four days later, replacing Chris Shuker 79 minutes into a 3–0 win over Barnet. Despite some impressive cameo appearances from the bench, a streak of wins kept Burge out of the first XI until 29 September 2012, when he made his first league start for the club at Valley Parade, in a 1–0 win over Bradford City. He scored his first goal for the club in the Football League Trophy at the Bescot Stadium; his 20 yards (18 m) left-footed strike helped Vale to battle to a 2–2 draw with Walsall, though he missed his penalty in the shoot-out victory. He opened the scoring in a 2–2 home draw with York City on 17 November 2012, and was selected on the League Two Team of the Week for his performance.
He established himself in central midfield over the New Year with "a string of impressive performances". However, on 12 March 2013 he missed a pre-match team meal, but claimed he made his own way for the match against Bristol Rovers, only to be informed that he was not in the matchday squad when he was just five minutes away from Bristol. He took to Twitter to put his side of the story across, and an angry Micky Adams responded by saying Burge's tweets were "absolute nonsense and he's going to be disciplined". Burge was suspended for two weeks for breaking the club's "social media guidelines" after club management claimed he refused to apologise for the incident. On 12 April 2013, with three games left of the season, Burge left the club by mutual consent. Club chairman Paul Wildes stated that "this has been a difficult decision for both parties". Vale secured promotion into League One at the end of the 2012–13 season, and users of a single Port Vale fan site voted him one of their three Players of the Season. The actual Player of the Year was Tom Pope, the Player's Player of the Year was Chris Neal.
### Newport County
Burge was linked with a move to Peterborough United in May 2013, though also stated that "I am confident I could do a job at Championship level". He also had a trial spell with Burnley. He eventually signed a contract with League Two side Newport County on 30 August 2013. Illness and injuries limited his contribution at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. He impressed in central midfield during the second half of the campaign and manager Justin Edinburgh was reported to have opened talks to extend Burge's stay at Rodney Parade beyond the summer. Despite these reports, Burge left the club in May 2014.
In June 2014 he was reported to have agreed terms with South African side Bidvest Wits of the Premier Soccer League, but the move was never completed. He had a trial with Cheltenham Town in March 2015, and impressed in a reserve game against Plymouth Argyle after being out injured for the season, but the club was unable to offer him a contract, even though his grandad was on the board.
### Sutton United
In February 2016, Burge signed with National League South club Sutton United on a contract running until summer 2017. He contributed three goals in five games as the U's won promotion into the National League as champions of the Southern Division in 2015–16. He was forced to miss the rest of the season after his ankle ligaments were damaged from a heavy challenge he received during a 2–0 win at Wealdstone on 22 March. Burge made his National League debut in a 1–1 draw with Forest Green Rovers at The New Lawn on 9 August. On 9 December 2016, Burge was released by Sutton United as he looked to continue his career nearer to his Cheltenham home.
### Eastleigh
Burge signed with National League side Eastleigh on 13 March 2017; caretaker manager Richard Hill said that "he likes to pass the ball and move well". He played five games for the "Spitfires" before being sidelined with an ankle injury.
At the age of 28, Burge applied for the vacant managerial post at Port Vale following the dismissal of Michael Brown in September 2017.
## Style of play
Keith Downing described Burge as "aggressive" and that he is "technically good and has a good frame". After arriving at Port Vale in June 2011, Vale manager Micky Adams stated, "Ryan is a creative central midfielder and will bring plenty of quality on the ball, but he is also a very hard-working individual". Neil Duncanson, the Glenn Hoddle Academy's commercial director said: "Ryan is very strong, powerful and suited to the front of a diamond in central midfield. He's a creative player who can take an excellent dead ball". Burge has said of himself that "I'm a midfield player who likes to put my foot in, as well as to get on the ball and create things. I try to be an all-round midfield player and do a bit of everything".
## Business career
Burge set up his own fashion label, Ten Club London, and sold the naming rights to American rock band Pearl Jam in 2018.
## Personal life
His grandfather, Rod Burge, was a member of Cheltenham Town's board of directors for over 25 years before his death in April 2014.
## Career statistics
## Honours
Port Vale
- EFL League Two third-place promotion: 2012–13
Sutton United
- National League South: 2015–16
|
33,156,358 |
Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo, Llanwenllwyfo
| 1,109,366,402 | null |
[
"Church ruins in Wales",
"Demolished buildings and structures in Wales",
"Former churches in Anglesey",
"Llaneilian"
] |
The Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo, Llanwenllwyfo is a medieval ruined church near Dulas, in Anglesey, Wales, perhaps built in the 15th century to replace another church from which only the 12th-century font survived. Dedicated to Gwenllwyfo, a 7th-century female saint about whom nothing else is known, it was used as a chapel of ease for the church in Amlwch, about 5 miles (8 km) away. Restored in 1610 and again in the 18th and 19th centuries, it contained an oak screen and pulpit from 1610.
It was replaced in the middle of the 19th century by a larger church about two-thirds of a mile (1.1 km) away, to which some of the contents, including a memorial brass plaque from the early 17th century and the church bell, were removed; other items were left behind. The disused church was noted to be in bad condition in 1937, and the roof collapsed in 1950. Little of the structure now remains, as the walls have been reduced to 5 feet (1.5 m) in height.
## History and location
The ruins of St Gwenllwyfo's Church stand near Dulas, in the north-east of Anglesey, Wales. The date of construction of the first church on the site is unknown. There was a church here in medieval times: one 19th-century writer suggested that the present building dates from the 15th century and that the font, probably 12th century in date, was the only surviving part of an earlier church on the site. Restoration work was carried out in about 1610 and in the 18th century; the latter changes eradicated the church's historical details.
The church (dedicated to Gwenllwyfo, a 7th-century woman about whom nothing else is known) was a chapel of ease attached to the parish of Amlwch, about 5 miles (8 km) away. The parish tithes, however, were divided between the Bishop of Bangor and the incumbent of St Eilian's Church, Llaneilian. The area takes its name from the church: the Welsh word llan originally meant "enclosure" and then "church", and "-wenllwyfo" is a modified form of the saint's name.
In 1812, the priest responsible for the church was Edward Hughes, whose wife was the niece of the owner of Llys Dulas, the landed estate in the area. He employed an architect to carry out some further restoration work, although the details are unknown. The church was in need of further repair by the middle of the 19th century, and the congregation needed a larger building. A new church was therefore built between 1854 and 1856 about two-thirds of a mile (1.1 km) away, financed largely by the widow of William Hughes, 1st Baron Dinorben (the son of Edward Hughes). The old church, which was allowed to fall into ruins, stands in a disused cemetery surrounded by trees.
## Architecture and fittings
The nave and chancel of the church were not structurally divided, and measure 39 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 9 inches (12 by 4.8 m). The walls are 3 feet (0.9 m) thick. In 1844, it was recorded as having a coved roof, doors in the north and south walls and windows in the east, north and west walls. It also had a pulpit and an oak screen, 7 feet (2.1 m) high, both dated 1610. The screen had inscriptions in Welsh and Latin, and a note that "Richard Williams of Rhodogeidio who married Marcelly Lloyd at his own charge caused all this worke to be don to the honor of God and his church". A brass plaque, erected in 1609 by Williams in memory of his wife, was moved to the new church. Another screen was later added at the west end to stop the wind blowing into the nave, and two windows were added on opposite sides of the chancel. Two box pews were installed during the 18th century, and a bell (now used by the new church) was added.
At the time of a survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937, although the building was in bad condition with an insecure roof, it still retained an 18th-century oak communion table, a rectangular font dating from the 12th century, the 1610 screen (damaged), the pulpit, fragments of an oak sounding board (also dated 1610) and some 18th-century memorials. There were also stone benches along the north and south walls, and some wooden benches from the 18th or early 19th century. The medieval roof trusses were also still in place in 1937, but the roof collapsed in 1950. The walls have since been lowered to a height of 5 feet (1.5 m).
## Assessment
The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church in 1833 as "a small neat edifice, appropriately fitted up for the performance of divine service". Samuel Lewis, writing in the middle of the 19th century, said that the church was "a conspicuous and interesting object" in a parish that "partakes much of the general character of dreary sterility by which the mining districts in the immediate vicinity are distinguished". However, the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones, writing in 1859 about the church as it had been 15 years earlier, said that "the whole building was in bad repair". One writer described the church in the 1970s as "a roofless, forgotten shell".
|
12,314,099 |
Polish–Prussian alliance
| 1,161,770,403 |
1790 alliance between Poland–Lithuania and Prussia
|
[
"1790 in Prussia",
"1790 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"1790 treaties",
"18th-century military alliances",
"Great Sejm",
"Military alliances involving Prussia",
"Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia",
"Treaties of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"
] |
The Polish-Lithuanian and Prussian Alliance was a mutual defense alliance signed on 29 March 1790 in Warsaw between representatives of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Prussia. It was signed in the brief period when Prussia was seeking an ally against either Austria or Russia, and the Commonwealth was seeking guarantees that it would be able to carry out significant governmental reforms without foreign intervention.
From the beginning, the alliance was much more valuable to the Commonwealth than to Prussia. Soon after the treaty was signed, the international situation, and changes within the Commonwealth, made the treaty much less valuable to the Prussian side. Meanwhile, the Commonwealth embarked on a series of major internal reforms, seeing the alliance as a guarantee that it had the backing of a powerful neighbour in the process, but in fact, Prussia felt that those reforms were not in its best interest and felt threatened by them. When Russia invaded the Commonwealth in May 1792, Prussia refused a request to honour the alliance and intervene, arguing that it was not consulted with regard to the 3 May Constitution, which invalidated the alliance. A few months later, in 1793, Prussia aided Russia in the suppression of the Kościuszko Uprising.
## Background
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (also known as the Poland) had been a major European power since its formation in the late 16th century and was still one of the largest states in Europe in the latter part of the 18th century. Over time, its state machinery had become increasingly dysfunctional. By the early 17th century, the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state or rather managed to ensure that no reforms would be carried out that might weaken their privileged status (the so-called "Golden Freedoms").
Tentative reforms began in the late 18th century; however, any idea of reforming the Commonwealth was viewed with suspicion not only by its magnates but also by neighbouring countries, which were content with the state of the Commonwealth's affairs and abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders. With an army numbering around only 16,000, Poland found that its neighbours could easily intervene directly: the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300,000, the Prussian Army and the Imperial Austrian Army 200,000. All of those powers had already annexed about a third of the Commonwealth territory and population (211,000 square kilometers (81,000 sq mi) and four to five million people) in the First Partition of Poland in 1772–1773.
However, events in the world appeared to play into the reformers' hands. Poland's neighbours were too occupied with wars to intervene forcibly in Poland, with Russia and Austria engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire (the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92) and the Austro-Turkish War (1787–91)). The Russians also found themselves fighting Sweden (the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90)).
In the context of the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire's war with the Ottoman Empire, Polish King Stanisław August Poniatowski, attempted to draw Poland into the Austro-Russian alliance since he saw a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth. Internal Russian politics prevented that plan from being implemented. Spurned by Russia, Poland turned to another potential ally, the Triple Alliance, represented on the Polish diplomatic scene primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia. That line of reasoning gained support from Polish politicians such as Ignacy Potocki and Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski.
Within the Triple Alliance, Prussia was hoping for some territorial gains in the Baltic region through war (with Russia), diplomacy (from the Commonwealth) or a combination. With regard to the Balkans, the Triple Alliance aimed at restraining Russia, as well as its ally, Austria, and there were expectations of a war between the Alliance and Russia (and possibly Austria) around 1791.
## Negotiations
Prussia tried to take the opportunity of the Russia's wars with the Ottoman Empire and Sweden to move the weak Commonwealth into its sphere of influence. Some factions in the Commonwealth deemed that as an opportunity to shake free from decades of Russian control. However, Prussia did not expect much from the alliance or even that it would pass. When the treaty was first proposed to the Great Sejm by Prussian Ambassador Ludwig Heinrich Buchholtz on 13 October 1788, Prussians expected that it would cause long and fruitless debate which the only outcome would be to ensure the weakening of the position of Russia and, to a lesser degree, Austria in Poland. Overall, for Prussia, the alliance with Poland was only one of several potential options, but for some Polish politicians it became a new and increasingly the only available strategy. The reception of Prussian proposal by the Sejm exceeded expectations, which has significantly strengthened the Patriotic Party. For the next year or so, the Prussians decided to delay taking any clear action, keeping their options open. Buchholtz was also reprimanded for allowing things to go too far, and another Prussian diplomat, Girolamo Lucchesini, was sent to Warsaw to aid him.
One of the Prussian requests to play for time to the Patriotic Party was that before the treaty was signed, more reforms within the Commonwealth government had to be seen. In October 1789, the changing international situation, primarily the military defeats of the Ottoman Empire, suddenly and temporarily increased the value of an alliance with Poland for Prussia. In the meantime, the previously antiroyalist Patriotic Party has begun drifting closer to the king. In February and March 1790, concrete proposals were exchanged between Warsaw and Berlin. Some difficulties were centred on Prussian demands for the cession of Gdańsk and Toruń and on tariffs, but the threat of a Polish-Austrian alliance, recently brought forward by Austria, caused Prussia to withdraw most of the demands that the Polish side found difficult to accept.
## Signing
The treaty was finally signed on 29 March 1790, and ratified on 23 April. It was a defensive treaty, as each country promised to aid the other in case of an invasion.
## Unravelling
Several factors, however, soon reduced the value of the treaty for Prussia. The Treaty of Reichenbach on July 27, 1790, meant that Prussia was no longer considering a war with Austria; the Polish–Prussian alliance was now only anti-Russian. Then, on September 9, the Great Sejm, despite some opposition, declared that Commonwealth territories could not be divided. As Prussia was expecting to receive Gdańsk and Toruń from the Commonwealth as compensation in a subsequent treaty, with the Commonwealth being compensated through territorial gains from another neighbour, the Sejm declaration, which meant that no territory could be traded to another state, made the Commonwealth a much less valuable party for Prussian long-term goals. Already, in the fall and the winter of 1790, Prussian diplomacy had begun negotiations with Russians and hinted at abandoning Poland.
Potocki attempted to offer another deal to Prussia, namely, to support Prince Louis Charles of Prussia for the Polish throne, but Frederick William II of Prussia, advised by Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg, refused that offer, as it did not seem profitable enough to Prussia, which was interested more in territorial gains than in a potentially-strengthened Commonwealth, which could ask for the return of the territories lost in the First Partition. The passing of the Constitution of 3 May 1791, although officially applauded by Frederick Wilhelm II, who sent a congratulatory note to Warsaw, caused further worry in Prussia. The Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives: "The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands that Prussia acquired in the First Partition. Finally, Prussian-Russian relations stabilised with the end of the Triple Alliance, which was cemented by the British-Netherlands-Prussian-Russian treaty of 26 July 1791 in which the Triple Alliance de facto capitulated to all Russian demands. In the meantime, similar negotiations of a never-realised Polish–Swedish alliance fell through as well.
## Aftermath
The Treaty of Jassy in January 1792 ended the Russian war with the Ottomans, and in April, the First Coalition wars began, forcing Prussia to move the bulk of its forces west to deal with Revolutionary France. Russia, angered by Poland's attempt to move out of its influence, invaded Poland in May. Around then, Prussian policy was already set against Poland. Rather than discussing how to aid it, Frederic Wilhelm and his ministers were discussing how to convince Austria and Prussia to a new partition. Lucchesini has already made several declarations that Prussia could not aid the Commonwealth, and in June that year, Potocki's mission to Berlin received a confirmation, motivated on the grounds that the 3 May Constitution changed Poland so much that Prussia did not consider its obligations binding. Prussian Foreign Minister Friedrich Wilhelm von Schulenburg-Kehnert clearly and with rare candor told Potocki that Prussia did not support the constitution but could not say so initially to avoid any Polish-Russian reconciliation and would not help even as a mediator, as it is not in Prussian's interest of the state to see Poland so strengthened that it could later threaten Prussia.
In January 1793 a Prussian corps entered Greater Poland, it was not as a Commonwealth ally but instead to guarantee Prussia's share of spoils in the Second Partition of Poland. Prussian forces were acting in support of the Prussian-Russian Treaty on the partition that month. Prussian forces later assisted Russians in several key battles of the Kościuszko Uprising, such as in the defeat of Tadeusz Kościuszko's forces at the Battle of Szczekociny. By 1795, Commonwealth would cease to exist, with Prussia acquiring Gdańsk, Toruń and other territories that it had desired (see Prussian partition).
## Historiography
The issue of the Polish–Prussian alliance was subject to a comprehensive study as early as the 1890s, when Polish historian Szymon Askenazy published his work on the subject (Przymierze polsko-pruskie, 1900) focusing on the diplomatic and international aspects. Askenazy argued that the alliance fell more by inept Polish diplomacy than the Prussian agenda of realpolitik, but that view is not supported by majority of historians, and noted by Jerzy Łojek, who admitted, in his Geneza i obalenie Konstytucji 3 maja (1986), that he shared Askenazy's minority viewpoint. The question of to what degree the alliance was realistic and to what degree it represented a Prussian diplomatic feint to mislead Commonwealth politicians is still debated by modern historians. Similarly, as Piotr Wandycz has noted, the advantages and disadvantages of the alliance have been debated by the historians for over a century.
|
16,527,771 |
Neverwinter Nights 2: Mysteries of Westgate
| 1,167,117,337 | null |
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"Atari games",
"Neverwinter Nights",
"Role-playing video games",
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"Video games developed in Canada",
"Video games with gender-selectable protagonists",
"Windows games",
"Windows-only games"
] |
Neverwinter Nights 2: Mysteries of Westgate is an expansion pack for the role-playing video game Neverwinter Nights 2. It was developed by Ossian Studios and published by Atari Interactive on April 29, 2009. The player creates a character and controls it, along with a group of three pre-designed companions, journeying through the game world. The gameplay is very similar to that of the base game. Mysteries of Westgate also includes new monsters, music, and other tools, which can be used by players to create their own Neverwinter Nights 2 levels.
The game takes place in the Forgotten Realms world, a Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting, in the area of Westgate. The player creates a character at the start of the game who finds a cursed mask belonging to the "Night Masks", a thieves' guild at war with two other organizations. The player chooses which of these other organizations to side with, and embarks on a quest to lift the mask's curse.
Mysteries of Westgate was made after Ossian Studios' successful work on the 2006 expansion pack Darkness over Daggerford. The game's release was delayed to April 2009, despite its completion in September 2007, because of digital rights management issues and coordination difficulties among the three companies involved. Mysteries of Westgate met with mixed reviews; the game's plot and small amount of spoken dialogue were criticized by reviewers, while its music and low price for overall content were praised.
## Gameplay
Mysteries of Westgate is a role-playing video game that is based on the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, and uses the d20 System rules, which are based on determining the results of most tasks, such as attacks, by performing the equivalent of rolling a 20-sided die. The player begins the game by either importing their character from Neverwinter Nights 2 or creating a new one that starts at character level 8. Each character has a race (such as human or elf) and a class (such as fighter or wizard), which determine the character's main abilities. Mysteries of Westgate has gameplay similar to the original Neverwinter Nights 2 and uses the same systems for gameplay elements, such as character levels, combat, and magic. The gameplay takes place primarily from an overhead perspective in a three-dimensional environment. The player moves and commands characters with the mouse.
The game's designers estimate that Mysteries of Westgate contains over 15 hours of gameplay, part of which is provided by pursuing optional side quests unrelated to the main plot. Mysteries of Westgate's campaign features content that does not appear in Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions, including four new monsters (such as the wererat and sea serpent-like quelzarn), a set of "sewer" terrain tiles, and new music, all of which is available to players for use in the creation of custom levels. The pack includes over one hundred magic items, equipment which the character can use during the adventure.
## Plot
The storyline of Mysteries of Westgate is unrelated to Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions. It begins with the player character (PC) finding a cursed mask in a dungeon, which causes the PC to have nightmares, and which cannot be discarded. The player soon discovers that the mask belongs to a group of thieves known as the Night Masks of Westgate. After traveling to Westgate, a port city along the Dragon Coast, the PC discovers that the Night Masks are involved in a guild war with a rival group of thieves known as the Ebon Claws. The temple of Lathander is also fighting the Night Masks, and the PC is faced with the choice of joining the temple or the Ebon Claws. The PC is joined by three companions near the start of the game: the rogue Rinara, a former Night Mask; Mantides, a fallen paladin; and Charissa, a cleric of Tyr. All three travel with the PC for most of the adventure.
The party then undertakes a number of quests, which vary depending on which faction the PC sides with. As the quests are completed, more is revealed about the cursed mask and how to get rid of it. The party eventually learns that the Night Masks are led by vampires, and additional clues lead them to the vampires' catacombs. After defeating the vampire Latasha, the PC travels through a portal to reach the chamber of the Night Masks' leader, Orbakh. Orbakh gives the PC the choice to either become a vampire or keep the cursed mask.
The game's ending depends on the PC's choice. If the PC chooses to become a vampire, former allies turn against the PC. Once they are defeated, Orbakh sends the PC to destroy the Ebon Claws. If the PC instead decides to keep the mask, Orbakh attacks; after his defeat, the leader of the Ebon Claws arrives with a group of followers and attacks the party. After the party is victorious, they kill the last of the Night Masks and free the player character from the cursed mask.
## Development
Soon after the release of Darkness over Daggerford, Ossian Studios' previous game, discussion began over the possibility of the company creating another expansion for Neverwinter Nights 2. Ossian officially proposed the game to Atari and Wizards of the Coast, the owners of the Dungeons & Dragons license, in the fall of 2006, with production beginning in January 2007. When asked about why the Dungeons & Dragons setting appealed to the company, Ossian Studios CEO Alan Miranda said, "All of our team members are [Dungeons and Dragons] fans, so developing a [Neverwinter Nights 2] game seemed like a great opportunity."
During the game's early development stages, it was set in the Forgotten Realms nation of Rashemen. The location was changed because Obsidian Studios' Neverwinter Nights 2: Mask of the Betrayer was to take place in the same area. At lead designer Luke Scull's suggestion, Westgate became the new setting for the game. Ossian wanted the game's setting to differentiate itself from both Neverwinter Nights and the Baldur's Gate series of games. They found Westgate, situated in another area of the Forgotten Realms setting, to be ideal. Miranda compared Westgate to a city-sized version of Star Wars's Mos Eisley cantina: a "melting pot" of creatures from everywhere in the setting. Ossian said they decided to make Mysteries of Westgate exclusively single-player in order to improve the game experience.
David John, who had also worked on expansion packs for the original Neverwinter Nights, composed the score for Mysteries of Westgate, which took several months. In an interview soon after the game's release, Scull said "Some of [the game's] tracks are so good, I actually listen to them alongside my usual eclectic mix." Mysteries of Westgate's voice acting was recorded in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, with over 12,000 words of new voice-over material. The cast included some of the same people who previously acted in Neverwinter Nights: Hordes of the Underdark and other BioWare games. Brian Dunn and Brian Watson, both of whom had also worked on Darkness over Daggerford, created the game's artwork and graphics.
Development of Mysteries of Westgate ended in September 2007, but Atari delayed the pack's release, because the digital rights management they wanted to use was not ready. The delay was also caused by coordination problems between Ossian, Obsidian, and Atari. The game was officially announced on October 22, 2007, with an estimated release date of "fall 2007". In May 2008, IGN reported that the game was scheduled for release that June, but it was further delayed, finally being released on April 29, 2009. Development of Mysteries of Westgate continued during the delays, to ensure the game's compatibility with the expansions and patches for Neverwinter Nights 2 that were released after the game's completion. Scull said, "Kevin Smith, our Lead Technical Designer ... had to bug fix and create new builds of the game with each [patch and expansion]."
When IGN's Steve Butts asked Miranda why the game was made available only through download, he replied, "From a financial perspective, digital distribution makes a lot of sense. It allows us to sell the Adventure Pack at a lower price point while still providing players with the same high quality gameplay and content that they've come to expect from NWN2 products.". Some of the game's voice-overs, monsters, music, and objects were released to the Neverwinter Nights 2 community for free, for use in building custom adventures, without needing to purchase the game itself.
## Reception
Reviews of Mysteries of Westgate were mixed. 1UP.com's Jason Wilson said that the game's plot is "an intriguing tale, and even after finishing the game, a number of encounters and plot points ring in my head ... but the story's poor stitching distracts from its arc—I felt like a great hand ... was pushing me through the plot, and the tale felt a bit muddled toward the end." Brett Todd of GameSpot called the plot "rough around the edges", while GameZone reviewer Michael Lafferty said, "The game may have a disjointed storyline, but there are moments where humor shines through, and the game does take a few interesting plot twists. And the exploration of the city zones, the underground areas where the trolls abound, hold that sense of joyful discovery that make an RPG worth playing." Numerous reviewers mentioned that the impact of the mask which drives the story is minimal, having little effect on the actual gameplay. Lafferty said the side quests were not necessarily optional, as they were often a source of additional gold, and a certain point in the game's plot required a substantial sum of it to proceed. GamesRadar's Rich McCormick praised the game's storyline and main quest as some of its best points. In a review for GameStar, Christian Schmidt thought that the game's appearance and humor were poor, but recommended it because of its strong storyline.
Todd found the pack's difficulty to be "wildly careening" and stated, "Some battles are amazingly easy. You can soar through many scraps in moments, with your party carving up the opposition before you can tell if you're fighting a mummy or a zombie. However, others are absolutely brutal ... There are more than a couple of moments in the game in which your party is ambushed by enemy spellcasters that rip you to pieces before you can even think about a proper response." He praised the game's music as blending in seamlessly with that of the original game, but criticized it for having a minimal amount of voice acting, with sequences of dialogue that begin with audio and transition into text. Steve Butts commented on this, saying, "the dialogue here really needs some work ... you'll even be treated to some truly tortured sentences. 'Wait till you see how deep into the backside of evil I insert my boot in the name of justice!' is probably my favorite. It's too bad there's not more voice acting in the game, because hearing someone speak lines like that out loud may have given the developers an opportunity to edit some of the worst offenders."
As a result of Mysteries of Westgate's 2007 completion and 2009 release, it did not feature the improvements present in the two previous Neverwinter Nights 2 expansion packs, and received criticism because of this. Todd stated that the game lacks the artistic improvements of Mask of the Betrayer and Storm of Zehir, a sentiment echoed by Lafferty's review. However, Butts stated that "Westgate delivers enough engaging content that the absence of all the latest improvements isn't "too agonizing." Several reviews noted that the fifteen hours of story and the new objects in the adventure pack make the expansion worth its US\$9.99 cost.
|
16,916,083 |
Charles Kanaʻina
| 1,161,673,192 |
Hawaiian judge and noble (1798–1877)
|
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"1798 births",
"1877 deaths",
"Burials at Kawaiahaʻo Church",
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"Hawaiian Kingdom politicians",
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"Heirs to the Hawaiian throne",
"Justices of the Hawaii Supreme Court",
"Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Kalākaua",
"Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Nobles",
"Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom Privy Council",
"Royalty of the Hawaiian Kingdom"
] |
Charles Kanaʻina (Kanaʻina II c. May 4, 1798 – March 13, 1877), was an aliʻi (hereditary noble) of the Kingdom of Hawaii, prince consort of Kuhina Nui, Kaʻahumanu III and father of William Charles Lunalilo, the 6th monarch of the Kamehameha Dynasty. Kanaʻina was a descendant of several figures from ancient Hawaiian history, including Liloa, Hakau and Umi-a-Liloa of Hawaiʻi Island as well as Piilani of Maui. He served on both the Privy Counsel and in the House of Nobles. He was named after his uncle Kanaʻina, a name that means "The conquering" in the Hawaiian Language. This uncle greeted Captain James Cook in 1778 and confronted the navigator before he was killed.
His wife Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi was a widow and niece of Kamehameha I. She was also married to Kamehameha II before he converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife. Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi lived in a traditional aliʻi style home in a sacred neighborhood in Honolulu called Pohukaina near Kekūanāoʻa, Kaʻahumanu and their offspring. The compound would eventually become the Iolani Palace (the official Royal Residence of the Hawaiian Royal Family) and Palace Walk when Kekūanāoʻa built Hale Aliʻi in the center of the families estates as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu. Kanaʻina kept his property at the palace until his death and would be the only original owner to do so while the Palace was in use, living there through five monarchs, from the 1820s to 1877. Kanaʻina's son, William Charles Lunalilo, was named by Kamehameha III as an heir to the throne of the kingdom and ascended in 1873 while his father still lived. Lunalilo died only a year later, three years before his father's death on March 13, 1877. Having not re-written his will, which left everything to his son who had predeceased, Kanaʻina died intestate. Probate hearings proceeded for 5 years. On final adjudication his property was auctioned with the proceeds going to several of Kanaʻina's cousins including Ruth Keelikōlani and Bernice Pauahi Bishop.
## Birth, early life and marriage
Charles Kanaʻina Eia was born about May 4, 1798 to his mother Kauwā and father Eia, at Napoʻopoʻo, Hawaiʻi, although the year has been dated as late as 1812.
There was speculation Kanaʻina was not a High Chief by birth, however recent research has identified his father to be Eia Kalaikuʻahulu, making him a descendant of the first aliʻi nui Liloa through both sons, Umi-a-Liloa and Hakau. Abraham Fornander states in his 1916-17 publication; "Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-lore" that C. Kanaina was descended from Kanealai, aliʻi nui wahine (female ruler) of Molokai, through a grandmother named Kaha. Fornander records that Kanealai was one of the recognized wives of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku with whom she had four children, including Kumukoa (k) who became the father of Kalaikuʻahulu who is connected to Molokai.
In the 2000 publication; "Kamehameha's Children Today", authors Charles Ahlo, Rubellite Kawena Kinney Johnson and Jerry Walker state that Kanaʻina's maternal grandfather, Palila Nohomualani was Kamehameha I's grandson through the monarch's first born child named Kahiliopua, a daughter of Kalola-a-Kumukoa. This genealogy is based on previously unpublished family trees compiled by the DeFries family. Eia and Kauwā's other four children were named Naʻea, Iʻahuʻula, Kahele and Kaikumoku.
He was named Kanaʻina, after the nickname of his uncle Kalaimanokahoʻowaha, the Native Hawaiian drawn by artist John Webber, who greeted Captain James Cook and was present at the navigator's death at Kealakekua Bay. In the Hawaiian language, ka naʻina means "the conquering". Kanaʻina was part of the kaukau aliʻi class, which was one of five levels of kānaka maoli (ʻōiwi) (Native Hawaiian) aliʻi (hereditary noble) status that served the ruling class as close relatives.
### Marriage
In 1810 the monarch of the independent Island of Kauaʻi, Kaumualii (c. 1778–May 26, 1824), negotiated a peaceful agreement that allowed Kauaʻi to become a part of Kamehameha I's new Hawaiian Kingdom, while still allowing Kaumualii to remain the islands ruler until his death. The agreement established Kamehameha's son Liholiho as supreme monarch after Kaumauii's death. After Kamehameha I's death, a council was held in July 1821 with Kaumualii and Liholiho, now styled as "Kamehameha II" along with the top chiefs and advisors, including Charles Kanaʻina. Kamehameha II decided to continue his father's arrangements. For this, Kaumualii asked the new monarch to take some Kauaʻi lands for his wives, to appease Liholiho's guardians. While Kamehameha II refused to do so—stating that his father had left no instructions about the land, only that he should be the supreme monarch—he did take Kaumualii's wife Kekaihaʻakūlou as one of his own wives and gave his wife Kekāuluohi to his most trusted advisor, Kanaʻina, as a way to please the chiefs. It is believed the council decision displeased the new Kuhina Nui, Kaʻahumanu. A year later, she would take Kaumualii and later his son Kealiiahonui as her husbands, using the teachings of the missionaries on marriage, to make herself their heirs. Kanaʻina married Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi that same year on Kauaʻi. Kekāuluohi had been one of several wives of both Kamehameha I and Kamehameha II. She became co-ruler of the Hawaiian Kingdom with Kamehameha III in 1839 as Kuhina Nui (co-regent), styled as Kaahumanu III.
### Residence
Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi lived near Kekūanāoʻa, who had his home just west of theirs called Haliimaile. The homes were in the area called Pohukaina. This area was a sacred burial site for aliʻi. Their home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes. The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels. The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats. In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror. In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write. Four matching cabinet-bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each. In his book, A visit to the South Seas, in the U.S. Ship Vincennes: during the years 1829 and 1830, Charles Samuel Stewart states:
> "They both write with great readiness; and the husband with a freedom and command of hand that would class him among good penman anywhere. Both are among the most studious and improving of their compeers".
Next to their home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia. This was the spot of an ancient heiau called Kaahaimauli. In July 1844 Kekūanāoʻa began building a large home here as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu. Instead, Kamehameha III would buy the estate and use as his Royal Residence after moving the capitol of the kingdom to Honolulu. It would become the Iolani Palace. As older aliʻi died, the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands. Kekāuluohi's lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family. When she died, she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son, not her husband Kanaʻina however, Lunalilo predeceased his father. Kanaʻina served as a member of the House of Nobles of Kamehameha III from 1841 to 1876, on the Privy Council from July 29, 1845, to 1855, and on the Supreme Court from when it was first founded on May 10, 1842. In the tradition of European royalty, he was granted the style (manner of address) of "His Highness".
### Children
Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi had two sons. Their first son Davida, died young. Their surviving natural son, William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31, 1835, at Pohukaina. He was considered the grandnephew of Kamehameha I, and second cousin to King Kamehameha V, King Kamehameha IV, and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, through his mother, Kekāuluohi, who was the cousin of Elizabeth Kīnaʻu (later called Kaʻahumanu II). Lunalilo was declared eligible to succeed by the royal decree of King Kamehameha III and sent to the Chief's Children's School (later called the Royal School) when it was founded by missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke. They had several hānai (informal adoption) children including Kalama, the daughter of Iʻahuʻula (Kanaʻina's sister) and Naihekukui. Kalama became the queen consort and wife of Kamehameha III. Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi also hānai adopted Kalama and Kamehameha III's second son Keaweaweulaokalani II.
#### Lunalilo Trust
Kanaʻina acted as trustee of the royal lands that had been inherited by his wife while his son was a minor, and after his son's death. When Kanaʻina died, the court appointed nine trustees, six of which would take part in the militia that overthrew the monarchy and also take part in the new provisional government. Dole himself had been on the record as supporting the break up of crown lands to promote American style farming in his newspaper in 1872. Various lawsuits ensued over the property including a suit questioning the validity of the will due to Lunalilo being under the guardianship of his father when he made it out. Lunalilo had requested in his will to use the estate to fund a charity. The trustees favored splitting up the estate by selling it off, while others claimed the value of land was underestimated, and an endowment to run the charity could have been funded by lease income. For example, Kanaʻina leased (and later his heirs would sell) thousands of acres of land on the island of Hawaii to businessman (and son of missionaries) William Herbert Shipman.
## Death and legacy
Kanaʻina died on March 13, 1877, in Honolulu, Oahu, and was buried at Kawaiahaʻo Church in the Lunalilo Mausoleum, next to his son who had died before him. While Kanaʻina had made out a will, he had left everything to his son, and so had died intestate. Petitions to administer the estate began the following day. Probate proceedings were litigated for four years, between 1877 and 1881, and re-affirmed in 1886.
Attorney General Alfred S. Hartwell applied for the appointment of trustees shortly after Kanaʻina's death under the articles of Lunalilo's will. Article three of that will bequeathed the entirety of his estate to three trustees appointed by the Justices of the Supreme Court of the Hawaiian Kingdom. The property was to be sold and invested until the sum of \$25,000.00 was raised to fund a home for the poor and destitute. Chief Justice Charles Coffin Harris ordered a hearing for April 5, 1877, to hear the petition pertaining to the estate of the late Charles Kanaʻina and anyone who could show reason not to grant it.
### Estate probate
A petition was filed by King David Kalakaua, his sisters and brother-in-law, Lydia K. Dominis, Miriam K. Cleghorn and Archibald Scott Cleghorn, with a hearing set by Justice Lawrence McCully. In July 1878, Justices Harris, Judd and McCully heard Kalakaua's appeal. While the Justices felt that the claim of Kalakaua and his sisters had not been proven, they were impressed with that of Kilinahe (Kanaʻina's first cousin) and other claimants based on testimony and witnesses. The court decreed that the estate be split into four equal shares: one quarter to go to Haalilio (k), Haalelea (k) and Kahukaiola (k); one quarter each to Pahua (w) and Kaahua (k); and one quarter to the widow and children of Kilinahe, who had died before the adjudication of his claim.
Claimants from the line of Moana Wahine made petitions to the court under the act of 1874 to quite land titles. The act was later deemed unconstitutional and a new decree of heirship was made. By December 1879 disbursement of land in trust with William Cooper Parke, (Marshal of Hawaii from 1853 to 1884) and owned by heirs, could not be agreed upon for settlement. Most supported the sale of the lands, so an order was made and all land sold at auction.
### Heirs and legacy
Final adjudication of probate found a total of eight parties or groups of relatives, most of whom were descended from Moana and her four husbands, as heirs to the Kanaʻina estate splitting a total of 9 shares, with 2 shares going to one party. The probate records include a great deal of information from the four years of litigation. A great number of people petitioned the courts to claim title as heirs after the initial 1878 judgement. In the final adjudication, Bernice Pauahi Bishop received two of the nine shares. The remaining seven of the nine shares were divided equally in 1/9th and distributed to Ruth Keelikōlani, Haalilio and Haalelea (namesakes of the historic figures), Kilinahe (Whose grandmother was the older sister of Kanaʻina's mother and 5 other parties. The first three trustees included John Mott-Smith and Sanford B. Dole.
The Hawaii public archives building, built in 1906 on the ʻIolani Palace grounds, in a section that was formerly the Kanaʻina's estate, was dedicated as the Kanaʻina building. It originally held the public archives but today hold the administrative offices of Friends of ʻIolani Palace.
## Honours
- K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I May 28, 1874
- K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Kalakaua
### Arms
## Family tree
|
4,202,915 |
Liz Sanbourne
| 1,151,103,656 |
Fictional character in Passions
|
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"Television characters introduced in 2001"
] |
Liz Sanbourne is a fictional character from the American soap opera Passions, which aired on National Broadcasting Company (NBC) from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV from 2007 to 2008. Created by the soap's head writer, James E. Reilly, Liz was portrayed by Amelia Marshall from October 3, 2001, to February 17, 2006. Arreale Davis and Taquel Graves also played the character in flashbacks in 2003. Reilly approached Marshall about the role after they worked together on Guiding Light; Marshall was attracted to the series due to the opportunity to play a darker and more complex character than her previous experiences. Her casting was part of NBC's attempt to include a racially diverse ensemble on daytime television.
Liz, part of Passions' Russell family, is introduced as a resort owner involved in the love triangle between Sheridan Crane and Antonio Lopez-Fitzgerald and his brother Luis Lopez-Fitzgerald. She gains more prominence on the series as the antagonist and foil to her adoptive sister Eve Russell. Liz's desperation to expose her sister's past relationship—and child—with Julian Crane leads to the breakup of the latter's marriage and family. Later storylines focus on her relationship with Eve's husband T. C. Russell and attempts to murder Alistair Crane for raping her as a teenager. Liz eventually abandons her vendetta against Eve and Alistair in order to find love in the future. Following her exit from the series, Liz is identified as the biological mother of Chad Harris-Crane, which proves his relationship with Whitney Russell is not incestuous.
Liz has been widely praised by television critics, specifically for her role as a villain. Marshall received a nomination for Soap Opera Digest Award for Outstanding Villainess in a Drama Series – Daytime in the 2005 Soap Opera Digest Awards, but lost to Jane Elliot for her portrayal of General Hospital's Tracy Quartermaine. Co-stars Tracey Ross and Rodney Van Johnson praised Marshall's performance on the series, but they were disappointed at her removal. Marshall's departure was the result of significant cuts in the soap opera's budget.
## Background
### Creation and casting
Passions''' creator and head writer James E. Reilly had approached Amelia Marshall about the role of Liz Sanbourne after they worked together on Guiding Light. Marshall said that she was attracted to the character since it was different from her previous performances as Belinda Keffers in All My Children, and Gilly Grant Speakes in Guiding Light. While discussiong her professional relationship with Reilly in an interview with Soap Talk, she had commented: "I just love the fact that he saw me and realized that I could be such a witch." Prior to receiving the role, Marshall was already aware of the soap opera's supernatural elements, and said the following about Passions: "... there were always these strange things happening on the show. It really pulls you in." Marshall portrayed Liz from October 3, 2001, until February 17, 2006. In 2003, Arreale Davis and Taquel Graves had played the character in flashbacks.
Sheraton Kalouria, senior vice president of National Broadcasting Company (NBC)'s daytime programming, described the show's use of color-blind casting as part of an effort to build a diverse pool of characters that best reflected ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Kalouria believed the show was set apart from other soap operas, by including "the African American Russells and the Hispanic Lopez-Fitzgeralds". In an interview with Soap Opera Digest, Marshall said Kalouria has led the effort: "to making sure the African-American community knows they are telling tales with African-American actors."
### Characterization and relationships
Marshall attributed her background as a dancer as giving her the discipline and direction to prepare for her character. She described the show as "so on the edge all the time", explaining that the storylines "ground[ed] [her] and the freedom from the dance world [...] g[ave] [her] the freedom to just soar with it." For the character's early appearances on Passions, Marshall characterized Liz as "milquetoast" and lacking any edge. She viewed Liz as a "very strong, centered woman who has had some hard knocks and challenge", and felt she was "wise beyond her years" and terrified of being left alone.
Early in the show, Marshall commented that Liz's relationship with former lover Antonio Lopez-Fitzgerald was not defined by the differences in the characters' races. She viewed the soap opera as a "breath of fresh air" due to this approach rather than handling it differently in regards to its interracial aspect. Echoing Marshall's sentiment, Tracey Ross, who portrays Liz's adoptive sister Eve Russell, identified social class as the biggest obstacle for relationships on Passions rather than race.
Over the course of the series, Marshall attempted to reconcile Liz's psychotic behavior with her approach to playing the character. Due to the lack of concrete information on her character's past at the outset, Marshall formulated different storylines for Liz that "allow[ed] [her] the freedom to go for what [she] s[aw] as Liz's level of anger and betrayal." Describing the role as an improvement over the girl next door characters she had previously played, she interpreted Liz's "unhealed pain and anger", primarily her inability to reconcile with her adoptive sister, as interesting acting challenges. She attributed Liz's behavior in the 2005 episodes to the character "operat[ing] even crazier than she normally does", describing her mental unraveling as a fun story arc to perform.
Marshall based her understanding of Liz on the character's relationship with Eve, which served as the primary focus for her character development and story arcs. Liz was initially not included in the show's descriptions of Eve's past. In the 2001 tie-in novel Hidden Passions: Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox, Eve is characterized as the only child of "too-busy Harvard history Professor Warren Johnson and journalist Tanya Lincoln Johnson". Marshall felt Liz was irredeemable for her actions against Eve and her love interest Julian Crane. Interpreting the character as having a form of mental illness due to her repeated sexual abuse, Marshall said that "[e]very emotion she has it twisted". Ross added to Marshall's commentary by recommending that Liz should get "some serious electroshock therapy". Marshall found Liz's rivalry with Eve to be absurd, particularly a scene in which they fight in the Crane mansion. She went on to praise her working relationship with Ross, saying: "[i]t's a gift as an actor to have a good relationship with your scene partner when you're always the aggressor because you can go where you need to go and not be afraid."
### Removal
Following Liz's exit in 2006, media outlets began to question the exact nature of Marshall's departure from the show. Commentators believed that the decision to remove several of the series' main characters was influenced by the slashing of the budget by "a reported \$4-to-\$5 million" to secure its renewal. Even though Passions representatives clarified the budget cuts were limited to a reduction in the production team, sets, and extras, television critics connected the departures of certain actors to the show's financial restraints. According to Metacritic, Marshall was fired due to the cuts in budget. TV Guide's soap opera columnist, Daniel R. Coleridge was critical of Liz's exit, writing that it prevented fans from "enjoy[ing] the pleasure of watching [her] digest all of that explosive info and act upon it."
## Storylines
### Backstory
Liz Sanbourne is the adopted daughter of Mr. Sanbourne and Ruby Lincoln and the adoptive sister of Eve Russell, who is Ruby's daughter from a previous marriage. Eve and Liz are both unaware of the adoption, believing that they were half-sisters. Mr. Sanbourne repeatedly molested Liz after Eve left home and became a nightclub singer and a prostitute and started a relationship with businessman Julian Crane. Liz blamed Eve for abandoning her to her father's sexual abuse. When she was fourteen, Liz went to Boston in search of Eve. She tracked down Julian at a jazz club to talk to him about her sister and their relationship. Later that night, Alistair Crane, Julian's father, raped Liz in his son's apartment; Julian was passed out in a drunken stupor in the same room and was unaware of what happened. The rape resulted in Liz's pregnancy with Chad Harris-Crane, who was later believed to be Eve and Julian's son; Liz gave up her baby for adoption at birth, and was forced to undergo surgery that left her barren.
### 2001–2006: Passions
Liz first appears in the episode airing on October 3, 2001, as the owner of the unnamed resort on the fictional island of St. Lisa's, located near Bermuda and the Bermuda Triangle. She helps her former boyfriend Brian O'Leary rescue Sheridan Crane following the explosion of her boat. Along with Brian, and their friend Doc, Liz becomes close with the amnesiac Sheridan while trying to help her to remember her past. Sheridan believes her name is Diana due to confusing memories of her friendship with Diana, Princess of Wales with her own; she begins a romantic relationship with Brian. Liz grows increasingly jealous of the attention Brian pays to Diana and suspicious of Brian's true identity. Liz forms a close friendship with Luis Lopez-Fitzgerald after he comes to the island to pick up a boat for his then girlfriend Beth Wallace. She thinks Luis is Diana's fiancée, but fails to reunite them, despite several attempts, before he returns home. Liz joins Diana and Brian to sail the ship back to the fictional town of Harmony. Upon returning to Harmony on Christmas Eve, Brian reveals his identity as Antonio Lopez-Fitzgerald, the long lost brother of Luis, and Liz and Diana convince him to reunite with his family. Liz again attempts to reunite Diana with Luis, but fails to do so before they return to St. Lisa's Island.
In 2002, Liz returns to Harmony in response to a telephone call from Diana; she tells Liz about her true identity as Sheridan, her engagement to Luis, and Antonio's terminal illness. While visiting Antonio in the hospital, Liz is startled and angry to find Eve in Harmony. She plots to reveal Eve's past to her husband T. C. Russell and her children Whitney and Simone Russell in order to replace her sister as the head of her family. Between 2002 and 2004, Liz makes bolder moves to expose Eve and coerce T. C. to have sex with her. In 2003, Liz buys the Blue Note, a jazz club Julian constructed as a copy of the place where he first met Eve, as a cover to stay in Harmony longer without raising suspicion. The storyline culminates in July 2004 when Liz brings Eve's aunt Irma Johnson to tell T. C. the truth about Eve's past relationship with Julian and their child. The characters also find out that Eve, not Julian, was responsible for the car accident ending T. C.'s tennis career. In retaliation, Eve tells everyone in Harmony about Liz's true identity as her sister. T. C. later divorces Eve after finding himself unable to forgive her for lying about her past. Following the signing of the divorce papers, he openly begins a romantic relationship with Liz.
In 2005, Liz drinks poisoned punch which Julian's ex-wife Rebecca Hotchkiss had intended for Eve. Liz accuses Eve of deliberately giving her the punch, and Eve is arrested for attempted murder. T. C. proposes to Liz, but she becomes increasingly paranoid over his romantic feelings for Eve. Liz attempts to force Julian to have sex with her in the middle of an earthquake and tsunami, and stabs him in the back when he does not comply. At this point, Liz lies to Julian by saying that he had raped her in the past. T. C. later breaks off his engagement with Liz after reconciling with his ex-wife's past and rebukes all of her efforts to seduce her way back into his life. On the eve of Eve's trial, Liz offers her adoptive sister a deal: she will rescind her accusation and not testify if Eve promises to leave Harmony forever. Eve considers the deal before ultimately refusing it. Near the end of Eve's trial, Julian agrees to give Rebecca anything she wants in exchange for her testimony that she saw Liz with the vial of poison. Tabitha Lenox's daughter Endora Lenox magically casts the jury into a fake flashback, matching Rebecca's testimony, and the judge declares a mistrial.
Liz's desperation to destroy Eve, Julian, and Alistair drives her to act more violent and erratic, such as threatening to kill Julian with a letter opener. At the New Year's Eve party, titled "A Murder is Announced", Liz stabs Alistair in the neck, which puts him into a coma. Before attempting to disconnect Alistair's life support, Liz confesses to Julian that she was the one who shot him in 2002. She tells Julian that he did not rape her, and that it was actually Alistair. Julian stops Liz from killing Alistair by encouraging her to let go of her hatred in order to find love in the future. She agrees to abandon her plans for revenge against Eve and Alistair in order to find a new direction for her life and leaves Harmony. In his comatose state, Alistair swears revenge against Liz. While in Rome, Italy, Chad discovers that Liz is his mother through his birth certificate provided by tabloid editor J. T. Cornell. The birth certificate also reveals that Liz was not Eve's half-sister, and Chad's relationship with Whitney was not incestuous.
## Reception
### Critical response
Liz Sanbourne has been widely praised by television critics. The reveal that "the hard-working, kind-hearted hotel owner" Liz was Eve's sister was cited as one of Passions' biggest twists by a writer from Soap Opera Digest, who described the moment as "a slap-filled reunion". Liz's constant attempts to seek revenge against her adoptive sister was included as a highlight on Soap.com's Lori Wilson's overview of the high points of Eve's story arcs. Prior to the reveal of her true identity, Candace Havens of The Free Lance-Star felt that Liz would be a fan favorite character. Havens praised Liz as a woman with "well-rounded views and good sense of humor", pointing to her attempts to reunite the then supercouple Sheridan Crane and Luis Lopez-Fitzgerald as one of her appealing characteristics.
Critical response to Liz's characterization as a villain was largely positive. The character was praised as "deliciously devious" by Linda Marshall-Smith of Soapdom.com, and described as a "naughty diva" by Sister 2 Sister's Jamie Foster Brown. Marshall received a nomination for Soap Opera Digest Award for Outstanding Villainess in a Drama Series – Daytime in the 2005 Soap Opera Digest Awards, but lost to Jane Elliot for her portrayal of General Hospital's Tracy Quartermaine.
### Cast response
Marshall's performance received a positive response from Passions' cast members. Ross felt that Marshall had the most demanding role on the soap opera, and commended her ability to make "Liz want[ing] to have sex in the middle of the tsunami" look believable. During the filming of the show, she said that she watched Marshall to take notes on how to improve her own acting.
Marshall's exit was the subject of criticism. In an interview with Soap Opera Digest'', Ross criticized the decision to remove Marshall, and said, "When you're an actress of her caliber and kind to everyone and plan Christmas parties and celebrate everyone's birthday and know your lines and are the most darling girl that ever breathed, of course you're going to be fired!" Rodney Van Johnson, who portrayed T. C. Russell, said that he was disappointed when the show began removing its racially diverse actors, feeling that it was a sign of its imminent cancellation.
|
18,557,468 |
Central African Republic at the 2008 Summer Olympics
| 1,091,911,232 | null |
[
"2008 in Central African Republic sport",
"Central African Republic at the Summer Olympics by year",
"Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics"
] |
The Central African Republic sent three competitors to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. Béranger Bosse and Mireille Derebona represented the nation in track events, while Bruno Bongongo participated on the Central African Republic's behalf in boxing. Of those athletes, none progressed past the first rounds of their events. The appearance of the Central African delegation at the Beijing Olympics marked its eighth appearance since the nation's debut at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City and its seventh consecutive appearance at the Summer Olympics. At the ceremonies, Derebona was the nation's flag bearer.
## Background
The Central African Republic is a former French colony of approximately 5 million people situated in the heart of Africa. The nation borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo for most of its southern border, the coastal nation of Cameroon to its west, South Sudan to its east, and Chad to its north. The nation declared its independence from France in 1960. Some eight years after its independence at the Mexico City 1968 Summer Olympics, the first Central African delegation debuted in the Olympic games. It sent a single male athlete to participate at those games, and did not send another delegation again for another three Olympics. The nation returned at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and sent its largest delegations (15 athletes) at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul and the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, and sent its first female athletes to the Barcelona games. In total, the Central African Republic competed at eight games between its 1968 debut and its appearance at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. In its history up to Beijing, the Central African Republic has not sent an athlete that has won a medal.
Three athletes represented the Central African Republic. Two men and one woman participated across two different sports (boxing and track and field) and three distinct events. Mireille Derebona-Ngaisset was the nation's flag bearer at the ceremonies.
## Athletics
Béranger Aymard Bosse represented the Central African Republic at the Beijing Olympics as one of its sprinters. Bosse participated in the men's 100 meters dash, the only Central African both in that event and in any men's event in Beijing. Bosse had not previously competed in any known Olympic games. During the qualification round, which occurred on 14 August, Bosse participated in the eight-person second heat. He finished the event with a time of 10.51 seconds, placing sixth ahead of Tonga's Aisea Tohi (11.17 seconds) and behind Poland's Dariusz Kuc (10.44 seconds). The leaders of Bosse's heat included first place finalist Asafa Powell of Jamaica (10.16 seconds) and second place finalist Kim Collins of Saint Kitts and Nevis (10.17 seconds). Of the 80 athletes who finished the event, Bosse placed 45th. He did not advance to later rounds.
Mireille Derebona-Ngaisset participated on the Central African Republic's behalf as a sprinter. She took part in the women's 800 meters for the country, and was the only female Central African athlete at Beijing's Olympic games. Born in 1990, Derebona-Ngaisset was 18 years old at the time of her participation in the Beijing Olympics. The qualification round for the event took place on 14 August, where Derebona-Ngaisset took place in the sixth heat against six other athletes. She was, however, disqualified, and did not rank in the event. The leaders of Derebona-Ngaisset's heat included Kenya's Janeth Jepkosgei Busienei (1:59.72) and the Ukraine's Tetiana Petlyuk (2:00.00). Of the 42 athletes participating in the event's qualification round, Mireille Derebona-Ngaisset was one of two athletes who did not finish (the other was the United States' Nicole Teter) and the only one in the event to be disqualified that year.
Key
- Note–Ranks given for track events are within the athlete's heat only
- Q = Qualified for the next round
- q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or, in field events, by position without achieving the qualifying target
- NR = National record
- N/A = Round not applicable for the event
- Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
- DSQ = Disqualified
## Boxing
Bruno Bongongo participated in boxing in the men's welterweight class (69 kilograms in weight and below), and was the only Central African participated in any event outside track and field that year. Born in 1985, Bongongo was 23 at the time he participated in Beijing. He had not previously participated in any Olympic games. Bongongo participated in the preliminary round of the event on 10 August, facing Cameroon's Joseph Mulema in the fifth bout. Bruno Bongongo was defeated when Mulema scored 17 punches on him, while Bongongo only scored two in return. Of those two punches, Bongongo scored one in the third round, and another in the fourth. He did not advance to later rounds.
|
63,640,669 |
Enchanted (Taylor Swift song)
| 1,171,643,760 |
2010 song by Taylor Swift
|
[
"2010 songs",
"2010s ballads",
"Country ballads",
"Pop ballads",
"Rock ballads",
"Song recordings produced by Chris Rowe",
"Song recordings produced by Nathan Chapman (record producer)",
"Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift",
"Songs written by Taylor Swift",
"Taylor Swift songs"
] |
"Enchanted" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for her third studio album, Speak Now (2010). Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman, the song is a power ballad combining pop, rock, and country. The production begins with gentle acoustic guitars and crescendos after each refrain, leading to dynamic electric guitars, a steady drum beat, and a vocal harmony-layered coda. In the lyrics, a narrator is infatuated with someone after meeting them for the first time, and she worries about whether the initial feeling will be reciprocated.
Critics generally praised Swift's songwriting on "Enchanted" for creating what they deemed a soaring production and captivating lyrics. Upon Speak Now's release in 2010, "Enchanted" charted on the Canadian Hot 100 and the US Billboard Hot 100. After going viral on the TikTok video sharing app in October–November 2021, it reached a new peak in Canada and charted in Australia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam. It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
Swift included "Enchanted" on the set lists of three of her world tours, the Speak Now World Tour (2011–2012), the 1989 World Tour (2015), and the Eras Tour (2023–2024). After a controversy over the ownership of Swift's back catalog, she re-recorded the song as "Enchanted (Taylor's Version)" and released it as part of her third re-recorded album Speak Now (Taylor's Version) on July 7, 2023.
## Background and release
Taylor Swift released her third studio album, Speak Now, on October 25, 2010. She wrote all 14 album tracks on the standard edition by herself. Swift wrote "Enchanted" about a man whom she was infatuated with after meeting him in person in New York City, and how she hoped to continue the relationship. She deliberately used the word "wonderstruck" in the lyrics because the subject used it in one of his emails to Swift after they met. In the album booklet, Swift includes the hidden message for the song as "A-D-A-M". "Enchanted" was originally the title track for Speak Now, but Swift changed the album title after consulting with Big Machine Records president Scott Borchetta, who deemed Enchanted unfit for the album's grown-up perspectives.
Upon the album's release, the media speculated that the subject of the song was singer-songwriter Adam Young, the founder of music project Owl City. Young responded on Owl City's website on February 13, 2011, that he too was infatuated by Swift after they met for the first time. He uploaded his cover of "Enchanted", in which he changed some of the lyrics to directly address Swift. He sings, "I was never in love with someone else / I never had somebody waiting on me / 'Cause you were all of my dreams come true / And I just wish you knew / Taylor I was so in love with you;" responding to the original's lyrics, "Please don't be in love with someone else / Please don't have somebody waiting on you." Despite the media's speculation, Swift never confirmed or denied that Young was the song's subject, and she never responded to Young's cover.
In October 2011, Swift partnered with Elizabeth Arden, Inc. to release her fragrance brand "Wonderstruck", whose name references the lyrics of "Enchanted". After the success of "Wonderstruck", she released a second fragrance brand called "Wonderstruck Enchanted" in July 2012; both perfumes stem from the fairy tale-inspired theme of "Enchanted" about being enamored by someone after meeting for the first time.
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Enchanted" is a power ballad. The song begins with gentle acoustic guitar, which crescendos after each lyric "I was enchanted to meet you". Towards the song's conclusion is a harmony-layered coda featuring multitracked Swift's vocals over synthesizers. BBC Music critic Matthew Horton described it as a pop song. According to Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone, "Enchanted" includes rock influences. The Daily Telegraph described it as an old-school country song, but Brittany McKenna from Billboard considered the track "outside of the boundaries of country music". Cathalena E. Burch from the Arizona Daily Star deemed it an "arena-rock-worthy ballad".
"Enchanted" describes the aftermath of an encounter with a special person without knowing whether the infatuation would be reciprocated. The lyrics feature a fairy tale undertone to describe romance. The song opens with a scene where Swift first encounters her love interest, "Your eyes whispered 'have we met?'/ Across the room your silhouette starts to make its way to me," over repeated guitar chords. As the song progresses, she wonders about the possibility of a new romance over electric guitar riffs and a steady drum beat. Swift said the bridge was her favorite part because it represents her stream of consciousness when she was writing the song: "Please don't be in love with someone else / Please don't have somebody waiting on you." She said, "it feels good to write exactly what your thoughts were in a certain moment."
## Live performances
Swift's first live performance of "Enchanted" was for an NBC Speak Now Thanksgiving Special, which broadcast on November 25, 2010. The TV special showcased the making of the album along with live performances on a rooftop in New York City. Swift included "Enchanted" on the set list for her Speak Now World Tour (2011–2012). During the concerts, she performed in a night gown atop a winding staircase, with ballerinas dancing in the backdrop. Swift performed "Enchanted" at select shows of the Red Tour (2013–2014), at gigs in Denver and Portland.
For her shows on the 1989 World Tour, Swift included a stripped-down mashup of "Enchanted" and "Wildest Dreams", performed on a grand piano. She performed "Enchanted" as a surprise song at the Reputation Stadium Tour show at MetLife Stadium on July 22, 2018. It was the only song from Speak Now performed on the Eras Tour (2023–2024) until the addition of "Long Live" on July 7, 2023. During the performance, she wore in a voluminous ballgown and surrounded by dancers in sparkling, flowing dresses.
## Critical reception
"Enchanted" was acclaimed by critics. In a Rolling Stone review of Speak Now, Sheffield commented that Swift's "voice is unaffected enough to mask how masterful she has become as a singer". He included "Enchanted" among the best songs released by Swift, highlighting the harmony-layered coda as a "coup de grace". Alex Macpherson from The Guardian praised the song for showcasing "Swift's instinct for capturing emotion with astonishing exactitude – right down to the dread sneaking in at the song's close". Matthew Horton of BBC Music praised its radio-friendly production, and Slant Magazine critic Jonathan Keefe lauded the production for exhibiting Swift's songwriting craftsmanship, selecting "Enchanted" as one of the album's highlights.
Erin Strecker of Billboard ranked it as the fourth most underrated Taylor Swift song in a 2014 list. The Daily Telegraph included it in their 2014 list of Swift's top ten songs. In another ranking of Swift's discography, Jane Song from Paste placed "Enchanted" among the top ten best songs released by Swift, lauding the track for Swift's songwriting resulting in a captivating narrative. Hannah Mylrea of NME specifically highlighted the track's "huge swooning instrumentals and [...] heartfelt chorus". Nate Jones from Vulture praised the production, but thought that the song's six minute duration was unnecessary.
## Commercial performance
After Speak Now was released, on November 13, 2010, "Enchanted" entered the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 75, the Digital Song Sales chart at number 44, and the Country Digital Song Sales chart at number 11. It entered at number 95 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In 2014, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Enchanted" gold for surpassing 500,000 track-equivalent units, based on sales and on-demand streaming.
Between October and November 2021, "Enchanted" experienced a popularity resurgence after it went viral on the video sharing app TikTok. In the United States, for the week of October 27, 2021, it amassed over one million streams; the following week, it gained over three million streams. The song's unexpected popularity was part of "SwiftTok", a hashtag for the collection of TikTok videos using Swift's songs. "Enchanted" peaked at number 55 on the Billboard Global 200. It reached a new peak on the Canadian Hot 100, at number 47. The song charted on the singles charts of Australia (number 43) and Singapore (number 14). In December 2021, the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified the song gold. It reached the top ten on Billboard's Country Streaming Songs, and entered two other Billboard's component charts: Digital Song Sales and Streaming Songs.
## Charts
## Certifications
## "Enchanted (Taylor's Version)"
After signing a new contract with Republic Records, Swift began re-recording her first six studio albums in November 2020. The decision came after a 2019 public dispute between Swift and talent manager Scooter Braun, who acquired Big Machine Records, including the masters of Swift's albums the label had released. By re-recording her catalog, Swift had full ownership of the new masters, including the copyright licensing of her songs, devaluing the Big Machine-owned masters. A re-recorded version of "Enchanted", titled "Enchanted (Taylor's Version)", was released on July 7, 2023, via Republic Records, as part of Speak Now (Taylor's Version), Swift's third re-recorded album.
### Personnel
Adapted from Speak Now (Taylor's Version) digital album inline notes
Production
- Taylor Swift – producer
- Christopher Rowe – producer, vocal engineer
- David Payne – recording engineer
- Lowell Reynolds – assistant recording engineer, editor
- Derek Garten – engineer, editor, programming
- Serban Ghenea – mixing
- Bryce Bordone – mix engineer
- Randy Merrill – mastering
Musicians
- Taylor Swift – vocals, background vocals, songwriter
- Matt Billingslea – drums, percussion
- Amos Heller – bass guitar
- Paul Sidoti – electric guitar
- Mike Meadows – acoustic guitar, keyboards
- Max Bernstein – lap steel guitar
- Caitlin Evanson – background vocals
- Christopher Rowe – background vocals
- Jeremy Murphy – string recording
- London Contemporary Orchestra – strings
- Galya Bisengalieva, Zahra Benyounes, Natalie Kloudak, Charlotte Reid, Anna Ovsyanikova, Antonia Kesel, Eloisa-Fleur Thom, Anna de Bruin, Charis Jenson, Guy Button, Nicole Crespo O'Donoghue, Nicole Stokes – violin
- Zoe Matthews, Clifton Harrison, Matthew Kettle, Stephanie Edmundson – viola
- Oliver Coates, Jonny Byers, Max Ruisi – cello
- Dave Brown – double bass
### Charts
|
2,442,701 |
Anania Shirakatsi
| 1,163,708,548 |
Pioneering 7th-century Armenian scientist
|
[
"7th-century Armenian historians",
"7th-century Armenian writers",
"7th-century astronomers",
"7th-century cartographers",
"7th-century mathematicians",
"Armenian astronomers",
"Armenian cartographers",
"Armenian mathematicians",
"Armenian people from the Sasanian Empire",
"Cartographers",
"Kamsarakan family",
"Medieval cartographers",
"Medieval geographers"
] |
Anania Shirakatsi (Armenian: Անանիա Շիրակացի, Anania Širakac’i, anglicized: Ananias of Shirak) was a 7th-century Armenian polymath and natural philosopher, author of extant works covering mathematics, astronomy, geography, chronology, and other fields. Little is known for certain of his life outside of his own writings, but he is considered the father of the exact and natural sciences in Armenia—the first Armenian mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer.
Seen as a part of the Armenian Hellenizing School, the last lay scholar in Christian Armenia until the 11th century, Anania was educated primarily by Tychicus, in Trebizond. He composed science textbooks and the first known geographic work in classical Armenian (Ashkharhatsuyts), which provides detailed information about Greater Armenia, Persia and the Caucasus (Georgia and Caucasian Albania).
In mathematics, his accomplishments include the earliest known table of results of the four basic operations, the earliest known collection of recreational math puzzles and problems, and the earliest book of math problems in Armenian. He also devised a system of mathematical notation based on the Armenian alphabet, although he was the only writer known to have used it.
## Name
His name is usually anglicized as Ananias of Shirak (Širak). Anania is the Armenian variant of the biblical name Ananias, itself the Greek version of the Hebrew Hananiah. The second part of his name denotes his place of origin, the region of Shirak (Širak), though it may have become a sort of surname. In some manuscripts, he is called Shirakuni (Շիրակունի) and Shirakavantsi (Շիրակաւանցի).
## Life
### Background
Anania Shirakatsi lived in the 7th century. The dates of his birth and death have not been definitively established. Robert H. Hewsen noted in 1968 that Anania is widely believed to have been born between 595 and 600; a quarter-century later he settled on c. 610 as a birthdate and 685 as the year he died. Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. place his birth in early 600s but agrees on 685. James R. Russell, Edward G. Mathews, and Theo van Lint also concur with 610–685, while Greenwood suggests c. 600–670. Vardanyan places his death in the early 690s.
Anania is the only classical Armenian scholar to have written an autobiography. It is a brief text, characterized as "somewhat self-congratulatory" and "more a statement of academic pedigree" than autobiography. It was probably written as the preface to one of his scholarly works, possibly the K'nnikon. He was the son of Hovhannes/Yovhannes and was born in the village of Anania/Aneank' (Անեանք) or in the town of Shirakavan (Yerazgavors), in the canton of Shirak (Širak), in the central Armenian province of Ayrarat. Aneank' may be connected to the later city of Ani, the Bagratid Armenian capital.
Anania probably came from a noble family. Since his name is sometimes spelled as "Shirakuni" (Շիրակունի), Hewsen argued that he may have belonged to the house of the Kamsarakan or Arsharuni princes of Shirak and Aršarunik’, respectively. Greenwood suggests that it is more likely that Anania came from the lesser nobility in Shirak, who served the house of Kamsarakan. Broutian describes his father as a "minor Armenian nobleman." Vardanyan believes he either came from the Kamsarakan family or that they were his patrons.
Anania is traditionally thought to have been buried in the village of Anavank'; however, the tradition probably originated from the name of the village.
### Education
Anania received his early education at the local Armenian schools, possibly at Dprevank monastery, where he studied sacred texts and earlier Armenian authors. Due to the lack of teachers and books in Armenia, he decided to travel to the Byzantine Empire (the "land of the Greeks") to study mathematics. After first traveling to Theodosiopolis, then to the Byzantine-controlled province of Fourth Armenia (probably Martyropolis), where he studied under the mathematician Christosatur for six months. He then left to find a better teacher and learned about Tychicus, who was based at the monastery (or martyrium) of Saint Eugenios in Trebizond. Redgate placed this in the 620s. Greenwood has speculated that Tychicus, not mentioned elsewhere, may actually be Stephanus of Alexandria.
Anania devoted a significant part of his autobiography to Tychicus (born c. 560), with whom he spent eight years in the 620s or 630s. Tychicus had studied the Armenian language and its literature while serving in the Byzantine army in Armenia. Wounded by the Persians, he retired from the military and later studied in Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople. Tychicus later returned to his native Trebizond, where he established a school c. 615. Tychicus taught many students from Constantinople (including from the imperial court) and was renowned among Byzantine kings. He provided Anania special attention and taught him what Anania called a "perfect knowledge of mathematics". In Tychicus's vast library, Anania found "everything, exoteric and esoteric", including sacred and secular Greek authors, including works on the sciences, medicine, chronology, and history. James R. Russell argued that his library may have included Pythagorean and alchemical books. Anania considered Tychicus to have been "predestined by God for the introduction of science into Armenia."
### Educator and scientist
Anania himself established a school in Armenia upon his return. That school, the first in Armenia to teach quadrivium, is presumed to have been located in his native Shirak. He was disappointed with the laziness of his students and their departure after learning the basics. Anania complained about Armenians' lack of interest in mathematics, writing that they "love neither learning, nor knowledge." Nicholas Adontz considered it an exaggeration, "if not an absolute slander, to deny the Armenian innate love of investigation." The 12th-century chronicler Samuel of Ani listed five of Shirakatsi's students, who are otherwise unknown. Anania financed his research in several fields with the money he earned teaching.
## Relationship with the Armenian Church
Anania had a close relationship with the Church. Several scholars consider him a church ideologist akin to Cosmas Indicopleustes, whom he actually criticized. Hacikyan et al. describe Anania as a "devout Christian and well versed in the Bible" who "made some attempts to reconcile science and Scripture." In his later years, Anania may have been a monk in the Armenian Church. This is based on his religious discourses and attempts to date the feasts of the church. John A. C. Greppin doubts that Anania was ever in any religious order.
Hewsen noted that some of Anania's "more revolutionary ideas" were suppressed by the Armenian Church after his death. Greppin noted that Anania, a largely secular author, had fallen into a "bad clerical odor." Soviet historians represented him as a founder of irreligious and anti-clerical thought in Armenia, who pioneered double-truth theory. Vazgen Chaloyan called him a "progressive representative of the feudal period of Armenian science." Gevorg Khrlopian went as far as to argue that Anania was an enemy of the Armenian Church and fought against its obscurantism. Hewsen opposed this view, suggesting that, instead, he was an "independent thinker of sorts."
## Philosophy
Anania is considered by modern scholars to be a representative of the Hellenizing School since many of his works were based on classical Greek sources. He was the first Armenian scholar to have "imported a set of scientific notions, and examples of their applications, from the Greek-speaking schools" into Armenia. He was well versed in Greek literature, and the influence of Greek syntax is evident in his works. Anania was also knowledgeable about native Armenian and Iranian cultural traditions; several of his works provide important information on late Sassanian Iran.
James R. Russell describes him an alchemist and a Pythagorean who "does not usually rely on mythology to explain natural phenomena. Anania accepted the importance of experience, observation, rational practice and theory, and was influenced by the ideas of the 5th-century Neoplatonist philosopher Davit Anhaght (the Invincible), and Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus, Hippocrates, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Citium, Epicurus, Ptolemy, Pappus of Alexandria, and Cosmas Indicopleustes. Aristotle's On the Heavens had a significant influence on Anania's thought. According to Gevorg Khrlopian, Anania was heavily influenced by Yeghishe's An Interpretation of Creation, the anonymous Interpretation of the Categories of Aristotle, and the works of Davit Anhaght, who had established Neoplatonism in Armenian thought. Anania was also the first Armenian scholar to quote Philo of Alexandria.
Anania was the last known lay scholar in Christian Armenia until Grigor Magistros Pahlavuni in the 11th century. He advocated rationalism in studying nature and attacked superstitious beliefs and astrology as the "babblings of the foolish." He adopted the classical theory of four elements, which considered all matter to be composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. He believed that while God directly created these elements, He did not interfere with the "natural course of the development of things." He asserted that the creation, existence, and decay of natural bodies and phenomena occurred through the union of these elements—without the interference of God. Both living and non-living matter came into existence from a synthesis of the four elements.
Anania accepted that the Earth is round, describing it as "like an egg with a spherical yolk (the globe) surrounded by a layer of white (the atmosphere) and covered with a hard shell (the sky)." He accurately explained solar and lunar eclipses, the phases of the Moon, and the structure of the Milky Way, describing the latter as a "mass of dense but faintly luminous stars." Anania also correctly attributed tides to the influence of the Moon. He described the topmost sphere as the aether (arp'i), the source of light and heat (through the Sun).
## Works
Anania was a polymath and natural philosopher. About 40 works in various disciplines have been attributed to Anania, but only half are extant. They include studies and translations in mathematics, astronomy, cosmology, geography, chronology, and meteorology. Many of his works are believed to have been part of the K'nnikon (Քննիկոն, from "canon", Greek: Kanonikon), completed circa 666, and used as the standard science textbook in medieval Armenia. According to Greenwood, the K'nnikon was a "fluid compilation, whose contents fluctuated over time, reflecting the interests and resources of different teachers and practitioners."
Modern scholars have praised Anania's writing as concise, simple, and to the point, retaining the reader's attention and citing examples to illustrate his point.
### Mathematical
Anania was primarily devoted to mathematics, which he considered the "mother of all knowledge." His mathematical books were used as textbooks in Armenia.
Of Anania's several mathematical works, the most important is the book of arithmetic (Hamaroghut’iun, Համարողութիւն; or T'vabanut'iun, Թւաբանութիւն), a comprehensive collection of tables on the four basic operations. It is the earliest extant known work of its kind. The operations reach up to a total of 80 million, which is the highest number. A possible theoretical part is believed lost.
Problems and Solutions (alternatively translated as On Questions and Answers), a collection of 24 arithmetical problems and their solutions, is based on the application of fractions; it is the earliest such work in Armenian. Many of its problems allude to real-world situations: six connect to the princely house of Shirak, the Kamsarakans, and at least three to Iran. Greenwood calls the problems "a rich source for seventh-century history whose value has not been sufficiently recognized."
The third work, probably an appendix of the book of arithmetic, is titled Xraxc'anakank (Խրախճանականք), literally "things for festive occasions". It has been translated into English as Mathematical Pastimes, Fun with Arithmetic or Problems for Amusement. It also contains 24 problems "intended for mathematical entertainment in social gatherings." According to Mathews this may be the oldest extant text of its kind.
#### Numerical notation
For his mathematical works, Anania developed a unique numerical notation based on 12 letters of the Armenian alphabet. For the units, he used the first nine letters of the Armenian script (Ա, Բ, Գ, Դ, Ե, Զ, Է, Ը, Թ), similar to the standard traditional Armenian numerical system. The letters used for 10, 100, and 1000 were also identical to the traditional Armenian system (Ժ, Ճ, Ռ), but all other numbers up to 10,000 were written using these 12 letters. For instance, 50 would be written ԵԺ (5×10) and not Ծ as in the standard system. Thus, the notation is multiplicative-additive as opposed to the ciphered-additive standard system and requires knowing 12 letters, instead of 36, to write numbers less than 10,000. Numbers greater than that could be written using multiplicative combinations of just 2 or 3 signs, but using all 36 letters.
Stephen Chrisomalis believes this system was created by Anania since it only occurs in his works and is not found in Greek, Syriac, Hebrew, or any other alphabetic numeral system. Allen Shaw has argued it was just a variant of the Armenian numerals designed specifically for the representation of large numbers. No other writer used it.
### Astronomical
One of Anania's most significant works is the Cosmology (Տիեզերագիտութիւն, Tiezeragitut’iun). Abrahamian's version is composed of ten chapters, with an introduction titled "In the Fulfillment of a Promise", implying a patron. It covers the sun, the moon, celestial spheres, constellations, the Milky Way, and meteorological changes.
Works used for the parts of the Cosmology include the Bible (mostly the Pentateuch and Psalms) and works by the Church Fathers. Anania cites the work of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory the Illuminator, and Amphiolocus (perhaps, of Iconium). Some chapters of the work, such as "On Clouds" (also called "On the Sky" or "Concerning the Skies"), are largely based on Basil's Hexameron. Anania also repeats the classical Greek notions in the fields of astronomy, physics or meteorology. Pambakian wrote about the significance of the Cosmology:
Another of Anania's astronomical works, Tables of the Motions of the Moon (Խորանք ընթացիք լուսոյ, xorank‘ ĕnt'ac'ik' lusoy), is based on the works of Meton of Athens and his own observations.
#### Perpetual calendar
In 667 Anania was invited by Catholicos Anastas I of Akori (r. 661/2–667) to the Armenian Church's central seat at Dvin to establish a fixed calendar of the movable and immovable feasts of the Armenian Church. The result was a perpetual calendar based on a 532-year cycle (ՇԼԲ բոլորակ), combining the solar cycle and the lunar cycle since they coincide every 532 years. It was first proposed by Victorius of Aquitaine in 457 and adopted by the Church of Alexandria. Anania's calendar was never implemented by the Armenian Church; Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi believes that Anastas's death prevented a church council from ratifying it.
### Geographical
The Ashkharhatsuyts (classical Armenian: Աշխարհացոյց, Ašxarhac'oyc, lit. "showing the world") is an anonymously published world map, believed to have been written sometime between 610 and 636. According to Elizabeth Redgate, it was written "probably shortly before AD 636". Its authorship has been disputed in the modern period; formerly believed to have been the work of Movses Khorenatsi, most scholars now attribute it to Anania. Hewsen calls it "one of the most valuable works to come down to us from Armenian antiquity."
The Armenian Geography—as it is alternatively known—has been especially important for research into the history and geography of Greater Armenia, the Caucasus (Georgia and Caucasian Albania) and the Sasanian Empire, which are all described in detail. The territories are described before the Arab invasions and conquests. The information on Armenia is not found elsewhere in historical sources, as it is the only known Armenian geographical work prior to the 13th century.
The Ashkharhatsuyts has survived in long and short recensions. According to the scholarly consensus, the long recension was the original. For the description of Europe, North Africa and Asia (all the known world from Spain to China), it largely uses Greek sources, namely the now lost geography of Pappus of Alexandria (4th century), which in turn, is based on the Geography of Ptolemy (2nd century). According to Hewsen, it is the "last work based on ancient geographical knowledge written before the Renaissance."
It was one of the earliest secular Armenian works to be published (in 1668 by Voskan Yerevantsi). It has been translated into four languages: English, Latin (both 1736), French (1819), and Russian (1877). In 1877, Kerovbe Patkanian first attributed it to Anania as the most probable author.
Another geographical work of Anania, The Itinerary (Մղոնաչափք, Mghonach'ap'k' or Młonač'ap'k'''), may have been a part of the Ashkharhatsuyts. It presents six routes from Dvin, Armenia's capital at that time, to the major settlements in different directions, with distances in miles (մղոն, mghon), referring to the Arabic mile of 1,917.6 metres (6,291 ft), according to Hakob Manandian.
### Chronology
Anania's major chronological work, the Chronicle, listed important events in order of their occurrence. Written between 686 and 690, it is composed of two parts: a universal chronicle, utilizing the lost works of Annianus of Alexandria and the lost Roman imperial sequence from Eusebius's Chronographia, and an ecclesiastical history from a miaphysite perspective, which records the six ecumenical councils.
Another chronological work, known as the Calendar (Tomar), included texts and tables about the calendars of 15 peoples: Armenians, Hebrews, Arabs, Macedonians, Romans, Syrians, Greeks, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Athenians, Bythanians, Cappadocians, Georgians, Caucasian Albanians, and Persians. The calendars of the Armenians, Romans, Hebrews, Syrians, Greeks, and Egyptians contain texts, while those of other peoples only have the names of months and their length.
### Other
Anania wrote several books on weights and measures. He extensively used the work of Epiphanius of Salamis to present the system of weights used by the Greeks, Jews, and Syrians, and his own knowledge as well as other sources for those of the Armenians and Persians.
Anania wrote several works on precious stones, music, and the known languages of the world.
Anania's discourses on Christmas/Epiphany and Easter are discussions on the dates of the two feasts. In the first, he uses a lost work he ascribes to Polycarp of Smyrna and insists that the Armenian custom of celebrating Christmas and the Epiphany on the same date is truer to the holidays' intent than celebrating them separately as is common elsewhere in the Christian world.
## Traditions and legends
Anania also wrote on herbal medicine, though none of his medical writings have survived. He is traditionally credited with the discovery of the miraculous flower called hamasp'iwr or hamaspiur (համասփիւռ). One 16th century manuscript mentions that he dealt with its therapeutic properties. It has been identified by modern scholars as Silene latifolia (white campion). He is credited with discovering the plant in Dzoghakert (near modern Taşburun, Iğdır, Turkey) and using it medically.
According to a later legend, he taught alchemy to the king of Venice.
## Legacy
### Influence in the Middle Ages
Anania laid the foundations of the exact sciences in Armenia and greatly influenced many Armenian scholars who came after him. Hovhannes Imastaser (Hovhannes Sarkavag) and other medieval scholars extensively cited and incorporated Anania's works. In a 1037 letter, Grigor Magistros, a scholar from the Pahlavuni noble family, asked Catholicos Petros Getadardz for Anania's manuscripts of his K'nnikon, which were locked up at the catholicosate for centuries. Grigor used these as a textbook at his school at the Sanahin Monastery. Anania may had also influenced Byzantine Armenian scholars, such as the 9th century philosopher Leo and the 14th century mathematician and grammarian Nicholas Artabasdos Rhabdas.
### Reemergence in the modern period
In the printed age, passing references to Anania were made as early as 1742 by Paghtasar Dpir, but it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that Anania and his work became a subject of scholarly study. In 1877 Armenian linguist and philologist Kerovbe Patkanian published a collection of Anania's works in the original classical Armenian at St Petersburg University. Titled Sundry Studies (Մնացորդք բանից, Mnats'ordk' banits), it is the first-ever print publication of his works. Galust Ter-Mkrtchian published a number of Anania's works in 1896. Joseph Orbeli, an Armenian member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, published a Russian translation of Anania's Problems and Solutions in 1918.
Systematic study and publication of his works began in the Soviet period. Ashot G. Abrahamian, who began his research at the Matenadaran in the 1930s, first published one of Anania's arithmetical texts in 1939, followed by a complete compilation of Anania's work in 1944.
Abrahamian's work was not received with universal acclaim. One critic objected to his 1944 compilation for attributing disputed works to Anania. Abrahamian and Garegin Petrosian published an updated edition in 1979. Some criticism persisted: Varag Arakelian noted a number of errors in translations from classical Armenian and concluded that a new translation of Anania's works was needed. Another Soviet scholar, Suren T. Eremian, studied the Geography. He insisted on Anania's authorship and published his research in 1963.
The first translation of Anania's work into a European language was done by the British Orientalist Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, who translated into English Anania's On Christmas, in 1896, and On Easter and Anania's autobiography, in 1897. Lemerle noted that Conybeare translated Anania's autobiography from a Russian translation, and it contains numerous serious errors. Renewed interest in Anania's work emerged in the West in the 1960s. A French translation of his autobiography appeared in 1964 by Haïg Berbérian. Robert H. Hewsen authored an introductory article on Anania's life and scholarship in 1968.
Greenwood argues that studying Anania and his works "resonated with twentieth-century political beliefs and offered a suitable subject for academic research in ways that works on medieval theology or Biblical exegesis did not. Anania came to be projected as a national hero from the distant Armenian past, linking and affirming past and present identities."
### Modern assessment
Anania is considered by modern scholars as the "father of the exact sciences in Armenia." Modern historians consider him as the greatest scientist of medieval Armenia and, possibly, all Armenian history, up to the 20th century astrophysicist Viktor Ambartsumian. He is widely regarded as the founder of the natural sciences in the country. He was the first classical Armenian scholar to study mathematics and several scientific subjects, such as cosmography and chronology. Nicholas Adontz argued that Anania "occupied the same position in Armenian education as Leo [the Mathematician] did in Byzantine education. He was the first to sow the seeds of science among the Armenians." Hacikyan et al. wrote in The Heritage of Armenian Literature'':
Shirakatsi was one of six scholars whose statue was erected in front of the Matenadaran, the museum-institute of Armenian manuscripts in Yerevan, in the 1960s. Another statue was erected in the front yard of the Yerevan State University. A crater on the Moon was named after Shirakatsi in 1979.
In independent post-Soviet Armenia, Anania Shirakatsi has been commemorated in various ways. In 1993 the Medal of Anania Shirakatsi, a state award, was established, given for "significant activities, inventions, and discoveries in the spheres of economy, engineering, architecture, science, and technology." In 2005 the Central Bank of Armenia issued a commemorative coin, while HayPost issued a stamp dedicated to Anania Shirakatsi.
|
39,616 |
Soho
| 1,172,650,816 |
District in London, England
|
[
"Areas of London",
"Districts of the City of Westminster",
"Entertainment districts in the United Kingdom",
"Red-light districts in England",
"Soho, London"
] |
Soho is an area of the City of Westminster, part of the West End of London. Originally a fashionable district for the aristocracy, it has been one of the main entertainment districts in the capital since the 19th century.
The area was developed from farmland by Henry VIII in 1536, when it became a royal park. It became a parish in its own right in the late 17th century, when buildings started to be developed for the upper class, including the laying out of Soho Square in the 1680s. St Anne's Church was established during the late 17th century, and remains a significant local landmark; other churches are the Church of Our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory and St Patrick's Church in Soho Square. The aristocracy had mostly moved away by the mid-19th century, when Soho was particularly badly hit by an outbreak of cholera in 1854. For much of the 20th century Soho had a reputation as a base for the sex industry in addition to its night life and its location for the headquarters of leading film companies. Since the 1980s, the area has undergone considerable gentrification. It is now predominantly a fashionable district of upmarket restaurants and media offices, with only a small remnant of sex industry venues. London's gay community is centred on Old Compton Street in Soho.
Soho's reputation as a major entertainment district of London stems from theatres such as the Windmill Theatre on Great Windmill Street and the Raymond Revuebar owned by entrepreneur Paul Raymond, and music clubs such as the 2i's Coffee Bar and the Marquee Club. Trident Studios was based in Soho, and the nearby Denmark Street has hosted numerous music publishing houses and instrument shops from the 20th century onwards. The independent British film industry is centred around Soho, including the British headquarters of Twentieth Century Fox and the British Board of Film Classification offices. The area has been popular for restaurants since the 19th century, including the long-standing Kettner's which was visited by numerous celebrities. Near to Soho is London's Chinatown, centred on Gerrard Street and containing several restaurants.
## Name
The name "Soho" first appears in the 17th century. The name is possibly derived from a former hunting cry. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, used "soho" as a rallying call for his men at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685, half a century after the name was first used for this area of London.
The Soho name has been reused by other entertainment and restaurant districts such as the Soho, Hong Kong entertainment zone and the cultural and commercial area of Soho in Málaga. The New York City neighbourhood of SoHo, Manhattan, gets its name from its location South of Houston Street, but is also a reference to London's Soho. The Pittsburgh neighbourhood of Uptown was also formerly called Soho, most likely having been named by its founder James Tustin after the London district, though it may refer to Soho, West Midlands.
## Location
Soho is about 1 square mile (2.6 km<sup>2</sup>) in area, bounded by Shaftesbury Avenue to the south, Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, and Charing Cross Road to the east. However, apart from Oxford Street, all of these roads are 19th-century metropolitan improvements, and Soho has never been an administrative unit, with formally defined boundaries. The area to the west is known as Mayfair, to the north Fitzrovia, to the east St Giles and Covent Garden, and to the south St James's. Soho is part of the West End electoral ward which elects three councillors to Westminster City Council.
The nearest London Underground stations are Oxford Circus, Piccadilly Circus, Tottenham Court Road, Leicester Square and Covent Garden.
## History
### Early history
During the Middle Ages, the area that is now Soho was farmland that belonged to the Abbot and Convent of Abingdon and the master of Burton St Lazar Hospital in Leicestershire, who managed a leper hospital in St Giles in the Fields. In 1536, the land was taken by Henry VIII as a royal park for the Palace of Whitehall. The area south of what is now Shaftesbury Avenue did not stay in the Crown possession for long; Queen Mary sold around 7 acres (2.8 ha) in 1554, and most of the remainder was sold between 1590 and 1623. A small 2-acre (0.81 ha) section of land remained, until sold by Charles II in 1676.
In the 1660s, ownership of Soho Fields passed to Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans, who leased 19 out of the 22 acres (89,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of land to Joseph Girle. He was granted permission to develop property and quickly passed the lease and development to bricklayer Richard Frith. Much of the land was granted freehold in 1698 by William III to William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland, while the southern part of Soho was sold piecemeal in the 16th and 17th centuries, partly to Robert Sidney, Earl of Leicester.
Soho was part of the ancient parish of St Martin in the Fields, forming part of the Liberty of Westminster. As the population started to grow a new church was provided and in 1687 a new parish of St Anne was established for it. The parish stretched from Oxford Street in the north to Leicester Square in the south and from what is now Charing Cross Road in the east to Wardour Street in the west. It, therefore, included all of contemporary eastern Soho, including the Chinatown area. The western portion of modern Soho, around Carnaby Street, was part of the parish of St James, which was split off from St Martin in 1686.
### Gentrification
Building progressed rapidly in the late 17th century, with large properties such as Monmouth House (built for James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Charles II's eldest illegitimate son), Leicester House, Fauconberg House, Carlisle House and Newport House.
Soho Square was first laid out in the 1680s on the former Soho Fields. First built the first houses around the square, and by 1691, 41 had been completed. It was originally called King Square in honour of Charles II, and a statue of him was based in the centre. Several upper-class families moved into the area, including those of Richard Graham, 1st Viscount Preston and Edward Howard, 2nd Earl of Carlisle. The square had become known as Soho Square by 1720, at which point it had fashionable houses on all sides. Only No 10 and No 15 from this period have survived into the 21st century.
Though the Earls of Leicester and Portland had intended Soho to be an upper-class estate comparable to Bloomsbury, Marylebone and Mayfair, it never developed as such. Immigrants began to settle in the area from around 1680 onwards, particularly French Huguenots after 1688. The area became known as London's French quarter. The French church in Soho Square was founded by Huguenots and opened on 25 March 1893, with a coloured brick and terracotta façade designed by Aston Webb.
### Cholera outbreak
A significant event in the history of epidemiology and public health was John Snow's study of an 1854 outbreak of cholera in Soho. He identified the cause of the outbreak as water from the public pump at the junction of Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) and Cambridge Street (now Lexington Street), close to the rear wall of what is today the John Snow public house.
Snow mapped the addresses of the sick and noted that they were mostly people whose nearest access to water was the Broad Street pump. He persuaded the authorities to remove the handle of the pump, thus preventing any more of the infected water from being collected. The spring below the pump was later found to have been contaminated with sewage. This is an early example of epidemiology, public health medicine and the application of science—the germ theory of disease—in a real-life crisis. Science writer Steven Johnson has written about the changes related to the cholera outbreak, and notes that almost every building on the street that existed in 1854 has since been replaced. A replica of the pump, with a memorial plaque and without a handle (to signify Snow's action to halt the outbreak) was erected in 1992 near the location of the original.
### Decline
By the mid-18th century, the aristocrats who had been living in Soho Square or Gerrard Street had moved away, as more fashionable areas such as Mayfair became available. The historian and topographer William Maitland wrote that the parish "so greatly abound with French that is an easy Matter for a Stranger to imagine himself in France." Soho's character stems partly from the ensuing neglect by rich and fashionable London, and the lack of the redevelopment that characterised the neighbouring areas.
The aristocracy had mostly disappeared from Soho by the 19th century, to be replaced by prostitutes, music halls and small theatres. The population increased significantly, reaching 327 inhabitants per acre by 1851, making the area one of the most densely populated areas of London. Houses became divided into tenements with chronic overcrowding and disease. The 1854 cholera outbreak caused the remaining upper-class families to leave the area. Numerous hospitals were built to cope with the health problem; six were constructed between 1851 and 1874. Businesses catering to household essentials were established at the same time.
The restaurant trade in Soho improved dramatically in the early 20th century. The construction of new theatres along Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road improved the reputation of the area, and a meal for theatre-goers became common. Public houses in Soho increased in popularity during the 1930s and were filled with struggling authors, poets and artists.
### Recent history
Since the decline of the sex industry in Soho in the 1980s, the area has returned to being more residential. The Soho Housing Association was established in 1976 to provide reasonable rented accommodation. By the 21st century, it had acquired around 400 flats. St Anne's Church in Dean Street was refurbished after decades of neglect, and a Museum of Soho was established.
On 30 April 1999, the Admiral Duncan pub on Old Compton Street, which serves the gay community, was damaged by a nail bomb that left three dead and 30 injured. The bomb was the third that had been planted by David Copeland, a neo-Nazi who was attempting to stir up ethnic and homophobic tensions by carrying out a series of bombings.
In early February 2020, parts of an unexploded World War II bomb was discovered by construction workers developing a new mixed residential building in Richmond Mews, near Dean Street. Residents, employees, and pedestrians on Richmond Mews, Dean Street, Meard Street and St Anne's Court were evacuated on both the 3rd and 4th of February 2020. All road junctions connecting to the streets closed during retrieval of the bomb fragments as well.
## Properties
### Theatre and film
Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area. It is home to Soho Theatre, built in 2000 to present new plays and comedy.
The Windmill Theatre was based on Great Windmill Street, and was named after a windmill at this location that was demolished in the 18th century. It initially opened as the Palais de Luxe in 1910 as a small cinema, but was unable to compete with larger venues and was converted into a theatre by Howard Jones. It re-opened in December 1931, but was still unsuccessful. In 1932, the general manager Vivian Van Damm introduced a non-stop variety show throughout the afternoon and evening. It was famous for its nude tableaux vivants, in which the models had to remain motionless to avoid the censorship laws then in place. The theatre claimed that, aside from a compulsory closure between 4 and 16 September 1939, it was the only theatre in London which did not close during World War II, leading to the slogan "We never closed". Several prominent comedians including Harry Secombe, Jimmy Edwards and Tony Hancock began their careers at the Windmill. It closed on 31 October 1964 and was again turned into a cinema.
The Raymond Revuebar at No. 11 Walker's Court was a small theatre specialising in striptease and nude dancing. It was owned by Paul Raymond and opened in 1958. The facade supported a brightly lit sign declaring it to be the "World Centre of Erotic Entertainment." Raymond subsequently bought the lease of the Windmill and ran it as a "nude entertainment" venue until 1981. The upstairs became known as the Boulevard Theatre and in 1980 was adopted as a comedy club called "The Comic Strip" by a small group of alternative comedians including Rik Mayall, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, Alexei Sayle and Adrian Edmondson, before they found wider recognition with the series The Comic Strip Presents on Channel 4. The name and control of the theatre (but not the property itself) were bought by Raymond's business associate Gérard Simi in 1996. The theatre suffered financial difficulties owing to increasing rent, leading to its closure in 2004. It became a gay bar and cabaret venue called Too2Much; in 2005, Elton John staged a joint bachelor party there with his longtime partner David Furnish in anticipation of their civil partnership. The venue was subsequently renamed to the Soho Revue Bar, but closed in 2009.
Soho is a centre of the independent film and video industry as well as the television and film post-production industry. Audio post duo White Lightning (Robbie Weston and Rick Dzendzera) opened two audio post facilities in different parts of Soho in 1986: Silk Sound at 13 Berwick Street, and The Bridge Facilities at 55-57 Great Marlborough Street. Silk Sound is still in operation, but The Bridge was sold to Miloco Studios in 2009, and relocated to the Orinoco Complex at 36 Leroy Street in Greater London. White Lightning also opened a third studio at 16 Dufours Place, called Space Facilities, in late 1995, but it closed the same year The Bridge was sold. Twentieth Century House in Soho Square was built in 1937 for Twentieth Century Fox. The British Board of Film Classification, formerly known as the British Board of Film Censors, has been based in the square since 1950. Soho's key fibre communications network has been managed by Sohonet since 1995, which connects the Soho media and post-production community to British film studios such as Pinewood and Shepperton, along with other locations worldwide include HBO and Warner Brothers. In the 2010s, research commissioned by Westminster City Council showed 23 per cent of the workforce in Soho works in the creative industries.
### Restaurants and clubs
Many small and easily affordable restaurants and cafes were established in Soho during the 19th century, particularly as a result of Greek and Italian immigration. The restaurants were not looked upon favourably at first, but their reputation changed at the start of the 20th century. In 1924, a guide reported "of late years, the inexpensive restaurants of Soho have enjoyed an extraordinary vogue." Arthur Ransome's Bohemia in London (1907) mentions Old and New Soho, including details about Soho coffee-houses including The Moorish Café and The Algerian.
Kettner's was a restaurant on Romilly Street, established in 1867 by Napoleon III's chef Auguste Kettner. It was frequently visited by Albert, Prince of Wales (where he is alleged to have dined with his mistress, Lillie Langtry) and Oscar Wilde. The restaurant survived both World Wars without incident, and was regularly visited by Agatha Christie and Bing Crosby.
In the 20th century, several Soho pubs and private members clubs gained notoriety for both their proprietors and clientele. Clive Jennings says of regular clientele such as Jeffrey Barnard and Francis Bacon that "the lethal triangle of The French, The Coach & Horses and The Colony were the staging points of the Dean Street shuffle, with occasional forays into other joints such as The Gargoyle or the Mandrake ... The Groucho or Blacks". Christopher Howse notes of the coterie of bohemian heavy drinkers that "There was no worry about pensions in Soho. People didn't live that long."
The Gargoyle Club opened at 69 Dean Street in 1925. It was founded by the socialite the Hon David Tennant as a place where writers, artists and musicians could mingle with the upper crust and eat and drink at affordable prices for the next three decades. In May 1979 the Gargoyle's uppermost room started hosting a weekly club-night on Saturdays called the Comedy Store, which made the reputations of many of the UK's upcoming "alternative comedians". Among the original lineup here were Alexei Sayle, Rik Mayall and Adrian Edmondson who broke away in 1980 to establish The Comic Strip team at Raymond's Revue Bar, before they found wider recognition with the series The Comic Strip Presents on Channel 4. The Gargoyle's success and Bohemian clientele led to other restaurants being founded around Soho, including the Eiffel Tower and Bellotti's.
During the 1970s the building at 69 Dean Street housed another nightspot in its cellars, initially known as Billy's and run by Soho's only Jamaican club owner, Vince Howard. The Blitz Kids, a group of London clubgoers who spearheaded the New Romantic movement in the early 1980s, originally met at Billy's. The club changed its name to Gossip's and became part of London's clubland heritage by spawning several weekly club-nights that influenced British music and fashion during the 1980s.
Gerrard Street is the centre of London's Chinatown, and along with Lisle Street and Little Newport Street, house a mix of import companies, oriental food shops and restaurants. Street festivals are held throughout the year, particularly on the Chinese New Year. In March 2022, Cadbury opened a temporary vegan chocolate shop at 15 Bateman Street.
### Radio
Soho Radio is an internet radio station on Great Windmill Street, next to the Windmill Theatre. Since May 2014 it has been streaming live and pre-recorded programming from its premises, which also function as a retail space and coffee shop. The station states on its website that it aims "to reflect the culture of Soho through our vibrant and diverse content". There is no playlist policy, and presenters are allowed to play any music they like. In 2016, it was voted the world's best radio station at Mixcloud's Online Radio Awards.
### Religion
Soho is home to numerous religious and spiritual groups. St Anne's Church on Wardour Street was built between 1677 and 1686, possibly to the design of Sir Christopher Wren or William Talman. An additional tower was built in 1717 by Talman and reconstructed in 1803. The church was damaged by a V1 flying bomb during World War II in 1940, but the tower survived. In 1976, John Betjeman campaigned to save the building. The church was fully restored in the late 1980s and formally re-opened by the Princess Royal on 12 March 1990. The Church of Our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory on Warwick Street was built in 1788 and is the only remaining 18th-century Roman Catholic embassy chapel in London and principal church of the Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham. St Patrick's Church in Soho Square was built in 1792 to accommodate Irish immigrants who had moved to the area.
Other religious buildings in Soho include the Hare Krishna Temple off Soho Square, which was part-funded by George Harrison and opened in 1979. There exists a small mosque on Berwick Street. The French Protestant Church of London, the only one of its kind in the city and constructed in the Flemish Gothic style, has been at Nos. 8–9 Soho Square since 1893.
### Music
The music scene in Soho can be traced back to 1948 and Club Eleven, generally regarded as the first venue where modern jazz, or bebop, was performed in the UK. It closed in 1950 following a drugs raid. The Harmony Inn was a hang-out for musicians on Archer Street operating during the 1940s and 1950s.
The Ken Colyer Band's 51 Club, a venue for traditional jazz, opened on Great Newport Street in 1951. Blues guitarist and harmonica player Cyril Davies and guitarist Bob Watson launched the London Skiffle Centre, London's first skiffle club, on the first floor of the Roundhouse pub on Wardour Street in 1952. It was renamed the London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in the late 1950s, and closed in 1964.
In the early 1950s, Soho became the centre of the beatnik culture in London. The first coffee bar to open was Moka at No. 29 Frith Street. It was formally opened in 1953 by the film star Gina Lollobrigida, and the frothed coffee produced from stainless steel machines was pioneering in British culture. Le Macabre on Wardour Street, had coffin-shaped tables, fostered beat poetry, jive dance and political debate. The Goings On, in Archer Street, was a Sunday afternoon club organised by the beat poet Pete Brown, active in the mid-1960s. For the rest of the week, it operated as an illegal gambling den. Pink Floyd played at the club at the beginning of their career.
The 2i's Coffee Bar was one of the first rock clubs in Europe. It initially opened on No. 44 Gerard Street in 1956, but soon moved to its more famous venue of No. 59 Old Compton Street. Soho quickly became the centre of the fledgling rock scene in London. Clubs included the Flamingo Club, a regular gig for Georgie Fame, Ronan O'Rahilly's The Scene, which opened in 1963 and catered for the Mod movement with regular attendees including Steve Marriot and Andrew Loog Oldham, and jazz clubs like Ronnie Scott's, which opened in 1959 at 39 Gerrard Street and moved to 47 Frith Street in 1965.
Soho's Wardour Street was the home of the Marquee Club, which opened in 1958. In the 1960s, numerous major rock bands played at the venue, including early performances from the Rolling Stones in July 1962 and The Who in late 1964, Jimi Hendrix, David Bowie, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull, AC/DC and Iron Maiden. Eric Clapton and Brian Jones both lived for a time in Soho, sharing a flat with future rock publicist, Tony Brainsby.
Trident Studios was based at 17 St Anne's Court, Soho and was a major London recording studio. It was established by Norman and Barry Sheffield in 1968, who wanted expand from the small studio they had above their music shop. It became immediately successful after The Beatles decided to record several tracks on The White Album there, as the facilities were better than Abbey Road studios. Queen were originally managed by the Sheffields, and recorded their first four albums and filmed the video for Bohemian Rhapsody at Trident. Other artists who recorded at Trident include David Bowie, Elton John, Free and Thin Lizzy. It closed as a general-purpose recording studio in 1981, but has since reopened in various guises, including providing sound and mixing services for television.
Although technically not part of Soho, the adjacent Denmark Street is known for its connections with British popular music, and is nicknamed the British Tin Pan Alley due to its large concentration of shops selling musical instruments. The Sex Pistols lived beneath No. 6 and recorded their first demos there. Jimi Hendrix, the Rolling Stones and David Bowie have all recorded at studios on Denmark Street and Elton John wrote his hit "Your Song" in the street. Led Zeppelin's first rehearsal in 1968 was in a basement studio on Gerrard Street.
### Sex industry
The Soho area has been at the heart of London's sex industry for more than 200 years; between 1778 and 1801, 21 Soho Square was location of the White House, a brothel described by the magistrate Henry Mayhew as "a notorious place of ill-fame". Shortly before World War I, two rival gangs, one led by Chan Nan (also called "Brilliant Chang") and the other by Eddie Manning, controlled drugs and prostitution in Soho. Both were eventually arrested and imprisoned; Manning died midway through a three-year sentence in 1933. Following World War II, gangs set up rings of prostitutes in the area, concentrated around Brewer Street and Rupert Street. Photographers also visited Soho in the hope of being able to blackmail people caught in the act of visiting prostitutes.
When the Street Offences Act 1959 drove prostitution off the streets, many clubs such as the Blue Lagoon at No. 50 Carnaby Street became fronts for it. Gangs controlled the clubs and the prostitutes, and the police were bribed. In 1960 London's first sex cinema, the Compton Cinema Club (a members-only club to get around the law), opened at 56 Old Compton Street. It was owned by Michael Klinger and Tony Tenser who later produced two early Roman Polanski films, including Repulsion (1965). As post-war austerity relaxed into the "swinging '60s", clip joints also surfaced; these unlicensed establishments sold coloured water as champagne with the promise of sex to follow, thus fleecing tourists looking for a "good time". Harrison Marks, a "glamour photographer" and girlie magazine publisher, had a photographic gallery on Gerrard Street and published several magazines in the 1950s and '60s. The model Pamela Green prompted him to take up nude photography, and she remained the creative force in their business.
By the 1970s, the sex shops had grown from the handful opened by Carl Slack in the early 1960s. From 1976 to 1982, Soho had 54 sex shops, 39 sex cinemas and cinema clubs, 16 strip and peep shows, 11 sex-oriented clubs and 12 licensed massage parlours. The proliferation of sex shops dissuaded some people from visiting Soho. The growth of the sex industry in Soho during this time was partly caused by corruption in the Metropolitan Police. The vice squad at the time suffered from police officers enforcing against organised crime in the area, while simultaneously accepting bribes. This changed following the appointment of Robert Mark as chief constable, who began to crack down on corruption. In 1972 local residents started the Soho Society in order to control the increasing expansion of the sex industry in the area and improve it with a comprehensive redevelopment plan. This led to a series of corruption trials in 1975, following which several senior police officers were imprisoned. This caused a small recession in Soho which depressed property values at the time Paul Raymond had started buying freeholds there.
By the 1980s, purges of the police force along with pressure from the Soho Society and new and tighter licensing controls by the City of Westminster led to a crackdown on illegal premises. The number of sex industry premises dropped from 185 in 1982 to around 30 in 1991. By 2000, substantial relaxation of general censorship, the ready availability of non-commercial sex, and the licensing or closing of unlicensed sex shops had reduced the red-light area to just a small area around Berwick Street. Much of the business has been reported to have been run by Albanian gangs. By the end of 2014, gentrification and competition from the internet had reduced the number of flats in Soho used for prostitution, but the area remains a red-light district and a centre of the sex industry in London.
### Health and welfare
The National Hospital for Diseases of the Heart and Paralysis was established at No. 32 Soho Square in 1874. The property had previously been owned by the naturalist and botanist Sir Joseph Banks. It moved to Westmoreland Street in 1914, and then to Fulham Road in 1991.
In July 2019, Soho was reported to be the unhealthiest place to live in Britain. Researchers from the University of Liverpool found that the area had the greatest access to takeaways, pubs and off-licences and these were combined with high levels of air pollution and low levels of parks and green spaces.
## Streets
Berwick Street was built between 1687 and 1703, and is probably named after James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, the illegitimate son of James II of England. It has held a street market since the early 18th century, which has been formally organised since 1892.
Carnaby Street was laid out in the late 17th century. It was named after Karnaby House, built on the street's eastern side in 1683. It was a popular residence for Huguenots at first, before becoming populated by shops in the 19th century. In 1957, a fashion boutique was opened, and Carnaby Street became the fashion centre of 1960s Swinging London, although it quickly became known for poor quality "kitsch" products.
D'Arblay Street was laid out between 1735 and 1744. It was originally known as Portland Street after William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland and given its current named in 1909 in commemoration of Frances Burney, Madame D'Arblay, who had lived in Poland Street nearby, when she was young. The George public house at No. 1 was opened in 1889, but there has been a tavern on this site since 1739. Several of the original houses have survived into the 21st century.
Dean Street was built in the 1680s and was originally settled by French immigrants. It is home to the Soho Theatre, and a pub known as The French House which during World War II was popular with the French Government-in-exile. Karl Marx lived at No. 64 Dean Street around 1850. The Colony Club was founded by Muriel Belcher and based at No. 41 Dean Street from 1948 to 2008. It was frequented by several important artists including Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud and Frank Auerbach.
Frith Street was named after Richard Frith, a local builder. On Roque's Map of London it is marked as Thrift Street. It was a popular aristocratic residence, although without as many foreign residents as some other streets. A plaque above the stage door of the Prince Edward Theatre identifies the site where Mozart lived as a child between 1764 and '65. John Logie Baird first demonstrated television in his laboratory at No 22 in 1926. The premises is now the location of Bar Italia. Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club is located at No 46 Frith Street having moved there from Gerrard Street in 1965.
Greek Street was first laid out around 1680 and was named after a nearby Greek church. It initially housed several upper-class tenants including Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey and Peter Plunket, 4th Earl of Fingall. Thomas De Quincey lived in the street after running away from Manchester Grammar School in 1802. Josiah Wedgwood ran his main pottery warehouse and showrooms at Nos. 12–13 between 1774 and 1797. The street now mostly contains restaurants, and several historical buildings from the early 18th century are still standing.
Gerrard Street was built between 1677 and 1685 on land owned by Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield called the Military Ground. The initial development contained a large house belonging to the Earl of Devonshire, which was subsequently occupied by Charles Montagu, 4th Earl of Manchester, Baron Wharton and Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough. Several foreign restaurants had become established on Gerrard Street by the end of the 19th century, including the Hotel des Etrangers and the Mont Blanc. Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club opened at 39 Gerrard Street in 1959 and remained there until its move to No 47 Frith Street in 1965. Scott kept 39 Gerrard Street open for up and coming British Jazz musicians (referred to as 'the Old Place') until the lease ran out in 1967. The 43 Club was based on Gerrard Street. It was one of the most notorious clubs in Soho, run as a cover for organised crime and illegal after-hours selling of alcohol and following a police investigation, the owner Kate Meyrick was jailed in 1928. During the 1950s, the cheap rents on Gerrard Street attracted Chinese Londoners, many who moved from Poplar. By 1970, the street had become the centre of London's Chinatown, and it became pedestrianised and decorated with a Chinese gateway and lanterns. It continues to host numerous Chinese restaurants and shops into the 21st century.
Golden Square is a garden square to the southwest of Soho. Built over land formerly used for grazing, its name is a corruption of gelding. Building began in 1675 and it was complete by the early 18th century. It was originally home to several upper class residents including Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland, James Brydges (later to become 1st Duke of Chandos), and Henry St John, 1st Viscount St John. By the mid-18th century, the aristocracy had moved west towards Mayfair, and a number of foreign embassies were established around the square. In the 19th century, it became a popular residence for local musicians and instrument makers, while by the 20th it had become an established centre of woollen merchants. A statue of King George II sits in the centre of the square, designed by John Van Nost and constructed in 1753.
Great Marlborough Street was first laid out in the early 18th century, and named after the military commander John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. The street was initially fashionable and was home to numerous peers. The London College of Music was based at No. 47 from 1896 to 1990, while the department store Liberty is on the corner with Regent Street. The street was the location of Philip Morris's original London factory and gave its name to the Marlboro brand of cigarettes. Marlborough Street Magistrates Court was based at No. 20–21 and had become one of the country's most important magistrates courts by the late 19th century. The Marquess of Queensbury's libel trial against Oscar Wilde took place here in 1895. The Rolling Stones' Mick Jagger and Keith Richards were tried for drugs possession at the court in 1967, with fellow band member Brian Jones being similarly charged a year later.
Great Windmill Street was named after a 17th-century windmill on this location. The Scottish anatomist William Hunter opened his anatomical theatre at No. 16 in 1766, running it until his death in 1783. It continued to be used for anatomical lectures until 1831. The principles of The Communist Manifesto were laid out by Karl Marx in 1850 at a meeting in the Red Lion pub.
Old Compton Street is named after the Bishop of London Henry Compton, and was first laid out in the 1670s, fully developed by 1683. During the late 18th and 19th centuries, it became a popular meeting place for French exiles. The street was the birthplace of Europe's rock club circuit (2i's club) and contained the first adult cinema in England (The Compton Cinema Club). Dougie Millings, who was the famous tailor for The Beatles, had his first shop at 63 Old Compton Street, which opened in 1962. Old Compton Street is now the core of London's main gay village, where there are several businesses catering for the gay community.
Poland Street was named for the King of Poland pub which stood at one end. It was destroyed by a bomb in 1940. Henry Howard, 6th Earl of Suffolk lived at No. 15 in 1717, while Percy Bysshe Shelley briefly lodged in the street in 1811. William Blake lived at No. 28 from 1785 to 1791, and wrote several works there, including Songs of Innocence and The Book of Thel. The street was the site of the St James Workhouse whose infirmary is believed to be the predecessor to the St. James Infirmary. The first multi-storey car park in London opened on Poland Street in 1934.
Wardour Street dates back to 1585, when it was known as Commonhedge Lane and connected Oxford Street to the King's Mews (now part of Trafalgar Square). It began to be built up in the 1680s and was named after local landowner Edward Wardour. Most of the original houses were rebuilt in the 18th century, and the street became known for antiques and furniture dealers. Several music publishers were established along Wardour Street in the early 20th century, including Novello and Co at Nos. 152–160. The most famous location of the Marquee Club was at No. 90 Wardour Street between 1964 and 1988. Another seventies rock hangout was The Intrepid Fox pub (at 97/99 Wardour Street), originally dedicated to Charles James Fox (who is featured on a relief on the outside of the building). It subsequently became a haven for the Goth subculture before closing in 2006.
## Cultural references
A detailed mural depicting Soho characters, including writer Dylan Thomas and jazz musician George Melly, is in Broadwick Street, at the junction with Carnaby Street.
In fiction, Robert Louis Stevenson had Dr. Henry Jekyll set up a home for Edward Hyde in Soho in his novel, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. Charles Dickens referred to Soho in several of his works; in A Tale of Two Cities, Lucie Manette and her father Dr. Alexandre Manette live on Soho Square, while Golden Square is mentioned in Nicholas Nickleby, in which Ralph Nickleby has a house on the square, and the George II statue in the centre is described as "mournful". Joseph Conrad used Soho as the home for The Secret Agent, a French immigrant who ran a pornography shop. Dan Kavanagh (Julian Barnes)'s 1980 novel Duffy is set in Soho.
Lee Ho Fook's, formerly in Gerrard Street, is mentioned in Warren Zevon's song "Werewolves of London". The Who song "Pinball Wizard", also covered by Elton John, contains the line "From Soho down to Brighton, I must've played them all", in reference to the locations frequented by the title character.
The song Lola by english rock group The Kinks references the district. The story teller of the song meets a man who he mistakes for a woman by the name of Lola in a club in Soho.
The area is the setting for the 2021 film Last Night in Soho by Edgar Wright.
## See also
- List of schools in the City of Westminster
- Street names of Soho
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153,232 |
Nigella Lawson
| 1,173,013,568 |
English food writer and television cook (born 1960)
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Nigella Lucy Lawson (born 6 January 1960) is an English food writer, television cook, food critic, author, and television presenter.
She attended Godolphin and Latymer School, London. Having been rejected from Clare College, University of Cambridge , she then took a year out and applied to Lady Margaret Hall at the University of Oxford. After graduating from Oxford, Lawson started work as a book reviewer and restaurant critic, later becoming the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986. She then embarked upon a career as a freelance journalist, writing for a number of newspapers and magazines. In 1998, her first cookery book, How to Eat, was published and sold 300,000 copies, becoming a best-seller. Her second book, How to Be a Domestic Goddess, was published in 2000, winning the British Book Award for Author of the Year.
In 1999, Lawson hosted her own cooking show series, Nigella Bites, on Channel 4, accompanied by another best-selling cookbook. Nigella Bites won Lawson a Guild of Food Writers Award; her 2005 ITV daytime chat show Nigella met with a negative critical reaction and was cancelled after attracting low ratings. She hosted the Food Network's Nigella Feasts in the United States in 2006, followed by a three-part BBC Two series, Nigella's Christmas Kitchen, in the UK, which led to the commissioning of Nigella Express on BBC Two in 2007. Her own cookware range, Living Kitchen, has a value of £7 million, and she has sold more than 8 million cookery books worldwide to date.
## Early life
Nigella Lawson was born in 1960 in Wandsworth, London, one of the daughters of Nigel Lawson, Baron Lawson of Blaby (1932–2023), a business and finance journalist who later became a Conservative MP and Chancellor of the Exchequer in Margaret Thatcher's government, and his first wife Vanessa Salmon (1936–1985), a socialite and the heiress to the J. Lyons and Co. fortune. Both her parents were from Jewish families. Her given name was originally suggested by her grandmother. Her family owned homes in Kensington and Chelsea.
Nigel and Vanessa Lawson divorced in 1980, when Nigella was 20. They both remarried: her father that year to a House of Commons researcher, Therese Maclear (to whom he was married until 2008), and her mother, in the early 1980s, to philosopher A. J. Ayer (they remained married until her mother's death). As her father was at the time a prominent political figure, Nigella found some of the judgements and preconceptions that were formed about her frustrating. She has attributed her unhappiness as a child, in part, to the problematic relationship she had with her mother.
Lawson's mother died of liver cancer in Westminster, London at the age of 48. Lawson's full-blood siblings are her brother, Dominic, former editor of The Sunday Telegraph, sister Horatia, and sister Thomasina, who died of breast cancer, in her early thirties, in 1993; She has a half-brother, Tom, who is currently headmaster at Eastbourne College, and a half-sister, Emily; Tom and Emily are her father's children by his second wife. Lawson is a cousin to both George Monbiot and Fiona Shackleton through the Salmon family.
### Ancestry
Taking part in the third series of the BBC family-history documentary series, Who Do You Think You Are?, Lawson sought to uncover some of her family's ancestry. She traced her ancestors to Ashkenazi Jews who originate from eastern Europe and Germany, leaving Lawson surprised not to have Sephardi ancestry, as she had believed. She also uncovered that her maternal great-great-great-grandfather, Coenraad Sammes (later Coleman Joseph), had fled to England from Amsterdam in 1830 to escape a prison sentence following a conviction for theft. His daughter Hannah married Samuel Gluckstein, who was in business with Barnett Salmon of Salmon & Gluckstein. They had several children, including Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, who together with Salmon founded J. Lyons and Co. in 1887, and Helena, who married him. One of the children of Helena and Barnett Salmon was Alfred Salmon (1868–1928), the great-grandfather of Nigella Lawson.
### Education
Lawson spent some of her childhood in the Welsh village of Higher Kinnerton. She had to move schools nine times between the ages of 9 and 18, and consequently she described her school years as difficult. "I was just difficult, disruptive, good at school work, but rude, I suspect, and too highly-strung", Lawson reflected. She was educated at several independent schools, among them Ibstock Place School, Queen's Gate School and Godolphin and Latymer School. She worked for many department stores in London, and went on to graduate from Lady Margaret Hall at the University of Oxford with a second-class degree in medieval and modern languages. She lived in Florence, Italy, for a time.
## Career
### Early work
Lawson originally worked in publishing, first taking a job under publisher Naim Attallah. At 23, she began her career in journalism after Charles Moore had invited her to write for The Spectator – her father had previously been editor at the same publication, and her older brother soon would take up the same role. Her initial work at the magazine consisted of writing book reviews, after which she became a restaurant critic there in 1985. She became the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986 aged 26.
She attracted publicity in 1989 when she admitted voting for Labour in an election, not her father's Conservative Party, and then criticised Margaret Thatcher in print. Regarding her political relationship with her father, Lawson has stated, "My father would never expect me to agree with him about anything in particular and, to be honest, we never talk about politics much."
After The Sunday Times, she embarked upon a freelance writing career, realising that "I was on the wrong ladder. I didn't want to be an executive, being paid to worry rather than think". In the United Kingdom, she wrote for The Daily Telegraph, the Evening Standard, The Observer and The Times Literary Supplement, and penned a food column for Vogue and a make-up column for The Times Magazine, as well as working with Gourmet and Bon Appétit in the United States. In 1995 Lawson left a two-week stint at Talk Radio early after making a statement that her shopping was done for her, apparently due to its incompatibility with the radio station's desired "common touch". In the mid-1990s she occasionally hosted TV press-reviews slot What the Papers Say, and was co-host, with David Aaronovitch, of Channel 4 literary-discussion series Booked. In 1998 she repeatedly guested on Channel 4 cookery series Nigel Slater's Real-Food Show.
### 1998–2002: First cookery books and Nigella Bites
Lawson had an established sense of cooking from her childhood, having had a mother who enjoyed cooking. She conceived the idea of writing a cookbook after she observed a dinner party host in tears because of an unset crème caramel. How to Eat (1998), featuring culinary tips on preparation and saving time, sold 300,000 copies in the UK. The Sunday Telegraph dubbed it "the most valuable culinary guide published this decade".
Its successor, How to be a Domestic Goddess (2000), focuses primarily on baking. The Times wrote of the book that it "is defined by its intimate, companionable approach. She is not issuing matronly instructions like Delia; she is merely making sisterly suggestions". Lawson rejected feminist criticism of her book, adding that "[s]ome people did take the domestic goddess title literally rather than ironically. It was about the pleasures of feeling like one rather than actually being one." The book sold 180,000 copies in four months, and won Lawson the title of Author of the Year at the British Book Awards in 2001, fending off competition from authors such as J. K. Rowling. How to Eat and How to be a Domestic Goddess were published in the U.S. in 2000 and 2001. As a result of the book's success, The Observer took her on as a social affairs columnist.
Lawson next hosted her own cooking show television series, Nigella Bites, which ran from 1999 to 2001 on Channel 4, followed by a Christmas special in 2001. Victor Lewis-Smith, a critic usually known for his biting comments, praised Lawson for being "formidably charismatic". The first series of Nigella Bites averaged 1.9 million viewers, and won her the Television Broadcast of the Year at the Guild of Food Writers Awards and the Best Television Food Show at the World Food Media Awards in 2001. The show yielded an accompanying best-selling recipe book, also called Nigella Bites, for which Waterstone's book stores reported UK sales of over 300,000. The book won the WH Smith Lifestyle Book of the Year award.
The Nigella Bites series, which was filmed in her home in west London, was later broadcast on American television channels E! and Style Network. Lawson said of the US release, "In the UK, my viewers have responded to the fact I'm trying to reduce, not add to, their burden and I'm looking forward to making that connection with Style viewers across the US". Overall, Lawson was well received in the United States. Those who did criticise her often suggested she was too flirtatious; a commentator from The New York Times said, "Lawson's sexy roundness mixed with her speed-demon technique makes cooking dinner with Nigella look like a prelude to an orgy". The book of Nigella Bites became the second best-selling cook book of Christmas 2002 in America. The series was followed by Forever Summer with Nigella in 2002 on Channel 4, the concept being, "that you cook to make you still feel as though you're on holiday". Fellow food writer Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall condemned the concept as "cynical and reckless" and referred to the book as Fuck Seasonality.
In 2002 Lawson also began to write a fortnightly cooking article for The New York Times, and brought out a profitable line of kitchenware, called the Living Kitchen range, which is sold by numerous retailers. Her range's value has continued to grow, starting at an estimated £2 million in 2003.
### 2003–2006: Nigella Feasts and BBC contract
In November 2003, Lawson oversaw the menu and preparations for a lunch hosted by Tony Blair at Downing Street for George W. Bush and his wife during their state visit to the UK. Former First Lady of the United States, Laura Bush, is said to be a fan of Lawson's recipes and once included one of her soups as the starter for the 2002 presidential Christmas dinner. Lawson's fifth book, Feast: Food that Celebrates Life, released in 2004, made sales worth £3 million. London's Evening Standard wrote that the book "works both as a practical manual and an engrossing read. ... Nobody else writes so openly about the emotional significance of food." Lawson appeared frequently on American television in 2004, conducting cookery slots on talk shows such as The Ellen DeGeneres Show.
In the UK in 2005, Lawson started to host a daytime television chat show on ITV1 called Nigella, on which celebrity guests joined her in a studio kitchen. The first episode debuted with a disappointing 800,000 viewers. The show was met with a largely negative critical reaction, and after losing 40% of its viewers in the first week, the show was cancelled. She later commented to Radio Times that on her first show, she was almost too frightened to come out of her dressing room. Lawson added that having to pretend to be interested in the lives of the celebrities on her show became too much of an effort.
Her third food-based television series, called Nigella Feasts, debuted on the Food Network in the United States in Autumn 2006 for a 13-week run. Time magazine wrote a favourable review of the show; "the real appeal of Feasts ... is her unfussy, wry, practical approach to entertaining and quality comfort food. Feasts will leave you wishing for an invite".
Lawson was next signed to BBC Two to host a three-part cookery show entitled Nigella's Christmas Kitchen, which began on 6 December 2006 and aired weekly. The first two episodes secured the second highest ratings of the week for BBC Two, with the first episode debuting with a strong 3.5 million. The final episode went on to become the top show on BBC Two the week that it was aired. Nigella's Christmas Kitchen won Lawson a second World Food Media Award in 2007. Her influence as a food commentator was also demonstrated in late 2006, when after she had lauded goose fat as being an essential ingredient for Christmas, sales of the product increased significantly in the UK. Waitrose and Tesco both stated that goose fat sales had more than doubled, as well as Asda's increasing by 65% from the previous week. Similarly, after she advised using prunes in a recipe on Nigella's Christmas Kitchen, Waitrose had increased sales of 30% year on year.
### 2007–2009: Nigella Express and Nigella's Christmas
Nigella's Christmas Kitchen led to the commissioning of a 13-part cookery series about fast food entitled Nigella Express. She said, "The recipes aren't particularly healthy. That said, I wouldn't describe them as junk." The show became another ratings success and one of BBC Two's top-rated shows each week. The first episode debuted with 2.85 million viewers, a high percentage above the channel's slot average. The second episode's viewing figures rose to 3.3 million, and the series peaked at 3.4 million on 22 October 2007.
Her influence with the public was again demonstrated when sales of Riesling wine increased by 30% in the UK after she had incorporated it into her Coq au Riesling recipe on Nigella Express. In December 2007 she appeared on BBC's The Graham Norton Show and revealed that she had once eaten 30 pickled eggs for a £1,000 bet, saying "How stupid to challenge me! I made them all put their money on the table in front of me. The next day I had scrambled eggs for breakfast."
Lawson came under criticism when viewers complained that she had gained weight since the debut episode of the series. The Guardian however, noted, "the food matches her appearance – flawless, polished and sexy". The rights to Nigella Express were sold to Discovery Asia. The series was nominated at the 35th Daytime Emmy Awards in the United States for Outstanding Lifestyle Program, and Lawson herself for the Outstanding Lifestyle Host.
The accompanying book to Nigella Express was released in the UK in September 2007, US in November 2007, and in Australia in 2008. Sharing the same name as the television series, the book became another best-seller in the UK, and was outselling television chef Jamie Oliver by 100,000 copies, according to Waterstone's. It was reported that over 490,000 copies had been sold by mid-December in the UK. Furthermore, the book was number one for a period on Amazon UK's best-selling books, and was ninth on their overall list of Christmas best-sellers in any category. Paul Levy of The Guardian wrote that the tone of the recipes was "just right. One of the appealing things about Nigella's brief introductions to each of them is that she thinks not just as cook, but as eater, and tells you whether they're messy, sticky or fussy." In January 2008, Lawson was estimated to have sold more than 3 million books worldwide. Her Christmas book was released in October 2008 and the television show in December of the same year. An American edition of the book "Nigella Christmas" with a different cover photograph was released in November 2009 with an accompanying book tour of several US cities and a special on the USA's Food Network.
### 2010–2014: Nigellissima and The Taste
Lawson was featured as one of the three judges on a special battle of Iron Chef America, titled "The Super Chef Battle", which pitted White House Executive Chef Cristeta Comerford and Iron Chef Bobby Flay against chef Emeril Lagasse and Iron Chef Mario Batali. This episode was originally broadcast on 3 January 2010. Lawson's cookbook Kitchen: Recipes from the Heart of the Home (2010) is a tie-in with the TV series "Nigella Kitchen". This was shown in the UK and on the Food Network in the United States.
Nigellissima: Instant Italian Inspiration was released in 2012. The 8-part TV series entitled Nigellissima was broadcast by the BBC. Lawson obtained work experience in Italy during her gap year.
She travelled to the United States in 2013 and starred alongside Anthony Bourdain in the reality cooking show The Taste. The UK version of the show began airing on 7 January 2014 on Channel 4. Lawson was granted a visa to travel to the United States and travelled there for a continuation of the series. In 2014, Lawson was hired by a chocolate company to appear in an advertisement, the advertisement was filmed in New Zealand in May for a local confection manufacturer Whittaker's.
### 2015–present: Simply Nigella, Eurovision and Australian Television
The UK and US series of The Taste were both completed and in autumn 2015 Lawson began Simply Nigella for BBC 2. The focus was on comfort food, familiar dishes that are simple and quick to cook.
Lawson was spokesperson for the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015, giving the twelve points to Sweden's Måns Zelmerlöw and his song "Heroes", which went on to win the contest.
It was reported on 18 January 2016, that Lawson would make a return to Australian television, joining the eighth series of MasterChef Australia as a guest judge, alongside the returning judges. She returned to the show for the tenth series in 2018 and eleventh series in 2019.
In 2022, it was announced that Lawson would be returning to Australian television as a judge on the twelfth season of 7 Network's My Kitchen Rules. Lawson co-hosted and judged the first six episodes of the season alongside long term judge Manu Feildel before leaving the series after the first round of instant restaurants. In 2023, it was announced that Lawson would be returning to the show for its thirteenth season as a judge in Kitchen HQ alongside fellow returning judges Manu Feildel and Colin Fassnidge.
## Presenting style and image
Though Lawson has enjoyed a successful career in cookery, she is not a trained chef, and does not like being referred to as a "celebrity chef". Furthermore, she does not see herself as a cook or an expert in her field. However, many have described her as a chef nonetheless. Throughout Lawson's television programmes, she emphasises that she cooks for her own pleasure, for enjoyment, and that she finds cooking therapeutic. When deciding upon which recipes to feature in her books, she takes the view of the eater, stating, "If it's something I don't want to carry on eating once I'm full, then I don't want the recipe ... I have to feel that I want to cook the thing again."
Lawson has adopted a casual approach to cooking, stating, "I think cooking should be about fun and family. ... I think part of my appeal is that my approach to cooking is really relaxed and not rigid. There are no rules in my kitchen." One editor, highlighting the technical simplicity of Lawson's recipes, noted that "her dishes require none of the elaborate preparation called for by most TV chefs".
Lawson has become renowned for her flirtatious manner of presenting, although she argues "It's not meant to be flirtatious. ... I don't have the talent to adopt a different persona. It's intimate, not flirtatious". The perceived overt sexuality of her presentation style has led to Lawson being called the "queen of food porn". Many commentators have alluded to Lawson's attractiveness, and she was once named as one of the world's most beautiful women. She has been referred to as "stunningly beautiful, warm, honest, likeable and amazingly normal", as well as being described as having "flawless skin, perfect white teeth, a voluptuous body, ample height and lots of lush, brown hair." Lawson has also been voted "Sexiest Celebrity Chef".
The media have also noted Lawson's ability to engage with both male and female viewers; The Guardian wrote, "Men love her because they want to be with her. Women love her because they want to be her." Chef Gary Rhodes said that viewers were attracted to her smile rather than her cooking. Despite often being labelled as a "domestic goddess", she insists that she exhibits very few of the qualities associated with the title.
## Personal life
### First marriage and children
Lawson met journalist John Diamond in 1986, when they were both writing for The Sunday Times. They married in Venice in 1992, and had a daughter, Cosima, and a son, Bruno. Diamond was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1997 and died in March 2001, aged 47. One of his last messages to Lawson was, "How proud I am of you and what you have become. The great thing about us is that we have made us who we are." His death occurred during the filming of Nigella Bites; "I took a fortnight off. But I'm not a great believer in breaks", Lawson said; she suffered a bout of depression following the funeral. After Diamond's death, Lawson kept all of the press clippings in what she called her "Morbidobox".
### Second marriage
Lawson married art collector Charles Saatchi in September 2003.
In June 2013, photographs were published by The Sunday People of Lawson being grabbed around the neck by Saatchi, during an argument outside a London seafood restaurant. According to a witness, Lawson was very distressed by the incident. Saatchi later described the pictures as showing only a "playful tiff" and his trying to emphasise a point. After a police investigation of the incident, Saatchi was cautioned for assault, and Lawson left the family home. Lawson said in court Saatchi subjected her to "intimate terrorism", that he threatened to destroy her unless she cleared him in court. Subsequently, while giving evidence, Lawson claimed casual cruelty and controlling behaviour by Saatchi made her unhappy and drove her to occasional drug use. She cited as examples that Saatchi prevented her entertaining at home and punished her for going to a birthday party of a woman friend. She was not beaten but was left emotionally scarred.
Saatchi announced his divorce from Lawson in early July, stating that he had "clearly been a disappointment to Nigella during the last year or so" and the couple had "become estranged and drifted apart". Lawson made no public comment in response; however, court papers showed that it was Lawson who applied for divorce, citing ongoing unreasonable behaviour. On 31 July 2013, seven weeks after the incident, the pair were granted a decree nisi, ending their ten-year marriage. They reached a private financial settlement.
### Assistants' fraud trial
On 27 November 2013, a trial of the former couple's two personal assistants, Italian-born sisters began in R v Grillo and Grillo. The Grillos were accused of fraudulently using the credit cards of Saatchi's private company. During court proceedings in early December, the sisters claimed that Lawson had permitted their use of the credit cards in exchange for their silence regarding her drug use. Questions regarding Lawson's drug use were allowed by the judge as part of the sisters' "bad character" defence. Lawson admitted to taking cocaine and cannabis but denied she had been addicted, stating, "I found it made an intolerable situation tolerable." On 20 December 2013, the two sisters were acquitted. Scotland Yard said that Lawson would not be investigated over the drug allegations.
Charles Saatchi was alleged to have started a smear campaign against Lawson in the British media through PR man Richard Hillgrove before the trial was over. Lawson's lawyers demanded that Hillgrove remove comments about her from his blog. Lawson said in court that ending her marriage to Saatchi had created intolerable conditions for herself and her family, describing Saatchi as "a brilliant but brutal man".
Lawson maintained she was "totally cannabis, cocaine, any drug, free" after the divorce.
On 30 March 2014 Lawson was not permitted to board a flight from London to Los Angeles. The US Department of Homeland Security explained that foreigners who had admitted drug taking were deemed "inadmissible". However, US authorities invited her to apply for a visa shortly afterwards, and she was granted a "waiver of inadmissibility" allowing her to travel to the US.
### Interests and beliefs
In 2008 Lawson reported that she held a personal fortune of £15 million. Her husband Charles Saatchi was worth £100 million at that time. She said her two children should not inherit any of her money, saying: "I am determined that my children should have no financial security. It ruins people not having to earn money."
Lawson is of Jewish heritage. Both of Lawson's parents are Jewish and her upbringing was non-observant. Lawson is an atheist. In one of her newspaper articles, she said "most [women] simply have, somewhere, a fantasy about having sex, in a non-defining, non-exclusive way, with other women."
Lawson is a supporter of the Lavender Trust which gives support to young women with breast cancer. She first became involved with the charity in 2002 when she baked some lavender cupcakes to be auctioned at a fundraising event, which sold for a significant amount of money. She subsequently featured the recipe in her book Forever Summer with Nigella.
In December 2008, Lawson was criticised by animal rights groups for comments which suggested it would be morally acceptable to wear the fur of an animal that one had killed, and that she would be proud to wear the fur of a bear that she had hunted or "[gone] into battle" with.
It was revealed by leaked Whitehall documents in 2003 that Lawson declined an OBE from Queen Elizabeth II in 2001, explaining that "I'm not saving lives and I'm not doing anything other than something I absolutely love." As the daughter of a life peer, Lawson is entitled to the courtesy style of "The Honourable", and may thus be referred to as The Hon. Nigella Lawson; however, she does not use this courtesy style.
Lawson has stated that she believes cooking is "a metaphor for life", in the sense that "When you cook, you need structure [...] but just as importantly you need to be able to loosen up and go with the flow [...] you must not strive for perfection but, rather, acknowledge your mistakes and work out how you can rectify them". She has described cooking as "a way of strengthening oneself", in the sense that "being able to sustain oneself is the skill of the survivor".
## Television credits
## Awards
- 2000 – British Book Award – Author of the Year for How to Be a Domestic Goddess
- 2001 – WH Smith Book Award – How to Be a Domestic Goddess shortlisted for Lifestyle Book of the Year
- 2001 – Guild of Food Writers – Television Broadcast of the Year for Nigella Bites
- 2001 – World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Television Food Show for Nigella Bites
- 2002 – WH Smith Book Awards – Lifestyle Book of the Year for Nigella Bites
- 2007 – World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Food and/or Drink Television Show for Nigella's Christmas Kitchen
- 2016 – Fortnum & Mason TV Personality of the Year
- 2021 – nominated for BAFTA for her pronunciation of mee-cro-wah-vay (microwave) during an episode of her series Nigella's Cook, Eat, Repeat''.
|
18,102,384 |
Paper War of 1752–1753
| 1,085,173,524 |
London authors' dispute conducted through publication of attack pamphlets, essays and poems
|
[
"1750s in London",
"1752 in Great Britain",
"1753 in Great Britain",
"Literary criticism",
"Literature of England",
"Mock-heroic English poems"
] |
In 1752, Henry Fielding started a "paper war", a long-term dispute with constant publication of pamphlets attacking other writers, between the various authors on London's Grub Street. Although it began as a dispute between Fielding and John Hill, other authors, such as Christopher Smart, Bonnell Thornton, William Kenrick, Arthur Murphy and Tobias Smollett, were soon dedicating their works to aid various sides of the conflict.
The dispute lasted until 1753 and involved many of London's periodicals. It eventually resulted in countless essays, poems, and even a series of mock epic poems starting with Smart's The Hilliad. Although it is unknown what actually started the dispute, it resulted in a divide of authors who either supported Fielding or supported Hill, and few in between.
## Background
Fielding started a "paper war" in the first issue of The Covent-Garden Journal (4 January 1752) by declaring war against "hack writers". In response, John Hill claimed in the London Daily Advertiser (9 January 1752) Fielding had met with him prior to January and proposed what would be a fake paper war that would involve London writers "giving Blows that would not hurt, and sharing the Advantage in Silence." Such a meeting between Fielding and Hill to discuss the proposed war is believed to have occurred (if it occurred) on 28 December 1751. It is known that Hill met Fielding for legal business between 26 and 28 December 1751 after Hill was robbed.
Before Hill had revealed this information, he attacked Fielding's Amelia in the London Daily Advertiser on 8 January 1752. The book's title character, Amelia, was involved in an accident that damaged her face, and Hill, mocking the way Fielding described the scene, claimed that she "could charm the World without the Help of a Nose." In response to both the revelation and personal attacks, Fielding wrote on 11 January 1752: "If the Betrayer of a private Treaty could ever deserve the least Credit, yet his Lowness here must proclaim himself either a Liar, or a Fool. None can doubt that he is the former, if he hath feigned this Treaty, and I think few would scruple to call him the latter, if he had rejected it." Regardless of the merits of Hill's claim, a war was soon started: by the third issue of The Covent-Garden Journal, Fielding narrowed his satire upon John Hill.
Although Hill, Fielding, Smart, Thornton, Kenrick, Murphy, and Smollett were all involved in the dispute, not all of them used their actual names; instead, many preferred to use pseudonyms along with attacks under their own name: Fielding wrote as "Sir Alexander Drawcansir"; Hill wrote as "The Inspector"; Thornton wrote as "Madam Roxanna"; and Smart wrote as "Mrs. Mary Midnight". It was under these pseudonyms that various authors soon responded to Fielding's attacks and to Fielding's plan for a "Universal Register Office", a planned center of advertisement of jobs, goods for sale, and other items. If this was not enough, Fielding started a dispute, just a few months before, with Philip D'Halluin, a former employee who established the competing "Public Register Office" in King Street, Covent Garden, who hired Bonnell Thorton, a friend of Smart, to attack Fielding and Hill. However, Hill had previously aided Fielding in this matter.
Later, Hill attacked both Fielding and Smart, 13 August 1752, in the only issue of The Impertinent to be produced. Although the work was published anonymously, it was commonly known that it was produced by Hill, and he soon followed up the pamphlet with his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column in the London Daily Advertiser. With the column, he harshly criticized Smart's Poems on Several Occasions. Fielding eventually left the dispute after the sixth issue of The Covent-Garden Journal was published.
## Event
Although it is quite possible that the first work in the "war" was produced by Smart on 29 April 1751, it is also possible that the origins of the dispute could be traced even further back to Hill's publications between February and March 1751. Fielding's first paper in the "war" was also the first issue of The Covent-Garden Journal on 4 January 1752. In it, Fielding attacked all of the writers of Grub Street, which brought a quick response. Hill responded twice and claimed that Fielding was planning a fake dispute on 9 January 1752, Smollet attacked Hill's piece on 15 January 1752, and Thornton soon responded against Fielding in Have At You All: or, The Drury Lane Journal on 16 January 1752.
During this time, personal works, such as Fielding's Amelia, became targets. On 11 January 1752, Fielding responded to Hill and those who supported his view of Amelia in The Covent-Garden Journal by stating:
> a famous Surgeon, who absolutely cured one Mrs Amelia Booth, of a violent Hurt in her Nose, insomuch, that she had scarce a Scar left on it, intends to bring Actions against several ill-meaning and slanderous People, who have reported that the said Lady had no Nose, merely because the Author of her History, in a Hurry, forgot to inform his Readers of that Particular.
Hill was not the only one to attack the work; Thornton wrote satires of Amelia in the Drury-Lane Journal. Thornton's satires were first published on 16 January 1752 and included a fake advertisement for a parody novel called "Shamelia", playing off of title of Fielding's parody Shamela. He later parodied Amelia again on 13 February 1752 in a piece called "A New Chapter in Amelia." Tobias Smollett joined in and published the pamphlet Habbakkuk Hilding anonymously on 15 January 1752. Although there were many attacks against Fielding's novel, there was some support for the work, and an anonymous pamphlet was written to attack "Hill and 'the Town'" while praising Amelia. On 25 January 1752, Fielding defended his work again by bringing the novel before the imaginary "Court of Censorial Enquiry", in which Hill and the other critics are the prosecutors and it is they, not Amelia, that are truly put on trial.
The Covent-Garden Journal served Fielding well and he used it in his attacks upon Hill and Hill's supporters in the Journal piece called "Journal of the present Paper War between the Forces under Sir Alexander Drawcansir, and the Army of Grub-street". The work was modelled after Jonathan Swift's The Battle of the Books and Fielding pretended to be a military leader that would lead "English VETERANS" against those who were compared to characters from the Greek and Roman classics along with those from modern French literature. However, he changed roles on the fourth issue, produced on 14 January 1752, and transformed himself into a "judge". By February, Kenrick joined in and "dramatized" the "Paper War" in a production called Fun and proceeded to defend Fielding. Charles Macklin followed suit by holding a benefit on 8 April 1752 at the Covent Garden with a two-act play called The Covent Garden Theater, or Pasquin Turn'd Drawcansir; the play portrayed Fielding attacking the Hill and his followers, the "Town".
A pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser published on 29 January 1752 called The March of the Lion links various authors involved in the war and is the first to introduce Smart via a reference to his "Mrs. Mary Midnight" pseudonym, although Smart was not yet a participant. However, Smart did begin directly participating in the matter 4 August 1752 with the publication in The Midwife of a parody on Hill's "Inspector" persona. In the piece, Smart responded to Hill's attack on Smart's "Old Woman's Oratory" show and Hill's claim that the show was dead. Hill was quick to respond; he attacked both Fielding and Smart in a piece published on 13 August 1752 in the only issue of The Impertinent. In the work, Hill claimed that authors either write because "they have wit" or "they are hungry". He further claimed that Smart,
> wears a ridiculous comicalness of aspect, that makes people smile when they see him at a distance: His mouth opens, because he must be fed; and the world often joins with the philosopher in laughing at the insensibility and obstinancy that make him prick his lips with thistles." The work was published anonymously. Some tried to claim that Samuel Johnson was the author and Hill tried to hide his authorship by attacking the essay in the 25 August 1752 "The Inspector" (No. 464). However, he was soon exposed and it became commonly known that Hill produced both and he soon followed up the pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser.
With his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column, Hill harshly criticised Smart's Poems on Several Occasions. Although Hill claimed to praise Smart, he did so in a manner, as Betty Rizzo claims, "that managed to insult and degrade Smart with patronizing encouragement." Arthur Murphy responded to this essay, and to Hill, in the 21 October 1752 edition of the Gray's Inn Journal. Following Murphy, Thornton attacked both Hill and Fielding in The Spring-Garden Journal on 16 November 1752. The Gentleman's Journal issue of November 1752 came out with a quick retort and claimed that those who supported Hill "espoused the cause of Gentleman" and those who sided with Fielding espoused the cause "of the comedian." This essay accomplished little but to polarise both sides even more. Hill then responded to Murphy, and their dispute was printed in a supplement of the December issue of the Gentleman's Journal.
On 1 February 1753, Smart published The Hilliad, an attack upon Hill that one critic, Lance Bertelsen, describes as the "loudest broadside" of the war. The response to The Hilliad was swift: Samuel Derrick responded directly with his The Smartiad, Arthur Murphy criticized Smart for his personally attacking Hill, and Rules for Being a Wit tried to provoke further response from Smart. However, Smart stopped responding to either of these assaults. Soon after, Hill ended his attacks with the final shot in December 1752.
|
3,284,203 |
All Nite (Don't Stop)
| 1,167,169,211 |
2004 single by Janet Jackson
|
[
"2004 singles",
"2004 songs",
"Janet Jackson songs",
"Music videos directed by Francis Lawrence",
"Songs about dancing",
"Songs written by Anders Bagge",
"Songs written by Arnthor Birgisson",
"Songs written by Janet Jackson",
"Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis",
"Virgin Records singles"
] |
"All Nite (Don't Stop)" is a song recorded by American singer Janet Jackson for her eighth studio album, Damita Jo (2004). It was written and produced by Jackson and Swedish duo Bag & Arnthor (consisting of Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson), with additional writing from Jimmy Jam, Terry Lewis and Tony "Prof T" Tolbert. Virgin Records released the song to contemporary hit radio in the United States on May 17, 2004, as the album's third and final single. A So So Def remix featuring Elephant Man was also issued. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" is an electro-funk and house song that contains elements of samba, Latin, dance-pop, and dancehall. Jackson sings the song in a breathy falsetto, while lyrically it discusses being addicted to dancing in a club setting.
"All Nite (Don't Stop)" received positive reviews music critics, with many recognizing it as the best song on Damita Jo. In the United States, the single's chart performance was massively affected by the blacklisting of Jackson's work on many radio formats and music channels, regarding conglomerates fined by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) following her Super Bowl halftime show incident, thus not charting on the Billboard Hot 100. However, it managed to peak atop the Dance Club Songs and reach number eight on Hot Dance Airplay, while reaching the top 20 in Spain and the United Kingdom, as well as charting in several other countries. It additionally won a BMI London Award for Best Pop Song.
Its accompanying music video, directed by Francis Lawrence, portrays Jackson and her dancers rehearsing in an abandoned hotel during a power outage, but music channels faced criticism for removing a kiss between two female dancers. The music video received nominations for Best Dance Video at the International Dance Music Awards and Best Choreography at the MVPA Awards. In order to promote both the single and the album, Jackson performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" during several appearances, including Saturday Night Live, On Air with Ryan Seacrest and Top of the Pops, in addition to the 2004 Video Music Awards Japan. The song was also performed on all of her subsequent tours following its release, the most recent being the Janet Jackson: Together Again tour (2023).
## Background
Recording sessions for Damita Jo began in August 2002, with Jackson initially collaborating with longtime partners Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, and concluded in February 2004 after 18 months, the longest Jackson had spent recording an album. She initially considered pursuing other career plans, but then decided to record another album. For only the second time in her career since Control (1986), Damita Jo saw the singer working with other music producers, including Swedish producers Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson (collectively known as Bag & Arnthor) Murlyn Music; the duo specifically desired to work with Jackson prior to their collaboration, with Bagge stating, "That's my dream, she's the one I would give anything to work with. The ultimate female artist", while Birgisson commented, "let's just say we will definitely be prepared if and when that happens". Jackson recorded several songs with the duo, including "All Nite (Don't Stop)" and "SloLove", in addition to "I'm Here" and "Put Your Hands On", with the latter two being only included on the Japanese version of the album.
In the United States, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" was released to contemporary hit radios on May 17, 2004, by Virgin Records as the third single from Damita Jo, following "Just a Little While" and "I Want You". In addition, Jackson also considered "All Nite (Don't Stop)" as the album's lead before selecting "Just a Little While". A dancehall-influenced remix known as the So So Def remix features Jamaican musician Elephant Man and was produced by L'Roc and Jermaine Dupri, and included in some releases of the single. The remix was done just five days after he was contacted by Jackson's record label; Virgin had considered an urban remix of the track, based on the fact that there was already a version for pop radio stations, and they did not want to ignore the urban market. It was recorded at The Hit Factory in New York City, with Dupri handling the production. Willie Daniels, A&R at Elephant Man's label VP Records, noted that the remix would help both artists, and added that it would "no doubt open Elephant Man to the pop audience".
## Recording and composition
"All Nite (Don't Stop)" was recorded at The Village in Los Angeles, and at Murlyn Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. It was written and produced by Jackson along with Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson of duo Bag & Arnthor, with additional writing by the singer's longtime collaborators Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, in addition to Tony "Prof T" Tolbert. Due to the sample's usage, Herbie Hancock, Paul Jackson and Melvin Ragin also received songwriting credits. Bag & Arnthor were also responsible for arranging, programming and recording the track. Instrumentation included bass, played by Magnum Coltrane Price, as well as Goran Kajfes and Per Ruskträsk playing horns. It was also programmed by Lee Gloves, being assisted by Rob Haggett; Anders Herrlin and Jennie Löfgren served as additional programmers. Henrik Brunberg was also an assistant engineer for the track. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" was mixed by Mark "Spike" Stent at Olympic Studios in London, assisted by David Treahearn, while mastered by Brian "Big Bass" Gardner at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood, along with all tracks present on Damita Jo.
Musically, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" is an electro-funk and house song, which takes influences from samba, Latin, dance-pop and dancehall. Its melody is built around a sample of Herbie Hancock's "Hang Up Your Hang Ups" (1975). Jackson's "soft" vocals play "quite a minimal role" on the song, being delivered in a breathy falsetto over an "impossibly lithe bassline", described as "a bitch slap" to the senses by Spence D. from IGN. Yahoo! Music's Angus Batey described Jackson's vocal delivery as "almost ethereal", as well as "high-pitched". Contactmusic.com's Tareck Ghoneim noted that the track's beats were "on a house tip", which the single "more of a dance track than an r'n'b number", while based on its hook, Mark Lindores from Classic Pop considered "All Nite (Don't Stop)" as a "scorching companion" to Jackson's past single "Throb" (1994). Hits' Miles Marshall Lewis echoed this sentiment, calling it a "house jam in the mold" of "Throb".
Lyrically, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" discusses being addicted to dancing in a club setting. It opens with the phrase "this is sick" as Jackson later announces, "it's time to dance"; she encourages listeners to "join her in jerking, twerking, and dropping it lower than they had ever dreamed possible"; on the track, Jackson describes herself as being "so intoxicated, I'm so stimulated. Feel so X-rated. I could dance all night". Some of the lyrics were considered racy, being exemplified by the line: "Ooh, my body's yours (spank that) / Spank that back door (like that) / Drive me like a Porsche (ooh yeah) / I could dance all night". Veronica Heffernan of The New York Times said that the lyrics presented Jackson as "a demanding choreographer", as they switch between "1-900 confessionalism" and "drill-sergeant attitude", complemented by the singer's "sweetheart voice". For Nolan Feemey of Entertainment Weekly, it was clear that through her "with her orgasmic moans, don't-wake-the-neighbors whispers and instructions to 'get hardcore'", that Jackson was not "really talking about tearing up the dance floor".
## Critical reception
"All Nite (Don't Stop)" received positive reviews from music critics. Mike Trias of Radio and Records said that the track "should not be ignored, especially on the dance floor. Its sexy, midtempo groove is perfect for kicking a party into after hours". Gail Mitchell of Billboard commended it as a "beat-bangin' number" with "infectious allure", affirming that "Jackson steps back into her signature groove line with this bass-driven party jam". Mitchell also regarded it as among Jackson's strongest material, adding that its chorus and "relentless beat" will remain "embedded in your consciousness long after the last note has sounded". Tareck Ghoneim of Contactmusic.com considered it an "interesting" and "infectious" blend of "upbeat samba/dance rhythms and definite funk influence", with "[e]lectro samples, latin percussion and some groans and breaths to give it a sexy ambience". Its aura "on a rnb tip" was considered to have "loads of crossover potential" for several airplay formats. Ghoneim added, "it certainly doesn't strike me as a typical Janet record", citing it as another evolution from "those 'Nasty' days" in "maintaining that dance-pop influence but making it slightly more cool". Chuck Arnold of People described it as a "hypnotic pop number", while Rashod D. Ollison from The Baltimore Sun labeled it a "get-on-up dance cut" which "rides a looping funk guitar line".
Veronica Heffernan from The New York Times praised its "clubby, big-room beats", analyzing its production as "strictly machine-made, with Jackson's sweetheart voice protected by layers of effects". Spence D. of IGN heralded the song as an electro funk number which effectively "gets the blood pumping and the booty primed for shaking". The Guardian's Alexis Petridis called it "a nervy tune", noting the song's "impossibly lithe bassline", while praising it as "not only inventive, but brilliantly constructed". Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called it a "pulsating club track", while Aidin Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle regarded it as the best song from the album, and the best dance song since New Order's "Bizarre Love Triangle". Pitchfork's Chris Ott called it "genius" and rated it three and a half out of four stars, qualifying it as part of the "mashup craze" in which artists were "dreaming up new, ear-catching juxtapositions to dazzle radio". Ott labeled it as "a notable standout", while praising the track's "borderline dancehall/Latin club rhythms". BBC UK's Top of the Pops website exclaimed the track "hits you with about three different basslines and a bonafide booty-quaker of a beat", transitioning into one of her "classic Jackson key-changes" during the chorus. Asian entertainment outlet Fridae qualified it as "chart-friendly", "bass-line driven", and "burning from the explicit references". Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer called it a moment "when everything clicks" on the album, adding that its "primal quality" ultimately "juxtaposes Jackson's ethereal yearning against agitated synthesizers". "All Nite (Don't Stop)" won the award for Best Pop Song at the 2005 BMI London Awards.
## Chart performance
The song's chart success was largely affected by the blacklist of Jackson's singles and music videos which followed her controversial Super Bowl halftime show incident. It peaked at number 33 on Billboard's Mainstream Top 40 chart, number 19 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, and number one on Hot Dance Club Play. It also reached number eight on Hot Dance Airplay. In March 2008, after the release of Jackson's tenth studio album Discipline, the song reached number 40 the Hot Singles Sales chart, four years after its initial release. Internationally, it was released as a double A-side with "I Want You". In Australia, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted and peaked at number 24 on the issue dated July 4, 2004, staying on the ARIA Charts for 10 weeks. In New Zealand, it peaked at number 39 during its only week on the chart.
In the United Kingdom, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted and peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart on the week of June 19, 2004, spending five weeks on the chart. Music Week magazine noted that despite Jackson's high-profile promotional visit to the region, she had not had a top 10 single since "All for You" (2001). In Belgium, it peaked at number 21 in the Flemish region, while reaching one position lower in Wallonia. In Italy, the song entered the singles chart at number 47, and reached number 30 weeks later, spending five weeks inside the chart. In the Netherlands, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" entered the singles' chart at number 95 during the week of June 26, 2004. It eventually reached number 35, staying a total of five weeks on the chart. On the Swiss Singles Chart dated June 20, 2004, "All Nite (Don't Stop)" debuted at number 78, reaching its peak of number 76 the next week, spending only four weeks on the chart.
## Music video
The music video for "All Nite (Don't Stop)" was directed by Francis Lawrence, who previously directed "Someone to Call My Lover" and several of Jackson's other videos, and edited by Dustin Robertson. It was filmed from April 16–17, 2004 and premiered online on May 13, 2004. The video was filmed at the abandoned El Dorado Hotel in the Skid Row neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. Choreographed by Gil Duldulao, it took a minimal approach in comparison to Jackson's prior clips, focusing heavily on intricate choreographed routines as well as gay-friendly themes amongst several of Jackson's dancers. The setting of the music clip is inside a "derelict" building during a power outage. The video begins with Jackson's dancers sprawled on bordello furniture in a "cavernous" ballroom inside the building where the air is "cloudy with sawdust or dance chalk". Then one of the dancers winds a copper wire from a stereo system around a car battery to generate power in the abandoned building. Jackson is then shown, her face covered with a hat and long bangs. As the video progresses, Jackson switches between solo and group dancing, schowcasing snapping, jerking, jazz, hip-hop, and yoga-influenced moves, including scenes where Jackson simulates masturbation as her dancers perform similar suggestive moves. The video closes with the illumination of a neon Damita Jo logo, used to "turn the makeshift studio into a real stage set".
After Jackson's Super Bowl halftime show incident, MTV and many other music channels owned by companies involved in producing the event blacklisted her videos from rotation. However, a slightly edited version of the visual was shown on channels such as MuchMusic and BET, which aired an edited version which removes all sexual content. The outlets faced criticism for removing a kiss between two female dancers. Speaking to The New York Blade, GLAAD's entertainment director Stephen Macias commented, "I think it's always a concern when the gay and lesbian community is not allowed to be depicted in the same way that the straight community is, and especially when that revolves around the way our relationships and romantic situations are depicted". Macias added that Jackson supports gay causes and has been persistently active in portraying equality among the gay community and would not approve the edit. The excerpt concluded, "A number of networks and broadcasters have gone to a heightened state of self-censorship since the uproar over Jackson's Super Bowl performance, for fear of being fined".
Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times praised the video as being "clever", "brave", and "sexually restless" with "adventures in exhibitionism [that] often seem to involve relatively small patches of skin, coupled with raunchy gyrations". She compared the video's theme of "orgiastic dancing by candlelight" to the Northeast blackout of 2003, using the "civics lesson" of a dancer winding a copper wire from a stereo system around a car battery to generate power in an abandoned building. Hefferanan concluded that the "lo-fi" choreography of the clip is in opposition to making "a gaudy show of her rapport with her dancers". The New York Blade considered it "certainly provocative", as "Jackson and her dancers get hot and heavy with one another to the song's thumping, infectious beat", while King placed the video as third on their list of "Favorite Janet Jackson Videos", describing it as "lots of writhing". The video received several nominations on awards, such as the 20th Annual International Dance Music Awards, in the categories of "Best Dance Video" and "Best Choreography", MVPA Awards for "Best Choreography", with its director Francis Laurence being nominated for "Best Direction of a Female Artist" and winning "Director of the Year", for multiple videos including "All Nite (Don't Stop)".
## Live performances
Jackson performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" for the first time on Good Morning America on March 31, 2004. It was followed by another one at On Air with Ryan Seacrest two days later. Both performances were aired with a time delay per the FCC's guidelines due to her controversial Super Bowl incident. On April 10, the singer was the host and performer on Saturday Night Live, with performances of "All Nite (Don't Stop) and "Strawberry Bounce". Her appearance on the show garnered its highest ratings in over two years. She also performed the song on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on April 29, 2004, MSN Music's studios in Seattle on May 14, and the annual Wango Tango the day after. In late May, Jackson traveled to Japan to perform the song on the 2004 Video Music Awards Japan, where she was the recipient of the "Inspiration Award". The singer then traveled to Europe and performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on shows such as Italy's Festivalbar, and Top of the Pops. In June, it was performed at the BET Awards in a medley with "R&B Junkie", and at New York's Gay Pride March along with "Together Again".
It was performed on each of Jackson's subsequent tours. It was included on the setlist of her 2008 Rock Witchu Tour, her first in seven years. The song was later included on some shows of the Number Ones, Up Close and Personal tour in 2011, with Jackson dedicating the song to her fans in Jakarta, Indonesia, and Hidalgo, Texas. The singer also performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on the 2015–16 Unbreakable World Tour, wearing an arms-length black jumpsuit with an oversized necklace. It was also included on the State of the World Tour in 2017–2019. In 2019, the track was included on the setlist for Janet Jackson: Metamorphosis residency in Las Vegas. The same year, Jackson opened the Janet Jackson: A Special 30th Anniversary Celebration of Rhythm Nation tour with the song. In 2023, the singer performed "All Nite (Don't Stop)" at The Woodlands stop of her Janet Jackson: Together Again tour.
## Usage in media
British DJ and producer Switch sampled "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on the song "This is Sick" under the stage moniker Solid Groove. Dance troupe Fanny Pak performed the song on an episode of America's Best Dance Crew titled "Janet Jackson Challenge", which paid tribute to her iconic choreography and videos. It was also performed by contestants on Oxygen's Dance Your Ass Off. The song is included in the 18th edition of the Guinness book British Hit Singles & Albums and is mentioned in Nicole Austin's novel The Boy Next Door.
In March 2018, singer Britney Spears posted a video working out to "All Nite (Don't Stop)" on her Instagram account. She would use the song again in a video for her Instagram in July 2023, where she appeared dancing wearing white knee-high boots, turquoise bikini bottoms and white crop top.
## Track listings
- iTunes EP
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. "I Want You" – 4:12
3. "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56
4. Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14
5. "I Want You" (Ray Roc Radio Mix) – 4:18
- UK promotional 12-inch single
1. Sander Kleinenberg Club Mix – 8:50
2. Low End Specialists Main Mix – 8:48
- UK 12-inch single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Club Mix – 8:50
3. "I Want You" – 4:12
4. So So Def Remix – 3:51
- UK CD single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. "I Want You" – 4:12
3. "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56
4. Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14
5. "I Want You" (Ray Roc Radio Mix) – 4:18
6. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (Video)
7. "I Want You" (Video)
- US promotional 12-inch single
1. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (So So Def Remix) – 3:51
2. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (So So Def Instrumental) – 3:48
3. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (A Cappella) – 3:51
4. R&B Junkie – 3:11
5. R&B Junkie (Instrumental) – 3:11
6. "All Nite (Don't Stop)" (Clean Version) – 3:28
- US promotional double 12-inch single
1. Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Remix – 8:40
2. Low End Specialists Main Mix – 8:48
3. Sander Kleinenberg Dub – 8:40
4. Low End Specialists Dub – 8:48
- US promotional CD single
1. So So Def Remix – 3:51
2. So So Def Remix Instrumental – 3:48
3. So So Def A Cappella – 3:51
4. Album Version – 3:28
- US CD single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. "I Want You" – 4:12
3. "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56
- European CD single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. "I Want You" – 4:12
- Australian CD single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. "I Want You" – 4:12
3. "Put Your Hands On" – 3:56
4. Sander Kleinenberg's Radio Mix – 4:14
- Japanese CD single
1. Album Version – 3:26
2. Sander Kleinenberg Everybody Club Mix – 8:42
3. "I Want You" – 4:12
4. So So Def Remix – 3:51
## Credits and personnel
Credits and personnel are adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes.
- Janet Jackson – vocals, songwriter, producer
- James Harris III – songwriter
- Terry Lewis – songwriter
- Tony "Prof T" Tolbert – songwriter
- Anders Bagge – songwriter, producer, arranger, programmer, recording
- Arnthor Birgisson – songwriter, producer, arranger, programmer, recording
- Herbie Hancock – songwriter
- Paul Jackson – songwriter
- Melvin Ragin – songwriter
- Lee Gloves – programming
- Rob Haggett – assistant programming
- Anders Herrlin – additional programming
- Jennie Löfgren – additional programming
- Henrik Brunberg – assistant engineer
- Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing
- David Treahearn – assistant mixing
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history
|
30,882,749 |
Mike Scarry
| 1,161,323,954 |
American football player and coach (1920–2012)
|
[
"1920 births",
"2012 deaths",
"American football centers",
"American men's basketball players",
"Basketball coaches from Pennsylvania",
"Basketball players from Pennsylvania",
"Case Western Reserve University alumni",
"Case Western Spartans football coaches",
"Case Western Spartans men's basketball coaches",
"Cincinnati Bearcats football coaches",
"Cleveland Browns (AAFC) players",
"Cleveland Rams players",
"Coaches of American football from Pennsylvania",
"Loras Duhawks football coaches",
"Miami Dolphins coaches",
"People from Duquesne, Pennsylvania",
"Players of American football from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania",
"Santa Clara Broncos football coaches",
"United States Army personnel of World War II",
"Washington Redskins coaches",
"Washington State Cougars football coaches",
"Waynesburg Yellow Jackets athletic directors",
"Waynesburg Yellow Jackets football coaches",
"Waynesburg Yellow Jackets football players",
"Waynesburg Yellow Jackets men's basketball coaches",
"Waynesburg Yellow Jackets men's basketball players"
] |
Michael Joseph “Mo” Scarry (February 1, 1920 – September 9, 2012) was an American football player and coach. He grew up in Pennsylvania, and played football in college at Waynesburg College in Waynesburg, Pennsylvania and went on to join the Cleveland Rams in the National Football League (NFL) as a center following a stint in the U.S. Army during World War II. The Rams moved to Los Angeles after winning the 1945 NFL championship, and Scarry elected to stay in Cleveland and play for the Cleveland Browns under coach Paul Brown in the new All-America Football Conference (AAFC). The Browns won the AAFC championship in 1946 and 1947 while Scarry was on the team.
Scarry, who coached the basketball team at Western Reserve University in Cleveland during his playing career, retired from professional football after the 1947 season to take up a post as head coach of the school's football team. He stayed there for two seasons before moving to Santa Clara University in California as an assistant coach. Scarry then moved in 1952 to Loras College in Iowa as an assistant. After a stint at Washington State University, he spent six years as the line coach for the University of Cincinnati. Scarry served as head football coach at Waynesburg, his alma mater, for three seasons between 1963 and 1965. The following year he started his first professional coaching job with the NFL's Washington Redskins, and became the defensive line coach of the Miami Dolphins three years later. He stayed with the Dolphins for 15 seasons, during which the team won two Super Bowls, until his retirement. Scarry was inducted into the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame in 2000.
## High school, college and military service
Scarry grew up in Duquesne, Pennsylvania, and played on his high school's basketball and football teams. Scarry attended Waynesburg College, a small school in Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, where he continued to play football and basketball. He served in the U.S. Army during World War II in North Africa, but came down with asthma and was given a medical discharge. He signed with the Cleveland Rams of the National Football League starting in 1944.
## Professional career
Scarry began the 1944 season with the Rams at left tackle, but was shifted to center in September. He played on both defense and offense. After a season in which the Rams contended for but lost the NFL's western division, Scarry spent the offseason as a student at Western Reserve University in Cleveland and served as the director of a YMCA camp in Mantua, Ohio. Scarry suffered a knee injury near the beginning of the 1945 season, but soon returned to action as the Rams, led by quarterback Bob Waterfield, won the NFL championship. Scarry was the captain of the Rams during the championship run.
The Rams moved to Los Angeles after the 1945 season, and Scarry, along with teammates Chet Adams, Tommy Colella, Don Greenwood and Gaylon Smith, decided to stay in Cleveland and play for the Cleveland Browns, a team under formation in the new All-America Football Conference. The Rams sought an injunction in Federal court to prevent Adams from defecting to the Browns, arguing that he was still under contract with the Rams despite the move. Adams argued that his contract described a team in Cleveland, and was no longer valid because of the Rams' relocation. A judge ruled in favor of Adams in August 1946, clearing the way for him and other former Rams players to join the Browns. Scarry played center his first year with the Browns, protecting Otto Graham.
While Scarry was playing for the Browns, he was named head basketball coach at Western Reserve, where he had taken classes between games and in the offseason. In his first season, Scarry often played between 50 and the full 60 minutes of games, playing on the offensive and defensive lines. Toward the middle of the season, Cleveland coach Paul Brown began to use him as the defensive leader, letting him call the unit's formations. In December, Scarry's Western Reserve basketball team played its first games; he had missed numerous practices because of his duties with the Browns. The Browns went on to win the AAFC championship later in the month.
Scarry remained with the Browns the following season. In September 1947 he received a bachelor of science degree from Western Reserve, completing an educational career at Waynesburg that was cut short by the war. By October, he was mentioned as a possible successor to Tom Davies, who had resigned as Western Reserve's football coach. While still one of the AAFC's top centers, Scarry was bothered by injury and asthma and was considering leaving pro football. The Browns, meanwhile, won a second straight AAFC championship in December. Scarry was named Western Reserve's football coach the following January, ending his career with the Browns. Frank Gatski took over as the Browns' regular center after Scarry's retirement.
## Coaching career
Scarry borrowed Paul Brown's coaching techniques at Western Reserve, instituting well-organized practices there. "I had a lot of ideas about coaching before I went to work for the Browns," he said in 1947. "But the manner in which Paul organized his practice and all his duties impressed me. I try to do the same here." With no good passer or runner and a lack of depth, Western Reserve's Red Cats performed poorly in Scarry's first season, but he was praised for making the most out of a thin squad. In 1949, his second year, the Red Cats improved to a 4–5–1 (win–loss–draw) record, and Scarry was expected to stay on for a third season. The following year, however, he resigned to take an assistant coaching position at Santa Clara University in California under former Browns assistant Dick Gallagher.
Scarry was at Santa Clara for the 1950 and 1951 seasons, then went to Loras College in Dubuque, Iowa. He stayed at Loras for two years, moving to Washington State College of the Pacific Coast Conference in 1954. He left in November 1955, when head coach Al Kircher was fired in the wake of a 1–10 season. In February 1956, he was hired as a line coach by the University of Cincinnati. During his time at Cincinnati, Scarry served as an assistant to Otto Graham, the former Browns quarterback and teammate of Scarry's, as a coach in the College All-Star Game, a now-defunct annual matchup between the NFL champion and a selection of the best college players from across the country.
After seven seasons at Cincinnati, Scarry got his third head coaching job, for the Yellow Jackets at Waynesburg, his alma mater. He was also the school's athletic director. Scarry held the position for three seasons, from 1963 until 1965, and his teams had a 17–8–1 record during that span. Waynesburg won the Pennsylvania Intercollegiate Athletic Conference title in 1965, and Scarry was voted the conference's coach of the year. Scarry continued to act as the line coach under Graham for the college all-stars in the offseason during his tenure at Waynesburg. In 1964, he was inducted into football hall of fame of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, an association of smaller college sports programs.
Graham became the head coach of the NFL's Washington Redskins in 1966, and he hired Scarry that year as his defensive line coach. Scarry stayed with the Redskins through 1968, when Graham resigned after three unsuccessful seasons and was succeeded by Vince Lombardi. Scarry then scouted briefly for the San Francisco 49ers, Los Angeles Rams, and Dallas Cowboys before taking a job in 1970 as the defensive line coach for the Miami Dolphins under Don Shula, a former Browns player. He spent the remainder of his coaching career with the Dolphins, retiring after 15 years in 1986. Miami reached the Super Bowl five times while Scarry was a coach there, winning consecutive championships in the 1972 and 1973 seasons.
## Later life and death
After retiring from football, Scarry worked informally for the Dolphins as a volunteer assistant. He moved with his wife, Libby, to Fort Myers, Florida, in 1994. Scarry was inducted into the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame in 2000. He died in 2012 at his home in Fort Myers; he was the last surviving member of the original Browns team. He had four sons and a daughter. Mike was also the brother of professional basketball player Jack Scarry.
## Head coaching record
### Football
|
61,337,626 |
Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020
| 1,171,405,683 |
None
|
[
"2020 in Albanian music",
"2020 in Albanian television",
"Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest",
"Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020"
] |
Albania was scheduled to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, with the song "Fall from the Sky" performed by Arilena Ara. Its selected entry was chosen through the national selection competition Festivali i Këngës organised by Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) in December 2019. To this point, the nation had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest sixteen times since its first entry in . In March 2020, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) announced the contest's cancellation due to the pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its rapid spread across Europe.
## Background
Prior to the 2020 contest, Albania had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest sixteen times since its first entry in . The country's highest placing in the contest, to this point, had been the fifth place, which it achieved in with the song "Suus" performed by Rona Nishliu. The first entry was performed by Anjeza Shahini with the song "The Image of You" and finished in the seventh place, Albania's second-highest placing to date. During its tenure in the contest, Albania failed to qualify for the final seven times, with both the and entries being the most recent non-qualifiers. Since the 2018 contest, Albania qualified for the grand final in both the and contest, with Eugent Bushpepa finishing in eleventh place with "Mall" and Jonida Maliqi placing in seventeenth place with "Ktheju tokës".
In July 2019, the national broadcaster of Albania, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH), officially confirmed Albania's participation in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. RTSH broadcasts the contest within Albania and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. Since its debut in 2004, it has consistently selected its entry through the long-standing competition Festivali i Këngës.
## Before Eurovision
### Festivali i Këngës
Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) organised the 58th edition of Festivali i Këngës in order to select the nation's representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2020. The competition consisted of two semi-finals on 19 and 20 December, respectively, and the grand final on 22 December 2019. From May 2019 to September 2019, artists were able to submit their entries to the broadcaster. An artistic committee reviewed the received submissions and chose 20 artists and songs shortlisted to compete in the semi-finals of Festivali i Këngës.
#### Contestants
#### Shows
##### Semi-finals
The semi-finals of Festivali i Këngës took place on 19 December and 20 December 2020 and were broadcast live at 21:00 (CET) on the respective dates. Ten songs competed in each semi-final with five entries in the first and seven in the second semi-final qualifying for the final. The qualifying songs were selected by a jury panel consisting of two national and three international members with connections to the Eurovision Song Contest. The jury panel was composed of Christer Björkman, Dimitris Kontopoulos, Felix Bergsson, Mikaela Minga and Rita Petro. The first semi-final was opened by the country's Eurovision Song Contest 2019 representative Jonida Maliqi performing her song "Ktheju tokës". The interval act included Mahmood performing his songs "Barrio" and "Soldi". The interval act in the second semi-final featured Agim Krajka and Lindita Theodhori with the song "Kafe Flora". After the semi-finals, the votes of an expert jury panel selected twelve songs to advance to the grand final.
##### Final
The grand final of Festivali i Këngës took place on 22 December 2019 and was broadcast live at 21:00 (CET). The final featured guest performances by Eleni Foureira and Giusy Ferreri. Twelve songs competed and the winner was determined by the combination of the votes from a five-member jury panel. Each member of the jury voted by assigning scores from 1–10, 13 and 18 points to their preferred songs. Before the end of the show, Arilena Ara emerged as the winner with "Shaj" and was simultaneously announced as Albania's representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2020.
### Promotion
An accompanying lyric video for "Fall from the Sky" premiered on the official YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest on 10 March 2019. For further promotion, Arilena was scheduled to embark on a small tour with live performances at various Eurovision Song Contest-related events, including in Amsterdam, London and Madrid, before the tour was cancelled due to the pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The first live performance of the song was broadcast during Arilena's Sounds of Silence concert at the Mother Teresa Square in Tirana on 2 May 2020 as well as the European Broadcasting Union's Eurovision Home Concerts series on 8 May 2020.
## At Eurovision
The Eurovision Song Contest 2020 was initially scheduled to take place at Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and consist of two semi-finals on 12 and 14 May, and the grand final on 16 May 2020. According to the Eurovision rules, each participating country, except the host country and the "Big Five", consisting of , , , and the , would have been required to qualify from one of two semi-finals to compete for the final, although the top 10 countries from the respective semi-final would have progressed to the grand final. In January, it was announced that Albania would be performing in the second half of the second semi-final of the contest. However, in March, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) announced the contest's cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. With respect to Arilena and her entry "Fall from the Sky" participating in the 2021 contest, the EBU announced soon after that entries intended for 2020 would not be eligible for the following year, though each broadcaster would be able to send either their 2020 representative or a new one. By September 2020, RTSH announced that they planned to instead host the next edition of Festivali i Këngës to choose their 2021 entry.
### Alternative song contests
The broadcasters who were planned to take part in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 organised alternative music competitions. Amongst them, Austrian broadcaster, ORF, organised Der kleine Song Contest in April 2020, which saw every entry being assigned to one of three semi-finals. A jury, consisting of ten members that had represented at the contest before, was hired to rank each song, with the highest-placed in each semi-final advancing to the final round. In the third semi-final on 18 April, Albania placed fourth in a field of thirteen participants, achieving a total of 62 points. Swedish broadcaster, Sveriges Television, additionally organised Sveriges 12:a, in which Albania was scheduled to participate on 9 May 2020.
|
40,148,264 |
Sexy Mama
| 1,145,047,262 |
2013 single by Iyanya
|
[
"2013 singles",
"2013 songs",
"Dancehall songs",
"Iyanya songs",
"Song recordings produced by D'Tunes",
"Songs written by Wizkid",
"Wizkid songs"
] |
"Sexy Mama" is a song recorded by Nigerian singer Iyanya featuring Wizkid for the former's second studio album, Desire (2013). It was issued to digital retailers as the album's fifth single on 6 February 2013, coinciding with the release of the parent album, through his label Made Men Music Group. Written by both of the two musicians, "Sexy Mama" was solely produced by D'Tunes. It is a dancehall and dance-inspired track that contains lyrics pertaining to a man's interest in a girl he met at a club.
The single received generally positive feedback from music critics, who favoured the track as one of Iyanya's best songs. "Sexy Mama" peaked at number one on Nigeria's "Official Naija Top Ten Chart", compiled by MTV Base. An accompanying music video was released on 26 April 2013 and features both of the artists performing the song and choreography amidst a white backdrop. The use of special effects prompted a nomination for "Best Use of Visual Effects" at the 2013 Nigeria Music Video Awards (NMVA). Iyanya has also performed the track on several occasions, including at various nightclubs.
## Background and composition
The release of "Sexy Mama" coincided with that of Iyanya's second studio album, Desire (2013). It was digitally released on 6 February 2013 through Made Men Music Group to the iTunes Store, while a version of "Sexy Mama" featuring non-explicit lyrics was released exactly one month later on 6 March.
A dance music and dancehall-inspired track, "Sexy Mama" was written by both Iyanya and Wizkid, while its production was handled by D'Tunes. Its lyrics revolve around a male protagonist developing interest in a woman he met at a dance club. Wizkid joyfully sings: "Girl your dance makes me crazy / I'm feeling your sexy waist / And this is still the baseline".
## Reception
"Sexy Mama" received a positive response from music critics. Joey Akan from Pulse called it one of Iyanya's best songs to date, while Okay Africa's Jacob Roberts-Mensah described it as one of "Nigeria's most infectious dance ballads". Similarly, Qazim Quedy from 360 Nobs declared it an "amazing track" and a "wonderful listen". On Nigeria's "Official Naija Top Ten Chart" for commercially released singles, "Sexy Mama" debuted at number eight on the list, for the week spanning 24–31 May 2013. It was Wizkid's second entry on the listing, following his 2012 single "Azonto". After spending nearly two months on the chart compiled by MTV Base, it reached the top position on 26 July of the same year.
## Promotion
An accompanying music video for "Sexy Mama" was released on 26 April 2013 through Iyanya's official YouTube account and later appeared on his verified Vevo account on 16 October 2013. The visual commences with the two artists standing in front of a white backdrop while several female dancers appear sporadically through the use of digital and animated effects. Because of this, the video itself was nominated at the 2013 Nigeria Music Video Awards (NMVA) for the "Best Use of Visual Effects" category, but lost to Sound Sultan's video for "Natural Something".
At a 2014 special event promoting Belvedere's new line of vodkas, the singer performed "Sexy Mama" and "Away" on a blue lit dance floor. During the Music Festival Lagos 2015, held in Lagos, Nigeria, Iyanya performed "Sexy Mama" in addition to both "Gift" and "Flavor".
### Accolades
## Track listing
## Charts
|
1,055,855 |
Heart-Shaped Box
| 1,173,482,236 |
1993 song by Nirvana
|
[
"1993 singles",
"1993 songs",
"DGC Records singles",
"Music videos directed by Anton Corbijn",
"Nirvana (band) songs",
"Song recordings produced by Steve Albini",
"Songs involved in plagiarism controversies",
"Songs written by Kurt Cobain"
] |
"Heart-Shaped Box" is a song by the American rock band Nirvana, written by vocalist and guitarist, Kurt Cobain. It appears as the third track on the band's third and final studio album, In Utero, released by DGC Records in September 1993. It was one of two songs on In Utero remixed by Scott Litt prior to the album's release, due to the band's dissatisfaction with the original mixing by producer Steve Albini. The Litt remix also featured additional vocal harmonies and guitar by Cobain, which were the only elements on the album's 12 main tracks not recorded during the original sessions with Albini in February 1993.
"Heart-Shaped Box" was released as the In Utero's first single on August 30, 1993. Although the single was not released in the United States, to avoid competing with album sales, the song generated considerable American radio airplay, reaching number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The physical single reached the top 10 in several countries, including Portugal, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Finland, and New Zealand. It was the final song performed at Nirvana's last concert, on March 1, 1994, in Munich, Germany. "Heart-Shaped Box" was also the final Nirvana song to receive a music video before the suicide of Cobain in April 1994. The video, directed by Anton Corbijn, won two awards, including Best Alternative Video, at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards.
## Origin and recording
### Early history
"Heart-Shaped Box" was written by Cobain in early 1992 at the apartment in the Fairfax district of Los Angeles, California he shared with his wife, the American musician Courtney Love. In a 1994 Rolling Stone interview with David Fricke, Love recalled hearing Cobain work on the guitar riff for the first time:
> The only time I asked him for a riff for one of my songs, he was in the closet. We had this huge closet, and I heard him in there working on 'Heart-Shaped Box.' He did that in five minutes. Knock, knock, knock. 'What?' 'Do you need that riff?' 'Fuck you!' Slam. [Laughs] He was trying to be so sneaky. I could hear that one from downstairs.
Cobain forgot about the song for a while, then resumed work on it after he and Love moved to an apartment in Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles. Nirvana's first attempts to work on it were unsuccessful; Cobain said he waited for bassist Krist Novoselic and drummer Dave Grohl "to come up with something but it just turned into noise all the time". Eventually, during one jam session, Cobain said he "came up with the vocal style instantly and it just all flowed out real fast. We finally realized that it was a good song."
"Heart-Shaped Box" was first performed live on January 16, 1993, at the Hollywood Rock Festival in São Paulo, Brazil. It was first recorded in the studio a few days later, at BMG Ariola studios in Rio de Janeiro. Producer Craig Montgomery recalled hearing the song during the band's soundcheck in São Paulo, saying that "even then Kurt knew this was the single ... All the other [new] stuff they had was way more noisy and abrasive than this. Even the other sound guys that were out there on the platform with me were going, 'Yeah, this is a good song.'" The band's guitar tech, Ernie Bailey, also had a positive initial reaction to the song in Brazil, saying that "you could tell this was an important song, in a lot of ways. You knew that it just had a lot of weight to it, even the first time you heard it."
Two versions of the song were recorded at BMG Ariola, with the initial take being done to test the studio's equipment. The second take was posthumously released on the band's rarities box set, With the Lights Out, in November 2004, and on the compilation album Sliver: The Best of the Box in November 2005. On January 23, the band again performed "Heart-Shaped Box" live, at the Hollywood Rock Festival in Rio de Janeiro. These early versions of the song featured unfinished lyrics and what music journalist Gillian G. Gaar called "a far more experimental solo, more akin to the group's improvs".
### In Utero
The studio version of "Heart-Shaped Box" was recorded in February 1993 by Steve Albini at Pachyderm Studios in Cannon Falls, Minnesota, for the band's third studio album, In Utero. Work on the song began on February 14, the second day of recording. According to Albini in a 2013 interview for the audio series Spotify Landmark, "Heart-Shaped Box" was the only song recorded during the sessions that required "more than a couple of takes", along with eventual fourth single, "Pennyroyal Tea".
In a 2013 Rolling Stone interview with Fricke, Grohl recalled that "everyone was concerned about the tempo of 'Heart-Shaped Box.' But click tracks were not cool. Kurt and Steve came up with this idea — we should use a strobe light [laughs]. We had this long conversation about how it won't dictate the tempo, just imply the tempo. ... I sat there for a take or two with this fucking strobe light in my face until I practically had a seizure."
Despite his overall satisfaction with the recording, Novoselic was unhappy with the original effect used during the song's guitar solo, and recalled arguing with Cobain and Albini about it:
> These were the words I said: 'Why do you want to take such a beautiful song and throw this hideous abortion in the middle of it? And they're like, 'Well, I don't know, it sounds good.' They didn't have any arguments, because they were sabotaging it is what they were doing.
The guitar effect was eventually removed when the song was remixed, along with second single "All Apologies", by Scott Litt at Bad Animal Studios in Seattle in May 1993, several months before the album's release. Cobain and Novoselic had agreed that the vocals and bass were too quiet in Albini's original mix of the album, and elected to have the two future singles remixed. Litt's remix of "Heart-Shaped Box" also featured newly recorded vocal harmonies and acoustic guitar by Cobain.
### Later performances
On September 25, 1993, the band performed "Heart-Shaped Box", along with "Rape Me", on Saturday Night Live at NBC Studios in New York City. It was their first show with second guitarist Pat Smear.
"Heart-Shaped Box" was the final song played at Nirvana's last show, on March 1, 1994, at Terminal 1 of Munich-Riem Airport in Munich, Germany.
## Composition
"Heart-Shaped Box" is an alternative rock song that lasts for a duration of four minutes and thirty-nine seconds. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by BMG Rights Management, it is written in a 4/4 time signature, with a moderate tempo of 100 beats per minute. It is in the key of G minor, modulating to G dorian on the verses, while Kurt Cobain's vocal range spans one octave, from the low note of G<sub>3</sub> to the high note of G<sub>4</sub>.
The song has a basic sequence of G<sub>5</sub>–E<sub>5</sub>–C<sub>5</sub>–G–E<sub>5</sub>–C<sub>7</sub> in the verses and G<sub>5</sub>–E<sub>5</sub>–C<sub>7</sub> during the chorus as its chord progression. Journalist Gillian Gaar described "Heart-Shaped Box" as "the Nirvana formula personified, with a restrained, descending riff played through the verse, building in intensity to the cascading passion of the chorus".
### Lyrics
In the 1993 Nirvana biography Come As You Are: The Story of Nirvana, Cobain told author Michael Azerrad that "Heart-Shaped Box" was written about children with cancer. "Every time I see documentaries about little kids with cancer I just freak out", he explained. "It affects me on the highest emotional level, more than anything else on television." As Azerrad noted, however, the song's lyrics were more likely about Love. Charles R. Cross, author of the 2001 Cobain biography Heavier Than Heaven, described the lyric, "I wish I could eat your cancer when you turn black" as "what has to be the most convoluted route any songwriter undertook in pop history to say 'I love you'". Garr wrote that "while the song does reference [cancer], the lyrics appear more to address the physical and emotional dependencies inherent in relationships."
Cobain's unused liner notes for In Utero, first described in Heavier Than Heaven and published in Journals the following year, featured an explanation for "Heart-Shaped Box" that "fell completely apart", according to Cross, "but touched on The Wizard of Oz, 'I Claudius', Leonardo da Vinci, male seahorses (who carry their young), racism in the Old West, and Camille Paglia".
The song's title was inspired by the collection of heart-shaped candy boxes Love kept in the front room of the Fairfax apartment she and Cobain lived in. However, early versions of the song featured the word "coffin" rather than "box". According to Bailey, the song also featured the working title "New Complaint." In a 1993 interview with Circus, Cobain explained that the chorus lyrics "Hey/ Wait/ I've got a new complaint" were a reference to how he believed he was often perceived by the media.
In 2012, Love wrote on Twitter that "Heart-Shaped Box" was about her vagina. Tweeting to the American musician Lana Del Rey, who had covered the song at a concert in Sydney, Australia, the previous week, Love wrote, "You do know the song is about my Vagina right? 'Throw down your umbilical noose so i can climb right back,' umm ... On top of which some of the lyrics about my vagina I contributed." The tweets were deleted shortly after.
## Release
"Heart-Shaped Box" was released as In Utero's first commercial single on August 30, 1993, on CD, cassette tape, and 7-inch, and 12-inch vinyl record formats. The single was released in Europe only and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart. All copies of the single featured the Grohl-composed "Marigold" as a B-side, while 12-inch vinyl and CD editions also included the In Utero track, "Milk It".
In the United States, DGC sent promo copies of the song to American college, modern rock, and album-oriented rock radio stations in early September. The label did not actively court Top 40 radio, with Geffen Records' head of marketing explaining that "Nirvana didn't sell nearly 5 million [records] because of a hit single. They sold that many albums because of who they are". However, the single was available in the US in limited numbers as an import release.
"Heart-Shaped Box" entered the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart at number seven, and eventually peaked at number one on the chart. The song also reached number four on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Music & Media reported in November, 1993, that the song had been well received on Italian contemporary hit radio station RTL 102.5.
### Critical reception
Reviewing In Utero for Rolling Stone, Fricke called "Heart-Shaped Box" "the kind of song Stone Temple Pilots couldn't write even with detailed instructions", and cited it as evidence, along with "Dumb", that if Generation X "is ever going to have its own Lennon — someone who genuinely believes in rock & roll salvation but doesn't confuse mere catharsis with true deliverance — Cobain is damn near it". Phil Alexander of Kerrang! wrote that "on the current single Heart-Shaped Box, the sublime All Apologies ... and the convalescent croon of Penny Royal Tea, [Cobain] re-stakes his claim as one of his generation's most absorbing songsmiths." John Mulvey of the NME called the song "a strangulated, semi-f-ed-up anthem of sorts for a generation who fell in love to 'Teen Spirit' and are now as disturbed as Kurt by a growing sense of maturity".
### Legacy
In his review of Nirvana's eponymous greatest hits album in 2002, Will Bryant of Pitchfork wrote, "I've always considered 'Heart-Shaped Box', with its elliptical guitar figure and explosive choruses, to be one of Cobain's most accomplished compositions. For all its heavy-handed symbolism, the song strikes deepest to Cobain's preoccupation with birth, the menstrual cycle, and female anatomy, wound tightly with primal tension in the verses and released with sublime catharsis in the choruses." Andrew Romano of The Daily Beast called it "as close as Cobain ever got to a perfect song", with "a perfect music video to match".
In 1999, the song was voted number 10 in Kerrang! magazine's "100 Greatest Rock Tracks Ever!" The Guardian and Kerrang! ranked the song number one and number two, respectively, on their lists of the 20 greatest Nirvana songs. In 2022, Pitchfork readers voted it the 30th best song of the 1990s.
### 20th anniversary version
A second "Heart-Shaped Box" single was released in September 2013, to promote the 20th anniversary re-release of In Utero. The three-track promo CD single was included with the first 2000 copies of the "Super Deluxe" edition of the re-issue, and featured Albini's original mix of the song and a remix prepared by Albini in 2013 as B-sides.
## Music video
### Preliminary work
The "Heart-Shaped Box" video was the only music video made for In Utero, and the last video released by the band. Cobain had originally approached American filmmaker Kevin Kerslake, who had directed the band's last four music videos, for the songs "Come as You Are", "Lithium", "In Bloom", and "Sliver", to direct it. Five treatments were prepared by Kerslake between July 14 and August 12, and included scenes of Cobain kissing American author William S. Burroughs, whom Cobain had wanted in the video, and the band hanging by their necks from tree branches. However, no shoot arrangements were made, and by the end of August, the group had elected to work with Dutch photographer and video director Anton Corbijn instead.
Corbijn believes he was chosen to work on the video on the recommendation of Love, and cited his connection to Echo & the Bunnymen, a rock band from Liverpool, England where Love briefly lived and whom Love admired. According to Corbijn, Cobain had asked to be sent the music videos he had directed for Echo & the Bunnymen shortly before receiving a fax from Novoselic with drawings and ideas about a Nirvana video.
As Corbijn recalled, Cobain's proposed treatment for the video was "incredibly precise. More precise than I've ever had for a video. I loved it, but initially I was a bit taken aback that somebody came up with so many ideas, because generally my videos are my own ideas ... But then I looked at it and I thought that actually it was pretty good. I was very amazed by somebody writing a song and having those ideas as precise as he did." According to Novoselic, Cobain's original treatment was two pages long; Novoselic recalled typing it on his new laptop while Cobain dictated.
### Filming
The "Heart-Shaped Box" video was filmed on August 31 and September 1 at Raleigh Studios in Los Angeles. Cobain had requested the video be shot in Technicolor, but as Corbijn recalled, "somehow it was not possible; maybe the whole system had been sold to China or something." Instead, Corbijn and his producer came up with the idea to shoot the video in color, then convert it to black and white and have every frame hand-tinted. The process took weeks and led to the vivid brightness of the video's colors.
In a 2013 interview with Andrew Romano of Daily Beast, Corbijn recalled "a really eerie moment" where the actor playing the video's elderly man, "fell down while walking, on the set. He had some kind of bowel cancer, which he didn't know. Something broke open. There was blood everywhere. We had to get the ambulance, and he had to go to the hospital straight off. It was really severe." According to Corbijn, the old man was the most difficult to cast because finding "an old man who looked like an old man in L.A. was not so easy ... In the end we found this fantastic man who had a jazz club or a jazz station on the radio, something like that." Cobain had originally wanted Burroughs to play the role of the elderly man, but Burroughs declined, although they later met and collaborated on the spoken word piece, "The 'Priest' They Called Him".
According to Corbijn, the two other characters in the video, the overweight woman and the young girl, were easier to cast, "although it was difficult sometimes I think for the child to act because there was blood coming out of her blouse at some point."
Corbijn remembered Cobain as "very alert. Smart boy. Very intelligent. He did everything I asked him to do." According to Cali DeWitt, who briefly worked as the Cobains' nanny, Cobain and Love had fought on set, with Cobain putting out a cigarette on his forehead in retaliation to Love's repeated reminders that this was an "important video" and that he needed to "look good". As DeWitt told author Everett True, "if you watch the video, there's a lot of make-up on his forehead because it was a really bad scab, big and in the center. In the close-ups, there's a strip of hair that never seems to move from the middle of his forehead. They had to paste some hair over it."
### Synopsis
The "Heart-Shaped Box" video begins and ends with the band watching the elderly man on a hospital bed being administered medication through an IV drip. Most of the video takes place in what Garr called "a surreal 'outdoor' setting; a field of bright red poppies with a large cross standing in the middle, adjacent to a wood of creepy old trees (both elements in key scenes in The Wizard of Oz)." During the song's first verse, the elderly man, wearing a Santa Claus hat and loincloth, climbs onto the cross, which is covered by crows. The second verse introduces the young girl in what appears to be a Ku Klux Klan robe and peaked hat reaching for human fetuses in a tree, and the overweight woman in a human organ body suit with angel wings affixed to her back, similar to the winged anatomical model on the cover of In Utero. At one point during the second verse, the girl attempts to chase the three crows from the cross while the old man, now wearing a mitre, is tied to it.
During the song's guitar solo, the girl's hat is blown off her head and falls into a puddle in the poppy field, where it turns black. A brief shot during the solo reveals a fetus in the IV drip. The third verse features Cobain singing directly into the camera without his guitar, while Grohl and Novoselic stand behind him in a room with stars on the walls. The room is actually a box designed by Corbjin with a large heart on top, but the band initially disapproved of the way it looked, and Novoselic asked that it not be filmed from a distance. A brief shot of the box, with the heart above, appears at the start of the final chorus.
The band is featured performing with their instruments during the first two choruses, and without their instruments in what appears to be the same star-decorated box, zoomed out to reveal a bed, nightstand with a lamp on it, and rocking chair, during the final chorus. Both the sky and the walls of the box are blue during the quieter verses, and red during their heavier choruses and the solo. During the video Cobain repeatedly charges the camera, and his face moves in and out of focus.
As Garr pointed out, the Ku Klux Klan imagery recalled Cobain's original idea for the "In Bloom" video, which was to feature a young girl born into the KKK who eventually rejects her parents as "evil".
In his interview with The Daily Beast, Corbjin estimated that he came up with "maybe 15 percent" of the video's ideas, with the rest being Cobain's. "The big woman, for instance, was my idea", he explained. "For me that was Mother Earth. There were a few other things, like the mechanical birds and the fake butterflies and stuff." Corbjin also said the idea to have a crow lip sync parts of the first chorus was his, calling it an example of his "Dutch humor". According to Garr, Cobain had originally wanted to use real animals. Corbijn also added the ladder that the elderly man used to climb up the cross, the box that the band performed in, and the road through the poppy field.
### "Director's Cut"
While editing the video, Corbijn was visited by Cobain and Love, and urged by the latter to use the extended shot of Cobain singing the third verse. As Corbijn later explained, "Kurt looked amazing, and Courtney wanted to keep that shot till the very end. It was a very long take, but she persuaded Kurt to go with that." However, Corbjin then edited a different version which replaced this shot with additional footage of the young girl and woman, as well as scenes of Cobain lying in the poppy field, covered in mist.
According to Corbijn, "They used Courtney's edit initially, and then they put mine out as well. And my edit became the video in the end." This version also appeared on the DVD The Work of Director Anton Corbijn in 2005. Both the "Original" and "Director's Cut" versions of the video appeared as bonus footage in 2013 on the Live and Loud DVD, which was issued as a standalone release as well as part of the 20th anniversary In Utero "Super Deluxe" package.
### Lawsuit
On March 9, 1994, Kerslake sued Nirvana over the "Heart-Shaped Box" video, alleging copyright infringement. According to Nirvana: A Day by Day Eyewitness Chronicle by Carrie Borzillo, Kerslake discovered that he would no longer be directing the video on August 28, 1993, and sent a letter to Corbjin to ensure that none of the images in his five treatments would appear in the final video. Kerslake's lawsuit stated that both Cobain and Nirvana's record company had approved Kerslake's third treatment for the video, with Cobain describing it as "Perfect".
On September 1, 1993, Cobain called Kerslake and invited him to the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards the following day, where Kerslake's video for "In Bloom" was nominated for Best Alternative Video. Kerslake accepted the invitation, and joined the band onstage after they won the award. Soon after Kerslake wrote Cobain a letter, addressed to "kurdt", thanking him for the invitation but expressing his unhappiness over reports that his alleged ideas had been used in Corbijn's shoot. Cobain did not respond, but a meeting was set up between attorneys and the record label to discuss the video.
The case did not affect the video's distribution, and was ultimately settled out of court. In 2019, Cobain's former manager Danny Goldberg discussed the lawsuit in his Cobain biography Serving the Servant, writing that "after the video was aired, Kerslake sued Kurt, claiming, absurdly in my opinion, that he was responsible for the idea of 'Heart Shaped Box.' Kurt was deeply offended. After he died the remaining members of Nirvana settled with Kerslake."
### Reception
The "Heart-Shaped Box" music video was the number one most played music video on MTV in the US as recorded by Billboard magazine on November 20, 1993. It was also number one on Canada's MuchMusic Countdown for two weeks in November 1993. The video won two MTV Video Music Awards in 1994, for Best Alternative Video and for Best Art Direction. Since the ceremony was held after Cobain's suicide in April 1994, the awards were accepted by surviving bandmembers Grohl, Novoselic and Smear. "Heart-Shaped Box" also topped the music video category in the 1993 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics' poll. The video was also aired on MTV Europe and The Box.
Cobain was pleased with the video, saying that it came "closer to what I've seen in my mind, to what I've envisioned, than any other video." Novoselic agreed that "Anton did a beautiful job on that video." Cobain later asked Corbijn to direct a video for "Pennyroyal Tea", but Corbijn refused, saying that he felt "the 'Heart-Shaped Box' video was so good, I could never make a video that was as good or better." According to Corbijn, Cobain responded by telling him he would "never make another video if you don't do it. And he didn't."
### Legacy
In 2011, NME ranked the song's music video at number 22 on its of the "100 Greatest Music Videos". That same year, Time magazine ranked "Heart-Shaped Box" at number 10 on its list of "The 30 All-Time Best Music Videos", where it was described as "beautiful and ... terrible".
In February 2016, Grohl reunited with actress Kelsey Rohr, who played the girl in the "Heart-Shaped Box" music video 23 years earlier, at the age of six. Rohr stated that "Today reminded me that I peaked at 6 years old but I was the most badass kid on the playground. Today was the absolute coolest. Or in Dave's words seeing each other today was a 'historic moment'! What a legend!"
## Track listing
All songs were written by Kurt Cobain except where noted.
CD single and 12" vinyl
1. "Heart-Shaped Box" – 4:39
2. "Milk It" – 3:52
3. "Marigold" (Dave Grohl) – 2:33
Cassette and 7" vinyl
1. "Heart-Shaped Box"
2. "Marigold" (Grohl)
US 12" vinyl promo single
1. "Heart-Shaped Box"
2. "Gallons of Rubbing Alcohol Flow Through the Strip" (Cobain, Grohl, Novoselic)
2013 20th Anniversary promo CD single
(Released with first 2000 copies of the 20th Anniversary "Super Deluxe" edition of In Utero)
1. "Heart-Shaped Box" (Original 1993 album version, mixed by Scott Litt)
2. "Heart-Shaped Box" (Previously unreleased 1993 Steve Albini mix)
3. "Heart-Shaped Box" (Previously unreleased 2013 Steve Albini mix)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Personnel
- Kurt Cobain: vocals, guitar
- Krist Novoselic: bass
- Dave Grohl: drums
## Other releases
- A live version, from the band's performance for MTV at Pier 48 in Seattle on December 13, 1993, appeared on the Live and Loud DVD, released in September 2013.
- A live version, recorded at the Great Western Forum on December 30, 1993, appeared on the live compilation, From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah, released in October 1996.
|
35,305,242 |
Sweet Love (Chris Brown song)
| 1,119,886,217 | null |
[
"2010s ballads",
"2012 singles",
"2012 songs",
"Chris Brown songs",
"Contemporary R&B ballads",
"Song recordings produced by Polow da Don",
"Songs written by Chris Brown",
"Songs written by Polow da Don"
] |
"Sweet Love" is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown, taken from his fifth studio album, Fortune (2012). It was written by Brown, Cory Marks, Greg Curtis, Jamal "Polow da Don" Jones, Jason "JP" Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr., while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry. The song was sent to urban contemporary radio in the United States on April 10, 2012, as the second single from the album. "Sweet Love" is a slow jam R&B ballad which incorporates elements of electronic music. The lyrics of the song revolve around Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex.
"Sweet Love" garnered positive reviews from music critics, who complimented the song's sexual lyrics. In the United States, it peaked at number 25 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and number 89 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The accompanying music video was co-directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown, and filmed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles, California. It displays intimate scenes of Brown and his lover partaking in sexual activity, women levitating out of their beds, and Brown dancing. Critics were complimentary of the video's sexual themes and presentation.
## Background and release
"Sweet Love" was written by Chris Brown, Cory Marks, Greg Curtis, Jamal "Polow da Don" Jones, Jason "JP" Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr., while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry. The audio mixing was completed by Jaycen Joshua, with assistance by Trehy Harris. Curtis played keyboards on the song. On March 28, 2012, Brown announced via his official Twitter account that he would be releasing "Sweet Love" and "Till I Die" as the next two singles from Fortune, after the lead single "Turn Up the Music". Later that same day, he posted a link to a stream of "Sweet Love". The artwork for the single was shot in black-and-white, and debuted online on March 30, 2012. It displays Brown sitting on the floor, staring up at the legs of one of the three women. Rap-Up magazine described the artwork as "grown and sexy". "Sweet Love" was officially sent to urban contemporary playlists in the United States on April 10, 2012. It was released as a one-track digital download in Oceania and most European countries on April 13, 2012. However, in the US, "Sweet Love" was released on April 17, 2012. A remix of the song by American R&B singer R. Kelly, was posted online on July 26, 2012.
## Composition and lyrics
"Sweet Love" is a slow jam R&B ballad that displays elements of electronic music; it lasts for a duration of three minutes and 19 seconds long. The instrumentation is provided by a keyboard, synthesizers, percussion and a drum machine. According to Nadeska Alexis of MTV's Rapfix, Brown sings in a falsetto tone, which she found to be reminiscent of Michael Jackson. Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush described the ballad as "very Michael Jackson and neo-Bieber". JusMusic of Singersroom noted that "Sweet Love" is inspired by Silk's "Freak Me" (1993). Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun musically compared the song to Prince. The theme of "Sweet Love" revolves around sex. It contains lyrics about Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex. During the chorus, he harmonizes: "Oooh baby let's get naked / Just so we can make sweet love / All these sensations got me going crazy for you / Inside on top of you / Grinding inside and out of you / Baby I know what to do / Let's just take our clothes off".
## Music video
The accompanying music video for "Sweet Love" was co-directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown, and filmed on the back lot of Universal Studios in Los Angeles, California. The video was shot from 6:00 am to 6:00 pm. Twenty models were hired for the shooting of the scenes where they are levitating from their beds. On April 26, 2012, several photos from the shoot were posted online, showing women levitating out of their beds in the streets as Brown walked by them. The video premiered on Vevo on May 25, 2012. A behind the scenes video was released on May 26, 2012, a day after the video premiered online.
As the song begins, Brown watches a woman, who appears as a hologram, lying in a bed. This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in front of a flowing backdrop. He then approaches the woman, and together they appear under white bedsheets. Brown is then seen walking down a street, while women are shown levitating out of their beds as he passes by them. He then enters a limo and starts caressing various ghostlike female figures. Brown then returns to the bedroom where he "strips shirtless and makes passionate love" to the woman "as they are showered in water". He later enters a dance studio, where he performs a dance routine with other shirtless male dancers, while several women watch them from across the room. Towards the end of the video, more scenes are shown of Brown and the woman in the bedroom.
Melinda Newman of HitFix called the video "undeniably steamy". Emily Hewett of the Metro wrote that the video featured "flawless dance moves" from Brown. Robbie Daw of Idolator noted that Brown "makes things real sexy" in the video, but was unsure if "we should be turned on or utterly creeped out". Jessica Sager of PopCrush noted that Brown "channels his R&B side" and added that he is "a bit of a clumsy romantic". Jessica Sinclair of the Long Island Press described the video as a "juicy new entertainment" for Brown's fans in anticipation of his new album. Jazmine Gray of Vibe magazine described the video as "hot, heavy and really wet". Upon its release, the video went viral and received over one million views in its first day of release.
## Critical reception
"Sweet Love" garnered positive reviews from music critics. Nadeska Alexis of MTV's Rapfix wrote that Brown "keeps the sexiness at an all time high" with lyrics that "could easily win any girl over". Contessa Gayles of AOL's The Boombox described "Sweet Love" as "baby making music", while Mark Edward Nero of About.com labeled it as "a straight-up sex jam". Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush called the song a sexy R&B jam that could "easily woo Rihanna back". David Shapiro of Fuse TV viewed "Sweet Love" as "auditory pornography" and commented that the lyrics had him "blushing". Joseph Patterson of MTV UK labeled it one of Brown's classic songs "for the lovers". Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone awarded "Sweet Love" three stars out of five, and noted that Brown appears to be transitioning from singing songs about partying in clubs to singing about sex. Johnston continued writing that the music video for the song "would be almost pornographically unnecessary". Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the ballad ticks all the boxes for its "synthy melody, decent beat" and Brown's "vocal harmonies", but felt that it is not "the most innovative offering" from Brown. Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that in "Sweet Love", it appears "there are two songs at war here as the synth drum beat totally overwhelms and clashes with the ballad". She criticized the song for being "memorable for all the wrong reasons".
## Chart performance
In the United States, "Sweet Love" debuted at number 90 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in the issue dated April 14, 2012. After spending 12 weeks ascending the chart, the song peaked at number 25 in the issue dated July 7, 2012. The song remained on the chart for a total of 15 weeks. On the Billboard Hot 100, "Sweet Love" debuted and peaked at number 89 in the issue dated May 5, 2012.
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Sweet Love" – 3:19
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
- Chris Brown – lead vocals, songwriter
- Dan Cohen – additional recorder
- Greg Curtis – songwriter, keyboards
- Tommy Doyle Jr. – songwriter
- Trehy Harris – assistant mixer
- Jamal "Polow da Don" Jones – songwriter, producer
- Jaycen Joshua – mixer
- Cory Marks – songwriter
- Jason "JP" Perry – songwriter, producer
- Bradford Smith – assistant recorder
- Brian Springer – recorder
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
|
36,348,127 |
Tyan Taylor
| 1,160,334,876 |
Australian female goalball Paralympian (born 1990)
|
[
"1990 births",
"Goalball players at the 2012 Summer Paralympics",
"Goalball players at the 2016 Summer Paralympics",
"Goalball players at the 2020 Summer Paralympics",
"Living people",
"New South Wales Institute of Sport alumni",
"Paralympic goalball players for Australia"
] |
Tyan "Little Girl" Taylor (born 23 March 1990) is an Australian goalball winger and is classified as a B3 competitor. In 2009, after only a month playing the sport, Taylor was named to the New South Wales team. She made the national team in 2011 and has played in the 2010 World Championships, 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup and 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions. She represented Australia at the 2016 Summer Paralympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics in goalball.
## Personal life
Nicknamed "Little Girl" because of her size, Taylor was born on 23 March 1990 in Mount Kuring-gai, New South Wales. She has ocular albinism and nystagmus, conditions she was born with, and is 156 centimetres (61 in) tall. Taylor has participated in two extreme sports: skydiving and bungee jumping. In 2021, she worked as a classroom assistant at an early intervention centre.
## Goalball
Taylor is a goalball player, and is a winger and centre. She is classified as a B3 competitor, and has a goalball scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport.
When Taylor was ten years old, several years before started the sport, her grandmother made a comment to her after having seen the game that Taylor could play and one day make the Paralympics. Only when she got to high school, in August 2009, did she start playing the sport. After only a month playing the sport, Taylor was selected for the New South Wales team that competed at the 2009 National Championships, where she was the second leading scorer in what was her first major competition. Playing again for New South Wales, she competed in the 2011 National Championships, and was named the tournament's MVP. At the 2012 Australian National Championships, her New South Wales team finished second, and she was awarded the Ladies' MVP and the Kenaghan Medal, which was awarded at the end of the tournament.
Taylor made her national team debut in 2010 at the World Championships in Britain. It was the first time the national team had played in three years. The team finished sixth at the 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup, where she scored her first international goal in a game against the Spain women's national goalball team. She competed in the 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions that were hosted in Turkey, which served as the Paralympic qualifying tournament. In her first game against New Zealand, her team won 11-4 after leading 7–1 at the half time break. She scored one goal in the team's victory. Australia won the final game against New Zealand by a score of 6–2. She played in the game against New Zealand women's national goalball team with Taylor scoring a pair of goals in the game.
Taylor was named to the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics. That the team qualified for the Games came as a surprise, as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics, and an Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics, when they earned an automatic selection as hosts, and the team finished last in the competition. Going into the Paralympics, her team was ranked eighth in the world. The Australian Paralympic Committee had chosen to work on her development as a goalball player with the idea that she might be able to qualify for and win a medal at the 2016 Summer Paralympics. Taylor debuted the national team's Paralympic uniform on 1 May 2012 at the Sydney Overseas Passenger Terminal on day two of the Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week Australia Spring/Summer 2012/13. In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament, the Belles played games against Japan, Canada, the United States and Sweden. They lost every game, and did not advance to the finals.
The Belles originally failed to qualify for the 2016 Paralympics after finishing third at the IBSA Goalball Asia Pacific Championships in Hangzhou, China. They were displaced to allow for an African team, Algeria as it turned out, to compete in goalball for the first time. But following the re-allocation of Russia's spot, the Belles found themselves getting a last minute invite to Rio.They entered the tournament ranked ninth in the world. They performed better this time, fighting Uzbekistan to a draw, but they needed a win or draw in their final game against Canada to progress to the quarter finals, but lost 6–0, ending their second Paralympic campaign.
At the 2020 Summer Paralympics, Taylor and the other members of the Belles team comprising Meica Horsburgh, Raissa Martin, Amy Ridley, Brodie Smith, and Jennifer Blow won two group stage games out of four and qualified for the quarterfinals. The team lost to Turkey 10-6 and failed to win a medal.
## See also
- Australia women's national goalball team
|
51,156,592 |
Va tacito e nascosto
| 1,137,010,564 |
Opera aria by George Frideric Handel
|
[
"1724 compositions",
"Arias by George Frideric Handel",
"Compositions in F major",
"Depictions of Julius Caesar in opera",
"Opera excerpts"
] |
"Va tacito e nascosto" (Italian; translation, "Silently and stealthily") is an aria written for alto castrato voice in act 1 of George Frideric Handel's opera Giulio Cesare in Egitto, composed in 1724 to a libretto by Nicola Francesco Haym. Sung by the character Julius Caesar, it features extensive solos for natural horn.
## Words and music
### Libretto
> Va tacito e nascosto, quand'avido è di preda, l'astuto cacciator.
>
> E chi è mal far disposto, non brama che si veda l'inganno del suo cor.
> Prosaic translation Silently and stealthily goes the shrewd hunter when he is hungry for game.
>
> And he who loves evil does not like to show the mischief in his heart.
> Singable text How silently, how slyly, When once the scent is taken, the huntsman tracks the spoor.
>
> The traitor shrewd and wily, ne'er lets his prey awaken unless the snare be sure.
</poem>
The first verse of the text is used for the opening and final sections of the aria; the second verse for the middle section. Both verses have an identical rhyming scheme. The form of the verses is based on the style perfected by Metastasio, including the placement of poetic stress. Each line has seven sung syllables; the first two lines of each verse close with the stress on the penultimate syllable (versi piani), the final line of each with stress on the last syllable (verso tronco).
### Music
George Frideric Handel composed his opera Giulio Cesare in Egitto (known also simply as Giulio Cesare) in 1724 to a libretto by Nicola Francesco Haym.
"Va tacito e nascosto" is set as a da capo aria sung by the character Julius Caesar in act 1, scene 9 of the opera, and is scored for strings and natural horn in F major. The vocal part is written for alto castrato voice, and was sung at the premiere by the celebrated performer Senesino. It is now often sung in modern productions by a countertenor voice, but has been sung in productions and recordings by both males and females, in registers from bass to soprano.
The ritornello for horn obbligato at the outset (bars 1 to 9) prefigures the melody sung by Caesar. The horn subsequently also echoes Caesar every time the word "cacciator" (hunter) is sung. As pointed out by Richard Taruskin, the use of a natural instrument such as the horn "sets ... narrow limits on the harmony, virtually confining it to ... the "primary" chords – tonic, dominant, subdominant", and this is reflected in the harmony and orchestration of the aria. The opening and closing sections are in F major; the central section (in which the horn is silent) is in D minor with a modulation to A minor.
The music is particularly appropriate to Caesar's situation, "having a curious, creeping effect ... carrying out exactly the idea of the words." Handel's original draft of the first act prepared the aria for a different character; with a slightly variant text, it was allocated to Cleopatra's cousin Berenice, who urged Cleopatra to stalk Caesar like a crafty hunter to make him enamoured of her. The character of Berenice was subsequently deleted from the libretto.
The horn, which was to feature prominently in 18th century compositions centred on dramatic themes of hunting or nobility, clearly symbolizes here the hunt, a recreation which was reserved for the wealthy and privileged. The virtuosic horn line (particularly difficult on the natural horn which did not have the valves available to the modern player) underlines this perspective. The aria has been cited as a very early example of the horn's use in opera; audiences at the time of Giulio Cesare's premiere would not have expected to hear the horn used as a solo instrument. Handel began to feature the horn in his 1708 serenata Aci, Galatea e Polifemo, and first used the horn as part of an opera orchestra in Rinaldo (1711). The score of Giulio Cesare calls for four horns in the orchestra (although only one is used in this aria), and this would seem to be the first appearance in music of the 'horn quartet' which would become a standard feature of orchestral scores of the music of the romantic period a century later. The only other noted use by Handel of a horn obbligato in an aria occurs in his pastoral ode L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (1740), where the text, "Mirth, admit me", also refers to hunting.
Earlier versions of the thematic material of the aria can be traced in Handel's Acis and Galatea (1718) and in an early trio sonata. Many of Handel's Nine German Arias (HWV 202–210), which were written between 1724 and 1726, share features with his operas of the period, and in particular the aria "Die ihr aus dunkeln Grüften" (HWV 208) has a ritornello and pace very close to "Va tacito".
### Simile aria
The aria has been cited as an example of a "simile aria", because the words and the music both reflect, in metaphor, the situation of the character. Caesar, at Tolomeo's palace in Alexandria, compares himself to a stealthy hunter carefully tracking his prey; the prey in this case is Tolomeo, king of Egypt, who has just given Caesar a cool reception and whom Caesar views with suspicion. The aria follows a scene in which both Tolomeo and Caesar have complimented each other; Tolomeo has ordered his guards to escort the Roman visitor to the state apartments; but, in an aside to his general Curio, Caesar says he does not trust Tolomeo and expects to be betrayed.
## Interpretations
The aria was performed in 1784 at the Handel Commemoration Festival in Westminster Abbey. Present in the audience was the music historian Charles Burney, who wrote "The French-horn part, which is almost a perfect echo to the voice, has never been equalled in any Air, so accomplished, that I remember."
In the 2005 production of Giulio Cesare at Glyndebourne Festival Opera directed by David McVicar, the aria was choreographed with a "sinister court dance" underscoring the diplomatic manoeuvering and machination to which the text alludes.
## Recordings
In addition to appearing on recordings of Giulio Cesare, the aria also features on several recital albums, including:
- Georg Friedrich Händel: Heroic Arias. James Bowman, The King's Consort. Label: Hyperion
- David Daniels, Handel Operatic Arias. David Daniels, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment. Label: Veritas
- G. F. Haendel: Ombra mai fù: Airs, scènes célèbres et musique instrumentale. Andreas Scholl, Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin. Label: Harmonia Mundi
- Handel: Arias, Bryn Terfel. Scottish Chamber Orchestra. Label: Deutsche Grammophon
|
1,934,406 |
Crash Nitro Kart
| 1,173,627,418 |
2003 video game
|
[
"2003 video games",
"Crash Bandicoot racing games",
"Game Boy Advance games",
"GameCube games",
"Games with GameCube-GBA connectivity",
"Kart racing video games",
"Konami games",
"Mobile games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"N-Gage games",
"N-Gage service games",
"PlayStation 2 games",
"Racing video games",
"Sierra Entertainment games",
"Universal Interactive games",
"Vehicular combat games",
"Vicarious Visions games",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Video games featuring female protagonists",
"Video games scored by Ashif Hakik",
"Video games using Havok",
"Video games with time manipulation",
"Xbox games"
] |
Crash Nitro Kart is a 2003 kart racing game for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, and Game Boy Advance; versions for the N-Gage and mobile phones were released in 2004. It is the second racing game in the Crash Bandicoot series after Crash Team Racing and the first game in the series to feature full motion videos.
The game's story centers on the abduction of Crash Bandicoot, along with other characters in the series, by the ruthless dictator Emperor Velo XXVII. Threatening to destroy the Earth if they refuse, he forces them to race in his gigantic coliseum for the entertainment of his subjects.
Crash Nitro Kart received mixed reviews, with reviews varying from version to version. The home console version was met with generally fair reviews, which dismissed the game as a generic kart racer, but commented positively on its "power slide" mechanic. The Game Boy Advance version earned slightly better reviews than the console version, while reviews for the N-Gage version were middling, with much of the criticism going to the game's "tunnel vision". Content from the game was later remastered as part of Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled, released on June 21, 2019.
## Gameplay
Crash Nitro Kart is a racing game in which the player controls characters from the Crash Bandicoot series, most of whom race in karts. While racing, the player can accelerate, steer, reverse, brake, hop or use weapons and power-ups with the game controller's analog stick and buttons. Four distinct types of crates are scattered throughout the tracks and arenas of Crash Nitro Kart. "Item Crates" are marked with a question mark (?) and usually come in sets of four. The player can obtain a weapon or power-up by driving through an Item Crate and breaking it apart. The player can only carry one weapon or power-up at a time. "Multiplier Crates" are marked with an "X" and are usually found in hard-to-reach spots on the tracks. These special crates contain three of a certain weapon or power-up. "Wumpa Crates" are unmarked and carry "Wumpa Fruit" that strengthens the player's weapons and power-ups if ten of them are obtained. "Activation Crates" are marked with an exclamation point (!) and activate either a boost pad or a trap that can slow down the other racers.
Boosting is an important part of Crash Nitro Kart'''s gameplay. When the player boosts, their kart will momentarily go slightly faster than its normal top speed. Boosts are achieved by driving over boost pads scattered across the tracks, pumping the gas at the starting line, and holding the gas button at the right time when being reset on the track. Another technique used for boosting is the "power slide". To execute a power slide, the player holds down one of the hop buttons while steering. While sliding, a curved "boost gauge" appears next to the player's kart. When the gauge goes from green to red, the player presses the opposite shoulder button to obtain a boost. The higher the boost gauge goes, the more powerful the boost will be.
### Racing modes
Crash Nitro Kart features 6 racing modes: Adventure, Race Time Trial, Lap Time Trial, Quick Race, Team Race and Cup Tournament. Some modes are free-for-all, while others can be played as a team. The "Adventure Mode" is a single-player game in which the player must race through all of the tracks and arenas in the game and collect as many Trophies, Relics, Boss Keys, CNK Tokens and Gems as possible. The objective of the Adventure Mode is to win all the races of the five different worlds and win the freedom of the playable characters from the tyrannical Emperor Velo XXVII. The hub world of the game is Velo's Coliseum, from which the player can access any of the five other worlds through special gates. Most of these gates are initially locked; the player must complete the races of one world to gain access to the next world. When inside a world, the player may access a race by driving the selected character onto a "Warp Pad". By winning a race, the player will receive a Trophy. When the player receives all three Trophies in a world, the player will be able to race against that world's champion, who acts as a boss character. If the player manages to defeat the world's champion, the champion will relinquish a World Key. This allows the player to engage in the special modes of that world and enables access to the next world.
The special modes of each race consist of the "Relic Race", the "CNK Challenge", the "Crystal Arena" and the "Gem Cups". In the Relic Race, the player must race through a track alone and complete three laps in the fastest time possible. To aid the player, "Time Crates" are spread throughout the track. When the player drives the character through a Time Crate, the clock freezes for whatever number of seconds are indicated on the Crate. If all of the Time Crates on a track are destroyed, the player's final time will be reduced by ten seconds. The player wins a Relic by beating the time indicated on the screen. The CNK Challenge is played like a normal race, except that the player must also collect the letters C, N and K scattered throughout the track. If the player manages to collect all three letters and come in first place, a "CNK Token" is awarded. These tokens come in four different colors. If the player collects four tokens of the same color, the player will be able to access the Gem Cup of the corresponding color. Gem Cups are racing tournaments held against computer-controlled opponents, and are accessible through a special gate at Velo's Coliseum. If one of these cups is won, a Gem is awarded. When the player collects all the Trophies, World Keys and Relics, the player will be able to race against Emperor Velo on his personal racing track. If the player manages to defeat Velo in this race, the game is won.
The "Race Time Trial" is a single-player mode where the player attempts to set the best time on any of the tracks in the game. There are no other racers to hinder the player, but no item-bearing crates are present to aid the player. When the three-lap race is finished, the player can save a "ghost", a replay of that race. The next time that track is accessed in this mode, the player can load the ghost, allowing the player or others to compete with the ghost in a race. If the player finishes each of the tracks in a set time, the player will be able to compete against the ghosts of the game's boss characters. The "Lap Time Trial" plays like the Race Time Trial except that the player races to get the best time for a single lap around the track. When one lap is finished, the player's "ghost" (a replay of the lap that was just completed) will appear. Whenever a better time on the lap is accomplished, the old ghost will be replaced by the faster one. In the "Quick Race", the player selects a character, a track and races. The player can adjust the computer's skill level and the number of laps.
In the "Team Race", the player joins forces with a computer-controlled partner to win a race. When the player and the partner are in close proximity of each other, the "Team Meter" will rise. When the Team Meter is full, the player may activate the "Team Frenzy", in which the player and partner have temporary access to unlimited weapons and power-ups. In the "Cup Tournament", the player competes against other racers on three different tracks. At the end of a track, the racer in first place gets nine points, the second place racer is awarded six points, third place gets three points and fourth place gets one point; the rest get no points. When all three tracks are completed, the racer with the most points wins. This is the only racing mode that can be played by more than one human player.
### Battle modes
In the battle modes, instead of racing on tracks, the player speeds around battle arenas while collecting weapons and attacking opponents. There are five battle modes in Crash Nitro Kart. Each mode can be played by two to four players. In the "Limit Battle", the objective is to attack opponents with weapons and traps while avoiding attacks unleashed by the opponents. Offensive and defensive weapons can be collected by smashing special crates. A point and time limit can be set by the player before the game begins. Whoever earns enough points or has enough points when time runs out wins. This mode can be played free-for-all or with teams. In "Last Kart Driving", the contestants compete until they run out of lives. A contestant loses a life every time they are hit by a weapon or hazard or fall into a pit. A contestant who runs out of lives will be eliminated. As the title suggests, the last kart driving wins. This mode can be played free-for-all or with teams.
In "Crystal Grab", the contestants must fight to collect all the Crystals in the arena. When a contestant is attacked, they will drop any Crystals they've gathered, allowing opponents to steal them. This mode can be played free-for-all or with teams. In "Capture the Flag", two teams attempt to capture each other's flag and bring it back to their respective flags. Players must race to their opponents' side of the map and drive over their flag to grab it. They must then drive over their own flag's base to score a point from the flag they've captured. A flag that has been stolen can be dropped if the thief is hit with any weapon. Stolen flags that have been dropped can be returned to their respective bases. Due to the weight of the flags, any kart with a flag will be slowed down. The game ends when time runs out or when one of the teams has gotten enough points. This mode can only be played in teams. "Steal the Bacon" is a variation of "Capture the Flag" in which two teams fight over one flag that is situated in the middle of the arena. The teams must attempt to take the flag and bring it to their respective base.
## Plot
### Characters
Crash Nitro Kart features around twenty-seven characters, sixteen of which are playable. The sixteen characters are split into four teams of four with each team driving karts of a matching color.
"Team Bandicoot", which pilots blue karts, is led by Crash Bandicoot, the titular protagonist of the series. His kart is an all-round performer with exceptional acceleration. Coco Bandicoot, Crash's younger genius sister, programmed her kart's wheels to balance their speed better, improving her kart's turning ability. Crunch Bandicoot, Crash's friend, originally created by Doctor Neo Cortex to destroy Crash, pilots a kart with amazing momentum and speed but slow acceleration. Fake Crash, an imperfect duplicate of Crash, becomes accessible as a playable character if the player performs 50 consecutive speed boosts on any track in Adventure Mode as a member of Team Cortex.
"Team Cortex", which pilots red karts, is led by Doctor Neo Cortex, Crash's archenemy and main antagonist of the series. Like Crash, Cortex pilots a kart that excels in acceleration. Doctor N. Gin, Doctor Cortex's right-hand man, is a mechanical genius who pilots a kart that specializes in turning ability. Tiny Tiger, Doctor Cortex's most faithful henchman, is a hulking giant who pilots a kart with a high top speed like Crunch. Doctor Nefarious Tropy, the self-proclaimed master of time, becomes accessible as a playable character if the player beats all the time records in Race Time Trial Mode.
"Team Oxide", which pilots yellow karts, is led by Crash Team Racing's main antagonist Nitrous Oxide. His henchmen, Zam and Zem, become accessible as playable characters if the player wins the Purple and Green Gem in Adventure Mode respectively. "Real Velo", the form Emperor Velo is seen at the end of Adventure Mode, is a part of the Yellow Team and becomes accessible as a playable character if the player wins the Adventure Mode twice: once as a member of Team Bandicoot and once as a member of Team Cortex.
"Team Trance", which pilots green karts, is led by N. Trance, the egg-like master of hypnotism. Dingodile and Polar, whom N. Trance has hypnotized, becomes accessible as playable characters if the player wins the Red and Blue Gem in Adventure Mode respectively. Pura, whom Trance has also hypnotized, becomes accessible as a playable character if the player performs 50 consecutive speed boosts on any track in Adventure Mode as a member of Team Bandicoot.
The main antagonist of the story, Emperor Velo XXVII, is the confident, dominating, bullying and contemptuous ruler of his own galaxy; he threatens to destroy Earth if Crash and Cortex's teams refuse to compete in his Galaxy Circuit. Velo is the final boss character of the game and races alongside two advisors who lay down offensive measures to slow the player down. Preceding Velo are four boss characters who possess "World Keys" that are needed to race against Velo. In order, the bosses consist of the following: Krunk, a hulking creature who feels that Earth is a copy of his home planet, Terra, and races to prove which planet is superior; Nash, a genetically engineered shark-like creature who was created to always move; Norm, a goblin-like mime who races alongside a larger and more obnoxious version of himself; and Geary, a robot as much obsessed with perfection as he is with cleaning.
Aku Aku and Uka Uka serve as helpers throughout the game, giving tips and hints regarding driving skills, info on objects in the hub world, tips on how to use weapons effectively, and occasional warnings during races.
### Story
Crash, Coco and Crunch Bandicoot are relaxing while their nemesis, Doctor Neo Cortex, ponders his next course of action in regards to defeating the Bandicoots and achieving world domination. Suddenly, both groups are abducted by a mysterious white light that takes them to a large coliseum somewhere in another galaxy. This galaxy is ruled by Emperor Velo XXVII, who plans on having the teams race for the entertainment of his subjects. He promises the Earthlings that winning the races will win their freedom, but threatens them with the destruction of Earth if they refuse to race.
After both teams accept the challenge, Velo explains that the racers will compete on four worlds of his choosing, and promises a race against the galactic champion if the champion keys from those worlds are obtained. When Krunk, Nash, Norm, and Geary, the champions of Terra, Barin, Fenomena, and Teknee respectively, are defeated, the Earth racers go up against the galactic champion: Emperor Velo himself. The racers defeat Velo, but he refuses to send them back to Earth unless they win all of the time relics and defeat him again. Velo loses again to the Earth racers and literally explodes in a bout of fury, revealing himself to be a robot suit controlled by a small gremlin-like version of himself.
If Team Bandicoot win the race, Velo, having lost his influence over his subjects, dejectedly relinquishes his empire to the Bandicoots. Crash considers becoming the next emperor of the galaxy, but decides otherwise and gives control back to Velo in exchange for sending the Bandicoots back to Earth. If Team Cortex win the race, Velo struggles with Cortex over the possession of his scepter, only to be stopped by Tiny. Cortex uses the scepter's power in an attempt to return to Earth, but the scepter breaks and sends Cortex, N. Gin and Tiny to Terra instead. When they are confronted by the natives, Tiny repairs the scepter and is subsequently revered as a king, much to Cortex's annoyance.
## Development and release
The game that would become Crash Nitro Kart was initially conceptualized and developed by Traveller's Tales. The original concept involved vehicles that would sustain damage until they were reduced to a single wheel; the vehicle could be repaired by collecting special items scattered around the tracks. The character Nina Cortex, who would later appear in Crash Twinsanity, was created and designed by Duke Mighten during this stage of development. Development duties of the game were subsequently transferred to Vicarious Visions, where the game was tentatively titled Crash Team Racing 2 during pre-production.
The characters of the game were designed by series veteran Charles Zembillas, while the environments were designed by Joe Pearson (another veteran of the series), John Nevarez, Alan Simmons and Di Davies. The karts were designed by Perry Zombolis Jr. and Andy Lomerson. Recognizing that full motion video sequences have become the new norm in state-of-the-art video games, Universal Interactive decided that Crash Nitro Kart would be the first game in the Crash Bandicoot series to feature such cinematics. The cutscenes of Crash Nitro Kart were created by Red Eye Studios; pre-production of the cutscenes was handled by Epoch Ink. The screenplay of the cutscenes was written by Dan Tanguay. The studio's eight artists were given four months to create 32 minutes of pre-rendered cinematics. The actual animation phase was to be completed in 15 weeks, breaking down to almost five shots a day or 15 seconds of animation per day for each artist. The in-game versions of the character models were built using 3ds Max and were outfitted with full inverse kinematic setups, morph targets and UV texture maps by Vicarious Visions. These models could not be ported directly into the cinematics due to their lower resolution for optimal real-time interactivity. Instead, the artists of Red Eye Studios worked from concept sketches provided by Vicarious Visions and used Alias Systems' Maya (with which the artists were more familiar) to enhance the detail of the 27 character models in the game, including the Crash Bandicoot character.
Given the task of forming the personalities of the Crash Nitro Kart cast through the full-motion videos, the Red Eye Studio artists set certain rules for how each character would carry itself by default. As animator Thomas Happ noted, "N. Gin, for example, would always default to twitchy, side-to-side glances, while Tiny would often scratch his head in confusion. There were a lot of scenes where the characters are just standing around listening to Emperor Velo talk, and we had to invent ways to personalize their mannerisms and create a uniquely 'thinking character'." To achieve the bold and deeply saturated colors and textures for the characters and environments, the artists used Maya as well as Adobe Photoshop and Corel Painter. While the artists adapted many of the sets and props in the cinematics from in-game counterparts, they recreated the majority of these objects from scratch in order to add surrealism to the scenery. The cinematics were completed well in advance of the four-month deadline. The console version of Crash Nitro Kart was announced by Vivendi Universal prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo of 2003, while the N-Gage version was announced on February 16, 2004. Crash Nitro Kart is among the first titles to be developed using the Intrinsic Alchemy middleware technology following Vicarious Visions' purchase of its rights from the defunct Intrinsic Graphics.
Crash Nitro Kart was released for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube and Game Boy Advance in North America on November 11, 2003, and in Europe on November 28, 2003; The N-Gage version of the game was released in Europe on June 30, 2004, and in North America on July 28, 2004. The mobile version was released on September 20, 2004. The PlayStation 2 version was re-released in the three-disc "Crash Bandicoot Action Pack" compilation (alongside Crash Twinsanity and Crash Tag Team Racing) in the United States on June 12, 2007, and in Europe on July 20, 2007.
### Audio
The soundtrack of the game was composed by Ashif Hakik and Todd Masten of Womb Music, while the sound design was created by New Media Audio, a subsidiary of Technicolor Creative Services. Hakik composed the game's main menu theme, cutscenes and second half of the in-game soundtrack, while Masten composed the first half. The main menu theme was created by Hakik as his pitch to obtain the job of co-composing the game, and he has called it one of his favorite video game compositions. Masten was contracted to co-create the score for the game after leaving Vicarious Visions and returning to California from New York. Based on his research of the Crash Bandicoot series' "very recognizable" sound palette, Masten incorporated numerous percussive tonal instruments into the score of Crash Nitro Kart. Masten extensively used the then-recently released Reason program by Propellerhead Software in the writing of his score for the game, making Crash Nitro Kart Masten's first entirely digital score. Comparing their two styles, Hakik described Masten's music as harmonically "smart like all Crash music" and his own music as motif-based and influenced by music created for 8 and 16-bit game consoles. Universal Interactive was so satisfied with the score that they asked Masten to remix a custom soundtrack disc as part of a special package deal with Walmart; Crash Nitro Kart is the second video game composed by Masten to receive a soundtrack release. The game is also among the first to support the 5.1 surround sound format.
The voice cast of the game consists of Clancy Brown as Doctor Neo Cortex and Uka Uka, Mel Winkler as Aku Aku, Kevin Michael Richardson as Crunch Bandicoot and an advisor of Velo, Debi Derryberry as Coco Bandicoot and Polar, Steven Blum as Emperor Velo XXVII and Crash Bandicoot, Billy West as Nash and Zam, Dwight Schultz as Dingodile and Fake Crash, Marshall R. Teague as Krunk, John DiMaggio as Tiny Tiger, Michael Ensign as Doctor Nefarious Tropy, Quinton Flynn as Doctor N. Gin and Nitrous Oxide, André Sogliuzzo as Norm and Zem, Paul Greenberg as Geary and Pura and Tom Bourdon as N. Trance and an advisor of Velo.
## Reception
The console versions of Crash Nitro Kart received "mixed or average" reviews according to Metacritic. Manny LaMancha of GamePro concluded that the gameplay of Crash Nitro Kart was addictive though not innovative. PlayStation: The Official Magazine said that Crash Nitro Kart was "satisfying and challenging at the same time" and "a great way to fill that need for speed." Nintendo Power praised the karts as "fast" and the power-ups as "creative". Official PlayStation Magazine concluded that "Vicarious Visions did all it could to emulate the Naughty Dog classic (Crash Team Racing) and just added a PS2 coat of paint." Play magazine said that the game was "a little generic and heavily recycled, but the powerslide system from CTR pulls it together." Matt Helgeson of Game Informer dismissed the game as "probably one of the least exciting racing titles I've played recently." Demian Linn of Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that the gameplay was "nearly identical to Crash Team Racing's, even down to the speed-boosting wumpa fruits, so if you loved it before, you'll still love it, and if not... not."
The game's controls were well received. Manny LaMancha of GamePro concluded that the controls were easy to pick up, but hard to master. Official Xbox Magazine praised the game's "solid control" and "innovative boost system". Michael Laffery of GameZone said that the interface was "simple to use" and that the game requires no learning curve. Tony Guidi of TeamXbox noted that the "simplistic" controls allowed the game to be played by anyone and that due to the different boosting and sliding techniques, "mastering the control will separate the great racers from the newbs." Ryan Davis of GameSpot stated that while the powerslide system "can give you a serious advantage in the race ... [it] is also very difficult to pull off, requiring flawless timing." Steven Rodriquez of Nintendo World Report said that the karts "control pretty nicely, but can be hard to handle consistently at top speed," and added that power sliding was "easy to do".
The graphics of the game were positively received. Manny LaMancha of GamePro said that the visuals were brightly colored and smoothly animated and noted that the Xbox version's graphics were slightly cleaner than the PlayStation 2 version. Michael Lafferty of GameZone praised the environments as "lush and richly textured" and the cutscenes as "very well done". Tony Guidi of TeamXbox commended the graphics as "clean and crisp" and added that the cutscenes were "beautifully polished". Ryan Davis of GameSpot noted that "Crash Nitro Kart maintains the brightly colored, cartoony look that has been the hallmark of past Crash Bandicoot games, though with slightly upgraded graphics. Ed Lewis of IGN said that the graphics for the single-player modes were "bright and cheery and smooth", but decreased in quality in the multiplayer modes. Kristan Reed of Eurogamer concluded that "CNK stays in exactly the cutesy ballpark you'd expect from the Day-Glo series, neither straying in any way from the generic cartoon worlds of old nor providing any graphical trickery that surprises hardened gamers looking for a splash of eye candy with their cartoon frippery." Steven Rodriquez of Nintendo World Report noted that "if you've played any of the other Crash Bandicoot games out there, then you have a pretty good idea what this one looks like." Russ Fischer of GameSpy said that the game "some nice graphics, which use a solid framerate and loads of color to capture the old Crash magic."
The audio received mixed reception. Manny LaMancha of GamePro said that the in-game voice acting (provided by such stars as Debi Derryberry and Billy West) was "clear and entertaining". Tony Guidi of TeamXbox also noted that the character voices were "done well" and that the music "isn't annoying". However, Michael Lafferty of GameZone stated that the music can become "a little tiring" and "annoying" after a while. Ryan Davis of GameSpot concluded that the sound was "respectable", but added that the "attitude" of the character sounds bites seemed "forced". Ed Lewis of IGN said that the "saving grace" of the "Looney Tunes-style repartee and sound effects" is that "it was done professionally and while it's pretty silly if you listen to it, it doesn't grate and get under the skin as other games can." He added that the music was "bouncy and peppy and, once again, cartoony". Steven Rodriguez of Nintendo World Report described the music and sound effects as "generic" and "plain" respectively, and noted that the best part of the game's audio was "that sexy talking mask that gives you advice between races, but even he gets rather annoying."
The Game Boy Advance version was reviewed positively. Frank Provo of GameSpot stated that "the characters aren't nearly as popular as those in Nintendo's Mario Kart game, but the deeper gameplay makes up for that to an extent." Craig Harris of IGN criticized the patches of slowdown in the game, but thought that otherwise it "would be a close contender for best kart racer on the handheld." Nintendo Power concluded that "although Crash Nitro Kart doesn't bring anything new to the kart-racing genre, it's a fast and amusing play that Crash Bandicoot fans will enjoy."
The N-Gage version received middling reviews. Levi Buchanan of IGN, in a positive review, praised the game's large selection of characters, tracks and gameplay modes. Ryan Davis of GameSpot commended the game for its fundamentally solid gameplay, smooth and sharp graphics and the amount of "stuff to do", but stated that "the narrow field of vision has a dramatically negative effect on the whole experience, cross-canceling many of the game's positive traits." Louis Bedigian of GameZone felt that "the variety of courses, power-ups, and the decent sense of speed are not enough to make up for a camera, which literally makes you feel sick." Justin Leeper of GameSpy criticized the chuggy framerate and tunnel vision of the screen and delivered a final message of "If the N-Gage library was a classroom, then Crash Nitro Kart'' would be the cross-eyed kid who eats paste and thinks the answer to every math problem is 'cat'".
|
57,695,553 |
Ghost Town (Kanye West song)
| 1,158,850,131 |
2018 song by Kanye West
|
[
"070 Shake songs",
"2018 songs",
"Kanye West songs",
"Song recordings produced by Benny Blanco",
"Song recordings produced by Kanye West",
"Song recordings produced by Mike Dean (record producer)",
"Songs written by 070 Shake",
"Songs written by Carole Bayer Sager",
"Songs written by Consequence (rapper)",
"Songs written by Cyhi the Prynce",
"Songs written by Kanye West",
"Songs written by Malik Yusef",
"Songs written by Mike Dean (record producer)",
"Songs written by Pardison Fontaine",
"Songs written by PartyNextDoor"
] |
"Ghost Town" is a song by American rapper Kanye West from his eighth studio album, Ye (2018). The song features vocals from PartyNextDoor, Kid Cudi, and 070 Shake. It was produced by West while co-produced by Mike Dean, and features additional production from Francis and the Lights, Benny Blanco and Noah Goldstein. The song is a hip hop track, which features psychedelic elements. It is composed around a sample of "Take Me for a Little While", performed by the Royal Jesters, and also includes a sample of "Someday", performed by Shirley Ann Lee.
The mind of West is demonstrated as going through the unravelling process within "Ghost Town", which is connected to mental illness, and West's verse features him gargling unfinished thoughts. The song received generally strong reviews from music critics and was mostly named by them as one of the album's highlights, with general praise from critics going towards 070 Shake's outro. A number of them complimented the lush composition of the song, though other critics expressed somewhat mixed assessments of West's verse. The song was included in end of the year lists for 2018 by multiple publications, including Consequence of Sound and NME.
"Ghost Town" reached number 16 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 2018, while also peaking at number 14 and 17 on the NZ Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart, respectively. The song has since been certified 2× platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). West and Kid Cudi have delivered multiple joint performances of the song, including performing it on Saturday Night Live and at the Coachella Music Festival in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The song was covered by both BadBadNotGood and Jungle in 2018. A sequel to the song was released by West and Kid Cudi, as Kids See Ghosts, under the title of "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" on their eponymous debut studio album (2018). The sequel features an interpolation of lyrics from the song.
## Background and development
A link was shared by West via his blog on February 7, 2009 to a cover version of his 2007 single "Can't Tell Me Nothing" by American pop project Francis and the Lights. They first collaborated on the latter's single "Friends" in 2016 alongside Bon Iver, and West has a cameo in the accompanying music video. Along with "Ghost Town", Francis and the Lights contributed production to Ye tracks "I Thought About Killing You" and "All Mine". He handled additional production for the former of the three, alongside Benny Blanco and Noah Goldstein, while Mike Dean co-produced it and West served as the lead producer.
In a November 2016 interview with NOW Magazine, Canadian musician PartyNextDoor cited West as whom he wanted to produce and write at the level of, while also stating that he was influenced by West when he was younger. Following the release of his third EP Colours 2 in June 2017, PartyNextDoor tweeted on July 20 of that year that he had new music on the way with West and Apple Music simultaneously responded via Twitter. At the time, it was unknown what project West and PartyNextDoor were recording for and the two had never collaborated in the past. PartyNextDoor later tweeted a picture of the two of them talking on July 22, 2017, the first photographic evidence of their collaboration. Alongside "Ghost Town", PartyNextDoor provided vocals and songwriting for Ye track "Wouldn't Leave", though he wasn't properly credited until the album's credits were updated on streaming services on June 15, 2018.
Initially an unknown SoundCloud user, American hip hop artist 070 Shake refused to sign with anyone other than West. 070 Shake ultimately signed to his record label GOOD Music in 2016 and recalled West advising her "to ultimately be 100 percent open when you're creating and let your mind wander," as well as to not "set any boundaries for yourself." The song and fellow album track "Violent Crimes" both include vocals from 070 Shake. In an interview with Rolling Stone, she stated that after the song, a lot of people were contacting her by phone, and recalled being "like, 'How did you get my number?' and shit." Of listening to the song for the first time, 070 Shake labeled the feeling "surreal" and said she placed focus on taking the whole moment in so she would not have regretted failing to take it in properly after the time, while 070 Shake opined that being on a record with West felt "crazy".
A promotional video was displayed on West's official website from the Ye listening party that was set to "Ghost Town" and "I Thought About Killing You", though the website was ultimately updated on October 22, 2019. West assembled the listening party on the night before the album's release in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, which is the same place that it was recorded by him. Kevin Parker of Tame Impala initially believed that he was credited as a co-writer on the song instead of "Violent Crimes", until he was informed that the latter was played at the listening party. Parker had allegedly sent a number samples to West for Ye, but assumed that they hadn't made the cut after not hearing back from him. West began to come to Jackson Hole often from early 2017 onwards, months after his stay in hospital. After he left the hospital, notes were made by West about his experiences and feelings. As part of the album's songwriting process, West gave his notes to various writers for them to help add structure to his thoughts. When discussing his songwriting process during an interview with The New York Times on June 25, 2018, West revealed that co-writer Malik Yusef was responsible for the lyrics "Sometimes I take all the shine/Talk like I drank all the wine." Before combining rap with rock, West and Kid Cudi had shown admiration to rock artists.
## Composition and lyrics
Musically, "Ghost Town" is a hip hop track, which was often noted for its rock elements. The song includes a sample of "Take Me for a Little While", written by Trade Martin, and performed by the Royal Jesters, within its leading bass, drum and keys combination. The opening of the track features a sample of "Someday", as performed by Shirley Ann Lee. Guitars are included within the song, which some writers viewed as psychedelic. In particular, "Ghost Town" has been noted for taking rock influence from Kid Cudi's work, with a "strong presence of guitars" that Will Lavin of Joe.co.uk called "very reminiscent of a couple of tracks" from his second studio album Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager (2010). The Atlantic's Spencer Kornhaber commented that the song features "psychedelic, space-soul, and prog sounds." West's tone is dazed, with him using the same verse melody as that of his Pusha T-featuring single "Runaway" (2010). In the outro, laser sounds are featured.
The song presents the mind of West going through the process of unravelling, with the ongoing speculation around his mental health often being poor. Mental illness is a common theme on Ye; the song is linked to the subject matter of the album that West's mind is unravelling. PartyNextDoor sings about feeling so good that it is dangerous. West's verse on the song sees him gargling multiple half-finished thoughts, as he opens up his mind. The lyrics of West's verse include a reference to the opioid painkiller fentanyl from him. While singing the chorus of "Ghost Town", Kid Cudi interpolates vocals from rock and roll artist Dave Edmunds' 1979 version of "Take Me for a Little While". The outro is performed by 070 Shake, featuring her singing about freedom and numbness in a manner that has been described as belting. 070 Shake explained that she used a metaphor for numbness with the line, "Put my hand on the stove, to see if I still bleed."
## Release and recording
"Ghost Town" was released on June 1, 2018, as the sixth and penultimate track on West's eighth studio album Ye. However, West had tweeted out an early track list of the eponymous debut studio album by Kids See Ghosts, a hip hop duo consisting of him and Kid Cudi, on May 15 of that year and this showed the song as originally being scheduled for release on the album. It was slated to be released as the fourth track, though the shuffling of tracks between albums recorded by West led to the song being released on Ye instead. The song's follow-up was released by Kids See Ghosts on Kids See Ghosts under the title of "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" on June 8, 2018, also being led to by the shuffling.
In an interview with Pigeons & Planes, 070 Shake revealed that the song was finished hours before the album's listening party on May 31, 2018, and recalled reference tracks being recorded: "I had done a reference for it, and then I guess he forgot about it. We put that reference on another song, then Kanye did his own reference for that 'free' concept." She explained in the interview that it came close to not making the album's final cut during the recording sessions: "At the end, we were talking and asking, 'Is this the one right here?' And I kind of mentioned 'Ghost Town' and said maybe we could use something from that." 070 Shake elaborated, revealing that after listening to the reference again, West, "said, 'Oh yeah, this is the one.'" She concluded, stating: "So 'Ghost Town' almost didn't make it." According to 070 Shake, she wrote the reference track after first arriving in Wyoming and West had forgotten about it due to him being "very focused on a lot of other things, other songs and stuff [sic], and it just left his mind a little bit." Recording for Ye had started after West made controversial comments about slavery in a TMZ interview earlier in May 2018 that led to the album being re-done afterward.
## Critical reception
"Ghost Town" was met with generally strong reviews from music critics, often being ranked as one of the album's highlights. Meaghan Garvey of Pitchfork pointed to the track as "ye's clear highlight," while she regarded the outro by 070 Shake and Kid Cudi's refrain as being better than West's verse, specially noting that 070 Shake's "performance is unexpectedly magnetic." Carrie Battan from The New Yorker named the track as the best song, pointing out its elements of soul and pop punk, though viewed the track as "the finest example of hip-hop's current fascination with rock music" and praised the outro by 070 Shake for showing that her "androgynous, pubescent voice is used to create a bridge between the joyous and the morbid." Outside of "I Thought About Killing You" and "Yikes", The Independent's Christopher Hooton billed the track as the album's "only other remotely good song." Hooton continued, viewing it as being salvaged by 070 Shake "with a stunning, anthemic and sincere vocal over a crunchy guitar riff." Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone complemented the song for being the only track on Ye that "stands on its own" and also directed praise towards 070 Shake's vocals, though concluded by writing that the song has "genuine heart – enough heart to make you wish Kanye could find a way out of his current creative trap." Douglas Greenwood from NME described the song as the album's "penultimate and perhaps strongest track" and argued that it "owes a great deal to its euphoric, rocky outro" from 070 Shake, with him viewing the outro as "a moment of real clarity on a record that's immediately impactful." Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Alex Suskind highlighted the song as one of Ye's "few bright spots," commenting that it "resembles My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy opus 'Runaway'" and Suskind directed praise towards the lyrical content. Adam Rothbarth of Tiny Mix Tapes commented with praise for Kid Cudi's "purposely gnarly" refrain, West's "elegant vocal performance" and the production of the song. However, Rothbarth opined that the production "sets the perfect foundation for 070 Shake's cyclical" outro and cited the outro as one of the highlights of Ye.
Clayton Purdom from The A.V. Club stated that "Ghost Town" "holds up the entire album" and labeled the song as "a staggeringly dense sound collage that sounds like a wide-open Wyoming night sky coming alive with dreamy laser blasts." The Irish Times' Ed Power referred to the song as "gorgeous and uncomplicated." Trent Clark from HipHopDX pointed towards the "passionate cameo" from 070 Shake on the song as what "unveils a star-in-the-making." Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that it shows "West telegraphing his vulnerability through shaky singing," despite concluding that 070 Shake "walks away with the song." AllMusic writer Neil Z. Yeung asserted that the song shines as one of the album's "moments of clarity" and commended the lyrical content. For the Los Angeles Times, Mikael Wood viewed West and 070 Shake's singing as "just astounding" and cited the latter's outro as "a star-making cameo," while also noting the clarity displayed by 070 Shake. Zachary Hoskins was less enthusiastic in Slant Magazine, dismissing West's verse despite naming the song as the most polished track on Ye and positively writing of the guitar, as well as Kid Cudi's vocals. In a negative review for The Line of Best Fit, Ross Horton panned the singing on the song and called it "the kind of thing that you once could, objectively, understand to be joke," with the loudness of the vocals receiving criticism from him. Similarly, Steve 'Flash' Juon of RapReviews complained that having to listen to West's singing on the song makes him "just like 'Whyyyyyyy?'" Juon insisted that his opinion of West lacking in singing ability bared no relevance to any dislike towards him, as Juon admitted that Chris Brown can sing despite not liking him either.
## Accolades
Vulture named "Ghost Town" as one of the best new songs for the week of June 7, 2018. Hunter Harris of the site labelled the track as "a mediocre album's best offering," though directed praise towards 070 Shake's outro. It was listed as one of the best songs from the first half of the year by Junkee, with Lauren Ziegler calling the track "a therapy session." Refinery29 named it to their list of 2018's best summer songs, published in June of that year. On uDiscoverMusic's November 2019 list of West's best samples, the Royal Jesters sample on the track was ranked 20th. For the website, Paul Bowler wrote that the sample is where West "returns to the soulful grooves with which he made his name" and viewed it as "powering" West's performance on "Ghost Town".
The track appeared on year-end lists by multiple publications, including being listed as the fifth best song of 2018 by Consequence of Sound. Matt Melis of the publication complimented it as the "very best" of West's 2018 and Melis described the track as where West is "backed by a killer, old-school sample; surrounded by friends; and delivering a liberating, back-to-basics message." Joe ranked "Ghost Town" at the same position on their list, with Dave Hanratty calling it "an exceptional song that hit the heavens with power and grace." The track was named by The Daily Beast as the seventh best song of 2018 and Marlow Stern called it West's most impressive work from that year, while he praised 070 Shake's outro that accordingly "soars to the stratosphere."
## Commercial performance
Following the release of Ye, "Ghost Town" debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 16, standing as the highest charting non-single from the album. The song entered the US Streaming Songs chart at number eight, with 29.7 million streams. On the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, it opened at number 11. By debuting at number two on the US Hot R&B Songs chart, the song stood as the only track from the album to enter to chart. The next week, following the release of Kids See Ghosts, the song descended 44 places to number 60 on the Hot 100, though was two places higher on the chart than "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" that week. The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 1,000,000 certified units in the United States on September 23, 2020. For 2018, "Ghost Town" ranked at number 42 on the year-end US Hot R&B Songs chart.
The track performed best in New Zealand, peaking at number 14 on the NZ Singles Chart. Similarly, the track debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 17, giving West his third top 40 entry on the chart issue that fell on the date of his 41st birthday. The track reached number 21 on the Canadian Hot 100. On the ARIA Singles Chart, it debuted at number 22 and came close to giving West his third top 20 entry for that week. The track also reached the top 30 in Slovakia, Greece, Ireland and Portugal. In Estonia, the song entered at number 37 on the Singlid tipp-40. The following week, it rose five places to number 32 on the chart. The track experienced lesser performance in the Czech Republic, reaching number 42 on the country's Singles Digitál Top 100 chart.
## Live performances
070 Shake performed solely her part on the song live on June 22, 2018 for her set at Ladyland Fest in Brooklyn. The performance generated a positive reaction from the crowd and they were able to recall the words to 070 Shake's part, though it marked the first time that any portion of the song had been performed live. On August 16, 2018, West and Kid Cudi delivered a performance of a rendition of it live at a surprise show in the Los Angeles nightclub Los Candiles, as part of a private party in celebration of West's Yeezy Season 4 collaborator Willo Perron. A small room was covered in red light for the performance and the crowd joined in when the rappers shouted lyrics from the song, while this marked the first time that West had performed it live. The track was performed live by West, Kid Cudi and 070 Shake on the outro of the 44th season premier of Saturday Night Live (SNL) in September 2018, with them being accompanied by a backing band. However, the performance was cut off around the time that 070 Shake began to deliver her part of it and the song was followed by a speech from West about his support of the US president Donald Trump. Prior to West's appearance, SNL creator Lorne Michaels revealed in an interview on the Origins With James Andrew Miller podcast that West was booked for the show when he stepped up after singer Ariana Grande dropped out. For West and Kid Cudi's first performance billed as Kids See Ghosts, the duo performed the song live as the closer to their set at the 2018 Camp Flog Gnaw Carnival.
West was joined by Kid Cudi and 070 Shake when leading his gospel group the Sunday Service Choir through a rendition of it at their first concert on January 7, 2019. Later that month, the Sunday Service Choir collaborated with West for a rendition of the song as part of a concert from the group. The performance began once West got up off a stool 36 minutes in to the concert, with the rendition including an extended outro that saw him deliver a sermon. During the sermon, West said "Don't it feel to know you can never be canceled. They say, 'You can't do this. You can't do that, you'll lose your career,' but I'm still here." Kid Cudi brought out West as a surprise during the start of his weekend two set at the 2019 Coachella Music Festival, where the two performed a rendition of "Ghost Town".
## Appearances in media
Following the release of Ye, the song became a popular topic with fans of West across Twitter. Avenged Sevenfold member M. Shadows' published a list of his favourite tracks from 2018, which included "Ghost Town" on it. At a fashion show of Virgil Abloh during 2018 Paris Fashion Week, Canadian instrumental music group BadBadNotGood performed a cover version of the song. During the show, West and Kid Cudi were both in attendance. The laser sounds from the song resurfaced on singer Teyana Taylor's track "Issues/Hold On", which was produced by West and released on K.T.S.E. in June 2018. The song was covered by English soul musical collective Jungle on September 12, 2018, during a BBC Radio 1 Session.
## Sequel
On June 8, 2018, the sequel to "Ghost Town", "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)", was released as the fourth track on Kids See Ghosts. Originally, the prequel was slated for release on it from this position, while the sequel had not been slated for inclusion initially. Prior to the album's release, Revolt TV writer Ralph Bristout stated that the song managed to "set up the excitement for" it. The titles of the album and the sequel, respectively, are part of a "spooky-ghost routine." The routine is continued from "Ghost Town" being titled as such, while Kids See Ghosts track "4th Dimension" is also linked to the song, since they both sample Ann Lee's "Someday". Kids See Ghosts are the lead performers of the sequel, differing from the prequel, on which Kid Cudi is an additional vocalist and West is the lead performer. The sequel includes vocals from American musician Ty Dolla Sign. The song also interpolates lyrics from the prequel.
The song was less successful than the prequel on the Hot 100, debuting at number 62 on the chart. During Kid Cudi's appearance at Coachella 2019, he brought out West as a surprise. The two of them performed "Ghost Town" and the song, alongside other collaborations. The staff of NME reassembled Ye and Kids See Ghosts for an edited album entitled Ye Sees Ghosts, featuring the prequel leading into the sequel.
## Credits and personnel
Recording
- Recorded at West Lake Ranch, Jackson Hole, Wyoming
Personnel
- Kanye West – production, songwriter
- Mike Dean – co-production, songwriter, engineering, mixing
- Noah Goldstein – additional production, songwriter, recording engineering
- Francis and the Lights – additional production
- Benny Blanco – additional production
- 070 Shake – songwriter, vocals
- PartyNextDoor – songwriter, vocals
- Carole Bayer Sager – songwriter
- Carmen Reece – songwriter
- Cydel Young – songwriter
- Dexter Mills – songwriter
- Francis Starlite – songwriter
- Jordan Thorpe – songwriter
- Kenneth Pershon – songwriter
- Malik Yusef – songwriter
- Shirley Ann Lee – songwriter
- Terrence Boykin – songwriter
- Trade Martin – songwriter
- Mike Malchicoff – engineering
- Zack Djurich – engineering
- Mauricio Iragorri – recording engineering
- Jess Jackson – mixing
- Kid Cudi – vocals
Credits adapted from Tidal.
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## See also
- 2018 in hip hop music
|
33,369,735 |
El Camino (The Black Keys album)
| 1,151,595,506 | null |
[
"2011 albums",
"Albums produced by Danger Mouse (musician)",
"Grammy Award for Best Rock Album",
"Nonesuch Records albums",
"The Black Keys albums"
] |
El Camino is the seventh studio album by American rock duo the Black Keys. It was co-produced by Danger Mouse and the group, and was released on Nonesuch Records on December 6, 2011. The record was the band's follow-up to their commercial breakthrough, Brothers (2010), and was their third collaboration with Danger Mouse. El Camino draws from popular genres of the 1950s to 1970s, such as rock and roll, glam rock, rockabilly, surf rock and soul. Danger Mouse contributed as a co-writer on each of the 11 songs alongside guitarist Dan Auerbach and drummer Patrick Carney.
The album was recorded from March to May 2011 in Nashville, Tennessee, at Easy Eye Sound Studio, which Auerbach opened the year prior. The band approached writing and recording differently than on previous albums, as they entered the studio without having written any material and deliberated longer on how to structure songs. After struggling to translate the slower songs from Brothers to a live setting, the band wrote more uptempo, hook-laden tracks for El Camino. The album's cover art depicts a minivan similar to one the group toured in early in their career, but in an inside joke, they named the record after the El Camino muscle car. A faux newspaper advertisement and parody car commercial playing on this joke were used to promote the record prior to release.
Lead single "Lonely Boy" became the group's highest-charting single in several countries, including the United States, Australia, and Canada. The album received positive reviews from critics and was ranked by many publications as one of the year's best albums. It debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 and reached the top five of the album charts in Australia, Canada, Belgium (Flanders), and New Zealand. The album was certified multi-platinum in the US, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, as well as platinum in the United Kingdom, France, and Ireland. The Black Keys supported the album with the El Camino Tour, their first headlining arena tour. Four additional singles were released, including "Gold on the Ceiling" and "Little Black Submarines", which were rock radio successes. El Camino won the award for Best Rock Album at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, while "Lonely Boy" received honors for Best Rock Performance and Best Rock Song.
## Background
From 2001 to 2009, the Black Keys experienced underground success, but after the release of their critically acclaimed sixth studio album, Brothers, the group achieved a commercial breakthrough. The single "Tighten Up" was a sleeper hit on radio, eventually spending 10 weeks at number one on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart in the United States and becoming their first song to enter the Billboard Hot 100. The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart and sold 1.5 million copies worldwide, including 870,000 copies in the US. The band also gained additional exposure by continuing to license their songs in popular media, making them Warner Bros. Records' most-licensed band of the year. At the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards in February 2011, the band won awards for Best Alternative Music Album (for Brothers) and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal (for "Tighten Up").
The band's sudden success proved overwhelming, as they found themselves booking additional promotional commitments and facing demand for additional touring dates. In January 2011, the group canceled concerts in Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, citing exhaustion, thus clearing out most of their touring schedule into April. Drummer Patrick Carney said, "We've been touring long enough to know when we're about to hit our breaking point." The desire to record another album soon after Brothers also led to the decision. Carney said, "We could have waited another year or so, and milked the Brothers album and kept touring, but we like bands, and our favourite bands growing up and even today, are bands that put out a lot of music and every album is different from the last."
## Recording
El Camino was recorded in Nashville, Tennessee, at Easy Eye Sound Studio, which was opened by guitarist/vocalist Dan Auerbach in mid-2010 after he relocated from the group's long-time hometown of Akron, Ohio. Carney spoke of how the success of Brothers impacted the follow-up record: "For me, there were physical jitters about everything that was going on. Seeing how big the shows were getting, feeling like people were paying attention, kind of made me anxious, and I think that's part of the reason [El Camino's] songs are so fast. I think we wanted to just muscle through it." Despite the growing expectations of the band, Carney said that the El Camino recording sessions were much more relaxed than those for Brothers, during which he had been dealing with his divorce.
The band hired Danger Mouse to co-produce the record with them, based on their experience with him producing their 2008 album Attack & Release and the single "Tighten Up". Danger Mouse served as co-writer for all of the songs on El Camino. Speaking of their willingness to involve him in the songwriting process, Carney said, "It took us a long time to be able to trust somebody like that, and not be arrogant little kids about it." Auerbach said, "It was difficult at times. Some days it worked great. Some days it was just infuriating. You gotta lose any kind of insecurity. It was a totally different way of thinking for me."
Recording for El Camino began on March 3, 2011. In contrast to their previous records, the Black Keys entered the studio for their new album without having developed any new material, with the exception of the lyrics to "Little Black Submarines", which Auerbach and Danger Mouse had pre-written. Each day, the band began from scratch and in Auerbach's words, "brainstormed until we had songs and we did a song every two days or so". The material was then refined over several days, and after arrangements were agreed upon, the group quickly finished recording the songs, often in just one or two takes. Each song was recorded in a live take of guitar and drums before overdubs were added. This was done to give the music what Auerbach called "that human element, that live feel". Similarly, the group eschewed playing to a click track, despite a tendency to speed up during choruses, to keep a natural feel in the performance. "Dead and Gone" was the first song to be completed.
The band recorded using a Quad-8 mixing console that was first installed in Nashville's Creative Workshop studio in 1969 and later bought by Auerbach from a man in North Carolina. During the sessions, the band listened to playback of their progress on a speaker they purchased from Muscle Shoals Sound Studio after the last day of recording Brothers. Guitar and drums tracks were recorded in the studio's "live room", while vocals were recorded in the control room. The studio's bathrooms served as an echo chamber for recording vocals and handclaps.
For the first time, the band deliberated over the musical details of each song. Auerbach said, "we were getting into the nuances of each song by asking ourselves, 'How long should this intro be? How long should the pre-chorus be? Should there even be a pre-chorus?' We were playing with tempos and BPMs, seeing how a vocal hook does or doesn't work at a faster speed. And usually, we went with the faster option." Differing from the band's lyrics-first approach on Brothers, the lyrics for El Camino were written after the music, often being improvised at the microphone. Explaining their focus on melody, Auerbach said, "the words had to fit in this pre-existing space. It was really confining and totally different from anything I'd done before."
The sessions for El Camino lasted through May 26, 2011, and overall, the band spent 41 days recording, the longest time spent on any of their albums. Mixing and mastering were completed in mid-June.
## Composition
El Camino follows the Black Keys' garage rock style but places less emphasis on blues than the group's previous records. The album instead draws more influence from other popular genres from the 1950s to the 1970s, including rock and roll, glam rock, rockabilly, surf rock and soul. Carney explained the album's direction, "After the first three or four songs were recorded, it kind of became apparent that they're all rooted in this early rock and roll feel. It was around that time that we decided to make a whole album that was built around that." The band cited several older musical acts as musical influences on the album, including the Clash, the Cramps, T. Rex, Johnny Burnette, Ramones, the Beatles, Sweet, and the Cars. Following the sonic expansion on their previous two albums, Attack & Release and Brothers, for El Camino they sought to strip-down their sound by writing an album of "efficient rock-and-roll songs and minimal instrumentation".
In contrast to some of the slower, quieter tracks from Brothers, the songs on El Camino are more uptempo and employ more hooks and guitar riffs. During the tour for Brothers, the Black Keys realized that many of that album's songs were too slow to effectively translate to a live setting, leading them to write more fast-paced material for El Camino. Carney said, "This record stemmed from that, the fact that it's easier for our songs to come across well live if they are fast. So we were just trying to make a guitar rock album that was more upbeat than anything we've ever recorded." Realizing halfway through the recording sessions that all the songs they had written to that point were uptempo, the group decided to maintain the faster pace as a common thread throughout the album.
## Packaging and title
The album was named after the Chevrolet El Camino, a coupé utility car. The inspiration came from the band sighting an El Camino while on tour in Canada in 2010; Carney admitted that the title was selected "as a joke". "El camino" is Spanish for "the road" or "the path". The band found out the phrase's meaning after selecting it as an album title, and they joked about the record taking on deeper meaning afterwards. Andy Gill of The Independent said of the title, "it's a nod to the pilgrimage of dues-paying, the months of one-night-stands in tiny Midwest towns which hone raw talent into rock'n'roll gold." Michael Carney, the duo's art director and Patrick's brother, was initially hesitant about the title. Patrick recounted the conversation with his brother about selecting the title and artwork:
> I told my brother the idea and my brother was like, "You know, if you name the record El Camino, everybody's going to think of the car the El Camino." And I was like, "Yeah exactly. That's the fucking point!" And he was like, "OK, but why don't we just put a car on the cover that's not an El Camino?" And I said, "OK, what kind of car?" He says, "Just put the first car you guys ever toured in on the cover."
The vehicle in the cover image is a Plymouth Grand Voyager similar to the navy blue one that the group toured in for the first year and a half of their career. Commenting on the puzzled reaction the group received to putting an image of a used van on the cover of an album named for a muscle car, Michael said, "That's the reaction we were going for. It didn't work in Europe because they don't know what an El Camino is over there, so it made perfect sense to them." Patrick compared the appearance of Akron to the cover image, calling his hometown "A busted up parking lot with a busted up car." The interior sleeve booklet for the album features images of various vans from Akron, Ohio, including those produced under the brands Ford, Chevrolet, Chrysler, and Dodge. Each copy of the album bears a sticker on the exterior that says "Play loud".
## Release
### Promotion
Prior to the release of El Camino, promotional copies were limited to a small pressing of just 50, given mostly to music labels and the Black Keys' manager. Preview listens for journalists were strictly controlled to only one-time listens and they were held within the duo's manager's office, an uncommon practice within the music industry. The group opted to not put the record on music streaming services, citing financial reasons. Patrick Carney said that streaming services are not yet "at a point where you're able to replace royalties from record sales with the royalties from streams. For a band that makes a living selling music, it's not at a point where it's feasible for us." As is common practice for the band, several songs from the album were licensed for use in popular media, including ESPN's Band of the Month for December, Lifetime's TV drama Army Wives, and the video game MLB 12: The Show. The group noted though that they were planning to reduce the amount of licensing in comparison to previous records to avoid overexposure. Carney said, "When no one's buying your records, it's easy to justify selling a song. But once you start selling records, you can't really justify having two songs in Cadillac commercials. It looks greedy."
According to Michael Carney, the promotional strategy for the album embraces "the spirit of doing it the wrong way". Warner Bros. Records COO Livia Tortella elaborated that "They've latched onto that idea at a time when the real spirit of alternative has, in many ways, gone away from our music. The spirit of rock should be that: outside of the norm, not just mainstream and predictable." The music video originally shot for their lead single "Lonely Boy" employed a big budget and several people, but the band decided instead to release a one-shot video consisting solely of footage of an extra–actor and part-time security guard Derrick Tuggle–dancing. The video went viral, garnering more than 400,000 views on YouTube in 24 hours. On October 9, 2011, the band placed an ad in the Akron Beacon Journal advertising their used tour van as a "1994 El Camino" for sale. The ad read, "1994 El Camino: 273,000 mi. 200 cubic-in. 3.3L 95hp V-6 engine, 3-speed turbo autom shift, sapphire stylus, some ticks/pops, light surface noise. Working AM/FM radio, tan metalflake/woodie panels, some rust. Black vinyl seats. Priced to sell – Grab the Keys and go! Contact Pat or Dan at (330) 510–1206." The phone number in the ad led to a recorded message of Patrick Carney describing the car and asking for the caller to leave a message. The band launched the promotional website WannaBuyAVan.com with a video parodying a low-budget used car commercial for the same van. Actor/comedian Bob Odenkirk plays the salesman in the video trying to pass off the van as an El Camino.
The album's release date of December 6, 2011, contrasts with the conventional record release strategy within the music industry. Carney said, "There's a rule you release albums in February–March, then you tour the summer. Then there's the September–October schedule. Our new album is out on December 6. I asked the label for a list of major rock bands that had released albums in December. In the last 10 years there's maybe four. But our manager said it's a shame more bands don't, 'cos it would force the industry not to shut down." The group had intended to release El Camino in September but decided to push it until December to allow for a three-month break. Ultimately, they booked this free time up with additional concerts and a promotional tour.
A week prior to the release date, the duo decided to stream five tracks from El Camino on their website after the album leaked online. The Black Keys appeared as the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on December 3, 2011, for the second time that year, and they performed "Lonely Boy" and "Gold on the Ceiling". Two days later, the group held an album release concert at Webster Hall in New York City that was streamed live on MTVHive.com. The group made several appearances on late-night talk shows, including Late Show with David Letterman and The Colbert Report, as well as at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards. The group was the subject of a cover story in Rolling Stone for their issue dated January 19, 2012; in a widely publicized quote, Carney criticized Canadian rock band Nickelback, saying that "rock and roll is dying because people became OK with Nickelback being the biggest band in the world".
### Singles
"Lonely Boy" was released as the album's lead single on October 26, 2011, and became one of the group's most successful singles. It topped several rock radio charts, including the Alternative Songs and Rock Songs charts in the US, and the Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts in Canada. On the singles charts, "Lonely Boy" was the group's highest-charting song in several countries, peaking at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 2 on the Australian Singles Chart, and number 33 on the Canadian Hot 100. "Lonely Boy" was certified nine-times platinum in Canada, triple-platinum in Australia, platinum in New Zealand, and gold in Denmark. "Gold on the Ceiling" was released as the album's second single, and like its predecessor, it topped the US Alternative Songs chart and the Canadian Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts. On the singles charts, the song reached number 94 on the Hot 100, number 34 on the Australian Singles Chart, and number 51 on the Canadian Hot 100. The song was certified platinum in Australia and Canada. "Dead and Gone" was released as a third single in Europe, while "Run Right Back" was released as a fourth single in the United Kingdom. "Little Black Submarines" was released as the record's fifth single on October 8, 2012, and was a rock radio success; it peaked at number two on the US Alternative Songs chart and the Canadian Alternative Rock and Active Rock charts, as well as number 54 on the Canadian Hot 100.
### 10th anniversary edition
On November 5, 2021, a 10th anniversary edition of El Camino was released. It includes a remastered copy of album and four bonus CDs with live performances. Discs 2 and 3 are from a concert in Portland, Maine, and Disc 4 is from a BBC recording session. Disc 5 contains an Electro Vox session, but it is not included in the CD or vinyl release, only digital download copies from the label's website.
## Reception
### Critical reaction
El Camino received acclaim from music critics. According to review aggregator website Metacritic, the album received an average review score of 84/100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "Universal acclaim". Critics mainly praised the instrumentation of the songs on the album, as well as the album production. Spin gave the record an 8/10 rating, calling it "irresistibly gaudy" and "catchier, glitzier, ballsier". The reviewer said the songs contain "classic cock-rock sonic tchotchkes: handclaps, talk-box guitar breaks, rainbow keyboards. The overall effect is something akin to ZZ Top with glitter in their beards." Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the record an "A−", writing that the group "make a small-room racket that sounds massive enough for a bigger-is-better world". Maerz said that "El Camino trades the soulful stylings of Brothers for harder-driving, faster-riffing rock & roll". James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph rated the album four-stars-out-of-five, praising Danger Mouse for "sharpen[ing] up the sweet, melodic choruses that offset the duo's unholy racket" and give each song a "timeless quality, as suited to a Seventies mid-west saloon as a students' indie disco". Despite what Lachno judged to be "tawdry" lyrics, he said that "the Black Keys are here to rock, not talk. On this evidence, few bands right now do it better." Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times assigned the album a maximum four-star rating, calling it "butt-shaking music" and "an album with lyrics that are both unpretentious and un-dumb". Roberts praised the nostalgic elements of the group's music and said that the album "scratches an itch you didn't even know you had".
Michael Hann of The Guardian gave the record a maximum rating of five stars, writing that it is "dripping with an easy, attractive confidence". Commenting on the various musical influences on the album, Hann said, "they stride fearlessly into areas that might once have been off-limits". His review concluded, "They sound like a band who think they've made the year's best rock'n'roll album, probably because that's exactly what they've done." Rob Harvilla of Pitchfork scored El Camino a 7.4/10 and called it "their best and (not coincidentally) goofiest album". Describing the music, he said, "The riffs are glam-nasty, the lyrics sublimely knuckleheaded, the basslines nimble and bombastic, the mood frivolous and fun and unabashedly corny." Will Hermes of Rolling Stone rated the album four stars and called it their "grandest pop gesture yet, augmenting dark-hearted fuzz blasts with sleekly sexy choruses and Seventies-glam flair". AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine rated the album four stars and said, "More than any other Black Keys album, El Camino is an outright party, playing like a collection of 11 lost 45 singles, each one having a bigger beat or dirtier hook than the previous side." Kitty Empire of The Observer was more critical of the album; in a three-star review, Empire commented that it sounded like Danger Mouse "tightened up the Black Keys' act rather than loosened it" and that "El Camino may be fast and fun, but it is also somewhat undemanding." The reviewer noted that the album had "increased vigour", but that it came at the expense of "the subtleties that made Brothers such an intriguing ride."
### Commercial performance
In the US, El Camino debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and sold 206,000 copies in its first week on sale. This marks the highest single-week album sales and, to that point, charting position that the group had achieved in the country. In Canada, the album debuted at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart and sold 27,000 copies in its first week. In its first two weeks on sale, El Camino sold nearly 293,000 copies in the US. The album has been certified: triple-platinum in Canada; double-platinum in Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S.; platinum in the United Kingdom, France, and Ireland; and gold in Belgium and the Netherlands. As of April 2014, the album has sold 1.4 million copies in the United States.
### Accolades
El Camino appeared on several end-of-year rankings by music publications and critics. The album was ranked by Mojo as the sixth-best album of 2012, even though it was released in 2011. American Songwriter ranked it as the ninth-best album of 2011, while Rolling Stone ranked it as the 12th-best. The album placed 21st on the "Best Albums" list from The Village Voice's 2011 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. Paste ranked the record as the 22nd-best of the year before it had been released. Spin placed it at number 36 on its list of the 50 best albums of the year, writing, "Glam-blooze guitar, poppy melodies, and hockey-rink keyboards fit the Keys like vintage denim." Claire Suddath of Time magazine and Andrew Leahey of The Washington Times both named El Camino one of the Top 10 Albums of 2011, while the staff of AllMusic selected the album as one of their favorites of the year. In end-of-year polls, writers for Rolling Stone selected "Little Black Submarines" as the 18th-best song of 2011, while the publication's readers voted "Lonely Boy" the year's third-best song.
At the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, The Black Keys won the award for Best Rock Album for El Camino, and Best Rock Performance and Best Rock Song for "Lonely Boy". Auerbach was honored as Producer of the Year, Non-Classical for co-producing El Camino and producing records by Hacienda and Dr. John. The Black Keys also received nominations for Album of the Year for El Camino and Record of the Year for "Lonely Boy".
## Tour
In December 2011, The Black Keys announced a 2012 concert tour, their first playing arenas as a headlining act. The tour opened in Europe on January 23, 2012, with three weeks of shows, before visiting North America from March to May. The tour made multiple return visits to Europe and North America throughout the year, while also visiting Australasia from October through November. In total, the group played 112 shows in 2012. Among the support acts that accompanied the band were Band of Skulls, Arctic Monkeys, and Tegan and Sara. After tickets went on sale, The Black Keys' concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City sold out in 15 minutes, resulting in the addition of a second date at the venue to satisfy demand. The tour grossed \$12.7 million in 2012, and after 129 shows, it ended on July 13, 2013.
Just as it did on its previous tour, the group added bassist Gus Seyffert and keyboardist/guitarist John Wood as touring musicians in order to perform songs as close to their studio arrangements as possible. Auerbach explained the decision for the expanded live band: "It wasn't about the size of the venue. It was just that we could afford to do it and our songs deserved it. We wanted to finally present the songs like we'd written them." During the middle portion of each concert, Auerbach and Carney played older material as a duo without the backing musicians. Many critics singled these performances out as the shows' highlights.
The concert stage used a setup with a lighting system and video projections designed by Karl Lemieux. The lighting comprised four banks of on-stage vintage spotlights, along with two disco balls and a lighted sign bearing the band's name that were lowered for the encores. Lemieux's video, which was projected onto a white sheet at the stage's rear, incorporated black-and-white footage of junkyards, deserts, and open highways. Carney explained that the band was aiming for a retro aesthetic, saying, "We kind of wanted to make the whole stage look like an old-school rock 'n' roll show, as much as possible. We're referencing bands in the '70s, what they were doing when they were playing arenas." Moreover, the footage was meant to pay homage to the group's origins. Auerbach said, "We wanted it to represent our music and the Midwest where we're from, the Rust Belt and open spaces. We find that stuff beautiful and uplifting."
## Track listing
## Personnel
The Black Keys
- Dan Auerbach – vocals, guitars
- Patrick Carney – drums
Additional performers
- Danger Mouse – keyboards
- Leisa Hans – vocals
- Heather Rigdon – vocals
- Ashley Wilcoxson – vocals
Production
- Danger Mouse (Brian Burton) – production
- The Black Keys – production
- Kennie Takahashi – engineering
- Collin Dupuis – engineering assistance
- Tchad Blake – mixing
- Tom Elmhirst – mixing for "Lonely Boy"
- Ben Baptie – mixing assistance for "Lonely Boy"
- Brian Lucey – mastering
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end charts
## Certifications
|
22,188,937 |
Peasants' revolt in Palestine
| 1,168,914,770 |
1834 rebellion in Palestine
|
[
"1834 in Ottoman Syria",
"19th-century rebellions",
"Abu Ghosh",
"August 1834 events",
"Conflicts in 1834",
"July 1834 events",
"June 1834 events",
"May 1834 events",
"Ottoman Palestine",
"Peasants' revolt in Palestine",
"Rebellions in Asia",
"Rebellions in Ottoman Syria"
] |
The Peasants' Revolt was a rebellion against Egyptian conscription and taxation policies in Palestine. While rebel ranks consisted mostly of the local peasantry, urban notables and Bedouin tribes also formed an integral part of the revolt, which was a collective reaction to Egypt's gradual elimination of the unofficial rights and privileges previously enjoyed by the various classes of society in the Levant under Ottoman rule.
As part of Muhammad Ali's modernization policies, Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian governor of the Levant, issued conscription orders for a fifth of all Muslim males of fighting age. Encouraged by rural sheikh Qasim al-Ahmad, the urban notables of Nablus, Hebron and the Jerusalem-Jaffa area did not carry out Ibrahim Pasha's orders to conscript, disarm and tax the local peasantry. The religious notables of Safad followed suit. Qasim and other local leaders rallied their kinsmen and revolted against the authorities in May 1834, taking control of several towns. While the core of the fighting was in the central mountain regions of Palestine, the revolt also spread to the Galilee, Gaza and parts of Transjordan. Jerusalem was briefly captured by the rebels and plundered. Faced with the superior firepower and organization of Ibrahim Pasha's troops, the rebels were defeated in Jabal Nablus, Jerusalem and the coastal plain before their final defeat in Hebron, which was leveled. Afterward, Ibrahim Pasha's troops pursued and captured Qasim in al-Karak, which was also leveled.
By the 20th century, the revolt was largely absent in the Palestinian collective memory, from which "the humiliating and traumatic events" were "conveniently erased", according to Israeli historian Baruch Kimmerling. Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal state that the revolt was a formative event for the Palestinian sense of nationhood in that it brought together disparate groups against a common enemy. Moreover, they asserted that these groups reemerged later to constitute the Palestinian people. The revolt represented a moment of political unity in Palestine. The goal of the rebels was to expel the Egyptian army and reinstate Ottoman rule to restore the Ottoman standards that defined the relationship between the government and the governed. These standards were made up of the religious laws, administrative codes and local norms and traditions that were disrupted by Egyptian reforms.
## Background
In consolidating his power, Muhammad Ali, the rebel governor of Ottoman Egypt, was modeling his rule on the bureaucratic organization characteristic of modern European states. Like earlier rulers of Egypt, Muhammad Ali sought to extend his control over greater Syria (the Levant) for its strategic value and natural resources. Syria also had a prospering international trading community with well-developed markets. In Muhammad Ali's strategy, Syria would serve as a captive market for goods being produced in Egypt. Moreover, Syria could serve as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. Muhammad Ali was attempting to become independent of the Ottoman Empire.
A new fleet and army was raised under Muhammad Ali, and on 31 October 1831, his son Ibrahim Pasha invaded Syria, initiating the First Egyptian–Ottoman War. The pretext for the expedition was Muhammad Ali's quarrel with Abdullah Pasha, the governor of Acre. Muhammad Ali alleged that 6,000 fellahin (peasants or farm laborers) had fled to Acre to escape the Egyptian draft, corvée, and taxes, and he demanded their return. Ibrahim Pasha advanced through Palestine, occupied Haifa in December 1831, and made the city his primary military base.
Egyptian economic and political policies alienated four broad and influential factions in Palestine, namely the effendiyat (notables) of Jerusalem, the bulk of the major clans in Jabal Nablus, the clans of the Jerusalem hinterland, and the Bedouin tribes in the areas of Hebron and Bethlehem.
In late 1832, Qasim al-Ahmad, leader of the Qasim clan and the chief of the nahiya (subdistrict) of Jamma'in in Jabal Nablus was dismissed by Ibrahim Pasha from his additional post of mutassalim (administrator) of Jerusalem after having served a few months in that office. The official reasoning for Qasim's dismissal was his "advanced age". He was replaced by his son Muhammad al-Qasim, who was consequently removed from the more powerful post of mutassalim of Nablus. Afterward, Sulayman Abd al-Hadi of the Arraba-based Abd al-Hadi clan, a prominent ally of the Egyptians, was appointed to Muhammad's former post in Nablus. The move was a power-play by Ibrahim Pasha and the Abd al-Hadis, who were quickly gaining prominence in the region; their members had been appointed to head the Sidon Eyalet (which included part of northern Palestine) and a number of its districts. The move provoked the Qasim clan's anger with the Abd al-Hadi family and the Egyptian authorities.
The Abu Ghosh clan, based in the Jerusalem-area village of Qaryat al-Inab, traditionally served as toll collectors for the Jerusalem-Jaffa road, and were increasingly considered by Ibrahim Pasha to be extortionists. They were targeted by the authorities in 1833. The clan's leadership was arrested, including their head sheikh Ibrahim Abu Ghosh, and were temporarily sentenced to forced labor in Acre. Relations between the authorities and the Bedouin tribes of south-central Palestine were also antagonistic. Traditionally, during Ottoman rule, the Bedouin were allowed to collect tribute payments from travelers and the inhabitants of the area in return for services to the state. Ibrahim Pasha saw the Bedouin as raiders who exceeded their privileges and abolished this practice. He also imposed additional conditions on the Bedouin, primarily the requirement of transporting grain for Egyptian troops in return for the right to graze livestock. In 1833, the Dura-based Amr tribe of the Hebron Hills, which was headed by Isa Amr and Abd al-Rahman Amr, was targeted in a military campaign by Ibrahim Pasha. The Abu Ghosh, the Ras Karkar-based Simhan clan, and the Amr tribe were essentially at war with the Egyptians.
The imposition of new taxation categories that were a departure from both secular Ottoman law and the traditionally accepted Islamic law drew local Muslim anger at the authorities. However, the principal point of contention between the authorities and the notables of Jerusalem and Nablus was the conscription order by Ibrahim Pasha on 25 April 1834. That day, Ibrahim Pasha convened with all of the clan leaders from both cities to demand the drafting of one out of every five Muslim men of fighting age. The order would begin with the conscription of 200 men from the town of Jerusalem, a combined 3,500 men from Jerusalem Sanjak and Nablus Sanjak, and 500 men from town of Hebron. According to a chronicled account, during the meeting, Ibrahim Pasha attempted to address the reluctance of the notables in sending their kinsmen and peasants to the army, asking that as Muslims at war with Christian nations, "is it not necessary for us to have a big standing army?" The notables replied in the affirmative, but asserted that their men were already trained in the art of war and like the generations before them, they would "willingly shed blood" for the "fatherland" and "defend their country" from "the enemies of our religion". Ibrahim Pasha countered that their fighters would need to be professionally trained, telling them "War is not the place for a herd of useless men". By May 1834, the only prominent ally of the Egyptians in Palestine was the Abd al-Hadi clan.
## Revolt
### Beginning of revolt
In retaliation for his dismissal and his son's practical demotion, Qasim al-Ahmad organized the a'yan (notables) of Nablus, Hebron and Jerusalem against Ibrahim Pasha. On 19 May 1834, the notables notified Egyptian officials that they were not able to conscript the peasants or collect taxes from them, claiming that the peasantry had taken up arms and fled to the mountains, which were difficult to access. At the time of the notables' stated failure to conscript local peasants, Ibrahim Pasha had been in need of new troops to replenish his army in preparation for further advances against the Ottomans. He considered the notables' position to be treasonous and tantamount to an insurrection.
Following the declaration of the notables, a meeting of local sheikhs (chiefs) from Jabal Nablus was hosted by Qasim in his clan's throne village of Beit Wazan and was attended by Qasim's sons Yusuf and Muhammad, Abdullah al-Jarrar of Sanur, Isa al-Barqawi of Shufa and Nasser al-Mansur al-Hajj Muhammad of Beit Furik. The leaders expressed their frustrations at the close cooperation between the Abd al-Hadi family and the Egyptian government and the meeting concluded with an agreement to oust the Egyptian army from Palestine. Under Qasim's leadership the peasants of Jabal Nablus openly revolted against the authorities. At around the same time, the notables of Safad, the only sanjak (district) in Palestine that was part of the Sidon Eyalet, declared their opposition to Ibrahim Pasha's orders and sent a letter to Qasim affirming their refusal to comply with conscription orders, stating that "the son is the core of the heart, and naturally no one can leave his son without the sacrifice of life itself".
The uprising spread to Jerusalem, Hebron and other mountainous areas in the area roughly corresponding with the present-day West Bank. Although Nablus was the core of the rebels' strength, the first actual clash between the authorities and the rebels occurred in the vicinity of Hebron after a group of Egyptian soldiers were sent by the Egyptian governor of Hebron to enforce the draft orders. Local peasants from the nearby village of Sa'ir and Bedouin fighters from the Bethlehem-based Ta'amirah tribe joined forces and killed some 25 soldiers during the fighting, defeating Ibrahim Pasha's forces in the area. Before this clash, peasants and local Bedouin took up arms against the Egyptian army in al-Salt, the Transjordanian center of the Nablus-based Tuqan family. Following these confrontations, the Egyptian army's Nineteenth Regiment under Mustafa Bey came under rebel assault in the Jezreel Valley en route to the Galilee. About three-quarters of the regiment's roughly 1,200 soldiers were killed or captured, and Mustafa Bey was wounded. With 300 of his soldiers, Mustafa Bey escaped to Haifa and traveled across Haifa Bay to Acre, whose walls were surrounded by rebel forces.
### Rebel capture of Jerusalem
While there are no known records of military planning, in early May the notables of Nablus, Jerusalem and Hebron coordinated an assault against Jerusalem. On 8 May armed peasants from Nablus, Jerusalem, Hebron and Gaza besieged the city and about 10,000 fighters attempted to breach the walls. They were initially repulsed by the Egyptian garrison. An earthquake occurred in the city on 13 May and fighting ceased for several days.
On 19 May, some residents of Jerusalem's Silwan neighborhood informed rebel leaders that they could use a sewer tunnel that ran from the Dung Gate to a mill in the Jewish Quarter, to clandestinely enter Jerusalem. The next day, 36 rebels (peasants and Jerusalemites) under the leadership of Sheikh Subh Shawkah, chief of the Bethlehem-area Fawaghirah tribe, entered the city via the tunnel and then opened the Dung Gate to allow thousands of rebels inside the walled city. The Egyptian commander of the city, Rashad Bey, subsequently withdrew his garrison into Jerusalem's citadel to take up positions against the incoming rebels.
The rebels, who were joined by some of the city's poorer Muslim residents, began to loot the homes of Egyptian officers. In response, some 500 Egyptian troops left the citadel to pursue the rebels, but began to loot homes in the city in revenge before Rashad Bey ordered them to cease. Fifty rebels, sixteen residents and five soldiers were killed in the confrontations of 20 May. The following day, the rebels attacked the city and after a brief counterattack, Rashad Bey and his men returned to the citadel. Afterward, residents sympathetic to the revolt opened the Damascus Gate and 2,000 peasant irregulars from Nablus entered to reinforce the rebels, whose numbers in Jerusalem then reached some 20,000. On that same day, but before the rebels' entry, Rashad Bey's troops had arrested Jerusalem's leading notables, including the mufti (leading Islamic scholar) Tahir Effendi al-Husayni, the leading ashraf (locally honored descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) Umar Effendi al-Husayni, and Muhammad al-Khalidi, and others. When the reinforcements from Nablus arrived, Egyptian troops withdrew further into the citadel, and Jerusalem was all but captured.
The rebels besieged and fired at the citadel and a wave of mass looting followed for the next three days. Virtually every Muslim, Jewish and Christian-owned shop was raided and damaged. Because the Muslim shops were the last to be plundered, their owners were able to salvage most of their valuable merchandise. A Greek monk named Spyridon who resided in the city wrote that once the homes of Egyptian officers were looted, the rebels "began to loot the shops of the Jews, the Christians, the Franks, and then the Muslims. The grocers, the shoemakers and every other dealer suffered alike. Within two or three days there was not one shop intact in the market". Protests by some citizens against the looting went unheeded as they were outnumbered by rebels. After the market areas were plundered, rebels began to loot the homes of Christians, which had been abandoned during the chaos, despite prohibitions by rebel leaders and local sheikhs. The rebel leadership warned that such actions would provoke the protestations of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, who was at war with Muhammad Ali. On 23 May, all state-owned supply warehouses and granaries were looted.
### Battles in Jerusalem and its environs
On 24 May Ibrahim Pasha departed from Jaffa with 9,000 soldiers and began his march toward recapturing Jerusalem. The next day, thousands of rebels left the city to harry Ibrahim Pasha's forces on their route. A trip that would have normally taken five hours lasted two days as rebels attacked Egyptian troops, inflicting some 1,500 casualties, including at least 500 fatalities. When Ibrahim Pasha reached Jerusalem, he did not enter the city immediately and instead stationed his forces at his headquarters in Mount Zion, which overlooked Jerusalem. On 28 May, he offered an amnesty to any rebel who surrendered, but none did. With 3,000 soldiers he personally commanded a pursuit of rebels inside the city, resulting in the deaths of about 300 rebels and the capture of some 500. Most were promptly released, but seventeen were jailed.
On 30 May Ibrahim Pasha re-entered Jerusalem and the next day Egyptian troops attacked Beit Jala, a nearby Christian village. A reported 33 men and women were killed there because of their alleged involvement in the looting of Egyptian property. The purported revenge killings were halted by Ibrahim Pasha, but the residents' livestock was seized. The next day, over 1,000 rebels from the Ta'amirah tribe entered the adjacent town of Bethlehem to protect their families and the Christian inhabitants from potentially experiencing the same fate as Beit Jala. They refrained from directly confronting Ibrahim Pasha, however. Bethlehem's Muslim Quarter was destroyed by the Egyptian army and its inhabitants disarmed. This move was apparently a punishment for the killing of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha. Reverend William McClure Thomson wrote "this terrible vengeance failed to quell the turbulent spirit of the people. They are ever distinguished in the great feasts at Jerusalem by their fierce and lawless manners, and if any row occurs they are sure to have a hand in it." The peasant rebels had frequently requested from the Christians of Bethlehem that they fight alongside them against Ibrahim Pasha's troops. The Christians refused, citing their religious beliefs and political status, and sheltered in the town's monasteries for safety. On 3 June, the rebels decided to attack the monasteries and looted the city. On 4 June rebels launched an attack on Ibrahim Pasha and about 4,000 of his men at Solomon's Pools near al-Khader.
In Jerusalem meanwhile, Rashad Bey and his garrison (numbering 1,500 men) were assaulted by rebel forces. Rashad Bey and 800 Egyptian soldiers were killed, while hundreds more were captured by rebels and taken to Hebron. Ibrahim Pasha had since returned to Mount Zion and the rebels attempted to lay siege against him and his troops.
### Spread of rebellion and truce negotiations
By 8 June, Nablus was in full-scale rebellion as were the coastal towns of Ramla, Lydda, Jaffa and Acre. At around the same time, rebels from the area of Atlit besieged Haifa and Galilee-based rebels captured Safad and Tiberias in the eastern Galilee, while Bedouins participating in the revolt attacked the Egyptian garrison at al-Karak in Transjordan. In the latter confrontation, 200 Egyptian soldiers were killed. In the rebel attack on Safad on 15 June, an unknown number of the city's Jewish inhabitants were killed or raped over a period of 33 days.
When the notables of Jerusalem learned that Muhammad Ali was set to arrive in Palestine with reinforcements, they offered to mediate a truce between the Egyptians and the rebel leaders through the mufti Tahir Effendi al-Husayni, who had since been released. The leader of the rebels in the Hebron Hills, Isa al-Amr, informed al-Husayni of three conditions for a truce to be reached: the pardoning of all rebels, the cancellation of conscription orders in return for the payment of 1,000 qirsh per male, and the abolition of the new taxation category. The terms were rejected by Ibrahim Pasha, but he continued negotiations with al-Husayni through Husayn Abd al-Hadi, the governor of Sidon.
Qasim al-Ahmad, head of the rebels in Jabal Nablus, then requested a pardon from Ibrahim Pasha so that he could negotiate an end to the fighting himself. Ibrahim agreed and with guarantees of safety by al-Husayni and Abd al-Hadi, Qasim met with Ibrahim in late June. The latter admonished Qasim for his betrayal of Muhammad Ali, to which Qasim responded with an apology and an explanation that his hand was forced. By the end of the meeting, the two reconciled and Ibrahim reappointed Qasim as mutassalim of both Nablus and Jerusalem.
However, some time after Ibrahim's summit with Qasim, Muhammad Ali had several prominent Jerusalemite notables, including Tahir Effendi al-Husayni, Umar Effendi al-Husayni, Muhammad Ali al-Husayni, Muhammad Ali al-Khalidi, Sheikh Abdullah Budayri and Muhammad Abul Saud arrested and sentenced to exile in Egypt where they would be incarcerated. Many of the local village headmen in the Jaffa region were executed by Ali for supporting the revolt. Jaffa's urban notables, who also backed the rebels in their earlier attempt to capture Jaffa's fortress, escaped a similar fate by fleeing to the island of Cyprus. A number of major notables from other parts of Palestine were rounded up as well, including the religious leaders Sheikh Abdullah al-Fahum of Nazareth and Sheikh Said al-Sa'di of az-Zeeb. Both were exiled to Egypt. Mas'ud al-Madi, the mutassalim of Jaffa, and his son Isa al-Madi, the mutassalim of Safad, were arrested and executed by beheading for joining the revolt. The Madi family was the most powerful feudal household in the northern coastal region of Palestine at the time of their leaders' executions.
### Defeat of the rebels in Jabal Nablus
Qasim responded to the arrest of the Jerusalemite notables by cancelling his truce with Muhammad Ali and rallying the rebels of Jabal Nablus. He asserted that the truce negotiations had been a ruse to hold off the rebels until the arrival of reinforcements from Egypt. The rebels' strategy in Jabal Nablus was to split their forces (30,000 fighters) into three divisions and fight Ibrahim Pasha's troops on three fronts: Ras al-Ayn, the approaches of the Galilee, and Nablus city. On 24 June Bedouin not directly affiliated to Qasim's irregulars attacked Ibrahim Pasha's camp in Palestine's coastal plain. Four days of battle then followed between the rebels and Ibrahim Pasha's men at Ras al-Ayn, until the fortress in that village was captured by the Egyptians on 28 June.
On 30 June Muhammad Ali landed in Jaffa with 15,000 troops from Egypt and on 2 July he convened with his son Ibrahim Pasha at Ramla, which was captured along with Lydda by Egyptian commander Salim Pasha who led Ali's military convoy. In Ramla, the arrested Jerusalemite notables were assembled. Ali ordered the arrest of rebel leaders Qasim, his sons Yusuf and Muhammad, Abdullah Jarrar and Isa al-Barqawi. Ali then instructed his ally Bashir Shihab II of Mount Lebanon to back Egyptian forces in the Sidon Eyalet. Meanwhile, Sulayman Abd al-Hadi and Ibrahim Abu Ghosh requested the release of Jabr Abu Ghosh from prison. In return for the allegiance of the Abu Ghosh clan, Ali heeded their request, released Jabr and appointed him mutassalim of Jerusalem in place of Muhammad al-Qasim, who had defected to the rebels at the start of the revolt.
Jabr immediately commenced an operation to disarm the people of the Jerusalem region, ordering the execution of anyone found with a weapon. Ali personally ordered the decapitations of the mutasallims of Ramla and Lydda and of the headmen of rebellious villages near Jaffa. Acre was recaptured by the Egyptians and 2,000 of its inhabitants were killed in the process. After receiving personal assurances from Husayn Abd al-Hadi that he would enforce Ibrahim Pasha's rule in Palestine, Ali departed for Egypt on 6 July.
Ibrahim Pasha continued his expedition against the rebels of Jabal Nablus, pursuing them at Zeita. Ninety rebels were slain while the rest fled to Deir al-Ghusun, situated on a hilltop to the east of Zeita. At Deir al-Ghusun, many of the inhabitants and rebels heeded a call by Husayn Abd al-Hadi to flee once the Egyptian troops arrived. In response, Qasim had several of the defectors among his ranks killed. Ibrahim Pasha's troops stormed the hill and the rebels (mostly members of the Qasim, Jarrar, Jayyusi and Barqawi clans) were routed, suffering 300 fatalities. Most of the surviving rebels, including Qasim and his son Yusuf, who were both wounded, fled. Captured rebels of fighting age were sent to Egypt for professional military training, while older rebels had their right hands cut off.
Following the rebels' rout at Deir al-Ghusun on 14 July, Ibrahim Pasha's troops proceeded to Nablus unhindered, passing through Arraba, the loyalist stronghold of the Abd al-Hadi family, and then through Sanur, the throne village of the Jarrar clan. When they entered Nablus on 15 July, no resistance was put up, and shortly afterward, the rest of Jabal Nablus submitted to Muhammad Ali's troops. For the most part, due to the loyalty of the Abd al-Hadi's to Muhammad Ali, and the neutrality of the powerful Nimr clan, the inhabitants of the city of Nablus had not participated in the revolt. From Nablus, Ibrahim Pasha dispatched his troops north to occupy Jenin and Nazareth, before returning to Jerusalem on 20 July with 30,000 new conscripts.
### Rebel surrender in Galilee
When Muhammad Ali was in Palestine, he requested military assistance from Emir Bashir of Mount Lebanon, via an emissary, Emir Bashir's son Amin. In late July, Emir Bashir led his forces toward Galilee, but before advancing further southward, he made a number of proclamations advising that the rebels of Safad surrender. The rebel leadership in Safad agreed to negotiate and sent Sheikh Salih al-Tarshihi as an emissary to Bashir to arrange a meeting. Bashir invited the leaders of Safad to the village of Bint Jbeil where they agreed to surrender and submit to Egyptian authority. Afterward, Bashir arrived in Safad where he arranged for rebel leaders from nearby areas to surrender as well.
### Battle of Hebron
Qasim and some of his men headed south to the Hebron Hills after their defeat in Jabal Nablus. They confronted Ibrahim Pasha's troops at Solomon's Pools, but were defeated after brief clashes. Afterward they fled to the city of Hebron. On 4 August Ibrahim Pasha's troops besieged the city, leveling its fort by cannon fire. The fort was never restored. They then ransacked the city, and decisively defeated Qasim's forces. According to historian Roger Heacock, the rebels and the townspeople "fought bravely and desperately, but they suffered severely from artillery fire."
Mass killings and rapes by the Egyptian troops took place in Hebron. About 500 people were killed, and 750 men were taken as conscripts. Another 120 adolescents were taken by Egyptian officers "to do with as they wanted", according to historian Baruch Kimmerling. According to Joseph Schwarz, a historian and rabbi who wrote A Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine in 1850, most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the nearby hills. Some of the Jewish community stayed behind, and during the general pillage of the town, twelve of them were killed. The majority however, like most of the Jews of Safad and Tiberias, fled to Jerusalem.
### Execution of rebel leadership
Qasim, his sons Yusuf and Muhammad, and Isa al-Barqawi fled Hebron during the fighting and headed east across the Jordan River. They were sheltered in al-Karak by a Bedouin clan affiliated with the Anizzah tribal confederation. Ibrahim Pasha's troops pursued them and laid siege on al-Karak for 17 days. After a hole was blasted into the town's walls in late August, al-Karak was destroyed and the orchards outside the town were uprooted as punitive measures against the residents for hosting Qasim. Fearing further retaliation from Ibrahim Pasha, the Anizzah clan's chief, Duwaikhi al-Samir, handed over the rebel leaders to the Egyptians.
After his capture, Qasim, Arsab al-Kahol, one of Qasim's lieutenants, and al-Barqawi were publicly executed in Damascus. Qasim's sons Yusuf and Muhammad were executed in Acre. His two youngest sons Uthman and Ahmad were exiled to Cairo, Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha also had several other rebellious sheikhs (chiefs) executed in Damascus, including Isa al-Amr of Dura, Ali Rabbah and Abd al-Jabir Barghouti of Bani Zeid, Yusuf Salama of Seluh, Ismail ibn Simhan of Ras Karkar and Ismail Majali of al-Karak. Several other sheikhs were jailed in Acre.
### Aftermath
The 1834 revolt and the immediate aftermath reduced the male population of Palestine by about one-fifth. This decrease is attributed to the large numbers of peasants who were either deported to Egypt to work in manufacturing, drafted into Egypt's military, or abandoned their villages and farms to join the Bedouin nomadic populations. Around 10,000 peasants were deported to Egypt and the general population was disarmed. The conscription orders were extended beyond the Muslim population to the local Christians. Taxes were also extended from landed property to include livestock as well. As Ibrahim consolidated his hold over Palestine and disarmed the population, banditry by local tribesmen and civil strife was largely eliminated.
Abandoned or rebellious villages were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's troops, which prevented their inhabitants from returning. Ibrahim's army razed 16 villages before taking Nablus. He also forced the heads of the Nablus clans to leave for nearby villages. The absence of the traditional local leadership due to exile or execution left Palestine's urban population to be financially exploited by both the government and its local opponents. The imprisoned headmen of villages were replaced by their sons, although Ibrahim Pasha demoted them as nawatir (watchmen) instead of the higher-ranking title of mukhtar. Qasim's son Mahmud replaced him and the popularity of his father among the peasantry compelled the rural chiefs of Jabal Nablus to request from the government that Mahmud replace Sulaiman Abd al-Hadi as mutasallim of Nablus.
Ottoman rule was subsequently reinstated in 1840 after Acre was recaptured with the critical support of the Royal Navy. The peasants who were drafted into Muhammad Ali's army returned to their hometowns following the reassertion of Ottoman rule. Not long after the end of Egyptian rule, the intermittently recurring civil strife between the Qays and Yaman tribo-political factions resumed in parts of central Palestine. Throughout the 1840s until the 1860s, the Ottomans launched their own modernization reforms, known as the Tanzimat, throughout the empire with varying degrees of success. Coinciding with these efforts, the international powers began a tug-of-war of influence in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the country's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through their consular representatives in Jerusalem.
## Combatants and arms
### Rebels
The peasants from the mountainous regions of Palestine and Bedouin (nomadic) warriors constituted the bulk of the rebels' forces. Most adult males among the peasantry owned a rifle (typically of the matchlock variety, ownership of which normally transferred from generation to generation) or less frequently, a pistol. The latter were often used in urban environments where they were more effective. A wide array of melee weapons were also utilized, including scimitars (generally used by Bedouin fighters), daggers, javelins, or different types of clubs (generally used by peasant fighters).
The most active rebel forces hailed from Jabal Nablus. The principal rebel clans were the Qasims of Beit Wazan, the Jayyusi clan of Kur, the Jarrar family of Sanur and the Barqawi family of Shufa. Qasim al-Ahmad led the forces of Jabal Nablus. In the greater Jerusalem region, the main rebel clans were Sam'an of Ras Karkar, Barghouti of Bani Zeid and, until their defection to Ibrahim Pasha, Abu Ghosh of Qaryat al-Inab. They were often supported by Qasim's men. The Bedouin Ta'amirah tribe from the Bethlehem region also played a major role in the fighting around Jerusalem. In the Hebron Hills, the rebels were led by the Amr clan of Dura while further southwest around Gaza, the Bedouin tribes of Jabarat and Awawna fought against the Egyptians and their Bedouin allies. In the north, the rebel forces around Acre and Haifa were commanded by the Madi family, while the Hawwara irregulars of Aqil Agha, who had defected from Ibrahim Pasha's service, and local sheikhs did most of the fighting in the heart of the Galilee, outside of Safad. In Safad itself, fighters were led by a council dominated by the city's religious leadership.
The combat that peasant men had engaged in prior to the revolt was restricted to the vicinity in which they lived. During armed conflicts, they would often fight for a short period before returning to cultivate their lands, which remained their main preoccupation. When their service was needed, they were commanded by a local chief who in turn was subordinate to a regional leader. Most armed conflict revolved around the chiefs' bids for local influence and control or protection of villages from Bedouin plundering. There were also instances where peasant fighters would be assembled to back Ottoman authority in the face of local or external challengers, such as during the 1799 Napoleonic invasion, or against Ottoman authority when it interfered in the unofficial local autonomy that was enjoyed in the mountain regions. In most of the conflicts in which the peasant fighters participated, they fought alongside their kinsmen or neighbors.
### Egyptian Army and allies
The Egyptian Army in Palestine was divided between infantry and cavalry regiments and consisted of thousands of professional soldiers, known as nezzam. During the revolt, this force was buttressed by over 15,000 reinforcements who arrived with Muhammad Ali, bringing the number of Egyptian soldiers in Palestine to well over 20,000. While its army did most of the fighting, Egypt also commissioned or requested the participation of various irregulars. In the southern Gaza region, Egypt dispatched Bedouin from the tribes of Awlad Ali, al-Jamaiyat, al-Jahma, and al-Fawayd to pursue rebels and raid their villages. In the northern Galilee region, towards the end of the revolt, the forces of Emir Bashir were mobilized upon Ibrahim Pasha's request, but their mobilization sufficed in convincing the northern rebels to surrender. Thus, Bashir's Lebanon-based forces saw no combat. Local peasant fighters under Husayn Abd al-Hadi also fought alongside the Egyptian army, particularly during the final battles for Jabal Nablus.
In contrast with the peasants' arsenals, Egypt's military possessed modern arms and artillery. The use of cannons on open battlefields in particular inflicted heavy losses on the rebels. Egypt's army also possessed considerable organization in contrast to the lack of military coordination between rebel forces in different regions.
## Legacy
The revolt in Palestine was markedly different from the revolts that sprung up elsewhere in the Egyptian-ruled Levant, such as the 1838 Druze revolt and those that occurred in the Nusayriyya Mountains and Mount Lebanon. Unlike the other Levantine revolts, the participants were not an ethnoreligiously or socially homogeneous group, but rather an assortment of societal groups from different classes, subcultures, geographical areas and religions. This also significantly distinguished it from previous popular uprisings against Ottoman rule that had occurred in Jerusalem and its vicinity, namely the Naqib al-Ashraf Revolt in 1703–1705 and the revolt of 1825–1826, which failed to attract support from the people of Nablus, Hebron, Galilee and Gaza.
"Palestine" was a term that was used infrequently by its inhabitants at the time of the revolt, and its inhabitants identified themselves as Ottomans or by their religion. However, a "proto-national sense" of Palestine (Filastin) had developed among the people of the Gaza, Jerusalem, Nablus, Lajjun and Safad districts (administratively part of either the Sidon or Damascus Eyalet) by at least the 17th century, according to historian Khaled M. Safi. The 17th century Ramla-based intellectual, Khayr al-Din al-Ramli, used the term often in his fatawat (religious edicts) without specifying its boundaries, suggesting that the population of Palestine was aware of its geographic definition. Historians Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal argue that the revolt was a formative event for the Palestinian sense of nationhood, in that it brought together disparate groups against a common enemy. These groups reemerged later to constitute the Palestinian people.
Israeli historian Benny Morris disputed the claim by Kimmerling and Migdal that the revolt was the birth of the Palestinian people writing:
> Rather idiosyncratically, Kimmerling and Migdal point to a peasant revolt in Palestine against the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali in 1834 as the moment when the Palestinian people was born. The peasants (and the townspeople) refused to supply the Egyptians with the conscripts that they demanded. Within months, the rebels, who did not demand independence or "Palestinian rights" (if pressed to identify their "national" affiliation, they surely would have said they were Ottoman subjects, or "Arabs," or perhaps "residents of the Province of Syria"), were crushed, leaving no "national" values or tradition as a heritage. But Kimmerling and Migdal have it that this was the first of the succession of revolts against foreign occupiers—against the British from 1936 to 1939 and against the Israelis from 1987 to 1991 and from 2000 to 2003—that were to be the main expressions of Palestinian nationalism."
Israeli scholar Shimon Shamir views the Egyptian period in Palestine as the "first application of the concept of the territorial state ... This was the inception of the modern history of Palestine."
The revolt represented a moment of political unity in Palestine. However, the ultimate intention of the notables and rebel leaders was to force out the Egyptian army and reinstate Ottoman rule as a means of restoring the Ottoman-era standards that defined the relationship between the government and the governed. These standards were made up of the religious laws, administrative codes and local norms and traditions that were disrupted by Egyptian reforms. The people of Palestine did not resist Ibrahim Pasha's conquest of Palestine in 1831 as they were decreed to by the Sublime Porte and only acted against his authority three years later when he decisively interfered in their local affairs by way of conscription and further taxation. This constituted the prime motivation for the revolt, rather than loyalty to the Ottomans. The latter did not provide more benefits to the population than offered by Muhammad Ali's rule, but unlike Ali, they largely left the peasants and the local elite to their own devices, not demanding much more than the traditional taxes and nominal acceptance of the sultanate's authority.
### Palestinian historiography
In general, 20th-century historians from Palestine and the Arab world, and Palestinian and Arab nationalists, communists and leftists of all stripes, held a negative view of the Ottoman era, which they associated with backwardness, corruption and tyranny. According to historian Adel Manna, this uniformly negative perception of the Ottomans and the high regard for Muhammad Ali as a modernizer and a liberator of Arab lands from the Ottomans, which he sought to unite under his rule, influenced the later historiography of the 1834 revolt. Another factor that influenced the historians of the 20th century was the limited availability of primary sources from Palestine at the time of the revolt. Most primary Arabic accounts of the events were kept by Egypt's bureaucracy at the time. Other accounts were from European travelers or consuls in the area, while there were no known written 19th-century accounts by people living in Palestine's towns and villages.
By the 20th century, the revolt was also largely absent in the Palestinian collective memory. According to Kimmerling, "the humiliating and traumatic events of 1834 were conveniently erased from the collective memory". During the decades that followed the revolt, the elite classes in Palestine still wanted to maintain healthy relations with the Khedivate in Egypt and the urban population were not keen to glorify a revolt largely led by peasants. This differed from the attitude of the peasantry who continued to hold the revolt's leader, Qasim al-Ahmad, in high regard during the aftermath of the revolt. In the 20th century, the passing along of any oral testimonies from that time period were not sought after and recorded due to the prevailing nationalist atmosphere which largely focused on the anti-Zionist and anti-imperialist struggle in Palestine. Most contemporary Arab sources relied on Asad Rustum's detailed 1938 study, The Royal Archives of Egypt and the Disturbances in Palestine, 1834, which Rustum admittedly states was more or less based on the Egyptian perspective of the revolt.
Due to the aforementioned factors, the revolt was often considered to either be a manipulation of the commoners by a reactionary elite against modernization, a successful Ottoman bid to hamper Egypt's efforts to liberate and unify its Arab lands, or was sidelined. The concept that the revolt's diverse participants were acting based on their own interests and actual grievances rather than manipulation was largely ignored in Palestinian historiography until recent decades.
## See also
- List of conflicts in the Near East
- 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine
- 1834 looting of Safed
|
14,286,360 |
Voices of the Lifestream
| 1,168,516,388 | null |
[
"2007 soundtrack albums",
"Final Fantasy VII",
"Final Fantasy music",
"Nobuo Uematsu tribute albums",
"Unofficial remix albums",
"Video game soundtracks"
] |
Voices of the Lifestream is an unofficial tribute album released by OverClocked ReMix in honor of Nobuo Uematsu's score for the popular video game, Final Fantasy VII. The album was released on September 14, 2007, to coincide with the 10th anniversary of Final Fantasy VII. Since its release, the collection has received praise from numerous video game sites and professional composers.
## Development
Production of Voices of the Lifestream began in January 2006 as a personal endeavor by OverClocked ReMix Judge and ReMixer Andrew "zircon" Aversa to recreate the soundtrack of Final Fantasy VII. In a director’s note, Aversa credits his nostalgic experiences with the game as his motivation towards the project. A private forum was created to house development on the project and many community members were contacted to aid in developing a track list. Development of the project lasted over 20 months encompassing over 40 remixers credited with creating 45 tracks. The compilation was released on September 14, 2007, in correlation with Final Fantasy VII's 10th anniversary. Few physical copies of the compilation were made. The tracks were instead made available through digital distribution in lossless WAV and MP3 formats. Voices of the Lifestream is OC ReMix's ninth project to be released.
## Music video competition
In October 2007, OverClocked ReMix held a competition, in conjunction with Piano Squall and eStarland, regarding the creation of a music video set to a track from Voices of the Lifestream. There were three different categories to enter including Final Fantasy VII, anime, and original. The winners were awarded a signed limited edition of Voices of the Lifestream among other prizes, as well as having their video presented at anime and gaming conventions that OC ReMix attends. The contest ended on December 14. The winners were announced on the OverClocked ReMix forums two months later:
Final Fantasy VII Category
- Winner: "Compiled Memories" by sayde (David Lee)
- Runner-up: "Black-Winged Angel" by slkdragon (Chris Cook)
- Honorable Mention: "Wheels of Lifestream" by Big Paul (Paulo Augusto)
Anime Category
- Winner: "Final Moments of Clarity" by Mindeffects (Saša Tarbuk)
- Runner-up: "Sweetest Embrace" by Phantasmagoriat (Chris Studer)
Original Category
- Winner: "Stone Eyes" by Zethzen (Ian Cofino)
- Runner-up: "Lunatic Hero" by backseatstuff (Matt Furbush)
## Reception
Public reception has been generally positive, with Voices of the Lifestream being the most downloaded project created by OverClocked ReMix to date according to a BitTorrent tracker on OC ReMix’s website.
Editors of video game music websites, and video game websites in general, have been typically positive in their reviews. Kotaku has referred to the project as being "a massive labor of love". Game Tabs has called the compilation a "masterpiece", expressing surprise at the quality of the compilation, but criticizing the vocals in some of the tracks. SquareSound gave the project a 90%, praising the musicianship exhibited by the OC ReMix community and recommending immediate download. SquareSound also criticized some of the tracks, feeling that they got "lost" attempting to reinterpret the source material. In an advance review, Jayson Napolitano of Music4Games called Voices of the Lifestream "one of the most impressive and encompassing listening experiences in the world of video game music".
News of the album is not limited to the U.S. Finnish video game magazine Pelit gave the album a score of 5 out of 5 stars, lauding its diverse content but also pointing out a few unnecessary tracks which should have been excluded from the album while it was still in development. Voices of the Lifestream was nonetheless described as "the most interesting event on the Internet music scene in a long time".
Two professional video game composers have also given their approval of the compilation. Tommy Tallarico, video game composer and co-creator of Video Games Live, praised the album, stating that "OC ReMix has done it again!" and was impressed with the talent from the OCR community. Michael Gluck, better known as Piano Squall, has also voiced approval of the compilation, stating "...this is without a doubt the most fantastic project to ever hit the videogame music scene".
## Track listing
The project is spread out over four discs although few physical copies of the album are available. Most of the content was distributed via download links and torrents. The names of the discs coincide with the titles of releases made for the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII: Crisis Core; Dirge of Cerberus; Advent Children; and Last Order.
|
37,844,781 |
Economy of Scotland in the early modern period
| 1,127,466,372 |
Overview of the economy of Scotland during the early modern era
|
[
"Agriculture in Scotland",
"Early Modern Scotland",
"Early Modern economics",
"Economic history of Scotland",
"Trade in Scotland"
] |
The economy of Scotland in the early modern era encompasses all economic activity in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid-eighteenth. The period roughly corresponds to the early modern era in Europe, beginning with the Renaissance and Reformation and ending with the last Jacobite risings and the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution.
At the beginning of this period Scotland was a relatively poor country, with difficult terrain and limited transport, relying on traditional agricultural methods of jointly run fermtouns and bailes. The late sixteenth century saw economic distress, inflation and famine, but also the beginnings of industrial production as new techniques were imported to the country. The seventeenth century saw economic development led by trade, particularly to England and with the Americas, despite the problems of tariffs. There was continued occasional famine, culminating in the "seven ill years" of the 1690s. Attempts to establish a Scottish colony in Central America as part of the Darién scheme ended in disaster in the 1690s. After the Union with England in 1707 there was increasing introduction of improvements in agriculture that helped improve the food supply and growing trade with the Americans that produced the Tobacco Lords of Glasgow, the trade in sugar and rum and Paisley in cloth. There was also the development of financial institutions, including the Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland and British Linen Company, and improvements in roads both of which would help facilitate the Industrial Revolution that would accelerate in the late eighteenth century.
## Sixteenth century
### Agriculture
Jenny Wormald has commented that, "to talk of Scotland as a poor country is a truism". At the beginning of the era, with difficult terrain, poor roads and limited methods of transport, there was little trade between different areas of the country and most settlements depended on what was produced locally, often with very little in reserve in bad years. Most farming was based on the lowland fermtoun or highland baile, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in run rigs, of "runs" (furrows) and "rigs" (ridges), to tenant farmers. They usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land, helping to offset the problems of extreme weather conditions. Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron coulter, pulled by oxen, which were more effective in the heavy Scottish soil, and cheaper to feed than horses.
### Trade
From a low base at the beginning of the sixteenth century, trade expanded in the 1530s, but suffered from the English invasions of the Rough Wooing in the 1540s. From the mid-sixteenth century, Scotland experienced a decline in demand for exports of cloth and wool to the continent. Scots responded by selling larger quantities of traditional goods, increasing the output of salt, herring and coal. The fortunes of Scottish burghs in the export trade changed across the century. Haddington, which had been one of the major centres of trade in the late Medieval period, saw its share of foreign exports collapse in the sixteenth century. Aberdeen's share of trade remained stable for most of the century, but slumped in the last decade. The small Fife ports grew in significance and Edinburgh took an increasing share of trade through its port of Leith. This forced smaller ports to diversify into other commodities and to undertake more coastal trading. Overall there was an increase in foreign trade from the 1570s, of which Edinburgh received the major share.
### Women and the economy
Women acted as an important part of the workforce. Many unmarried women worked away from their families as farm servants and married women worked with their husbands around the farm, taking part in all the major agricultural tasks. They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest, forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin. Women also played an important part in the expanding textile industries, spinning and setting up warps for men to weave. There is evidence of single women engaging in independent economic activity, particularly for widows, who can be found keeping schools, brewing ale and trading.
### Economic downturn and early industry
The late sixteenth century was an era of economic distress, probably exacerbated by increasing taxation and the devaluation of the currency. In 1582 a pound of silver produced 640 shillings, but in 1601 it was 960 and the exchange rate with England was £6 Scots to £1 sterling in 1565, but by 1601 it had fallen to £12. Wages rose rapidly, by between four or five times between 1560 and the end of the century, but failed to keep pace with inflation. This situation was punctuated by frequent harvest failures, with almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century seeing local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic, referred to as Scotland's "emergency granary". This was particularly from Poland through the port of Danzig, but later Königsberg and Riga, shipping Russian grain, and Swedish ports, would become important. The trade was so important that Scottish colonies were established in these ports. Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague, with major epidemics in the periods 1584–88 and 1597–1609.
There were the beginnings of industrial manufacture in this period, often utilising expertise from the continent, which included a failed attempt to use Flemings to teach new techniques in the developing cloth industry in the north-east, but more successful in bringing a Venetian to help develop a native glass blowing industry. George Bruce used German techniques to solve the drainage problems of his coal mine at Culross. In 1596 the Society of Brewers was established in Edinburgh and the importing of English hops allowed the brewing of Scottish beer.
## Seventeenth century
### Economic expansion and customs tariffs
In the early seventeenth century famine was relatively common, with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625. The English invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy, with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price rises of the century. Under the Commonwealth, the country was relatively highly taxed, but gained access to English markets. After the Restoration the formal frontier with England was re-established, along with its customs duties. Economic conditions were generally favourable from 1660 to 1688, as land owners promoted better tillage and cattle-raising. The monopoly of royal burghs over foreign trade was partially ended by and Act of 1672, leaving them with the old luxuries of wines, silk, spices and dyes and opening up trade of increasingly significant salt, coal, corn and hides and imports from the Americas. The English Navigation Acts limited the ability of the Scots to engage in what would have been lucrative trading with England's growing colonies, but these were often circumvented, with Glasgow becoming an increasingly important commercial centre, opening up trade with the American colonies: importing sugar from the West Indies and tobacco from Virginia and Maryland. Exports across the Atlantic included linen, woollen goods, coal and grindstones. The English protective tariffs on salt and cattle were harder to disregard and probably placed greater limitations on the Scottish economy, despite attempts of the King to have them overturned. Scottish attempts to counter this with tariffs of their own were largely unsuccessful, as Scotland had relatively few vital exports to protect. Attempts by the Privy Council to build up luxury industries in cloth mills, soap works, sugar boiling houses, gunpowder and paper works, also proved largely unsuccessful. However, by the end of the century the drovers roads, on which black cattle were driven from the Highlands through south-west Scotland to north-east England, had become firmly established.
### Seven ill years
The closing decade of the seventeenth century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end. There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from 1689–91, caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade, followed by four years of failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698-9), known as the "seven ill years". The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe, partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century, with only one year of dearth (in 1674) and the shortages of the 1690s would be the last of their kind. The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals that might help the desperate economic situation, including setting up the Bank of Scotland. The "Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies" received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. Recently founded sugar houses producing sugarloaves and rum with imported sugar were encouraged in Glasgow and Leith.
### Darién Scheme
The "Company of Scotland" invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan devised by William Paterson, the Scottish founder of the Bank of England, to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East. The Darién scheme won widespread support in Scotland as the landed gentry and the merchant class were in agreement in seeing overseas trade and colonialism as routes to upgrade Scotland's economy. Since the capital resources of the Edinburgh merchants and landholder elite were insufficient, the company appealed to middling social ranks, who responded with patriotic fervour to the call for money; the lower orders volunteered as colonists. However, both the English East India Company and the English government opposed the idea. The East India Company saw the venture as a potential commercial threat and the government were involved in the War of the Grand Alliance from 1689 to 1697 against France and did not want to offend Spain, which claimed the territory as part of New Granada and the English investors withdraw. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised £400,000 in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3,000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698. The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; suffering from disease; under attack by the Spanish from nearby Cartagena; and refused aid by the English in the West Indies, the colonists abandoned their project in 1700. Only 1,000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. The cost of £150,000 put a severe strain on the Scottish commercial system and led to widespread anger against England, but also highlighted the problems of maintaining two economic policies, increasing pressure for full union.
## Early eighteenth century
### Agricultural improvement
At the Union of 1707 England had about five times the population of Scotland, and about 36 times as much wealth, however, Scotland began to experience the beginnings of economic expansion that would begin to allow it to close this gap. Contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Haymaking was introduced along with the English plough and foreign grasses, the sowing of rye grass and clover. Turnips and cabbages were introduced, lands enclosed and marshes drained, lime was put down, roads built and woods planted. Drilling and sowing and crop rotation were introduced. The introduction of the potato to Scotland in 1739 greatly improved the diet of the peasantry. Enclosures began to displace the runrig system and free pasture. The Society of Improvers was founded in 1723, including in its 300 members dukes, earls, lairds and landlords. There was increasing regional specialisation. The Lothians became a major centre of grain, Ayrshire of cattle breading and the Borders of sheep. However, although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their displaced workers, enclosures led to unemployment and forced migrations to the burghs or abroad.
### Trade and industrialisation
The major change in international trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow supplied the colonies with cloth, iron farming implements and tools, glass and leather goods. Initially relying on hired ships, by 1736 it had 67 of its own, a third of which were trading with the New World. Glasgow emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, re-exporting particularly to France. The merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the century. Other burghs also benefited. Greenock enlarged its port in 1710 and sent its first ship to the Americas in 1719, but was soon playing a major part in importing sugar and rum.
Cloth manufacture was largely domestic. Rough plaids were produced, but the most important areas of manufacturing was linen, particularly in the Lowlands, with some commentators suggesting that Scottish flax was superior to Dutch. The Scottish members of parliament managed to see off an attempt to impose an export duty on linen and from 1727 it received subsidies of £2,750 a year for six years, resulting in a considerable expansion of the trade. These funds were derived from the Board of Trustees for Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotland, using money set aside at the Union. It distributed £6,000 a year to encourage industry, particularly the linen industry and fishing. Paisley adopted Dutch methods and became a major centre of production. Glasgow manufactured for the export trade, which doubled between 1725 and 1738. The move of the British Linen Company in 1746 into advancing cash credits also stimulated production. The trade was soon being managed by "manufacturers" who supplied flax to spinners, bought back the yarn and then supplied to the weavers and then bought the cloth they produced and resold that.
Banking also developed in this period. The Bank of Scotland was suspected of Jacobite sympathies and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr. These would make capital available for business and the improvement of roads and trade, which would help create the conditions for the Industrial Revolution that accelerated in the second half of the century.
## See also
- Economic history of Scotland
[Agriculture in Scotland](Category:Agriculture_in_Scotland "wikilink") [Scotland](Category:Early_Modern_economics "wikilink") [Early Modern Scotland](Category:Early_Modern_Scotland "wikilink") [Early modern](Category:Economic_history_of_Scotland "wikilink") [Early Modern](Category:Trade_in_Scotland "wikilink")
|
12,808,389 |
Kent Ridge Park
| 1,165,285,429 |
Park in Singapore
|
[
"British rule in Singapore",
"Military history of Singapore",
"Parks in Singapore",
"Queenstown, Singapore",
"Tourist attractions in Singapore"
] |
Kent Ridge Park is a 47-hectare public park located in Kent Ridge, Singapore, between the National University of Singapore and the Singapore Science Park. Due to its undisturbed habitat and abundant plant life, it is a popular venue for bird-watchers and eco-tourists.
During the Second World War, a hill in the park was the site of one of the last and fiercest battles fought by the Malay Regiment against the invading Japanese army, the Battle of Bukit Chandu (also known as the Battle of Pasir Panjang), 12–14 February 1942.
The park was officially opened in 1954, and was gazetted by the National Heritage Board as one of 11 World War II sites in Singapore in 1995. It is one of over 300 parks managed by Singapore's National Parks Board, NParks.
## History
The area occupied by Kent Ridge Park and the National University of Singapore was formerly known as Pasir Panjang Ridge, and was originally a lowland evergreen rainforest. The park's natural vegetation now consists of groves of Tembusu, Acacias and Dillenias. When the first settlers arrived in Singapore in the early 19th century, they grew crops such as rubber, pepper, gambier and pineapple on the ridge. During World War II, it was used as a fortress by the British in the defence of Singapore. Many of these plantations were either abandoned or destroyed during the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945), which allowed such crops to grow wild.
On 23 February 1954, the Governor of Singapore, Sir John Fearns Nicoll unveiled a plaque which declared the area had been renamed Kent Ridge to commemorate the visit by the Duchess of Kent and her son, the Duke of Kent, on 3 October 1952. The plaque was erected at the junction of what is now Kent Ridge Road and South Buona Vista Road.
The park contains Bukit Chandu, alternatively known as Opium Hill (in Malay), after the opium processing factory owned by the British East India Company that was at the foot of the hill until 1910. During 12–14 February 1942, it was the site of the Battle of Bukit Chandu, fought by the 42 survivors of the Malay Regiment led by Lieutenant Adnan Bin Saidi against the 13,000 men of Lieutenant-General Mutaguchi Renya's 18th Division. The Malay Regiment's position on the hill was overrun by the Japanese and the battle ended in hand-to-hand combat after the last few defenders ran out of ammunition. All the officers except one, Lieutenant Abbas Abdul-Manan, and most of the men, were massacred in the aftermath.
## The park today
Formerly used to house senior British Army officers, the last remaining black and white colonial bungalow at 31K Bukit Chandu has been restored and converted into a World War II war museum called Reflections at Bukit Chandu, commemorating the war and those who fought in it. Originally there were two smaller bungalows below 31K, but they were demolished in 1987 to make way for a public parking lot. There are three life-size statues and a plaque outside the museum, honoring the Malay Regiment and commemorating the lives of those who died.
Kent Ridge Park, Labrador Park, and the war museum, are part of the Pasir Panjang Historic District, which focuses on World War II battlefield events in western Singapore. Together with Fort Siloso at Sentosa and The Battle Box at Fort Canning, they serve as a reminder of an important chapter in Singapore's modern history. Near to the top of the ridge, there is a commemorative heritage site marker which shows the area where the Battle of Pasir Panjang of 1942 was fought.
The park also has some decommissioned Singapore Army military equipment, consisting of two WWII-vintage US M114 155mm field howitzers and a French AMX-13 light tank on permanent outdoor display until December 2015, donated by the Ministry of Defence as part of its adoption of Kent Ridge Park as The Army Green Park in support of the National Parks Board "Adopt-a-Park" scheme to inculcate a greater ownership among the public of local parks and greenery. The park's facilities include fitness corners, look-out points, a nature trail, a multi-purpose court and a canopy walk. The highest point of the park is 61 metres above sea level, from where there is a panoramic view of the coast of Pasir Panjang and some of the Southern Islands, approximately 5 km off the south-western coast of Singapore. Islands such as Pulau Bukom and Pulau Semakau are visible on a clear day.
Kent Ridge park, Telok Blangah Hill Park, and Mount Faber Park are part of the Southern Ridges trail that links all 3 parks via connecting bridges and paths.
## Plant and animal life
The park is managed by the National Parks Board, and is open daily to the public. Admission is free except for entrance to the war museum. The park is accessible via entrances on Vigilante Drive and Pepys Road, off Pasir Panjang Road. Most of the remaining wild part of the park comprises secondary forest with plants native to Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia such as tembusu, angsana, white leaf fig, common pulai, Singapore rhododendron, pitcher plants, cicada tree and simpoh air.
The trails through the park, including one for mountain biking, run almost parallel along the ridge. There is a natural pond with fishes and turtles in the north-west of the park. A 280-metre long canopy walk was completed in the eastern part of the park in October 2003, linking Kent Ridge Park to the war museum, Reflections at Bukit Chandu, enhancing the park's and museum's accessibility to the public. Along the walk, there are information boards providing educational information on the flora and fauna in the park. At the half-way point, there is a shelter for visitors to take a short break or to enjoy a scenic view of Normanton Park and the National Parks Board's plant nursery.
It is one of four popular birdwatching sites on mainland Singapore along with Pasir Ris Park, Fort Canning Park and Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve. Birds found in the park include: white-crested laughing thrush, collared kingfisher, white-bellied sea eagle, banded woodpecker, pink-necked pigeon, blue-tailed bee-eater, white-breasted waterhen, and spotted dove.
Eco-tours and heritage tours are regularly organised by various special interest groups such as the Nature Society Singapore and the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, for students and the general public.
## See also
- Battle of Pasir Panjang
- Fort Pasir Panjang
- Poh Ern Shih Temple
- List of Parks in Singapore
|
53,994,071 |
Ritz Tower
| 1,148,248,124 |
Residential building in Manhattan, New York
|
[
"1926 establishments in New York City",
"Emery Roth buildings",
"Hotel buildings completed in 1926",
"Hotels established in 1926",
"Midtown Manhattan",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan",
"Park Avenue",
"Residential buildings in Manhattan",
"Skyscrapers on 57th Street (Manhattan)"
] |
The Ritz Tower is a luxury residential building at 465 Park Avenue on the corner of East 57th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It was built from 1925 to 1926 as an apartment hotel and was designed by Emery Roth and Thomas Hastings for journalist Arthur Brisbane, who was the developer. The Ritz Tower is about 541 feet (165 m) with 41 stories, making it the tallest residential building in New York City upon its completion. Because it was initially classified as an apartment hotel, the building was constructed to a greater height than was usually permitted.
Its classically-inspired design contains numerous setbacks with balustrades, as well as windows with pilasters and pediments. The lower floors are highly ornamented, featuring sculpted putti and urns, as well as rusticated limestone blocks. The top of the tower has a pyramidal roof with a tall obelisk. The interior of the building uses rich material, such as parquet floors and wood-paneled walls, all part of Brisbane's desire to make the Ritz Tower the most sought-after apartment hotel in the city. The tower had no individual kitchens in any of the 400 units. Residents over the years have included many personalities associated with the media. When the Ritz Tower was constructed, it received critical acclaim from architectural writers.
After the Ritz Tower opened on October 15, 1926, Brisbane contracted with the Ritz-Carlton Company to manage the building and the restaurants in it. Brisbane was soon unable to pay off the debt load and sold it to William Randolph Hearst, his longtime colleague and friend, in 1929. Hearst gave up the building to his bondholders in 1938 and the Ritz Tower became a housing cooperative in 1956. The retail space at the base has contained several restaurants and stores over the years, including Le Pavillon, one of the first authentic French restaurants in the U.S. In 2002, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Ritz Tower as a New York City landmark.
## Site
The Ritz Tower is at 465 Park Avenue, on the northeastern corner with 57th Street, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building faces west toward Park Avenue and south toward 57th Street. It is near the Fuller Building and the Four Seasons Hotel New York to the west, 500 Park Avenue to the northwest, and 432 Park Avenue and 450 Park Avenue to the southwest.
The Ritz Tower occupies two land lots: a larger lot for residential and commercial use and a smaller lot for commercial and office use. The bulk of the building is on an "L"-shaped lot with an area of 10,247 square feet (952.0 m<sup>2</sup>), a frontage of 112.5 feet (34.3 m) along 57th Street to the south, and a maximum depth of 100 feet (30 m). The corner lot at Park Avenue and 57th Street has an area of 1,401 feet (427 m), a frontage of 17.42 feet (5.31 m) along 57th Street to the south, and a frontage of 80.42 feet (24.51 m) along Park Avenue to the west. This arrangement exists because the developer, journalist Arthur Brisbane, never purchased the lot at the corner of Park Avenue and 57th Street. This lot contained a brownstone occupied the Roome family, who were loath to sell and instead leased the lot for \$15,000 a year.
The site is at the intersection of two historically fashionable thoroughfares. By the late 19th century, the Park Avenue railroad line ran in an open-cut in the middle of Park Avenue. The line was covered with the construction of Grand Central Terminal in the early 20th century, spurring development in the surrounding area, Terminal City. The adjacent stretch of Park Avenue became a wealthy neighborhood with upscale apartments. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, East 57th Street largely contained homes and structures built for the arts. Many of the residential structures on 57th Street were replaced with offices, shops, and art galleries by the 1920s.
## Architecture
The building was designed by Emery Roth and Thomas Hastings and opened in 1926. Roth was the original architect; Hastings, a partner in the firm Carrère and Hastings, became involved in the project later on. Alexander S. Deserty was the consulting engineer. The Ritz Tower is variously characterized as 40, 41, or 42 stories tall, depending on whether the building's pinnacle is counted. The building has a height of 478 feet (146 m) to the roof above the highest story and 541 feet (165 m) to its pinnacle. According to architecture writer Robert A. M. Stern, the building "pinpointed the nexus of fashionable apartment house living".
The Ritz Tower contains numerous setbacks to conform to the 1916 Zoning Resolution. There are setbacks on the fourth, 19th, 21st, 25th, and 33rd stories, as well as a pyramidal hip roof topped by an obelisk above the 40th floor. The fourth-story setback overlooks the three-story-tall corner lot on Park Avenue, which was leased from the Roome family. If the Roomes had ever taken back ownership of that lot, they could detach the setback section from the rest of the building, then install a staircase and elevator for their own use. The corner lot was never reverted to the Roome family, which sold the lot in the late 20th century. The other setbacks are mostly placed on all four sides of the building. The setbacks doubled as balconies for residents of the stories at which each setback was positioned.
### Facade
The exterior of the Ritz Tower was designed during a transitional era of architecture in New York City, where architects were moving away from classical designs favoring Art Deco or modern classical designs. The building's lowest three stories are clad in rusticated blocks of limestone. The other stories are clad in tan brick, with Italian Renaissance-style terracotta ornament and articulation on all four sides. The design of the base was influenced mostly by Hastings's involvement, while Roth was more responsible for the upper stories. Steven Ruttenbaum described the upper stories' decoration as a "bolder and more aggressive type of ornament" than was used on the base, since the fine detail on the base would not have been noticed on higher stories.
The ornament is largely clustered around the base, setbacks, and top of the building, while the middle stories are comparatively bare. The setbacks contain finials and obelisks, which soften the perceived sharpness of the setbacks.
#### Base
Facing west on Park Avenue, the limestone base is divided vertically into five bays. The center three bays contain double-height round arches while the outer two bays contain rectangular doorways with elaborate stone entablatures. The northern doorway is the building's main entrance and the southern doorway contains an entrance to the ground-level retail space. On the third story, the center three bays each contain two rectangular windows, separated by cartouches and flanked by flat panels, while the outer two bays each contain a single opening within flat panels. A balustrade runs above the third story. In the center three bays, the balustrade contains an ornamented parapet with putti and urns.
Facing south on 57th Street, the limestone base is eight bays wide. The westernmost bay, closest to Park Avenue, contains a rectangular doorway with an elaborate stone entablature at ground level. To the east are three rectangular storefronts alternating with three double-height round-arched openings. The seventh bay from the west, a round arched opening, is a service entrance with a suspended awning; it was originally an alternate entrance to the interior. The eighth bay, the easternmost, contains a rectangular service entrance. Similarly to on Park Avenue, the third floor windows are largely grouped in pairs, though three of the outer bays are single windows. There are three cartouches on the third story, which correspond to the arched window openings below. A stone band with a cornice, atop the third story, is a continuation of the balustrade along Park Avenue.
#### Upper stories
On Park Avenue, the fourth story is eight bays wide, with the two outermost bays projecting slightly from the rest of the facade. The fourth-story windows are surrounded by stone quoins, with a stone disk above each window, as well as a terracotta string course above the entire fourth story. The fifth through 17th story windows are largely identical to each other, consisting of rectangular openings, with air conditioning units underneath some windows. The exception is the two outermost bays on the fifth floor, which are each flanked by stone pilasters and surmounted by a pediment. The south and north facades are very similar to the Park Avenue facade, except that both facades are twelve bays wide; the north facade adjoins a 15-story building. The east facade is also similar, but with nine bays, and adjoins a six-story building. On all four sides, a terracotta string course runs above the 17th story.
At the double-height 18th story, all four facades are similar to each other, aside from the number of bays. On each facade, the outermost bays are flanked by brick piers, and they contain broken pediments with cartouches at their centers. The center bays on each side consist of rectangular windows, above which is a continuous lintel and several rectangular terracotta ventilation openings. Above the 18th story is a balustraded cornice with obelisks. The 19th story is set back on all sides and has rectangular windows topped by a lintel. The 20th story has rectangular windows with their own sills, and it is surmounted by a balustraded cornice with obelisks. The 21st through 24th stories are similar to each other, but with a string course and stone band above the 24th story. The north and south facades are wider on these respective stories than the west and east facades.
The 25th through 32nd stories are plain brick and are topped by a string course and balustrade. On the 33rd and 34th floors, the window bays are separated vertically by pilasters and horizontally by recessed spandrels. A string course, balustrade, and central pediment runs above the 34th story. The windows on the 35th story are connected by lintels and topped by a string course. The 36th and 37th stories contain plain openings. On the 38th story, there are three windows on all sides, with the center window on each side being ornately decorated. There is a partial hip roof above the 38th story, surmounted by a square tower with rounded corners. The 39th story has one window on each side while the 40th story has three small openings on each side. Above this is the hipped copper roof of the square tower, with finials at the corners and a limestone lantern and a pinnacle at the center. The pinnacle initially had a gold ball atop it, and the corners also had smaller obelisks with gold balls.
### Features
The Ritz Tower was legally classified as a hotel to circumvent zoning restrictions that prevented new apartment buildings from being taller than 150 percent of the width of the adjacent street. The building did not have individual kitchens, as the lack of kitchens allowed Brisbane to claim it was legally a hotel. The Ritz Tower instead had five dumbwaiters, which were electrically heated and allowed for a dining service on every floor. The building contained three elevators as well. Two were for apartment hotel tenants, while Brisbane's apartment had its own elevator. Unlike in earlier developments, where residents could hire their own servants, staff worked for all tenants at the Ritz Tower on a cooperative basis.
#### Lower stories
The ground floor contained the elevator hall, main entrances, stores, a residents' restaurant and tearoom, and a banking office. The main hallway, designed as a "Roman promenade", led from 57th Street to the dining room and tearoom. The floor was clad in travertine stone while the ceiling featured colorful groin arches, atop which were large bronze lanterns. The main restaurant, which no longer exists, had tapestries and murals. For the ceiling, Willy Pogany decorated a set of murals that depicted various icons around a representation of the tower. The tearoom, leading off the main hallway and accessible through brass and wrought-iron gates, was meant to resemble a "Pompeian patio". The walls of the tearoom were decorated with landscapes, while the ceiling was meant to depict "a sunlit sky".
The cellar and basement levels had vaults, a grill room, a kitchen, and a barbershop. The kitchen served the hotel's three restaurants and the residential apartments. The grill room was split across two basement stories and had an "informal" decorative scheme with brass and wrought-iron steelwork and colorful tile work and plaster work. The second to fifth floors were used largely for transient guests, staff rooms, and administrative offices. Particularly, the second and third floors were used for maids' and servants' rooms, as well as individual vaults for each tenant.
#### Apartments
There were about 400 hotel rooms on the upper floors, subdivided into suites with one to five rooms. The interior used luxurious materials such as walls with wood paneling and floors with parquetry. Most apartments had between two and four rooms in a studio or duplex layout. The fourth through 18th floors each had apartments and a central kitchen with dumbwaiter and pantry access. A corridor led from the elevators to each suite, where an entrance foyer off the corridor led to a bathroom, living area, and pantry. Living rooms were usually 15 by 24 feet (4.6 by 7.3 m). Bedrooms were 13 by 17 feet (4.0 by 5.2 m) and all had their own small closets and bathrooms. Despite the lack of a kitchen, the apartments did have sinks, electric refrigerators, and cabinets, which were legal in apartment hotels.
The 19th and 20th floors of the building were taken up by an 18-room duplex apartment designed for Arthur Brisbane. Brisbane's unit was designed to contain a double-height living room and a wood-burning fireplace. The 19th-floor living room had iron chandeliers, a multicolored ceiling painting, and stained-glass and was designed similarly to a Renaissance-era palazzo. On the 20th floor, three balconies overlooked the living room. The unit had a full kitchen and a servants' living area, features that were not present in any other individual suite, as well as a full terrace on the 19th-story setback. Brisbane was the only resident with his own domestic staff; they lived with him on the 20th floor rather than with the other servants on the second and third floors. A semicircular, leaded-glass solarium led from the dining room to the terrace.
The units above Brisbane's duplex each had one to four bedrooms, all with their own bathrooms. The 21st through 24th stories each contained two simplex apartments per floor; by the 1950s, these had been divided into four apartments per floor. Above the 25th floor were the building's "tower apartments". The 25th through 32nd stories each contained two duplex apartments, one for every pair of floors. Each duplex contained a double-height, 16-by-40-foot (4.9 by 12.2 m) living room with an entrance foyer on its lower level and a balcony on its upper level. There were also terraces at the corners of the tower. The 33rd to 37th stories each contained one apartment. The apartments on the 25th through 34th floors were divided into three units in the 1950s.
## History
During the early 19th century, apartment developments in the city were generally associated with the working class, but by the late 19th century, apartments were also becoming desirable among the middle and upper classes. Between 1880 and 1885, more than ninety apartment buildings were developed in the city. Apartment hotels in New York City became more popular after World War I, particularly among wealthy people who wanted to live luxuriously but also wanted to do some of their own housework, such as cooking. Developers of apartment hotels sometimes constructed developments to bypass the Tenement House Law, which prevented new apartment buildings from being taller than 150 percent of the width of the adjacent street. Apartment hotels had less stringent regulations on sunlight, ventilation, and emergency stairs but had to contain communal spaces like dining rooms. As a result, developers could provide up to 30 percent more space in an apartment hotel than in a conventional apartment building.
The Ritz Tower was one such apartment hotel, developed by Arthur Brisbane, a prominent columnist for Hearst Communications during the early 1920s. He worked under newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst starting in 1897, and the two men later became close friends. Brisbane developed several buildings in New York City starting in the early 20th century, having been inspired by Hearst's precedent. While the men developed several projects together, only Brisbane was involved in the Ritz Tower's construction. When the Ritz Tower was being proposed, there were few high-rise residential buildings in Manhattan. When planning for the Ritz Tower started in 1924, the tallest residential building that had been proposed in Manhattan was 28 stories high.
### Development
#### Site acquisition and planning
In March 1920, Brisbane acquired the first land lot at the site of Ritz Tower from Henry Anderson. Within two months, he had purchased 103 and 105 East 57th Street, just east of Park Avenue. A representative of the Hearst corporations leased the corner lot from the Roome family in August 1922. Twelve months later, he bought two private houses at 107 and 109 East 57th Street. This gave him a site measuring 80 feet (24 m) on Park Avenue and 90 feet (27 m) on 57th Street. Brisbane acquired 111 and 113 East 57th Street in November 1924 in a roundabout transaction that involved the structure at 117 East 57th Street. This transaction rounded out Brisbane's frontage on 57th Street to 130 feet.
Brisbane hired Emery Roth to design an apartment hotel on the site in 1924. That September, Roth publicized plans for a residential structure at 465 Park Avenue, which would be taller than any other building north of 42nd Street. The plans called for a 30-story building with 358 rooms, 165 bathrooms, 135 kitchens, a restaurant, a bank, and art galleries and exhibition space. The apartment tower would have had 144 two- and three-room units on the third through 18th floors, as well as a setback at the 19th floor to serve as a terrace for Brisbane's duplex on the 19th and 20th floors. The 21st through 24th floors would have contained two- and three-room units; the 25th through 28th floors, duplex studios; the 29th floor, a duplex apartment; and the 30th floor, a penthouse apartment. The Diana sculpture from Madison Square Garden was to be placed on the roof.
At some point afterward, Thomas Hastings was hired for reasons that were not clearly publicized. Hastings was known for his designs of numerous classical buildings in New York City, such as the New York Public Library Main Branch and Henry Clay Frick House. He recommended that the Ritz Tower be designed in a classical style, a suggestion with which Roth agreed.
#### Construction
S. W. Straus & Co financed the construction of 465 Park Avenue with an issue of \$4 million first mortgage gold bonds in November 1924. The same month, main contractor Todd and Robertson Engineering Corporation started demolishing existing buildings on the site. Roth filed building plans with the New York City Department of Buildings in January 1925, at which the building was projected to cost \$2.4 million. The same month, the Ritz-Carlton Company signed a 21-year, \$10 million operating lease, and it formed a subsidiary, the Ritz Tower Corporation, to manage the building under the name "Ritz Tower". The building was to operate as a residential hotel, with short-term suites as well as long-term units. At the time, the Ritz-Carlton name was so highly regarded that it was synonymous with luxury. In July 1925, Brisbane's Parkab Corporation leased the building to Ritz Tower Corporation for \$1,000 a day. The general management of the building was contracted to the Brown Wheelock Harris Vought and Company's vice president, Duncan G. Harris.
By 1926, the plans had been changed, so the building would be the equivalent of 42 stories. That May, the news media reported that the building was nearly complete and was projected to cost \$5–6 million, excluding furnishings. According to The New York Times, the Ritz Tower had "already attracted the attention of architects, artists and building engineers" across the United States. The New York Herald Tribune labeled it as the "tallest apartment hotel in the world". During that October, the city's tenement house commissioner Walter C. Martin issued an order that deemed about 150 "apartment hotels" citywide to be in violation of height restrictions, including the new Ritz Tower. According to Martin, the buildings were not exempt from the law because some units had their own pantries where people could cook on their own. The law was not changed until 1929, though this effectively eliminated any subsequent apartment hotels.
### Opening and early years
A formal opening dinner for the hotel was hosted on November 16, 1926. The guests at the hotel's opening included Harris; Jimmy Walker, the city's mayor; Joseph V. McKee, president of the New York City Board of Aldermen; and various prominent citizens and journalists. Brisbane quickly found that he was unable to manage the payments for the tower's mortgage loan. The Ritz Tower was valued at \$6 million when it was completed; within a little more than a year, its appraised valuation increased by about \$500,000. Brisbane sold the Ritz Tower to Hearst, his longtime colleague, in January 1928. The sale occurred in spite of the fact that Hearst's financial advisors had suggested against it.
When Hearst had bought the Ritz Tower, he also owned the lot directly to the north, which extended to 58th Street. In 1929, one year after purchasing the structure, Hearst filed plans for a 55-story annex on the adjacent lot, to be designed by F. M. Andrews and J. B. Peterkin if it had been built. Hearst took over the adjacent lot at 110 to 114 East 58th Street in 1931 for the proposed annex. The structure was never built and the site to the north was subsequently acquired by Alcoa. In early 1932, Hearst transferred ownership of the Ritz Tower from the Apperson Realty Corporation to the Park Fifty-seventh Realty Corporation, both of which were under his control. A fire broke out in the tower's basement on August 1, 1932, causing an explosion that killed eight firemen. Seven died immediately, while one died later at the hospital. A Chrysler automobile salon opened at the base of the tower in 1937.
By the mid-1930s, Hearst was operating the Ritz Tower at a net loss, with a deficit of about \$592,000 in 1935 and \$458,000 in 1936. Concurrently, his own media ventures were losing large amounts of money, leading Hearst to place the building for sale. Hearst forfeited ownership of the building in April 1938 after failing to make payments on the first mortgage loan, and he moved to California from his home in the Ritz Tower. The interior furnishings remained under Hearst ownership, but operations passed to the trustee, the Continental Bank and Trust Company. Shortly afterward, a group called 103 East Fifty-seventh Street Inc. was created to operate the Ritz Tower. The operators filed documents with the New York Supreme Court in December 1938, in which they proposed that the bondholders take over ownership.
Continental Bank and Trust bought the majority of the Ritz Tower at a foreclosure auction in January 1940, excluding the portion of the base on Park Avenue. The reorganization proceedings concluded the next month. A new corporation, New York Towers Inc., acquired the Ritz Tower and issued ownership shares to bondholders. In 1945, the New England Mutual Life Insurance Company placed a ten-year, \$1.07 million mortgage loan on the building. A.M. "Sonny" Sonnabend bought the rights to manage the Ritz Tower in 1952 for \$17 million.
### Cooperative conversion
In February 1955, Harry J. Riker of Riker & Co. announced the building would be converted to a housing cooperative. As part of this plan, the interior would be redecorated by Dorothy Draper. A group of tenants challenged this proposal in the New York Supreme Court. By that October, the building's lobby had been completely redesigned with mixed Chinese and French motifs, and the corridors of the upper stories were being redesigned as well. The building was converted to a cooperative in December 1955. Of the 150 tenants at the time of the cooperative conversion, 35 declined to join the cooperative. Ritz Associates Inc., the tenant cooperative, formally took ownership of the building in February 1956. The Ritz Tower provided maid service and room service for its cooperative tenants.
The Ritz Tower's units were sold at rates ranging from \$7,200 for a single room to \$43,200 for five rooms. Most of the cooperative units were two-bedroom apartments with four total rooms. There were also studio units and one- to three- bedroom apartments with a varying number of rooms. The old 19th and 20th story duplex was retained as one unit. The Ritz Tower was one of several New York City apartment hotels that had converted to cooperative operation in the mid-20th century. Le Pavillon, one of the first authentic French restaurants in the U.S., moved to the Ritz Tower from 55th Street in 1957, after the renovation was completed. The New York Savings Bank placed a ten-year, \$2.74 million mortgage on the building in September 1958. The New York Bridge Whist Club and the Cavendish Club, two contract bridge clubs, were among the groups housed in the Ritz Tower at this time.
### Late 20th century to present
Le Pavillon operated within the Ritz Tower until 1972. The restaurant's Ritz Tower location had been less popular than its 55th Street location because of the difficulty of dropping off and picking up passengers at such a congested area. In 1975, the basement space was taken by the First Women's Bank, the first bank in the United States to be operated by women for female patrons. The bank branch operated within the former Le Pavillon space. The year afterward, Japanese department store Mitsukoshi opened a New York City office, with a restaurant and boutique shop at the Ritz Tower's base. The company initially leased 10,000 square feet (930 m<sup>2</sup>) from the Ritz Tower.
By 1980, the Ritz Tower contained 136 co-op units and several short-term units. Brisbane's old duplex was occupied by Mitsukoshi president Shigeru Okada. The other units ranged from between \$17,000 and \$20,000 for a studio apartment to \$100,000 for a penthouse. During that decade, Paul Goldberger described the building as "the ideal pied-à-terre building in New York". The Ritz Tower stopped allowing short-term rentals in 1987. Within the same time period, Henry Hart Rice bought the corner lot along Park Avenue.
Mitsukoshi closed its boutique and restaurant at the base in 1991, and the bank at the building's base moved out the same year. With these closures, Mitsukoshi announced plans to open a department store across the building's lowest four stories during 1993. Ownership of the Ritz Tower was split into two condominiums. Mitsukoshi bought one condominium, consisting of 40,000 square feet (3,700 m<sup>2</sup>) within the basement and most of the lowest three stories, for \$17.25 million. The residents' cooperative took over the other condominium, consisting of two cellars, the residents' lobby, and all residential stories. The following year, with the early 1990s recession, Mitsukoshi indefinitely postponed its plans to open a department store in the base. The Borders Group leased the retail condominium unit in early 1997 and opened a bookstore there the same year.
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building as a city landmark on October 29, 2002. The same year, Borders was looking to close its bookstore at the building, as its other Manhattan location at the World Trade Center had been destroyed in the September 11, 2001, attacks. Ultimately Borders remained in the space until 2011. Businessman Charles S. Cohen bought the retail condominium for \$22 million in 2009, but after Borders' closure, was unable to lease the space until 2017, when fashion retailer Richard James and shoe store Harrys of London occupied the space. During the early 21st century, the roof was renovated to plans by Howard L. Zimmerman Architects. In late 2020, luggage retailer T. Anthony leased space in one of the 57th Street storefronts.
## Notable guests and residents
Upon the Ritz Tower's completion, Brisbane was one of the first tenants in his own building. After Hearst bought the building from Brisbane, he lived in a suite with actress Marion Davies until Hearst forfeited ownership in 1938. Other early tenants included Arthur G. Hoffman, vice president of The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, as well as Edward E. Spafford, the national commander of the American Legion. In the building's early years, the restaurant and other ground-floor spaces were used for events and entertainment. These included fundraisers; dinners for foreign guests, including the Duke and Duchess of Sutherland; and art shows.
The Ritz Tower was particularly popular as a residence for those in the media. The building's tenants have included actresses Greta Garbo, Kitty Carlisle, Paulette Goddard, Deborah Kerr, and Arlene Francis, as well as Francis's husband, actor Martin Gabel. William Randolph Hearst Jr., the son of the publisher, also had a suite in the building. Other tenants have included music producer Clive Davis; radio comedian Goodman Ace; English author Elinor Glyn; TV producer Norman Lear, the creator of All in the Family; and William Hays, the head of the "Hays Office" which censored Hollywood movies. Playwright Neil Simon also occupied the Ritz Tower from the 1980s until he died in 2018; he had vowed to live in the building after visiting Ace's apartment. George Gustav Heye, who founded the Museum of the American Indian, lived in the Ritz Tower until his 1957 death.
## Reception
Robert A. M. Stern wrote in his 1987 book New York 1930 that Roth's original design had an "ingenious" organization, but that "the massing was clumsy, with abrupt setback transitions. More important, the articulation of the facade was conventional and the building lacked not only a consistent image but a distinct sense of verticality." Eric Nash wrote that Roth "seems to have done everything in his power to disguise the building's height", which resulted in a design that was "easy to find fault with". One architect, Arthur T. North, ridiculed the Ritz Tower as a "sky-puncture" because of the design of its upper section. North wrote: "It would have been a pretty good building up to and including the eighteenth floor; in fact it would have been quite pleasing. The top works, however, appear to be rather incoherent." Roth regarded North's criticism in particular as unwarranted, saying that he used the Renaissance style due to its "domestic" character.
Other critics praised the detail, as well as the tower's impact on the development of residential apartments. Will Irwin wrote that the building was "a genuine tower building as comely as any in Manhattan" and suggested that visitors would "lose the sense of exclusiveness and exclusion" while looking at the building. Another critic wrote: "Its easy proportionate narrowings bear spikes and fleches; it leaps upward like a flame." In a book published in 1932, W. Parker Chase wrote that the building was "'just a little bit of Paris' fitted into the American setting of magnificent Park Avenue". According to Fiske Kimball, structures such as the Ritz Tower "have emboldened imagination to conceive a city with lance-like towers set in open plots of greenery". Georgia O'Keeffe also depicted the building in her 1920s painting Ritz Tower, Night.
The building continued to be critically appraised in later years. Elizabeth Hawes wrote that the Ritz Tower's construction "changed the direction of residential architecture" with its vertical emphasis. Carter Horsley described the building as having a "somewhat odd" setback on Park Avenue, although the building was "still very impressive" despite being overshadowed by taller structures in the area. In 1986, Steven Ruttenbaum wrote that the Ritz Tower was not "just an exemplary building from the golden age of New York apartment-houses; it was a prestigious apartment hotel, the symbol of an elegant and conservative life-style that came of age just before the Great Crash".
## See also
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
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Re:Zero
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Japanese light novel series and its franchise
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Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World (Japanese: Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活, Hepburn: Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu), often referred to simply as Re:Zero and also known as Re: Life in a different world from zero, is a Japanese light novel series written by Tappei Nagatsuki and illustrated by Shin'ichirō Ōtsuka. It started serialization as a web novel on the user-generated website Shōsetsuka ni Narō in 2012. Thirty-four light novels, as well as five side story volumes and eight short story collections have been published by Media Factory under their MF Bunko J imprint. The story centers on Subaru Natsuki, a hikikomori who suddenly finds himself transported to another world on his way home from the convenience store.
The series' first three arcs have been adapted into separate manga series. The first, by Daichi Matsue, was published between June 2014 and March 2015. The second, by Makoto Fugetsu, has been published by Square Enix since October 2014. Matsue launched the third adaptation, also published by Media Factory, in May 2015. Additionally, Media Factory has published two anthology manga with stories by different artists. An anime television series adaptation produced by White Fox aired from April to September 2016, starting with an hour-long special. Two original video animation (OVA) episodes were released in October 2018 and November 2019. In March 2017, game developer 5pb. released a visual novel based on the series. A second season aired in a split-cour format, with the first half airing from July to September 2020, and the second half airing from January to March 2021. A third season has been announced.
The novels and all three manga adaptations are published in North America by Yen Press. The anime adaptation has been licensed by Crunchyroll outside Asia, which released the anime on home video through Funimation in the United States and Anime Limited in the United Kingdom. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, the series is licensed by Muse Communication.
The overall series (light novel and manga volumes) had over 13 million copies in circulation by March 2023 (including digital versions), while the anime series has sold more than 70,000 copies on home video. The light novels have been praised for their fresh take on the "another world" concept, fleshed-out characters, complex world and lore, and thought-provoking topics and themes. The series received awards at the 2015–2016 Newtype Anime Awards and the 2017 Sugoi Japan Awards, and was nominated for Anime of the Year at the 1st Crunchyroll Anime Awards.
## Plot
Subaru Natsuki is a NEET who is suddenly summoned to a fantasy-like world. Just after arriving, he is killed while trying to help a young half-elf he befriends, Emilia, who is a candidate to become the next ruler of the Kingdom of Lugunica, only to revive some hours in the past. After dying some times, Subaru realizes that he has the power to turn back time after his death. After successfully helping Emilia, Subaru starts living in one of the Mansions of Roswaal L. Mathers as a butler. Out of gratitude and affection for Emilia, Subaru makes use of his newfound ability to protect her and help on her ambition to be successfully appointed as the next queen, also providing assistance to other friends he makes along the way, while suffering due to the pain inflicted on him every time he dies, and carrying along the memories of everything that happened before his power activates, which is forgotten by everybody except for him.
## Production
### Light novel
In the late 2000s, the light novel series The Familiar of Zero (Zero no Tsukaima) spawned a number of fan fiction on the website Shōsetsuka ni Narō ("Let's Become Novelists"), also known as Narō. Tappei Nagatsuki initially began writing The Familiar of Zero fan fiction on Narō, before building on its isekai ("other world") concept to write his own original web novel series on Narō, called Re:Zero, which began serialization in 2012.
The series' editor at MF Bunko J, Masahito Ikemoto, first became aware of the web novel in April 2013, when it began to appear on his Twitter feed. He was immediately impressed by the series' use of Return by Death, and how it was a "depressing, yet surprising, twist on the fantasy genre," and began working with Nagatsuki to adapt the series into a light novel. Most light novels are around 250 pages in length, but Nagatsuki submitted a manuscript of more than 1,000 pages for the first novel, forcing Ikemoto to edit it heavily. While Nagatsuki wanted to engage in worldbuilding early on, Ikemoto felt that it was more necessary to make the readers feel engaged with the characters. He ended up rearranging the story so that parts focusing on the world and its lore were pushed back to the third arc of the series.
Prior to his involvement in Re:Zero, illustrator Shin'ichirō Ōtsuka worked on video games, which led him to draw the backgrounds first when illustrating the series. After reading the web novel, he submitted a number of character designs for the major characters to Ikemoto. Subaru's initial design made him look like a delinquent, with Otsuka later describing it as "not the face of a boy in his teens," leading Ikemoto to request that the character be "more friendly and less fierce" so that the audience could empathize with him during emotional scenes. Originally, Emilia's character design appeared extremely plain, so a number of features were added to make her more interesting. Ikemoto specified that she must fit the "archetypal heroine" mold. Rem and Ram also underwent significant changes from the first draft: their original designs lacked the characteristic hair parts, and their maid uniforms were longer and more "traditional."
### Anime
#### Development and production
The possibility of an anime adaptation came up early in the development of the series; Shō Tanaka, a producer at Kadokawa, asked Ikemoto about properties which might lend themselves to being animated, and Ikemoto recommended that Tanaka read Nagatsuki's web novels. Despite an initial miscommunication which led to Ikemoto believing that Tanaka wasn't interested, talks of adapting the series began soon after the web novels began the transition to print.
As part of talks for the potential anime adaptation, Ikemoto and Tanaka spoke to Tsunaki Yoshikawa, an animation producer at studio White Fox, about the possibility of his studio animating the series. Hoping to adapt the series into an anime similar to Steins;Gate (which White Fox also produced), and having a positive impression of the studio as one that did faithful adaptations, Tanaka then formally approached them about producing the show. White Fox's president contacted Yoshikawa for his opinion, and Yoshikawa recommended they accept, as long as the series "doesn't violate any broadcasting regulations."
Production on the anime began sometime after the release of the fifth novel in October 2014. Masaharu Watanabe was chosen by Yoshikawa to direct the series because he had previously worked for the studio doing key animation, while Kyūta Sakai was chosen to be the series' character designer and chief animation director because Yoshikawa felt that she would be able to do the novel's art justice whilst maintaining a consistent animation quality throughout the series' 25-episode run. Masahiro Yokotani was brought on board as the main writer, with the series being his first time composing for a "reborn in another world"-type story. Yoshikawa warned him about the violence in the series, but Yokotani was still surprised by the violent and disturbing scenes in novels three and beyond, having only read the first novel when he agreed to work on the project; he delegated the script writing of those episodes in the second cour to the other two scriptwriters. Yoshiko Nakamura joined the project sometime after Yokotani had completed the script for episode 3. When it proved unfeasible for Yokotani and Nakamura to write the scripts alone, the decision was made to bring another scriptwriter on board. Gaku Iwasa, the president of White Fox, asked them to hire someone "younger," leading Yokotani to suggest Eiji Umehara. Nagatsuki had recently been playing Chaos;Child, which Umehara had written for, and he approved the choice, suggesting that they let Umehara write the "painful parts"; Umehara was invited to join the project around the time that the scripts for episodes 8 and 9 were being written. Re:Zero was the first light novel adaptation that either of the screenwriters had worked on.
Original author Tappei Nagatsuki was very active in the production of the anime, attending script meetings and recording sessions. When the staff would encounter a problem with a scene, he would occasionally write lines for them to use as reference while writing the script. The series was not initially intended to have 25 episodes, but was extended to give more time to the battle with the White Whale (which was expanded from two to three episodes) and to the content of episode 18 (episodes 16 to 18 were originally supposed to be covered in two episodes). Watanabe's main directive to the staff was to "capture the mood of the novel as much as possible"; the scriptwriters had discussions about how to compress the dense source material without losing the central elements of the story, and Nakamura recalls working with composition notes that "went on for pages." While planning and scripting the anime, choosing a proper conclusion was one of the most difficult parts for the staff, and a significant amount of time was devoted to choosing what to cover in the final episode, which included material not yet covered in the light novel.
After joining the project, both Nakamura and Umehara had to adjust their views of the main character, and were forced to rewrite scenes where they had made Subaru appear "cool." At Watanabe's direction, Nakamura was made to rewrite Subaru's telling of The Red Ogre Who Cried in episode 6 multiple times. The staff also had difficulty deciding on a song to use for Subaru's ringtone that plays during the closing scene of episode 19, considering songs like "Kanpaku Sengen," "The Beard Song," and "M" by Princess Princess, before settling on "Yoake no Michi" from Dog of Flanders.
#### Soundtrack
While choosing a composer to produce the series' music, director Watanabe wanted to choose someone who had "hit a nerve" with him. A fan of drama series, Watanabe was struck by a piece of music in the medical drama Death's Organ, and found that the series' composer, Kenichiro Suehiro, had also worked on a number of his favorite anime and drama series. After Suehiro was attached to the production, Watanabe gave him three major guidelines: use human voices during the Return by Death sequences; compose the music like he would for a drama or a movie to capture the emotional scenes; and "pull all the stops" for the suspenseful scenes. Additionally, for the first cour, Watanabe asked for music with a "suspenseful" vibe, while requesting music with a "romantic" feel for the second cour. Both Watanabe and Suehiro are fans of Italian composer Ennio Morricone, and Suehiro tried to take inspiration from his works while composing the soundtrack. Watanabe also requested that there be songs that mimicked Hans Zimmer's score from The Dark Knight. While Suehiro used music that wasn't very "anime-ish" during most of the series, he was asked to use more traditional anime music during the slice of life scenes. A number of times during the series, such as in episodes 7 and 15, Watanabe made it a point to use an entire song, something which is unusual in most anime.
The series makes limited use of its opening and ending themes, and Watanabe has said that he wished he could use them more frequently.
## Media
### Web novel
The Re:Zero web novel was initially serialized by Tappei Nagatsuki (writing under the username ) on the user-generated content site Shōsetsuka ni Narō from April 20, 2012, onwards. As of February 13, 2021, six story arcs have been completed and two "EX" side stories have been published, with the seventh arc in progress. In total the webnovel has 609 chapters available.
### Light novels
Following the web novel's publication, Media Factory acquired the series for print publication. The first light novel volume, with illustrations by Shin'ichirō Ōtsuka, was published on January 24, 2014, under their MF Bunko J imprint. As of June 2023, thirty-four volumes have been published, as well as five side story volumes and eight short story collections. Nagatsuki and Otsuka began publishing a series of short side-stories focusing on characters from the series in Monthly Comic Alive, starting with the character Elsa in August 2016. It was followed with one focused on Petra Leyte on November 26, 2016, and one featuring Ram and Rem on January 27, 2017. The light novels are published in English by Yen Press, who announced their acquisition of the license via Twitter on December 2, 2015. The publisher has also acquired the license to the Re:Zero EX side novels.
### Manga
A manga adaptation by Daichi Matsue, titled Re:ZERO: -Starting Life in Another World- Chapter 1: A Day in the Capital (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 第一章 王都の一日編, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai-Ichi-Shō: Ōto no Ichinichi-hen), began serialization in the August 2014 issue of Media Factory's seinen manga magazine Monthly Comic Alive on June 27, 2014. The final volume was released on March 23, 2015. On December 2, 2015, Yen Press announced that they had licensed the series.
A second manga, titled Re:Zero -Starting Life in Another World-, Chapter 2: One Week at the Mansion (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 第二章 屋敷の一週間編, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai-Ni-Shō: Yashiki no Ishūkan-hen), with art by Makoto Fugetsu, began serialization in Square Enix's seinen magazine Monthly Big Gangan on October 25, 2014. The final chapter was published on December 24, 2016, and an extra chapter was published on January 25, 2017. The second adaptation has also been licensed by Yen Press.
Daichi Matsue began serializing a third manga, Re:Zero -Starting Life in Another World-, Chapter 3: Truth of Zero (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 第三章 Truth of Zero, Re: Zero Kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Dai-San-Shō: Truth of Zero) in Comic Alive's July 2015 issue on May 27, 2015. Yen will publish the third adaptation as well.
A manga anthology, titled Re:Zero -Starting Life in Another World- Official Anthology Comic (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 公式アンソロジーコミック, Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Kōshiki Ansorojī Komikku), was published by Media Factory on June 23, 2016. A second anthology was published on September 23, 2017.
### Internet radio show
An Internet radio show to promote the series, named Re: Radio life in a different world from zero (Re:ゼロから始める異世界ラジオ生活), began broadcasting on March 27, 2016. The show was aired every Monday and was hosted by Rie Takahashi, the voice actress for Emilia. Guests that appeared on the show included Yūsuke Kobayashi (Subaru Natsuki), Inori Minase (Rem), Yumi Uchiyama (Puck), Rie Murakawa (Ram), Satomi Arai (Beatrice), Chinatsu Akasaki (Felt), Kana Ueda (Anastasia Hoshin), and Yui Horie (Felix). The show ran for 33 episodes and concluded on December 19, 2016. The first radio CD, which contains episodes 1–8 of the show, was released on June 27, 2016. The second, which contains episodes 9–16 of the show, was released on September 28, 2016. The third, containing episodes 17–24, was released on November 30, 2016, and the fourth, containing episodes 25–33, was released on March 29, 2017.
### Anime
An anime television series adaptation was announced by Kadokawa in July 2015. The series is directed by Masaharu Watanabe and written by Masahiro Yokotani, with animation by the studio White Fox. Kyuta Sakai is serving as both character designer and as chief animation director. Music for the series is composed by Kenichiro Suehiro. Kentaro Minegishi is the series' director of photography, and Yoshito Takamine serves as art director. Jin Aketagawa handled sound direction for the anime, and sound effects were produced by Yuji Furuya. Other staff members include Hitomi Sudo (editing), Yu Karube (3D director), Saaya Kinjō (art configuration), Izumi Sakamoto (color design), and Noritaka Suzuki and Gōichi Iwabatake (prop design).
The 25-episode series premiered on April 4, 2016, with an extended 50-minute first episode. It was broadcast on TV Tokyo, TV Osaka, TV Aichi, and AT-X. The series was simulcast by Crunchyroll. Episode 14 and 18 ran 2 minutes longer than a typical anime episode, clocking at 25 minutes and 45 seconds. The final episode ran 3 minutes longer, clocking at 27 minutes and 15 seconds.
A series of anime shorts featuring chibi versions of the characters, titled Re:Zero \~Starting Break Time From Zero\~ (Re:ゼロから始める休憩時間(ブレイクタイム), Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Break Time), were produced by Studio Puyukai to accompany the series. The shorts ran for eleven episodes before being replaced by a new series of shorts, titled Re:PETIT \~Starting Life in Another World from PETIT\~ (Re:プチから始める異世界生活, Re:Puchi kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu), which began airing on June 24, 2016, and ran for 14 episodes. The shorts are directed, written, and produced by Minoru Ashina, with character designs by Minoru Takehara, who also animated the series alongside Sumi Kimoto and Chisato Totsuka. Kenichiro Suehiro reprised his role as composer for the shorts, while Tomoji Furuya of Suwara Pro produced the sound effects. Jin Aketagawa directed the sound at production company Magic Capsule.
The shorts aired on AT-X after each episode of the regular series, starting on April 8, 2016. Crunchyroll acquired the streaming rights to both shorts. Animax Asia later aired the series starting on January 13, 2017.
An original video animation (OVA) episode was announced at the "MF Bunko J Summer School Festival 2017" event on September 10, 2017. All of the main staff and cast returned for the OVA, with Tatsuya Koyanagi joining as chief director. Titled Memory Snow, the OVA was screened in Japanese theaters starting on October 6, 2018. A second OVA, titled The Frozen Bond (Hyōketsu no Kizuna, 氷結の絆), was announced on September 23, 2018. The OVA is an adaptation of the prequel novel Re:Zero Kara Hajimeru Zenjitsu-tan: Hyōketsu no Kizuna (Re:ゼロから始める前日譚 氷結の絆) which was included with the first Japanese Blu-ray release of the television series, and focused on the meeting of Emilia and Puck. It was released in Japanese theaters on November 8, 2019.
The series is licensed by Crunchyroll outside of Asia and by Muse Communication in Southeast Asia and South Asia. Funimation announced during their Katsucon 2018 panel that they will release it on home video with an English dub in North America as part of the two companies' partnership. Funimation released the first part of the first season on DVD and Blu-ray in North America on June 19, 2018;, and the second part on February 5, 2019. Funimation later released all of season 1 on one Blu-ray on June 9, 2020. In the United Kingdom, the series is distributed by Anime Limited, who released the first part of the first season on DVD on June 25, 2018 and the second part on May 20, 2019. Anime Limited later released both parts on Blu-ray on August 19, 2019, with a complete collection being released on February 15, 2021. Both Funimation and Anime Limited's Season 1 Part 1 Blu-ray releases received negative attention after it was discovered that they showed visible color banding and compression artifacts. Madman Anime released the first part of the first season in Australia on Blu-ray on May 8, 2019.
On March 23, 2019, it was announced that a second season was in production. The cast and staff would reprise their roles for the second season. It was scheduled to premiere in April 2020, but was delayed to July 2020 due to production complications caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the arrival of the second season's initial premier date, an edited version of the first season premiered on January 1, 2020, on AT-X and other channels, with the edited version recapping the first season through one-hour episodes. It also included new additional footage. The OVA "Memory Snow" was also broadcast in between the episodes 5 and 6 of the edited version.
The second season was announced to be in a split-cour format, with the first half airing from July 8 to September 30, 2020, and the second half airing from January 6 to March 24, 2021. The English dub for Season 2 Part 1 began airing from August 26 onwards. There is no standard length for each episode and the runtime is varying from 24 to 30 minutes.
A third season of the anime series was announced at AnimeJapan 2023.
The series also became part of Isekai Quartet, a crossover comedy series with characters drawn in a chibi style. It also features characters from the light novel series KonoSuba, Overlord, and The Saga of Tanya the Evil, all published by Kadokawa Corporation. The anime premiered on April 9, 2019. A second season aired in 2020, while a theatrical film premiered in 2022.
### Music
The first opening theme song was "Redo" by Konomi Suzuki, and the first ending theme was "Styx Helix" by Myth & Roid, while for episode 7 the ending theme was "Straight Bet," also by Myth & Roid. The second opening theme song, titled "Paradisus-Paradoxum," was performed by Myth & Roid, while the second ending theme, "Stay Alive," was performed by Rie Takahashi. Myth & Roid also performed the ending theme for episode 14 titled "theater D."
The second season's first opening theme song was "Realize" by Konomi Suzuki, while the second season's first ending theme song was "Memento" by Nonoc. The second season's second opening theme song was "Long Shot" by Mayu Maeshima (former vocalist of Myth & Roid), while the second season's second ending theme song was "Believe In You" by Nonoc.
The series' soundtrack was released on CD on October 26, 2016. The disk contains 21 tracks composed by Kenichiro Suehiro.
"Redo," Suzuki's 10th single, was released on CD on May 11, 2016. The single was also released as a limited edition with a DVD featuring a music video, a live concert video, and a "making of" video. The songs were performed by Suzuki, with lyrics by Genki Mizuno and arrangement by Makoto Miyazaki.
The CD for "Styx Helix," the series' first ending theme, was Myth & Roid's 3rd single. Written, arranged, and performed by the group, it was released on May 25, 2016, and included both regular and instrumental versions of "Styx Helix" and "STRAIGHT BET."
"Stay Alive," the second ending theme, was released as a single on August 24, 2016. The songs were performed by Takahashi (Emilia) and Minase (Rem). The songs were written and arranged by Heart's Cry.
Myth & Roid released the second opening theme as a single on August 24, 2016. The CD included regular and instrumental versions of "Paradisus-Paradoxum" and "theater D."
For Memory Snow, three pieces of theme music were used: the ending theme "Memory Memory Snow" and the image song "Relive" by Nonoc, and the insert song "Memories" by Riko Azuna.
### Video games
In August 2016, game developer 5pb. announced that they were developing a visual novel based on the series, titled Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World: Death or Kiss (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 -DEATH OR KISS-, Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu -Death or Kiss-). The game follows an original story that differs from the light novel and the anime, and allows the player to choose between routes featuring Emilia, Rem, Ram, Felt, Beatrice, Crusch, Priscilla, or Anastasia. A DLC allows players who pre-ordered the game to replace the character's costumes with swimsuits. The opening theme, "yell! magic starts with a kiss" (yell!~くちびるからはじまる魔法~, Yell!\~ Kuchibiru kara Hajimaru Mahō \~), was performed by Suzuki, who sung the anime's first opening theme, while the ending theme, "Dai Dai Daisuki" (ダイ・ダイ・ダイスキ), was performed by Minase and Murakawa. The game has received a generally positive score of 30/40 on Famitsu.
In Japan, the game was originally scheduled to be released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on March 23, 2017, but was delayed to March 30, 2017, due to certain circumstances. The limited edition of the game came with a soundtrack CD and either a Ram (for the PS4 version) or Rem (for the PSVita version) SD figure.
A virtual reality app that allows the user to interact with the character Rem was released for iOS and Android on May 26, 2017. A version featuring the character Emilia was released on June 6, 2017. The game was later ported to both PC and to the PlayStation VR.
A role-playing mobile game called Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World: Infinity that was made by Tianjin Tianxiang Interactive Technology and authorized by White Fox was released on January 14, 2020, in China. Another mobile game that made by Sega titled Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World: Lost in Memories (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 Lost in Memories, Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Lost in Memories) was released for Android and iOS on September 9, 2020. In the game, the player can become protagonist Subaru Natsuki and relive the story of the anime. From there, the player can branch into “What If” stories. Furthermore, a new story original to the game was produced under the full supervision of original author Tappei Nagatsuki.
A tactical adventure video game was developed by Chime and published by Spike Chunsoft titled Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World: The Prophecy of the Throne (Re:ゼロから始める異世界生活 偽りの王選候補, Re:Zero kara Hajimeru Isekai Seikatsu Tsuwarino-ō-Sen kōho) and was released for PlayStation 4, PC, and Nintendo Switch in January 2021. The game has an original story and was produced under the full supervision of original author Tappei Nagatsuki and illustrated by the series' illustrator Shinichiou Otsuka. It is the first official Re:Zero game to have an English release.
A role-playing browser game called Re:Zero -Starting Life in Another World- Forbidden Book and the Mysterious Spirit that was made by DMM Games released on July 14, 2021, in Japan. On March 14, 2022, DMM Games has announced the game will be shut down on July 14, 2022.
A mobile game called Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World: Witch's Re;surrection was announced at the series' stage in AnimeJapan 2023.
### Other media
Kadokawa published a 272-page guide to the series' first three arcs, titled Re:zeropedia, alongside the 10th volume of the novels on October 24, 2016. An official dōjinshi art book was published at Comiket, with art by Ponkan 8 (Shirobako and My Youth Romantic Comedy Is Wrong, As I Expected), Yuka Nakajima (Listen to Me, Girls. I Am Your Father!, Amagi Brilliant Park), and TakayaKi (Arifureta Shokugyou de Sekai Saikyou). A crossover with Natsume Akatsuki's light novel series KonoSuba, titled Re:Starting Life Blessing This World was published on December 21, 2016. The book featured interviews with each series' authors and illustrators, as well as the principal voice actors in their respective anime adaptations. A one-shot crossover manga by Daichi Matsuse and Masahito Watari (illustrator of the KonoSuba manga adaptation) was also included. A fanbook containing commentary on the episodes of the anime, as well as the collected Animate Times cast and staff interviews, was published on December 31, 2016. Bushiroad released a Booster Pack set and Trial Deck+ of Re:ZERO -Starting Life in Another World- for Weiß Schwarz on December 28, 2018.
## Reception
According to Japanese light novel news website LN News, the series had 1 million copies in print by June 2016; over 2 million by September of the same year; and over 3.1 million by May 2017. It had over 11 million copies in circulation by January 2022. The overall series (light novel and manga adaptations volumes) had over 13 million copies in circulation by March 2023 (including digital versions). The light novel series was the tenth best-selling light novel series in Japan between November 2015 and May 2016, selling 263,357 copies. During that period, the first and second volumes were the 35th and 48th best-selling light novel volumes, selling 49,194 and 41,617 copies, respectively. The series was the fourth best-selling series in 2016, selling 1,007,381 copies between November 2015 and November 2016. Its first three volumes were the fourteenth, 21st, and 30th best selling volumes of the year, selling 155,363, 127,970, and 110,574 copies, respectively. In 2017, the series was the third best-selling series, with 925,671 copies sold. Its first, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth volumes respectively ranked nineteenth (60,135 copies), 25th (56,001 copies), seventh (101,480 copies), and twelfth (79,431 copies) in the period between November 2016 and May 2017. In 2019, the series sold 550,202 copies.
The series was the 21st best selling anime series on home video during 2016, selling approximately 68,791 Blu-ray and DVD sets. The OVA, "Memory Snow," released in 2018, sold a total of 10,429 Blu-ray and DVD copies.
Theron Martin of Anime News Network reviewed the first book, praising it for being a somewhat fresher take on the "transported to another world" concept, but leveled criticism at it for bumpy and awkwardly timed dialogue and a tendency for redundancy.
The series ranked first in a poll of 820 people conducted by the Japanese website Anime! Anime!, to determine the best show of spring 2016. Andy Hanley from UK Anime Network considered the anime adaptation as one of 2016's best series.
The Managing Editor from Anime Now!, Richard Eisenbeis lists the anime as one of his top picks from 2016 for its "culturally complex" world and characters that have "their own plans, faults, and motivations." He praised Subaru as the "most complex character of the year" due to provoking the audience to "cheer him and despise him" in a world that portrayed him as the "least special person in it."
The series took second place in the 2015–2016 Newtype Anime Awards. Additionally, director Masaharu Watanabe took first place, as did Subaru, Rem, and Puck (in the best male, female, and mascot character categories, respectively). Masahiro Yokotani's screenplay took second place, while the series' character designs (by Shin'ichirō Ōtsuka and Kyuta Sakai) took third place. The series' soundtrack and second opening theme both took fourth place in their categories. The light novels and the anime both took first place in their respective categories in the 2017 Sugoi Japan Awards.
In a survey of (primarily female) Otamart users, the series was ranked second on a list of the most successful anime/manga/light novel franchises of 2016. Re:Zero was nominated for "Anime of the Year" at the Crunchyroll's inaugural Anime Awards in 2016, and was also the service's most-watched series of 2016, topping Yuri on Ice.
|
30,413,142 |
Mother Gothel
| 1,163,897,247 |
Fictional character in Tangled film
|
[
"Animated characters introduced in 2010",
"Disney animated villains",
"Female characters in animation",
"Female film villains",
"Fictional characters who use magic",
"Fictional kidnappers",
"Film characters introduced in 2010",
"Tangled characters"
] |
Mother Gothel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures' 50th animated feature film Tangled (2010). The character is voiced by actress and singer Donna Murphy in her voice acting debut; Murphy auditioned for the role spontaneously upon learning from her agent that Disney was auditioning actresses for the film's villainous role. Loosely based on Dame Gothel in the German fairy tale "Rapunzel", Mother Gothel is a vain old woman who hoards the strong healing powers of a magical gold flower to live for many, many years and remain perpetually young and beautiful. When the flower is harvested to heal the kingdom's ailing queen, its powers are inherited by the king and the queen's daughter Rapunzel, removing Gothel's access. With her life suddenly endangered, Gothel kidnaps the infant, imprisoning the princess in an isolated tower for eighteen years while posing as her mother to exploit her powers.
Inspired by Disney villainesses such as the Evil Queen and Lady Tremaine from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Cinderella (1950), respectively, Gothel was developed by screenwriter Dan Fogelman into a more original, complex villain than the witch upon whom she is based because the character is forced to rely solely on her wit, charisma and intelligence as opposed to sorcery to survive. The film's most difficult character to develop, Gothel's appearance, whose beauty, dark curly hair and voluptuous figure were deliberately designed to serve as a foil to Rapunzel's, was inspired by the appearance of Murphy herself and American singer Cher.
Mother Gothel has been mostly well received by film critics, who enjoyed the character's humor, complexity, charisma and showmanship, dubbing her a scene stealer, while praising Murphy's performance enthusiastically. However, some critics argued that Gothel was too passive, dismissing her as a weaker, less intimidating Disney villainess than Maleficent from Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Cruella de Vil from One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961).
## Development
### Conception and creation
Walt Disney himself first attempted to adapt the fairy tale "Rapunzel" into a feature-length animated film during the 1940s. However, the filmmaker's efforts were never fully realized because the fairy tale was considered too "small". In 2008, co-directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard decided to enlarge the film's scale to transform it into a "big event" for it to be successful. Meanwhile, the character Mother Gothel was developed into a much more complex villain than the witch upon whom she is based, conceiving her as "a very lonely woman who really did not know how to have a relationship of any kind". Little else had been determined about the character at the time, who was simply described as "the type of woman who ... envisioned herself in the spotlight." A departure from traditional Disney Villains, Mother Gothel is not a witch or a sorceress. Because she lacks supernatural powers, the character is forced to rely solely on her wit, charm, intellect and charisma, a conscious decision made by Greno and Howard. However, in the Brothers Grimm's original fairy tale, Gothel is very much depicted as a typical witch-like character, an idea that was modified for the Disney film adaptation in favor of having Gothel's agelessness instead be "derive[d] ... from Rapunzel's hair."
Seeking inspiration for Gothel and Rapunzel's "bizarre" relationship, Greno and Howard conducted a series of interviews with several female Disney employees, asking them to list qualities in their mothers that "they found annoying and cloying or restricting", specifically "the things that their mothers would do that made them feel trapped or made them feel smothered" to make the villain appear more relatable. Gothel's "Mother Knows Best" line "Getting kind of chubby" was in fact borrowed from one of these interviews. Gothel embodies "the darker side" of overprotective parents; at the beginning of the film, Gothel and Rapunzel's relationship resembles more-so of "a pure mother-daughter relationship." Elaborating on Gothel's "unique mothering style", Howard explained to Den of Geek that the character "has to convince this smart girl that she is her mother ... whatever her motivations are." Citing Gothel as one of the film's most difficult characters to develop as a result of her complex relationship with Rapunzel, Greno explained to Den of Geek:
> "Mother Gothel can't be mean. She has to be very passive-aggressive. She was one of the hardest characters to crack. When we were developing her, people were saying that she doesn't feel enough like a villain, and people would point to characters like Ursula. And then she was too dark for a while ... Because what you do with her directly affects how you play Rapunzel in the movie. Because, if you play an extremely dominant and cruel villain, that girl is going to become meek and downtrodden, with almost nothing of a person, with low self-esteem. And we knew we didn't want a character like that ... We had to balance it out, and figured that Gothel has to be more subtle than that, rather than a one-note, domineering mother."
The St. Paul Pioneer Press observed that Gothel represents "an update" of the traditional wicked stepmother, evolving into "the passive-aggressive stepmother" instead. In actress Donna Murphy's opinion, a "classic" villainess is "somebody who wants something with such intensity and such great need but comes to a place of not being bound by any kind of moral code or any sense of what's ethical", concluding that "They will do anything to get what they want". The Austin Chronicle observed that the directors' inclusion of Gothel as "an evil mother figure as a trigger for the storyline" remains one of the "classic hallmarks of Disney animation".
### Voice
The directors admitted that they were not keen on hiring solely big-named, A-list celebrities or top-billed actors to voice the film's main characters. Howard explained that, to be cast, the actors simply had to have the "right voice" for the characters, preferring voice actors "who could ... bring a natural ease to those characters." Greno elaborated, "It was never about how big the star was ... It was always about ... who's best for the part". Film critic James Berardinelli of ReelViews observed that this decision echoed "Disney's approach during the late 1980s and early 1990s, when big name stars were often bypassed in favor of lesser known talents." An additional asset was that the actor be able to perform well both independently and collaboratively.
Mother Gothel is voiced by American actress and singer Donna Murphy, a Tony Award-winning Broadway actress who was informed about the casting call for Tangled by her agent. Having never voiced an animated character before, the actress decided to audition for the role of the film's villain based solely on the expectation that the unfamiliar experience would be "fun". Almost immediately, Murphy developed a strong liking towards Gothel because of the character's complexity. Known for her award-winning Broadway performances, Murphy prepared herself for her Tangled audition similar to the way in which the actress would have prepared for a Broadway audition. Refusing to rely solely on her voice, Murphy also provided Gothel with an additional background that "flush[ed] out the moments beyond what we see in the film." Although Greno and Howard had already held Murphy in high regard as "a spectacular singer", the actress was required to audition a song for the directors nonetheless, performing "Children Will Listen" from the musical Into the Woods. Howard revealed in an interview that Murphy was ultimately chosen out of hundreds of actresses because she possessed "something extra"; the directors especially enjoyed the charisma and intelligence Murphy brought to the role.
Growing up a fan of Disney films, Murphy had never wanted to play a princess, preferring characters who were adventurous and "drove the action" instead. In the actress' opinion, villains continue to be the most dynamic characters in Disney films. Describing the opportunity to voice a Disney villain as a "juicy" experience, Murphy explained that this is because these characters are "not bound by ethics or moral codes or concern for what someone thinks or how it might hurt someone else", providing actors with more freedom. Upon her first session, Murphy appreciated the directors for exposing her to early concepts and ideas about Gothel. However, Murphy was not provided with a complete script because "They’re very protective about that." Murphy was directed to lower the pitch of her voice in favor of demonstrating a rather "flat" sound. Although Murphy did not base her own performance on any one individual in particular, she admitted to Babble that she was somewhat inspired by Betty Lou Gerson's performance as Cruella de Vil in Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961). Comparing voice acting to Broadway, Murphy commented that, in animation, "You’re recording and you’re discovering it and giving the performance all at the same time. It's not like you have three weeks rehearsal." Additionally, Murphy never worked with co-star Mandy Moore, voice of Rapunzel; instead, Murphy revealed that scenes with Gothel and Rapunzel were actually recorded opposite one of the directors impersonating Moore, who also explained to Murphy that Gothel's design will continue to evolve as the character begins to adapt the actress' mannerisms. Howard enthused that Murphy "nailed" Gothel, admitting to ultimately using 90% of the actress' original material and takes because "The character just came right to life when she came in."
### Characterization, design and analysis
Convinced that "Disney does villains better than anyone," the directors felt pressured to create a villain who would ultimately "live up to the classic villains of [Disney's] past films." Greno and Howard wanted Gothel to be both a funny and frightening character, describing her as "a commanding and powerful presence ... who could also have warmth". Greno believes that Gothel is particularly scary because she is not a witch, explaining, "She's a real-world-type villain." Considered "one of the [film's] hardest characters to crack" by Greno, he and Howard wanted Gothel to be depicted as a conniving villain who is likeable and charismatic enough that audiences would be convinced by her and Rapunzel's unconventional relationship. Greno explained, "if Mother Gothel was a mean villainess, and looked like a villainess and acted scary, you'd be like, 'Why is Rapunzel staying in the tower?'" In early drafts, Gothel was inspired by Ursula from The Little Mermaid (1989), causing the character to become "too dark." Ultimately, the filmmakers voted in favor of having Gothel be subtle as opposed to having her remain "a one-note, domineering mother," similar to Lady Tremaine, Cinderella's cruel stepmother, from Disney's Cinderella (1950).
As reported by The Korea Times, the thought of Gothel being a villain who is both a "greedy, selfish woman and a mother figure to Rapunzel" was initially "perplexing" for animator Jin Kim, and it wasn't until after Kim heard Gothel's "Mother Knows Best" for the first time that he "came up with the 1940s Hollywood screen siren motif" for the character. The directors also strived to make it obvious that Mother Gothel and Rapunzel are not related. Greno told Animation World Network, "When they're standing together, it is very clear that this is not a mother and daughter, just by the frames of their bodies, their hair, the pigments of their skin," as opposed to when Rapunzel is in close proximity with her true parents, the King and Queen. Howard added that, in comparison to Rapunzel, "Gothel is very tall and curvy, she's very voluptuous, she's got this very exotic look to her. Even down to that curly hair, we’re trying to say visually that this is not this girl's mother." The animators studied footage of Murphy to get "ideas about facial expressions" and "gestures." After much speculation, the directors finally admitted that, in addition to Murphy, Gothel's physical appearance was in fact influenced by American singer Cher. Howard explained that this was "because Cher is very exotic and Gothic looking," continuing that the singer "definitely was one of the people we looked at visually, as far as what gives you a striking character."
Because Mother Gothel is constantly lying to and belittling Rapunzel, the terms gaslighting and passive-aggressive has since gone on to be commonly associated with Gothel. Critics felt that Gothel could possibly pioneer "a new kind of Disney villainess," introducing "the undermining, passive-aggressive, guilt-trip-inducing witch." The Village Voice wrote that, as a villain, Gothel "is Disney's first villainess whose chief crime is being an underminer," warning Rapunzel that she is simply "too silly, too uneducated, too unsophisticated" to survive life outside of the tower. The Los Angeles Times referred to Gothel as "A guilt-tripping, overprotective, super-manipulative parent from hell." One film critic observed that "Gothel is one of the most understated villains Disney has used in a long time. She harkens back to the wicked step mother idea in Cinderella ... She proves it's possible to be evil without all the theatrics." The author continued, "Gothel is one for the ages with a bit of darkly comedic timing and the overall greed and menace a villain needs to be disdained." The character has received comparisons to the Evil Queen, Snow White's stepmother, from Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
Donna Murphy believed that Gothel did really love Rapunzel in her own way.
> "I also think there is this thread of a kind of love that she does have for Rapunzel. It's not what she set out. But she does raise this child and it's the most intimate and certainly the most sustained relationship I think the woman has had in her 387 years or however old she might be. So as deep as the need is to get something for herself, she can't help but fall in love with her. She's spirited, creative, and charming and I think that stirs something in her that is confusing for Gothel. And Gothel has to keep reminding herself of what is most important, which is taking care of herself. But I think there is a genuine kind of humanity. It's by degree, it's not unconditional love but there is a love that develops."
### Music
Mother Gothel performs two of the film's songs: "Mother Knows Best," described as a "brassy, Broadway-targeted tune" and an "authoritarian anthem" in which Gothel warns her daughter "all about the evils out to get Rapunzel," and "Mother Knows Best (Reprise)," both written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater. While making Rapunzel's music more modern in the vein of a singer-songwriter, "young and contemporary and fresh," Menken decided to make Gothel's songs "more classic Broadway," described as more of "a big stage diva type" of music. Critics have observed similarities between "Mother Knows Best" and "Out There" from Disney's The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), on which Menken also served as a composer.
Musically, the filmmakers "were open ... to ideas that [Murphy] had," as the actress had felt different about "a slightly different ending to something musically in the arrangement," requesting to try something else, to which the filmmakers responded, "Absolutely!"
## Appearances
### Tangled
Mother Gothel appears in Tangled (2010). For hundreds of years, Gothel hoarded the rejuvenation powers of a magical golden flower to remain young and beautiful, while keeping the flower's existence a secret from the rest of the world. However, when the pregnant Queen of Corona falls fatally ill, the flower is desperately retrieved and fed to her, healing her and in turn inadvertently stripping Gothel of her access to the only thing keeping her alive. The King and Queen's newborn daughter Rapunzel is gifted with the flower's abilities, which manifest via her golden hair when a special song is sung. Gothel cuts the baby's hair in an attempt to use it for her own needs, but kidnaps Rapunzel when she discovers that the hair turns brown and powerless once cut. She then raises Rapunzel as her daughter in an isolated tower for eighteen years.
As her eighteenth birthday approaches, Rapunzel wishes to leave the tower to view the "floating lights", lanterns released annually by the King and Queen in remembrance of their lost daughter. Gothel forbids this, but agrees to Rapunzel's request to take a three-day journey to retrieve art supplies for Rapunzel's birthday. Her absence gives Rapunzel enough time to escape the tower, aided by a wanted thief named Flynn Rider. Gothel quickly realizes Rapunzel has gone missing, and begins pursuing Rapunzel and Flynn.
Enlisting the help of the Stabbington brothers, a duo of thieves who were once betrayed by Flynn, Gothel offers them both revenge on Flynn Rider and the use of Rapunzel's gift once they agree to help her find them, not intending to keep the latter part of her promise as she wants Rapunzel for herself. When her initial attempt to convince Rapunzel to return home with her fails, Gothel tricks the brothers into immobilizing Flynn and leaving him to be captured by the royal guard. She stages a rescue by knocking the brothers unconscious when they attempt to kidnap Rapunzel.
Convincing Rapunzel that Flynn has betrayed her, they return to the tower. As Flynn escapes from the dungeon, Rapunzel suddenly realizes her true identity and rebels against Gothel, only to be chained and gagged. Gothel fatally stabs Flynn upon his arrival and attempts to leave with Rapunzel, who offers to go willingly with her if she can heal Flynn. Gothel reluctantly releases her. However, Flynn unexpectedly cuts Rapunzel's hair, causing it to lose its magic and turn brown. Failing to salvage the hair, Gothel falls from the tower's window and disintegrates into dust. Flynn succumbs to his wound and dies in Rapunzel's arms, but is miraculously returned to life by Rapunzel's tears, and she is finally reunited with her biological parents.
### Tangled: Before Ever After
Having died six months prior to the film's events, Mother Gothel appears in the 2D Tangled: Before Ever After as a painting in Rapunzel's mural on her bedchamber walls. Eugene (Flynn Rider) described how she had hoarded the mystical healing powers of the golden Sundrop Flower to sustain her youth and beauty and how she had stolen the infant princess and kept her locked up in a tower for eighteen long years. She is last mentioned when Eugene had saved Rapunzel from her wrath, which had resulted in him being stabbed to death by her silver knife.
A few days later, when the coronation ceremony was interrupted by the arrival of the notorious criminal Lady Cain had told Rapunzel that she had no idea who she was dealing with, to which Rapunzel replied that she has "dealt with much worse", referencing her experience with Gothel,
### Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure
She appears in a nightmare Princess Rapunzel had, in "What the Hair!?" after her seventy-feet long magical blonde hair had mysteriously returned nearly a week ago. She had bragged about how Rapunzel thought that she was "gone forever" and had expressed her wicked delight in seeing that her "daughter's" golden hair and its mystical properties had returned. She then comfortingly told Rapunzel that she came back to bring her back to her tower, where she would be "safe and secure." It was then that the black rock spikes, which resulted in the regrowth of Rapunzel's 70-feet golden hair, appear all around her.
In "The Quest for Varian", a smug Eugene had shown Maximus the window of the tower was "where Mother Gothel fell to her doom."
In "The Alchemist Returns", Princess Rapunzel says to her father King Fredric that he is not the first person to lie to her and say that she is not ready for the real world, as a reference to her adopted mother.
In the second season's episode "Rapunzel: Day One", Gothel is referenced by an amnesic Rapunzel who, having lost her memories, naturally thinks that Gothel is her mother. She excitedly pointed out to Cassandra that she should "try the special spice Mother makes".
She reappeared in "Rapunzeltopia" in a nightmare created by the evil magic of Tromus the Eternal, one of the ghostly disciples of the dark sorcerer Zhan Tiri. In "Lost and Found", a flashback of Lord Demantius' implies that Gothel was formerly one of his three disciples who had double-crossed him to his longtime archenemy Zhan Tiri.
In the first half of the final season premiere "Rapunzel's Return", Cassandra encountered a child-like spirit later revealed to be Zhan Tiri. Zhan Tiri reveals to Cassandra that she is Gothel's biological daughter, showing her the events following the newborn Rapunzel's abduction where Gothel abandoned her four-year old Cassandra when the Captain of Royal Guard stumbled across her cottage with him adopting the girl. Zhan Tiri exploits that resentment to turn Cassandra on her friends, lashing out at her adopted father in "Islands Apart" for hiding the truth of her mother from her. She also lashes at Rapunzel in the 2-part episode "Cassandra's Revenge", sarcastically stating to Rapunzel that they should "have a chat" about her mother choosing Rapunzel over her own flesh and blood. Rapunzel tried to explain that Gothel had abducted her and held her against her will, that it was not her decision. Still incensed, Cassandra asked if it was her decision to push her out a window.
In "A Tale of Two Sisters", it is said that Gothel's restless spirit now haunts the cottage where she had lived with a young Cassandra before deserting her. A curious Cassandra and Rapunzel go to investigate these rumors, but it is actually a ruse by the Enchanted Girl (Zhan Tiri) to further push the human hosts of the Sundrop Flower and Moonstone Opal apart. By further exploring, the two women find out that Gothel had a diary of sorts in the form of magic mirrors, that displayed her overly narcissistic self and disdain for her young daughter Cassandra. A painting of her is seen above the fireplace before it was burned by green fire. A missing broken hand mirror then showed a seemingly loving memory of Gothel expressing her motherly affection toward Cassandra but was, in truth, hiding the fact that she had only said such sweet words to keep Cassandra out of her hair for awhile, as she always considered her own child a "lousy, little pest."
## In other media
### Merchandise
In addition to the popular Mother Gothel Classic Doll and appearing alongside Rapunzel, Flynn, Pascal and Maximus in the Rapunzel Tangled Figure Play Set, the character's likeness has since been adapted and modified by Disney into a much more glamorous doll for sale alongside several re-imagined Disney villainesses as part of the company's Disney Villains Designer Collection, released in 2012. Costumed in a long burgundy gown made of satin, Gothel wears her thick black hair in "a theatrical up-do."
### Once Upon a Time
Mother Gothel appears on the ABC television series Once Upon a Time, portrayed by actress Emma Booth. She débuts in the seventh season and is one of the main antagonists. This version is a dryad who inherits the title of Mother Nature from the previous Queen of the Dryads named Mother Flora (portrayed by Gabrielle Miller) following a massacre on the dryads. She is the mother of Alice with the Captain Hook of the Wish Realm and became a powerful witch who is the leader of the Coven of the Eight. In Hyperion Heights, she is an accomplice of Drizella and is known as Eloise Gardener.
### Video games
#### Disney Magic Kingdoms
Mother Gothel appears as a playable character in the video game Disney Magic Kingdoms. Before being unlocked, she acts as the third enemy boss in the game's main storyline.
#### Kingdom Hearts
Mother Gothel made her debut appearance in the Kingdom Hearts series in Kingdom Hearts III, with Murphy reprising her role in the English version. Her role plays out as in the film, but here, she strikes an alliance with the True Organization XIII in exchange for bringing Rapunzel back to the tower. But after she restrains Rapunzel and attacks Eugene, they conclude that her extreme darkness could destroy her world and turn her into a Heartless called the Grim Guardianess to use in the Second Keyblade War, but she is quickly vanquished by Sora.
### Books
#### Mother Knows Best: A Tale of the Old Witch
In the fifth book in the Villains series by author Serena Valentino, Gothel lives in the Dead Woods alongside her sisters Primrose and Hazel and their mother Manea. In order to obtain the skills of magic, the sisters must drink their mother's blood. During the ceremony, Manea threatens to kill both Primrose and Hazel, and in response Gothel sets fire to her and the magical rapunzel flowers that grant youth and health. One flower survives. Soon the vengeful spirit of Manea attacks Gothel and her sisters. While Gothel survives and banishes her mother's spirit once and for all, her sisters get sick and weak. The Odd Sisters arrive in the Woods and claim they wish to help Gothel heal her sisters. But despite this promise, Hazel and Primrose die. Using dark magic and the one flower, Gothel and the Odd Sisters put Primrose and Hazel into a kind of stasis, even though Hazel and Primrose beg Gothel to let them die. Gothel succumbs to sleep while their loyal servant, Jacob, buries Primrose and Hazel in a grave and uses the one flower left to keep Gothel alive for years.
Gothel awakens after many years once Jacob is instructed by the Odd Sisters to do so. Gothel finds out the King of Corona has sent a force to the Dead Woods to obtain the last golden flower for his sick queen. Gothel flees to a cottage far away, along with the bodies of her two sisters that have been kept in stasis all this time. At the cottage she once again encounters the Odd Sisters. Lucinda goes out into the village nearby and hires a housekeeper, Mrs. Tiddlebottom. The sisters then depart. Soon the forces of Corona come to the cottage, seeking the flower again. Gothel hides while Mrs. Tiddlebottom distracts the soldiers, but loses the flower in the process. Gothel then goes and kidnaps the baby Rapunzel. However, Gothel does not have a hand in raising her, and Mrs. Tiddlebottom, alongside a nanny named Mrs. Lovelace, raises her till her eighth birthday.
On Rapunzel's eighth birthday, the Odd Sisters come to find Gothel has gone totally mad. She is dressing like the sisters and claims she is one of them. While the sisters are stunned and put off by this, they agree to help Gothel by attempting to use Rapunzel's hair to resurrect Primrose and Hazel. Mrs. Lovelace walks in and discovers them, screaming in the middle of the dark ceremony. As a result, Mrs Lovelace is killed, Mrs Tiddlebottom's memory is wiped, and the Odd Sisters put Rapunzel and her new pet Pascal to sleep. Gothel stores them in a tower and for the next decade Rapunzel sleeps, unaware that rather than having a happy childhood, she has been asleep the whole time, with Gothel using her hair to keep herself young.
Following the events of the previous book, the Odd Sisters are trapped in the realm of mirrors. When Gothel reaches out to them, they reveal Rapunzel has awakened, and that they cannot help Gothel. When Gothel snaps at them in anger, the sisters refuse to help, and watch what transpires from their mirrors. Through their influence, Flynn Rider arrives at the tower while Gothel is away to check on her sisters, and he and Rapunzel escape. The events after this mirror those of the film, as the Odd Sisters watch with glee as Gothel eventually dies when Flynn cuts Rapunzel's hair and she falls out of the tower, turning to dust.
In the sixth book The Odd Sisters, it is revealed she is the younger sister of the Odd Sisters, having been born following the events that led to the creation of the Odd Sisters.
## Reception
Mother Gothel has garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics. Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times felt that the character was given the film's "best lines and tunes". Film4 described Gothel as a "fun" character "to the extent that she risks making the good guys seem a bit dull." Hailing Gothel as the film's "pièce de résistance", Georgie Hobbs of Little White Lies wrote that Gothel "performs ... 'Mother Knows Best' ... with a schizophrenic frenzy worthy of the very best of [Stephen] Sondheim's crazed heroines". IGN's Jim Vejvoda penned, "Mother Gothel nearly steals the show, with her overprotective tyranny being made to seem almost rational". Dubbed Disney's "first passive-aggressive villain" by Helen O'Hara of Empire, the author reviewed, "the fact that [Gothel] is entirely bereft of superpowers and reliant on her considerable wits to keep her going makes her strangely admirable". Writing for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Cathy Jakicic called the character "a great contemporary villain" who "many daughters (and mothers) will find ... funny and a little too familiar". In The New York Times' A. O. Scott's opinion, "The Disney pantheon is full of evil stepmothers, though none quite match Mother Gothel for sheer sadistic intensity." According to Jake Coyle of the Southtown Star, Gothel is "one of Disney's best" villains, while Gary Thompson of the Philadelphia Daily News dubbed the character "one reason to love Disney". Michael Smith of the Tulsa World reviewed Gothel as "perfectly wicked as she kills Rapunzel's dreams". Kirk Baird of The Blade identified Gothel as the film's "strongest character". Colin Covert of the Star Tribune commented, "In her own way, Gothel is scarier than Snow White's wicked stepmother" because the character "doesn't cast spells; she's fully capable of manipulating, guilt-tripping and emotionally undermining the girl". Several comparisons have been made between Gothel and the Evil Queen in Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), while several critics observed the character's likeness to singer Cher; Peter Howell of the Toronto Star joked that Gothel is "suspiciously Cher-like in her quest for eternal youth".
However, critics were not unanimous in their praise, as some reviewers felt that the character was too passive and tame to be a convincing villain. Jeff Meyers of the Detroit Metro Times wrote that the film's "villain isn't all that villainous", while Tyler Hanley of the Palo Alto Daily News received Gothel as too "one-dimensional and generic". PopMatters' Bill Gibron wrote that, as a villain, Gothel "can't compete with traditional House of Mouse miscreants like Maleficent or Cruella de Vil". Alison Gang of U-T San Diego felt that Gothel was an "annoying" character at times, while USA Today's Claudia Puig wrote that "Gothel plays the role of Rapunzel's loving mom [only] sometimes convincingly". Although Michelle Orange of Movieline enjoyed Gothel's personality to an extent, the author criticized the character in a mixed review that "By reducing Mother Gothel to a vain woman who doesn't want immortality so much as she's determined to keep her profile taut, the film misses the chance to get seriously mythical, and as a result the narrative lacks dramatic impact."
Meanwhile, Murphy's performance has garnered unanimous praise. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly highlighted Gothel as "a firecracker" amidst an otherwise "sedate" cast. Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote that "Donna Murphy does evil deliciously as the voice of Mother Gothel", while Now's Norman Wilner felt that the actress successfully "channelled" Broadway actress Patti LuPone in her performance. Meanwhile, Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph compared Murphy's performance to actress Julie Andrews, writing, "the Julie-Andrews-on-stimulants vocal stylings of Broadway star Donna Murphy ... makes Mother Gothel into a memorable manipulative diva". Joe Neumaier of the Daily News called Murphy's acting "deliciously mischievous". Meanwhile, Jonathan Crocker of Total Film wrote, "Donna Murphy's vocal performance as the vain, villainous fake-matriarch is marvellous", adding, "her belted-out rendition of 'Mother Knows Best' is easily the film's top musical number". Likewise, the Tampa Bay Times' Steve Persall penned, "Nobody but Murphy should be cast as Gothel", continuing, "her 'Mother Knows Best' is a knockout". Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy felt that "Donna Murphy steals the show". Similarly dubbing Murphy a scene-stealer, Canoe.ca's Lindsey Ward wrote that "Murphy ... turns into a giant spectacle with her voice, a powerful force to be reckoned with". David Edelstein of Vulture.com hailed Murphy as "Broadway's gift to animated movies", praising in particular the actress' delivery of "the movie's best line: "Oh, so I'm the bad guy now?” Quickflix deemed Murphy "wonderful", while Stephen Witty of The Star-Ledger' called her "terrific". Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media opined, "As for the dramatic tension, it's best in the form of Mother Gothel – brilliantly played by Murphy, whose signature Broadway voice ... adds the necessary punch". Chen added that Gothel "is ... a personal favorite" while comparing the character to Cher and actress Sophia Loren. The A.V. Club's Tasha Robinson wrote that Gothel was "magnificently voiced by star Murphy". Murphy's performance of "Mother Knows Best" has also been very positively received, with critics again comparing the actress to Julie Andrews. While calling Gothel's voice "to die for", Peter Travers of Rolling Stone deemed her performance of the song "comic bliss". Linda Cook of the Quad-City Times penned that the song was "belted out wonderfully by Murphy and makes the purchase of the soundtrack worthwhile". Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle opined, "Murphy brings stage showmanship to her musical interludes as Mother Gothel, which drip with sarcasm and biting wit." Slant Magazine's Christian Blauvelt, who felt that the film's songs lacked as a result of Moore's "pop-star vocals", happened to very much enjoy Gothel's performances, writing, "when Broadway vet Murphy takes to scaling Menken's octave-climbing melodies like a vocal escalator, it's a different story". Calling Gothel "one of the most potent schemers in the Disney canon", Time's Richard Corliss felt that Murphy's performance was worthy of a Tony Award for Best Actress, concluding, "no one can summon the malice in humor, and the fun in pain, like this prima Donna". In his review of the film's soundtrack, James Christopher Monger of AllMusic wrote that both "Moore and Murphy take on the lion's share of the work here, and both deliver the goods".
IGN ranked Mother Gothel fourth on their list of "the 12 Disney Villainesses". In a list of the thirty-three greatest Disney villains conducted by E!, Mother Gothel was ranked twenty-fifth.
|
16,044,681 |
Does Anybody Hear Her
| 1,152,335,258 | null |
[
"2000s ballads",
"2006 singles",
"Casting Crowns songs",
"Rock ballads",
"Songs written by Mark Hall (musician)"
] |
"Does Anybody Hear Her" is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns, released by Beach Street Records, Reunion Records, and Provident Label Group. Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller, it was released on September 23, 2006, as the third single from the band's 2005 album Lifesong. An alternative CCM and adult contemporary song, "Does Anybody Hear Her" relates the story of a girl who is being pushed away by the Christian church as well as the message that condemning other people is wrong.
"Does Anybody Hear Her" received positive reviews from most music critics, many of whom praised the song's lyrical theme. It was successful on Christian radio, peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts; it also topped the Radio & Records Christian AC and Soft AC/Inspirational charts. It ranked at number 33 on the 2000s decade-end Hot Christian AC chart and number 46 on the 2000s decade-end Hot Christian Songs chart.
## Background and production
According to lead vocalist Mark Hall, "Does Anybody Hear Her" is about a girl "who is making all the wrong decisions and about how" and how the Christian church is not there for her. Hall began writing the song around 2000 about a girl in his youth group; it ultimately encompassed around 15-20 girls who due to their father not being there for them tried to find intimacy elsewhere, ultimate "[giving] themselves away to the first person who loves them". Hall said that "We [the Christian church] attach identities to people, saying, 'It’s too late to reach this person,' or 'This person here, there’s still some good there, so we should try on this one,' or 'This one’s a lost cause, we just need to get him out of here'. That’s a scary place to live if you’re that person — if you didn’t make the church’s 'list'".
"Does Anybody Hear Her" was written by Mark Hall. It was produced by Mark A. Miller and recorded and mixed by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin, Tennessee. Additional recording was done at Lifesong Studio in McDonough, Georgia. The song was mastered by Richard Dodd and engineered by Dale Oliver and John Lewis Lee III. The strings on the song were arranged by Bobby Huff and were recorded at Little Big Studio by Boeho Shin and Daewoo Kim.
## Composition
"Does Anybody Hear Her" is a song with a length of four minutes and 28 seconds. According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com, it is set in common time in the key of F major (although the band usually performs the song live in the key of E major) and has a tempo of 77 beats per minute. Mark Hall's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of C<sub>4</sub> to the high note of F<sub>5</sub>. A ballad, "Does Anybody Hear Her" is an alternative CCM and adult contemporary song. Lyrically, the song relates the story of a young woman who is being pushed away by the Christian church. It delivers the message that condemning other people is wrong and that the Christian church is being too judgmental of pregnant teenagers.
## Critical reception
"Does Anybody Hear Her" received positive reviews from most music critics. Kim Jones of About.com called the song her favorite off of Lifesong. Jared Johnson of Allmusic praised the song as an example of "Mark Hall's artistic balladry". Deborah Evans Price of Billboard described it as "potent". David McCreary of CCM Magazine felt that the song's "softer cadence" didn't diminish its "hard-hitting message". Although describing it as "poignant", Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today felt the song was too broad in scope. John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout described "Does Anybody Hear Her" as "a step backwards from the opening tracks [of Lifesong]" but felt that its musical tone "still works in the grand scheme of the song's message".
## Release and chart performance
"Does Anybody Hear Her" was released to Christian AC and Soft AC/Inspirational radio on September 23, 2006. It debuted at number twenty-four on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs for the chart week of November 4, 2006. It advanced to number five in its seventh chart week and to number four in its 12th chart week. In its 15th chart week, "Does Anybody Hear Her" hit the number one position, which it held for six consecutive weeks. In total, it spent 33 weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart. It also peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian AC and Radio & Records Christian AC and Soft AC/Inspirational charts.
"Does Anybody Hear Her" ranked at number 89 on the 2006 year-end Radio & Records Christian AC chart. It ranked at number eight on the 2007 year-end Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and at number 10 on the 2007 year-end Hot Christian Songs chart, as well as at number eight on the 2007 year-end Radio & Records Christian AC chart and number 13 on the 2007 year-end Soft AC/Inspirational chart. On the decade-end Billboard charts, "Does Anybody Hear Her" ranked at number 33 on the Hot Christian AC chart and number 46 on the Hot Christian Songs chart.
## Live performances
Casting Crowns performed "Does Anybody Hear Her" as the fourth song on their set list at a concert on November 12, 2005, at the Stabler Arena in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. They performed it as the eleventh song on their setlist at a concert on February 4, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. As part of an acoustic set at a concert on February 28, 2010, in Hershey, Pennsylvania.
## Track listing
Digital download
1. "Does Anybody Hear Her" – 4:28
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the album liner notes of Lifesong.
Casting Crowns
- Hector Cervantes – Electric guitar
- Juan DeVevo – Electric guitar, acoustic guitar
- Melodee DeVevo – Violin
- Hector Cervantes – Piano, keyboard
- Mark Hall – Vocals
- Chris Huffman – Bass guitar
- Andy Williams – Drums
Additional musicians
- David Angell - Violin
- Monisa Angell - Violin
- David Davidson - Contractor, concertmaster
- Jack Jezioro - Bass
- Anthony Lamarchina - Cello
- Sarighani Reist - Cello
- Pamela Sixfin - Violin
- Mary Vanosdale - Violin
- Kristin Wilkinson - Viola
Technical
- Richard Dodd - Mastering
- Terry Hemmings - Executive producer
- Sam Hewitt - Recording, mixing
- Bobby Huff - String arrangement
- Daewoo Kim - Recording (strings)
- John Lewis Lee III - Engineering
- Jason McArthur - A&R Coordination
- Dale Oliver - Engineering
- Mark A. Miller - Producer
- Boeho "Bobby" Shin - Recording (strings)
## Charts
## Release and radio history
|
16,384,249 |
Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama
| 1,170,661,856 | null |
[
"2005 in Alabama",
"Effects of hurricanes in the United States",
"Hurricane Dennis",
"Hurricanes in Alabama",
"Tropical cyclones in 2005"
] |
The Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama included \$127 million (2005 USD) in damage and three injuries. Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale on July 10, 2005, before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane. In preparation for the storm, about 500,000 people were given evacuation orders, and the Red Cross opened 87 shelters. As a result, all southbound lanes of Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed.
Hurricane Dennis caused modest damage in Alabama, mostly related to moderate wind gusts. Several counties within the state reported downed trees and powerlines, leaving a total of 280,000 people without electric power. Downed trees also left numerous county and state roads temporarily impassable. Maximum rainfall peaked at 12.80 in (325 mm) near Camden and top wind gusts surpassed 70 mph (110 km/h). Despite the damage, there were no fatalities, although three injuries occurred. Also, an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home, forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside.
## Storm history and preparations
On June 29, 2005, a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa. Gradually, the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area. The system continued to organize, and became a tropical depression on July 4. Tracking westward, it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7. Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba. The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re-emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying. Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane.
On July 8, a hurricane watch was put into effect for coastal areas between the Pearl River and the Steinhatchee River. Early on July 9, the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning in anticipation of the storm. Early on July 10 prior to Dennis' landfall, the warning was discontinued for locations between the Steinhatchee River and the Ochlockonee River, leaving Alabama within the advisory. Just hours after the storm moved ashore, the warning was adjusted to include areas from the Alabama/Mississippi border to Destin, Florida. On July 10, the coastal hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning, although inland hurricane warnings remained in place. At 2200 (UTC) on July 10, all tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued as the hurricane progressed inland.
About 500,000 people were given evacuation orders in the state, mostly in coastal areas. Residents in Mobile County, and those south of I-10 in Baldwin County, were ordered to evacuate. Similar orders were issued in Mississippi for parts of Jackson, Hancock, and Harrison counties, and for coastal areas in the Florida Panhandle stretching from Escambia County to Bay County.
At 2300 (UTC) on July 9, 2005, all southbound lanes on Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed. Traffic was redirected, making all four lanes northbound to allow evacuations. Likewise, military installations such as NAS Pensacola, Whiting Field, Eglin AFB, Hurlburt Field and Tyndall AFB were all evacuated days before the storm. Red Cross officials opened 87 shelters across the state which were able to hold about 14,000 evacuees.
## Impact
As Hurricane Dennis moved through the state, sustained winds reached minimal hurricane force in the interior of the state. In total, 280,000 people in Alabama experienced power outages during the storm. No deaths occurred, although Dennis caused three injuries and total damage amounted to \$127 million (2005 USD), mostly due to structural damage. There was also severe damage to cotton crops.
Rainfall typically ranged from 2–4 inches (51–102 millimetres), although rainfall in localized areas reached 12.80 in (325 mm). This caused numerous rivers to overflow causing widespread, locally major, flash flooding. The rainfall flooded numerous state and county roads, some with water up to 5 ft (1.5 m) deep. Parts of Interstate 20 were overwashed with water, temporarily closing the highway. In Dallas County, a mudslide closed a section of State Highway 5. In Greene County, the minor flooding was reported along the Tombigbee River. Throughout the region, numerous bridges were washed away several homes were flooded, sustaining major damage in some cases.
Storm surge generally ranged from 3–6.5 ft (0.91–1.98 m), with the highest surge reported in Mobile Bay as winds became onshore during Dennis' landfall.
A wind gust of 51 mph (82 km/h) was reported at Dothan, with minimum barometric pressure reaching 999.2 mb. It is reported that the worst damage occurred in Escambia and Monroe counties. In the Escambia County city of Atmore, 100 percent of the city's residents lost electric power for some a period of time during the hurricane. The strongest winds occurred in Escambia County, where gusts surpassed 70 mph (110 km/h), leaving numerous structures damaged or destroyed as Dennis tracked through the western half of the county. One man in the county was injured by a fallen tree branch. Also, an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home, forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside. In Coffee County, local officials reported wind gusts had blown a carport into a wall of a house. Marengo County received moderate damage, mostly limited to power outages and minor roof and structural damage caused by fallen trees and powerlines. Many customers were without electric power for at least a day, and numerous county roads were covered with debris. A person was injured in Dallas County when a tree landed on their car. Five homes and one business were damaged due to high winds, and thousands of people county-wide experienced power outages. Greene County reported hundreds of downed trees and powerlines causing County Roads 148 and 20 and State Highways 11, 43 and 14 to be temporarily closed. In Forkland, a mobile home caught fire when a powerline fell on the home. A motorist ran into a fallen tree in Boligee although did not sustain injuries. In Perry County, 2,200 homes were without electric power for several hours, and several vehicles and homes were damaged. A structural fire occurred in Russell County and was believed to be ignited by downed powerlines.
Wind gusts in Autauga County surpassed 50 miles per hour (80 km/h), causing \$180,000 dollars (2005 USD) in damage. The Robinson Springs United Methodist Church had part of its roof torn off in Elmore County, while numerous other homes sustained roof damage. One person was injured in Montgomery County when a tree fell on their vehicle. Another person was injured in Clay County when he ran his vehicle into a downed tree. A structural fire occurred in Randolph County as a result of fallen powerlines.
## Aftermath
Shortly after Hurricane Dennis made landfall in Florida, President George W. Bush ordered the federal government to provide necessary disaster resources and assets for the state to aid people who were affected by the storm. Also, 45 counties in the state were eligible for federal funds to pay 75 percent of the approved costs for debris removal and emergency protective services related to the hurricane, including requested emergency work undertaken by the federal government. On July 11, Escambia County joined Baldwin and Mobile counties to be eligible to receive individual assistance funds.
Shortly after, on July 13, two Disaster Recovery Centers opened to provide information to those who have suffered damage. The next day, state and federal community relations teams were deployed into Alabama's disaster-declared counties, to assist residents who suffered from Dennis. The Alabama Emergency Management Agency (AEMA) and the Department of Homeland Security's Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) had 20 federal community relations specialists and their state counterparts working in the disaster areas. Subsequently, three more Disaster Recovery Centers became scheduled to open on July 16. On July 25, four Disaster Recovery Centers in Alabama were scheduled to close. By August 19, over \$4 million (2005 USD) in individual assistance funds were received.
## See also
- Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Mississippi
- Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia
- Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida
|
4,172,536 |
Battle of Borovo Selo
| 1,172,061,887 |
First armed clashes in the conflict which became known as the Croatian War of Independence.
|
[
"1991 in Croatia",
"Battles involving Serbia",
"Battles involving Yugoslavia",
"Battles of the Croatian War of Independence",
"Conflicts in 1991",
"May 1991 events in Europe"
] |
The Battle of Borovo Selo of 2 May 1991, known in Croatia as the Borovo Selo massacre (Croatian: Pokolj u Borovom Selu) and in Serbia as the Borovo Selo incident (Serbian: Инцидент у Боровом Селу), was one of the first armed clashes in the conflict which became known as the Croatian War of Independence. The clash was precipitated by months of rising ethnic tensions, violence, and armed combat in Pakrac and at the Plitvice Lakes in March. The immediate cause for the confrontation in the heavily ethnic Serb village of Borovo Selo, just north of Vukovar, was a failed attempt to replace the Yugoslav flag in the village with the flag of Croatia. The unauthorised effort by four Croatian policemen resulted in the capture of two by a Croatian Serb militia in the village. To retrieve the captives, the Croatian authorities deployed additional police, who drove into an ambush. Twelve Croatian policemen and one Serb paramilitary were killed before the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) intervened and put an end to the clashes.
The confrontation resulted in a further deterioration of the overall situation in Croatia, leading Croats and Serbs to accuse each other of overt aggression and of being enemies of their nation. For Croatia, the event was provocative because the bodies of some of the dead Croat policemen killed in the incident were reportedly mutilated. The clash in Borovo Selo eliminated any hopes that the escalating conflict could be defused politically and made the war almost inevitable. The Presidency of Yugoslavia convened several days after the battle and authorised the JNA to deploy to the area to prevent further conflict. Despite this deployment, skirmishes persisted in the region. After the war, a former paramilitary was convicted of war crimes for his role in abusing the two captured policemen, and ultimately sentenced to three years in prison. Four others were indicted, but remain at large outside Croatia.
## Background
In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union (Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ), ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened. The Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) confiscated the weapons of Croatia's Territorial Defence (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) in order to minimise the possibility of violence following the elections. On 17 August, inter-ethnic tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs, centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, and parts of Lika, Kordun, Banovina and eastern Croatia.
In July 1990, local Serbs established a Serbian National Council to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman's policy of pursuing Croatian independence from Yugoslavia. Milan Babić, a dentist from Knin, was elected president of the council, while Knin's police chief, Milan Martić, established a number of paramilitary militias. The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the Serb Autonomous Oblast of Krajina (SAO Krajina), a self-declared state incorporating the Serb-inhabited areas of Croatia. In March 1991, SAO Krajina authorities, backed by the government of Serbia, began consolidating control over the Serb-populated areas of Croatia, resulting in a bloodless skirmish in Pakrac and the first fatalities in the Plitvice Lakes incident.
At the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. In an effort to bolster its defence, it doubled the number of police personnel to about 20,000. The most effective part of the police force was the 3,000-strong special police, which was deployed in twelve military-style battalions. In addition, Croatia had 9,000–10,000 regionally organised reserve police officers organised in 16 battalions and 10 companies, but they lacked weapons.
## Prelude
In 1991, the village of Borovo Selo, situated on the right bank of the Danube opposite Serbia, was a part of the Vukovar municipality. While the city of Vukovar itself had an ethnically mixed population of 47.2 per cent Croats and 32.2 per cent Serbs, smaller settlements in the area were more homogeneous. Fourteen were predominantly populated by Croats, ten (including Borovo Selo) by Serbs, two by Ruthenians and the remaining two were ethnically mixed.
Amid the worsening ethnic tensions, Borovo Selo was barricaded on 1 April, one day after the Plitvice Lakes clash. Two days later, the JNA garrison in Vukovar increased its combat readiness to the maximum level. In early spring, the Croats and Serbs reached an agreement whereby Croatian police would not enter Borovo Selo without explicit consent from local Serb authorities. A political rally was held in Borovo Selo on 14 April, and by the end of the month the situation had become more volatile. Speakers at the rally—Serbian Radical Party (Srpska radikalna stranka – SRS) leader Vojislav Šešelj, Serbian National Assembly member Milan Paroški and Serbian Minister of Diaspora Stanko Cvijan—promoted the creation of Greater Serbia, a state which would unite all Serbs within a single country. They all repeated their speeches, together with an open call for dissenting Croats to be killed, a week later in Jagodnjak, north of Osijek.
In addition, White Eagles paramilitaries arrived in Borovo Selo in mid-April at the request of local militia commander Vukašin Šoškoćanin. The paramilitaries were either armed directly by Serbia's Ministry of the Interior directly or by a militia linked to the SAO Krajina, with the approval of the Serbian authorities. By the end of April 1991, the White Eagles in Borovo Selo were joined by fighters from the Dušan the Mighty paramilitary unit, which was linked to the Serbian National Renewal party.
In mid-April, Armbrust rockets were fired from Croatian positions outside Borovo Selo into the village. According to one version of the event, several rounds were fired at agricultural machinery that served as barricades in the outskirts of Borovo Selo. According to a second version, three rockets were fired at the village with the specific aim of inflaming ethnic tensions. One of the rockets struck a house and another landed in a field without detonating. There were no casualties. Radio-Television Belgrade subsequently broadcast images of the rockets and presented them as evidence of Croatian aggression, further exacerbating inter-ethnic tensions. The rockets were fired by a group of men who were led to the site by Osijek police chief Josip Reihl-Kir, who was later killed by Croatian irregulars. Croatia's Interior Minister Josip Boljkovac later indicated that the group included Deputy Defence Minister Gojko Šušak, Branimir Glavaš and Vice Vukojević. Šušak claimed that he had nothing to do with the incident, but admitted to having been in the area at the time. Nikola Jaman, then a reserve unit commander in the Ministry of the Interior, later stated that he had led the action, and denied that Šušak, Glavaš and Vukojević had been involved. He claimed that the action was planned together with Reihl-Kir.
## Timeline
During the evening of 1 May 1991, four Croatian policemen entered Borovo Selo in an unauthorised attempt to replace a flag of Yugoslavia in the village with a flag of Croatia. The attempt resulted in an armed clash. Two of the policemen were wounded and taken prisoner, and the other two fled after sustaining minor injuries (one a wounded foot and the other a grazing wound to the head). According to Croatia's Ministry of the Interior, the police had been patrolling the Dalj–Borovo Selo road at the time of the incident. Even though the officers were assigned to the Osijek police administration, the Vinkovci police administration—which was assigned authority over the Vukovar municipality—asked the Vukovar police station to contact Šoškoćanin about the incident. Vukovar police contacted him at 4:30 a.m., but Šoškoćanin reportedly said he knew nothing. At 9:00 a.m., Vinkovci police chief Josip Džaja telephoned Šoškoćanin and received the same answer. When Reihl-Kir contacted Šoškoćanin half an hour later, the latter confirmed the incident and said the police had shot at members of the local population, wounding one. Reihl-Kir failed to secure the release of the two captured officers.
Reihl-Kir and Džaja concluded that a party should be sent to Borovo Selo. Šoškoćanin agreed to grant the police safe passage under a white flag. A force of twenty to thirty policemen subsequently entered Borovo Selo. Although they bore a white flag, they were ambushed by paramilitaries and members of a local militia. Around 150 policemen arrived from Osijek and Vinkovci on buses and were deployed as reinforcements. The force dispatched from Vinkovci entered Borovo Selo and was ambushed, while the reinforcements sent from Osijek via Dalj were stopped at a roadblock north of Borovo Selo and failed to enter the village. A firefight ensued and lasted until 2:30 p.m., when seven JNA armoured personnel carriers (APCs) moved into the village from Dalj. Another convoy of APCs deployed by the JNA through Borovo Naselje, just south of Borovo Selo, was stopped by a crowd of Croat women who refused to let them through.
## Aftermath
### Casualties
Twelve Croatian policemen were killed and 21 injured in the ambush. The two captured policemen were ferried across the Danube and transported to Novi Sad, but were released and returned to Osijek by the evening of 2 May. Vojislav Milić, a paramilitary from Valjevo, was the only fatality among the Serb militia. Four other paramilitaries were wounded. Some of the police killed at Borovo Selo were found to have been mutilated, their ears cut, their eyes gouged out and their throats slit. These acts were meant to inflame ethnic hatred.
### Escalation to war
The clash led Tuđman's advisers to advocate an immediate declaration of independence from Yugoslavia and retaliation against the JNA, which Croats viewed as being pro-Serb. On 3 May, Tuđman opined that Croatia and Serbia were virtually at war, but said he hoped the international community would stop the violence. According to the Croatian historian Davor Marijan, Tuđman's decision not to retaliate against the JNA was often interpreted at the time as cowardice bordering treason, leading to public criticism and the resignation of General Martin Špegelj from the post of Defence Minister. Nonetheless, the decision afforded Croatia much-needed time to prepare for war, as Yugoslav Navy Fleet Admiral Branko Mamula later acknowledged. The incident shocked the Croatian public, causing a massive shift in public opinion towards demonisation of Serbs, supported by the Croatian media. Serbs were collectively labelled "Chetniks", "terrorists" and "enemies of Croatia". Similarly, Serbs referred to Croats as "Ustaše" and "enemies of the Serb people". Thus, a political settlement to avoid all-out war became increasingly unlikely. After the clash, war appeared unavoidable.
On 8–9 May, the Presidency of Yugoslavia convened to discuss the events in Borovo Selo and deliberate over a JNA request for military intervention. The presidents of all of Yugoslavia's constituent republics were present at the meeting. The Croatian leadership permitted the JNA to be deployed to areas where inter-ethnic tensions were running high. On 9 May, representatives of the federal and Croatian governments visited Vukovar. Federal representatives visited Borovo Selo, unlike the Croatian government officials who stated they "refused to talk to terrorists". In response to the Borovo Selo clash, the JNA redeployed a part of the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade from Osijek and the 1st Mechanised Battalion of the 453rd Mechanised Brigade based in Sremska Mitrovica to the Vukovar area. At the same time, the 2nd Mechanised Battalion of the 36th Mechanised Brigade was moved from Subotica to Vinkovci. Despite the deployment of the JNA in the area, ethnically motivated skirmishes persisted until the start of the Battle of Vukovar in late August.
### Memorial controversy and prosecution
During the 1996–98 United Nations administration established pursuant to the Erdut Agreement to restore the area to Croatian control, three Croatian non-governmental organisations erected a memorial on public property at the entrance to Borovo Selo, but the site was quickly vandalised. A new monument was erected in the centre of the village in 2002, but this was also vandalised soon after completion. A new plaque bearing the names of the 12 Croatian policemen killed in the incident was added to the monument in 2012, but was also subject to vandalism. Although the vandalism was condemned by local Serb politicians, they complained that the memorial was offensive to the Serb minority and imposed guilt on the entire community because it branded Serb forces at Borovo Selo in 1991 as "Serb terrorists".
In February 2012, an Osijek court convicted Milan Marinković of war crimes and sentenced him to three-and-a-half years in prison for mistreating two captured Croatian police officers. In 2014, Marinković's sentence was reduced to three years on appeal. Four other men were indicted in relation to the officers' mistreatment. Since they live outside Croatia, they are not subject to prosecution by the Croatian judiciary.
|
3,095,935 |
The Staff of Karnath
| 1,108,201,184 |
1984 video game
|
[
"1984 video games",
"Action-adventure games",
"Commodore 64 games",
"Commodore 64-only games",
"Fantasy video games",
"Rare (company) games",
"Single-player video games",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom"
] |
The Staff of Karnath is an action-adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play the Game for the Commodore 64 originally in 1984 and in the United States in 1985. The game is the first instalment of the Pendragon series and is the first to feature the aristocrat adventurer Sir Arthur Pendragon. In the game, Sir Pendragon is tasked with searching a castle for the ancient Staff of Karnath, which he must destroy prior to midnight, before it wipes out the human race.
The game was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas and was the first game to be released by Ultimate without founders Tim and Chris Stamper's direct involvement. The Staff of Karnath's setting and visuals were heavily inspired from the 1962 film Jack the Giant Killer. The game was met with generally positive reviews upon release. Critics were divided over its graphics and presentation, and criticised the sound. It was followed by a sequel, Entombed, which was released in 1985.
## Gameplay
The game is presented in an oblique, isometric format and is set inside a haunted castle. As Sir Arthur Pendragon, the player's main objective is to collect 16 pieces of a key before midnight, which when all connected will form the shape of a pentacle. The pieces of the pentacle are guarded by various magical creatures, some of which can be defeated by casting spells, others requiring accurately timed attacks and nimble dodging. Once a piece is obtained, the player must take it to a specific chamber within the castle. Once all pentacles have been placed in their chambers, the player can establish the whereabouts of the Staff of Karnath, which must be destroyed before midnight.
Pendragon's only form of defence in the game is his ability to utilise various magical spells, in which the correct spell is required in order to defeat certain enemies. If the player is hit by an attack of any enemy in the castle, Pendragon will lose energy, or in some cases, time will be deducted from the countdown timer. If the player completely runs out of energy or fails to destroy the Staff of Karnath before midnight, the game will end.
## Plot
Millions of years ago, creatures known as Sarnathians ruled the Earth, centring their values on torture of other creatures that were opposed to their rule. Their aim was to rule the universe using a mysterious orb that granted them great power. Thousands of years later, the orb became too powerful and eventually caused a tear in the inter-dimensional fabric of the Realm of Reality and the Realm of Unreality, thus rendering the Sarnathians extinct.
The orb itself was buried deep in the ground for millions of years, until it was discovered by Karnath, an evil sorcerer. Upon finding the orb, Karnath fused it into his own magical staff, and on doing so learned the history of the Sarnathians. He became obsessed with the orb and the task of releasing these beings from the Realm of Unreality. After years of isolation in his castle, as his own death was drawing near, Karnath was finally able to cast a powerful spell over his staff. This spell was designed such that upon contact with the orb, it would unleash its most powerful state and tear the fabric of reality once more.
The staff was then hidden deep below the castle and inscribed with powerful magical symbols to protect it. Before he died, Karnath broke the key into sixteen pieces and hid them throughout his castle. Centuries later, an aristocrat adventurer, Sir Arthur Pendragon, ventures inside the castle in order to defuse the orb before midnight. Should he fail, its power would be unleashed, and the resulting inter-dimensional rip would wipe out the human race.
## Development and release
Ultimate Play the Game was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper, along with Tim's wife, Carol, from their headquarters in Ashby-de-la-Zouch in 1982. They began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s. The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects. Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in "separate teams": one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming.
The Pendragon series and The Staff of Karnath were created by brothers Dave and Robert "Bob" Thomas, rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper. Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he began producing games for the Atari 400, including moderate-sellers such as Warlok, which later won him in a competition from Calisto Software. Although he later began working for the company in producing video games, he quit due to the strain of his daily 68 miles (109 km) commute. Shortly after quitting Calisto Software, Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath. Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy, which later aided to the military-themed visuals of the Pendragon series.
The game was programmed by Dave Thomas and the graphics were designed by Bob Thomas. According to Dave Thomas, the visuals and setting of the castle in The Staff of Karnath were inspired by the 1962 film Jack the Giant Killer. The plot of the game was also loosely based on the storyline from one of H.P. Lovecraft's short novels. Dave Thomas admitted in a retrospective interview that the name of the series protagonist, "Sir Arthur Pendragon", was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from the Jack the Giant Killer stories.
The Thomas brothers decided to show their progress on the game to Tim and Chris Stamper for evaluation, despite feeling embarrassed due to their workspace being inside their parents' attic. Impressed by the game, the Stamper brothers commissioned an entire series to be released for the Commodore 64. Dave Thomas recalled that every game they produced was met with little interference from Ultimate: once a game was complete, it would be sent to quality assessment and subsequently published for release. The Staff of Karnath sold 40,000 units upon initial release, and work on the sequel, Entombed, began "almost immediately" according to Dave Thomas.
## Reception
The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release. Computer and Video Games was divided over the graphics, stating that they were "expecting more" from an Ultimate game. Chris Anderson of Personal Computer Games felt "disappointment" in the overall game, stating that what he saw on the screen was an "anti-climax", given how Anderson had been "waiting so long" for an Ultimate release on the Commodore 64. Commodore User praised the graphics, heralding the detail as "impressive", however they criticised the moving characters of the game, calling them "not quite as impressive" as the detail of the background, and did not live up to the instruction manual's promise of "cartoon quality" animation.
Anderson of Personal Computer Games praised the overall presentation, asserting that the rooms were of "extremely realistic" quality. In the same review, Richard Patey similarly praised the graphics, stating that they were "beautiful" throughout and "[lived] up to" every expectation. Commodore User criticised the sound effects, finding them "disappointing". Patey was also sceptical regarding the sound effects, regarding them as "average". Anderson summarised that the game "isn't going to hook everyone". The Staff of Karnath was declared as the seventh best Commodore 64 game in the first issue of Zzap!64 in May 1985.
|
6,498,207 |
Charles S. Morehead
| 1,163,806,405 |
US politician, 20th governor of Kentucky
|
[
"1802 births",
"1868 deaths",
"19th-century American lawyers",
"19th-century American politicians",
"American prisoners and detainees",
"Burials at Frankfort Cemetery",
"Governors of Kentucky",
"Kentucky Attorneys General",
"Kentucky Know Nothings",
"Kentucky lawyers",
"Know-Nothing state governors of the United States",
"People from Hopkinsville, Kentucky",
"People from Nelson County, Kentucky",
"People of Kentucky in the American Civil War",
"Prisoners and detainees of the United States military",
"Speakers of the Kentucky House of Representatives",
"Transylvania University alumni",
"Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Kentucky"
] |
Charles Slaughter Morehead (July 7, 1802 – December 21, 1868) was a U.S. Representative from Kentucky, and served as the 20th Governor of Kentucky. Though a member of the Whig Party for most of his political service, he joined the Know Nothing, or American, Party in 1855, and was the only governor of Kentucky ever elected from that party.
Morehead's political service began in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1828. In 1832, he was appointed state attorney general. He served in this capacity for five years, and later returned to the Kentucky House, where he was chosen Speaker of the House three times. He was elected to Congress in 1848 and served two terms. After his congressional tenure, he joined the Know Nothing Party and was chosen as the party's candidate for governor in 1855. The campaign was marred by anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic rhetoric that touched off the "Bloody Monday" riots in Louisville.
Morehead was a delegate to the Peace Conference of 1861 and the Border States Convention that attempted to stave off the Civil War. Although he favored Kentucky's neutrality, Morehead sympathized with the South and was an open critic of the Lincoln administration. He was imprisoned for disloyalty in September 1861, although no formal charges were ever brought against him. He was released from prison in January 1862, and afterward fled to Canada, Europe, and Mexico. After the war, he returned to the United States and settled on his plantation in Greenville, Mississippi, where he died on December 21, 1868.
## Early life
Charles Slaughter Morehead was born near Bardstown, Nelson County, Kentucky, on July 7, 1802. He was the son of Charles and Margaret (Slaughter) Morehead and a first cousin to Kentucky's twelfth governor, James Turner Morehead. His father served in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly.
Morehead was educated in the area's public schools, then matriculated to Transylvania University. He earned a bachelor's degree in 1820, graduating with honors. After graduation, he became a tutor at the university and earned a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1822. He relocated to Christian County, Kentucky, was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Hopkinsville. He also worked as a farmer, and owned plantations in Mississippi and Louisiana.
Morehead married Amanda Leavy on July 10, 1823. She died July 5, 1829, at the age of twenty-five. Following her death, Morehead married Margaret Leavy, his first wife's sister, on September 6, 1831. Together they had four children. Charles and Margaret were very fond of music, theater, dances, and parties.
## Political career
Morehead was elected as a Whig to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1828 and was re-elected in 1829. Following his second term in the legislature, he moved to Frankfort, Kentucky, believing it provided better opportunities for his legal practice. He was appointed as state attorney general in 1832 and served for five years. In 1834, he co-authored A Digest of the Statute Laws of Kentucky with Mason Brown. He represented Franklin County in the state house from 1838 to 1842 and again in 1844; he was chosen Speaker of the House in 1840, 1841, and 1844.
Morehead was elected the Thirtieth and Thirty-first Congresses, serving from March 4, 1847, until March 3, 1851. During the Thirty-first Congress, the Whig caucus considered him as a candidate for Speaker of the House. The voting for speaker began December 3, 1849. The caucus first chose Robert C. Winthrop as their candidate, but after several ballots, Winthrop was still unable to obtain a majority because of sectional rivalries within the caucus. Some Whigs from northern states voted for David Wilmot, a Free Soiler, while five southern Whigs steadfastly voted for Meredith Gentry. The Democrats were similarly unable to muster a majority for their candidate, Howell Cobb.
At their caucus meeting on the night of December 10, the Whigs agreed to continue voting for Winthrop for one more day, and if he was not elected, to switch their support to Morehead, who they believed could hold all of Winthrop's votes and win the votes of the southern Whigs as well as some southern Democrats. They made their intentions known on December 11, and by the end of the day, Morehead reported that he had received commitments of support from twenty southern Democrats. During the day's voting, the five southern Whigs shifted their support from Gentry to Morehead. This shift cost Morehead the support of many northern Whigs who, at the caucus meeting the night of December 11, declared that Morehead's election "would ruin the Whig party in the North", especially if he gained the support of southern Democrats. Rather than further fracture the caucus, Morehead withdrew his name from consideration. Cobb was finally elected on the sixty-third ballot on December 22.
### Governor of Kentucky
Following his congressional tenure, Morehead resumed his law practice and management of his plantations. In 1852, he was a presidential elector for Winfield Scott, and in 1853, he served another term in the Kentucky House. By early 1855, sectional divisions had ripped apart the national Whig Party. In Kentucky, many former Whigs associated with the Know Nothing Party. Morehead was among these; he claimed that the Know Nothing Party was more "Union" than the Democratic Party. The ex-Whigs hoped to take over the Know Nothing Party and reshape it into a Unionist Whig organization. Accordingly, when the Know Nothing candidate for governor, Judge William Loving, withdrew from the race due to failing health, the influx of ex-Whigs nominated Morehead to replace him for the gubernatorial election of 1855. Prior to the dissolution of the party, most had expected the Whigs would nominate Morehead at their own party's convention in April.
Though Kentucky had only a small population of immigrants and Catholics, much of Morehead's campaign oratory was directed against these groups. Most of the state's immigrant and Catholic population resided in Louisville, and tensions there reached a climax with an anti-foreign riot known as "Bloody Monday" on August 6, 1855. Morehead won the election with 69,816 votes to 65,413 votes for Democrat Beverly L. Clarke. In his inaugural address, Morehead denounced the nullification of the Fugitive Slave Act and despite his campaign rhetoric, proclaimed "perfect equality" for naturalized citizens.
Morehead's term as governor was an active one. He approved the appropriation of funding for the first Kentucky State Fair, which was seen as a vehicle for encouraging improvements in agriculture. He also approved the formation of the Kentucky State Agricultural Society in 1856. The state geological survey begun under Governor Lazarus W. Powell was completed and published. Internal improvements progressed as well; railroad mileage in the state increased from 242 miles to 568 miles during Morehead's term.
Kentucky's school system was expanding rapidly, creating a shortage of qualified teachers in the state; Morehead responded to this need by proposing a bill for state-supported teacher education program at Transylvania University. The state's superintendent, John D. Matthews, lobbied for the bill, claiming that a failure to educate teachers in Kentucky would result in Northern teachers infiltrating the state and corrupting children's minds. The bill passed in 1856, and Transylvania University made the transition from a private institution to a state-supported university. Money raised through school taxes, previously regarded as revenue by the legislature, was diverted to support of Transylvania. Although the teacher education program enrolled seventy-five students, opposition to the plan developed soon after its passage. Many citizens felt that public school money should not be used to support higher education. Governor Morehead defended the plan, but when the legislature convened two years later, it revoked the university's funding.
The number of prisoners housed in the state penitentiary at Frankfort was also increasing. By 1856, 237 prisoners were detained in the facility which had only 126 cells. Though state law required solitary confinement at night, the statute was impossible to administer due to the space constraints. Morehead cooperated with the legislature and developed a plan to expand the penitentiary to 252 cells. He also renegotiated the state's contract with the warden that was more favorable to the state, and allowed the warden to collect income from convict labor.
Early in his term, Morehead approved two new bank charters, but he later vetoed several others, beginning with the proposed Bank of Harrodsburg. Many other proposed bank charters died in the General Assembly. The later years of Morehead's administration were hindered by the financial Panic of 1857. In December 1857, he reported state expenditures of \$21,000 for relief of the poor.
## Civil War and later life
Morehead moved to Louisville in 1859 and formed a law partnership with his nephew, Charles M. Briggs. In February 1861, he attended the Peace Conference of 1861 that tried to resolve the sectional differences between the states. In May 1861, he was chosen as a delegate to the Border State Convention, an ultimately futile attempt to avert the Civil War. Morehead refused to sign the final document produced by the convention because he did not agree with all the statements it contained. He was an advocate of Kentucky's position of neutrality, but was personally sympathetic to the South and was an outspoken critic of the Lincoln administration. He condemned Secretary of State William H. Seward for cutting off trade with the South.
On September 19, 1861, Morehead, Louisville Courier editor Reuben T. Durrett, and a man named Martin W. Barr were arrested for disloyalty. The three were taken to Indianapolis, Indiana, and the next day, Louisville circuit court judge John Catron issued a writ of habeas corpus for Morehead. On September 24, the officer who had arrested Morehead told Catron that Secretary of War Simon Cameron had already ordered Morehead taken to Fort Lafayette in New York Harbor. Shortly after this, a grand jury was convened but failed to return any charges against Morehead.
Morehead was later transferred to Fort Warren in Boston Harbor. He complained to his captors about the conditions in the prison; specifically, the difficulty of writing letters when confined with nine other men in a room that measured just ten feet by twenty feet. Petitions for Morehead's release were delivered to President Lincoln, but Lincoln told Secretary of State Seward that Morehead and those arrested with them would be released "when James Guthrie and James Speed [friends of Lincoln's in Kentucky] think they should be". Later, Guthrie told Lincoln that Morehead's arrest had "not been beneficial" to their cause in Kentucky. Morehead was paroled on January 6, 1862, on the condition that he swear an oath not to take part in the Confederate insurgence. On March 19, 1862, he was unconditionally discharged from his parole.
Morehead returned to his home in Louisville, but feared his refusal to take an oath of allegiance to the Constitution would lead to another arrest. In June 1862, he fled to Canada, then to Europe, and finally to Mexico. Following the war, Morehead returned to the United States and lived on his plantation in Greenville, Mississippi. He died there on December 21, 1868, and was buried on the grounds. On May 31, 1879, he was reburied in the Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort, Kentucky.
|
31,865,264 |
Skullgirls
| 1,171,738,812 |
2D fighting video game
|
[
"2012 video games",
"2D fighting games",
"Crowdfunded video games",
"CyberFront games",
"Fighting games",
"Fighting games used at the Evolution Championship Series tournament",
"Indie games",
"Indiegogo projects",
"Konami games",
"Linux games",
"MacOS games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"NESiCAxLive games",
"Nintendo Switch games",
"PlayStation 3 games",
"PlayStation 4 games",
"PlayStation Network games",
"PlayStation Vita games",
"Tag team videogames",
"Video games about ninja",
"Video games adapted into comics",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Video games scored by Michiru Yamane",
"Video games with cross-platform play",
"Webtoons",
"Windows games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Xbox One games",
"Xbox Series X and Series S games"
] |
Skullgirls is a 2D fighting game developed by Reverge Labs and published by Autumn Games. In Skullgirls, players fight each other with teams of one, two, or three characters, attempting to knock out their opponents or have the most cumulative health when time runs out. The setting of the game revolves around the "Skull Heart", an artifact which grants wishes for women. If a wisher with an impure soul uses the Skull Heart, she is transformed into a monster known as the "Skullgirl". The game was released through the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade in April 2012, and received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the animation and gameplay mechanics, while criticizing its initial roster size and online multiplayer features.
Development of post-release content faced numerous setbacks. In May 2012, publisher Autumn Games was sued over allegations of fraud regarding an unrelated property, Def Jam Rapstar, cutting off Skullgirls financial support and forcing developer Reverge Labs to lay off the entire development team. The core team would eventually reform as Lab Zero Games in November 2012, launching a successful crowdfunding campaign to raise funds to continue their work. This allowed Lab Zero Games to develop the Windows version, which was released by Marvelous in August 2013.
After Autumn Games severed ties with distributor Konami in December 2013, the latter formally requested to have the game removed from the PlayStation and Xbox storefronts. The game was re-released on both platforms in 2014 as Skullgirls Encore. When the game was ported to PlayStation 4 and PC in 2015, it was renamed to Skullgirls 2nd Encore. This version was released for Japanese arcades in October 2015, for PlayStation Vita in April 2016, for Nintendo Switch in October 2019, and for Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in July 2023. A spin-off title, Skullgirls Mobile, was developed by Hidden Variable Studios and released for Android and iOS devices in May 2017. Originally published by Line, it is supported by Autumn Games alongside the main game.
In August 2020, Autumn Games and Hidden Variable Studios severed ties with Lab Zero Games after sexual harassment allegations were raised against lead designer and programmer Mike Zaimont. Following the dissolution of Lab Zero Games, several former members founded another independent game studio, Future Club, which collaborated with Hidden Variable Studios on future content for 2nd Encore.
## Gameplay
Skullgirls is a tag team-based fighting game in which players control characters, each with unique attacks and fighting styles, to engage in combat. Players must damage the opponent and completely drain their health, thus knocking them out. A player wins when all opposing characters are knocked out. If time expires before then, the player with the most remaining health is declared the winner. Players may select a single fighter or choose to form a team of two or three. A solo character possesses more health and deals more damage. Larger teams, while weaker, gain the ability to recover health when tagged out and perform "assists", also known as "ensemble attacks", where the on-screen character summons an off-screen teammate to perform a move. Players can assign custom assists in Skullgirls, further enhancing team customization.
The gameplay for Skullgirls was modeled after Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes, incorporating the latter's tag team mechanics, assists, and control scheme. The control scheme utilizes six buttons, consisting of light, medium, and hard punches and kicks. These basic attacks can be chained together to form simple combos. Using a combination of button presses and directional inputs, players can also perform "special attacks", which are slightly stronger than normal moves, and "blockbusters", which are cinematic super moves that deal heavy damage and can hit multiple times. Blockbusters require players to build and expend meter, known in-game as "dramatic tension". As the fight progresses, the players' dramatic tension gauge will fill. Up to five bars of dramatic tension can be stored, with more powerful blockbusters requiring more bars of tension to execute. Dramatic tension can also be used to perform other universal techniques, such as "outtakes", which force the opponent to switch characters, and "blockbuster sequels", which allow the player to use multiple blockbusters consecutively.
Skullgirls includes technical features to address system and balance problems common in fighting games, such as "infinite combo" detection and protection against "unblockable attacks". Infinite combos occur when a player is able to create a repeating, inescapable loop of attacks as an exploit. When the game detects an infinite combo through monitoring a player's actions, the opposing player can break free from it by hitting any button. Unblockable attacks occur when a player, for example, uses a low-hitting move and a high-hitting assist at the same time, making it impossible for the opponent to block. The game attempts to remedy the issue by offering a brief grace period after blocking which will guard against other hit types.
### Modes
Skullgirls has a variety of single-player and multiplayer game modes, including story mode, arcade mode, versus mode, tutorial mode, training mode, and online play. The story mode features small, non-canonical vignettes for each playable character, detailing "what if" scenarios playing out across alternate timelines. A canonical story mode has been teased, however, with the developers citing the inclusion of downloadable content (DLC) characters from the first season pass as necessary to tell their "true" story. The arcade mode lets players fight against waves of AI-controlled opponents before reaching the final boss character, Marie. The tutorials section teaches players the gameplay fundamentals of Skullgirls, in addition to covering concepts underlying the fighting game genre as a whole. Seventeen tutorial courses are available, explaining both basic and advanced topics. The training room gives players the opportunity to practice combos against an AI-controlled dummy, as well as access to advanced data, such as hitboxes. The training room was later updated in Skullgirls Encore to include online functionality, allowing players to practice with friends instead. Online multiplayer features ranked and unranked matches using the GGPO networking library, providing a smoother online experience.
Skullgirls Encore added "The Typing of the Skullgirls", a mode inspired by The Typing of the Dead. When enabled, teams automatically generate dramatic tension and all basic attacks deal negligible damage. Blockbusters give timed typing prompts to the player, awarding damage for typing accuracy. Skullgirls 2nd Encore introduced several new game modes, including challenge mode, where players fight against computer opponents under unique battle conditions; trials mode, which tests players' skills by having them perform combos under a button-by-button instructional system; and survival mode, which pits players against endless waves of enemies.
## Setting
Skullgirls takes place in the fictional Canopy Kingdom, a country reminiscent of 1940s post-war United States, which is ruled by the Renoir royal family and plagued by the Medici mafia. The kingdom is populated by humans, anthropomorphic animals, giants, and other species. Magical items, creatures, and entities exist that grant their users and hosts various superhuman abilities, such as "Parasites" and "Living Weapons". A large part of the kingdom follows the religion of the Trinity, a trio of extraterrestrial goddesses consisting of Venus, Aeon, and their mysterious Mother. Numerous individuals and organizations seek to obtain the Skull Heart, a sentient artifact with reality-warping powers created by the Trinity. The Skull Heart appears once every seven years and grants a woman a single wish. If the woman's wish is impure, she is transformed into an undead monster known as the Skullgirl. The Skullgirl and Skull Heart are devices used by the Trinity to wreak havoc on the world. Humanity has fought against many Skullgirls over the course of history, establishing agencies to build weapons to confront them, the most notable of which is Canopy Kingdom's Anti-Skullgirl Labs, a black-ops research institution spearheaded by the scientist Brain Drain.
During the Grand War, a battle fought between the Canopy Kingdom and two neighboring nations, Queen Nancy Renoir nearly brought the world to ruin when she attempted to use the Skull Heart for the sake of peace. The three countries formed an alliance to bring down the Skullgirl, signing a peace treaty thereafter. Seven years later, a slave girl named Marie Korbel has emerged as the newest Skullgirl and begun to terrorize the Canopy Kingdom to exact revenge against the Medici. The game's story mode follows several fighters and their journeys to confront Marie and claim the Skull Heart. Each fighter has their own motive for seeking the Skull Heart, whether to destroy it or use its power for their own interests.
### Characters
The Skullgirls roster initially consisted of eight playable characters: Filia, Cerebella, Peacock, Parasoul, Ms. Fortune, Painwheel, Valentine, and Double. Following the conclusion of the game's Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign in 2013, an additional five DLC characters were developed: Squigly, Big Band, Eliza, Beowulf, and Robo-Fortune. In 2014, a clone of Filia, named Fukua, was added in a free update. Fukua reuses assets from Filia and was designed as a nod to palette-swapped characters in fighting games. She was originally intended to be a temporary inclusion for April Fools' Day, but was kept in response to fan feedback. From 2021 through 2023, four more playable fighters were released as part of the Season 1 Pass: Annie, Umbrella, Black Dahlia, and Marie.
## Development
Skullgirls was originally conceived as several stray character designs that illustrator Alex "o_8" Ahad had been creating since high school. While attending college, Ahad had the hypothetical idea to use the character concepts for a fighting game roster. The idea would later become a reality when Ahad was introduced to fighting game enthusiast and tournament-goer Mike "Mike Z" Zaimont, who had been working on a fighting game engine during his own spare time. Early work on their new Skullgirls project began in 2008. Engine development and pre-production began in 2009. Ahad drew the art style and character designs based on a wide variety of his influences and inspirations, such as the works of Mike Mignola and Bruce Timm, Gainax's FLCL, Tex Avery's Red Hot Riding Hood, Capcom's Darkstalkers, and artists George Kamitani and Daisuke Ishiwatari. Ahad and Zaimont pitched Skullgirls to several companies, eventually teaming up with recently founded independent developer Reverge Labs in 2010. They later went on to sign with publisher Autumn Games. In April 2011, Reverge Labs licensed OtterUI as its user interface solution for the development of Skullgirls. At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011, Japanese developer and publisher Konami announced that they would help distribute the game.
Following the game's release, the Skullgirls team began teasing future content for the game, including new voice packs, color palettes, and downloadable characters. However, shortly thereafter, Autumn Games was hit with a series of lawsuits regarding Def Jam Rapstar, which "gummed up everything related to Autumn's funding." The entire Skullgirls development team was laid off by Reverge Labs in June 2012 after Autumn Games and Reverge Labs allowed their contract to expire without agreeing upon a new one. This prompted the team to reform under a new moniker, Lab Zero Games, to continue work on the PC release and downloadable content. Autumn Games, revealed to be in full possession of the IP, claimed it was "fully behind the new studio" and promised to "continue to work with [Lab Zero Games] in the future on all Skullgirls-related endeavors."
From January through February 2013, fighting game website Shoryuken hosted a charity donation drive to determine the final game to be featured in the 2013 Evolution Championship Series' (EVO) tournament lineup, with all proceeds sent to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. The Skullgirls community raised over US\$78,000, placing second to eventual winner Super Smash Bros. Melee, which raised over \$94,000. Although the game did not win, Shoryuken announced that EVO 2013 event organizers would support the Skullgirls side tournament by providing prize money and exhibition support due to their effort in the fundraiser.
### Crowdfunding and publisher transition
Despite Autumn Games' support and desire to expand Skullgirls, their continued litigation prevented the publisher from providing any financial backing. Attempting to pick up where they left off, Lab Zero Games decided to ask its fanbase for help once more, following the success of the EVO 2013 charity drive. In February 2013, Lab Zero Games set up an Indiegogo page for Skullgirls, in an effort to raise \$150,000 for the development of the game's first DLC character, Squigly. Contributors received various rewards, including desktop wallpapers, a digital copy of the official soundtrack, and the chance to add a background character to the game, among others. The campaign reached its initial goal in less than 24 hours, while the stretch goal of a second DLC character, Big Band, secured funding in just over 2 weeks. A third DLC character, determined by fan vote, was funded during the final two days, along with a playable robotic version of Ms. Fortune named Robo-Fortune. An additional stretch goal that would provide a free license for the game's engine, Z-Engine, to the developers of Them's Fightin' Herds (at the time called Fighting is Magic) was also funded. Just before the end of the drive, the last stretch goal was met, securing funding for another fan-selected DLC character. The Indiegogo campaign raised nearly \$830,000 of its original \$150,000 goal. Several alternate character and announcer voice packs were also funded. All downloadable characters and voice packs were free to download on all platforms within the first three months of their release.
In November 2013, Lab Zero Games announced that Autumn Games had severed ties with Konami, citing Konami's unresponsiveness as a major hurdle to the release of further console patches. Following the dissolution of the partnership, Konami requested the removal of Skullgirls from the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade by the end of 2013. In response, Lab Zero Games announced in December 2013 that Skullgirls would be re-released on consoles as Skullgirls Encore, a new build including up-to-date changes and additions, in January 2014. Encore marked the transition of the console versions to its new publishers, Marvelous and CyberFront, and coincided with the console release of Squigly. While Encore was released as a title update for the Xbox 360 version, the PlayStation 3 version required owners to re-download the game at no cost; leaderboard rankings, save data, and trophies were not carried over. The PC version was later patched to reflect the new title.
### Staff resignations and developer transition
In June 2020, multiple allegations of misconduct were made against lead designer and programmer Mike Zaimont. Two individuals claimed that Zaimont had made inappropriate sexual comments towards them, which triggered an internal investigation of Zaimont's behavior within Lab Zero Games. A decision was reached by Lab Zero Games' board to request Zaimont's resignation. According to senior art producer Brian Jun, Zaimont refused to resign unless a series of demands were met, which Jun deemed "unrealistically high and potentially illegal". Zaimont's demands were rejected by the board. In response, Zaimont disbanded the board and assumed sole ownership of Lab Zero Games. Senior animator Jonathan "Persona" Kim claimed that Zaimont delivered an ultimatum wherein he gave all unsatisfied employees until the end of August to leave the company. By late August, Kim, Jun, and lead animator Mariel Cartwright resigned from Lab Zero Games and individually issued statements denouncing Zaimont's actions.
Within a day of the series of resignations, Hidden Variable Studios and Autumn Games severed their ties with Mike Zaimont and Lab Zero Games in a joint statement. In the statement, both parties expressed intent to work with the employees who resigned from Lab Zero Games on the continued development of Skullgirls. Shortly after the resignations, Zaimont retaliated by firing the rest of the staff, leaving him the sole employee and owner of Lab Zero Games. Cartwright raised money for the staff, who had been fired without severance, by selling her sketchbooks. Additional inappropriate interactions with the community came to light after the resignations. Several former Lab Zero Games members, including Cartwright and Kim, then went on to establish a new cooperatively-structured independent game studio called Future Club.
In February 2021, Autumn Games revealed the development of the Season 1 Pass, which included four DLC characters, a digital artbook, and an updated soundtrack. The publisher also teased the possibility of a fifth DLC fighter, along with other free content, depending on the success of the season pass. In March 2021, Future Club formally announced their collaboration with Hidden Variable Studios in developing 2nd Encore's DLC content.
## Soundtrack
The Skullgirls Original Soundtrack consists of 28 original compositions. The album features music by Michiru Yamane, Vincent Diamante, Blaine McGurty, and Brenton Kossak. Yamane's involvement was announced by Reverge Labs in April 2011, marking the first time a Japanese composer had anchored the soundtrack for an American-developed game. According to Reverge Labs CEO Richard Wyckoff, the developers sought out Yamane because "[they] knew her mixture of haunting gothic themes, jazz and rock would lend itself perfectly to Skullgirls' 'Dark Deco' style." When Reverge Labs requested Yamane to write "jazzy" music, she "played a bit with the rhythm and different sounds to try and heighten the impact and almost primal nature of the unique graphics." The soundtrack was released on April 21, 2012, on iTunes.
## Release
Skullgirls was released on the PlayStation Network in North America on April 10, 2012, and worldwide through the Xbox Live Arcade on April 11, 2012. Europe and Australia later received the PlayStation Network version on May 2, 2012. The Microsoft Windows version was released by Marvelous on August 22, 2013. The game was also published in Japan by CyberFront and brought to Japanese arcades through the NESiCAxLive digital distribution system by developer M2.
Skullgirls Encore launched on the PlayStation Network in North America on February 11, 2014, and Europe on March 19, 2014. The Xbox Live Arcade version of Skullgirls received an update for Encore on April 22, 2014. On July 10, 2014, Lab Zero Games announced that Skullgirls Encore would be released on PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita sometime in 2014. This port, later titled Skullgirls 2nd Encore, would eventually be delayed until 2015. 2nd Encore was released for PlayStation 4 in North America on July 7, 2015, and Europe on July 23, 2015. The PlayStation Vita version was released in North America on April 5, 2016, and Europe on April 14, 2016. 2nd Encore was also published for both platforms in Japan by Arc System Works on April 14, 2016. In North America, Hidden Variable Studios and Limited Run Games produced a limited physical edition of 2nd Encore, which included a disc-based copy of the game, a slip cover, a full-color instruction manual, and a special selection soundtrack.
In May 2013, when Lab Zero Games was asked on their official Twitter account about a potential release for Nintendo's Wii U console, the developer replied that while it was possible, it "[wasn't] looking likely", citing the console's low sales and not having an established "digital presence" at the time. During Anime Expo in July 2018, Lab Zero Games confirmed that a port of 2nd Encore was in development for its successor, the Nintendo Switch. The Nintendo Switch release would include all content, and be available both physically and digitally. In February 2019, an Xbox One port was announced, which was planned for release alongside the Nintendo Switch version, courtesy of Skybound Games. The game was released for the Nintendo Switch on October 22, 2019; however, the Xbox One version was postponed indefinitely "due to unforeseen development and production challenges". In May 2022, the Xbox One port was revealed to be in development again, along with versions for the Xbox Series X and Series S. The ports had a targeted release window of 2022, but were eventually pushed back to 2023.
### Skullgirls Mobile
The free-to-play spin-off for Android and iOS, titled Skullgirls Mobile, was released on May 25, 2017, in North America, South America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines. It was developed by Hidden Variable Studios and published by Line Corporation, creators of the Line communications app. The mobile version of Skullgirls incorporates role-playing-like progression, customization, and deck-building mechanics. Eventually, Line Corporation decided to part ways with the project, with Autumn Games taking over publishing duties. As such, the old version of the game, preemptively renamed LINE Skullgirls, was removed from all storefronts on January 15, 2018. A new version, designated Skullgirls 2.0 by the developer, was released on January 18, 2018, and allowed existing players to carry over their progress. As a result of the move, Hidden Variable Studios promised more transparency over the game's microtransactions, namely in its gacha rates, as well as more consistent release of new content. Currently, Skullgirls Mobile is supported alongside 2nd Encore, and shares many of its updates.
## Reception
### Critical response
Skullgirls received "generally positive" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.
Several reviewers praised the presentation and animation. Ryan Clements of IGN praised the graphics, claiming that the game created "some of the best hand-drawn character sprites ever used in gaming." Clements also gave the game an Editor's Choice award. John Learned of GamesRadar also praised the art style, stating that the art deco design gave playable characters and backgrounds added flair. However, some reviewers criticized the art style and overtly sexualized all-female cast, including accusations of sexism. Dan Ryckert of Game Informer stated that while Skullgirls was beautifully animated, some animations were "juvenile and unnecessary". Ryckert expressed disappointment with the artistic focus on "anatomy and fetishistic outfits."
Reviewers also praised the gameplay and system mechanics. Maxwell McGee of GameSpot credited the ability to adjust team sizes, adding that the trade-off between strength and versatility helped to accommodate a wider skill range of players. Neidel Crisan of 1UP praised the tutorial system for teaching beginner players about the fundamentals of the fighting game genre. Daniel Maniago of G4 complimented the custom assists, anti-infinite system, and online play, praising Reverge Labs for utilizing feedback from the fighting game community during development.
Skullgirls received its share of criticism. IGN's Ryan Clements criticized the small selection of gameplay modes, missing character move lists, and overly aggressive AI. GameTrailers criticized the limited roster size, stating that the tag-based battling felt underdeveloped as a result. Simon Parkin of Eurogamer pointed out the lack of online features, such as a spectator mode, replays, and endless lobbies. Jordan Mallory of Joystiq reprimanded the game for its "goofy and immature" premise, sexualized art style, and unoriginal character movesets. Mallory concluded that the series would have been better off spending another year in development.
Skullgirls received Best Fighting Game nominations from IGN, 1UP, and the Official E3 Game Critics Awards. The game was nominated for 2012 Best Animated Video Game at the 40th Annual Annie Awards. Skullgirls was also recognized in the 2013 Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition for the most frames of animation per character, reaching 11,515 total frames for its initial eight characters and averaging 1,439 frames per fighter. In 2017, Skullgirls 2nd Encore was listed in Game Informers list of "The 10 Most Underrated Games Of This Generation".
|
67,217,438 |
Azilestes
| 1,072,601,369 |
Extinct genus of mammal
|
[
"Cretaceous mammals of Europe",
"Fossil taxa described in 2021",
"Fossils of France",
"Prehistoric eutherians",
"Prehistoric mammal genera"
] |
Azilestes ("Mas-d'Azil robber") is a genus of probable zhelestid eutherian mammal, a family consisting of small herbivores, that was discovered in the early Maastrichtian Grès de Labarre Formation of France. It is a monotypic genus, with only type species A. ragei being known. Only one specimen, the holotype described in 2021, is known. It consists of a partial dentary with teeth.
Certain aspects of Azilestes's dental anatomy are convergent with later groups of herbivorous mammals, including Glires, though phylogenetic analysis strongly suggests a position within the Zhelestidae. It possesses bunodont molars, enlarged postfossids and hypoconids, an interradicular crest and radicular grooves, a unique combination among Cretaceous eutherians.
## History of discovery
The sole specimen and holotype of Azilestes, a partial dentary with teeth, was discovered in the Grès de Labarre Formation of the northern Pyrenees, near the Mas-d’Azil of the Ariège department in Occitanie region, France. The specimen was found in the northeastern outcrops of the Grès de Labarre levels, northeast of the Mas-d’Azil, by surface prospecting in the area. The vertebrate-bearing level where it was found is a fossiliferous hard limestone, belonging to the upper unit of the Grès de Labarre which overlies the Marnes d’En locality. Together with the overlying "Marnes Rouges Inférieures" formation, an eastern lateral equivalent of the Marnes d'Auzas, it comprises the last Cretaceous deposits of the Sub-Pyrenean zone.
Azilestes was described by Emmanuel Gheerbrant and Dominique Teodori in 2021, and much of its anatomy was mapped using CT scanning. It was named for Mas-d'Azil, the type locality, and the Greek λῃστήσ, or lestes ("robber"). The specific epithet is after Jean-Claude Rage, in tribute to his major contribution to the study of Cretaceous microvertebrates from Europe.
## Description
Though damaged and fragmentary, the sole specimen of Azilestes, dated to the early Maastrichtian, is one of the most complete jaw remains of a eutherian reported from the Late Cretaceous of Europe. It preserves only part of the mandibular corpus, including the posterior part of the mandibular symphysis. The symphysis extends far posteriorly, close to the level of the alveolus of the fourth upper molar, and is very compact. The mandibular corpus is dorso-ventrally high, and labially inflated. It is convex below the molars, but below the premolars and the symphysis, it is concave. Its dorso-ventral depth decreases drastically at the length of the symphysis.
The posterior mental foramen is rather large and located ventro-labially below and between the two roots of the fifth upper molar, as in most Cretaceous eutherians. The dentary preserves two damaged molars and four well-developed empty anterior alveoli, interpreted as corresponding to two-rooted fifth upper molar, and a single-rooted fourth upper molar and canine. Among Cretaceous eutherians, the molar morphology of the holotype most closely resembles the family Zhelestidae, to which it is tentatively assigned. Zhelestids were non-placental eutherians, and were specialized for a herbivorous diet.
The bunodont cusps and crowns, a shortened, robust dentary with reduced premolar formula, a small hypolophid and cingular-like postcristid and hypoconulid are unique among Cretaceous eutherians. The closest eutherian to Azilestes, assuming a zhelestid identity, is Valentinella. However, the comparison of these two genera is limited due to the latter's poor preservation. Shared attributes include a possible hypocone, bunodont molar crowns with bulbous cusps, and a robust and deep mandibular corpus that is laterally convex.
## Taxonomy
Phylogenetic analyses within the paper variably suggest Azilestes to be part of a zhelestid polytomy which includes solenodons, a monophyletic Zhelestidae, or a basal member of Glires, though all but the latter recover it as the sister genus to Valentinella, and in one phylogeny, they are part of the Lainodontinae. While a position within the Zhelestidae is most likely, Gheerbrant and Teodori (2021) assume a basal position within the Eutheria.
Below is a phylogeny from Gheerbrant & Teodori (2021):
## Palaeoecology
The bunodont molars, the large postfossid and hypoconid, wear patterns, and the development of an interradicular crest and radicular grooves indicate a crushing-grinding function for Azilestes's teeth, possibly suggesting a durophagous lifestyle.
Only three non-avian dinosaurs are known to have coexisted with Azilestes. These are the rhabdodontid Rhabdodon, cf. Ampelosaurus atacis, and an indeterminate nodosaurid.
|
12,448,103 |
Azure-hooded jay
| 1,112,187,616 |
Species of bird
|
[
"Birds described in 1885",
"Birds of Central America",
"Birds of Costa Rica",
"Birds of Guatemala",
"Birds of Honduras",
"Cyanolyca",
"Taxa named by Robert Ridgway",
"Taxonomy articles created by Polbot"
] |
The azure-hooded jay (Cyanolyca cucullata) is a species of bird in the family Corvidae. It is found in Middle America. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forest. This species is known to have four subspecies. It is 11 to 12 inches (28 to 30 cm) in length and is dark blue with a black head and upper chest. The back of the head and neck are sky blue with a white border.
The jays travel in groups of two to ten individuals and may join mixed-species flocks. It is a secretive species and therefore difficult to observe in the wild. As an omnivore, this jay eats berries, seeds, and small, dead animals. Females lay three to four eggs, and the young fledge after twenty days. This species is listed as Least Concern, meaning it is not threatened with extinction.
## Taxonomy
The species was first described by the American ornithologist Robert Ridgway in 1885. Its specific epithet, cucullata, is the Latin word for "hooded". Its closest relative is the beautiful jay (C. pulchra) of Colombia and Ecuador; in his 1934 study, Hellmayr treated these species as conspecific. Phylogenetic analysis published in 2009 confirmed the close relationship between the two species; Bonaccorso speculates that the geographic (and subsequent genetic) separation between these species and others in the genus Cyanolyca may have been initiated by the formation of the Río Cauca Valley in western Colombia.
The azure-hooded jay has four subspecies. Cyanolyca cucullata mitrata is found in eastern Mexico, from San Luis Potosí to north central Oaxaca. This subspecies was initially treated as a separate species by Ridgway, but it was later merged into the azure-hooded jay. C. c. guatemalae ranges from southern Mexico in Chiapas to central Guatemala. C. c. hondurensis resides in western Honduras. C. c. cucullata, the nominate subspecies, is found in Costa Rica and western Panama.
## Description
The azure-hooded jay ranges in length from 11 to 12 inches (28 to 30 cm), and it tends to weigh 35.2 ounces (1,000 g). Its large size and frame help the bird manage the large amount of flying it does. The adult is dark blue with black on the head and upper chest, while the rear of the crown and nape, or back of the neck, are sky blue with a white border. The legs and bill are black and the eyes are dark red. Both sexes are similar in appearance. Juveniles are duller than adults and their sky blue hood does not possess the white bordering.
Its voice has been described as a loud and bright eihnk-eihnk that is typically repeated four to five times. It is also known to repeat a nasal ehr-ehn or eh’enk noise twice and give off a low, gruff, hard cheh-r. The alarm and flock-social calls of this species, characterized as a reek! sound, are "nasal, querulous, and upwardly or double inflected."
## Distribution and habitat
This species is known from Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, southeastern Mexico, and western Panama. It lives in humid evergreen forests that are sometimes interspersed with pine trees. It can be found at the edges of these forests typically in the middle and higher levels within these trees. It is also normally found only where cloud forest is uninterrupted.
## Ecology and behavior
This corvid is known to join mixed-species flocks with other species including unicolored jays and emerald toucanets. It is also known to travel in groups with two to ten other azure-hooded jays. It is a skulking and secretive species, rarely coming out into the open. Because of this habit, the bird is extremely difficult to observe in the wild and not much is known about its ecology. Mates are known to preen each other, a process which entails one bird bending over in front of the other and tugging on its throat feathers. The feathers of the crown are often moving swiftly, and it is believed that the condition of a mate can be determined by this movement.
Like other jays, this species is likely extremely intelligent. Similar species are known to use ants to keep their feathers clean, store seeds and nuts for later consumption, and use their toes to hold food. However, due to its secretive nature, these characteristics have not yet been observed in the species.
The bird's bright plumage makes it easy for predators to find this species. Whenever the jay feels threatened, it gives off a warning alarm call.
### Diet
The azure-hooded jay is omnivorous, eating berries, seeds, and small, dead animals. This species has been known to steal and eat bait from traps set for small mammals. The bird tends to forage in the forest canopy.
### Reproduction
The jay's nest is typically built 16.4 to 23 feet (5 to 7 m) above the ground next to a tree trunk. The base of the azure-hooded jay's first studied nest was coarsely made out of twigs that were 0.08 to 0.12 inches (2 to 3 mm) long. That nest was about 4.3 inches (11 cm) wide inside and 7.4 to 13 inches (19 to 33 cm) wide overall depending on the length of the exterior twigs. The nest is 2 inches (5 cm) deep and has an interior constructed with woven thin fibrils and twigs, and no feathers or other softening devices are used in the nest's construction. In addition to building its own nest, this jay is known to reuse old, abandoned nests made by other species. Three to four eggs are normally laid. The young are typically raised in the nest between April and June and they take at least 20 days to fledge. Both parents care for the young and feed them a variety of insects, including katydids. After the young fledge, they stay close to their parents.
## Conservation
This jay is treated as a species of Least Concern, or not threatened with extinction, by BirdLife International due to its large geographical range of about 42,500 square miles (110,000 km<sup>2</sup>), population which, while unsurveyed, is believed to be above 10,000 individuals, and lack of a 30% population decline over the last ten years. However, the azure-hooded jay is uncommon in some parts of its range. It is also believed that deforestation may have an effect on this bird.
## Relationship with humans
Although this species has not been observed doing this, closely related jays are known to destroy and eat human-planted crops such as orchards, cane, pineapples, and potatoes. The azure-hooded jay has appeared on one stamp in Mexico in 1996.
|
957,723 |
Muncy Creek
| 1,111,257,341 |
Creek in Pennsylvania, United States
|
[
"Allegheny Plateau",
"Rivers of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Pennsylvania",
"Rivers of Sullivan County, Pennsylvania",
"Tributaries of the West Branch Susquehanna River"
] |
Muncy Creek (also known as Big Muncy Creek) is a tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Sullivan County and Lycoming County, at Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 34.5 miles (55.5 km) long. The watershed of the creek has an area of 216 square miles (560 km<sup>2</sup>). The creek's discharge averages 49 cubic feet per second (1.4 m<sup>3</sup>/s) at Sonestown, but can be up to a thousand times higher at Muncy. The headwaters of the creek are on the Allegheny Plateau. Rock formations in the watershed include the Chemung Formation and the Catskill Formation.
There are a number of lakes in the watershed of Muncy Creek, including Eagles Mere Lake, Highland Lake, and Beaver Lake. The creek was known as Occohpocheny to Native Americans. The area in its vicinity was settled in 1783. Various other industries and mills were constructed in the creek's vicinity from the late 18th century to the early 20th century. Wild trout naturally reproduce in part of Muncy Creek. Part of the creek is navigable by canoe.
## Course
Muncy Creek begins in southeastern Laporte Township, Sullivan County, near its border with Davidson Township, Sullivan County. The creek flows southwest and then west for a short distance before reaching the border between Laporte Township and Davidson Township. It then turns southwest as it begins to follow this border. Shortly afterwards it turns northwest and begins to flow into a valley, then turns west and begins receiving very short tributaries from both sides. Examples of these include Rock Run and Lopez Pond Branch. After picking up Peters Creek, one such tributary, Muncy Creek turns southwest and passes the community of Nordmont, where the tributary Elklick Run flows into it. The creek then turns southwest and later west. Deep Hollow Run then enters the creek, which heads south away from the Laporte Township/Davidson Township border. Upon leaving behind the Laporte Township/Davidson Township border, the creek enters Davidson Township and heads west-southwest, passing a gauging station. After several miles, it reaches the community of Sonestown, where the tributary Big Run flows into it from the north. Muncy Creek then makes a sharp bend south and begins flowing parallel to U.S. Route 220. After a few miles, it passes the community of Muncy Valley and makes a sharp turn south, exiting Davidson Township.
Upon exiting Davidson Township, Sullivan County, Muncy Creek enters Lycoming County and flows along the border between Shrewsbury Township and Penn Township for several miles. It continues following U.S. Route 220 during this time, picking up a few tributaries, including Lick Run. The creek also passes by Glen Mawr and Tivoli during this stretch. Beyond the stretch, in Picture Rocks, the creek crosses Pennsylvania Route 864. Beyond the community, the creek continues south into Wolf Township, leaving its valley passing by the eastern edge of Hughesville. Some distance further on, the creek receives the tributary Sugar Run and some miles later leaves Wolf Township in a southwesterly direction. Upon exiting Wolf Township, the creek enters Muncy Creek Township, where Little Muncy Creek flows into it. Muncy Creek then turns northeast, crossing Pennsylvania Route 405 and turns southwest, crossing Interstate 180. The creek then receives the tributary Wolf Run and immediately afterwards empties into the West Branch Susquehanna River. Muncy Creek joins the West Branch Susquehanna River is 27.88 miles (44.87 km) upstream of its mouth.
### Tributaries
Significant tributaries of Muncy Creek include Little Muncy Creek and Wolf Run. The watershed of Little Muncy Creek has an area of 82.30 square miles (213.2 km<sup>2</sup>). This creek reaches its confluence with Muncy Creek 3.90 miles (6.28 km) upstream of its mouth. The watershed of Wolf Run has an area of 11.10 square miles (28.7 km<sup>2</sup>). This stream reaches its confluence with Muncy Creek 0.06 miles (0.097 km) upstream of its mouth. Other large tributaries of the creek include Lewis Creek, Rock Run, and Sugar Run. The watersheds of these tributaries have areas of 14.5 square miles (38 km<sup>2</sup>), 10.3 square miles (27 km<sup>2</sup>), and 10.3 square miles (27 km<sup>2</sup>), respectively. Muncy Creek also has numerous minor tributaries.
## Hydrology
The highest recorded discharge of Muncy Creek near Muncy is 46,600 cubic feet (1,320 m<sup>3</sup>) per second. In 2012 and 2013, the creek's discharge at this location ranged from 29 to 379 cubic feet (0.82 to 10.73 m<sup>3</sup>) per second. The discharge of the creek at Sonestown averages 44.9 cubic feet per second. The osmotic pressure of the stream's waters at this location ranged from less than 1 up to 4 millios-moles per 2.2 pounds (1.00 kg). The annual rate of precipitation near the creek ranges from 35 to 50 inches (89 to 127 cm).
The pH of Muncy Creek's waters near Muncy ranged from 7.0 to 7.5 in 2012 and 2013. The stream's specific conductance ranged from 89 to 134 micro-siemens per centimeter at 25 °C (77 °F).
Between November 2012 and September 2013, the lowest recorded water temperatures of Muncy Creek at Muncy were 1.4 °C (34.5 °F) on January 9, 2013 and 2.6 °C (36.7 °F) on March 19, 2013. The highest recorded water temperatures were 20.6 °C (69.1 °F) and 20.4 °C (68.7 °F), on September 4, 2013 and July 9, 2013, respectively.
The concentration of dissolved solids in Muncy Creek ranges from 50 to 80 milligrams per liter (1.8×10<sup>−6</sup> to 2.9×10<sup>−6</sup> lb/cu in). The concentration of suspended solids, however, is always less than 5 milligrams per liter (1.8×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in). The water hardness of the creek (in terms of the concentration of calcium carbonate) ranges from 28 to 49 milligrams per liter (1.0×10<sup>−6</sup> to 1.8×10<sup>−6</sup> lb/cu in). The concentration of calcium in the creek ranges from 8.7 to 10.5 milligrams per liter (3.1×10<sup>−7</sup> to 3.8×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in). Its magnesium concentration can be as low as 1.6 milligrams per liter (5.8×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in) or as high as 2.0 milligrams per liter (7.2×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in), while its sodium concentration ranges from 3.2 to 4.1 milligrams per liter (1.2×10<sup>−7</sup> to 1.5×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in).
There are trace amounts of bromides, phosphorus, orthophosphates, and ammonia in Muncy Creek. All of these occur in concentrations of 0.3 milligrams per liter or less. Nitrites occur in concentrations of less than 0.4 milligrams per liter (1.4×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in). The chloride concentration in the creek ranges from 4.5 to 7.0 milligrams per liter (1.6×10<sup>−7</sup> to 2.5×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in). The minimum sulfate concentration is 6.7 milligrams per liter (2.4×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in) and the maximum is 8.9 milligrams per liter (3.2×10<sup>−7</sup> lb/cu in) milligrams per liter. The minimum nitrate concentration is 0.65 milligrams per liter (2.3×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in) milligrams per liter and the maximum is 1.2 milligrams per liter (4.3×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in) milligrams per liter. The total concentration of nitrogen in the creek ranges from 0.8 to 1.2 milligrams per liter (2.9×10<sup>−8</sup> to 4.3×10<sup>−8</sup> lb/cu in).
The concentration of aluminum in Muncy Creek ranges from less than 20 micrograms per liter (0.0014 gr/imp gal) up to 30 micrograms per liter (0.0021 gr/imp gal) and the copper concentration is always less than 4 micrograms per liter (0.00028 gr/imp gal) micrograms per liter. The lead concentration is always less than 1 microgram per liter (7.0×10<sup>−5</sup> gr/imp gal). In 2013, the creek's concentration of manganese was observed to be 20 micrograms per liter (0.0014 gr/imp gal). The zinc concentration ranges from less than 5 micrograms per liter (0.00035 gr/imp gal) up to 30 micrograms per liter (0.0021 gr/imp gal). The nickel and selenium concentrations are less than 4 and 7 micrograms per liter (0.00028 and 0.00049 gr/imp gal), respectively, while the boron concentration is less than 200 micrograms per liter (0.014 gr/imp gal). The creek's strontium concentration is 40 or 50 micrograms per liter (0.0028 or 0.0035 gr/imp gal).
## Geography and geology
The mouth of Muncy Creek has an elevation of slightly less than 480 feet (150 m), while the source of the creek has an elevation of between 2,260 feet (690 m) and 2,280 feet (690 m). The headwaters of the creek are more than 1,500 feet (460 m) higher than its mouth. The headwaters of Muncy Creek are mountainous and are situated on the Allegheny Plateau. The southern edge of the Allegheny Mountain runs from the creek west as far as Lock Haven or Pine Creek. The valley of Muncy Creek is surrounded by scalloped hills. Muncy Creek's course winds significantly, but flows generally southwest.
A narrow belt of the Chemung Formation occurs along Muncy Creek in Shrewsbury Township, Lycoming County. An outcropping of the Catskill Formation also occurs along parts of the creek in Jordan Township, Lycoming County. The Chemung Formation has an outcropping on the creek near Moreland. This outcropping is 30 feet (9.1 m) high and gray in color. It consists of shale and sandstone. Red shale is also found on the creek. In general, rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale are found along much of the creek, while rock formations of limestone occur close to its mouth.
The Tombs Run and Muncy Creek Anticline runs parallel to the creek through northern Penn Township, Lycoming County and also enters Sullivan County near the creek. The creek also has a cliff known as Picture Rock on it. An area of boulders on the creek forms a Class 2 rapid. There is a levee on Muncy Creek in Hughesville.
The soils in the valley of Muncy Creek are deep but relatively poor. However, farming was done in the valley in the late 1800s and still is as of the late 1900s. The valley has forested hills on either side. The Morris-Oquaga-Wellsboro soil series is found along the creek in Sullivan County.
The channel of Muncy Creek is sinuous with high streambanks and the creek has cobble and gravel bars. There are a few strainers on the creek.
## Watershed
The watershed of Muncy Creek has an area of 216 square miles (560 km<sup>2</sup>). The area of the watershed upstream of Hugesville comprises approximately half of the total watershed. The area of the creek's watershed upstream of Sonestown is 25.8 square miles (67 km<sup>2</sup>). The watershed of the creek occupies parts of Lycoming County, Sullivan County, Columbia County, and Montour County.
There are a number of lakes in the watershed of Muncy Creek. The largest is Eagles Mere Lake, which has an area of 116.2 acres (47.0 ha). Hunters Lake has an area of 90.2 acres (36.5 ha) and Highland Lake has an area of 10 acres (4.0 ha). Additionally, Beaver Lake (which has an area of 6 acres (2.4 ha)) is located in the watershed of the tributary Little Muncy creek.
Communities in the watershed of Muncy Creek include Hugesville, Picture Rocks, Lairdsville, and Sonestown. Smaller communities in the creek's watershed include Muncy Valley, Eagles Mere, and Nordmont.
In the late 1800s, the only road in Davidson Township, Sullivan County besides the Susquehanna and Tioga Turnpike passed near Muncy Creek and the settlements along it. The valley of Muncy Creek is largely undeveloped, largely lacking even summer camps.
## History
Muncy Creek derives its name from the Munsee Indians. The name sometimes has been spelled "Muncey Creek".
Muncy Creek was known to the Native Americans as Occohpocheny. Historically, Native Americans painted on Picture Rock, a cliff on the creek. Additionally, six Native American lance heads made of stone were found near the creek by Joseph Fahrenbach in the autumn of 1872.
Muncy Creek was settled in 1783 by John Beeber. In 1797, the Willow Grove Mill was built on Muncy Creek in 1797 by Isaac Walton and by the late 1800s, there was a sawmill on the creek in Shrewsbury Township, Lycoming County. A woolen mill was also built on the creek in Wolf Township, Lycoming County in 1842. An aqueduct carrying the West Branch Canal once crossed Muncy Creek.
Historically, railroads ran parallel to Muncy Creek 26 miles (42 km) upstream from its mouth, as far as the community of Nordmont. There were also numerous railroad stations on the creek upstream from the community of Picture Rocks. The Reading Railroad also had a bridge over the creek in the past. The creek experienced severe flooding in 1889.
In the early 1900s, many of the sewers in the community of Eagles Mere discharged into tributaries of Muncy Creek, such as Outlet Run. Sewage was also discharged into Muncy Creek in Hugesville. Additionally, in the early 1900s, the waters of Muncy Creek were contaminated with tannery waste products from Muncy Valley and also chemicals. For this reason, the creek was only used for power during this time. Additionally, a methyl alcohol plant, the Nordmont Chemical Works, discharged chemicals into the creek at Nordstown. Other major industries in the watershed in the early part of the 1900s included clay mines and furniture factories.
## Biology
From its headwaters to a point 26.4 miles (42.5 km) upstream of its mouth, the drainage basin of Muncy Creek is designated as Exceptional Value and a Migratory Fishery. From this point downstream to the US Route 220 bridge at Muncy Valley, the creek's main stem is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. From this point downstream to its mouth, the main stem is designated as a Trout Stocked Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from Trout Run downstream to its mouth.
A total of 92 percent of assessed streams in the watershed of Muncy Creek are inhabited by trout. Of the inhabited streams, 82 percent are inhabited only by brook trout, nine percent are inhabited by only brown trout, and nine percent are inhabited by both brook trout and brown trout. A number of tributaries of the creek are designated as high-quality coldwater fisheries. These include Lick Run, Roaring Run, Rock Run, and Spring Run in Lycoming County and Big Run, Trout Run, and a number of others in Sullivan County.
There are some forested areas in the floodplains of Muncy Creek in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Hughesville. The Natural Areas Inventory of Lycoming County recommended retaining the natural vegetation in this area to improve water quality.
## Recreation
It is possible to canoe on Muncy Creek during snowmelts or shortly after heavier rainstorms. Although the creek is used for canoeing by locals, it is less popular for this use than the nearby Loyalsock Creek. Edward Gertler considers the creek to be especially good for novice canoers. He describes Muncy Creek as a "pleasing but generally mediocre mountain stream" in his book Keystone Canoeing. However, it is only possible to canoe on the creek downstream of the plateau of North Mountain. A total of 24.3 miles (39.1 km) of the creek is canoeable. The difficulty rating of Muncy Creek for canoeing ranges from 1+ to 2.
There is a boat ramp belonging to the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission in the lower reaches of Muncy Creek. It can also serve as a take-out for canoers on the creek.
## See also
- Chillisquaque Creek
- List of rivers of Pennsylvania
|
43,818,497 |
Quantum Reality
| 1,153,716,488 |
Popular science book by physicist Nick Herbert
|
[
"1985 non-fiction books",
"American non-fiction books",
"Books about philosophy of physics",
"Popular physics books"
] |
Quantum Reality is a 1985 popular science book by physicist Nick Herbert, a member of the Fundamental Fysiks Group which was formed to explore the philosophical implications of quantum theory. The book attempts to address the ontology of quantum objects, their attributes, and their interactions, without reliance on advanced mathematical concepts. Herbert discusses the most common interpretations of quantum mechanics and their consequences in turn, highlighting the conceptual advantages and drawbacks of each.
## Synopsis
### Background
Following a brief summary of the experimental crises (such as the ultraviolet catastrophe) which motivated quantum theory, Herbert identifies four major formulations of quantum theory: Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics, Paul Dirac's transformation theory, and Richard Feynman's sum-over-histories formulation.
In introducing quantum objects (which he dubs "quons"), Herbert describes how quantum properties inhere in a wave function, which serves as a proxy for the measurement of these properties. He likens the quantum measurement process to mathematically treating the wave function as a summation of waveforms of a particular family, with various families corresponding to particular properties. The bandwidth of the spectrum of these waveforms represents the uncertainty in the quantum measurement. Herbert shows that for pairs of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, these bandwidths are linked such that their product has a finite lower bound, thereby illustrating the basis of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle: any single property can be measured to arbitrary precision, but conjugate properties cannot simultaneously be known to arbitrary precision.
Herbert identifies two philosophical problems presented by quantum theory—the interpretation question, concerning the physical nature of the reality underlying observation; and the measurement problem, concerning the apparently special role of the measurement act in quantum theory, and various approaches to formally defining the measurement act.
### Eight interpretations
Herbert identifies eight interpretations of quantum mechanics, all consistent with observation and with the aforementioned mathematical formalisms. He likens these different interpretations to the story of the blind men and an elephant—different approaches to the same underlying reality, which yield remarkably different (but often overlapping) pictures. The interpretations identified by Herbert are:
1. The Copenhagen interpretation, Part I ("There is no deep reality.") Most notably associated with Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, Herbert identifies this as the most broadly accepted interpretation among physicists. In this interpretation, dynamic attributes do not describe the reality of quantum objects themselves, but inhere instead in the relationship between the observed object and the measurement device.
2. The Copenhagen interpretation, Part II ("Reality is created by observation.") In this variation of the Copenhagen interpretation, associated with John Archibald Wheeler, the reality of quantum attributes is created in the act of observation, as illustrated by the example of Wheeler's delayed choice experiment.
3. "Reality is an undivided wholeness." This interpretation, associated with David Bohm and Walter Heitler, suggests that the state of the entire universe may be implicated in any quantum measurement. Herbert highlights the apparent interaction of widely separated entangled particles, which may be represented by a single combined wave function, or "shared reality", in a high-dimensional configuration space.
4. The many-worlds interpretation. Devised by Hugh Everett, this interpretation does away with the conceptual problem of wave function collapse by supposing that all possible outcomes occur equally, in a constantly branching tree of parallel universes.
5. Quantum logic ("The world obeys a non-human kind of reasoning.") Associated with John von Neumann, Garrett Birkhoff, and David Finkelstein, this interpretation holds that quantum objects do possess innate attributes, but that the relationships between these attributes are governed by a non-distributive lattice, or "wave logic", unlike the Boolean lattice governing classical objects. In the example of the "three-polarizer paradox", two stacked, orthogonally-oriented polarizers will not allow any light to pass through (the meet of the sets of photons which will pass through each filter is null), yet the insertion of a diagonally-oriented polarizer between them allows some light to pass through the stack. The paradox can be understood by considering a polarized beam as a superposition, with diagonal components that interfere destructively.
6. Neorealism ("The world is made of ordinary objects.") Constructed by David Bohm and also associated with Louis de Broglie, this interpretation holds that quantum objects possess definite attributes, but that these attributes can change value instantly in response to events anywhere in the universe, with this information encoded in a physical pilot wave which must be able to travel faster than light. Other physicists attempted to construct object-based models which did away with this superluminal communication, but Bell's theorem later proved this to be impossible. For this reason, according to Herbert, neorealism is rejected by most of the physics establishment.
7. "Consciousness creates reality." First proposed by John von Neumann, this interpretation grants special status to conscious minds as the location of wave function collapse, in which the myriad possibilities of a quantum system are narrowed to one observed state. Unlike the Copenhagen interpretation, in which the observer selects which attribute will be seen to have a definite value but does not determine the value itself, von Neumann contended that the actual attribute value is determined in a collapse that occurs at the interface of the brain and the mind.
8. "The duplex world of Werner Heisenberg." Heisenberg recognized a division inherent in the Copenhagen interpretation, between the concrete actuality (phenomenon) of observations and the range of potentiality (noumenon) described by the wave function. In seeking to address the ontological nature of the unobserved world, he considered quantum theory to be not merely a successful mathematical analogy, but a literal description of the underlying reality. In Herbert's description of Heisenberg's view, the unobserved world is a world composed of possibility, qualitatively less real than the world of observed fact.
### Bell's theorem and its implications
Adding a further wrinkle to the nature of quantum reality, Herbert presents the EPR paradox, and its resolution in the form of Bell's theorem. The EPR paradox, resting on the long-held assumption of locality, suggests the existence of "elements of reality"—unmeasured quantum attributes which are nonetheless real—which are not predicted by quantum theory. Bell's theorem resolves this paradox by proving that locality is ruled out by observation—that any model of reality consistent with observation must allow for non-local interaction. However, Herbert is careful to note, Bell's theorem does not entail any prediction of experimentally observable non-local phenomena, nor does it allow for superluminal communication.
Herbert then re-evaluates the aforementioned interpretations of quantum reality in light of Bell's theorem:
- In the case of the Copenhagen interpretation, the "experimental arrangement" of observed entity and measurement device in which quantum attributes reside—considered by Bohr to be limited to the local interaction—must be expanded to include potentially distant objects with which these systems may be entangled.
- According to Herbert, Bell's theorem supports the Bohmian notion of underlying reality as an undivided wholeness.
- Although Herbert asserts that the many-worlds interpretation lacks the counterfactual definiteness required to prove Bell's theorem, he contends that the many-worlds view is inherently non-local, by any reasonable conception of locality.
- In Herbert's view, Bell's result strikes a major blow to neorealist models, by showing that the ostensibly real pilot wave must violate Einstein's universal speed limit.
Herbert concludes that, although Bell's theorem does not preclude any of the aforementioned interpretations of quantum mechanics, it insists that any valid interpretation must allow for non-local interaction.
## Reception
In its review of Quantum Reality, The New York Times praised Herbert's efforts at making the subject matter comprehensible to a lay audience. Physicist Heinz Pagels called Quantum Reality "a great place for the general reader to begin to learn about quantum physics". Kirkus Reviews, however, concluded that Quantum Reality, while engaging, may leave lay readers confused.
Post-anarchist writer Hakim Bey used Quantum Reality as the basis for an analysis of the field of quantum physics in terms of the social paradigms that it may influence, and from which it may draw its metaphors.
Physicist David Kaiser, who has written about the Fundamental Fysiks Group to which Herbert belonged, claims that the book is used in undergraduate physics courses.
Quantum Reality has been translated into German, Japanese, and Portuguese.
## See also
- Interpretations of quantum mechanics
- Fundamental Fysiks Group, with which Herbert is associated
- The Dancing Wu Li Masters, by Fundamental Fysiks member Gary Zukav
- The Tao of Physics, by Fundamental Fysiks member Fritjof Capra
|
50,589,650 |
2016 Football League One play-off final
| 1,141,267,808 |
Association football match between Barnsley and Millwall in 2016
|
[
"2015–16 Football League One",
"2016 Football League play-offs",
"2016 sports events in London",
"Barnsley F.C. matches",
"EFL League One play-off finals",
"Football hooliganism in the United Kingdom",
"May 2016 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"Millwall F.C. matches"
] |
The 2016 EFL League One play-off final was an association football match which was played on 29 May 2016 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Barnsley and Millwall to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from EFL League One to the EFL Championship. The top two teams of the 2015–16 Football League One season gained automatic promotion to the Championship, while the teams placed from third to sixth place in the table partook in play-off semi-finals; the winners of these semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2016–17 season in the Championship.
Both Barnsley and Millwall had won one and lost one of their previous play-off finals going into the match. A Wembley Stadium crowd of more than 51,000 people watched the game which was refereed by Stuart Attwell. Ashley Fletcher opened the scoring for Barnsley after two minutes, and seventeen minutes later Adam Hammill doubled the lead. Eleven minutes before half-time, Millwall's Mark Beevers halved the deficit, but a goal on seventy-four minutes from Lloyd Isgrove restored Barnsley's two-goal advantage which they maintained to the final whistle, winning 3–1 and earning promotion to the Championship. Violence at the Millwall end of the stadium disrupted the latter stages of the match.
Millwall ended the following season in sixth place in League One and were promoted to the Championship after winning the 2017 EFL Championship play-off final 1–0 against Bradford City. Barnsley's following season saw them finish in fourteenth place in the EFL Championship, seven points above the relegation zone and twenty-two points below the play-offs.
## Route to the final
Millwall finished the regular 2015–16 season in fourth place in Football League One, the third tier of the English football league system, two places ahead of Barnsley. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the EFL Championship and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Millwall finished four points behind Burton Albion (who were promoted in second place) and six behind league winners Wigan Athletic. Barnsley ended the season seven points behind Millwall.
Barnsley's opposition in their play-off semi-final was Walsall. The first leg was played at Barnsley's home ground, Oakwell. Jason Demetriou scored an own goal after he deflected Adam Hammill's shot into the Walsall net just before half-time. Sam Winnall then scored two second-half goals in two minutes to secure a 3–0 victory for Barnsley. The second leg, played at Walsall's Bescot Stadium, took place five days later. Hammill scored his third semi-final goal in the 18th minute before Ashley Fletcher's second half strike extended Barnsley's aggregate lead to 5–0. Jordan Cook scored a late consolation for Walsall but Josh Brownhill scored Barnsley's third of the game in the final minute to end the tie 6–1 on aggregate to Barnsley.
Millwall faced Bradford City in their play-off semi-final. The first leg was played at Bradford's home stadium, Valley Parade. Tony McMahon put the home team in the lead with a penalty early in the first half but Lee Gregory equalised two minutes later. Two further first-half goals, a header from Steve Morison and a free kick from Joe Martin, made the score 3–1 to Millwall. Despite Bradford having the majority of the possession, no further goals were scored in the second half. The second leg took place five days later at Millwall's home stadium, The Den. Gregory's 34th minute strike gave Millwall the lead, but Bradford's Jamie Proctor scored on his second attempt to bring the leg level. Bradford once again dominated possession but could not convert their limited chances and the match ended 1–1, ensuring Millwall of a 4–2 win on aggregate and progress to the play-off final.
## Match
### Background
Millwall had featured in two play-off finals prior to this game. They lost the 2009 Football League One play-off final 3–2 to Scunthorpe United but triumphed the following season in the 2010 Football League One play-off final defeating Swindon Town 1–0. They had also played at Wembley in the 2012–13 FA Cup semi-final, losing to Wigan Athletic. Barnsley had also appeared in two play-off finals before this match. They lost 4–2 to Ipswich Town in the 2000 Football League First Division play-off final at the old Wembley Stadium and beat Swansea City in a penalty shootout to secure promotion in the 2006 Football League One play-off final at the Millennium Stadium. Barnsley had also already visited Wembley earlier in the season, with a 3–2 victory over Oxford United in the 2016 Football League Trophy Final. During the regular season, Barnsley won both matches against Millwall, 3–2 at The Den in August 2015 and 2–1 at Oakwell the following January. Winnall was Barnsley's highest scorer with 21 goals while Millwall's top marksman was Gregory, who was named in the League One team of the season, with 18. Millwall last played in the Championship during the previous season when they were relegated to League One after finishing in 22nd position. Barnsley had been relegated from the Championship in the 2013–14 season, ending their campaign in 23rd place. Bookmakers were divided as to who was considered the favourites to win the match.
The referee for this season's play-off final was Stuart Attwell, with assistants Nigel Lugg and Rob Jones, while Stephen Martin acted as the fourth official. Attwell had previously officiated at the 2008 Football League Two play-off final and had refereed the 2016 FA Vase Final at Wembley the previous weekend. Millwall supporters were seated in the West End of Wembley, while Barnsley fans were allocated the East End. The match was broadcast live in the UK on Sky Sports with highlights being shown on Channel 5. Both teams named an unchanged starting line-up from their semi-final second leg matches, but Millwall's Byron Webster did not complete the warm-up and was replaced by Tony Craig. The weather conditions for the match were mild and overcast.
### First half
Millwall kicked the match off around 3 p.m. in front of a Wembley crowd of 51,277. Shane Ferguson was fouled by Barnsley's Josh Scowen but Mark Beevers headed the resulting free kick from Taylor wide of the post. From the goal kick, Winnall's headed flick-on fell to Fletcher who ran into the box before shooting low past Archer to open the scoring. Hammill's fifth minute strike was too high and wide before Fletcher's shot was blocked by Archer. Conor Hourihane's subsequent low corner found Winnall whose attempt from 15 yards (14 m) was also blocked. On 19 minutes, Hammill doubled Barnsley's lead with a curling shot into the top corner of Millwall's goal from 25 yards (23 m). George Williams was shown the first yellow card of the match on 28 minutes when he fouled Millwall's Chris Taylor. The resulting free kick from Carlos Edwards was cleared by Winnall. Scowen then made two clearances in quick succession, first from Taylor and then Edwards. In the 34th minute, Millwall scored through Lee Beevers: a corner from Ferguson was kept in play at the near post by Morison, and Beevers held off Craig to strike the ball into Barnsley's net. In the 43rd minute, Martin became the first substitution of the game after sustaining a calf injury, and was replaced by the forward Aiden O'Brien. Brownhill's free kick in the last minute of the first half was off-target, and after three minutes of additional time, the referee brought the first half to a close with Barnsley leading 2–1.
### Second half
No changes were made by either side during the break and Barnsley kicked off the second half. Millwall dominated the early stages of the second half but in the 56th minute, Hamill's double-chance was saved by Archer. Three minutes later, Gregory's chance was collected by Adam Davies before Hammill's 63rd minute strike was easily saved by Archer. Marc Roberts was then booked in the 63rd minute for a challenge on Gregory. Morison then went round the Barnsley goalkeeper and although his cross found O'Brien, the resulting shot was saved by Davies. In the 74th minute, Lloyd Isgrove extended Barnsley's lead. A corner from Hourihane was missed by Archer and Isgrove headed into the Millwall goal. Two minutes later, Fred Onyedinma was brought on for Ben Thompson, and in the 82nd minute, Edwards was replaced by Shaun Williams. Isgrove was then substituted by Marley Watkins before O'Brien's pass to Taylor ended in the latter's shot being saved by Davies. Four minutes of additional time were played but the score remained unchanged, with the match ending 3–1 in Barnsley's favour.
### Details
### Statistics
## Post-match
Barnsley interim manager Paul Heckingbottom said: "I couldn't be any prouder. Every single thing we've asked them to do, they've tried to do it. The players deserve every little bit of the celebrations." Millwall's manager Neil Harris suggested that the loss of Webster in the warm-up was a contributing factor to their defeat: "it affected us mentally before the game. You try to paper over it but we worked all work on our gameplan and it all sort of goes out of the way in the warm-up." Barnsley's Hammill was named man of the match. Towards the end of the game, with Barnsley winning 3–1, a group of Millwall supporters broke through a security barrier and attacked Barnsley supporters some of whom were forced to leave the stadium to avoid the violence. The fighting was condemned by the Football Association. Objects were also thrown on Barnsley supporters occupying a lower tier and were aimed at Barnsley players on the pitch.
Millwall ended the following season in sixth place in League One, thirteen points outside the two automatic promotion places, and were promoted to the Championship after winning the 2017 EFL Championship play-off final 1–0 against Bradford City. Barnsley's next season saw them finish in fourteenth place in the EFL Championship, seven points above the relegation zone and twenty-two points below the play-offs.
|
56,356,612 |
Stephen Court fire
| 1,170,779,698 |
A fire in 2011 at Park Street, Calcutta
|
[
"2010 disasters in India",
"2010 fires in Asia",
"Building and structure fires in India",
"Commercial building fires",
"Disasters in West Bengal",
"March 2010 events in India",
"Residential building fires"
] |
The Stephen Court fire was a major fire in a historical building, Stephen Court, that occurred in March 2010 in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. The fire started by a short circuit in the lifts at 2:15 p.m. IST, rapidly engulfing the fifth and sixth floors. A delay in the start of rescue operations was experienced due to the inadequate planning and preparedness of the fire-service department. Many occupants of the building were forced onto narrow ledges on the sides of the building. 43 people died in the fire. More than 300 firemen and 40 fire tenders were involved in bringing the blaze under control. Later a charge-sheet was prepared by the police which held the directors and caretakers responsible for the mishap. A probe by the government into this incident revealed that illegal construction of two floors and the lack of adequate fire-fighting equipment were major factors that contributed to the blaze getting out of control. In 2016, the Stephen Court Welfare Association, an unregistered company, reconstructed the building.
## Building
Stephen Court is a seven-storey building located on plot 18 A in the upscale neighbourhood of Park Street, Kolkata. It is over 150 years old and is listed as a Grade-II heritage building.
### Original construction
Arathoon Stephen (1861 – 14 May 1927) was a member of the Armenian community of Kolkata who spent huge amounts of money to help shape the economic growth of the city. He was also a shareholder and the first managing director of a company known as the Stephen Court Ltd. This company, apart from owning several other heritage structures in Kolkata, built a three-storey building on land leased by Peter Charles Earnest Paul and named it after himself. The building, Stephen Court, was used for both commercial and residential purposes as there were no laws differentiating them during those times.
### Illegal construction
Around 1930, a fourth storey was added to the building without the necessary building permits, followed by two more in 1984. The civic authorities issued a notice of building code violation on the building's management authorities. In 1984, the illegally constructed floors were regularised by the payment of a penalty. A mezzanine floor was also constructed between the ground floor and first floor, the date of construction of which is not known.
### Fire clearance
At the time of the construction and regularisation of the two illegal floors, the civic laws of Kolkata required a fire clearance for any structure above the height of 18 metres (59 ft). After the regularisation of the additional floors, the building did cross the 18-metre (59 ft) limit. Due to a loophole in the law, the authorities did not have to obtain fire clearance, as regularised buildings were exempted.
### Overusage and maintenance
Stephen Court was put to both commercial and residential usage. This put an additional strain on the aged wiring of the building.
## Fire
At around 1:05 p.m. to 2:05 p.m. IST on 23 March 2010, a fire broke out at Stephen Court. Thought to be from a short circuit from a lift in between the fifth and sixth floors, the fire spread upwards and sideways, engulfing the whole building in flames. The flames were hastened by the lack of any modern fire-fighting measures in the building. Those who were trapped by the flames went out onto the narrow parapets and ledges, waiting to be rescued. One woman reportedly slipped and fell five floors below; she succumbed to her injuries. Around 2:15 the fire service department received a call for help.
### Rescue operations
Nearly 300 firemen and 40 fire tenders were deployed to bring the fire under control. Two Bronto skylifts were deployed to rescue people stuck on the upper floors.
At first only two fire engines reached the spot from the nearby Free School Street fire station, but more were eventually requisitioned from more distant areas of the city such as Behala and Salt Lake. Meanwhile, people trapped inside the building attempted to escape using unstable ladders and ropes. Protesters gathered in front of the building demanding taller ladders to be used to rescue people trapped on the fifth and sixth floors. Two skylifts that had been stored in faraway parts of the city, were deployed after a certain delay due to traffic. Later, 10 more fire tenders also joined forces to tackle the blaze. The fire was eventually brought under control by 10:30 p.m. IST.
## Aftermath
The firemen cleared out the building by going from door to door and checking for survivors, the injured and the dead. 43 people died in the blaze. Around 20 people were injured. A First Information Report was filed against the caretaker of the building as he had refused to co-operate and help in the rescue operations. A charge sheet prepared by the police named the three directors of Stephen Court Ltd. and the two caretakers for the lack of maintenance of the building. The liftman, caretaker and assistant caretaker were immediately taken into custody, two of the directors surrendered and the third was subsequently arrested in Uttar Pradesh.
The government announced a probe of the incident. A forensic team confirmed that the blaze had been started by a short circuit. Further investigation revealed a lack of maintenance of the electrical circuitry leading to exposed live wires in the basement, which combined with the wooden main stairs made the building a tinderbox. This had aided the fire in getting out of control. As portions of the fifth and sixth floor had crumbled during the fire, the Kolkata Municipal Corporation on the advice of the forensic team, took the decision to demolish the top two storeys of the building but had to stop the operations after a section of the owners moved the high court. A few residents were allowed to use the building weeks after the fire but had to sign personal risk bonds, absolving the civic authorities of any liability in case of injury for a period of six months. Moreover, the supply of electricity and of water to the building were cut off by the KMC citing the precarious condition of the building. Major parts of the building, including the lifts, were out of bounds for those residents.
### Reconstruction
In 2016, an unregistered association, the Stephen Court Welfare Association, took the initiative of restoring the heritage building. By pooling a fund from the owners of the flats, they repaired the broken pillars, replaced the staircases, and renovated the soot-covered exterior. Care was taken to bring the building up to date with modern fire fighting techniques and equipment.
|
12,730,246 |
Axial Seamount
| 1,170,990,686 |
Submarine volcano in the Pacific Ocean
|
[
"Active volcanoes",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Hotspot volcanoes",
"Polygenetic volcanoes",
"Ridge volcanoes",
"Seamounts of the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain"
] |
Axial Seamount (also Coaxial Seamount or Axial Volcano) is a seamount, submarine volcano, and underwater shield volcano in the Pacific Ocean, located on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, approximately 480 km (298 mi) west of Cannon Beach, Oregon. Standing 1,100 m (3,609 ft) high, Axial Seamount is the youngest volcano and current eruptive center of the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain. Located at the center of both a geological hotspot and a mid-ocean ridge, the seamount is geologically complex, and its origins are still poorly understood. Axial Seamount is set on a long, low-lying plateau, with two large rift zones trending 50 km (31 mi) to the northeast and southwest of its center. The volcano features an unusual rectangular caldera, and its flanks are pockmarked by fissures, vents, sheet flows, and pit craters up to 100 m (328 ft) deep; its geology is further complicated by its intersection with several smaller seamounts surrounding it.
Axial Seamount was first detected in the 1970s by satellite altimetry, and mapped and explored by Pisces IV, DSV Alvin, and others through the 1980s. A large package of sensors was dropped on the seamount through 1992, and the New Millennium Observatory was established on its flanks in 1996. Axial Seamount received significant scientific attention following the seismic detection of a submarine eruption at the volcano in January 1998, the first time a submarine eruption had been detected and followed in situ. Subsequent cruises and analysis showed that the volcano had generated lava flows up to 13 m (43 ft) thick, and the total eruptive volume was found to be 18,000–76,000 km<sup>3</sup> (4,300–18,200 cu mi). Axial Seamount erupted again in April 2011, producing a mile-wide lava flow. There was another eruption in 2015.
## Geology
### Tectonic setting
Axial Seamount is the youngest volcano and current eruptive center of the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain, a chain of seamounts that terminates south of Alaska. Axial lies where the chain intersects with the Juan de Fuca Ridge, approximately 480 km (298 mi) west of Oregon. It is a product of the Cobb hotspot, but now sits on an ocean spreading center between the Juan de Fuca Plate and the North American Plate, offset by the Blanco Fracture Zone to the south and a ridge-built triple junction to the north.
This position is not yet entirely understood. It is believed that the chain, formed over millions of years by the now-inactive Cobb hotspot, is older than the mid-ocean ridge it bisects. Between 200,000 and 700,000 years ago, the hotspot was encroached by the tectonic spreading center, displacing it by as much as 20 km (12 mi) and building up the 500 km (311 mi) long Juan de Fuca Ridge. At least 7 spreading centers have been recognized, and plate measurements near Axial show that the ridge is separating at a rate of 6 cm (2 in) per year, producing a complex system of oceanic basins and ridges. However some scientists have questioned this theory, pointing out that the high density of the chain's overlapping seamounts is incompatible with such an origin, as a hotspot would form a well organized, widely spaced chain. Although the exact nature of Axial Seamount remains unknown, its complex origins makes it one of the most geologically interesting features in the North Pacific.
### Structure
Axial Seamount is the most active volcanic site in the North Pacific. Study of magnetic delineations along the seamount have modeled the ridge's history up to 30 million years ago, and shown that growth has progressed mostly in the north, with some southward progression dating back 3.5 million years. The base of Axial Seamount is a long, low-lying plateau, and the eastern part of the seamount is defined by a series of linear scarps. Axial Seamount has two major volcanic rifts extending approximately 50 km (31 mi) north and south of its main summit, as well as several much smaller, ill-defined ones aligned in a roughly similar pattern. Basins around the volcano increase its irregularity, making it unusually complex (most seamounts of roughly the same size are circular or flattened in shape.)
Axial Seamount's summit is marked by an unusual rectangular caldera, 3 km × 8 km (2 mi × 5 mi) in area, \~3° in slope, and breached on the southeast side. The area is offset by the two rift zones and defined on three sides by boundary faults up to 150 m (492 ft) deep. The caldera is roughly 50 m (164 ft) deeper at the north side than it is in the south. Flows within the caldera consist mostly of sheet flows pocketed by lava ponds and pit craters. Less common are pillow lavas; their arrangement along the caldera walls suggests that they were an important component in the volcano's early growth. There are several dome-like structures within the caldera with heights of 100–300 m (328–984 ft). There are several small craters within the region, the largest of which, nicknamed the D.D. Cone, is 2 km (1 mi) in diameter and 100 m (328 ft) in relief. However, most of the features do not range over 30 to 40 m (98 to 131 ft) deep and 1 km (1 mi) across.
The northern rift zone of Axial Seamount is a 5 km (3 mi) long ridge running 10 to 20 degrees northeast of the main caldera. The rift is pocketed by multiple fissures, 100–200 m (328–656 ft) in length, as far as 7 km (4 mi) from Axial Volcano's center, and reaching up to 400 m (1,312 ft) long and 20 m (66 ft) deep. The area contains high amounts of volcanic glass; a major eruption is still visible in the form of an elongated glassy lava flow extending off the caldera wall, east of the main rift line. Dives in 1983 found extensive low-temperature venting at the northern half of the fissure. The shorter, newer southern rift zone consists of a topographically plunging rift, surrounding by subtle, discontinuous faults. Camera tows along the southern flank reveal that the area is built of delineated sheet flows, small lava ponds, and lava channels.
The youngest of the flows on Axial Seamount are aligned along the two rift zones, followed by flows inside the summit caldera; the oldest appear to originate from directly around the caldera, where most of the basalt is completely covered in accumulated sediment. This suggests a bilateral growth pattern, a trend also found in Hawaiʻian volcanics and other well-known seamounts, for instance Jasper Seamount.
Axial Seamount's growth has intersected the growth of many of the smaller seamounts around it. The largest of these is Brown Bear Seamount, to which it is connected by a narrow ridge running roughly perpendicular to its western caldera wall. However, little evidence of interactions between the two seamounts has been found. On the other hand, Axial Seamount's southern rift zone bisects Vance Seamount by as much as 30 km (19 mi), creating a zone of intense fissuring at the northern edge of the smaller volcano. Interactions with Cobb Seamount to the north are more complex, forming an unusual "bent spreading center." In addition there are four smaller structures directly east, north, and south of Axial.
## History
### Early history
The first volcanoes along the Juan de Fuca ridge, including Axial Seamount, were detected in the 1970s by satellite altimetry. Axial Seamount's proximity to the western coast and shallow depth make it one of the most easily accessible seamounts in the world, and its unique geological setting and active state also makes it one of the most interesting, rivaling Davidson Seamount to the south in scientific interest.
The first bathymetry of the seamount was compiled by the NOAAS Surveyor in 1981, as part of SeaBeam trials in the North Pacific. The survey was specifically meant to find and link seafloor hydrothermal activity to geomorphic features. Four areas of increased temperature concentration, indicative of hydrothermal activity were found, and the then-unnamed Axial Seamount was among them. Submersible dives with Pisces IV and DSV Alvin in 1983 and 1984 discovered the first active black smoker vents in the north Pacific. Soon after Axial Seamount was named for its central position on the intersection of the Cobb–Eickelberg Seamount chain and Juan de Fuca Ridge. That same year, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) founded its VENTS program, providing impetus for studying the volcano more closely.
Between 1987 and 1992, a variety of pressure sensors, tilt sensors, temperature probes, and seismometers were dropped on the volcano in what came to be known as the Volcanic Systems Moninters (VSN). Further bathymetries by the NOAAS Discoverer in 1991 and RV Sonne in 1996 detailed the seamount further, making it one of the best known features in the North Pacific. Also in 1996, the New Millennium Observatory (NeMO) was established on Axial Seamount, to study volcanic perturbations and the effect they have on hydrothermal communities.
### 1998 eruption
The 1998 eruption of Axial Seamount was preceded by several large earthquake swarms, common indicators of volcanic activity. The swarms correlated to magma movements in the volcano; bottom pressure recorders deployed on the volcano between 1987 and 1992 recorded five instances of deflation in the summit surface (caused by lava movement), ranging from 3 to 10 cm (1 to 4 in). In 1991, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was granted access to the United States Navy's SOSUS system, a chain of submerged hydrophones in the North Pacific originally used by the Navy to detect Russian submarines during the Cold War. Since 1993, the NOAA has maintained a real-time monitoring system that alerts the organization whenever an event occurs. The hydrophones are able to detect even very small earthquakes (\~ magnitude 1.8) by listening for the acoustic waves generated by T-waves. These waves can propagate over large distances with minimal loss in power, making them an ideal way to record otherwise unnoticeable submarine earthquakes; over the course of the eruption, only 3 earthquakes were strong enough to register on land-based systems. However, they cannot interpret earthquake depth or what caused them.
Between 1991 and 1996 Axial Seamount experienced a single earthquake swarm of over 50 events. Between May and November 1997 this activity increased markedly, with SOSUS recording 5 such swarms, culminating with a massive 11-day, 8247-quake event around the time of the eruption, in January 1998. The seismicity began at the summit, but within 6 hours had begun to migrate south as well; by 29 November 1997 the swarm had moved south by 50 km (31 mi). This coincided with lava release along the summit and southern flank. The seamount remained absolutely quiet thereafter, suggesting the completion of an eruptive cycle at the volcano. In all, 9055 earthquakes were detected, and 1669 were strong enough to be located. Earthquake activity was concentrated around the summit and southern rift zones, with the majority of events centered inside the summit caldera; temperature probes and pressure recorders in the caldera recorded an average 0.6 °C (33.1 °F) increase and 3.3 m (11 ft) height deflation, respectively, during the event. This close monitoring gives the 1998 eruption the distinction of being the only submarine eruption ever observed in situ.
The first post-eruption expedition was organized and conducted by RV Wecoma on 12 February 1998, which conducted conductivity, temperature, depth, and optical casts to unusual results. In May, a dedicated bathymetric survey of the seamount showed topographical changes along the volcano's southern flank, which estimated the thickest flows to 13 m (43 ft). In July DSV Alvin made several dives on the seamount's summit caldera, followed in August through September by an extensive observation and collection program using ROV ROPOS, confirming the bathymetric estimates. A sheet flow more than 3 km (2 mi) long and 500 to 800 m (1,640 to 2,625 ft) wide was produced from Axial Seamount's upper southern flank, on the site of what was formerly an active geothermal field. The southern flows were in an area marked by a difference between older sediments and newer, glassier rock, and the maximum ridge generated by the eruption, at the crest of the southern flow, was 13 m (40 ft) high. The total eruptive volume was roughly 0.018–0.076 km<sup>3</sup> (0.004–0.018 cu mi).
The development, eruption, and close monitoring of Axial Seamount provided a fertile model on submarine volcanic eruptions to scientists; several scientific papers on the topic were published soon after.
### 2011 eruption
Seismic activity at Axial Seamount virtually disappeared after the 1998 eruption, and monitoring of the volcano was done principally with bottom pressure recorders deployed on the volcano's flanks, supplemented since 2000 by annual measurements using pressure sensors mounted on Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) and applied to local benchmarks. The sensors have shown that Axial Seamount is slowly reflating; just after the eruption the seamount was swelling at 20 cm (8 in) per month, a number that decreased to 15 cm (6 in) by 2006. In eight years Axial Seamount recovered approximately 50% of its 3.2 m (10.5 ft) of pre-eruption swelling, and in 2006, William Chadwick of the Oregon State University and his associates calculated that the next eruption would occur in approximately 2014:
> Axial Seamount behaves in a more predictable way than many other volcanoes; likely due to its robust magma supply coupled with its thin crust, and its location on a mid-ocean ridge spreading center. It is now the only volcano on the seafloor whose surface deformation has been continuously monitored throughout an entire eruption cycle.
In July 2011, a dive using ROV Jason discovered new lava flows on the volcanoes that had not been present a year before. The expeditionary crew recovered two bottom-pressure recorders and two hydrophones (a third was found buried in lava) off the volcano, which together showed that the eruption had occurred during April, starting on 6 April 2011. Although the instruments recorded hundreds of seismic events, only a handful had been noticed by SOSUS and land-based seismometers, as many components of the system had been offline at the time. The volcano subsided by more than 2 m (7 ft) and produced a 2 km (1 mi) wide lava flow during the event, which was as much as three times larger than the 1998 eruption.
## Ecology
In 1983, a Canadian–American collaborative expedition, named the Canadian American Seamount (CASM) expedition, visited the northwestern edge of Axial Seamount's summit caldera to investigate a persistent temperature anomaly in the region. In a series of eight dives conducted by Pisces IV, the scientists discovered a vibrant hydrothermal vent community on the leading edge of a 300 m (984 ft) fissure within the caldera. Vent temperatures were measured around 35 °C (95 °F), approximately 30 °C (54 °F) hotter than the surrounding environment. Camera tows and submersible dives through the 1980s and 1990s revealed Axial Seamount's active state, including the only known black smoker in the northwest Pacific. Three venting centers have been recognized: the original site, named CHASM; a southwestern caldera field discovered in the late 1980s, named ASHES; and a site located on its southeastern rift zone, named CASTLE. All primarily emit sulfur and sulfides.
The temperature and composition of Axial Seamount's hydrothermal vents changes over time, but always maintains a roughly common identity, as do the vents' individual microbial communities. Vents generally have a lower pH than the surrounding fluid, and are acidic and alkaline as a result. The temperature of the magma feeding the system is uncertain, and may vary between 300 and 550 °C (572 and 1,022 °F). Curiously, vent fluid are heavily enriched in helium, containing five times the amount of the element as similar vents in the Galápagos, and 580 times that of regular seawater.
Tube worms of the Pogonophora family thicket the largest vents on Axial Seamounts, forming colonies up to 6 m<sup>2</sup> (65 sq ft) thick in places; smaller, less nutritious vents feed bacterial mats, smaller tube worms, and limpets. The three most common microbial groups are bacterial Campylobacterota, Methanococcaceae, and Euryarchaeota family. The most common flora at Axial Seamount's hydrothermal vents is the worm Ridgeia piscesae, which is found at hydrothermal sites of all descriptions on the Juan de Fuca ridge, and is the base of Axial Seamount's hydrothermal ecosystem. Other species on the seamount include the tube worm P. palmiformis, the sea snail Lepetodrilus fucensis, the bristle worm Amphisamytha galapagensis, and the sea spider Sericosura verenae.
## See also
- Davidson Seamount
- Geology of the Pacific Northwest
|
48,971,308 |
Virgin Atlantic Little Red
| 1,160,312,263 |
Defunct domestic airline of the United Kingdom (2012—2015)
|
[
"Aer Lingus",
"Airlines disestablished in 2015",
"Airlines established in 2013",
"Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom",
"Virgin Atlantic"
] |
Virgin Atlantic Little Red (also referred to as Virgin Little Red and Little Red) was a short-lived British domestic airline subsidiary owned by Virgin Atlantic.
It was created in 2012 as a way to provide competition for aviation giant British Airways (BA) on UK domestic mainland flights to Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Manchester from London Heathrow Airport. During its operation, the airline operated four Airbus A320s wet leased from Irish airline Aer Lingus and served a network of four domestic destinations. The airline ceased operations in 2015 following low passenger numbers.
## History
### Foundation and start of operations
In 2012, British Airways took over British Midland International (BMI) which gave them a monopoly on UK mainland flights from Heathrow. In order for the deal to be completed, the European Union Competition Commissioner decreed that BA would have to give up 14 of BMI's landing slots at Heathrow to comply with EU competition regulations. 12 of these slots were set aside for domestic usage, which were bought by Virgin Atlantic after they outbid Aer Lingus for the required British domestic operating licence. Virgin announced that they would set up Virgin Atlantic Little Red as a subsidiary to use these slots to cover domestic UK mainland routes as Aer Lingus already provided competition for BA on flights to Northern Ireland from Heathrow. Little Red was later revealed to be operated on a wet-lease by Aer Lingus whereby the planes would be operated by Aer Lingus but would bear Virgin Atlantic livery. The pilots would be employed by Aer Lingus, with cabin crew supplied by McGinley Aviation. The cabin crew would wear Virgin Little Red uniforms and had training from Virgin, despite the fact that airline had not recently operated narrow-body aircraft.
Virgin announced that initially the airline would operate four daily flights between London Heathrow Airport and Manchester Airport, six daily flights between Heathrow and Edinburgh Airport, and three daily flights between Heathrow and Aberdeen Airport. The airline brand made its first flight on 31 March 2013, flying from Manchester to Heathrow.
The new service was launched in 2013 with owner Sir Richard Branson stating his intent to compete with BA domestically with "Virgin's rock and roll spirit" and to allow Virgin Atlantic's long haul passengers to connect to the rest of the UK using Virgin. In its first six months of operation, Little Red transported 250,000 passengers. Despite Branson's aim and a rise in passenger numbers during the first few months of Little Red's existence, the majority of Little Red's passengers were eventually using it for domestic flights only, rather than as long-haul connections, which led to flights often departing with only a third of seats sold. This was attributed to the fact that Little Red had to operate out of Terminal 1 and later Terminal 2 as Terminal 3 (where Virgin Atlantic flew out of) had no gates for domestic flights. The Civil Aviation Authority published figures that revealed that Little Red had the worst load figures of any airline in aviation at the time with 37.6% of passenger seats occupied. International Airlines Group CEO, Willie Walsh had criticised Little Red calling it a "mistake" and stated "You cannot make money flying aircraft that are less than half full."
### Losses and shutdown
Virgin had claimed that they were prepared to take losses on Little Red, estimated to be up to £3 million a week, in order to wait for an expansion in brand awareness. Virgin then stated that losses on Little Red would be covered by Virgin Atlantic's transatlantic routes. Despite this, as a result of the low passenger numbers in October 2014, it was announced that Little Red would cease to operate from September 2015. This was attributed to BA's dominance of the UK domestic market and Heathrow's restrictions of the usage of the small number of slots available. The slot limitation issue had been mentioned at Little Red's foundation in that the slots to Scottish airports could only be used to fly to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. It was also claimed in the media that passengers preferred to use low-cost carriers such as EasyJet to fly to and from other London airports aside of Heathrow for domestic travel owing to pricing.
Little Red's flights to Manchester ended in March 2015 with the final flights to Edinburgh and Aberdeen departing on 26 September 2015. The planes were returned for Aer Lingus' sole use in the Republic of Ireland following the final passenger flights of Little Red. After the closure of Little Red, all but three of the Heathrow slots were returned to BA and absorbed back into their operation, thus granting them a monopoly on UK mainland domestic flights at Heathrow for the first time since British Midland Airways (as BMI were named at the time) moved into Heathrow in 1982. However this was dependent on another airline not being willing to take the place of Little Red in running domestic flights from Heathrow. Virgin leased out the three slots it retained. In 2017, the remaining Little Red slots were taken over by Flybe.
## Destinations
During its operation, Virgin Atlantic Little Red operated to four destinations in the United Kingdom.
## Fleet
During its operation, Virgin Atlantic Little Red's fleet consisted of four Airbus A320s wet leased from Aer Lingus under a three-year contract. The aircraft had 29 rows of seating with a 3–3 configuration for a total of 174 seats. The fleet was painted with Virgin Atlantic livery with future plans to eventually repaint them with Little Red livery. However, due to the closure of operations, this rebrand of the planes never occurred and they retained their original livery.
There was consideration that Aer Lingus would take over the Little Red routes under their own brand with the Little Red fleet repainted. However they declined to do this stating that they wanted more flexibility with the returned aircraft to support their current fleet and operation. Aer Lingus repainted EI-DEI and DEO, two of the aircraft operated under the Little Red brand, in its "Green Spirit" branding in May 2015, as part of its partnership with the Irish Rugby Football Union.
## See also
- List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
|
862,028 |
Maggie Roswell
| 1,167,858,118 |
American actress
|
[
"1952 births",
"20th-century American actresses",
"21st-century American actresses",
"Actresses from Denver",
"Actresses from Los Angeles",
"American Roman Catholics",
"American film actresses",
"American television actresses",
"American voice actresses",
"California Democrats",
"Colorado Democrats",
"Living people"
] |
Maggie Roswell (born November 14, 1952) is an American actress, comedian, writer and producer from Los Angeles, California. She is well known for her voice work on the Fox network animated television series The Simpsons, in which she has played recurring characters such as Maude Flanders, Helen Lovejoy, Miss Hoover, and Luann Van Houten, as well as several minor characters. This work has earned her an Annie Award nomination.
Roswell made her acting break-through in the 1980s with appearances in films such as Midnight Madness (1980), Lost in America (1985), and Pretty in Pink (1986), and guest appearances on television shows such as Remington Steele, Masquerade, and Happy Days. She appeared frequently in the sketch comedy The Tim Conway Show from 1980 to 1981, and did voice acting for a few animated films and television shows. Roswell also performed in some theater plays, including one in 1988 directed by Julia Sweeney.
In 1989, Roswell was hired for the first season of The Simpsons. She played a few minor characters until she became a regular cast member with the introduction of Maude Flanders in the second season. In 1994, Roswell and her husband Hal Rayle moved from Los Angeles to Denver to raise their daughter. Together they established the Roswell 'n' Rayle Company, creating and voicing advertisements for companies. Because of her move to Denver, Roswell had to travel to Los Angeles twice a week to tape The Simpsons. This ultimately led to her requesting a pay raise in 1999; however, Fox refused to offer her the amount she wanted so she quit the show. Roswell returned to The Simpsons in 2002 after reaching a deal to record her lines from her Denver home.
## Career
### First acting work
Roswell was born on November 14, 1952, and raised in Los Angeles, California. After going to Catholic school and Los Angeles City College, she began a career in acting. In the 1970s, she made some guest appearances on television shows such as M\*A\*S\*H, but she did not gain her first big acting roles until the 1980s. In the 1980 film Midnight Madness, she played a character that leads a group of sorority sisters who are participating in a college puzzle solving race. Roswell also starred in the sketch comedy The Tim Conway Show in 1980 and 1981. She appeared in the film Lost in America (1985) as the character Patty, and she had a supporting role in the film Pretty in Pink (1986). She also acted in the two-part television film The Deliberate Stranger. In addition, Roswell played some minor roles in television shows in the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, including guest appearances on Remington Steele (1983), Masquerade (1984), Happy Days (1984), Murphy Brown (1993), and Quantum Leap (1993). She was offered a chance to replace Gilda Radner on Saturday Night Live, but turned down the offer when her agent told her "the show wasn't going anywhere."
Roswell has also worked on stage. In 1986 she appeared in improvisatory shows directed by Paul Sills at Lamb's Theatre, in which the actors were given characters and situations by the audience members. In 1988, she had a role in Julia Sweeney's play Mea's Big Apology at Groundling Theatre in Los Angeles. She played Eunice, a cynical woman who works at a malpractice insurance company and is a colleague to the main character. The company people do everything they can to dismiss her because they do not want to pay her retirement benefits, which are about to take effect. Roswell reprised this role in a 1992 revival of the play, also at Groundling Theatre.
### Early The Simpsons, Roswell 'n' Rayle, pay dispute
In addition to her live action roles, Roswell did some voice acting in animated films and shows, including the voice of Teegra in Fire and Ice from 1983. This led to her being hired on the animated television series The Simpsons in 1989. Her first appearance was in the season one episode "Homer's Night Out", in which she voiced the character Princess Kashmir (a belly dancer who seduces Homer). Out of the total thirteen episodes of the first season, Roswell appeared in four; however, they were only minor roles. Roswell did not become a regular cast member until the middle of the second season in the episode "Dead Putting Society" (1990), with the introduction of Maude Flanders (neighbor to the Simpson family and the loving wife of Ned Flanders). Roswell went on to voice other recurring characters on the show, such as Helen Lovejoy (the reverend's wife), Miss Hoover (an elementary school teacher), and Luann Van Houten (the mother of Bart's best friend, Milhouse), as well as several more one-time characters and background characters. Fellow Simpsons cast member Nancy Cartwright wrote in her autobiography that "Maggie Roswell has been blessed with a skill in creating one of the hardest things to create: the 'normal sound,' whatever that is. So she can easily slip into the gal next door or any number of assorted reporters, medical students, jury members, accountants, scientists and moms." Roswell was nominated for an Emmy Award for her work on The Simpsons. She also received a 1997 Annie Award nomination in the category "Best Individual Achievement: Voice Acting by a Female Performer in a TV Production" for her role as Shary Bobbins in the episode "Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala(Annoyed Grunt)cious", but lost to June Foray.
Roswell met fellow voice actor Hal Rayle in 1986, and they married in 1987. He had done roles such as the Predator in Predator 2, the ghoulies in Ghoulies II, and Marvin the Martian in Air Jordan commercials. They moved from Los Angeles to Denver, Colorado, in June 1994 to raise their adopted daughter Spenser, who was born in 1993. Between March and November every year, when episodes of The Simpsons were being recorded, Roswell had to fly back to Los Angeles twice a week to attend the table reads and the recording sessions. In an article about her and her husband's move, Ricky Lopes of Rocky Mountain News wrote: "When The Simpsons is taping, she goes to Los Angeles every Friday morning for the first reading, flies back that afternoon, flies back Sunday to tape the show Monday and flies back home that night." Roswell said she "got the idea for the way Helen Lovejoy says 'B-bye, b-bye, b-bye,' to everyone when they leave the church from the way the flight attendants say it when you get off the plane."
Roswell and Rayle began writing, producing, and/or voicing advertisements together for companies. They established "The Roswell 'n' Rayle Company" for this purpose, and built a recording studio in their basement. In 1994, they did radio advertisements in Denver for Burger King, Christy Sports, and an insect exhibit at the Museum of Natural History. The same year, Roswell provided her voice for Campbell's Soup and Pontiac commercials as part of their business. The company is still active as of 2010. They are now also providing comedic ring tones.
In 1997, Roswell appeared in the film Switchback alongside Danny Glover and Dennis Quaid.
Roswell left The Simpsons in spring 1999 after a pay dispute with Fox Broadcasting Company, which airs The Simpsons. The dispute was not revealed to the press at first; Fox originally reported that she decided to quit only because she was tired of flying between Denver and Los Angeles for the recording sessions. Then Roswell announced that she had asked for a raise, not only because she was tired of the traveling, but because of the increasing cost of flight tickets. Roswell was paid \$1,500 to \$2,000 per episode during the three seasons before she left, and she asked Fox for a raise to \$6,000 per episode. However, Fox only offered her a \$150 raise, which did not even cover the travel costs, so she decided to quit. She told The Denver Post that "they offered me a \$150 raise. I mean, that's lint in Fox's pocket. But Fox wanted to prove a point, I guess. I was flying myself back and forth from Denver to L.A. It was exhausting. I loved doing the show and they thought that I would come back. But now I'm busy doing other things." She further added that "I was part of the backbone of The Simpsons and I don't think the money I asked for was exorbitant. I wasn't asking for what other cast members make. I was just trying to recoup all the costs I had in travel. If they'd flown me in, I'd still be working." At that point, the six main cast members of the show were paid \$125,000 per episode. As a result of Roswell's departure, Marcia Mitzman Gaven was hired to voice her characters, with Maude Flanders killed off in the episode "Alone Again, Natura-Diddily".
### Return to The Simpsons and later work
Roswell returned to The Simpsons in 2002 in the season premiere of the fourteenth season, in which Maude made an appearance as a ghost. She reached a deal with Fox to record her lines from her Denver home, the dispute ended, and Roswell has remained on the show. She also appeared as Helen Lovejoy in the film The Simpsons Movie (2007). She attended the gala premiere together with her daughter, Spenser Rayle, who was fourteen years old at the time. Roswell told The Denver Post that she was surprised she was given two tickets; "Everybody in Hollywood is killing to get their kid there. My daughter's big thrill is to meet [the band] Green Day," which also appeared in the film.
In 2004, Roswell had a minor role in the film Silver City. In 2009, she starred in the play Bunny Bunny: Gilda Radner, a Sort of Romantic Comedy at Avenue Theater in Denver. It opened in May of that year. The play recounted events in the career of actress Gilda Radner, who Roswell played, from 1975 (the start of Saturday Night Live) to her death in 1989.
Roswell enjoys singing. On February 7, 1999, she debuted as a nightclub singer at the Denver Chop House & Brewery, where she performed on behalf of the homelessness charity Family Homestead. In June 2003, she sang at Denver's Rattlebrain Theatre on Sunday nights with The Sirens.
Roswell is a registered Democrat and still adheres to the Catholic faith she was raised in.
## Filmography
### Films
### Television
### Video games
|
47,618,147 |
Coast Guard City
| 1,158,036,871 |
Community of special importance to the U.S. Coast Guard
|
[
"Cities by type",
"Cities in the United States",
"United States Coast Guard"
] |
A Coast Guard City is a United States municipality designated as such by the Commandant of the United States Coast Guard on application of the local civilian government. It is an honorary designation intended to recognize communities of special importance to the U.S. Coast Guard.
## Criteria
Designation as a Coast Guard City is made by the Commandant of the United States Coast Guard on advice of a review board and upon application by a municipal government. According to the U.S. Coast Guard, applications are expected to demonstrate an applicant jurisdiction's ability to meet a multi-part criteria that can include: erection of monuments and memorials to the Coast Guard, organization of civic celebrations on the anniversary of the founding of the U.S. Coast Guard, offer of special recognition and merchandise discounts to Coast Guard personnel by the local business community, providing support to local U.S. Coast Guard Morale, Welfare and Recreation initiatives.
Designation as a Coast Guard City is for a five-year period, but can be renewed indefinitely conditioned on the city continuing to meet the criteria.
## History
### Background
The Coast Guard City program was established by the United States Congress in 1998 to recognize cities where military assets of the United States Coast Guard are located and which demonstrate support to Coast Guard personnel stationed there. The first city so designated was Grand Haven, Michigan.
As of February 2017, 21 cities have been designated as "Coast Guard Cities."
### Legislation
The authorizing legislation for the Coast Guard City program provides that:
> The Commandant of the Coast Guard may recognize the community of Grand Haven, Michigan, as "Coast Guard City, USA". If the Commandant desires to recognize any other community in the same manner or any other community requests such recognition from the Coast Guard, the Commandant shall notify the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure of the House of Representatives 90 days prior to approving such recognition.
### List of Coast Guard Cities
## See also
- Military town
|
27,142,913 |
John Komnenos the Fat
| 1,166,751,741 |
Usurper of the Byzantine Empire (died 1201)
|
[
"1201 deaths",
"12th-century Byzantine people",
"13th-century Byzantine people",
"13th-century executions",
"Axouch family",
"Byzantine usurpers",
"Executed Byzantine people",
"Hagia Sophia",
"People executed by the Byzantine Empire",
"Year of birth unknown"
] |
John Komnenos (Latinized as Comnenus), nicknamed "the Fat" (Greek: Ἰωάννης Κομνηνὸς ὁ παχύς, romanized: Ioannis Komninos o pahys), was a Byzantine noble who attempted to usurp the imperial throne from Alexios III Angelos in a short-lived coup in Constantinople on 31 July 1201 (or 1200). The coup drew on opposition to the ruling Angelid dynasty among rival aristocratic families and the common people, who were dissatisfied by the dynasty's failures against external foes. John had previously been an obscure figure, but he became the figurehead of the uprising because of his imperial blood, as he was descended from the illustrious Komnenian dynasty (1081–1185). However, the real driving force behind his coup was probably the ambitious Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos. With the support of the capital's populace, the plotters managed to seize most of the Great Palace in Constantinople's southeastern corner, which the mob proceeded to loot, and John Komnenos was crowned in the Hagia Sophia. Alexios III, however, was secure in his residence in the northwestern Palace of Blachernae, and he sent forces by sea to land in the part of the Great Palace still held by the loyal Varangian Guard. Most of the urban mob dispersed for the night, and the Varangians had little difficulty in suppressing the coup. John Komnenos was captured and executed with many of his followers.
## Origin and political background
John was ultimately of Greek and Turkish ancestry descending from both the Komnenoi and the Axouch. His father was the distinguished protostrator Alexios Axouch. The Axouchoi were a family of Turkish origin closely associated with the Komnenian dynasty and provided a number of distinguished generals. The two families also intermarried: John's mother Maria was the daughter of Alexios Komnenos, eldest son and co-emperor of Emperor John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143). John was thus able to claim a pedigree comparable, if not superior, to the reigning Angeloi, albeit from the maternal side.
The reign of Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) had been troubled from the outset: the aristocracy conspired against him, his pressing demand for new sources of revenue was blocked by the refusal of Senate, clergy and merchants to contribute, while the lower and middle classes of the imperial capital frequently displayed their discontent with riots against corrupt officials. The most notable of these was a large-scale uprising in February 1200 against the warden of the praetorium, Constantinople's chief prison, John Lagos, which was bloodily suppressed by imperial troops.
John Komnenos was a rather unimportant figure in the court, and in a marginal note dating to the late 13th century, Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos, who briefly became emperor during Constantinople's final siege by the Fourth Crusade, was named as the real mastermind behind the coup. He was certainly supported by a wider circle of nobles from the Komnenian era, possibly even the brothers Alexios Komnenos and David Komnenos, who later founded the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461). Thus the historian Michael Angold traces the coup's inception to the events of early 1199, when Alexios III married his two daughters Irene and Anna to the young noblemen Alexios Palaiologos and Theodore Laskaris respectively. This marriage not only spoke of increasing confidence for the Emperor, but also provided for the imperial succession and began the establishment of a separate aristocratic power-base, which must have displeased many noble families.
However, the revolt was also fuelled by a general feeling of discontent and humiliation at the failures of the Angeloi, especially in terms of foreign policy. This much is evident from the — albeit embellished — account of the eyewitness Nicholas Mesarites, whereby John Komnenos's supporters proclaimed that henceforth everything would go well for Romania, that her enemies would be vanquished, and that the kings of all the earth would come to pay homage to Constantinople.
## Coup
John's coup was launched on 31 July 1201, when the conspirators broke into the Hagia Sophia, where they swore to restore the Empire to its ancient bounds against the Vlach-Bulgarians, Turks and the Latins. While John was being proclaimed emperor and crowned by a monk—Patriarch John X Kamateros had hidden himself inside a cupboard—the capital's populace rioted outside and set fire to a number of churches. The conspirators then marched towards the Great Palace, the ancient seat of the Byzantine emperors. Avoiding the Chalke Gate, which was held by the feared Varangian Guard, they made for the imperial box in the Hippodrome, the kathisma, which was connected to the palace precinct. John's supporters indeed managed to drive off the Macedonian guard placed there and entered the palace through the Kareia Gate.
Having gained control of the western portions of the palace, John sat on the imperial throne, which broke under his great weight. He took no further actions to consolidate his position, other than appoint his chief followers to the Empire's highest posts. At the same time, his supporters, who along with the urban mob included a sizeable group of Georgian and Italian mercenaries, began to loot the buildings. They even reached the Nea Ekklesia and the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos, the Empire's chief depository of holy relics, which was defended by its skeuophylax, Nicholas Mesarites, with a small guard provided by John Komnenos. Mesarites and his men managed to drive the looters back, until he was wounded in the skirmish and withdrew to the Pharos Church.
With the coming of night, most of the crowd that had accompanied the storming of the palace earlier that day departed, intending to resume looting the next day. In the meantime, Alexios III, who resided in the Blachernae Palace in the city's northwestern corner, rallied for a counter-strike. A small force was dispatched with boats around the city's peninsula to the Hodegetria Monastery north of the Great Palace. It was led by the emperor's son-in-law Alexios Palaiologos, who at that point was likely regarded as his heir-apparent, and quickly made contact with the Varangians who had held out in the palace's northern parts, around the Chalke Gate.
The loyalist force marched to the Hippodrome, where they drove away most of John's supporters. They then entered the palace, where they found scarce opposition from John's attendants. John was captured after a short chase in the palace and his head was immediately cut off, to be displayed the next morning at the Forum of Constantine, while his body was displayed at Blachernae. A similar fate befell many of his supporters that night, while others were captured and tortured to extract the names of all the conspirators. Alexios Mourtzouphlos was likely put in prison for his role in this affair (he is known to have been in prison in 1203), and the two Komnenos brothers, Alexios and David, seem to have fled the capital immediately after the coup's failure.
## Historiography
John's coup was written extensively about by contemporaries: the historian Niketas Choniates deals with it briefly and rather dismissively, but Nicholas Mesarites left a long eyewitness account of events, in which his own role is suitably emphasized. The scholars Nikephoros Chrysoberges and Euthymios Tornikes wrote speeches in celebration of the coup's failure.
## Family
Some modern genealogical researchers consider John a possible father to Theodora Axouchina, wife of Emperor Alexios I Megas Komnenos of Trebizond (r. 1204–1222), but that is conjectural: the family name Axouchina is ascribed to her because her eldest son, the Trebizondian emperor John I Megas Komnenos Axouchos (r. 1235–1238), bore it as well.
## See also
- List of shortest-reigning monarchs
|
47,176,949 |
Albert Downing
| 1,085,680,258 |
New Zealand rugby union footballer
|
[
"1886 births",
"1915 deaths",
"Deaths in Turkey",
"New Zealand Army soldiers",
"New Zealand Military Forces personnel of World War I",
"New Zealand international rugby union players",
"New Zealand military personnel killed in World War I",
"Rugby union locks",
"Rugby union players from Napier, New Zealand"
] |
Albert "Doolan" Joseph Downing (12 July 1886 – 8 August 1915) was a New Zealand international rugby union player, capped 26 times at lock between 1913 and 1914. He was born in Napier, and began his playing career for Napier Marist in 1909, from which he was selected for Hawke's Bay and for the North Island. He moved at the end of 1912 to Auckland and there joined Auckland Marist, where he was the club's first All Black, playing his debut match against a touring Australian team in 1913. He was selected for the highly successful tour of North America in 1913, playing in 14 of the 16 matches and scoring 6 tries.
While the All Blacks were on a tour of Australia in 1914, the British Empire declared war on Germany and the team collectively decided to enlist. Three of them were killed, Downing the first of the All Blacks in World War I. After enlisting in early 1915, he took part in the Battle of Chunuk Bair, part of the Gallipoli Campaign, and was killed on 8 August. Henry Dewar, a teammate from the USA tour, died the following day at Anzac Cove.
## Early life
Albert Downing was born on 12 July 1886 in Port Ahuriri, Napier, New Zealand, the eldest son of Mr and Mrs John Downing. He attended Napier Boys' High School until 1904. He was a farmer before joining Barry Brothers, carriers and coal merchants, choosing to work as a carter outdoors, rather than join the clerical staff. Later, he worked as a storeman for the Ellison and Duncan Company.
## Rugby career
Downing's rugby career, playing at lock, started with the Napier Old Boys Rugby Club and then Napier Marist Rugby Club; he represented Hawke's Bay from 1909 to 1912. In 1911, he was selected for a North Island Country team, playing all games of a five match tour. The tour was part of a scheme by the New Zealand Rugby Union to discover talent, which brought Downing to the selectors' attention. The North Island team played four games, against Auckland, Taranaki Union, Wanganui and Wellington, between 29 July and 9 August, and played a final match against the South Island on 12 August. Reports from the tour show Downing was very involved in the games, scoring a try against Wanganui for a 13–0 victory, and nearly scoring in a close game against Auckland, which resulted in an 8–8 draw. The North versus South match, which the North won 18–6, was described in the press as lacking in quality: it was an "uninteresting match", and "play was crude and poor and lacked vigour". Downing stood out: "The only member of either team who could be said to have played up to inter-island form was Downing – a fine forward in the North Island team."
The following year, Downing's name was put forward by Hawke's Bay to play for the North Island in the annual Inter-Island match and he made selection. The North beat the South 12–8 in a closely contested, entertaining game in front of a full capacity crowd. The Northern forwards in general played a good game; it was suggested that Downing's passing back from the lineout to the halfback was something that other forwards might consider imitating. A tour with the North Island Country team followed, in which Downing played all four games. The last, against South Island Country in Wellington on 4 August, had to be stopped at half time due to the condition of the match ground, and the North won 14–3. His Hawke's Bay and North Island Country teammate Norman McKenzie described him as "an outstanding line-out forward with a wonderful pair of hands".
### Auckland and the All Blacks
Downing relocated to Auckland at the end of 1912 and was recruited by Auckland Marists on the strength of his playing and the links with the Napier Marists. He was the club's first All Black, joined shortly after by Jim "Buster" Barrett. Downing's debut match was against Australia in Wellington on 6 September, which the All Blacks won easily 30–6, bettering Australia "in every respect".
He was subsequently selected for the tour of North America the same year. On 10 September, the eve of departure, Wellington took on the All Blacks in a "thrilling" game which saw the visitors nearly defeated. With the wind behind them in the first half, the All Blacks gained a 13-point lead; but in the second half, Wellington came back strongly; and with a drop-goal in the final three minutes, closed the lead to just one point, 19–18. There was strong back play on both sides; amongst the forwards, one player from each side received special mention in the press: Downing for the All Blacks, Miller for Wellington.
It is possible that Downing might not have been selected for the tour had he not moved to Auckland. As it was, he played in 14 of the 16 matches, and contributed 6 tries for 18 points towards a total tally of 610 points. There was little interest in the American press about the tour. A single short paragraph in the New York Tribune reports on the 51–3 defeat of the All America team on 15 November. In New Zealand, meanwhile, detailed match reports were coming in, and many of these were full of praise for Downing. Of all the players in the USA match, four would die in the Great War: Deke Gard, the USA captain (died 29 September 1918); and three All Blacks: Henry Dewar, George Sellars and Downing himself.
In 1914, Downing was again selected for the Inter-Island match in Wellington on 9 June, which the South won 8–0. Later in the year, four of Downing's Marist teammates were with him in the All Black side selected to tour Australia: Barrett, five eighths Jock McKenzie, who had transferred from Wellington, and fullback Jack O’Brien, a founding member of the club. The All Blacks played Wellington again on the day before leaving for Australia, this time losing 19–14, Downing contributing a try. Downing played in 10 of the 11 matches, including the 3 tests, and was praised for his line-out ability. In the first test on 18 July, he was, according to The Star, "easily the best forward in the team", and after the second test, The Southland Times opined that "it is quite possible that before he leaves the lengthy Aucklander may prove himself to be included in the star category of New Zealand forwards."
In an obituary, Downing was described as "big, strong, fast, brainy, clever with hands and feet, dashing, and resourceful." He was best known for his work in the line-out and in the loose, equally good in attack as in defence. He played hard but clean. Such was his devotion to rugby that Downing had a tattoo on his left forearm of the Ranfurly Shield.
### International appearances
## Military career
During the All Black tour of Australia, in the game against Metropolitan Union in Sydney on 5 August 1914, the news was posted on the scoreboard that the British Empire – and therefore New Zealand and Australia – had declared war. On the ship home, the players collectively decided to volunteer for military service. Three of them were killed, including Downing at Gallipoli, Bobby Black at the Somme and Jim McNeece in hospital at Rouen of wounds received at Messines.
Downing enlisted with the Fifth Reinforcements (Wellington Battalion) on 2 February 1915. While doing basic training, he also played two games of rugby for the Trentham Military Forces Team, against Wellington on 1 May and Auckland on 5 June. In the first of these, Downing was reckoned to be the standout forward of the Trentham team, and "played splendidly".
On 13 June, he departed bound for Suez in Egypt, arriving 24 July. His unit took part, beginning on 6 August, in the Battle of Chunuk Bair, in support of the landing at Suvla Bay, which was intended to break the deadlock in the Gallipoli Campaign. The initial assault was successful and early on the morning of 8 August, Downing was with A Company occupying the Turkish trench on the crest of Chunuk Bair. The Turks counter-attacked at dawn, forcing back the British battalions and the Wellingtons. The crest was lost and the battle continued for 12 hours on the seaward slopes. By nightfall, Downing, who had earlier distinguished himself in a bayonet charge, was killed, reportedly "blown to pieces". Downing was the first of 13 All Blacks killed in the war, just a day before Henry Dewar, the second All Black to fall, was killed in action with the Wellington Mounted Rifles at Anzac Cove.
Sergeant Doolan Downing is commemorated on panel 17 of the New Zealand Memorial to the Missing on Chunuk Bair, along with his commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel William George Malone, who died aged 56, and more than 300 other men of his battalion.
|
36,738,298 |
Michael Wacha
| 1,173,406,514 |
American baseball player (born 1991)
|
[
"1991 births",
"Baseball players from Iowa",
"Boston Red Sox players",
"Gulf Coast Cardinals players",
"Living people",
"Major League Baseball pitchers",
"Memphis Redbirds players",
"National League All-Stars",
"National League Championship Series MVPs",
"New York Mets players",
"Palm Beach Cardinals players",
"San Diego Padres players",
"Sportspeople from Iowa City, Iowa",
"Springfield Cardinals players",
"St. Louis Cardinals players",
"Tampa Bay Rays players",
"Texas A&M Aggies baseball players",
"Worcester Red Sox players"
] |
Michael Joseph Wacha (/ˈwɑːkə/; born July 1, 1991) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball (MLB). He has previously played in MLB for the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Mets, Tampa Bay Rays, and Boston Red Sox. He played college baseball for the Texas A&M Aggies.
Wacha was selected by the Cardinals in the first round of the 2012 Major League Baseball draft from out of Texas A&M. After one year in the minor leagues, he made his major league debut on May 30, 2013. Following a strong regular season, Wacha earned the 2013 National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award, after yielding one run and eight hits in his first 21 postseason innings pitched.
## Early life
Michael Wacha was born in Iowa City, Iowa, to Tom and Karen Wacha as the second of four children. He has one older brother, Charlie, one younger brother, Lucas and a younger sister, Brette. He grew up a Chicago Cubs fan. When Wacha was three years old, his family moved from Iowa City to Texarkana, Texas. His future college coach, Rob Childress, first spotted Wacha pitching in an American Legion game; Wacha's father was the coach and his sister the batgirl. Wacha's uncle, Dusty Rogers, pitched in the Cincinnati Reds organization from 1984 through 1988.
## Amateur career
Wacha attended Pleasant Grove High School in Texarkana, Texas, where he played for the school's baseball and basketball teams. As a basketball player, he lettered three years as a forward and was honored on the first-team all-district on his way to advancing his school to the regional finals during his senior year. In his junior baseball season, Wacha posted a 16–3 W–L record, pitching the Hawks to the state finals. As a senior, he led the Hawks to the state semi-finals in his senior year in 2009 with a 6–3 win–loss record (W–L record). Wacha was a two-time all-state selection; he was selected to the all-state first-team and all-state tournament team. Excelling academically, Wacha was a member of the National Honor Society; in basketball, Wacha earned first-team academic all-state honors.
As an enrollee at Texas A&M University, Wacha played three years of college baseball for the Texas A&M Aggies. At this point, Wacha stood 6' 5" tall, weighed 180 pounds (82 kg), and threw his fastball with a velocity between 84 miles per hour (135 km/h) and 88 miles per hour (142 km/h). During his freshman campaign, he made ten starts in 25 total appearances and posted a 2.90 earned run average and a 9–2 record. Wacha also registered 97 strikeouts and 22 walks in 105+1⁄3 innings pitched. His nine wins ranked fifth and 2.90 earned run average was sixth in the Big 12 Conference. For his performance, Louisville Slugger named Wacha a freshman All-American.
In his sophomore year, Wacha posted a 9–4 record in 16 starts with 123 strikeouts and just 20 walks and a 2.29 earned run average in 129+2⁄3 innings pitched. His performance earned him a spot as a Third Team All-American and All-Big 12 Second Team. Wacha was a member of the USA Baseball Collegiate National Team. He also pitched in the Big 12 Championship, NCAA College Station Regional, and College World Series at the end of his sophomore year.
## Professional career
### Draft and minor leagues (2012–13)
The Cardinals selected Wacha in the first round with the 19th overall selection of the 2012 Major League Baseball draft and signed him for \$1.9 million on June 14, 2012. His draft slot originally belonged to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, who, upon signing Albert Pujols as a free agent, surrendered it to the Cardinals. Cardinals director of scouting Dan Kantrovitz foresaw Wacha as a future starter for the Cardinals whose size and competitive nature drew favorable comparisons with right-handers Chris Carpenter and Adam Wainwright.
Wacha ascended quickly through the minor leagues. The Cardinals first assigned Wacha to the Gulf Coast League (Rookie League) Cardinals, then promoted him to the Palm Beach Cardinals in the Florida State League and finally to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double-A Texas League before the 2012 season ended. In 21 innings pitched between the three levels, he struck out 40 batters, allowed just eight hits, four walks, and two runs (a 0.86 earned run average). With Springfield, he pitched eight innings, struck out 17 batters, and allowed just one home run.
The Cardinals invited Wacha to their major league spring training camp in 2013. He impressed team management and players alike, striking out 15 batters while only allowing one walk and one unearned run in 11+2⁄3 innings of work before being reassigned to the minor league camp.
Wacha started the 2013 season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, going 4–0 with a league-leading 2.05 earned run average in nine games started and 52+2⁄3 innings pitched before his first call-up to the major leagues. His overall season totals at Memphis included a 2.65 earned run average in 15 starts, 73 strikeouts and 85 innings pitched.
### St. Louis Cardinals (2013–2019)
#### Rookie season (2013)
The Cardinals activated Wacha on May 30 to make his major league debut against the Kansas City Royals at Busch Stadium. He was 4–0 with a 2.05 earned run average in nine starts for Memphis prior to his call up. Just 364 days after throwing his last pitch for Texas A&M, Wacha was standing on a major league mound for the first time.
In his first at-bat in the majors, Wacha singled to right-center field. On the mound, he demonstrated the prodigious pitching ability that rapidly shuttled him through the minor leagues when he retired the first 13 Royals he faced before giving up a hit, a double in the fifth inning. That runner then scored after another hit. He pitched seven innings with 93 pitches (67 strikes), giving up only two hits and one run, walking none and striking out six, leaving with a 2–1 lead. Wacha lost the chance for a win in the ninth, when Mitchell Boggs relieved and gave up a tying home run to the first batter he faced.
The Arizona Diamondbacks scored six runs against Wacha in his second start, which turned out to be a no-decision on his part. Wacha earned his first MLB win on June 11 as the Cardinals beat the New York Mets 9–2 at Citi Field. The game got off to a rough start as he gave up a home run to the second Met batter he faced, walked three others and saw his team fall behind two runs in the first inning. However, he rebounded and scattered five hits and no more walks over six total innings of work. Three days after earning his first major league win, the Cardinals optioned Wacha back to Memphis to clear roster room for pitcher Jake Westbrook as he returned from the disabled list (DL). During his first stint with the Cardinals, Wacha posted a 1–0 record with an earned run average of 4.58 in three starts.
The Cardinals recalled Wacha in mid-August and he was on the roster to stay for the remainder of the season. He started one game against the Chicago Cubs before being moved to the bullpen. Manager Mike Matheny placed him back in the rotation in September. He pitched six shutout innings with just three hits against the Cincinnati Reds.
Encompassing his last regular-season game and first three playoff appearances in 2013, Wacha authored a series of masterful performances. On September 24, he pitched a no-hitter through 8+2⁄3 innings against the Washington Nationals that ended when Ryan Zimmerman stroked an infield single that glanced off Wacha's glove. It was Washington's only hit as the Cardinals prevailed 2–0. It was also the third potential no-hitter lost with the final out to go on the 2013 season, after Yu Darvish and Yusmeiro Petit. Wacha finished his regular season in the Major Leagues appearing in 15 games, making nine starts and pitching 64+2⁄3 innings. He surrendered 52 hits, twenty runs, five home runs and struck out 65 hitters for a 2.78 earned run average.
#### First playoff experience (2013)
On October 7, Wacha started his first Major League playoff game. In 7+1⁄3 innings of work in Game 4 of the 2013 National League Division Series (NLDS)—an elimination game against the Pittsburgh Pirates—he again surrendered one hit (a home run) and two walks. Due to Wacha's back-to-back one-hit performances, Matheny announced that he would start Game 2 of the National League Championship Series (NLCS). In that game on October 12, he outdueled Clayton Kershaw in 6+2⁄3 innings for a 1–0 victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers. In just the 11th start of his MLB career, Wacha joined Bob Gibson as the only pitchers in franchise history to strike out at least eight batters while yielding one or no runs in consecutive postseason starts.
Facing Kershaw again in Game 6, Wacha yielded just two hits in seven innings as his opponent unravelled in a 9–0 victory that sent the Cardinals to the World Series. Wacha won both of his NLCS starts, holding the Dodgers to a .149 batting average, two walks and 13 strikeouts in 13+2⁄3 scoreless innings pitched as he earned the NLCS Most Valuable Player. He became the fourth rookie to win a postseason Most Valuable Player Award, following Larry Sherry (1959 World Series), Mike Boddicker (1983 NLCS), and Liván Hernández (1997 NLCS and 1997 World Series). Through the NLCS, Wacha allowed just one run on eight hits in 21 innings pitched for a 0.43 earned run average while striking out 22.
Starting Game Two of the World Series against the Boston Red Sox, Wacha pitched six innings in a 4–2 Cardinals' victory, although he said after the game he "didn't have [his] best stuff." Before surrendering a home run to David Ortiz, Wacha tied Gibson with the longest scoreless streak (19 innings) in Cardinals' postseason history. Wacha became the 17th-youngest pitcher overall to win a World Series game and the second-youngest in Cardinals history behind only Paul Dean. In Game 6, with the Cardinals facing elimination once more, Wacha was again called upon to save their season after winning four consecutive playoff starts with a 1.00 earned run average and just 11 hits allowed in 27 innings for a .122 opponents' batting average. However, the Red Sox finally solved him, tagging him for six runs in 3+2⁄3 innings on their way to defeating the Cardinals for their eighth World Series title.
#### 2014–2019
Wacha was guaranteed a regular post in the rotation at the outset of the 2014 season, and his first two starts came against the Reds. Receiving one win and one no-decision, he furthered a strong start against them. His first career 22+2⁄3 innings pitched against them included just 13 hits and five walks allowed with 20 strikeouts and a 0.40 earned run average. In an April 24 start against the New York Mets, Wacha struck out nine batters in the first three innings. This was just the 11th such occurrence in the expansion era. With 41 miles per hour (66 km/h) winds whipping, he struck out ten total in four innings but also walked five and required 93 pitches. Two of the walks proved costly as they were with the bases loaded; the Mets took advantage in a 3–2 triumph.
Wacha's first 15 starts of 2014 included a 2.79 earned run average and a 5–5 won-lost record. However, after pitching with lingering shoulder discomfort and fatigue in May and June, the Cardinals placed him on the disabled list on June 18. A series of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography tests revealed an injury termed as a stress reaction in the scapula behind his throwing arm. The stress reaction apparently was a case of the shoulder not repairing itself as fast as the strain from regular pitching had caused between the scapula bone and tendons.
Although similar to the stress fracture injury Brandon McCarthy suffered, it was deemed less severe. According to medical opinion, it was part of the same injury process, but Wacha's injury had not progressed as far as McCarthy's, as a fracture had yet to occur. Therefore, Cardinals general manager John Mozeliak stated, "As a precursor to a stress fracture, ... which is a precursor to a ... fracture," it was more manageable to correct. With limited knowledge on the related biomechanical processes, the Cardinals training and medical staff researched methods to treat Wacha's injury and prevent the same course from happening again; likewise, they were uncertain of when he was to return to play.
Wacha surrendered a series-ending, three-run walk-off home run to Travis Ishikawa of the San Francisco Giants in the ninth inning of Game 5 of the 2014 NLCS, as the Giants prevailed 6–3. Wacha finished the 2014 season with a 5–6 record, a 3.20 earned run average, and a 1.20 walks plus hits per inning pitched in 19 starts.
The Cardinals won each of Wacha's first nine starts of 2015 while he credited as the winner in seven of them. With an earned run average of 1.87, he became the first Cardinal to start with a 7–0 record since Matt Morris started 8–0 in 2005. He was selected to his first All-Star Game, played at Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati. The Cardinals skipped 10 days between two August starts over concerns about his shoulder. To that point, he was 15–4 with a 2.69 earned run average and 1.12 walks plus hits per inning pitched. In Game 4 of the NLDS against the Cubs on October 12, 2015, Wacha surrendered three home runs in 4+1⁄3 innings in an 8–6 loss. Wacha started 30 games in 2015, in which he was 17–7 with a 3.38 earned run average.
Wacha struggled in 2016. He missed over a month due to right shoulder inflammation and finished the season with a 7–7 record in 27 games (24 starts) with a career-high 5.09 earned run average and 1.48 walks plus hits per inning pitched.
In 2017, Wacha stayed healthy the entire season and tied a career high in starts with 30. He finished the season with a 12–9 record and 4.13 earned run average, recording a 3.41 earned run average at home and 4.97 on the road.
On June 3, 2018, against the Pirates, Wacha took a no-hitter through eight innings until giving up a lead-off single by Colin Moran in the ninth inning. Nevertheless, the Cardinals won 5–0. On June 21, Wacha was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a left oblique strain, and did not pitch the remainder of the year. For the 2018 season, Wacha made 15 starts, going 8–2 with a 3.20 earned run average.
Wacha began the 2019 season healthy and a member of St. Louis' starting rotation. However, after compiling a 5.59 earned run average through nine starts, he was moved to the bullpen at the end of May. He ultimately began appearing as both a starter and a reliever, making 29 total appearances during the regular season, with 24 being starts. Over 126+2⁄3 innings pitched, he went 6–7 with a 4.76 earned run average and 104 strikeouts.
### New York Mets (2020)
On December 13, 2019, the New York Mets signed Wacha to a one-year contract for the 2020 season. With the Mets during the 60-game season, Wacha pitched to a 1–4 record and 6.62 ERA with 37 strikeouts in 34 innings from eight appearances (seven starts).
### Tampa Bay Rays (2021)
On December 16, 2020, Wacha signed a one-year, \$3 million contract with the Tampa Bay Rays. In 29 appearances (23 starts), Wacha pitched to a 3–5 record and a 5.05 ERA while striking out 121 batters in 124+2⁄3 innings.
### Boston Red Sox (2022)
On November 27, 2021, Wacha signed a one-year contract with the Boston Red Sox, reportedly worth \$7 million. He began the season as a starter in Boston's pitching rotation. He was on the injured list due to intercostal irritation from May 8 until May 20. On June 6, Wacha tossed a complete game shutout against the Los Angeles Angels. He only walked one batter, while striking out six batters on 105 pitches. It was also the second complete game and shutout of his career. It was the 10th complete game 1–0 shutout in Red Sox franchise history, and the first since June 7, 2007, when Curt Schilling did so against the Oakland A's. Wacha was placed on the injured list on July 8 due to right shoulder inflammation. On August 4, while on a rehabilitation assignment with the Worcester Red Sox, Wacha pitched innings without allowing a hit against the Durham Bulls; A. J. Politi and Chase Shugart completed the combined no-hitter. Wacha returned to Boston's active roster on August 14. In 23 starts with Boston, Wacha posted an 11–2 record with 3.32 ERA while striking out 104 batters in 127+1⁄3 innings.
### San Diego Padres
On February 16, 2023, Wacha signed a one-year contract with the San Diego Padres.
## Pitching profile
Standing tall and weighing 210 pounds (95 kg), Wacha repeats the same delivery with all his pitches. Featuring a sinking fastball that usually travels between 92 miles per hour (148 km/h) and 95 miles per hour (153 km/h), Wacha frequently shows velocity up to 97 miles per hour (156 km/h). His high arm angle and release point create substantial downward action on his fastball. Wacha's fastball complement, a changeup, features deep, fading movement to right-handed hitters with a 10 miles per hour (16 km/h) to 12 miles per hour (19 km/h) decrease in velocity from his fastball. Not only is his arm angle on the two pitches the same, the arm speed appears virtually identical to the hitter, thus disguising the difference in velocity.
Wacha's third pitch is an average curveball that travels about 77 miles per hour (124 km/h) and has improved in break and consistency; in college, scouts considered his curveball a below-average pitch. He has a fourth pitch, a slider, that lacks consistent break and darts horizontally, similar to the cutter. Wacha attributed the increase in pitch velocity to gaining weight from physical exercise and increased food consumption, asserting that he "felt like the velocity just kept on increasing every single year. I changed my mechanics a little bit when I was in college, and that might have added a few ticks". Wacha added a cutter late in the 2013 season, though he only threw the pitch 1.8% of the time. During the 2014 spring training, Wacha showed increased confidence in the pitch after finding a consistent grip.
Depending on the source, Wacha shows a wide range of potential. Scouting reports initially projected him for a potential of two plus-plus pitches (fastball and changeup) with command of both. Baseball Prospectus noted that his polish due to pitch command helped fast-track him to the Major Leagues. However, a dearth of vigorous fastball life escalates the importance of command. Wacha offsets the shortage of sizable vertical movement with the pronounced descent through which his fastball, changeup and curve travel to create an additional obstacle as hitters to attempt square the bat on the pitch. In addition, the drop in elevation changes the hitter's eye level. Wacha was previously criticized for a heavy reliance on the fastball from lacking a solid breaking pitch. Before refining his curveball, Baseball Prospect Nation commented that development of a slider "to even only an occasional 'show-me' pitch would add another element to his game and allow him to become more refined in his pitch sequencing ability to work through a lineup".
During each at-bat, Wacha does not easily give in to the batter. He maintains his composure on the mound. With both fastball and changeup being plus-plus pitches and improved command, Baseball Prospectus and Baseball Prospect Nation conclude his likely future is as a solid number-three starter. However, as command of his curve has markedly improved, so have his projections. The same initial reports stated that if he could enhance his slider's reliability, he may be able to become a low-end number two starter. Still others, such as scout Ralph Garr, Jr., and Kantrovitz, project him as a "future top-of-the-rotation guy".
## Awards
## Personal life
As both a play on his last name, and the pronunciation of his first and last names together, "Wacha Wacha" became a phenomenon in 2013 following the favorite catchphrase of Fozzie Bear of The Muppets, and for its similarity to the sound effects from the Pac-Man arcade game. A restaurant in St. Louis named a milkshake the "Wacha Wacha" following his 2013 NLCS Most Valuable Player honors. The milkshake's ingredients included vanilla with chocolate chips and Cracker Jack. Although he could not remember the name of the restaurant (believed to be Fozzie's), he stated the Cracker Jack "added a little baseball flair to it".
Wacha and his wife Sarah (Hoffman) Wacha married in November 2020. They reside in Jupiter, Florida.
## See also
- List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders
- St. Louis Cardinals award winners and league leaders
|
146,681 |
Among the Living
| 1,166,130,578 | null |
[
"1987 albums",
"Albums produced by Eddie Kramer",
"Anthrax (American band) albums",
"Island Records albums",
"Megaforce Records albums"
] |
Among the Living is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Anthrax. It was released on March 16, 1987, by Megaforce Records in the US and by Island Records in the rest of the world. The album is dedicated to Cliff Burton of Metallica, who died in a bus accident six months before its release while Metallica were on tour with Anthrax as the opening act.
Veteran engineer Eddie Kramer, at his first venture with a thrash metal act, co-produced the album. Recording proceeded smoothly and the band was enthusiastic, but different visions for the sound of the final release created contrasts between Anthrax and the producer during the mixing at Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas. Ultimately, Anthrax succeeded in maintaining the aggressive dry sound and fast rhythms of the original recordings, enriched by often-humorous lyrics dealing with disparate subjects.
Anthrax members often described the album as their major breakthrough, as it catapulted the band from being a small club attraction to arena and stadium stars. Critics acclaimed the album and promoted the band among the Big Four of Thrash Metal elite. The band's second Gold record, Among the Living was certified Gold by the RIAA on July 31, 1990.
## Background
The original members of Anthrax grew up in New York City listening to 1970s rock and hard rock and turned to heavy metal in the 1980s, profoundly influenced by bands like Judas Priest, Iron Maiden and Motörhead. Drummer Charlie Benante was also a fan of bands playing music considered extreme at the time, such as Raven and Venom, and he and guitarist Scott Ian enjoyed hardcore as much as metal. Guitarist Dan Spitz, originally in the band Overkill, was an accomplished, trained musician, while Joey Belladonna had a background as a singer in cover bands of arena rock acts Journey, Foreigner and Bad Company. The integration of these differing musical sensibilities resulted in Anthrax's second album, Spreading the Disease, praised by critics for showing decisive progress from the band's debut release, Fistful of Metal, and for introducing a unique sound, which opposed the fast and heavy riffing of thrash metal with Belladonna's clean and melodic vocals. That album also marked the beginning of the songwriting method that would see the band through its most successful period. Benante would create riffs and rough musical structures for all the songs, that would later be developed, integrated and arranged with the other musicians. Ian composed all the lyrics and worked on them with Belladonna to create vocal melodies that were fit to his high-pitched, melodic singing style.
Anthrax had spent about six months in 1985 recording Spreading the Disease, their first album for the major label Island Records, which sold more than 100,000 copies worldwide. They had been on tour to support the album since its release, both as headliners in small clubs and as an opening act for other bands. When opening for W.A.S.P. and Black Sabbath on their tour supporting the album Seventh Star, Anthrax played for the first time in mid-sized arenas and were thrilled by the experience and by audiences' reaction to their music.
After a brief stop to rehearse new songs in July 1986, Anthrax joined longtime friends and Megaforce Records labelmates Metallica on the European leg of Metallica's Damage, Inc. Tour supporting Master of Puppets. In Sweden on September 27, Metallica bassist Cliff Burton was killed when the band's tour bus skidded off the road. His death profoundly impacted the thrash-metal community in which he was a highly regarded figure, and the members of Anthrax dedicated their new album Among the Living to his memory. In 2012, Ian said in an interview that part of the reason "... the album sounds so angry is because Cliff died. We'd lost our friend and it was so wrong and unfair."
## Musical style
The music press largely considers Among the Living one of the strongest thrash metal albums ever recorded. In comparison with Spreading the Disease, the songs on the album generally feature faster rhythms granted by Benante's double-pedal bass-drum beats, stronger hardcore influences in the frequent gang choruses and a more aggressive vocal delivery by Belladonna. According to Ian, the general sonic approach of the songs is similar to "A.I.R.", the opening track of Spreading the Disease. The structure of the tracks is conventional and sometimes inspired by other rock songs, such as AC/DC's "Whole Lotta Rosie" for "Caught in a Mosh", but with many rhythm changes and melodies that sometimes yield to the aggressive and dry sound. One critic considered this last feature a probable carryover from the Stormtroopers of Death project, a seminal crossover band formed in 1985 by Benante, Ian and original Anthrax bassist Danny Lilker, that had combined metal riffs with hardcore on an album of short, fast and satirical songs titled Speak English or Die.
## Composition
Anthrax composed the songs "I Am the Law", "Indians" and "I'm the Man" during the tour of 1986, rehearsed the first two and quickly included "I Am the Law" in their live setlist. Most of the songs were written in July 1986, after touring had ended. At the end of July 1986, Anthrax arranged and rehearsed the new songs at Top Cat rehearsal studios in New York City, before leaving for the UK, where they joined Metallica for their European dates.
Music critics remarked how, in contrast to other thrash metal bands who use very serious and dark lyrics, the lyrics on Among the Living are often veined with humor and were inspired by disparate sources. Socially conscious matters are present in songs such as "Indians", about the plight of Native Americans forced to live on reservations, "One World", which deals with the risk of nuclear holocaust and "Imitation of Life", about falseness, especially in the music business. "Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.)" ("nise fukin life" spelled backwards) is a protest song against drug abuse and was inspired by comedian John Belushi's drug addiction and death. Ian is still baffled that journalists ask him why he wrote a song about the National Football League, just showing that "they haven't bothered to read the lyrics, or understand the whole point of the song."
Two of the album's songs are based on characters and situations taken from Stephen King's work: "Among the Living" from the novel The Stand and "A Skeleton in the Closet" from the novella "Apt Pupil", a part of the Different Seasons collection. Both Ian and Benante were avid readers of King's works. "I Am the Law" is based on riffs left over from the recording sessions of Spreading the Disease and is co-credited with Lilker. The title is the catchphrase of Judge Dredd, a comic book character whose stories were originally published in the British magazine 2000 AD, of which Ian was a reader and fan.
"Caught in a Mosh" recounts a misadventure that happened to a roadie during an especially agitated concert; many metalheads consider it a classic thrash-metal anthem. Critics read it as a glorification of the slam pit and a metaphor for life struggles. The last song written for the album was "Horror of It All" as a tribute to Cliff Burton, whose death had touched all of the band members.
## Recording
The band wanted a producer who could capture the energy of their live show and requested Eddie Kramer for the task. Kramer was a famous producer and engineer who had worked with Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin and Kiss, among others. The live sound that Kramer had captured in the Kiss album Alive! (1975) had especially impressed Ian and Benante when they were young. "When Eddie said yes to us, it was a total headfuck," guitarist Scott Ian recalled.
The band recorded the new songs in about six weeks at Quadradial Studios in Miami, Florida. It was difficult at the time to record the sound of down-tuned guitars, typical of thrash metal bands such as Anthrax, and manage to distinguish it from the bass guitar and the bass drum. As Kramer recalled: "I'd never recorded anything quite like it. I wasn't sure of what they were looking for initially. And it was a challenge to figure out ways to record heavy guitars with heavy drums – it was just a different process." Kramer set up the recording sessions as group live performances and the band members were enthusiastic regarding the atmosphere and the sound produced. "We always felt like when we were in a room rehearsing, we were at our best," Ian said. "We were killing it and we had all the confidence in the world." The production then moved for retouching and mixing of the tracks to Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas, a facility owned by Chris Blackwell, the president of Anthrax's record label Island Records. Ian had suggested that recording studio only because Iron Maiden had been working there since 1983.
In Nassau, Kramer created a first mix full of sound effects and reverb and claimed to have done a "modern mixing", similar to producer John "Mutt " Lange's work for Def Leppard's best-selling album Pyromania. The band members were dissatisfied with the mix and rejected it, arguing with Kramer to return to a clean, dry sound as close to the original live recording as possible. In a 2013 interview, Kramer remarked how "... the guys had a totally different attitude, a totally different way of thinking, and I remember it being contentious during the mixing." Pressed by the possibility of being fired, Kramer relented to the band members' request and wrapped up the mixing process in less than two weeks.
## Artwork
The cover art is by illustrator and painter Don Brautigam, a cover artist since the early 1970s, who worked on both Among the Living and Metallica's iconic Master of Puppets. The painting of Among the Living has been the subject of discussion, because it was long believed to depict the character Rev. Henry Kane, the antagonist from the film Poltergeist II: The Other Side, while others thought it depicted Randall Flagg, the subject of the album's title track and the antagonist from the Stephen King novel The Stand. Drummer Charlie Benante, who conceived the concept for the cover, explained: "It was just about how much evil there is amongst us. I wanted to show just the same type of person on the cover. The same type of people and then, the one person that was sticking out kind of giving you a wave, like a 'hi!'". In 1988, Brautigam was the cover artist for the following Anthrax album State of Euphoria.
## Release
Among the Living was mastered by George Marino at Sterling Sound in New York City, and was released worldwide on March 22, 1987, through Jon Zazula's label Megaforce Records and Island Records.
The album was preceded by the release of the single "I Am the Law" in February 1987, in 7-inch and 12-inch formats, which charted in the UK. Both versions had the non-album track "Bud E. Luvbomb and Satan's Lounge Band" as B-side, and the 12-inch also featured "I'm the Man," a song recorded in the same sessions as the rest of the album's tracks. It is among the first songs to have mixed rap and metal. The band's management thought that the song could not fit the sound and drive of Among the Living and decided to release it as a B-side. It was later re-released as a successful EP and became one of the most recognizable Anthrax songs.
The second single "Indians" was released in June 1987. The 12-inch vinyl featured covers of Black Sabbath's "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" and of S.O.D.'s "Taint", both expressly recorded for the release. A music video directed by Jean Pellerin and Doug Freel was shot for "Indians" and received moderate rotation on MTV in the late-1980s thrash-metal heyday.
Among the Living charted in Europe and reached No. 62 on the US Billboard 200 chart, despite no radio airplay. It sold steadily through the years, and on July 31, 1990, the album was certified Gold, the second Anthrax album to do so after State of Euphoria in 1989.
On November 10, 2009, a deluxe edition of the album was released that included a bonus concert DVD. The release features alternate takes of several album tracks, live versions and the B-side songs "I Am the Law" and "Bud E Luv Bomb And Satan's Lounge Band."
### In other media
The re-recorded version of "Among the Living" from the album The Greater of Two Evils can be heard in the teaser for the 2006 film Clerks II. A cover version of "Caught in a Mosh" is included in the 2007 videogame Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s, while the master recording is included in 2009's Guitar Hero: Smash Hits and in 2010's Rock Band 3. The same game included "Among the Living" and "Indians" as downloadable content. "Indians" is also included in the 2010 videogame Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.
To celebrate the band's 40th anniversary, Anthrax and Z2 Comics released a graphic novel with stories inspired by the songs from Among the Living in July 2021. The collection features contributions from an all-star group of writers and artists from the worlds of music and comics, including Corey Taylor, Grant Morrison, Brian Posehn, Gerard and Mikey Way, Rob Zombie, Brian Azzarello, Jimmy Palmiotti and Rick Remender.
## Tour
Soon after the release of the album, Anthrax embarked on a short tour in Japan, but they officially started the Among the Living Tour on May 26, 1987, at the Penny Arcade of Rochester, with Metal Church opening. They played in mid-sized venues as headliners during the summer and then moved to Europe. They were on the bill of the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington, England on August 22, 1987, alongside Bon Jovi, Dio, Metallica, W.A.S.P. and Cinderella. Anthrax played for an audience of 80,000 that day, and in the European tour that followed in September and October sold out 7,000-seaters venues. Back in the US in November, Anthrax went on a tour as headliners in 5000-plus-seaters venues, with Celtic Frost as opening act. At the beginning of 1988, Kiss requested Anthrax as support band for their Crazy Nights World Tour in the US. The tour concluded in the first days of April, when Anthrax returned to the studio to record the album State of Euphoria.
The songs of Among the Living have always been present in the band's live set lists since 1987, with at least four of them as fixed staples of their shows. In 2005, Anthrax reunited their Among the Living lineup, bringing Belladonna and Spitz back into the fold. During the world tour that followed they played live numerous cuts from the album and performed the record front-to-back at some shows. The band played Among the Living in its entirety again during the Metal Alliance 2013 tour and in 2017.
## Critical reception
Among the Living was acclaimed by contemporary and modern music critics and is often cited to this day as a favourite among Anthrax fans. It is generally considered the breakthrough album for Anthrax, their best and most influential, which for its merits propelled the band among the icons of thrash metal. The band's musicianship and the lyrics dedicated to social issues and pop-culture tributes were universally praised.
On Classic Rock magazine, Malcolm Dome appreciated the consistent quality of the album and wrote that Anthrax's "musicianship is on par with anything Metallica were doing at the time." J. D. Considine of Rolling Stone wrote that "Benante and his bandmates may have been regular guys in other respects, but as musicians there was no denying the technical agility that went into each aural onslaught". He also remarked how Anthrax strived to be equal to their fans in the mosh pits and "democratized (their) brilliance by attaching it to some of the band's catchiest, most approachable material." According to Greg Moffitt of BBC Music, Among the Living stroke "a deft balance between marauding speed and judicious use of melody, a juggling feat they'd fumble on later albums." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff had the same opinion about the music, but observed how the introduction for the first time of "a punk ethic" in songs like "Caught in a Mosh", "Efilnikufesin" and "One World" started to undermine "the seriousness of the band, something that was soon to cause image problems." In fact, the album was a critical success, but Anthrax were criticized by both journalists and fans for the inconsistency of their musical evolution and, most of all, for their stage look, which was made up of short pants and t-shirts with commercial images or hardcore logos, in striking contrast with the denim and leather apparel of other thrash metal groups. The band members' apparent endorsement of the skateboarding world was another reason for controversy in contemporary music magazines and among fans.
Anthrax members acknowledge the importance of the album for the band and for the thrash metal scene. Ian declared that Among the Living "wasn't just an important moment in our career. It gave us a career!"
### Accolades
In several articles for the British magazine Kerrang! in 1988, journalist Don Kaye elected Anthrax in the so-called "Big Four of Thrash Metal" elite, alongside Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer. The title was accepted by the metal community and remained attached to Anthrax for the rest of their career.
Martin Popoff placed Among the Living at No. 49 in his The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time book in 2004. In July 2005, Among the Living was inducted into the Decibel Hall of Fame, the sixth album overall to be featured. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die (2006). In August 2014, Revolver placed the album on its "14 Thrash Albums You Need to Own" list. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Among the Living as 20th on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.' On October 26, 2020, Kerrang! placed Among the Living at No. 6 in the list of "The 25 greatest thrash metal albums ever". Regarding singular songs, "Caught in a Mosh" is ranked No. 29 in VH1's "40 Greatest Metal Songs."
## Track listings
All credits adapted from the original releases.
## Personnel
Anthrax
- Joey Belladonna – lead vocals
- Dan Spitz – lead guitar, acoustic guitar on "A.D.I.", backing vocals
- Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
- Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals
- Charlie Benante – drums
Production
- Eddie Kramer – producer, engineer, mixing
- Chris Rutherford – engineer
- Francis McSweeney, Chip Schane – assistant engineers
- Paul Hamingson – mixing
- George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York
- Jon Zazula – executive producer, management
## Charts
## Certifications
|
53,940,712 |
Money Heist
| 1,173,786,845 |
Spanish heist crime drama television series
|
[
"2010s Spanish drama television series",
"2010s crime drama television series",
"2017 Spanish television series debuts",
"2020s Spanish drama television series",
"2020s crime drama television series",
"2021 Spanish television series endings",
"Antena 3 (Spanish TV channel) network series",
"Casting controversies in television",
"Crime thriller television series",
"Fiction with unreliable narrators",
"International Emmy Award for Best Drama Series winners",
"LGBT-related controversies in television",
"Money Heist",
"Spanish crime television series",
"Spanish thriller television series",
"Spanish-language Netflix original programming",
"Television series by Vancouver Media",
"Television shows filmed in Spain",
"Television shows remade overseas",
"Television shows set in Florence",
"Television shows set in Madrid",
"Television shows set in Panama",
"Television shows set in Thailand"
] |
Money Heist (Spanish: La casa de papel, , lit. 'The House of Paper') is a Spanish heist crime drama television series created by Álex Pina. The series traces two long-prepared heists led by the Professor (Álvaro Morte), one on the Royal Mint of Spain, and one on the Bank of Spain, told from the perspective of one of the robbers, Tokyo (Úrsula Corberó). The narrative is told in a real-time-like fashion and relies on flashbacks, time-jumps, hidden character motivations, and an unreliable narrator for complexity.
The series was initially intended as a limited series to be told in two parts. It had its original run of 15 episodes on Spanish network Antena 3 from 2 May 2017 through 23 November 2017. Netflix acquired global streaming rights in late 2017. It re-cut the series into 22 shorter episodes and released them worldwide, beginning with the first part on 20 December 2017, followed by the second part on 6 April 2018. In April 2018, Netflix renewed the series with a significantly increased budget for 16 new episodes total. Part 3, with eight episodes, was released on 19 July 2019. Part 4, also with eight episodes, was released on 3 April 2020. A documentary involving the producers and the cast premiered on Netflix the same day, titled Money Heist: The Phenomenon (Spanish: La casa de papel: El Fenómeno). In July 2020, Netflix renewed the show for a fifth and final part, which was released in two five-episode volumes on 3 September and 3 December 2021, respectively.
Similar to Money Heist: The Phenomenon, a two-part documentary involving the producers and cast premiered on Netflix the same day, titled Money Heist: From Tokyo to Berlin. The series was filmed in Madrid, Spain. Significant portions were also filmed in Panama, Thailand, Italy (Florence), Denmark and in Portugal (Lisbon). A South Korean remake set in an alternate universe, Money Heist: Korea – Joint Economic Area, was released on 24 June 2022, while a direct spin-off, Berlin, with Pedro Alonso reprising his role, is in active development, forming a shared universe.
The series received several awards including the International Emmy Award for Best Drama Series at the 46th International Emmy Awards, as well as critical acclaim for its sophisticated plot, interpersonal dramas, direction, and for trying to innovate Spanish television. The Italian anti-fascist song "Bella ciao", which plays multiple times throughout the series, became a summer hit across Europe in 2018. By 2018, the series was the most-watched non-English-language series and one of the most-watched series overall on Netflix,[^1] having particular resonance with viewers from Mediterranean Europe and the Latin American regions.
## Premise
Set in Madrid, a mysterious man known as the "Professor" recruits a group of eight people, who choose city names as their aliases, to carry out an ambitious plan that involves entering the Royal Mint of Spain, and escaping with €984 million. After taking 67 people hostage inside the Mint, the team plans to remain inside for 11 days to print the money as they deal with elite police forces. In the events following the initial heist, the group's members are forced out of hiding and prepare for a second heist, with some additional members, this time aiming to escape with gold from the Bank of Spain, as they again deal with hostages and police forces.
## Cast and characters
### Main
- Úrsula Corberó as Silene Oliveira (Tokyo): a runaway turned robber who is scouted by the Professor, then joins his group and participates in his plans. She also acts as the unreliable narrator.
- Álvaro Morte as Sergio Marquina (The Professor) / Salvador "Salva" Martín: the mastermind of the heist who assembled the group, and Berlin's younger brother
- Itziar Ituño as Raquel Murillo (Lisbon): an inspector of the National Police Corps who is put in charge of the case
- Pedro Alonso as Andrés de Fonollosa (Berlin): a terminally ill jewel thief and the Professor's second-in-command and older brother
- Paco Tous as Agustín Ramos (Moscow) (parts 1–2; featured parts 3–5): a former miner turned criminal and Denver's father
- Alba Flores as Ágata Jiménez (Nairobi): an expert in counterfeiting and forgery, in charge of printing the money and oversaw the melting of gold
- Miguel Herrán as Aníbal Cortés (Rio): a young hacker who later becomes Tokyo's boyfriend
- Jaime Lorente as Ricardo / Daniel Ramos (Denver): Moscow's son who joins him in the heist
- Esther Acebo as Mónica Gaztambide (Stockholm): one of the hostages in the Mint who is Arturo Román's secretary and mistress, carrying his child out of wedlock; during the robbery, she falls in love with Denver and becomes an accomplice to the group
- Enrique Arce as Arturo Román: a hostage and the former Director of the Royal Mint of Spain
- María Pedraza as Alison Parker (parts 1–2): a hostage in the Mint and daughter of the British ambassador to Spain
- Darko Perić as Mirko Dragic (Helsinki): a veteran Serbian soldier and Oslo's cousin
- Kiti Mánver as Mariví Fuentes (parts 1–2; featured parts 3–4): Raquel's mother
- Hovik Keuchkerian as Santiago Lopez (Bogotá; parts 3–5): an expert in metallurgy who joins the robbery of the Bank of Spain
- Luka Peroš as Jakov (Marseille; parts 4–5; featured part 3): a member of the gang who joins the robbery of the Bank of Spain and serves as a liaison for the group.
- Belén Cuesta as Julia Martinez (Manila; parts 4–5; featured part 3): godchild of Moscow and Denver's childhood friend, a trans woman, who joins the gang and poses as one of the hostages during the robbery of the Bank of Spain
- Fernando Cayo as Colonel Luis Tamayo (part 4–5; featured part 3): a member of the Spanish Intelligence who oversees Alicia's work on the case
- Rodrigo de la Serna as Martín Berrote (Palermo / The Engineer; parts 3–5): an old Argentine friend of Berlin who planned the robbery of the Bank of Spain with him and assumed his place as commanding officer
- Najwa Nimri as Alicia Sierra (parts 3–5): a pregnant inspector of the National Police Corps put in charge of the case after Raquel departed from the force
### Recurring
- Roberto García Ruiz as Dimitri Mostovói / Radko Dragić (Oslo; parts 1–2; featured parts 3–4): a veteran Serbian soldier and Helsinki's cousin
- Fernando Soto as Ángel Rubio (parts 1–2; featured parts 3–5): a deputy inspector and Raquel's second-in-command
- Juan Fernández as Colonel Alfonso Prieto (parts 1–2; featured parts 3–4): a member of the Spanish Intelligence who oversees Raquel's work on the case
- Anna Gras as Mercedes Colmenar (parts 1–2): Alison's teacher and one of the hostages in the Mint
- Fran Morcillo as Pablo Ruiz (part 1): Alison's schoolmate and one of the hostages in the Mint
- Clara Alvarado as Ariadna Cascales (parts 1–2): one of the hostages who works in the Mint and seduces Berlin
- Mario de la Rosa as Suárez: the chief of the Grupo Especial de Operaciones
- Miquel García Borda as Alberto Vicuña (parts 1–2; featured parts 4-5): Raquel's ex-husband and a forensic examiner
- Naia Guz as Paula Vicuña Murillo (parts 1–2; featured parts 3–4): Raquel and Alberto's daughter
- José Manuel Poga as César Gandía (parts 4–5; featured part 3): chief of security for the Bank of Spain who escapes from hostage and causes havoc for the group
- Antonio Romero as Benito Antoñanzas (parts 3–5): an assistant to Colonel Luis Tamayo, who is persuaded by the Professor to do tasks for him
- Diana Gómez as Tatiana (featured parts 3–5): the fifth ex-wife of Berlin who is a professional pianist and thief
- Pep Munné as Mario Urbaneja (featured parts 3–5): the governor of the Bank of Spain
- Olalla Hernández as Amanda (featured parts 3–5): the Secretary to the governor of the Bank of Spain and hostage who Arturo rapes
- Mari Carmen Sánchez as Paquita (featured parts 3–5): a hostage in the Bank of Spain and a nurse who tends to Nairobi while she recovers
- Carlos Suárez as Miguel Fernández (featured parts 3–5): a nervous hostage in the Bank of Spain
- Ahikar Azcona as Matías Caño (Pamplona; featured parts 3–5): a member of the group who largely guards the hostages in the Bank of Spain
- Ramón Agirre as Benjamín Martinez (Logroño; featured parts 4–5): father of Manila who aids the Professor in his plan
- Antonio García Ferreras as himself (featured parts 4–5): a journalist
- José Manuel Seda as Sagasta (part 5): leader of the army detail inside the bank
- Patrick Criado as Rafael (featured part 5): Berlin's son and Professor's nephew
- Miguel Ángel Silvestre (featured part 5): René, Tokyo's boyfriend before working with the Professor
- Alberto Amarilla as Ramiro (part 5): member of Sagasta's Special Forces
- Jennifer Miranda as Arteche (part 5): member of Sagasta's Special Forces
- Ajay Jethi as Shakir (featured parts 4–5): the lead Pakistani hacker that was hired by the Professor during the Bank of Spain robbery
## Production
### Conception and writing
The series was conceived by screenwriter Álex Pina and director Jesús Colmenar during their years of collaboration since 2008. After finishing their work on the Spanish prison drama Locked Up (Vis a vis), they left Globomedia to set up their own production company, named Vancouver Media, in 2016. For their first project, they considered either filming a comedy or developing a heist story for television, with the latter having never been attempted before on Spanish television. Along with former Locked Up colleagues, they developed Money Heist as a passion project to try new things without outside interference. Pina was firm about making it a limited series, feeling that dilution had become a problem for his previous productions.
Initially entitled Los Desahuciados (The Evicted) in the conception phase, the series was developed to subvert heist conventions and combine elements of the action genre, thrillers and surrealism, while still being credible. Pina saw an advantage over typical heist films in that character development could span a considerably longer narrative arc. Characters were to be shown from multiple sides to break the viewers' preconceptions of villainy and retain their interest throughout the show. Key aspects of the planned storyline were written down at the beginning, while the finer story beats were developed incrementally to not overwhelm the writers. Writer Javier Gómez Santander compared the writing process to the Professor's way of thinking, "going around, writing down options, consulting engineers whom you cannot tell why you ask them that," but noted that fiction allowed the police to be written dumber when necessary.
The beginning of filming was set for January 2017, allowing for five months of pre-production. The narrative was split into two parts for financial considerations. The robbers' city-based code names, which Spanish newspaper ABC compared to the colour-based code names in Quentin Tarantino's 1992 heist film Reservoir Dogs, were chosen at random in the first part, although places with high viewership resonance were also taken into account for the new robbers' code names in part 3. The first five lines of the pilot script took a month to write, as the writers were unable to make the Professor or Moscow work as narrator. Ultimately, Tokyo was chosen as an unreliable narrator. Flashbacks and time-jumps increased the narrative complexity and made the story more fluid for the audience. The pilot episode required over 50 script versions until the producers were satisfied. Later scripts would be finished once per week to keep up with filming.
### Casting
Casting took place late in February 2016, spanning more than two months. The characters were not fully fleshed out at the beginning of this process, and took shape based on the actors' performances. Casting directors Eva Leira and Yolanda Serrano were looking for actors with the ability to play empathetic robbers with believable love and family connections. Antena 3 announced the ensemble cast in March 2017 and released audition excerpts of most cast actors in the series' aftershow Tercer Grado and on their website.
The Professor was designed as a charismatic yet shy villain who could convince the robbers to follow him and make the audience sympathetic to the robbers' resistance against the powerful banks. However, developing the Professor's role proved difficult, as the character did not follow archetypal conventions and the producers were uncertain about his degree of brilliance. While the producers found his Salva personality early on, they were originally looking for a 50-year-old Harvard professor type with the looks of Spanish actor José Coronado. The role was proposed to Javier Gutiérrez, but he was already committed to starring in the film Campeones. Meanwhile, the casting directors advocated for Álvaro Morte, whom they knew from their collaboration on the long-running Spanish soap opera El secreto de Puente Viejo, even though his prime-time television experience was limited at that point. Going through the full casting process and approaching the role through external analysis rather than personal experience, Morte described the professor as "a tremendous box of surprises" that "end up shaping this character because he never ceases to generate uncertainty," making it unclear for the audience if the character is good or bad. The producers also found that his appearance of a primary school teacher gave the character more credibility.
Pedro Alonso was cast to play Berlin, whom La Voz de Galicia would later characterize as a "cold, hypnotic, sophisticated and disturbing character, an inveterate macho with serious empathy problems, a white-collar thief who despises his colleagues and considers them inferior." The actor's portrayal of the character was inspired by a chance encounter Alonso had the day before receiving his audition script, with "an intelligent person" who was "provocative or even manipulative" to him. Alonso saw high observation skills and an unusual understanding of his surroundings in Berlin, resulting in unconventional and unpredictable character behaviour. Similarities between Berlin and Najwa Nimri's character Zulema in Pina's TV series Locked Up were unintentional. The family connection between the Professor and Berlin was not in the original script, but was built into the characters' backstory at the end of part 1 after Morte and Alonso had repeatedly proposed to do so.
The producers found the protagonist and narrator, Tokyo, among the hardest characters to develop, as they were originally looking for an older actress to play the character who had nothing to lose before meeting the Professor. Úrsula Corberó eventually landed the role for bringing a playful energy to the table; her voice was heavily factored in during casting, as she was the first voice the audience hears in the show. Jaime Lorente developed Denver's hallmark laughter during the casting process. Two cast actors had appeared in previous TV series by Álex Pina: Paco Tous (Moscow) had starred in the 2005 TV series Los hombres de Paco, and Alba Flores (Nairobi) had starred in Locked Up. Flores was asked to play Nairobi without audition when Pina realised late in the conception phase that the show needed another female gang member. For the role opposite to the robbers, Itziar Ituño was cast to play Inspector Raquel Murillo, whom Ituño described as a "strong and powerful woman in a world of men, but also sensitive in her private life". She took inspiration from The Silence of the Lambs character Clarice Starling, an FBI student with a messy family life who develops sympathies for a criminal.
The actors learned of the show's renewal by Netflix before the producers contacted them to return. In October 2018, Netflix announced the cast of part 3; the returning main cast included Pedro Alonso, raising speculation about his role in part 3. Among the new cast members were Argentine actor Rodrigo de la Serna, who saw a possible connection between his character's name and the Argentine football legend Martín Palermo, and Locked Up star Najwa Nimri. Cameo scenes of Brazilian football star, and fan of the series, Neymar, as a monk were filmed for part 3, but were excluded from the stream without repercussions to the narrative until judicial charges against him had been dropped in late August 2019. A small appearance by Spanish actress Belén Cuesta in two episodes of part 3 raised fan and media speculation about her role in part 4.
### Design
The show's look and atmosphere were developed by creator Álex Pina, director Jesús Colmenar, and director of photography Migue Amoedo, according to La Vanguardia "the most prolific television trio in recent years". Abdón Alcañiz served as art director. Their collaboration projects usually take a primary colour as a basis; Money Heist had red as "one of the distinguishing features of the series" that stood over the gray sets. Blue, green and yellow were marked as a forbidden colour in production design. To achieve "absolute film quality", red tones were tested with different types of fabrics, textures and lighting. The iconography of the robbers' red jumpsuits mirrored the yellow prison dress code in Locked Up. For part 3, the Italian retail clothing company Diesel modified the red jumpsuits to better fit the body and launched a clothing line inspired by the series. Salvador Dalí was chosen as the robbers' mask design because of Dalí's recognisable visage that also serves as an iconic cultural reference to Spain; Don Quixote as an alternative mask design was discarded. This choice sparked criticism by the Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation for not requesting the necessary permissions.
To make the plot more realistic, the producers requested and received advice from the national police, civil guard, and the Spanish Ministry of Interior. The robbers' banknotes were printed with permission of the Bank of Spain and had an increased size as an anti-counterfeit measure. The greater financial backing of Netflix for part 3 allowed for the build of over 50 sets across five basic filming locations world-wide. Preparing a remote and uninhabited island in Panama to represent a robber hide-out proved difficult, as it needed to be cleaned, secured and built on, and involved hours-long travelling with material transportation. The real Bank of Spain was unavailable for visiting and filming for security reasons, so the producers recreated the Bank on a two-level stage by their own imagining, taking inspiration from Spanish architecture of the Francisco Franco era. Publicly available information was used to make the Bank's main hall set similar to the real location. The other interior sets were inspired by different periods and artificially aged to accentuate the building's history. Bronze and granite sculptures and motifs from the Valle de los Caídos were recreated for the interior, and over 50 paintings were painted for the Bank to emulate the Ateneo de Madrid.
### Filming
Parts 1 and 2 were filmed back-to-back in the greater Madrid region from January until August 2017. The pilot episode was recorded in 26 days, while all other episodes had around 14 filming days. Production was split into two units to save time, with one unit shooting scenes involving the Professor and the police, and the other filming scenes with the robbers. The main storyline is set in the Royal Mint of Spain in Madrid, but the exterior scenes were filmed at the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) headquarters for its passing resemblance to the Mint, and on the roof of the Higher Technical School of Aeronautical Engineers, part of the Technical University of Madrid. The hunting estate where the robbers plan their coup was filmed at the Finca El Gasco farm estate in Torrelodones. Interior filming took place at the former Locked Up sets in Colmenar Viejo and at the Spanish national daily newspaper ABC in Torrejón de Ardoz for printing press scenes. As the show was designed as a limited series, all sets were destroyed once production of part 2 had finished.
Parts 3 and 4 were also filmed back-to-back, with 21 to 23 filming days per episode. Netflix announced the start of filming on 25 October 2018, and filming of part 4 ended in August 2019. In 2018, Netflix had opened their first European production hub in Tres Cantos near Madrid for new and existing Netflix productions; main filming moved there onto a set three times the size of the set used for parts 1 and 2. The main storyline is set in the Bank of Spain in Madrid, but the exterior was filmed at the Ministry of Development complex Nuevos Ministerios. A scene where money is dropped from the sky was filmed at Callao Square. Ermita de San Frutos in Carrascal del Río served as the exterior of the Italian monastery where the robbers plan the heist. The motorhome scenes of the Professor and Lisbon were filmed at the deserted Las Salinas beaches in Almería to make the audience feel that the characters are safe from the police although their exact location is undisclosed at first. Underwater scenes inside the vault were filmed at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom. The beginning of part 3 was also filmed in Thailand, on the Guna Yala islands in Panama, and in Florence, Italy, which helped to counter the claustrophobic feeling of the first two parts, but was also an expression of the plot's global repercussions. Filming for the fifth and final season concluded on 14 May 2021.
### Music
The series' theme song, "My Life Is Going On," was composed by Manel Santisteban, who also served as composer on Locked Up. Santisteban approached Spanish singer, Cecilia Krull, to write and perform the lyrics, which are about having confidence in one's abilities and the future. The theme song is played behind a title sequence featuring paper models of major settings from the series. Krull's main source of inspiration was the character Tokyo in the first episode of the series, when the Professor offers her a way out of a desperate moment. The lyrics are in English as the language that came naturally to Krull at the time of writing.
The Italian anti-fascist song "Bella ciao" plays multiple times throughout the series and accompanies two emblematic key scenes: at the end of the first part the Professor and Berlin sing it in preparation for the heist, embracing themselves as resistance against the establishment, and in the second part it plays during the thieves' escape from the Mint, as a metaphor for freedom. Regarding the use of the song, Tokyo recounts in one of her narrations, "The life of the Professor revolved around a single idea: Resistance. His grandfather, who had fought against the fascists in Italy, taught him the song, and he taught us." The song was brought to the show by writer Javier Gómez Santander. He had listened to "Bella ciao" at home to cheer him up, as he had grown frustrated for not finding a suitable song for the middle of part 1. He was aware of the song's meaning and history and felt it represented positive values. "Bella ciao" became a summer hit in Europe in 2018, mostly due to the popularity of the series and not the song's grave themes.
## Episodes
### Season 1: Parts 1 and 2 (2017)
Part 1 begins with the aftermath of a failed bank robbery by a woman using the alias "Tokyo" as a man called the "Professor" saves her from being caught by the police. He proposes to include her in a heist of massive proportions. After a brief outline of the plan, the story jumps to the beginning of a multi-day assault on the Royal Mint of Spain in Madrid. The eight robbers are code-named for cities: Tokyo, Moscow, Berlin, Nairobi, Rio, Denver, Helsinki, and Oslo. Dressed in red jumpsuits and masks depicting artist Salvador Dalí, the robbers take 67 hostages as part of their plan to print and escape with €2.4 billion through a self-built escape tunnel. The Professor heads the heist from an external location. Flashbacks throughout the series show the five months of preparation at an abandoned hunting estate in the Toledo countryside; the robbers are not to share personal information nor engage in personal relationships, and are warned that there will be casualties.
Throughout parts 1 and 2, the robbers inside the Mint have difficulties sticking to their roles and face uncooperative hostages, violence, isolation, and mutiny. Tokyo narrates events through voice-overs. While Denver pursues a love affair with hostage Mónica Gaztambide, inspector Raquel Murillo of the National Police Corps negotiates with the Professor on the outside and begins an intimate relationship with his alter ego "Salva." The Professor's identity is repeatedly close to being uncovered and Raquel eventually realizes Salva is the Professor, but she is emotionally unable to hand him over to the police. At the end of part 2, after 128 hours, the robbers escape from the Mint with €984 million, but Oslo, Moscow and Berlin are killed. One year after the heist, Raquel finds a series of postcards left by the Professor, who wrote the coordinates for a location in Palawan in the Philippines, where she reunites with him.
### Season 2: Parts 3 and 4 (2019–2020)
Part 3 begins three years after the heist on the Royal Mint of Spain, showing the robbers enjoying their lives paired-up in diverse locations. However, when Europol captures Rio with an intercepted phone, the Professor picks up Berlin's old plans to assault the Bank of Spain to force Europol to hand over Rio to prevent his torture. He and Raquel (going by "Lisbon") get the gang, including Mónica (going by "Stockholm"), back together, and enlist three new members: Palermo, Bogotá and Marseille, with Palermo in charge. Flashbacks to the Professor and Berlin outline the planned new heist and their different approaches to love. The disguised robbers sneak into the heavily guarded bank, take hostages and eventually gain access to the gold and state secrets. At the same time, the Professor and Lisbon travel in an RV and then an ambulance while communicating with the robbers and the police. The robbers thwart a police breach of the bank, forcing the police, led by Colonel Luis Tamayo and pregnant inspector Alicia Sierra, to release Rio to the robbers. Nairobi is injured by a police sniper's shot to the chest. With another police assault on the bank coming, and believing Lisbon has been executed by the police, the Professor radios Palermo and declares DEFCON 2. The robbers respond by firing a rocket at the armored police vehicle that is advancing on the bank, turning the robbers from folk heroes to killers in the eyes of the public. Part 3 concludes by showing Lisbon alive and in custody, and Tokyo narrating that the Professor had fallen for a trap. She concludes that because of the Professor's miscalculation, "the war had begun."
Part 4 begins with the robbers rushing to save Nairobi's life. While Tokyo stages a coup d'état and takes over command from Palermo, the Professor and Marseille deduce that Lisbon must still be alive and being interrogated by Sierra in the police command post tent outside the bank. They persuade Tamayo's assistant, Antoñanzas, to help them so the Professor can establish a 48-hour truce with the police. As the group manages to save Nairobi's life, the restrained Palermo attempts to reassert command by colluding with Gandía, the restrained chief of security for the Bank of Spain. Gandía escapes, begins communications with the police from within a panic room inside the bank, and participates in a violent cat-and-mouse game with the gang. Palermo reverses course, regains the trust of the group, and rejoins them. Gandía shoots Nairobi in the head, killing her instantly, but the gang later recapture him. As the police prepare another assault on the bank, the Professor exposes to the public the unlawful torture of Rio and Lisbon's detention and interrogation. Sierra is fired and begins pursuing the Professor on her own. The Professor enlists external help to free Lisbon after she is transferred from the command post tent to the Supreme Court building. Part 4 concludes with Lisbon rejoining the gang inside the bank, and with Sierra finding the Professor's hideout, then holding him at gunpoint.
### Season 3: Part 5 Volumes 1 and 2 (2021)
Part 5 Volume 1 begins with Sierra finding the Professor and knocking him out, then tying him up and interrogating him. After Lisbon enters the bank, the gang prepares for an attack by troops of the Spanish army. The gang captures Gandia, then frees him rather than killing him. Gandia wants to exact revenge on the gang, so Tamayo has him join the assault by the soldiers. After finding out the Professor has been caught but that Sierra has not notified the police, Lisbon tells the gang they will not give up. Benjamin and Marseille find the Professor, and Sierra knocks them out and ties them up. When Sierra struggles to deliver her baby, she frees the Professor, Marseille, and Benjamin so they can help. Sierra gives birth to a daughter, whom she names Victoria. Arturo Roman, a hostage in both the Royal Mint and the Bank of Spain, had an affair with Stockholm before the first heist, and Arturo's reminders anger Denver. When Arturo, the governor of the bank, and other hostages start a rebellion, Stockholm shoots Arturo, who is released so he can receive medical care. In a flashback, Berlin convinces his son Rafael to help him steal 12 kilograms of gold with Tatiana, Bogota, and Marseille. In the present, the gang starts fighting the soldiers, with Helsinki sustaining a severe injury. Stockholm feels guilt over shooting Arturo, who is her son's birth father, and takes morphine while nursing Helsinki, which leaves her unable to aid in the gang's defense against the attacking soldiers. Part 5 Volume 1 concludes with Tokyo sacrificing herself to defeat Gandia and the soldiers.
In Part 5 Volume 2, Sierra runs away and the Professor and Marseille chase after her. Initially enemies, the Professor and Sierra soon become allies as they face their common enemy – the police. When they go back to the stormwater tank, they see the gold has already been delivered to them by the gang. However, the police find the stormwater tank and arrests the Professor, Sierra, Benjamin and Marseille. They escape, but find the gold missing. It is revealed that the gold is stolen by Rafael and Tatiana because she broke up with Berlin in the past to be with Rafael. In the present, Tatiana and Rafael bury the gold. Palermo and the Professor discover that it is their doing, but at this time, the army captured the gang. The Professor gives Sierra a note for Rafael, and convinces her to find the gold as that is their only hope while he drives to the bank. When he enters the bank, Tamayo taunts him and interrogates each gang member separately. Denver goes first, but does not reveal anything and is escorted to the police tent. The gang reveals to the public the gold has already been removed from the bank, leading to public panic and an economic meltdown, putting Spain in danger of bankruptcy. Sierra is able to locate the stolen gold. Outside the bank, the gold has arrived in trucks, but the Professor says it is gold-coated brass. The gang members are killed on Tamayo's orders, shocking Denver in the tent. They are taken out of the bank in body bags, and it is revealed they are alive as the Professor convinced Tamayo to stop the chase; the return of the "gold" has stabilized the country's economy. 24 hours after the heist, the gang reunite at an air base. Everyone receives new passports as Rafael and Tatiana return the gold to the gang with a promise that they will receive a share. The gang leaves the air base, having successfully robbed the Bank of Spain.
## Themes and analysis
The series was noted for its subversions of the heist genre. While heist films are usually told with a rational male Anglo-centric focus, the series reframes the heist story by giving it a strong Spanish identity and telling it from a female perspective through Tokyo. The producers regarded the cultural identity as an important part of the personality of the series, as it made the story more relatable for viewers. They also avoided adapting the series to international tastes, which helped to set it apart from the usual American TV series and raised international awareness of Spanish sensibilities. Emotional dynamics like the passion and impulsivity of friendship and love offset the perfect strategic crime for increased tension. Nearly all main characters, including the relationship-opposing Professor, eventually succumb to love, for which the series received comparisons to telenovelas. Comedic elements, which were compared to Back to the Future and black comedy, also offset the heist tension. The heist film formula is subverted by the heist starting straight after the opening credits instead of lingering on how the gang is brought together.
With the series being set after the financial crisis of 2007–2008, which resulted in severe austerity measures in Spain, critics argued that the series was an explicit allegory of rebellion against capitalism, including The Globe and Mail, who saw the series as "subversive in that it's about a heist for the people. It's revenge against a government." According to Le Monde, the Professor's teaching scenes in the Toledo hunting estate, in particular, highlighted how people should seek to develop their own solutions for the fallible capitalist system. The show's Robin Hood analogy of robbing the rich and giving to the poor received various interpretations. El Español argued that the analogy made it easier for viewers to connect with the show, as modern society tended to be tired of banks and politics already, and the New Statesman said the rich were no longer stolen from but undermined at their roots. On the other hand, Esquire'''s Mireia Mullor saw the Robin Hood analogy as a mere distraction strategy for the robbers, as they initially did not plan to use the money from their first heist to improve the quality of life of regular people; for this reason, Mullor also argues that the large following for the robbers in part 3 was not understandable even though they represented a channel for the discontent of those bearing economic and political injustices.
The characters were designed as multi-dimensional and complementary antagonists and antiheroes whose moralities are ever-changing. Examples include Berlin, who shifts from a robber mistreating hostages, to one of the series' most beloved characters. There is also the hostage Mónica Gaztambide, as well as inspector Raquel Murillo, who eventually join the cause of the robbers. Gonzálvez of The Huffington Post finds that an audience may think of the robbers as evil at first for committing a crime, but as the series progresses it marks the financial system as the true evil and suggests the robbers have ethical and empathetic justification for stealing from an overpowered thief. Najwa Nimri, playing inspector Sierra in part 3, said that "the complex thing about a villain is giving him humanity. That's where everyone gets alarmed when you have to prove that a villain also has a heart". She added that the amount of information and technology that surrounds us is allowing us to verify that "everyone has a dark side." The series leaves it to the audience to decide who is good or bad, as characters are "relatable and immoral" at various points in the story. Pina argued that it was this ability to change the view that made the series addictive and marked its success.
With the relative number of female main characters in TV shows generally on the rise, the series gives female characters the same attention as men, which the BBC regarded as an innovation for Spanish television. While many plot lines in the heist series still relate to males, the female characters become increasingly aware of gender-related issues, such as Mónica arguing in part 3 that women, just like men, could be robbers and a good parent. Critics further examined feminist themes and a rejection of machismo in the series through Nairobi and her phrase "The matriarchy begins" in part 2, and a comparative scene in part 3, where Palermo claims a patriarchy in a moment that, according to CNET, is played for laughs. La Vanguardia challenged any female-empowering claims in the series, as Úrsula Corberó (Tokyo) was often shown scantily clad, and Esquire criticized how characters' relationship problems in part 3 were often portrayed to be the women's fault. Alba Flores (Nairobi) saw no inherent feminist plot in the series, as women only take control when it suits the story, whilst Esther Acebo (Mónica) described any feminist subtext in the show as not being vindicative.
## Broadcast and release
### Original broadcast
Part 1 aired on free-to-air Spanish TV channel Antena 3 in the Wednesday 10:40 p.m. time slot from 2 May 2017 till 27 June 2017. Part 2 moved to the Monday 10:40 p.m. time slot and was broadcast from 16 October 2017 till 23 November 2017, with the originally planned 18 to 21 episodes cut down to 15. As the series was developed with Spanish prime-time television in mind, the episodes had a length of around 70 minutes, as is typical for Spanish television. The first five episodes of part 1 were followed by an aftershow entitled Tercer Grado (Third Grade).
Despite boycott calls after Itziar Ituño (Raquel Murillo) had protested against the accommodations of ETA prisoners of her home Basque Country in March 2016, the show had the best premiere of a Spanish series since April 2015, with more than four million viewers and the majority share of viewers in its timeslot, almost double the number of the next highest-viewed station/show. The show received good reviews and remained a leader in the commercial target group for the first half of part 1, but the viewership eventually slipped to lower figures than expected by the Antena 3 executives. Argentine newspaper La Nación attributed the decrease in viewer numbers to the change in time slots, the late broadcast times and the summer break between the parts. Pina saw the commercial breaks as responsible, as they disrupted the narrative flow of the series that otherwise played almost in real time, even though the breaks were factored in during writing. La Vanguardia saw the interest waning only among the conventional audience, as the plot unfolded too slowly at the rate of one episode per week. Writer Javier Gómez Santander regarded the series' run on Antena 3 as a "failure" in 2019, as the ratings declined to "nothing special", but commended Antena 3 for making a series that did not rely on typical stand-alone episodes.
### Netflix acquisition
Part 1 was made available on Netflix Spain on 1 July 2017, like other series belonging to Antena 3's parent media group Atresmedia. In December 2017, Netflix acquired the exclusive global streaming rights for the series. Netflix re-cut the series into 22 episodes of around 50 minutes' length. Cliffhangers and scenes had to be divided and moved to other episodes, but this proved less drastic than expected because of the series' perpetual plot twists. Netflix dubbed the series and renamed it from La casa de papel to Money Heist for distribution in the English-speaking world, releasing the first part on 20 December 2017 without any promotion. The second part was made available for streaming on 6 April 2018. Pina assessed the viewer experience on Antena 3 versus Netflix as "very different", although the essence of the series remained the same.
Without a dedicated Netflix marketing campaign, the series became the most-watched non-English language series on Netflix in early 2018, within four months of being added to the platform, to the creators' surprise. This prompted Netflix to sign a global exclusive overall deal with Pina shortly afterwards. Diego Ávalos, director of original content for Netflix in Europe, noted that the series was atypical in being watched across many different profile groups. Common explanations for the drastic differences in viewership between Antena 3 and Netflix were changed consumption habits of series viewers and the binge-watching potential of streaming. Some people in Spain also only became aware of the series from Netflix, unaware of its original Antena 3 broadcast. Pina and Sonia Martínez of Antena 3 would also later say that the series, with its high demand of viewer attention, unknowingly followed the video-on-demand format from the beginning.
### Renewal
In October 2017, Álex Pina said that part 2 had remote but intentional spin-off possibilities, and that his team was open to continue the robbers' story in the form of movies or a Netflix renewal. Following the show's success on the streaming platform, Netflix approached Pina and Atresmedia to produce new chapters for the originally self-contained story. The writers withdrew themselves for more than two months to decide on a direction, creating a bible with central ideas for new episodes in the process. The crucial factors in accepting Netflix's deal were the creators recognising that characters still had things to say, and having the opportunity to deviate from the perfectly orchestrated heist of the first two parts. Adamant that the story should be set in Spain again, the producers wanted to make it a sequel rather than a direct continuation, and expand on the familiarity and affection between the characters instead of the former group of strangers. Rio's capture was chosen as the catalyst to get the gang back together because he as the narrator's boyfriend represented the necessary emotional factor for the renewal not to be "suicide."
Netflix officially renewed the series for the third part with a considerably increased budget on 18 April 2018, which might make part 3 the most expensive series per episode in Spanish television history, according to Variety. As writing was in progress, Pina stated in July 2018 that he appreciated Netflix's decision to make the episodes 45 to 50 minutes of length, as the narrative could be more compressed and international viewers would have more freedom to consume the story in smaller parts. With Netflix's new push to improve the quality and appeal of its English-language versions of foreign shows, and over 70 percent of viewers in the United States choosing dubs over subtitles for the series, Netflix hired a new dubbing crew for part 3 and re-dubbed the first two parts accordingly. Part 3, consisting of eight episodes, was released on 19 July 2019; the first two episodes of part 3 also had a limited theatrical release in Spain one day before.
In August 2019, Netflix announced that part 3 was streamed by 34 million household accounts within its first week of release, of which 24 million finished the series within this period, thereby making it one of the most-watched productions on Netflix of all time, regardless of language. The viewership of part 3 increased, when Netflix reported that part 3 was viewed 44 million households during its first month and became the most popular show on Netflix during the third quarter. Netflix had an estimated 148 million subscribers world-wide in mid-2019. In October 2019, Netflix ranked Money Heist as their third-most-watched TV series for the past twelve months, and named it as the most-watched series across several European markets in 2019, including France, Spain and Italy, though not the UK. Twitter ranked the show fourth in its "Top TV shows worldwide" of 2019.
Filming of an initially unannounced fourth part of eight episodes ended in August 2019. Álex Pina and writer Javier Gómez Santander stated that unlike part 3, where the intention was to re-attract the audience with high-energy drama after the move to Netflix, the story of part 4 would unfold slower and be more character-driven. At another occasion, Pina and executive producer Esther Martínez Lobato teased part 4 as the "most traumatic [part] of all" because "this much tension has to explode somewhere". Alba Flores (Nairobi) said the scriptwriters had previously made many concessions to fans in part 3, but would go against audience wishes in part 4 and that "anyone who loves Nairobi will suffer". According to Pedro Alonso (Berlin), the focus of part 4 would be on saving Nairobi's life and standing by each other to survive. Part 4 was released on 3 April 2020; a documentary involving the producers and the cast premiered on Netflix the same day, titled Money Heist: The Phenomenon. Part 4 broke numerous viewership records for a non-English Netflix series, attracting 65 million of households during its first four weeks, and went to become the most watched non-English series at the time.
In October 2019, the online editions of Spanish newspaper's ABC and La Vanguardia re-reported claims by the Spanish website formulatv.com that Netflix had renewed the series for a fifth part, and that pre-production had already begun. In November 2019, La Vanguardia quoted director Jesús Colmenar's statement "That there is going to be a fifth [part] can be said", and that the new part would be filmed after Vancouver Media's new project Sky Rojo. Colmenar also stated that there have been discussions with Netflix about creating a spin-off of the series, as well as Pina. In an interview in December 2019, Pina and Martínez Lobato would not discuss the possibility of a fifth part because of confidentiality contracts, and only said that "Someone knows there will be [a part 5], but we don't." On 31 July 2020, Netflix renewed the show for a fifth and final part. On 24 May 2021, it was announced that the fifth part of the show would be released in two five-episode volumes on 3 September and 3 December, respectively. Similar to Money Heist: The Phenomenon, a two-part documentary involving the producers and cast premiered on Netflix the same day, titled Money Heist: From Tokyo to Berlin.
## Adaptation and spin-off
### South Korean adaptation
In November 2020, Netflix announced that it would create a South Korean adaptation of the show. The 12-part production, titled Money Heist: Korea - Joint Economic Area, would be a collaboration between BH Entertainment and Contents Zium, with Kim Hong-sun set to direct. Production of the adaptation had been delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea.
On 29 April 2022, Netflix revealed that Money Heist: Korea – Joint Economic Area: Part 1 would be released on 24 June 2022 and Part 2 would be released on 9 December 2022.
### Spin-off series
In November 2021, Netflix announced that it will create a spin-off series titled Berlin, which is set to be released in December 2023. The series is created by Álex Pina and Esther Martínez Lobato, who "loved the idea of introducing a new gang around Berlin in a completely different emotional state". The first season will consist of eight episodes, to be written by Pina, Lobato, David Oliva and David Berrocal. Albert Pintó, Barrocal and Geoffrey Cowper will serve as directors. Filming began in Paris on 3 October 2022 and will continue for several weeks in Madrid.
The announced cast includes:
- Pedro Alonso as Andrés de Fonollosa (Berlin), reprising his Money Heist role of a hedonistic, intelligent jewel thief
- Michelle Jenner as Keila, an electronics specialist
- Tristán Ulloa as Damián, a philanthropic professor and Berlin’s confidant
- Begoña Vargas as Cameron
- Julio Peña Fernández as Roi
- Joel Sánchez as Bruce, a relentless man of action
## Reception
### Public response
After the move to Netflix, the series remained the most-followed series on Netflix for six consecutive weeks and became one of the most popular series on IMDb. It regularly trended on Twitter world-wide, largely because celebrities commented on it, such as football players Neymar and Marc Bartra, American singer Romeo Santos, and author Stephen King. While users flooded social networks with media of themselves wearing the robbers' outfit, the robbers' costumes were worn at the Rio Carnival, and Dalí icons were shown on huge banners in Saudi Arabia football stadiums. Real footage of these events would later be shown in part 3 as a tribute to the show's international success. The Musée Grévin in Paris added statues of the robbers to its wax museum in summer 2018. The show's iconography was used prominently by third parties for advertising, sports presentations, and in porn.
Although the show's first two parts were popular, the domestic market in Spain failed to convince Antena 3 to continue the series and it was shelved until international response escalated to the point where the cast and crew were called back for another two seasons.
There have also been negative responses to the influence of the show. In numerous incidents, real heist men wore the show's red costumes and Dalì masks in their attacks or copied the fictional robbers' infiltration plans. The robbers' costumes were banned at the 2019 Limassol Carnival Festival as a security measure as a result. The series was used in an attack on YouTube, when hackers removed the most-played song in the platform's history, "Despacito", and left an image of the show instead. In unrelated reports, a journalist from Turkish TV channel AkitTV and an Ankaran politician have both warned against the show for supposedly encouraging terrorism and being "a dangerous symbol of rebellion".
Spanish newspaper El Mundo saw the public response as a reflection of the "climate of global disenchantment" where the robbers represent the "perfect antiheroes", and the New Statesman explained the show's resonance with international audiences as coming from the "social and economic tensions it depicts, and because of the utopian escape it offers." Viewer response was especially high in Mediterranean Europe and the Latin world, in particular Spain, Italy, France, Portugal, Brazil, Chile and Argentina, so Spanish as a common language did not appear to be a unifying reason for the show's success. Writer Javier Gómez Santander and actor Pedro Alonso (Berlin) rather argued that the Latin world used to feel at the periphery of global importance, but a new sentiment was coming that Spain could compete with the global players in terms of media production levels and give the rest of the world a voice.
Netflix partnered with Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege for an in-game event, where hostages on the Bank map, wore Money Heist outfits. Outfits for 2 in-game characters were purchasable and the music in the background during the heist, was Bella Ciao.
The series is one of two Spanish-language TV series to be featured in TV Time's top 50 most followed TV shows ever, currently being the fifth most followed series on the platform.
### Critical reception
The series' beginning on Antena 3 was received well by Spanish media. Nayín Costas of El Confidencial named the premiere a promising start that captivated viewers with "adrenaline, well-dosed touches of humor and a lot of tension," but considered it a challenge to maintain the dramatic tension for the remainder of the series. While considering the pilot's voice-over narration unnecessary and the sound editing and dialogs lacking, Natalia Marcos of El País enjoyed the show's ensemble cast and the ambition, saying "It is daring, brazen and entertaining, at least when it starts. Now we want more, which is not little." Reviewing the full first part, Marcos lauded the series for its outstanding direction, the musical selection and for trying to innovate Spanish television, but criticized the length and ebbing tension. At the end of the series' original run, Nayín Costas of El Confidencial commended the series for its "high quality closure" that may make the finale "one of the best episodes of the Spanish season", but regretted that it aimed to satisfy viewers with a predictable happy ending rather than risk to "do something different, original, ambitious", and that the show was unable to follow in the footsteps of Pina's Locked Up.
After the show's move to Netflix for its international release, Adrian Hennigan of the Israeli Haaretz said the series was "more of a twisty thriller than soapy telenovela, driven by its ingenious plot, engaging characters, tense flash points, pulsating score and occasional moments of humor", but taunted the English title "Money Heist" as bland. In a scathing review, Pauline Bock of the British magazine New Statesman questioned the global hype of the series, saying that it was "full of plot holes, clichéd slow-motions, corny love stories and gratuitous sex scenes", before continuing to add that "the music is pompous, the voice-over irritating, and it's terribly edited". John Doyle of The Globe and Mail praised parts 1 and 2 for the heist genre subversions; he also said that the series could be "deliciously melodramatic at times" with "outrageous twists and much passion" like a telenovela. Jennifer Keishin Armstrong of the BBC saw the series' true appeal in the interpersonal dramas emerging through the heist between "the beautiful robbers, their beautiful hostages, and the beautiful authorities trying to negotiate with them." David Hugendick of Die Zeit found the series "sometimes a bit sentimental, a little cartoonesque," and the drama sometimes too telenovela-like, but "all with a good sense for timing and spectacle."
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave part 3 an approval rating of 100% based on 12 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "An audacious plan told in a non-linear fashion keeps the third installment moving as Money Heist refocuses on the relations between its beloved characters." While lauding the technical achievements, Javier Zurro of El Español described the third part as "first-class entertainment" that was unable to transcend its roots and lacked novelty. He felt unaffected by the internal drama between the characters and specifically, disliked Tokyo's narration for its hollowness. Alex Jiménez of Spanish newspaper ABC found part 3 mostly succeeding in its attempts to reinvent the show and stay fresh. Euan Ferguson of The Guardian recommended watching part 3, as "it's still a glorious Peaky Blinders, just with tapas and subtitles," while Pere Solà Gimferrer of La Vanguardia found that the number of plot holes in part 3 could only be endured with constant suspension of disbelief. Though entertained, Alfonso Rivadeneyra García of Peruvian newspaper El Comercio'' said the show does "what it does best: pretend to be the most intelligent boy in class when, in fact, it is only the cleverest."
## Awards and nominations
[^1]:
|
13,582,536 |
Hyderabadi haleem
| 1,172,618,643 |
Type of haleem popular in the Indian city Hyderabad
|
[
"Hyderabadi cuisine",
"Indian meat dishes",
"Meat stews",
"Mughlai cuisine",
"Muhajir cuisine",
"Telangana cuisine"
] |
Hyderabadi haleem (/ˈhaɪdərəbɑːdiː həˈliːm/) is a type of haleem popular in the Indian city of Hyderabad. Haleem is a stew composed of meat, lentils, and pounded wheat made into a thick paste. It is originally an Arabic dish and was introduced to the Hyderabad State by the Chaush people during the rule of the Nizams (the former rulers of Hyderabad State). Local traditional spices helped a unique Hyderabadi haleem evolve, that became popular among the native Hyderabadis by the 20th century.
The preparation of haleem has been compared to that of Hyderabadi biryani. Though Hyderabadi haleem is the traditional hors d'oeuvre at weddings, celebrations and other social occasions, it is particularly consumed in the Islamic month of Ramadan during Iftar (the evening meal that breaks the day-long fast) as it is high in calories. In recognition of its cultural significance and popularity, in 2010 it was granted Geographical Indication status (GIS) by the Indian GIS registry office, making it the first non-vegetarian dish in India to receive this status. In October 2022, Hyderabadi haleem won 'Most Popular GI' award in the food category, that was chosen through a voting system that was conducted by the Department for Promotion of Industry & Internal Trade (under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry).
## History
Haleem originated as an Arabic dish with meat and pounded wheat as the chief ingredients. It was introduced to Hyderabad by the Arab diaspora during the rule of the sixth Nizam, Mahbub Ali Khan, and later became an integral part of Hyderabadi cuisine during the rule of the seventh Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan. Sultan Saif Nawaz Jung Bahadur, an Arab chief from Mukalla, Hadhramaut, Yemen, who was among the seventh Nizam's court nobility, popularised it in Hyderabad. Addition of local flavours to the original recipe resulted in a taste distinct from other types of haleem.
## Preparation
Traditionally, Hyderabadi haleem is cooked on a low flame of firewood for up to 12 hours in a bhatti (a cauldron covered with a brick and mud kiln). One or two people are required to stir it continuously with wooden paddles throughout its preparation. For home-made Hyderabadi haleem, a Ghotni (a wooden hand masher) is used to stir it until it reaches a sticky-smooth consistency, similar to minced meat.
### Ingredients
The ingredients include meat (either goat meat, beef or chicken); pounded wheat; ghee—(milk fat rendered from butter, also called clarified butter); milk; lentils; ginger and garlic paste; turmeric; red chili pepper spices such as cumin seeds, caraway seeds (shah zeera), cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, black pepper, saffron, jaggery, natural gum, allspice (kabab cheeni); and dry fruits such as pistachio, cashew, fig and almond. It is served hot topped with a ghee-based gravy, pieces of lime, chopped coriander, sliced boiled egg and fried onions as garnish.
### Variations
Different variants have been introduced catering to regional tastes and requirements. A meethi (sweet) variant of haleem is consumed as breakfast by the Arab diaspora in Barkas neighbourhood of the city. The chicken variant is less popular, even though it is lower priced. A vegetarian version of haleem, in which dry fruits and vegetables are substituted for goat meat, is available at some eateries in Hyderabad.
## Nutrition
Hyderabadi haleem is a high calorie dish which gives instant energy as it contains slow-digesting and fast-burning ingredients. It also contains dry fruits rich in anti-oxidants. The meat and dry fruits make it a high protein food. A new low-cholesterol variety by using emu meat, rich in minerals, phosphorus and vitamins, was introduced in 2013. The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC), a local civic body that monitors health and safety regulations in the city, has set up hygiene and quality standards to be followed by the eateries selling it.
## Popularity
Hyderabadi haleem is regarded as an international delicacy. In Hyderabad, the dish is often consumed at celebratory events such as weddings. It is consumed especially during Iftaar, the evening meal following the day-long fast, observed by Muslims during the month of Ramadan.
### Places of interest
Pista House, Hotel Shadab, Paradise, Shah Ghouse Café, Cafe 555, Grill 9, Pariwar's Have More, Cafe Bahar, Chicha's, Peshawar, Sarvi and Grand Hotel are some of the many places to try Haleem in Hyderabad
In Hyderabad and neighbouring areas, the month of Ramadan is synonymous with Hyderabadi haleem. During the 2014 Ramadan season, ₹ 5 billion worth of Hyderabadi haleem was sold in the city, and an additional 25,000 people were employed in the preparation and sale of haleem. The connoisseur chefs are paid salaries of up to ₹100,000 (US\$1,300) a month plus benefits, As of 2011, during Ramadan there were 6,000 eateries throughout the city that sold haleem (70% of which are temporary until Ramadan ends), and 28% of Hyderabadi haleem produced in the city was exported to 50 countries throughout the world.
Sanjeev Kapoor, an entrepreneur of Indian cuisine, mentions in his book Royal Hyderabadi Cooking that the preparation of haleem in Hyderabad has become an art form, much like the Hyderabadi biryani. In 2010 Hyderabadi haleem was awarded Geographical Indication status by the Indian GI registry office. It became the first meat product of India to receive a GI certification. This means that a dish cannot be sold as Hyderabadi haleem unless it meets the necessary standards laid down for it.
## See also
- List of stews
- Hyderabadi cuisine
|
9,974,682 |
Trondheim Airport Station
| 1,141,159,827 |
Railway station in Trondheim Airport, Norway
|
[
"1994 establishments in Norway",
"Airport railway stations in Norway",
"Railway stations in Stjørdal",
"Railway stations on the Nordland Line",
"Railway stations opened in 1994"
] |
Trondheim Airport Station (IATA code: TRD), also known as Værnes Station (Norwegian: Værnes holdeplass), is a railway station located within the terminal complex of Trondheim Airport, Værnes in Stjørdal municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. Situated on the Nordland Line, it serves both express trains and the Trøndelag Commuter Rail both operated by SJ Norge. The station was opened on 15 November 1994 along with a new terminal at the airport, making it the first airport rail link in the Nordic Countries. The station cost , and was built along the existing railway line. In each direction, the station handles one to two hourly commuter rail services, and three daily express services. Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes, while it is 9 hours and 5 minutes to Bodø. Access to the airport terminal is outdoors, but sheltered.
## Facilities
The station is located at the terminal of Trondheim Airport, Værnes. The connection between the station and the airport is outside, but there is a roof for the whole distance. The platform is about 190 metres (620 ft) from the check-in at the terminal. The station is 33.0 kilometres (20.5 mi) from Trondheim Central Station, and located 5.0 metres (16.4 ft) above mean sea level. There is no staffed ticket office, but a vending machine for tickets is located in the airport terminal. Luggage trolleys are available, and the airport terminal offers an array of traveler services, such as dining, paid parking, restrooms, car rental, taxis, retailing, ATMs and kiosks. There is a single track at the station, but built in such a way that it can easily be converted to become an island platform with two tracks. Work on a second track has not begun as of 2014, but there is budget for double track between Hell and Værnes.
## Service
SJ Norge operates both commuter and express trains to Trondheim Airport. In each direction, there are three daily express trains, one to Mo i Rana and two to Bodø. One of the Bodø-trains is a night train. Travel time to Mo i Rana is 6 hours and travel time to Bodø is 9 hours and 5 minutes. The Mo i Rana-service is operated with Class 93 trains, while the Bodø-services are operated with Di 4-hauled trains.
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail offers hourly services in each direction: northbound to Steinkjer and southbound to Trondheim and Lerkendal. During peak hours, the frequency is doubled. Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes and to Lerkendal 51 minutes. Northwards, travel time to Levanger is 48 minutes, to Verdal 1 hour and 2 minutes, and to Steinkjer 1 hour and 26 minutes. The commuter rail is operated with Class 92 trains. From the airport, there is connection with local buses operated by Nettbuss. Klæburuten operates an airport coach to and from the city center of Trondheim every ten minutes from 4 in the morning until 9 in the evening. NOR-WAY Bussekspress and TrønderBilene operate a coach service to Steinkjer and onwards to Namsos.
## History
The railway past Værnes opened on 27 October 1902 as the Hell–Sunnan Line—today part of the Nordland Line. The plans for a railway station in the terminal of Værnes were launched in 1990, along with the plans to build a second terminal at the airport. Construction of the new terminal started on 1 October 1992. On 15 March 1993, NSB announced that they would start a commuter train service between Steinkjer and Melhus, south of Trondheim. The service would give a half-hour headway during peak hours between Stjørdal and Melhus, and a one-hour headway onwards to Steinkjer. NSB stated that the concept was based on the success of the Jæren Commuter Rail and that they hoped to have a 70% increase in ridership, in part due to the opening of the airport station. The concept would also take advantage of expansion of Trondheim Central Station that would co-locate the main coach- and train terminals in Trondheim. The service would also give direct services along the Dovre Line to Oppdal and the Røros Line to Tynset. Estimates were that the railway would capture a 10% ground transport market share. The commuter rail service started on 1 September 1993.
Construction of the railway station started on 7 April 1994, and cost . The terminal opened on 15 November 1994, the same day as the new airport terminal. Minister of Transport and Communications Kjell Opseth performed the official opening. NSB stated that their primary goal was not to compete with the four hourly airport coaches that operated to the hotels in Trondheim, but instead to provide services to communities in Nord-Trøndelag and south of Trondheim. It was the first airport rail link to open in Northern Europe, with the closest integrated train station at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
|
62,607,066 |
Abel Briones Ruiz
| 1,113,553,823 |
Mexican drug lord
|
[
"1973 births",
"Fugitives wanted by the United States",
"Gulf Cartel members",
"Living people",
"Mexican businesspeople",
"Mexican money launderers",
"People from Matamoros, Tamaulipas",
"People sanctioned under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act"
] |
Abel Briones Ruiz (born 31 October 1973) is a Mexican business owner and suspected drug lord. He is reportedly a drug trafficker for the Gulf Cartel, a criminal group based in Tamaulipas, Mexico. According to the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas, between 2005 and 2014, Briones Ruiz and his network were responsible for cocaine trafficking from Mexico to the U.S., smuggling the cash proceeds back into Mexico, conducting money laundering from these earnings, and structuring financial activities to hide the illegal nature of his earnings. He did this through his family-run gasoline company, Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. A fugitive from U.S. justice, Briones Ruiz faces up to life imprisonment and up to US\$10 million in fines from his drug trafficking activities alone.
## Early life and background
Abel Briones Ruiz was born in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico, on 31 October 1973 to Abel Briones and Magdalena Ruiz Carrión. His birth was registered in Matamoros in 1974. He is married to Myriam Susana Beattie Martínez. His sister is Claudia Aidé and she is married to Rogelio Nieto González.
Briones Ruiz several hotels and a Matamoros-based gas company, Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V., which is located on the highway connecting Matamoros with Reynosa. According to the Public Registry of Property and Commerce (RPPC), Briones Ruiz registered Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. as a commercial entity and listed himself as a commercial business owner in 2009. In an RPPC assembly in 2012, he reported MXN\$4.3 million in investments to justify an expansion in his company. That year, Pemex granted a short-term license to Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. to opened up a gas station.
In January 2016, Pemex granted Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. a license to sell their standard and premium gasoline, effectively superseding the short-term license they owned. The licence allowed for Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. to operate for 30 years should they follow the conditions stipulated in the contract. Among the conditions were for Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. to ensure safety regulations, product control standards, insurance requirements, and that financial reports and transactions were kept for record-keeping.
## Career
Briones Ruiz, known also by his alias "Cacho", is a suspected drug trafficker of the Gulf Cartel, a criminal group based in Tamaulipas. On 22 October 2014, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas (S.D. Tex) filed a sealed indictment against Briones Ruiz and three of his collaborators: Beattie Martínez, Nieto González, and an unnamed individual. The indictment was unsealed in court on 18 May 2015. According to the indictment, Briones Ruiz and his network conspired to smuggle with intent to distribute over 5 kg (11 lb) of cocaine from Mexico to the U.S. between 1 January 2005 and 22 October 2014. They were also charged with money laundering and illegal financial structuring.
For the drug charges, they faced from ten years to life imprisonment and up to US\$10 million in fines. For the money laundering charges, they faced up to 20 years in prison and up to US\$500,000 in fines. In addition, for smuggling drug proceeds internationally, they faced a maximum of 20 years in prison and US\$500,000 in fines. Briones Ruiz and his wife were believed to have structured their transactions to hide the nature of their criminal activities; if found guilty, they faced up to ten years in prison and US\$500,000 in fines. U.S. authorities were also seeking forfeiture of Nieto González's properties.
Briones Ruiz and the rest of his network are from Matamoros and U.S. authorities believe they are not residing in the U.S. The case against Briones Ruiz and his network was built and prosecuted by Assistant U.S. Attorney Michael Hess. It included information from a joint investigation from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Texas Department of Public Safety, Cameron County District Attorney's Office, Cameron County Sheriff's Office, Willacy County Sheriff's Office, and Texas police departments of San Benito, Harlingen, Port Isabel, and Brownsville, across the border from Matamoros.
### Economic sanctions
On 21 May 2015, the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), a branch of the United States Department of the Treasury, sanctioned Briones Ruiz under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ("Kingpin Act") for providing support to the international operations of the Gulf Cartel. He is designated as a Specially Designated Narcotics Trafficker (SDNT). The economic sanction extends to four of Briones Ruiz's collaborators: Nieto González, Beattie de Briones, Ruiz Carrión and Claudia Aidé. The sanction also extends to his company, Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. As part of the sanction, the U.S. government prohibited U.S. citizens from engaging in business activities with these entities and individuals, and froze all of their U.S.-based assets.
According to the OFAC, Briones Ruiz and his collaborators are responsible for smuggling cocaine shipments from Mexico to the U.S. Southwestern border. The drugs were distributed in the U.S. states of Texas and Tennessee. The earnings generated by their drug operations were smuggled back into Mexico by Briones Ruiz's network. His network used Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. to launder the Gulf Cartel's proceeds in Mexico and the U.S., where they deposited some of their earnings in Texan bank accounts. They bought multiple properties in Texas but U.S. authorities did not confirm how many. Most of the properties were seized by the U.S. Department of Justice as part of this investigation. Investigators stated that Briones Ruiz is the head of the criminal network and uses his family to further the Gulf Cartel's operations.
The information in the Kingpin Act designation was built by the DEA's field office in Brownsville and the S.D. Tex. If found guilty in a civil court, Briones Ruiz would face up to US\$1.075 million in fines per violation. In a criminal court, Briones Ruiz (facing trial as a corporate officer of Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V.) would face up to 30 years in prison and up to US\$5 million in fines. His corporation can face up to US\$10 million in fines if a court determines that it participated in the stimulated charges. Briones Ruiz has an outstanding arrest warrant for his arrest in the U.S.; they have not issued a formal extradition request. Briones Ruiz is considered innocent until proven guilty of the drug offenses through due process.
On 10 July 2019, Mexico's Financial Intelligence Unit (UIF) informed the Attorney General's Office (FGR) of the existence of eight gas stations that were suspected of being involved in money laundering. Among them was Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. The UIF highlighted that Briones Ruiz's company was sanctioned by the OFAC years back. In order to limit their suspected laundering activities, the Mexican government froze all Mexican bank accounts owned by Briones Ruiz, his sister and that of Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V. The company was also blocked from being able to generate an official Tax Administration Service (SAT) digital logo, which effectively prevents it from conducting business operations. However, Briones Ruiz and his sister responded by issuing writs of amparo to prevent the government from freezing their bank accounts. In the report, the UIF noted that another of the sanctioned gas companies, KNG Ultra S.A. de C.V. (also known as Ultragas México), made business transactions with Combustibles Briones, S.A. de C.V.
## See also
- Mexican Drug War
|
41,897,703 |
Hello Kitty (song)
| 1,166,128,599 |
2014 single by Avril Lavigne
|
[
"2013 songs",
"2014 singles",
"Avril Lavigne songs",
"Cultural appropriation",
"Dubstep songs",
"Epic Records singles",
"Hello Kitty",
"J-pop songs",
"Japan in non-Japanese culture",
"Macaronic songs",
"Music video controversies",
"Race-related controversies in music",
"Songs written by Avril Lavigne",
"Songs written by Chad Kroeger",
"Songs written by David Hodges",
"Songs written by Martin Johnson (musician)",
"Sony Music Entertainment Japan singles",
"Sony Music singles"
] |
"Hello Kitty" is a song by Canadian singer-songwriter Avril Lavigne, taken from her self-titled fifth studio album, Avril Lavigne (2013). It was written by Lavigne, Chad Kroeger, David Hodges and Martin Johnson. Production was handled by Kroeger and Hodges, with additional production by Brandon Paddock and Kyle Moorman. Musically, "Hello Kitty" is a J-pop, dubstep, and EDM song, featuring an electro-influenced drop. The song was influenced by Lavigne's affinity to the Japanese brand Hello Kitty, and has some sexual content.
The song was released as a Japan-only fourth single. It was mostly panned by Western music critics, who criticized its sound and called it immature, while it was generally well-received in Japan. Lavigne shot a music video for the track in Japan which was released on April 21, 2014. Due to the video's popularity, the song charted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the second highest charting single from the album.
## Background
Three months after the release of Goodbye Lullaby (2011), Lavigne announced that work on her fifth studio album had already begun, having eight songs written. Lavigne stated that the album would musically be the opposite of Goodbye Lullaby, with a release date rumoured for sometime in 2012. Lavigne explained, "Goodbye Lullaby was more mellow, [but] the next one will be pop and more fun again. I already have a song that I know is going to be a single, I just need to re-record it!." In an interview, Lavigne said about her collaboration with Kroeger: "I have a song called Hello Kitty, which I wrote about Hello Kitty because I'm obsessed, and it's a really fun thing that I've never done before. It kind of has a kind of glitchy, electronic feel to it and it's... the only one on the record that sounds like that. It's really different and a lot of my friends I've played it for really like it. I'm having a lot of fun with that one."
## Composition
"Hello Kitty" is a J-pop, dubstep, and EDM track that is three minutes and eighteen seconds long. "Hello Kitty" was written by Lavigne, Chad Kroeger, David Hodges and Martin Johnson, while the song was produced by Kroeger and Hodges. Brandon Paddock and Kyle Moorman became assistants in its production. The song was engineered by John Hanes, musical mixed by Serban Ghenea and additional programming was held by Paddock and Moorman. Lavigne described the lyrics while talking to Digital Spy, "'Hello Kitty' was such an interesting topic and subject [...] It was really exciting for me. I didn't want it to sound like anything I'd done before. I wanted it to sound over the top so I ended up hiring a new producer to help me with it."
The opening line of the song Min'na saikō arigatō, K-k-k-kawaii, k-k-k-kawaii (みんな最高 ありがとう, か か か かわいい, か か か かわいい), is a reference to the Japanese Kawaii culture. Kawaii is Japanese for "cute", and the word is popularly used to describe endearing physical characterizations in Manga and Japanese video games. She was later asked about the double meaning of the song, on account of the interchangeability of the sexual euphemisms 'kitty' and 'pussy', to which she responded, "Obviously it's flirtatious and somewhat sexual, but it's genuinely about my love for Hello Kitty as well." Additionally, she said at MuchMusic Awards, "It's really fun [and] it's about a slumber party and loving the kitty."
## Critical reception
"Hello Kitty" was generally panned by music critics. While labeling it "weird", Nick Catucci from Entertainment Weekly called it "a dubstep track that seems to acknowledge its own tokenism by adopting a 'J-Pop American Funtime Now!' sheen." Despite praising her "techno-pop" influence, Jason Lipshutz of Billboard felt that "it's a bold stab at a genre outside of Lavigne's oeuvre, but it never comes together. By the 20th time 'Hello Kitty, you're so pretty' is declared, the listener's attention is already on the next track." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the song "bypasses bubblegum so it can settle into the embarrassing". While reviewing and stating that most of the album was "soggy", Chuck Eddy from Rolling Stone felt that "Hello Kitty" was the most playful song on the album and called it "J-pop-via-Kesha". Robert Corpsey from Digital Spy was mixed on his opinion of the song, writing that "the juddering electro-pop beats of 'Hello Kitty' serve as an ode to her you-know-what as well as her sizeable Japanese fanbase. As a curveball, it works brilliantly; but as an attempt to make her sound current in today's EDM-pop dominated charts, it falls considerably short."
Craig Manning of AbsolutePunk called it "the biggest leap of faith," describing it as "a trippy patchwork of EDM and pop that pays loving tribute to Lavigne's sizable Japanese following." Bradley Stern of MuuMuse named it "an off-the-walls EDM-infused stomper, where Lavigne conjures Gwen Stefani's bouncy, Japanese-minded Love. Angel. Music. Baby." Laurence Green from musicOMH called it a "trashy EDM moment; laced with snatches of Japanese lingo," pointing out that it "feels like a weird misstep more suited to a Britney Spears album than the predominantly rock-centric sounds present on the rest of the record." A reviewer from Sputnikmusic remarked that "Hello Kitty" is "laughably bad" and "insipid", and criticized Lavigne's attempt at trying to draw in a younger crowd. Gregory Hicks from The Michigan Daily gave the song a negative review, referring to it as an "obligatory 2013-dubstep mess created for the sole purpose of attempting to follow a trend."
## Chart performance
"Hello Kitty" debuted at number 84 on the Gaon Singles Chart and at number 70 on Download International Chart with 4,038 copies sold in its first week. It also spent one week on the Billboard Hot 100, at number 75, due to the popularity of the video, where 73 of the 92 percent of its chart points were attributed to Vevo on YouTube views, according to Nielsen BDS. It became her second-highest charted song from her self-titled album; "Here's to Never Growing Up", peaked at number 20 in June. It also became her highest debut on Streaming Songs to date, as the track debuted at number 14 (besting "Here's to Never Growing Up", which opened at number 26 in May following its official video debut). The song also surged to 5,000 downloads sold in the tracking week ending Sunday April 27, up from a negligible number the week before, according to Nielsen SoundScan. On the Japanese Hot Top Airplay chart, "Hello Kitty" debuted at number 82 for the week ending of May 12, 2014.
## Music video
The music video for "Hello Kitty" was filmed in Tokyo, Japan, and premiered on Lavigne's official website on April 21, 2014. It was widely reported that the video was removed from her YouTube channel amid criticism and controversy. However, a spokesperson for Lavigne stated that the song's video was never officially released to YouTube and was stated to go live on April 23, and removals of the video from YouTube were merely unofficial uploads following its original premiere on Lavigne's website. The video officially went live on YouTube as planned on April 23, 2014.
### Synopsis
The majority of the "Hello Kitty" music video finds Avril Lavigne parading around with four identically dressed Japanese women behind her, performing dance moves, in locales like a bedroom, a candy store and a street. The video also shows Lavigne playing guitar, wearing glasses, eating sushi, waving at admirers and fans and taking a single photograph, wearing gloves that are paired with pastel hair extensions and a pink tutu covered in three-dimensional cupcakes.
### Reception and criticism
The video was heavily derided by Western critics. Jason Lipshutz of Billboard panned it as "even more abhorrent than the song." While saying that the album's previous videos were "excellent", he also said that the "Hello Kitty" video "tries to do nothing. Its laziness is demonstrated in the first 21 seconds, during which Lavigne holds a plush stack of cupcakes, shakes her hips, stares at the cupcakes, bounces her shoulders, and then, when she sings the line 'Someone chuck a cupcake at me'... tosses the fake cupcakes at the camera, her lip movement not matching up to the backing track whatsoever." Alexa Camp of Slant Magazine called it "truly eyebrow-raising, taking cultural mis-appropriation to cringe-inducing levels." The Independent suggested that "'Hello Kitty' will make your eyes and ears bleed".
Its depiction of Japanese culture was met with widespread criticism from Western critics. This included suggestions of racism, which Lavigne responded to by stating: "I love Japanese culture and I spend half of my time in Japan. I flew to Tokyo to shoot this video...specifically for my Japanese fans, WITH my Japanese label, Japanese choreographers AND a Japanese director IN Japan." Nobuyuki Hayashi, a Tokyo-based tech and social media expert, commented that most of the reactions on Twitter were favorable, adding: “the people who are blaming the artist for racism are non-Japanese... but most Japanese people are not taking it that seriously.” Hiro Ugaya, a Tokyo-based journalist and media commentator, assumed that "images of cultures outside of one's own in mass media are always different from the reality. [...] When you're trying to reach the majority of consumers, images tend to be lowest common dominator [sic]".
## Live performances
Lavigne included "Hello Kitty" on her The Avril Lavigne Tour (2013–14) as the opening track. An instrumental version of "Hello Kitty" was used as an interlude on the Head Above Water Tour (2019).
## Credits and personnel
- Lead vocals by Avril Lavigne
- Written by Avril Lavigne
- Electric guitar by Martin Johnson
- Engineered by John Hanes
- Mixed by Serban Ghenea
- Produced by Martin Johnson
- Additional production and programming by Brandon Paddock, Kyle Moorman
- Additional vocal production by Chad Kroeger, David Hodges
- Recorded by Brandon Paddock, Kyle Moorman, Martin Johnson
Credits Adapted from the liner notes of Avril Lavigne (2013).
## Charts
## Awards
|
20,155,061 |
U-20-class submarine
| 1,144,052,022 |
Austro-Hungarian Navy submarines during WWI
|
[
"Submarine classes",
"U-20-class submarines"
] |
The U-20 class was a class of four submarines or U-boats built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (German: Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) during World War I. The class is sometimes referred to as the Havmanden class because it was based upon the design of the Royal Danish Navy's 1911 Havmanden-class submarines, three of which were built in Fiume.
With a small fleet of six U-boats at the beginning of World War I, two of which were not operational, the Austro-Hungarian Navy acted to bolster its fleet. They reluctantly ordered four U-20 boats in 1915 because construction could start immediately, even though the Havmanden-class design was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war. Political considerations caused the order to be split between Austrian and Hungarian firms, which contributed to construction problems and delays, keeping any of the boats from being operational until the middle of 1917.
The class boats were just over 127 feet (39 m) long and were armed with two front torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. The engines for the boats were unreliable, which compounded handling problems with the design. The U-20 class did not claim any wartime successes, yet lost two of the boats—U-20 and U-23—to enemy action during the war. The remaining two were delivered as war reparations and broken up. The conning tower from U-20, which was raised and salvaged in 1962, is on display in a military museum in Vienna.
## Background
The Austro-Hungarian Navy's U-boat fleet at the beginning of World War I consisted of six largely experimental submarines, two of which were not operational. When it became apparent that the war would not be a short one, Austria-Hungary moved to bolster their U-boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden-class submarines, three of which had been built at Whitehead's in Fiume. Although the Austro-Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design, which was largely obsolete, it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards. The Austro-Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for four boats on 27 March 1915.
## Design and construction
Before construction could begin, the Navy found itself in the midst of political situation because the Hungarian government demanded that a substantial portion of the submarine contracts be allocated to Hungarian firms. After intricate negotiations, the order was split into two orders of two submarines each, with U-20 and U-21 built at the Pola Navy Yard, and U-22 and U-23 built at the Hungarian UBAG yard at Fiume. The subcontracts were also divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms, with about two-thirds going to Hungarian companies and one-third to Austrian companies. This allocation of contracts, while politically expedient, exacerbated technical problems that resulted in numerous modifications and delays.
The U-20-class boats were ocean-going submarines that displaced 173 tonnes (191 short tons) surfaced and 210 tonnes (231 short tons) submerged. The boats were 127 feet 2 inches (38.76 m) long with a beam of 13 feet (4.0 m) and a draft of 9 feet (2.7 m). For propulsion, they featured a single shaft, a single 450 bhp (340 kW) diesel engine for surface running, and a single 160 shp (120 kW) electric motor for submerged travel. The boats were capable of 12 knots (22 km/h) while surfaced and 9 knots (17 km/h) while submerged. Although there is no specific notation of a range for the U-20 class, the Havmanden class, upon which it was based, had a range of 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km) at 10 knots (19 km/h), surfaced, and 23 nautical miles (43 km) at 8 knots (15 km/h) submerged. The U-20-class boats were designed for a crew of 18.
The U-20-class boats were armed with two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes. They were also equipped with a 66 mm/26 (2.6 in) deck gun and an 8 mm (0.31 in) machine gun. The first of the class to be launched was U-21, when it slid down the ways on 15 August 1916; the final boat launched was U-22 on 27 January 1917. The boats entered service between August and November 1917.
## Class members
During their active service, the boats of the U-20 class suffered from unreliable engines which compounded the already poor handling characteristics of the boats. None of the class had any successes and two of their number were sunk during the war. U-23 was the first sunk when she went down on 21 February 1918 from an explosive paravane in the Straits of Otranto. U-20, the lead boat of the class, sank in July 1918 when she was torpedoed by the Italian submarine F12 in the Tagliamento estuary. The remaining two boats were surrendered at war's end, with U-21 being ceded to Italy in 1920, and U-22 to France; both were broken up.
### SM U-20
SM U-20, the lead boat of the class, was laid down on 29 September 1915 at the Pola Navy Yard. She was launched on 18 September 1916. During diving trials in March 1917, U-20 was accidentally rammed by the Austro-Hungarian Navy light cruiser Admiral Spaun, which required seven months of repairs for the U-boat. U-20 was commissioned on 20 October, and operated out of Pola and Trieste. She was in the estuary of the Tagliamento river in early July 1918 when she was spotted by the surfaced Italian submarine F12. U-20 was hit by one torpedo at a range of 650 yards (590 m) and sank with all hands west of Trieste near position . The wreck of U-20 was raised and salvaged in 1962. Remains of her crewmen were interred on the grounds of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt. The conning tower and a midship section were donated to the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna, where they are on display. U-20 did not sink any ships during her service.
### SM U-21
SM U-21 was built at the Pola Navy Yard and was launched on 15 August 1916, and was the first of the class to be launched. U-21 was damaged in a diving trial in January 1917, requiring seven months for repairs. The U-boat was commissioned on 15 August 1917. In early October, U-21 conducted patrols off the Albanian coast, but a mid-October Mediterranean patrol was cut short by a leaky seal on her main hatch. After an additional eight months of repairs, U-21 again conducted patrols off Albania. A broken piston in her diesel engine cut short her war career. At Pola at the war's end, U-21 was ceded to Italy in 1920 as a war reparation and broken up. U-21 did not have any successes during the war.
### SM U-22
SM U-22 was built at the Hungarian UBAG yard and was launched on 27 January 1917, the last of the class to be launched. The still-incomplete boat sank in the harbor at Fiume in June 1917, but was raised, repaired, and relaunched in October. From her November commissioning, U-22 conducted patrols off the Po River estuary and, later, northern Adriatic patrols from Trieste. After three months of repairs for her failed electric motor in mid 1918, U-22 resumed service, patrolling the Montenegrin coast out of Cattaro. In port at Cattaro at war's end, she was ceded to France as a war reparation and broken up. U-22 sank no ships during the war.
### SM U-23
SM U-23 was laid down on 8 December 1915 at the Hungarian UBAG yard and was launched on 5 January 1917. She was commissioned on 1 September and initially patrolled off the Italian towns of Rimini and Ancona. After being transferred to Cattaro in late December, U-23 departed on her final patrol on 20 February 1918. The following day, Linienschiffsleutnant Klemens Ritter von Bézard, U-23's only commanding officer, guided the boat in an attack on the Italian transport Memfi in the Straits of Otranto. U-23 then came under attack from the Italian destroyer Airone; after first trying to ram the U-boat, the destroyer deployed an explosive paravane. When the paravane came into contact with the submerged U-23, it blew debris into the air, sinking the submarine with all hands. Like all of her sister boats, U-23 had no wartime successes.
|
67,330,130 |
Hossein Ali Mirza
| 1,155,011,108 |
Fifth son of Fath-Ali Shah, governor of Fars, and pretender to the throne of Qajar Iran
|
[
"1789 births",
"1835 deaths",
"19th-century Iranian people",
"Deaths from cholera",
"People from Amol",
"Qajar governors",
"Qajar pretenders to the Iranian throne",
"Qajar princes"
] |
Hossein Ali Mirza (Persian: حسین علی میرزا, romanized: Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Mīrzā; 26 August 1789 – 16 January 1835), a son of Fath-Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), was the Governor of Fars and pretender to the throne of Qajar Iran.
As governor, Ali Mirza restored Shah Cheragh. He opened the tombs of the Achaemenid kings to obtain gold, but found them empty. During his rule, the city of Shiraz was subjected to high taxation and low security. Ali Mirza gained independence from the government of Hajji Mohammad Hossein Isfahani, rented Bushehr ports to the British and stopped paying taxes after 1828, thus going 200,000 tomans in tax arrears to the crown.
After Fath-Ali Shah's death, Prince Mohammad Mirza was crowned shah (king) as Mohammad Shah Qajar, but Ali Mirza formerly as the fifth in line for the throne, led a revolt and entitled himself as Hossein Ali Shah. After two months he was defeated in Shiraz by Manouchehr Khan Gorji. On the orders of Mohammad Shah, Ali Mirza was blinded and imprisoned in Ardabil, where he died of cholera in January 1835.
## Biography
### Early life
Ali Mirza was born on 26 August 1789, the fifth son of Fath-Ali Shah. His mother was Badr-e Jahan Khanum, daughter of Qader Khan, amir of an Arab tribe settled in Bastam. In November 1799 Ali Mirza married the daughter of Amir Guna Khan Zafaranlu, Khan of a Kurdish tribe in Quchan. In the same year he was appointed governor of Fars.
### Rule in Fars
Ali Mirza appointed Cheragh Ali Khan Navai, a loyal servant to Fath-Ali Shah and commander of 800 to 1000 musketeers from Nur, Mazandaran, as his vizier. Cheragh Ali, regarded as the ablest from the Prince-Governor's ten viziers, served for Ali Mirza until his recall in 1805 as a result of various charges made by the people of Fars against him. He was replaced by Naser Allah Khan Qaraguzlu, who was dismissed in 1808.
The next vizier, Mohammad Nabi Khan, increased the price of bread in Shiraz; this led to a massive riot and an appeal by the rioters to a Shaykh al-Islām of Fars who issued a fatwa ordering the killing of Nabi Khan's most notorious extortioner, Mirza Hadi Fasai. the revolt was calmed when Ali Mirza ordered the price of bread brought down, the bakers getting bastinadoed. Shortly afterwards, Hajji Mohammad Hossein Khan Amin al-Dowla, a Mostowfi ol-Mamalek (treasurer), came to Shiraz to investigate the provincial finances. Nabi Khan was dismissed, tortured and his wealth confiscated. Over time Amin al-Dawla's influence increased to the extent that he secured Ali Akbar Qawam al-Mulk's appointment as Mayor (Kalantar) of Shiraz, over Ali Mirza's opposition.
In his 20s, Ali Mirza's authority increased, and he independently made an agreement with the East India Company, though he was less interested in governing than playing chovgan (polo). He was indifferent to the safety of his subjects; his palace was well-protected, but the city walls were broken and there was no encircling ditch.
Along with Mazandarani musketeers, Ali Mirza had troops of common tribes including Khamseh, but they were not always loyal. For example, Wali Khan Mamassani and his men robbed travellers on the roads throughout Fars even though he had an alliance through marriage between his daughter and Ali Mirza's son, Timur Mirza. Shiraz was beset by high taxes, poor public safety, and fatwas from Ulama that caused a large amount of violence against Jews. Meanwhile, Ali Mirza increased his influence in the Persian Gulf; he was effectively independent from the government of Hajji Mohammad Hossein Isfahani and negotiated to rent Bushehr ports to the British. In 1827 he had a conflict with Oman which ended peacefully.
By 1830, discontent with his rule had weakened his authority, and the Khans of Dashtestan demanded more power in Fars and openly defied him. Their rebellion was not meant to depose Hossein Ali Khan, but to restore the power of those khans that had had influence during Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi's administration. Ali Mirza sent troops to stop the rebels, but those defied him, too. To stay in power, he asked for British aid. The rebels were defeated by British troops, the khans lost all of their power, and Ali Mirza gained full control of Fars.
### Attempt to gain throne
Ali Mirza did not want to be involved in Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, even though Abbas Mirza asked for help. With the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Abbas Mirza's popularity as crown prince waned. Ali Mirza stopped paying taxes and expelled the Shah's representatives.
In 1833, the death of Abbas Mirza gave Ali Mirza an opportunity to claim the throne. Ali Mirza was the fifth son of Fath-Ali but had a non-Qajar mother, which made him an unacceptable candidate. The Treaty of Turkmenchay recognized Abbas Mirza as crown prince; after his death the Russian Empire supported Mohammad Mirza, his eldest son, as the next ruler. Since all of the Shah's eldest sons (including sons of non-Qajar mothers such as Dowlatshah) were dead, Ali Mirza thought that choosing Mohammad Mirza as crown prince would deprive him of his rights and surrender to Russian demands. For these reasons, Ali Mirza sought to take the throne. He searched for allies; his negotiations with the British Empire and the Ottomans were unsuccessful. He then tried to consolidate his hold on Kerman and negotiated with tribal leaders of the Bakhtiaries and Lurs, but failed in both. In 1834, Ali Mirza defeated a local revolt led by Mohammad Zaki Khan; historians believe this revolt was fomented to increase Ali Mirza's prestige.
### Revolt
In October 1834, Fath-Ali Shah died on his way to Fars to collect the 200,000 tomans tax arrears from Ali Mirza. When news reached Tehran, Ali Shah Mirza, eighth son of the deceased Shah and Mayor of Tehran, proclaimed himself king with the support of the British. He was defeated by Mohammad Shah and Mirza Abu'l-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam in a battle near Tehran.
Ali Mirza ordered Khutbahs to proclaim him as the new king of Iran and struck coins in his name as "Hossein Ali Shah Qajar". In Fars, this claim was unacceptable to the tribal khans who had once lost their power to him. The public viewed Ali Mirza as a cruel and ruthless ruler, and his claim to the throne was not supported by tribal leaders or the people in his court. In December 1834, he sent an army under the command of his brother, Shoja-al-Saltana, towards Isfahan, which successfully captured the city. With the defeat of Ali Shah Mirza, the British and Russian Empires proclaimed Mohammad Shah as king near Qomsha (today Shahreza). Shoja-al-Saltana was defeated by Manouchehr Khan and, after the battle, Manouchehr Khan marched towards Shiraz with an army that included British officers.
Ali Mirza's authority was unstable and he faced revolts from various tribes. Most of his army deserted when they heard of Shoja-al-Saltana's defeat, and he was low on funds. Without an army, Yazd could not be defended against Manouchehr Khan's attack. When he reached Shiraz, the morale of Ali Mirza's army was low and Shiraz fell in a two-hour battle after which Ali Mirza was easily captured. Ali Mirza lost all of his wealth, titles, and lands and was sent to a castle in Ardabil. Fars was held by Mohammad Shah until 1840, when he granted it to Mirza Hossein Khan.
### Death
Ali Mirza was imprisoned in Ardabil. In the final days of his life, he prayed, cried over his mistakes and asked for forgiveness. On 16 January 1835 he died of cholera. His body was buried in Mashhad.
## Administration and contributions
Early in his reign, Ali Mirza ordered the restoration of Shah Cheragh, which had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1795. In 1810, news reached Shiraz that Abdollah Mirza had discovered the Tomb of Arghun, Ilkhan of the Ilkhanate, where gold was supposedly abundant. Ali Mirza opened the tombs of Achaemenid Kings in Marvdasht but discovered that them empty.
In the same year, he built an Iranian-style garden called Bāḡ-e Now, with cascades and waterspouts; the palace overlooked a large, octagonal reflecting pool. It was described by George Curzon in 1889 as "extensive [and] beautiful" but he also noted that it was "crumbling away and the stocco and painting [were] peeling off the wall". In 1831, with Fath-Ali Shah's approval, he commissioned an inscription in Achaemenid style depicting him seated with his sons gathered around him. The court of Ali Mirza, in comparison with other princes, was very magnificent and he spent lavishly on festivals. Historians have compared his extravagance with Ottoman sultans.
## Children and descendants
`After his revolt failed, Ali Mirza's oldest son fled to England; the others stayed in Iran. They had titles and served as governors of secondary cities, but none achieved a position as powerful as governor of Fars. Six of his children are known:`
- Reza Qoli Mirza (1805 – 1863, London) the eldest son of Ali Mirza with his first wife, daughter of Amir Guna Khan Zafaranlu. At the time of the revolt, he had recently married to Shokoh Jahan, daughter of Key Khosrow Khan Sanjabi, khan of the Sanjabi tribe. As the eldest son, he would be a claimant to his father's titles, and thus Mohammad Shah ordered his death. Following the fall of Shiraz, he fled to London, where he died in 1863 at the court of Queen Victoria. He wrote of his travels to London. His descendants, the Razai family, are mostly landowners.
- Imam Qoli Mirza (1806 – 1854, Kermanshah) Ali Mirza's son by a daughter of Cheragh Ali Khan Navai. A career military man, he served his father and was forgiven by Mohammad Shah after Ali Mirza's defeat. Later he was sent to Kermanshah to serve as a major. In 1854 he was killed fighting bandits. His descendants have the surname Qajar-i Kermanshahi.
- Timur Mirza (1809 – 1834, Qomsha) son of Ali Mirza by a daughter of Mohammad Qoli Khan Afshar. He was trained by musketeers and commanders. In 1835 he and his uncle, Shoja-al-Saltana, captured Isfahan. He was killed in a battle with Manouchehr Khan's army near Qomsha.
- Shahrokh Mirza was forgiven by Mohammad Shah and appointed as Governor of Kashan. He died at an unknown date during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.
- Bahareh Khanum married Firouz Mirza, son of Abbas Mirza and ancestor of the Farmanfarmaian family.
- Fatemeh Khanum was the youngest child of Ali Mirza and married Bahram Mirza.
## Coinage and titulage
Ali Mirza's realm included the three main mints of Iran: Yazd, Kerman, and Shiraz. His coins are mostly follis, and gold coins were rare due to a shortage of material. The reverse states that the coin was minted in Shiraz. Other coins engraved his name as Hossein Ali Shah on the reverse and titled him as Sultan of Sultans. This differs from the coins of his father, Fath-Ali Shah, who had used the title of Shahanshah.
When Ali Mirza became Governor of Fars, his father titled him as Farmanfarma, a Safavid-origin title given to generals. Since there was no equivalent for "Farman Farma" in English, Ali Mirza was titled as Prince-Governor.
|
38,242,002 |
Until Dawn
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2015 interactive drama game
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Until Dawn is a 2015 interactive drama horror video game developed by Supermassive Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 4. Players assume control of eight young adults who have to survive on Blackwood Mountain when their lives are threatened. The game features a butterfly effect system in which players must make choices that may change the story. All playable characters can survive or die, depending on the choices made. Players explore the environment from a third-person perspective and find clues that may help solve the mystery.
The game was originally planned as a first-person game for the PlayStation 3's motion controller PlayStation Move. The motion controls were dropped when it became a PlayStation 4 game. The story was written by Larry Fessenden and Graham Reznick, who sought to create the video game equivalent of a slasher film. The development team took inspiration from various sources. These include the movies Evil Dead II and Poltergeist, and video games Heavy Rain, Resident Evil, and Silent Hill. To ensure the game was scary, the team used a galvanic skin response test to measure playtesters' fear levels when playing it. Jason Graves composed the soundtrack and Guerrilla Games' Decima game engine was used for the graphics. Several noted actors, including Rami Malek, Hayden Panettiere, Meaghan Martin, Brett Dalton, Jordan Fisher, Nichole Bloom, and Peter Stormare, provided motion capture and voice acting.
Until Dawn was announced at Gamescom 2012 and released in August 2015. Although there was little marketing effort from Sony, its sales surpassed expectations. The game received generally positive reviews, and was nominated for multiple year-end accolades. Critics praised the branching nature of the story, butterfly effect system, world building, characters, and use of quick time events, but criticised the controls. Supermassive followed the game with a virtual reality spin-off, Until Dawn: Rush of Blood (2016), and a prequel, The Inpatient (2018), while a spiritual successor, The Quarry, was released in 2022.
## Gameplay
Until Dawn is an interactive drama in which players primarily assume control of eight young adults who have to survive on Blackwood Mountain until they are rescued at dawn. The gameplay is mainly a combination of cutscenes and third-person exploration. Players control the characters in a linear environment and find clues and items. Players can also collect totems, which give players a precognition of what may happen in the game's narrative. An in-game system keeps track of all of the story clues and secrets that players have discovered, even across multiple playthroughs. Action sequences feature mostly quick time events (QTE). One type of QTE involves hiding from a threat by holding the controller as still as possible when a "Don't Move" prompt appears.
The game features a butterfly effect system, in which players have to make choices. These range from small decisions like picking up a book to moral choices that involve the fates of other characters. Some decisions are timed. Certain choices may unlock a new sequence of events and cause unforeseen consequences. These choices also influence the story's tone and relationships between characters. Players can view the personality and details of the character they are controlling, and his or her relationships with other characters. All eight characters may die by the end of the story, depending on the player's decisions. Deaths are permanent; the game's narrative will adapt to these changes and continue forward without them. The strict auto-save system prevents players from reloading a previously saved file to prevent cheating. This makes it impossible to revert choices with unfavorable outcomes. The only ways to change the player's choice are to restart the game or to continue to the end and start a new game. There are hundreds of endings, which are the outcomes of 22 critical choices players can make in the game.
The game is divided into 10 chapters. There is an intermission between each chapter in which a psychiatrist, Dr. Hill (Peter Stormare), addresses the player directly (seemingly breaking the fourth wall). He analyses the player's fears along with choices they have made. Intermissions with narrators similar to Dr. Hill have since become a tradition with many other Supermassive Games horror games, continuing also with The Dark Pictures Anthology and The Quarry.
## Plot
During a party at her lodge on Blackwood Mountain, a cruel prank causes Hannah Washington (Ella Lentini) to run into the woods. Hannah's twin sister Beth (also Lentini) finds her, but the two are pursued by a flamethrower-wielding stranger (Larry Fessenden), resulting in them falling off a cliff's edge. No bodies are found by the police and the sisters are declared missing.
A year later, Hannah and Beth's brother Josh (Rami Malek) invites the group from the previous party – Hannah's friend Sam Giddings (Hayden Panettiere), Josh's friend Chris Hartley (Noah Fleiss), Chris' mutual love interest Ashley Brown (Galadriel Stineman), new couple Emily Davis (Nichole Sakura) and Matt Taylor (Jordan Fisher), Emily's ex-boyfriend Mike Munroe (Brett Dalton), and Mike's new girlfriend Jessica Riley (Meaghan Martin) – back to the lodge. Despite tensions between members of the group and reservations about returning after the tragedy that occurred, all seven accept Josh's invitation. Each member of the group arrives at the lodge through a cable car before engaging in separate activities on the mountain.
As the night progresses, Mike and Jessica tryst at a guest cabin, where she is abducted by an unseen figure. Mike's pursuit of her attacker leads him to an abandoned sanatorium, which contains information about a 1952 cave-in on the mountain that trapped a group of miners. Mike will either find Jessica dead or alive, but the elevator she is found in will fall, convincing Mike she is dead. Meanwhile, Josh, Ashley, Chris, and Sam find themselves terrorized by a masked man in the lodge. Josh is bisected in a torture device set up by the masked man, who then pursues Sam through the building's lower levels. The masked man's torment of the friends culminates with Chris being ordered to shoot Ashley or himself under the threat of them both being killed by giant saw blades. Matt and Emily, having been alerted to the masked man's presence, discover that the cable car has been locked; instead, the two head to a radio tower to request help. The request is successfully received, but the responder states that the group will not be rescued until dawn due to a storm. An unknown creature causes the radio tower to collapse into the mines, separating Matt and Emily. Looking for a way out, Emily stumbles upon the location where Beth and Hannah fell, with Beth's severed head located nearby. She later is chased by the creature on her way out of the mines.
Mike reunites with Sam just as the masked man appears before them and Ashley and Chris. The masked man reveals himself as Josh, who orchestrated the events at the lodge as revenge for his sisters' presumed deaths. He disclaims any responsibility for Jessica's death, but Mike has him bound in a shed to remain until the police arrive. At the lodge, Sam, Mike, Chris, Ashley, and, if she escaped the mines, Emily are confronted by the Stranger. The Stranger reveals that the creatures who kidnapped Jessica and attacked Matt and Emily are wendigos, former humans who became feral creatures after resorting to cannibalism during the 1952 cave-in. Chris and the Stranger travel to the shed to rescue Josh, but discover him missing, and the Stranger and possibly Chris are killed by a wendigo while attempting to return to the lodge. While perusing the Stranger's files, if Emily was bitten in her escape, she will admit to it, and Mike may choose to kill her to avoid contagion. Finally, Mike sets out for the sanatorium, believing the cable car key to be in Josh's possession; the others scramble after him, with Ashley and Chris possibly falling victim to a wendigo trap en route.
Sam and Mike discover Josh in the mines; his weakened mental state has caused him to hallucinate his sisters and his psychiatrist Dr. Alan Hill (Peter Stormare). Mike tries to lead Josh to safety, but they are separated when Josh is attacked by the wendigo. He is slain outright unless Sam discovered enough clues to determine the truth: the lead wendigo is Hannah, who turned after consuming Beth's corpse. If Jessica and/or Matt are still alive, they link up and attempt to escape through the mines while evading Hannah. Finally, Mike and Sam return to the lodge to seek refuge in the basement with the rest of the survivors, only to find it overrun by wendigos, including Hannah. When a fight between the wendigos causes a gas leak, Mike and Sam work together to destroy the lodge, leading to an explosion that kills Hannah, the remaining wendigos, and possibly some of the survivors. Following the explosion, rescue helicopters arrive to retrieve whoever has survived until dawn.
In the ending credits, any surviving characters, excluding Josh, are interviewed by the police about the events on the mountain, where at least one of the characters will implore the police to search the mines. If he survives Hannah's attack, the trapped and isolated Josh turns to eating the Stranger's head and begins transforming into a wendigo.
## Development and release
### As a PlayStation Move game
British developer Supermassive Games led the game's development, which began in 2010. Its existence was revealed after a trademark for Until Dawn was discovered. The game's creative director was Will Byles, who joined the studio in the same year. The studio began discussing an idea for a new game for the PlayStation 3's PlayStation Move accessory, which had a greater emphasis on narrative than Supermassive's previous games, such as Start the Party!. The proposed game would be a horror game that resembled a slasher film and it would be designed for a younger audience that publisher Sony Computer Entertainment had courted with the Move. Supermassive hired American writers Larry Fessenden and Graham Reznick, both of whom had worked on horror movies, to write the game's script. They were hired because Byles felt the company's British writers wrote in a "parochial" way that is inappropriate for the horror genre.
The game was initially exclusive to PlayStation Move, meaning players needed to buy the Move controller to functionally play the game. In this version of the game, the only way to navigate and progress the game is by moving the motion controller. Moving the wand guides the movement of the flashlight held by the characters as players explore the location from a first-person perspective. The wand can also be used to interact with objects and solve puzzles. In this version of the game, players can occasionally wield a firearm.
A segment of the game shown at Gamescom 2012 received positive comments from the gaming community. Byles said the enthusiastic response was due to the game's unique tone, which was thought to be "fresh" compared with that of its competitors. One of the most common complaints received was the game's status as a Move exclusive; most people did not want to purchase a controller for the game. At that time, the game had reached the alpha development stage. Byles experimented with the game's debug camera and realized the potential of changing the perspective to third-person. This would change the game from a first-person adventure game to a more "cinematic" experience. The game also switched platform from PlayStation 3 to the PlayStation 4 and expanded the game's scope to include more mature content. Sony approved the idea and allowed the team to develop for the PS4 and changed the game's genre. According to Ashley Reed of GamesRadar, the changes in gameplay gave more "space to let the score, character personalities, camera work, and settings shine through". Most characters were also recast; Brett Dalton, one of the actors retained from the PlayStation 3 version, said he believed that the recasting was performed to hire better-known actors.
With these changes, the team partnered with Cubic Motion and 3Lateral to motion capture the actors' performances. The team also needed to change the game's graphics. They used the Decima engine created by Guerrilla Games and had to rework the lighting system. The team also extensively used particle effects and volumetric lighting to light up the game's environments. Despite the third-person perspective, the game adopted a static camera angle in a way similar to early Resident Evil games. The approach was initially resisted by the development team because the designers considered the camera "archaic". Byles and the game's production designer Lee Robinson, however, drew storyboards to ensure each camera angle had narrative motivations and prove their placements were not random. Initially, quality assurance testers were frustrated with the camera angle; Supermassive resolved this complaint by ensuring drastic camera transitions would not occur at thresholds like doors but the team had to remove some scenes to satisfy this design philosophy.
### Gameplay and story
To increase the player's agency, the team envisioned a system named the "butterfly effect". Every choice the player makes in the game helps shape the story and ultimately leads to different endings. Byles stated that "all of [the characters] can live or all of whom can die in any order in any number of ways", and that this leads to many ways for scenes to unfold. He further added that no two players would get the same experience because certain scenes would be locked away should the player make a different choice. Byles said this would encourage players to replay the game to discover more about the story. The dynamic choice and consequence system was inspired by Quantic Dream's Heavy Rain. With a branching story, Supermassive developed software that recorded every choice in the game. Byles described the software as a series of "nodes" that enabled the team to keep track of the story they intended to tell. Due to the branching nature of the game, however, every time the team wanted to change details in the narrative, the writers needed to examine the possible impacts the change would have on subsequent events. The team avoided substantial rewrites and instead focused on adjusting the game's pacing and direction once the motion capture and shooting process had begun.
The game's strict auto-save system was designed to be "imperative" instead of "punitive". Byles said even though a character had died, the story would not end until it reached the ending and that some characters may not have died despite their deaths being hinted at. Some plot points were designed to be indirect and vague so the narrative would gradually unfold. Byles recognized the design choice as "risky" and that it may disappoint mainstream players but he felt it enhanced the game's "horror" elements. The game's pacing was inspired by that of Resident Evil and Silent Hill, in which there were quiet moments with no enemy encounter that help enhance the games' tension. Tom Heaton, the game's designer, said an unsuccessful QTE trial or one incorrect choice would not lead directly to a character's death, though it would send the characters to "harder, more treacherous paths".
Byles described the game as "glib" and "cheesy", and said the story and the atmosphere were similar to a typical teen horror movie. The film was inspired by a number of classic movies; the developers observed horror tropes and clichés that can be subverted in the game. These films included Psycho, The Haunting, The Exorcist, Halloween, Poltergeist, Evil Dead II, and The Conjuring. Fessenden and Reznick wrote a script of nearly 10,000 pages. The playable characters were set up as typical horror movie archetypes but as the narrative unfolded, these characters would show more nuanced qualities. The writers felt that, unlike films, games can use quieter moments for characters to express their inner feelings. With the game's emphasis on players' choices, players can no longer "laugh" at the characters' decisions because they must make these decisions themselves. It enables the player to relate with the characters and make each death more devastating. The dialogue was reduced significantly when the team began to use the motion capture technology, which facilitates storytelling through acting. The story was written in a non-linear fashion; chapter 8 was the first to be completed. This ended up causing some inconsistencies in the story.
The development team wanted to invoke fear in the player and ensure the game had the appropriate proportion of terror, horror, and disgust. Supermassive made most use of terror, which Byles defined as "the dread of an unseen threat". To ensure the game was scary enough, the team used a galvanic skin response test to measure playtesters' fear levels while they were playing the game. Byles described Until Dawn as a game that took "horror back to the roots of horror"; unlike many of its competitors, tension rather than action was emphasized.
### Music
Jason Graves began working on Until Dawn's music in 2011. The scoring process for three orchestra recording sessions lasted for one year. Graves talked with Barney Pratt, the game's audio director, for three hours to get a clear idea about the direction of the soundtrack. He first composed the game's main theme, which he felt represented what the team was trying to achieve, and used it as the demo pitch to Supermassive Games. The music was reactive; it would become louder as the player character approached a threat. While composing for the game, he mixed both melodic and atonal sounds together. The music was influenced by the work of Krzysztof Penderecki and Jerry Goldsmith. There were tonally vague themes to mirror the game's mysterious storyline.
With the butterfly effect being an important mechanic of the game, Graves used film music editing techniques. He divided each track into segments and had the orchestra play it piece by piece. He then manipulated the recordings and introduced variations of them in the recording studio. For the game's mountainous setting, he used a "goat-hoof shaker" to perform the mountain theme and many of the key tracks. He also extensively used synthesizers to pay homage to John Carpenter's work. Only 30 minutes of themes with melody and chord progression were recorded in three orchestral sessions. This was because most of the time was spent recording 8–10 hours' worth of atmospheric music and sounds that Graves later combined to invoke different emotions in different scenes. The Decima game engine was programmed to determine how the music was layered depending on players' choices in the game. The game's soundtracks were nearly 15 hours long. The theme song, "O Death", was performed by Amy Van Roekel.
### Release and marketing
Until Dawn was officially announced at Gamescom 2012 and it was initially scheduled to be released in 2013 for PlayStation 3. After the game was retooled, it was rumored Sony had canceled it but Supermassive CEO Pete Samuels refuted the claim. The game was re-revealed at Gamescom 2014. Sony did not market Until Dawn extensively; most of its marketing effort was spent on promoting third-party games such as Destiny. On 31 July 2015, Sony confirmed the game had gone gold, indicating the team had completed development and it was being prepared for duplication and release. It was released for the PlayStation 4 in August 2015, two years after its initial proposed launch. Players who pre-ordered the game received a bonus mission featuring Matt and Emily. As well as the game's standard edition, an extended edition and a steelbook edition were available for purchase. The game's death scenes were censored in the Japanese version. Supermassive hosted a time-limited Halloween event in late October 2015, in which 11 pumpkins were added to the game as collectibles.
## Reception
### Critical response
Until Dawn received a generally positive reception based on 103 reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Jeff Marchiafava from Game Informer wrote that Supermassive Games had "polished the [adventure game] formula to a triple-A sheen". He also enjoyed the butterfly effect system because some choices significantly affect the game's narrative. Game Revolution's Jessica Vazquez described the system as a "welcome limitation" because players would not know the consequences of each choice until they reach the ending. Alexa Ray Corriea from GameSpot liked the game for its impactful choices and the "paranoia" it invokes during critical choices that risk the lives of certain characters. She also admired the system's complexity and intricacy, which lets the player replay the game to discover new scenes. Mollie L Patterson from Electronic Gaming Monthly thought that the system is a "fantastic" inclusion but it never reached its full potential. Chris Carter from Destructoid called the butterfly effect system "gimmicky" due to the choices not significantly influencing the plot. GamesRadar'''s Louise Blain opined that most choices players make in the first half of the game are meaningless, though she noted that this is less of a problem in the latter half. Polygon's Phillip Kollar respected Supermassive's decision to not include manual saving, though he found the decision to be punitive because accidentally failing a QTE can result in a character's death.
Carter liked the game's world-building, which he said is extensive and intriguing. He also praised the cast's performances—singling out Peter Stormare's performance as therapist Dr. Hill—and the intermission sessions that became increasingly disturbing as the game progressed. Ray Corriea also enjoyed the cast's performances along with Graves' soundtracks, which she said elevate the game's "panic, terror, and anguish". On a less positive note, Kollar wrote that the acting is hampered by inadequacies in the game's motion capture technology. Marchiafava enjoyed the "compelling" story; he applauded the developers for successfully using different horror tropes while introducing several twists to the formula. Both Marchiafava and Dean Takahashi from Venturebeat liked the characters, who show genuine growth as the narrative unfolds. Correa added that players can relate to these characters. Both Blain and Patterson called the game a "love letter" to horror films, with Patterson noting the game's similarities to a "B-grade teen slasher flick". Andrew Webster from The Verge agreed, saying the game combines elements of both horror films and games, and transforms them into a "terrifying experience". He further added that the control the player has over the events makes Until Dawn "something special". Lucy O'Brien from IGN, however, said the game's strict adherence to genre tropes dilutes the game's scary moments and that it "revels in the slasher genre's idiosyncratic idiocy". She also criticized the game's inconsistent tone. Kollar disliked the game's writing and he criticized the "awkward cuts, long moments of unintentionally hilarious silence and hopping between scenes and perspectives with no regard for holding the player's interest".
Carter called the gameplay of Until Dawn unimaginative, though critics generally agreed the quick time events are well-handled because they help players become immersed in the game; Ray Corriea chose the "Don't Move" prompt as one of the player inputs that further heighten the tension. Marchiafava called its use one of the best in gaming because button prompts were often timed and successful attempts required precision. Patterson described the gameplay as conventional; he enjoyed the inclusion of QTEs and said they match with the game's overall theme and atmosphere. He noted, however, the game's cumbersome controls and suggested the shortcoming may originate from the game's origin as a PlayStation Move exclusive. Ray Corriea was disappointed by the game's linearity and the lack of interactions players can have with the environments, which she said had wasted the game's setting. Blain praised the game's quieter moments, in which the player character simply walks and explores the environment, and the fixed camera angles that contribute to tense and frightening moments. Takahashi found the 3D navigation awkward. O'Brien lamented the game's poorly-implemented motion control; she also disliked the QTEs, which she considered as tedious at times. Level design and location diversity were commonly praised by critics. The collectibles were regarded as meaningful additions to the game because they give players insights into possible future events in the game.
### Sales
According to Chart-Track, Until Dawn was the second-best-selling retail game in the UK in its week of release, trailing only Gears of War: Ultimate Edition. It was also the seventh-best-selling game in the US and the top-trending game on YouTube in August 2015. Sony was surprised by the game's critical responses and the number of players posting videos of it or streaming it on YouTube. Shuhei Yoshida, President of SCE Worldwide Studios, called Until Dawn a "sleeper hit". Samuels added that the game surpassed the company's expectations, though the exact sales figure was not announced.
### Accolades
## Spin-off and prequel
Sony announced a non-canonical spin-off, Until Dawn: Rush of Blood, at Paris Games Week 2015. The company described it as an arcade shooter. Its development began halfway through Until Dawn's development. Until Dawn: Rush of Blood was released on the PlayStation VR on 13 October 2016. In June 2017, a prequel to Until Dawn, The Inpatient, was announced. It is set in the Blackwood Sanatorium sixty years before the original.
## See also
- The Quarry'' (2022), a spiritual successor also developed by Supermassive Games
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21,387,586 |
Islay
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Southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland
|
[
"Cleared places in the Inner Hebrides",
"Islands of Argyll and Bute",
"Islands of the Inner Hebrides",
"Islay"
] |
Islay (/ˈaɪlə/ EYE-lə; Scottish Gaelic: Ìle, Scots: Ila) is the southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. Known as "The Queen of the Hebrides", it lies in Argyll just south west of Jura and around 40 kilometres (22 nautical miles) north of the Northern Irish coast. The island's capital is Bowmore where the distinctive round Kilarrow Parish Church and a distillery are located. Port Ellen is the main port.
Islay is the fifth-largest Scottish island and the eighth-largest island of the British Isles, with a total area of almost 620 square kilometres (240 sq mi). There is ample evidence of the prehistoric settlement of Islay and the first written reference may have come in the first century AD. The island had become part of the Gaelic Kingdom of Dál Riata during the Early Middle Ages before being absorbed into the Norse Kingdom of the Isles.
The later medieval period marked a "cultural high point" with the transfer of the Hebrides to the Kingdom of Scotland and the emergence of the Clan Donald Lordship of the Isles, originally centred at Finlaggan. During the 17th century the power of Clan Donald waned, but improvements to agriculture and transport led to a rising population, which peaked in the mid-19th century. This was followed by substantial forced displacements and declining resident numbers.
Today, it has over 3,000 inhabitants, and the main commercial activities are agriculture, malt whisky distillation and tourism. The island has a long history of religious observance, and Scottish Gaelic is spoken by about a quarter of the population. Its landscapes have been celebrated through various art forms, and there is a growing interest in renewable energy in the form of wave power. Islay is home to many bird species such as the wintering populations of Greenland white-fronted and barnacle goose, and is a popular destination throughout the year for birdwatchers. The climate is mild and ameliorated by the Gulf Stream.
## Name
Islay was probably recorded by Ptolemy as Epidion, the use of the "p" suggesting a Brittonic or Pictish tribal name. In the 7th century Adomnán referred to the island as Ilea, and the name occurs in early Irish records as Ile and as Íl in Old Norse. The root is not Gaelic and is of unknown origin.
In 17th-century maps, the spelling appears as "Yla" or "Ila", a form still used in the name of the whisky Caol Ila. In poetic language, Islay is known as Banrìgh Innse Gall, or Banrìgh nan Eilean usually translated as "Queen of the Hebrides" and Eilean uaine Ìle – the "green isle of Islay" A native of Islay is called an Ìleach, pronounced .
The obliteration of pre-Norse names is almost total, and placenames on the island are a mixture of Norse and later Gaelic and English influences.
Port Askaig is from the Norse ask-vík, meaning "ash tree bay" and the common suffix -bus is from the Norse bólstaðr, meaning "farm".
Gaelic names, or their anglicised versions such as Ardnave Point, from Àird an Naoimh "height of the saint" ,are very common.
Several of the villages were developed in the 18th or 19th centuries, and English is a stronger influence in their names as a result. Port Charlotte for example, was named after Lady Charlotte Campbell, daughter of 5th Duke of Argyll and wife of the island's then-owner, Colonel John Campbell (1770–1809) of Shawfield and Islay.
## Geography
Islay is 40 kilometres (25 mi) long from north to south and 24 kilometres (15 mi) broad. The east coast is rugged and mountainous, rising steeply from the Sound of Islay, the highest peak being Beinn Bheigier, which is a Marilyn at 1,612 feet (491 m). The western peninsulas are separated from the main bulk of the island by the waters of Loch Indaal to the south and Loch Gruinart to the north. The fertile and windswept southwestern arm is called The Rinns, and Ardnave Point is a conspicuous promontory on the northwest coast. The south coast is sheltered from the prevailing winds and, as a result, relatively wooded. The fractal coast has numerous bays and sea lochs, including Loch an t-Sailein, Aros Bay and Claggain Bay. In the far southwest is a rocky and now largely uninhabited peninsula called The Oa, the closest point in the Hebrides to Ireland.
The island's population is concentrated mainly in and around the villages of Bowmore and Port Ellen. Other smaller villages include Bridgend, Ballygrant, Port Charlotte, Portnahaven and Port Askaig. The rest of the island is sparsely populated and mainly agricultural. There are several small freshwater lochs in the interior including Loch Finlaggan, Loch Ballygrant, Loch Lossit and Loch Gorm, and numerous burns throughout the island, many of which bear the name "river" despite their small size. The most significant of these are the River Laggan which discharges into the sea at the north end of Laggan Bay, and the River Sorn which, draining Loch Finlaggan, enters the head of Loch Indaal at Bridgend.
There are numerous small uninhabited islands around the coasts, the largest of which are Eilean Mhic Coinnich and Orsay off the Rinns, Nave Island on the northwest coast, Am Fraoch Eilean in the Sound of Islay, and Texa off the south coast.
### Geology and geomorphology
The underlying geology of Islay is intricate for such a small area. The deformed Palaeoproterozoic igneous rock of the Rhinns complex is dominated by a coarse-grained gneiss cut by large intrusions of deformed gabbro. Once thought to be part of the Lewisian complex, it lies beneath the Colonsay Group of metasedimentary rocks that forms the bedrock at the northern end of the Rinns. It is a quartz-rich metamorphic marine sandstone that may be unique to Scotland and which is nearly 5,000 m (16,400 ft) thick. South of Rubh' a' Mhail there are outcrops of quartzite, and a strip of mica schist and limestone cuts across the centre of the island from The Oa to Port Askaig. Further south is a band of metamorphic quartzite and granites, a continuation of the beds that underlie Jura. The geomorphology of these last two zones is dominated by a fold known as the Islay Anticline. To the south is a "shattered coastline" formed from mica schist and hornblende. The older Bowmore Group sandstones in the west centre of the island are rich in feldspar and may be of Dalradian origin.
Loch Indaal was formed along a branch of the Great Glen Fault called the Loch Gruinart Fault; its main line passes just to the north of Colonsay. This separates the limestone, igneous intrusions and Bowmore sandstones from the Colonsay Group rocks of the Rhinns. The result is occasional minor earth tremors.
There is a tillite bed near Port Askaig that provides evidence of an ice age in the Precambrian. In comparatively recent times the island was ice-covered during the Pleistocene glaciations save for Beinn Tart a' Mhill on the Rinns, which was a nunatak on the edge of the ice sheet. The complex changes of sea level due to melting ice caps and isostasy since then have left a series of raised beaches around the coast. Throughout much of late prehistory the low-lying land between the Rinns and the rest of the island was flooded, creating two islands.
### Climate
The influence of the Gulf Stream keeps the climate mild compared to mainland Scotland. Snow is rarely seen at sea level and frosts are light and short-lived. However, wind speeds average 19 to 28 kilometres per hour (10 to 15 knots) annually and winter gales sweep in off the Atlantic, gusting up to 185 km/h (115 mph). This can make travelling and living on the island during the winter difficult, while ferry and air links to the mainland can suffer delays. The driest months are April to July and the warmest are May to September, which as a result are the busiest times for tourism. Sunshine hours are typically highest around the coasts, especially to the west.
## Prehistory
The earliest settlers on Islay were nomadic hunter-gatherers who may have first arrived during the Mesolithic period after the retreat of the Pleistocene ice caps. A flint arrowhead, which was found in a field near Bridgend in 1993 and dates from 10,800 BC, is amongst the earliest evidence of a human presence found so far in Scotland. Stone implements of the Ahrensburgian culture found at Rubha Port an t-Seilich near Port Askaig by foraging pigs in 2015 probably came from a summer camp used by hunters travelling round the coast in boats. Mesolithic finds have been dated to 7000 BC using radiocarbon dating of shells and debris from kitchen middens. By the Neolithic, settlements had become more permanent, allowing for the construction of several communal monuments.
The most spectacular prehistoric structure on the island is Dun Nosebridge. This 375-square-metre (4,040 sq ft) Iron Age fort occupies a prominent crag and has commanding views of the surrounding landscape. The name's origin is probably a mixture of Gaelic and Old Norse: Dun in the former language means "fort" and knaus-borg in the latter means "fort on the crag". There is no evidence that Islay was ever subject to Roman military control although small numbers of finds such as a coin and a brooch from the third century AD suggest links of some kind with the intermittent Roman presence on the mainland. The ruins of a broch at Dùn Bhoraraic south east of Ballygrant and the remains of numerous Atlantic roundhouses indicate the influences of northern Scotland, where these forms of building originate. There are also various crannogs on Islay, including sites in Loch Ardnave, Loch Ballygrant and Loch Allallaidh in the south east where a stone causeway leading out to two adjacent islands is visible beneath the surface of the water.
## History
### Dál Riata
By the sixth century AD Islay, along with much of the nearby mainland and adjacent islands lay within the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata with strong links to Ireland. The widely accepted view is that Dál Riata was established by Gaelic migrants from Ulster, displacing a former Brythionic culture (such as the Picts). Nevertheless, it has been claimed that the Gaels in this part of Scotland were indigenous to the area. Dál Riata was divided into a small number of regions, each controlled by a particular kin group; according to the Senchus fer n-Alban ("The History of the Men of Scotland"), it was the Cenél nÓengusa for Islay and Jura.
In 627 the son of a king of the Irish Uí Chóelbad, a branch of the Dál nAraidi kingdom of Ulster (not to be confused with Dál Riata), was killed on Islay at the unidentified location of Ard-Corann by a warrior in an army led by King Connad Cerr of the Corcu Réti (the collective term for the Cenél nGabráin and Cenél Comgaill, before they split), based at Dunadd. The Senchus also lists what is believed to be the oldest reference to a naval battle in the British Isles—a brief record of an engagement between rival Dál Riatan groups in 719.
There is evidence of another kin group on Islay – the Cenél Conchride, supposedly descended from a brother of the legendary founder of Dál Riata, king Fergus Mór, but the existence of the Cenél Conchride seems to have been brief and the 430 households of the island are later said to have been comprised from the families of just three great-grandsons of the eponymous founder of Cenél nÓengus: Lugaid, Connal and Galán.
### Norse influence and the Kingdom of the Isles
The ninth-century arrival of Scandinavian settlers on the western seaboard of the mainland had a long-lasting effect, beginning with the destruction of Dál Riata. As is the case in the Northern Isles, the derivation of place names suggests a complete break from the past. Jennings and Kruse conclude that although there were settlements prior to the Norse arrival "there is no evidence from the onomasticon that the inhabitants of these settlements ever existed". Gaelic continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the Norse period, but the place name evidence suggests it had a lowly status, possibly indicating an enslaved population.
Consolidating their gains, the Norse settlers established the Kingdom of the Isles, which became part of the crown of Norway following Norwegian unification. To Norway, the islands became known as Suðreyjar (Old Norse, traditionally anglicised as Sodor, or Sudreys), meaning southern isles. For the next four centuries and more this Kingdom was under the control of rulers of mostly Norse origin.
Godred Crovan was one of the most significant of the rulers of this sea kingdom. Though his origins are obscure, it is known that Godred was a Norse-Gael, with a connection to Islay. The Chronicles of Mann call Godred the son of Harald the Black of Ysland, (his place or origin variously interpreted as Islay, Ireland or Iceland) and state he "so tamed the Scots that no one who built a ship or boat dared use more than three iron bolts".
Godred also became King of Dublin at an unknown date, although in 1094 he was driven out of the city by Muircheartach Ua Briain, later known as High King of Ireland, according to the Annals of the Four Masters. He died on Islay "of pestilence", during the following year. A local tradition suggests that a standing stone at Carragh Bhan near Kintra marks Godred Crovan's grave. A genuine 11th-century Norse grave-slab was found at Dóid Mhàiri in 1838, although it was not associated with a burial. The slab is decorated with foliage in the style of Ringerike Viking art and an Irish-style cross, the former being unique in Scandinavian Scotland.
Following Godred's death, the local population resisted Norway's choice of replacement, causing Magnus, the Norwegian king, to launch a military campaign to assert his authority. In 1098, under pressure from Magnus, the king of Scotland quitclaimed to Magnus all sovereign authority over the isles.
#### Somerled
In the mid 12th century, a granddaughter of Godred Crovan's married the ambitious Somerled, a Norse-Gaelic Argyle nobleman. Godred Olafsson, grandson of Godred Crovan, was an increasingly unpopular King of the Isles at the time, spurring Somerled into action. The two fought the Battle of Epiphany in the seas off Islay in January 1156. The result was a bloody stalemate, and the island kingdom was temporarily divided, with Somerled taking control of the southern Hebrides. Two years later Somerled completely ousted Godred Olafsson and re-united the kingdom.
Somerled built the sea fortress of Claig Castle on an island between Islay and Jura, to establish control of the Sound of Islay. On account of the Corryvreckan whirlpool to the north of Jura, the Sound was the main safe sea route between the mainland and the rest of the Hebrides; Claig Castle essentially gave Somerled control of sea traffic. Following Somerled's 1164 death, the realm was divided between Godred's heirs, and Somerled's sons, whose descendants continued to describe themselves as King of the Sudreys until the 13th century. Somerled's grandson, Donald received Islay, along with Claig Castle, and the adjacent part of Jura as far north as Loch Tarbert.
Nominal Norwegian authority had been re-established after Somerled's death, but by the mid 13th century, increased tension between Norway and Scotland led to a series of battles, culminating in the Battle of Largs, shortly after which the Norwegian king died. In 1266, his more peaceable successor ceded his nominal authority over Suðreyjar to the Scottish king (Alexander III) by the Treaty of Perth, in return for a very large sum of money. Alexander generally acknowledged the semi-independent authority of Somerled's heirs; the former Suðreyjar had become a Scottish crown dependency, rather than part of Scotland.
### Scottish rule
#### Lords of the Isles
By this point, Somerled's descendants had formed into three families – the heirs of Donald (the MacDonalds, led by Aonghas Óg MacDonald), those of Donald's brother (the Macruari, led by Ruaidhri mac Ailein), and those of Donald's uncle (the MacDougalls, led by Alexander MacDougall). At the end of the 13th century, when king John Balliol was challenged for the throne by Robert the Bruce, the MacDougalls backed Balliol, while the Macruari and MacDonalds backed Robert. When Robert won, he declared the MacDougall lands forfeit, and distributed them between the MacDonalds and Macruari (the latter already owning much of Lorne, Uist, parts of Lochaber, and Garmoran).
The Macruari territories were eventually inherited by Amy of Garmoran., who married her MacDonald cousin John of Islay in the 1330s; having succeeded Aonghus Óg as head of the MacDonalds, he now controlled significant stretches of the western seaboard of Scotland from Morvern to Loch Hourn, and the whole of the Hebrides save for Skye (which Robert had given to Hugh of Ross instead). From 1336 onwards John began to style himself Dominus Insularum—"Lord of the Isles", a title that implied a connection to the earlier Kings of the Isles and by extension a degree of independence from the Scottish crown; this honorific was claimed by his heirs for several generations. The MacDonalds had thus achieved command of a strong semi-independent maritime kingdom, and considered themselves equals of the kings of Scotland, Norway, and England.
Initially, their power base was on the shores of Loch Finlaggan in northeastern Islay, near the present-day village of Caol Ila. Successive chiefs of Clan Donald were proclaimed Lord of the Isles there, upon an ancient seven-foot-square coronation stone bearing footprint impressions in which the new ruler stood barefoot and was anointed by the Bishop of Argyll and seven priests. The Lord's advisory "Council of the Isles" met on Eilean na Comhairle (Council Island), in Loch Finlaggan on Islay, within a timber framed crannog that had originally been constructed in the first century BC.
The Islay Charter, a record of lands granted to an Islay resident in 1408, Brian Vicar MacKay, by Domhnall of Islay, Lord of the Isles, is one of the earliest records of Gaelic in public use, and is a significant historical document. In 1437, the Lordship was substantially expanded when Alexander, the Lord of the Isles, inherited the rule of Ross maternally; this included Skye. The expansion of MacDonald control caused the "heart of the Lordship" to move to the twin castles of Aros and Ardtornish, in the Sound of Mull.
In 1462, the last and most ambitious of the Lords, John MacDonald II, struck an alliance with Edward IV of England under terms of the Treaty of Ardtornish-Westminster with the goal of conquering Scotland. The onset of the Wars of the Roses prevented the treaty from being discovered by Scottish agents, and Edward from fulfilling his obligations as an ally. A decade later, in 1475, it had come to the attention of the Scottish court, but calls for forfeiture of the Lordship were calmed when John quitclaimed his mainland territories, and Skye. However, ambition wasn't given up so easily, and John's nephew launched a severe raid on Ross, but it ultimately failed. Within 2 years of the raid, in 1493, MacDonald was compelled to forfeit his estates and titles to James IV of Scotland; by this forfeiture, the lands became part of Scotland, rather than a crown dependency.
James ordered Finlaggan demolished, its buildings razed, and the coronation stone destroyed, to discourage any attempts at restoration of the Lordship. When Martin Martin visited Islay in the late 17th century he recorded a description of the coronations Finlaggan had once seen.. John was exiled from his former lands, and his former subjects now considered themselves to have no superior except the king. A charter was soon sent from the Scottish King confirming this state of affairs; it declares that Skye and the Outer Hebrides are to be considered independent from the rest of the former Lordship, leaving only Islay and Jura remaining in the comital unit.
#### 16th and 17th centuries
Initially dispossessed in the wake of royal opposition to the Lordship, Clan MacDonald of Dunnyveg's holdings in Islay were restored in 1545. The MacLean family had been granted land in Jura in 1390, by the MacDonalds, and in 1493 had thus been seen as the natural replacement for them, leading to a branch of the MacLeans being granted Dunyvaig Castle by king James, and expanding into Islay. Naturally, the restoration of the MacDonalds created some hostility with the MacLeans; in 1549, after observing that Islay was fertile, fruitful, and full of natural pastures, with good hunting and plentiful salmon and seals, Dean Monro describes Dunyvaig, and Loch Gorm Castle "now usurped be M’Gillayne of Doward".. The dispute continued for decades, and in 1578 the Macleans were expelled from Loch Gorm by force, and in 1598 their branch was finally defeated at the Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart.
However, when Sorley Boy MacDonnell (of the Islay MacDonalds) had a clash with the Irish branch of the Macleans, and the unpopularity of the MacDonalds in Edinburgh (where their use of Gaelic was regarded as barbaric), weakened their grip on their southern Hebridean possessions. In 1608, Coupled with MacDonald hostility to the Scottish reformation, this led the Scottish-English crown to mount an expedition to subdue them. In 1614 the crown handed Islay to Sir John Campbell of Cawdor, in return for an undertaking to pacify it; this the Campbells eventually achieved. Under Campbell influence, shrieval authority was established under the sheriff of Argyll. With inherited Campbell control of the sheriffdom, comital authority was relatively superfluous, and the provincial identity (medieval Latin: provincia) of Islay-Jura faded away.
The situation was soon complicated by the Civil War, when Archibald, the head of the most powerful branch of the Campbells, was the de facto head of Covenanter government, while other branches (and even Archibald's son) were committed Royalists. A Covenanter army under Sir David Leslie arrived on Islay in 1647, and besieged the royalist garrison at Dunnyvaig, laying waste to the island. It was not until 1677 that the Campbells felt sufficiently at ease to construct Islay House at Bridgend to be their principal, and unfortified, island residence.
Martin Martin recorded that Sir Hugh Campbell of Caddell was the king's steward of Islay in the late seventeenth century.
### British era
#### 18th and 19th centuries
At the beginning of the 18th century much of the population of Argyll was to be found dispersed in small clachans of farming families and only two villages of any size, Killarow near Bridgend and Lagavulin, existed on Islay at the time. (Killarow had a church and tolbooth and houses for merchants and craft workers but was razed in the 1760s to "improve" the grounds of Islay House.) The agricultural economy was dependent on arable farming including staples such as barley and oats supplemented with stock-rearing. The carrying capacity of the island was recorded at over 6,600 cows and 2,200 horses in a 1722 rental listing.
In 1726 Islay was purchased by John Campbell of Mamore using compensation from Glasgow Town Council (£9000) for damages during the Malt tax riots. When he died in 1729 the island passed to his son, Daniel Campbell of Shawfield. Following the Jacobite insurrections of 1745–6, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act 1746 abolished comital authority, and the Campbell's control of the sheriffdom; thereafter they could now only assert their influence in their role as Landlords.
A defining aspect of 19th-century Argyll was the gradual improvement of transport infrastructure. Roads were built, the Crinan canal shortened the sea distance to Glasgow and the numerous traditional ferry crossings were augmented by new quays. Rubble piers were built at several locations on Islay and a new harbour was constructed at Port Askaig. Initially, a sense of optimism in the fishing and cattle trades prevailed and the population expanded, partly as a result of the 18th-century kelp boom and the introduction of the potato as a staple. The population of the island had been estimated at 5,344 in 1755 and grew to over 15,000 by 1841.
Islay remained with the Campbells of Shawfield until 1853 when it was sold to James Morrison of Berkshire, ancestor of the third Baron Margadale, who still owns a substantial portion of the island. The sundering of the relationship between the landowners and the island's residents proved consequential. When the estate owners realised they could make more money from sheep farming than from the indigenous small farmers, wholesale Clearances became commonplace. Four hundred people emigrated from Islay in 1863 alone, some for purely economic reasons, but many others having been forced off the land their predecessors had farmed for centuries. In 1891 the census recorded only 7,375 citizens, with many evictees making new homes in Canada, the United States and elsewhere. The population continued to decline for much of the 20th century and today is about 3,500.
In 1899, counties were formally created, on shrieval boundaries, by a Scottish Local Government Act; Islay therefore became part of the County of Argyll.
#### World wars
During World War I two troop ships foundered off Islay within a few months of each other in 1918. The SS Tuscania, a converted British liner carrying American Doughboys to France, was torpedoed by SM UB-77 on 5 February with the loss of over 160 lives and now lies in deep water 6.4 km (4 mi) west of the Mull of Oa. On 6 October HMS Otranto was involved in a collision with HMS Kashmir in heavy seas while similarly transporting American Doughboys from New York Harbor. Otranto lost steering and drifted towards the west coast of the Rinns. Answering her SOS the destroyer HMS Mounsey attempted to come alongside and managed to rescue over 350 men. Nonetheless, the Otranto was wrecked on the shore near Machir Bay with a total loss of 431 lives. A monument was erected on the coast of The Oa by the American Red Cross to commemorate the sinking of these two ships. A military cemetery was created at Kilchoman where the dead from both nations in the latter disaster were buried (all but one of the American bodies were later exhumed and returned home).
During World War II, the RAF built an airfield at Glenegedale which later became the civil airport for Islay. There was also an RAF Coastal Command flying boat base at Bowmore from 13 March 1941 using Loch Indaal. In 1944 an RCAF 422 Squadron Sunderland flying boat's crew were rescued after their aircraft landed off Bowmore but broke from her moorings in a gale and sank. There was an RAF Chain Home radar station at Saligo Bay and RAF Chain Home Low station at Kilchiaran.
## Economy
The mainstays of the modern Islay economy are agriculture and fishing, distilling and tourism.
### Agriculture and fishing
Much of Islay remains owned by a few non-resident estate owners; sheep farming and the few dairy cattle herds are run by tenant farmers. The island's web site indicates that some cultivation is also being done while some areas of high moorlands include estates for shooting deer. Some bogs are cut for fuel used by a few distilleries and some homeowners. The southeast and eastern areas of Islay also have some plantations growing coniferous trees.
Islay has some fine wild brown trout and salmon fishing and in September 2003 the European Fishing Competition was held on five of the island's numerous lochs; this was "the biggest fishing event ever to be held in Scotland". Sea angling is also popular, especially off the west coast and over the many shipwrecks around the coast. There are about 20 commercial boats with crab, lobster and scallop fishing undertaken from Port Askaig, Port Ellen and Portnahaven.
### Distilling
Islay is one of five whisky distilling localities and regions in Scotland whose identities are protected by law. There are nine active distilleries and one inactive, with plans to begin construction on an eleventh. This industry is the island's second largest employer after agriculture. Those on the south of the island produce malts with a very strong peaty flavour, considered to be the most intensely flavoured of all whiskies. From east to west they are Ardbeg, Lagavulin, and Laphroaig. On the north of the island, Bowmore, Bruichladdich, Caol Ila, Bunnahabhain and Ardnahoe are produced, which are substantially lighter in taste. Kilchoman opened in 2005 toward the west coast of the Rinns.
The oldest record of a legal distillery on the island refers to Bowmore in 1779 and at one time there were up to 23 distilleries in operation. For example, Port Charlotte distillery operated from 1829 to 1929 and Port Ellen is also closed although it remains in business as a malting. In March 2007, Bruichladdich announced that they would reopen Port Charlotte distillery using equipment from the Inverleven distillery.
In general, the whiskies from this island are known for "pungent peaty, smoky and oily flavours, with just a hint of salty sea air and seaweed" because of the use of peat and the maritime climate, according to one report. The island's own web site is more specific. Distilleries in the south make whisky which is "medium-bodied ... saturated with peat-smoke, brine and iodine" because they use malt that is heavy with peat as well as peaty water. Whisky from the northern area is milder because it is made using spring water for a "lighter flavoured, mossy (rather than peaty), with some seaweed, some nuts..." characteristic.
### Tourism
Some 45,000 summer visitors arrive each year by ferry and a further 11,000 by air. The main attractions are the scenery, history, bird watching and the world-famous whiskies. The distilleries operate various shops, tours and visitor centres, and the Finlaggan Trust has a visitor centre which is open daily during the summer.
Golf is available on the 116-year-old Machrie golf course now owned by Gavyn Davies and his wife Susan Nye, Baroness Nye; the course was redesigned and reopened in 2017. (The adjoining Macrhie Hotel, with 47 bedrooms, was recently rebuilt.) Walkers and cyclists appreciate the 210 kilometres of coastline. Bird watchers should also be satisfied.
The web site Trip Advisor rates the following as the top ten Sights & Landmarks on the island: Kildalton Cross in Port Ellen, Finlaggan in Ballygrant, Kildalton High Cross and Old Parish Church in Port Ellen, the American Monument, Kilchoman Military Cemetery, The Round Church in Bowmore, Kilnave Cross, Dunyvaig Castle in Lagavulin, Portnahaven Harbour, and Kilchoman Church.
According to a July 2018 report, some summer days see nearly 6,000 tourists on the island and over 15,000 during the Feis Ile whisky festival in May. Those are very high numbers for an island with approximately 3,200 residents. That has led to some concern that the unique flavour of Islay is being negatively affected. Still, there are no large hotels on the island yet, with tourist accommodation provided by guest houses, B&Bs, small hotels such as the Port Charlotte Hotel and the Harbour Inn at Bowmore, self catering cottages and a youth hostel. Two campsites are available; one of them can accommodate motorhomes.
### Renewable energy
The location of Islay, exposed to the full force of the North Atlantic, has led to it being the site of a pioneering, and Scotland's first, wave power station near Portnahaven. The Islay LIMPET (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer) wave power generator was designed and built by Wavegen and researchers from the Queen's University of Belfast, and was financially backed by the European Union. Known as Limpet 500, due to cabling constraints its capacity was limited to providing up to 150 kW of electricity into the island's grid. In 2000 it became the world's first commercial wave power station. It has since been decommissioned.
In March 2011 the largest tidal array in the world was approved by the Scottish Government with 10 planned turbines predicted to generate enough power for over 5,000 homes. The project will be located in the Sound of Islay which offers both strong currents and shelter from storms.
### Transport
Many of the roads on the island are single-track with passing places. The two main roads are the A846 from Ardbeg to Port Askaig via Port Ellen and Bowmore, and the A847 which runs down the east coast of the Rhinns. The island has its own bus service provided by Islay Coaches, and Glenegedale Airport offers flights to and from Glasgow International Airport and on a less regular basis to Oban and Colonsay.
Caledonian MacBrayne operate regular ferry services to Port Ellen and Port Askaig from Kennacraig, taking about two hours. Ferries to Port Askaig also run on to Scalasaig on Colonsay and, on summer Wednesdays, to Oban. The purpose-built vessel, entered service in 2011. ASP Ship Management Ltd operate a small car ferry on behalf of Argyll & Bute Council from Port Askaig to Feolin on Jura. Kintyre Express will begin operating passenger only services between Port Ellen and Ballycastle in Northern Ireland from Fridays to Mondays through June, July and August.
There are various lighthouses on and around Islay as an aid to navigation. These include the Rinns of Islay light built on Orsay in 1825 by Robert Stevenson, Ruvaal at the north eastern tip of Islay constructed in 1859, Carraig Fhada at Port Ellen, which has an unusual design, and Dubh Artach, an isolated rock tower some 35 km (22 mi) northwest of Ruvaal.
### Other activities
Since 1973 the Ileach has been delivering news to the people of Islay every fortnight and was named community newspaper of the year in 2007. The Islay Ales Brewery brews various real ales at its premises near Bridgend. In the early 21st century a campus of Sabhal Mòr Ostaig was set up on Islay, Ionad Chaluim Chille Ìle, which teaches Gaelic language, culture and heritage. The Port Mòr community centre at Port Charlotte, which is equipped with a micro wind turbine and a ground-source heating system, is the creation of local development trust Iomairt Chille Chomain.
## Gaelic language
Islay has historically been a very strong Gaelic-speaking area. In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses, all parishes in Islay were reported to be over 75 per cent Gaelic-speaking. By 1971, the Rhinns had dropped to 50–74 per cent Gaelic speakers and the rest of Islay to 25–49 per cent Gaelic speaker overall. By 1991 about a third of the island's population were Gaelic speakers. In the 2001 census this had dropped to 24 per cent, which, while a low figure overall, nonetheless made it the most strongly Gaelic-speaking island in Argyll and Bute after Tiree, with the highest percentage recorded in Portnahaven (32 per cent) and the lowest in Gortontaoid (17 per cent), with the far north and south of the island being the weakest areas in general.
The Islay dialect is distinctive. It patterns strongly with other Argyll dialects, especially those of Jura, Colonsay and Kintyre. Amongst its distinctive phonological features are the shift from long /aː/ to /ɛː/, a high degree of retention of long /eː/, the shift of dark /l̪ɣ/ to /t̪/, the lack of intrusive /t̪/ in sr groups (for example /s̪ɾoːn/ "nose" rather than /s̪t̪ɾoːn/) and the retention of the unlenited past-tense particle d''' (for example, d'èirich "rose" instead of dh'èirich). It sits within a group of lexical isoglosses (i.e. words distinctive to a certain area) with strong similarities to the southern Scottish Gaelic and Ulster Irish dialects. Examples are dhuit "to you" (instead of the more common dhut), the formula gun robh math agad "thank you" (instead of the more common mòran taing or tapadh leat but compare Irish go raibh maith agat), mand "able to" (instead of the more common urrainn) or deifir "hurry" (instead of the more common cabhag, Irish deifir).
## Religion
Associated with various Islay churches are cupstones of uncertain age; these can be seen at Kilchoman Church, where the carved cross there is erected on one, and at Kilchiaran Church on the Rhinns. In historic times some may have been associated with pre-Christian wishing ceremonies or pagan beliefs in the "wee folk".
The early pioneers of Christianity in Dál Riata were Columba of Iona and Moluag of Lismore. The legacy of this period includes the eighth century Kildalton Cross, Islay's "most famous treasure", carved out of local epidiorite. A carved cross of similar age, but much more heavily weathered can be found at Kilnave, which may have served as a site of lay worship. Although the first Norse settlers were pagan, Islay has a substantial number of sites of drystone or clay-mortared chapels with small burial grounds from the later Norse era. In the 12th century the island became part of the Diocese of Sodor and the Isles, which was re-established by King Olaf Godredsson. The diocese fell within the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Nidaros and there were four principal churches on Islay in the Norwegian prestegjeld model: Kilnaughton, Kildalton, Kilarrow and Kilmany. In 1472 Islay became part of the Archdiocese of St Andrews.
Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll was a strong supporter of the Reformation, but there is little evidence that his beliefs were greeted with much enthusiasm by the islanders initially. At first there were only two Protestant churches but in 1642 three parishes were created, based at Kilchoman, Kilarrow and a new church at Dunyvaig. By the end of the century there were seven churches including one on Nave Island. Kilarrow Parish Church, built in 1767 by Daniel Campbell when laird of Islay, is round and such, as local folklore has it, has no corner in which the devil could hide. The kirk on the Rhinns of Islay is St Kiaran's, located just outside the village of Port Charlotte and Port Ellen is served by St John's. There are a variety of other Church of Scotland churches and various other congregations on the island. Baptists meet in Port Ellen and in Bowmore, the Scottish Episcopal Church of St. Columba is located in Bridgend and the Islay Roman Catholic congregation also uses St Columba's for its services.
## Media and the arts
Islay was featured in some of the scenes of the 1954 film The Maggie, and the 1942 documentary "Coastal Command" was partly filmed in Bowmore.
In 1967–68, folk-rock songwriter and singer Donovan included "Isle of Islay" in his album, A Gift from a Flower to a Garden, a song praising the pastoral beauties of the island. "Westering Home" is a 20th-century Scottish song about Islay written by Hugh S. Roberton, derived from an earlier Gaelic song.
In the 1990s the BBC adaptation of Para Handy was partly filmed in Port Charlotte and Bruichladdich and featured a race between the Vital Spark (Para Handy's puffer) and a rival along the length of Loch Indaal. In 2007, parts of the BBC Springwatch programme were recorded on Islay with Simon King being based on Islay. The British Channel 4 archaeological television programme Time Team excavated at Finlaggan, the episode being first broadcast in 1995.
In 2000, Japanese author Haruki Murakami visited the island to sample seven single malt whiskies on the island and later wrote a travel book called If our language were whisky.
## Wildlife
Islay is home to many species of wildlife and is especially known for its birds. Winter-visiting barnacle goose numbers have reached 35,000 in recent years with as many as 10,000 arriving in a single day. There are also up to 12,000 Greenland white-fronted geese, and smaller numbers of brent, pinkfooted and Canada geese are often found amongst these flocks. Other waterfowl include whooper and mute swans, eider duck, Slavonian grebe, goldeneye, long-tailed duck and wigeon. The elusive corncrake and sanderling, ringed plover and curlew sandpiper are amongst the summer visitors. Resident birds include red-billed chough, hen harrier, golden eagle, peregrine falcon, barn owl, raven, oystercatcher and guillemot. The re-introduced white-tailed sea eagle is now seen regularly around the coasts. In all, about 105 species breed on the island each year and between 100 and 120 different species can be seen at any one time.
A population of several thousand red deer inhabit the moors and hills. Fallow deer can be found in the southeast, and roe deer are common on low-lying ground. Otters are common around the coasts along Nave Island, and common and grey seals breed on Nave Island. Offshore, a variety of cetaceans are regularly recorded including minke whales, pilot whales, killer whales and bottle-nosed dolphins. The only snake on Islay is the adder and the common lizard is widespread although not commonly seen. The island supports a significant population of the marsh fritillary along with numerous other moths and butterflies. The mild climate supports a diversity of flora, typical of the Inner Hebrides.
## Notable natives
- Glenn Campbell (born 1976), Scottish political reporter for the BBC, was brought up on Islay and attended Islay High School.
- John Francis Campbell (1821-1885), authority on Scottish folklore and joint inventor of the Campbell–Stokes recorder. The son of Daniel Campbell of Shawfield, his father's bankruptcy prevented him inheriting the Islay estate. There is, however, a monument commemorating him at Bridgend.
- Alistair Carmichael (born 1965), the Liberal Democrat Deputy Chief Whip, was born on Islay to hill-farming parents. He has represented Orkney and Shetland at Westminster since 2001.
- Donald Caskie (1902–1983) was born on Islay. He became known as the "Tartan Pimpernel" for his exploits in France during World War II.
- John Crawfurd (1783-1868) was born on Islay and during a long career as a colonial administrator he became governor of Singapore. He also wrote a number of books including Journal of an Embassy from the Governor General of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China'' (1828).
- William Livingstone (Scottish Gaelic: Uilleam Mac Dhunlèibhe) (1808-1870), an important figure in 19th-century Scottish Gaelic literature and chronicler in verse of the Highland Clearances upon Islay, was born upon the Gartmain farm near Bowmore.
- David MacIntyre (1895-1967) from Portnahaven, recipient of the Victoria Cross.
- General Alexander McDougall (1732-1786), a figure in the American War of Independence and the first president of the Bank of New York, was born in Kildalton in 1731.
- George Robertson (born 1946), formerly secretary-general of NATO and British Defence Secretary. In 1999 he was made Lord Robertson of Port Ellen.
- Sir William Stewart (born 1935) became the UK government's Chief Scientific Adviser in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
## See also
- List of islands of Scotland
- Lewisian complex
- Scottish island names
- Snowball Earth
- Timeline of prehistoric Scotland
|
32,586,635 |
Cow Clicker
| 1,163,393,013 |
Incremental video game
|
[
"2010 video games",
"Browser games",
"Facebook games",
"Fictional cattle",
"Gamification",
"Incremental games",
"Parody video games",
"Social casual games",
"Video games about animals",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Works by Ian Bogost"
] |
Cow Clicker is an incremental social network game on Facebook developed by video game researcher Ian Bogost. The game serves as a deconstructive satire of social games. The goal of the game is to earn "clicks" by clicking on a sprite of a cow every six hours. The addition of friends' cows to the player's pasture allows the user to also receive "clicks" whenever the player's cow is clicked. A premium currency known as "Mooney" allows the user to purchase different cow designs and skip the six-hour interval between clicks.
In the wake of a controversial speech by Zynga's president at the Game Developers Choice Awards in 2010, Bogost developed Cow Clicker for a presentation at a New York University seminar on social gaming in July 2010. The game was created to demonstrate what Bogost felt were the most commonly abused mechanics of social games, such as the promotion of social interaction and monetization rather than the artistic aspects of the medium. As the game unexpectedly began to grow in popularity, Bogost also used Cow Clicker to parody other recent gaming trends, such as gamification, educational apps, and alternate reality games.
Some critics praised Cow Clicker for its dissection of the common mechanics of social network games and viewed it as a commentary on how social games affect people.
## Gameplay
The player is initially given a pasture with nine slots and a single plain cow, which the player may click once every six hours. Each time the cow is clicked, a point also known as a "click" is awarded; if the player adds friends' cows to their pasture, they also receive clicks added to their scores when the player clicks their own cow. As in other Facebook games, players are encouraged to post announcements to their news feed whenever they click their cow. A virtual currency known as "Mooney" can be bought with Facebook Credits; it can be used to purchase special "premium" cow designs, and the ability to skip the six-hour time limit that must be waited before the cow can be clicked again.
## History
### Creation and development
At the 2010 Game Developers Conference, Zynga's game FarmVille was awarded the "Best New Social/Online Game" at its Game Developers Choice Awards. Ian Bogost (who was also in attendance) was critical of Zynga's success, as he felt that its business model was focused on convincing users to pay money to progress further in their "freemium" games rather than treating gaming as an artistic experience. He also believed Zynga's vice president Bill Mooney was trying to attack "artistic" gaming during his acceptance speech for the award when he personally invited independent game developers to join his company. After the conference, Bogost coined the term "cow clickers" to describe games such as FarmVille which only involve performing tasks at certain intervals, since in these games, "you click on a cow, and that’s all you do." Bogost compared the players of Zynga's games to the rats in B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning experiment, often receiving variable reinforcement rather than regular rewards. As one of the most vocal critics of Zynga's practices and business model, Bogost made further appearances at various events and panels to discuss his views on social gaming.
In July 2010, Bogost was scheduled to make an appearance at a New York University seminar, "Social Games On Trial", to discuss the controversial aspects of social network gaming. To clearly demonstrate what he felt were the most commonly abused mechanics of these games, Bogost quickly developed a Facebook game entitled Cow Clicker. The game was designed to be a satire of what Bogost personally believed were the only points of FarmVille: to encourage users to continue playing by inviting other users into the game, and to provide incentives for those who purchase virtual goods. The bulk of the code was written in three days.
Cow Clicker is similar to the 2013 game Cookie Clicker by Julien Thiennot, which Ian Bogost describes as Cow Clicker's "logical conclusion".
### Updates
Unexpectedly to Bogost, Cow Clicker became a viral phenomenon, amassing over 50,000 players by September 2010. In response to its sudden popularity, he committed to improving the game with new features. Updates to the game added awards for reaching certain milestones (such as the Golden Cowbell for 100,000 clicks), the ability to earn Mooney by clicking on other users' Cow Clicker news feed posts, and the chance to randomly gain or lose Mooney on every click. New cow designs were also introduced, such as an oil-coated cow to commemorate the BP oil spill, and the "Stargrazer Cow", which was only a mirror image of the original cow that cost around \$20's worth of Mooney.
Although continually disturbed by its popularity, Bogost also used Cow Clicker to parody other recent gaming and social networking trends; such as the addition of an API to allow websites to have their own clickable cows (in a process he dubbed "Cowclickification"), the spin-off game Cow Clicker Blitz (co-developed with PopCap Games co-founder Jason Kapalka), "My First Cow Clicker" for iOS (a parody of simplistic education apps; designed to "train" children on cow clicking and add the resulting clicks to their parent's total), and a "Cow Clicktivism" campaign where users could click on an emaciated cow to donate to Oxfam Americawith a goal of donating an actual cow to a third world country. The cow, known as the "Cowclicktivist Cow", could also be unlocked for the player's pasture with a \$110 donation.
### "Cowpocalypse" event and conclusion
In 2011, an alternate reality game known as the "Cow ClickARG" was held, where a series of clues from the "bovine gods" eventually revealed that a "Cowpocalypse" would occur on July 21, 2011 (exactly one year since the original release of the game). From then on, every click made by players would deduct thirty seconds from a countdown clock leading to the Cowpocalypse. However, players could extend the countdown clock by paying to supplicate with Facebook Credits: paying 10 credits would extend the countdown by a single hour, while 4,000 would extend the countdown by an entire month. After \$700 worth of extensions, the countdown clock expired on the evening of September 7, 2011. At this point, the game remained playable, but all the cows were replaced by blank spaces and said to have been raptured. Bogost intended the Cowpocalypse event to signal the "end" of the game to players; when addressing a complaint by a fan who felt the game was no longer fun after the cow rapture, Bogost responded that "it wasn't very fun before."
### Data collection
In 2018, Bogost wrote an article for The Atlantic discussing the collection of data by Facebook apps, with reference to Cow Clicker, following a scandal involving Cambridge Analytica's use of Facebook data. Bogost notes that Facebook apps appear to be part of the website itself, whereas they actually operate with almost no oversight. He claims that "without even trying", Cow Clicker stored its users' Facebook ID and any networks (such as workplaces) that the user was a part of, and that this information is still stored on his private server. Bogost notes that he could have used this data for malicious purposes, criticising Facebook's "move-fast-and-break-things attitude toward software development".
## Reception
Cow Clicker received critical attention soon after its release. One early commentator was Alexia Tsotsis of TechCrunch, who acknowledged the game's intent as a commentary on the impact of social network games. In an interview, Bogost foresaw the transformation of the internet into a "compulsive virtual dystopia" through Zynga's use of social gaming.
Nick Yee of the Palo Alto Research Center compared the players of games which do not provide "meaningful opportunities for achievement, social interaction, and challenge" to rats in a Skinner box. Accordingly, he compared Cow Clicker to being inside an "incredibly clear Skinner box"acknowledging how little effort the game took in order to keep users playing the game. Jason Tanz of Wired considered Cow Clicker as an example of the growth in the trend of gamificationwhere developers introduce elements influenced by games into their services without providing the normal "experience" a game traditionally incorporates.
PopCap Games co-founder Jason Kapalka praised Cow Clicker for being the type of "ironic, satirical, self-referential" game that Facebook's game ecosystem was lacking, as he felt there were too many commercially driven games on the social network. Playdom's Scott Jon Siegel criticized the game for not going far enough in its satire, and putting too many highlights on the "absurd monetisation practices and meaningless clicking which social games are all too well known for."
|
39,020,541 |
Childers Incident
| 1,159,922,999 |
Opening shots between British and French forces during the French Revolutionary Wars
|
[
"1793 in France",
"Conflicts in 1793",
"History of Brest, France",
"Maritime incidents in 1793",
"War of the First Coalition"
] |
The Childers Incident of 2 January 1793 marked the opening shots between British and French forces during the French Revolutionary Wars, the first phase of a 23-year-long war between the two countries. Following the French Revolution of 1789, diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the French Republic had steadily deteriorated and France was in political and social turmoil. One of the strongest hotbeds of republican activity was the principal Atlantic naval base of the French Navy at Brest in Brittany, the scene of a significant mutiny in 1790.
On 2 January a small British warship, the 14-gun brig HMS Childers under Commander Robert Barlow, was ordered to enter the Roadstead of Brest to reconnoitre the state of readiness of the French fleet. As Childers entered the Goulet de Brest, the vessel came under fire from French batteries flying the tricolour. Although Barlow clearly identified his brig as a neutral British vessel the fire continued until he was able to withdraw. Although Childers had been struck by a 48 lb (22 kg) cannonball, none of the crew were wounded. The incident was of itself inconsequential, with minimal damage and no casualties on either side, but it marked a symbolic moment in the deterioration of relations between Britain and France in the approach to war, which broke out on 1 February 1793.
## Background
Following the French Revolution of 1789 relations between the newly declared French Republic and its European neighbours sharply deteriorated. In April 1791, the Declaration of Pillnitz was jointly issued by Austria and Prussia stating their support for King Louis XVI. In February 1792 Austria and Prussia formally allied and the French Legislative Assembly responded on 20 April 1792 by declaring war on Austria. This first conflict, known as the War of the First Coalition, began on land as other than France the principal European maritime powers remained neutral. The arrest of the French king in August 1792 and the expansion of the war into Northern Italy brought about the start of the naval war in the Mediterranean Sea.
Britain had remained neutral throughout the first stages of the war. Although unsympathetic to the violence and upheaval of the French Revolution, Britain's Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was unwilling to go to war alongside the absolutist monarchies of Europe. Nevertheless, the Royal Navy had made extensive preparations for war should it occur, starting with the Spanish Armament of 1790. The French Atlantic Fleet however was in poor condition: the principal fleet base at Brest in Brittany had been the scene of a significant mutiny in 1790 and by 1791 desertion rates among French naval officers were running at more than 80%. Despite its strong republican politics and command difficulties, the fleet itself was very strong, having been expanded and improved during the 1780s – indeed the tax rises to pay for the French Navy had been one of the causes of the original Revolution in 1789.
## Childers incident
The strength of the French Atlantic fleet was a major cause of concern to the British Admiralty, and in late 1792 orders were issued for the small British brig, the 14-gun HMS Childers under Commander Robert Barlow, to enter the Roadstead of Brest and investigate the state of readiness of the French fleet.
On 2 January 1793, Childers was approaching the entrance to the roadstead under overcast skies and with a light, unreliable breeze. The only entrance to Brest harbour is through a narrow waterway known as the Goulet de Brest. The Goulet lies between the Pointe du Petit Minou and the Pointe du Portzic on the north shore and the îlot des Capucins and the Pointe des Espagnols on the Roscanvel peninsula to the south. Due to its importance as the entrance to Brest, the shores of the Goulet were heavily fortified. As Childers entered the Goulet one of the forts covering the entrance from the southern shore fired a shot at a distance of 0.75 nautical miles (1.39 km) which passed over the brig into the sea beyond.
Assuming this warning shot had been fired in the belief that his brig, which was not flying a flag, may be an enemy vessel, Barlow ordered the British naval ensign and the pennant of the Channel Fleet run up. Thus clearly identified as a neutral British warship, Barlow allowed Childers to drift closer inshore with the tide. The French battery responded by raising tricolour flags and red pennants, a move copied by the other batteries covering the Goulet. Having drifted much closer to two batteries Childers suddenly came under heavy fire, the batteries containing very large 48-pounder cannon.
Under fire and with the wind too calm for sailing, Barlow ran out oars to try and pull his brig away from the French batteries. The diminutive size of his vessel made it a difficult target and he was soon able to take advantage of a fresh breeze to withdraw from the crossfire. A single shot struck the brig, smashing into one of the 4-pounder cannon on deck and breaking it into three pieces, although none of the crew were wounded by the strike.
## Aftermath
Having successfully withdrawn Childers from danger, Barlow returned to Britain on 4 January after battling a strong gale in the Channel. Anchoring at the small Cornish port of Fowey, Barlow took an express coach directly to the Admiralty in London, arriving on 11 January carrying the 48 lb (22 kg) cannonball as evidence of the incident and what British historian William James called the "strong spirit of hostility on the part of the new republic". Historian Edward Pelham Brenton, writing in 1825, noted however that French hostility on this occasion was justified, commenting that "in the then troubled state of Europe Childers and her captain had no business to be prying into the equipments at Brest within gunshot of the forts: if we had seen a French vessel of war running from the Needles to St Helens, and making observations, I suspect we should, at such a crisis, have taken the liberty to bring her to action."
On 24 January the French ambassador was expelled in response to the Execution of Louis XVI in Paris on 21 January and on 1 February the National Convention declared war on Great Britain. The naval campaign in the Atlantic began in earnest in March 1793, when a French battle squadron briefly put to sea before a mutiny forced it to return. The war between Britain and France begun in the Goulet on 2 January 1793 was to last, with a 14-month break in 1802–1803, until 1815.
|
168,850 |
Stephen Breyer
| 1,170,365,915 |
US Supreme Court justice from 1994 to 2022 (born 1938)
|
[
"1938 births",
"20th-century American judges",
"21st-century American judges",
"Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford",
"American legal scholars",
"American people of Romanian-Jewish descent",
"Harvard Law School alumni",
"Harvard Law School faculty",
"Jewish American attorneys",
"Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit",
"Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States",
"Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States",
"Lawyers from San Francisco",
"Living people",
"Marshall Scholars",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the United States Sentencing Commission",
"Military personnel from California",
"Recipients of the Legion of Honour",
"Scholars of administrative law",
"Stanford University alumni",
"Tulane University Law School faculty",
"United States Army non-commissioned officers",
"United States Army reservists",
"United States court of appeals judges appointed by Jimmy Carter",
"United States federal judges appointed by Bill Clinton"
] |
Stephen Gerald Breyer (/ˈbraɪ.ər/ BRY-ər; born August 15, 1938) is an American lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1994 until his retirement in 2022. He was nominated by President Bill Clinton, and replaced retiring justice Harry Blackmun. Ketanji Brown Jackson, who was nominated by President Joe Biden, was his designated successor. Breyer was generally associated with the liberal wing of the Court. He is now the Byrne Professor of Administrative Law and Process at Harvard Law School.
Born in San Francisco, Breyer attended Stanford University, the University of Oxford as a Marshall Scholar, and graduated from Harvard Law School in 1964. After a clerkship with Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg in 1964–65, Breyer was a law professor and lecturer at Harvard Law School from 1967 until 1980. He specialized in administrative law, writing textbooks that remain in use today. He held other prominent positions before being nominated to the Supreme Court, including special assistant to the United States Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust and assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973. Breyer became a federal judge in 1980, when he was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. In his 2005 book Active Liberty, Breyer made his first attempt to systematically communicate his views on legal theory, arguing that the judiciary should seek to resolve issues in a manner that encourages popular participation in governmental decisions.
On January 27, 2022, Breyer and President Joe Biden announced Breyer's intention to retire from the Supreme Court. On February 25, 2022, Biden nominated Ketanji Brown Jackson, a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and one of Breyer's former law clerks, to succeed him. The Senate confirmed Jackson on April 7, 2022, by a vote of 53–47. Breyer remained on the Supreme Court until June 30, 2022. Breyer wrote majority opinions in landmark Supreme Court cases such as Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L. and Google v. Oracle and notable dissents questioning the constitutionality of the death penalty in cases such as Glossip v. Gross.
## Early life and education
Breyer was born on August 15, 1938, in San Francisco, California, to Anne A. (née Roberts) and Irving Gerald Breyer. Breyer's paternal great-grandfather emigrated from Romania to the United States, settling in Cleveland, Ohio, where Breyer's grandfather was born. Breyer was raised in a middle-class Jewish family. His father was a lawyer who served as legal counsel to the San Francisco Board of Education. Breyer and his younger brother Charles R. Breyer, who later became a federal district judge, were active in the Boy Scouts of America and achieved the Eagle Scout rank. Breyer attended Lowell High School, where he was a member of the Lowell Forensic Society and debated regularly in high school tournaments, including against future California governor Jerry Brown and future Harvard Law School professor Laurence Tribe.
After graduating from high school in 1955, Breyer studied philosophy at Stanford University. He graduated in 1959 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with highest honors and membership in Phi Beta Kappa. Breyer was awarded a Marshall Scholarship, which he used to study philosophy, politics, and economics at Magdalen College, Oxford, receiving a first-class honors B.A. in 1961. He then returned to the United States to attend Harvard Law School, where he was an articles editor of the Harvard Law Review and graduated in 1964 with a Bachelor of Laws degree, magna cum laude.
Breyer spent eight years in the United States Army Reserve including six months on active duty in the Army Strategic Intelligence. He reached the rank of corporal and was honorably discharged in 1965.
In 1967, Breyer married The Honourable Joanna Freda Hare, a psychologist and member of the British aristocracy, younger daughter of John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham and granddaughter of Richard Hare, 4th Earl of Listowel. They have three adult children: Chloe, an Episcopal priest; Nell; and Michael.
## Legal career
After law school, Breyer served as a law clerk to U.S. Supreme Court justice Arthur Goldberg from 1964 to 1965. He served briefly as a fact-checker for the Warren Commission, then spent two years in the U.S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division as a special assistant to its Assistant Attorney General.
In 1967, Breyer returned to Harvard Law School as an assistant professor. He taught at Harvard Law until 1980, and held a joint appointment at Harvard Kennedy School from 1977 to 1980. At Harvard, Breyer was known as a leading expert on administrative law. While there, he wrote two highly influential books on deregulation: Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation and Regulation and Its Reform. In 1970, Breyer wrote "The Uneasy Case for Copyright", one of the most widely cited skeptical examinations of copyright. Breyer was a visiting professor at the College of Law in Sydney, Australia, the University of Rome, and the Tulane University Law School.
While teaching at Harvard, Breyer took several leaves of absence to serve in the U.S. government. He served as an assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973. Breyer was a special counsel to the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary from 1974 to 1975 and served as chief counsel of the committee from 1979 to 1980. He worked closely with the chairman of the committee, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, to pass the Airline Deregulation Act that closed the Civil Aeronautics Board.
## U.S. Court of Appeals (1980–1994)
In the last days of President Jimmy Carter's administration, on November 13, 1980, after he had been defeated for reelection, Carter nominated Breyer to the First Circuit, to a new seat established by , and the United States Senate confirmed him on December 9, 1980, by an 80–10 vote. He received his commission on December 10, 1980. From 1980 to 1994, Breyer was a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit; he was the court's Chief Judge from 1990 to 1994. One of his duties as chief judge was to oversee the design and construction of a new federal courthouse for Boston, beginning an avocational interest in architecture and the Pritzker Architecture Prize.
Breyer served as a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States between 1990 and 1994 and the United States Sentencing Commission between 1985 and 1989. On the sentencing commission he played a key role in reforming federal criminal sentencing procedures, producing the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, which were formulated to increase uniformity in sentencing.
## Supreme Court (1994–2022)
In 1993, President Bill Clinton considered him for the seat vacated by Byron White before ultimately appointing Ruth Bader Ginsburg. But after the retirement of Harry Blackmun, Clinton nominated Breyer as an associate justice of the Supreme Court on May 17, 1994. Breyer was confirmed by the Senate on July 29, 1994, by an 87 to 9 vote, and received his commission on August 3.
In 2015, Breyer broke a federal law that bans judges from hearing cases when they or their spouses or minor children have a financial interest in a company involved. His wife sold about \$33,000 worth of stock in Johnson Controls a day after Breyer participated in the oral argument. This brought him back into compliance and he joined the majority in ruling in favor of the interests of a Johnson Controls subsidiary which was party to FERC v. Electric Power Supply Ass'n.
Breyer wrote 551 opinions during his 28-year career, not counting those relating to orders or in the "shadow docket".
### Abortion
In 2000, Breyer wrote the majority opinion in Stenberg v. Carhart, which struck down a Nebraska law banning partial-birth abortion. On June 29, 2020, he wrote the plurality opinion in June Medical Services v. Russo. The ruling struck down Louisiana's abortion law requiring any doctor who performed abortions to have admitting privileges at a hospital within 30 miles. Breyer reaffirmed the "benefits and burdens" test he had created in Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt, which struck down a nearly identical abortion law in Texas. In 2022, he dissented in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, which overturned Roe v. Wade.
### Census
In Department of Commerce v. New York (2019), Breyer was in the 5–4 majority that ruled that the Census Bureau had not followed proper procedure in its implementation of a citizenship question. He was also one of four justices who would have held the citizenship question unconstitutional in itself. In a mostly concurring opinion, he wrote: "Yet the decision was ill considered in a number of critically important respects. The Secretary did not give adequate consideration to issues that should have been central to his judgment, such as the high likelihood of an undercount, the low likelihood that a question would yield more accurate citizenship data, and the apparent lack of any need for more accurate citizenship data to begin with. The Secretary's failures in considering those critical issues make his decision unreasonable".
On December 18, 2020, Breyer was one of three dissenters in Trump v. New York. In a 20-page dissent, he argued that the Court should not have sidestepped the case and should have ruled in favor of the challengers, who wanted the Court to block the Trump administration's last-minute attempts to exclude undocumented immigrants from the census. The census ultimately did not exclude undocumented immigrants, due to a lack of time and the subsequent issuance of Executive Order 13986.
### Copyright
In Eldred v. Ashcroft, decided on January 15, 2003, Breyer and Justice John Paul Stevens filed separate dissenting opinions. In his 28-page dissent, Breyer argued that the 20-year retroactive extension of existing copyright granted by the Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA) amounted effectively to a grant of perpetual copyright that violated the Copyright Clause of the Constitution, read in light of the First Amendment. He argued that the extension would produce a period of protection worth more than 99.8% of protection in perpetuity and that few artists would be more inclined to produce work knowing that their great-grandchildren would receive royalties. He also wrote that the fair use defense came to no avail either, as it could not help "those who wish to obtain from electronic databases material that is not there", e.g. teachers who can find from online no ideal material to be used in the class as it has been deleted. In 2012, he expressed a similar idea in his dissent in Golan v. Holder, which affirmed the constitutionality of the application of Section 514 of the Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994.
In 2005, while joining an unanimous Court in MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. against peer-to-peer file sharing companies Grokster and Streamcast on the ground of inducement liability, Breyer wrote a concurrence that the companies would be protected under the Sony doctrine without evidence of inducement.
In American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc., decided on June 25, 2014, Breyer delivered the majority opinion, ruling that Aereo, allowing subscribers to view near-live streams of over-the-air television on Internet-connected devices, operated so overwhelmingly similar to the cable companies that it violated the right of public performance of the networks' copyrighted work.
In Google v. Oracle, decided on April 5, 2021, Breyer wrote the 38-page majority opinion, holding that Google's copying of 11,500 lines of Java declaring code (0.4% of all Java code) constituted fair use because "three of these packages were ... fundamental to being able to use the Java language at all". Breyer explained, "By using the same declaring code for those packages, programmers using the Android platform can rely on the method calls that they are already familiar with to call up particular tasks (e.g., determining which of two integers is the greater); but Google's own implementing programs carry out those tasks. Without that copying, programmers would need to learn an entirely new system to call up the same tasks."
### Death penalty
In 2015, Breyer dissented in Glossip v. Gross, which held by a 5–4 vote that prisoners challenging their executions must provide a "known and available" execution method before challenging their method of execution. In a dissent joined by Ginsburg, Breyer questioned the constitutionality of the death penalty itself. He wrote, "For the reasons I have set forth in this opinion, I believe it highly likely that the death penalty violates the Eighth Amendment. At the very least, the Court should call for full briefing on the basic question." In July 2020, Breyer reiterated this position, writing, "As I have previously written, the solution may be for this Court to directly examine the question whether the death penalty violates the Constitution."
### Environment
In Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc. (2000), Breyer was in the 7–2 majority that held that people who use the North Tyger River for recreational purposes but could not do so due to pollution had standing to sue industrial polluters.
On April 23, 2020, Breyer wrote the majority opinion in County of Maui v. Hawaii Wildlife Fund. The Court ruled that the County of Maui must have a permit under the Clean Water Act in order to release groundwater pollution into the ocean. Although the ruling was less broad than the 9th Circuit's ruling, environmentalist groups saw the ruling as a win and an affirmation of the Clean Water Act.
On July 31, 2020, Breyer dissented when the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, refused to lift a stay on the 9th Circuit ruling that halted construction of the wall at the U.S.-Mexico border. The Sierra Club argued that the wall would harm the environment unduly, including threatening wildlife and changing the flow of water in the Sonoran Desert. Breyer wrote, "The Court's decision to let construction continue nevertheless, I fear, may 'operat[e], in effect, as a final judgment.'" Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan joined his dissent.
On March 4, 2021, Breyer dissented in United States Fish and Wildlife Serv. v. Sierra Club, Inc., joined only by Sotomayor. The case concerned the Sierra Club's request under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) for "draft opinions" concerning rules governing underwater structures that are used to cool industrial equipment. The Sierra Club argued that it had the right to access the documents. The majority opinion limits environmental groups' ability to obtain government documents under FOIA. Breyer wrote in his dissent, "Agency practice shows that the Draft Biological Opinion, not the Final Biological Opinion, is the document that informs the EPA of the Services' conclusions about jeopardy and alternatives and triggers within the EPA the process of deciding what to do about those conclusions. If a Final Biological Opinion is discoverable under FOIA, as all seem to agree it is, why would a Draft Biological Opinion, embodying the same Service conclusions (and leaving the EPA with the same four choices), not be?"
In Hollyfrontier Cheyenne Refining v. Renewable Fuels Association, Breyer ruled for oil refineries, joining the majority opinion, which held that oil refineries struggling financially did not need a continuous exemption every year since 2011 in order to be granted an exemption from federal renewable fuels policy.
### Health care
Breyer generally voted to uphold the Affordable Care Act since its passage in 2010. He wrote the 7-2 majority opinion in California v. Texas, a decision on June 17, 2021, holding that Texas and other states lacked standing to sue against the Affordable Care Act's individual mandate. Breyer wrote, "It is consequently not surprising that the plaintiffs cannot point to cases that support them. To the contrary, our cases have consistently spoken of the need to assert an injury that is the result of a statute's actual or threatened enforcement, whether today or in the future."
### Partisan gerrymandering
On April 28, 2004, Breyer dissented in Vieth v. Jubelirer, in which the Court held that partisan gerrymandering is a non-justiciable claim. Breyer wrote in his dissent, "Sometimes purely political 'gerrymandering' will fail to advance any plausible democratic objective while simultaneously threatening serious democratic harm. And sometimes when that is so, courts can identify an equal protection violation and provide a remedy." In 2006, Breyer was in a 5–4 majority holding that District 23 of the 2003 Texas redistricting violated the Voting Rights Act due to vote dilution. Along with Justice John Paul Stevens, Breyer would also have ruled in favor of plaintiffs' claims that Texas's statewide plan was an unconstitutional partisan gerrymander. In June 2019, Breyer dissented in Rucho v. Common Cause, in which the Supreme Court decided 5–4 that gerrymandering is a non-justiciable claim.
### Voting rights
Breyer wrote the majority opinion in Alabama Legislative Black Caucus v. Alabama, which ruled that racial gerrymandering claims must be looked at district by district, and struck down four of Alabama's state Senate districts as unconstitutional racial gerrymanders.
Breyer joined Ginsburg's dissent in Shelby County v. Holder. A 5–4 majority ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act is unconstitutional. Breyer joined another dissent by Ginsburg in RNC v. DNC, which overturned a lower court's extension of a voting deadline in the Wisconsin primary elections. The lower court had extended the deadline so that people who had not yet received mail-in ballots by April 7 could vote by mail in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Breyer dissented in a similar Wisconsin case in October; the petitioners had asked the court to require Wisconsin to count mail-in ballots received up to six days after Election Day, and the Court, with Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan dissenting, refused the petitioners' request to extend the deadline. Breyer joined Kagan's dissent in Brnovich v. DNC (2021), a case that upheld Arizona's ban on ballot harvesting and refusal to count out-of-precinct ballots. As the most senior dissenter, Breyer likely assigned the dissenting opinion to Kagan.
## Retirement
After Democratic victories in the 2020 presidential and Senate elections, progressive activists and Democratic members of Congress called on Breyer to retire so that President Biden could nominate a younger liberal justice. In an August 2021 New York Times interview, Breyer said he wished to retire before his death, and recounted a conversation he had with Justice Antonin Scalia in which Scalia mentioned that he did not want his successor to "reverse everything I've done for the last 25 years". Breyer said that Scalia's point will "inevitably be in the psychology" of his decision to retire. In a September 2021 interview with Fox News'''s Chris Wallace, Breyer said activists calling for his retirement are "entitled to their opinion" and "I didn't retire because I had decided on balance I wouldn't retire". He said he took several factors into account when deciding his retirement plans, and reiterated that he did not plan to "die on the court".
On January 26, 2022, news outlets reported Breyer's intention to retire from the court at the end of the 2021–22 term. Breyer confirmed his pending retirement in a White House announcement alongside Biden on January 27. On February 25, Biden announced his nomination of Ketanji Brown Jackson, a former clerk of Breyer and judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, to succeed Breyer on the Supreme Court. The U.S. Senate confirmed Jackson by a vote of 53-47 on April 7, 2022. Breyer retired on June 30, 2022, effective at 12:00 noon EDT, following the court's final opinions and orders for the term. Breyer's retirement left only one military veteran, Samuel Alito, on the Supreme Court.
## Judicial philosophy
### In general
Breyer's pragmatic approach to the law "will tend to make the law more sensible", according to Cass Sunstein, who added that Breyer's "attack on originalism is powerful and convincing".
Breyer consistently voted in favor of abortion rights, one of the most controversial areas of the Supreme Court's docket. He also defended the Court's use of foreign law and international law as persuasive (but not binding) authority in its decisions. Breyer is also recognized as deferential to the interests of law enforcement and to legislative judgments in the Court's First Amendment rulings. He demonstrated a consistent pattern of deference to Congress, voting to overturn congressional legislation at a lower rate than any other Justice since 1994.
Breyer's extensive experience in administrative law is accompanied by his staunch defense of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. He rejects the strict interpretation of the Sixth Amendment espoused by Justice Scalia that all facts necessary to criminal punishment must be submitted to a jury and proved beyond a reasonable doubt. In many other areas on the Court, too, Breyer's pragmatism was considered the intellectual counterweight to Scalia's textualist philosophy.
In describing his interpretive philosophy, Breyer has sometimes noted his use of six interpretive tools: text, history, tradition, precedent, the purpose of a statute, and the consequences of competing interpretations. He has noted that only the last two differentiate him from textualists such as Scalia. Breyer argues that these sources are necessary, however, and in the former case (purpose), can in fact provide greater objectivity in legal interpretation than looking merely at what is often ambiguous statutory text. With the latter (consequences), Breyer argues that considering the impact of legal interpretations is a further way of ensuring consistency with a law's intended purpose.
### Active Liberty
Breyer expounded his judicial philosophy in 2005 in Active Liberty: Interpreting Our Democratic Constitution. In it, Breyer urges judges to interpret legal provisions (of the Constitution or of statutes) in light of the purpose of the text and how well the consequences of specific rulings fit those purposes. The book is considered a response to the 1997 book A Matter of Interpretation, in which Antonin Scalia emphasized adherence to the original meaning of the text alone.
In Active Liberty, Breyer argues that the Framers of the Constitution sought to establish a democratic government involving the maximum liberty for its citizens. Breyer refers to Isaiah Berlin's Two Concepts of Liberty. The first Berlinian concept, being what most people understand by liberty, is "freedom from government coercion". Berlin termed this "negative liberty" and warned against its diminution; Breyer calls this "modern liberty". The second Berlinian concept—"positive liberty"—is the "freedom to participate in the government". In Breyer's terminology, this is the "active liberty" the judge should champion. Having established what "active liberty" is, and positing the primary importance (to the Framers) of this concept over the competing idea of "negative liberty", Breyer makes a predominantly utilitarian case for rulings that give effect to the democratic intentions of the Constitution.
The book's historical premises and practical prescriptions have been challenged. For example, according to Peter Berkowitz, the reason that "[t]he primarily democratic nature of the Constitution's governmental structure has not always seemed obvious", as Breyer puts it, is "because it's not true, at least in Breyer's sense, that the Constitution elevates active liberty above modern [negative] liberty". Breyer's position "demonstrates not fidelity to the Constitution", Berkowitz argues, "but rather a determination to rewrite the Constitution's priorities". Berkowitz suggests that Breyer is also inconsistent in failing to apply this standard to the issue of abortion, instead preferring decisions "that protect women's modern liberty, which remove controversial issues from democratic discourse". Failing to answer the textualist charge that the Living Documentarian judge is a law unto himself, Berkowitz argues that Active Liberty "suggests that when necessary, instead of choosing the consequence that serves what he regards as the Constitution's leading purpose, Breyer will determine the Constitution's leading purpose on the basis of the consequence that he prefers to vindicate".
Against the last charge, Cass Sunstein has defended Breyer, noting that of the nine justices on the Rehnquist Court, Breyer had the highest percentage of votes to uphold acts of Congress and also to defer to the decision of the executive branch. However, according to Jeffrey Toobin in The New Yorker, "Breyer concedes that a judicial approach based on 'active liberty' will not yield solutions to every constitutional debate", and that, in Breyer's words, "respecting the democratic process does not mean you abdicate your role of enforcing the limits in the Constitution, whether in the Bill of Rights or in separation of powers."
To this point, and from a discussion at the New York Historical Society in March 2006, Breyer has noted that "democratic means" did not bring about an end to slavery, or the concept of "one man, one vote", and it is the concept of universal suffrage that allowed corrupt and discriminatory (but democratically inspired) state laws to be overturned in favor of civil rights.
### Other books
In 2010, Breyer published a second book, Making Our Democracy Work: A Judge's View. In it, he argues that judges have six tools they can use to determine a legal provision's proper meaning: (1) its text; (2) its historical context; (3) precedent; (4) tradition; (5) its purpose; and (6) the consequences of potential interpretations. Textualists, like Scalia, only feel comfortable using the first four of these tools; while pragmatists, like Breyer, believe that "purpose" and "consequences" are particularly important interpretative tools.
Breyer cites several watershed moments in Supreme Court history to show why the consequences of a particular ruling should always be in a judge's mind. He notes that President Jackson ignored the Court's ruling in Worcester v. Georgia, which led to the Trail of Tears and severely weakened the Court's authority. He also cites the Dred Scott decision, an important precursor to the American Civil War. When the Court ignores the consequences of its decisions, Breyer argues, it can lead to devastating and destabilizing outcomes.
In 2015, Breyer released a third book, The Court and the World: American Law and the New Global Realities, examining the interplay between U.S. and international law and how the realities of a globalized world need to be considered in U.S. cases.
### Other views
In an interview on Fox News Sunday on December 12, 2010, Breyer said that based on the values and the historical record, the Founding Fathers of the United States never intended guns to go unregulated and that history supports his and the other dissenters' views in District of Columbia v. Heller. He summarized:
> We're acting as judges. If we're going to decide everything on the basis of history—by the way, what is the scope of the right to keep and bear arms? Machine guns? Torpedoes? Handguns? Are you a sportsman? Do you like to shoot pistols at targets? Well, get on the subway and go to Maryland. There is no problem, I don't think, for anyone who really wants to have a gun.
In the wake of the controversy over Justice Samuel Alito's reaction to President Barack Obama's criticism of the Court's Citizens United v. FEC ruling in his 2010 State of the Union Address, Breyer said he would continue to attend the address:
> I think it's very, very, very important—very important—for us to show up at that State of the Union, because people today are more and more visual. What [people] see in front of them at the State of the Union is that federal government. And I would like them to see the judges too, because federal judges are also a part of that government.
### Honors
Breyer was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2004. In 2007, Breyer was honored with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America. In 2018, he was named to chair of the Pritzker Architecture Prize jury, succeeding previous chair Glenn Murcutt.
## In popular culture
Breyer has appeared as a guest on Stephen Colbert's TV show. On the Late Show in September 2021, he discussed the Texas Heartbeat Act and his reluctance to retire.
Breyer appeared on Fareed Zakaria GPS on CNN in September 2021 where he was questioned on when he planned to retire. He promoted his book The Authority of the Court and the Peril of Politics''.
## Publications
## See also
- Bill Clinton Supreme Court candidates
- Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
- List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)
- List of United States federal judges by longevity of service
- List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court
- List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court
- List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
|
53,184,121 |
1896 East Coast hurricane
| 1,170,500,627 |
Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 1896
|
[
"1896 Atlantic hurricane season",
"1896 natural disasters in the United States",
"Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in New Jersey",
"Hurricanes in New York (state)",
"Hurricanes in Virginia"
] |
The 1896 East Coast hurricane was a slow-moving tropical cyclone that battered the East Coast of the United States from Florida to New England in mid-October 1896. The fifth tropical cyclone of the 1896 Atlantic hurricane season, it formed on October 7 in the southern Gulf of Mexico, and caused minor damage in Florida while crossing the state two days later. From October 10 through 13, the hurricane drifted northeastward along the coast, reaching its peak intensity as the equivalence of a Category 2 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane subjected many areas along the East Coast to days of high seas and damaging northeasterly winds, which halted shipping operations.
The Mid-Atlantic coastline experienced flooding storm tides that submerged and heavily eroded Cobb's Island, part of the Virginia Barrier Islands. Hotels and cottages there were extensively damaged, and the hurricane brought about the end of the island's stint as a popular summer resort. Along the Jersey Shore, low-lying railroads were flooded, boardwalks were destroyed, and many beach houses sustained damage. The hurricane did \$200,000 in damage to coastal installations on New York's Coney Island. To the north, wind gusts as high as 80 mph (130 km/h) affected eastern New England. Four sailors died in two maritime incidents attributed to the hurricane, and overall damage amounted to \$500,000.
## Meteorological history
The fifth documented tropical cyclone of the 1896 season was first noted in the southern Gulf of Mexico as a weak tropical storm on October 7. It tracked toward the east-northeast and made landfall in a sparely populated region of Southwest Florida around 00:02 UTC on October 9. The storm crossed the Florida Peninsula and emerged over open water near Sebastian. Turning more northeastward, the storm gradually intensified and achieved hurricane intensity on October 10. By that evening, hurricane warnings were hoisted along the East Coast of the United States from Jacksonville, Florida to Boston, Massachusetts.
The unusually slow-moving hurricane attained its peak intensity early on October 11, with estimated maximum sustained winds of 100 mph (155 km/h). Shortly thereafter, it made its closest approach to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, passing roughly 115 mi (185 km) to the southeast. For several days, the hurricane brushed the coast from Virginia to southern New England with hurricane-force wind gusts. The storm began to weaken as it slowly gained latitude. Unnseasonably cool temperatures were recorded in New York City as the system passed offshore, suggesting that it had begun losing its tropical characteristics. By 00:00 UTC on October 14, the storm completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone, and no winds stronger than tropical storm-force were observed north of 41°N. A little over a day later, the hurricane's extratropical remnants struck the coast of central Nova Scotia before dissipating on October 16.
## Impact
The relatively weak storm caused little damage upon landfall in Florida, though some coastal flooding occurred near Punta Gorda. An apparent tornado north of the storm's track destroyed a home and an outbuilding. Northeasterly gales and high tides affected northeastern portions of the state, including Fernandina, where lumber docks were flooded and parts of the Florida Central and Peninsular Railroad were washed out. Street flooding also plagued St. Augustine, but no major damage was reported there.
Strong northerly gales affected the Outer Banks of North Carolina for three days, peaking at 72 mph (116 km/h) in Kitty Hawk on October 11. Winds reached 70 mph (110 km/h) along the Virginia Capes and 40 mph (65 km/h) farther west at Norfolk. Just inside the capes, a cargo ship called the Henry A. Litchfield ran aground on October 12. Storm surge flooding inundated the Cape Henry Light keeper's house and washed away telegraph poles, while severe damage was reported in Virginia Beach. There, high waves destroyed fishing nets and crumbled bulkheads, but advance warning of the storm allowed most vessels to safely ride out the storm in port. Near Norfolk, floodwaters damaged the banks of the Dismal Swamp Canal to the point of collapse in some spots. The storm inundated the Virginia Barrier Islands, completely covering Cobb's Island, a popular summer resort, to a depth of at least 1 ft (0.30 m). Pounding waves, reportedly 40 ft (12 m) high, crushed some cottages and partially buried others in sand, while depositing numerous boats in the middle of the island. United States Life-Saving Service crews rescued two women in imminent danger of being swept out to sea. As waters rose, residents fled to the upper stories of their homes to await rescue by lifeguards. The Cobb's Island Hotel was a complete loss, and almost every building on the island sustained some degree of damage. The storm claimed about 50 acres (20 ha) of Cobb's Island, reducing its size by two-thirds; subsequently, the inhabitants abandoned the island, and its use as a resort ended. Due to the slow-moving nature of the hurricane, the flooding persisted for two days before receding.
Along the coast of Delaware near Cape Henlopen, the schooner Luther A. Roby was driven aground and broken up by the pounding surf. Three crew members died in the wreck, and five others safely reached shore with the help of rescue workers. Offshore, the steamship Baron Innerdale was damaged in the storm, and one of the crew members was swept overboard.
The worst effects were observed along the Northeastern shoreline from New Jersey to New England. In these areas, coastal flooding and persistent gales inflicted an estimated \$500,000 in damage to beachfront property. Many small houses, seawalls, wharves, and piers were damaged or destroyed. Wind gusts along the Jersey Shore reached 75 mph (120 km/h), which unroofed buildings and blew summer cottages off their foundations. Homes and businesses in Asbury Park were bombarded by the debris from a half-mile stretch of boardwalk that was torn apart. Thousands of spectators lined the shoreline there to watch the enormous waves. One of the premier hotels in Sea Isle City was demolished, along with numerous cottages. The storm heavily flooded streets in the city and damaged yachts along the coast. Just south of Sea Isle City, the steamer Spartan went ashore after her captain spent 30 hours fighting the storm at the wheel. In Atlantic City, one amusement pier was heavily damaged by an impact from the dislodged wreckage of a previously sunk schooner, while another was broken up by the surf. Winds in Atlantic City gusted to 55 mph (90 km/h), and floodwaters surrounded some cottages, forcing residents to leave their homes by boat. The railway to Ocean City was washed out, leaving the community temporarily isolated. Railroad tracks were also submerged to the south at Cape May. Farther inland, the winds brought down some few trees and overhead wires. In Millville, high tides caused the Maurice River to overflow and destroy crops in bordering fields.
Hog Island, a barrier island that was mostly washed away by the 1893 New York hurricane, was further eroded by the rough seas. Beaches, pavilions, bath houses, and boardwalks on Coney Island incurred significant damage, with many small buildings along Brighton Beach being "picked up bodily and carried away." Damage on Coney Island was expected to cost at least \$200,000. In Far Rockaway, Queens, beachfront houses built on stilts were leveled, while significant flooding extended well inland; multiple hotels were inundated by at least 2 ft (0.61 m) of water. In New England, the storm kept all vessels at port for several days. The strongest recorded winds on land occurred on Block Island, Rhode Island, where gusts reached 80 mph (130 km/h). Elsewhere, winds peaked at 60 mph (97 km/h) on Nantucket, Massachusetts, and 52 mph (84 km/h) at Boston. The storm partially destroyed a seawall and shifted a building off its foundation in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island. Near South Boston, the storm broke 15 yachts from their moorings and tossed them ashore, sinking several others. The schooner Alsatin sank off Bakers Island; her crew of four was rescued by a passing steamer. At Cohasset, a new lifeboat station constructed by the Massachusetts Humane Society was destroyed. As the former hurricane moved over Nova Scotia, Halifax experienced gusty winds and moderate rainfall.
## See also
- List of United States hurricanes by area:
- Florida • North Carolina • Delaware • New Jersey • New York • New England
- List of Canada hurricanes
- Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
|
2,403 |
Australian rules football
| 1,173,746,117 |
Contact sport invented in Australia
|
[
"1858 introductions",
"1859 establishments in Australia",
"Australian rules football",
"Ball games",
"Football codes",
"Sports originating in Australia",
"Team sports",
"Turf sports"
] |
Australian football, also called Australian rules football or Aussie rules, or more simply football or footy, is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field, often a modified cricket ground. Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind").
During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession. Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties, or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on the severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring.
The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859.
Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia, while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body. The AFL Grand Final, held annually at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, is the highest attended club championship event in the world. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee.
## Name
Australian rules football is known by several nicknames, including Aussie rules, football and footy. In some regions, the Australian Football League markets the game as AFL after itself.
## History
### Origins
Primitive forms of football were played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing, football was considered a mere "amusement" by colonists at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, evidence does not support a causal link with Australian football. In Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, private schools (then termed "public schools" in accordance with English nomenclature) began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools. The earliest match, held on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar.
On 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle published a letter by Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calling for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football whilst a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant, posted an advertisement for a scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG). This was the first of several "kickabouts" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club, including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed-upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in the British Isles, "others by no rules at all". Another milestone in 1858 was a 40-a-side match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College, held at the Richmond Paddock. Umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam, it began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal. It is commemorated with a statue outside the MCG, and the two schools have since competed annually in the Cordner–Eggleston Cup, the world's oldest continuous football competition.
Since the early 20th century, it has been suggested that Australian football was derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football. However, there is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes appeared in Australia long before the Irish game evolved in a similar direction. Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up amongst Aboriginals in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal ball game of Marn Grook, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. There is only circumstantial evidence that he knew of the game, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills was "almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School".
### First rules
A loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858. The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club was officially established, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs. Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club". These are the laws from which Australian football evolved. The club aimed to create a simple code suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to lessen the chance of injuries to working men. In another significant departure from English public school football, the Melbourne rules omitted any offside law. "The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them", writes Mark Pennings. The rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist.
### Early competition in Victoria
Following Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859. While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra club devised its own rules. To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as "Victorian rules". In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison, an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.
The game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals. The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock (Yarra Park), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground. Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter, and, as early as 1859, football was allowed on the MCG. However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day.
### Spread to other colonies
Football became organised in South Australia in 1860 with the formation of the Adelaide Football Club, the oldest football club in Australia outside Victoria. It devised its own rules, and, along with other Adelaide-based clubs, played a variety of codes until 1876, when they uniformly adopted most of the Victorian rules, with South Australian football pioneer Charles Kingston noting their similarity to "the old Adelaide rules". Similarly, Tasmanian clubs quarrelled over different rules until they adopted a slightly modified version of the Victorian game in 1879. The South Australian Football Association (SAFA), the sport's first governing body, formed on 30 April 1877, firmly establishing Victorian rules as the preferred code in that colony. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) formed the following month.
Clubs began touring the colonies in the late 1870s, and in 1879 the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia. In order to standardise the sport across Australia, delegates representing the football associations of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland met in 1883 and updated the code. New rules such as holding the ball led to a "golden era" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom, as well as the rise of professionalism, particularly in Victoria and Western Australia, where the code took hold during a series of gold rushes. Likewise when New Zealand experienced a gold rush, the sport arrived with a rapid influx of Australian miners. Now known as Australian rules or Australasian rules, the sport became the first football code to develop mass spectator appeal, attracting world record attendances for sports viewing and gaining a reputation as "the people's game".
Australian rules football reached Queensland and New South Wales as early as 1866; the sport experienced a period of dominance in the former, and in the latter, several regions remain strongholds of Australian rules, such as the Riverina. However, like in New Zealand, it lost its position as the leading code of both colonies, largely due to the spread of rugby football with British migration, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth.
### Emergence of the VFL
In 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs—Carlton, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne—met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition. Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda, the clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897. The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score. Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn, Footscray and North Melbourne, it had become the preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport.
### Interstate football and the World Wars
The time around the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 saw Australian rules undergo a revival in New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland. In 1903, both the Queensland Australian Football League and the NSW Australian Football Association were established, and in New Zealand, as it moved towards becoming a dominion, leagues were also established in the major cities. This renewed popularity helped encourage the formation of the Australasian Football Council, which in 1908 in Melbourne staged the first national interstate competition, the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival, with teams representing each state and New Zealand.
The game was also established early on in the new territories. In the new national capital Canberra both soccer and rugby had a head start, but following the first matches in 1911, Australian rules football in the Australian Capital Territory became a major participation sport. By 1981 it had become much neglected and quickly lagged behind the other football codes. Australian rules football in the Northern Territory began shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1916 with the first match in Darwin. The game went on to become the most popular sport in the Territory and build the highest participation rate for the sport nationally.
Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian "diggers" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915, a proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league, the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialled without success. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The Anzac Day match, the annual game between Essendon and Collingwood on Anzac Day, is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community.
The role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. In 1968, the ANFC revived the Championship of Australia, a competition first held in 1888 between the premiers of the VFA and SAFA. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—with Adelaide hosting most of the matches at the request of the SAFA/SANFL. The last match took place in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987, the ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series, which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated.
With the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three-quarters of a century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990.
### Towards a national league
The term "Barassi Line", named after VFL star Ron Barassi, was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the "fictitious geographical barrier" separating the rugby-following parts of New South Wales and Queensland from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned. It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league.
The way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television.
In 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, and a similar situation existing in Western Australia in the sport, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane, joined the league in 1987 generating more than \$8 million in license revenue for the Victorian clubs and increasing broadcast revenues which helped the Victorian clubs survive. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because the substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL. To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive.
The VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season, and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and the SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league. In 2011 and 2012, respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney. The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to a second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players.
Although a Tasmanian AFL bid is ongoing, the AFL's focus has been on expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands in order to maximise its broadcast revenue. The AFL regularly schedules pre-season exhibition matches in all Australian states and territories as part of the Regional Challenge. The AFL signalled further attempts at expansion in the 2010s by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand, followed by China.
## Laws of the game
### Field
Australian rules football playing fields have no fixed dimensions but at senior level are typically between 135 and 185 metres (148 and 202 yd) long and 110 and 155 metres (120 and 170 yd) wide wing-to-wing. The field, like the ball, is oval-shaped, and in Australia, cricket grounds are often used. No more than 18 players of each team (or, in AFL Women's, 16 players) are permitted to be on the field at any time.
Up to four interchange (reserve) players may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. In Australian rules terminology, these players wait for substitution "on the bench"—an area with a row of seats on the sideline. Players must interchange through a designated interchange "gate" with strict penalties for having too many players from one team on the field. In addition, some leagues have each team designate one player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during a game.
There is no offside rule nor are there set positions in the rules; unlike many other forms of football, players from both teams may disperse across the whole field before the start of play. However, a typical on-field structure consists of six forwards, six defenders or "backmen" and six midfielders, usually two wingmen, one centre and three followers, including a ruckman, ruck-rover and rover. Only four players from each team are allowed within the centre square (50 metres or 55 yards) at every centre bounce, which occurs at the commencement of each quarter, and to restart the game after a goal is scored. There are also other rules pertaining to allowed player positions during set plays (that is, after a mark or free kick) and during kick-ins following the scoring of a behind.
### Match duration
A game consists of four quarters and a timekeeper officiates their duration. At the professional level, each quarter consists of 20 minutes of play, with the clock being stopped for instances such as scores, the ball going out of bounds or at the umpire's discretion, e.g. for serious injury. Lower grades of competition might employ shorter quarters of play. The umpire signals time-off to stop the clock for various reasons, such as the player in possession being tackled into stagnant play. Time resumes when the umpire signals time-on or when the ball is brought into play. Stoppages cause quarters to extend approximately 5–10 minutes beyond the 20 minutes of play. 6 minutes of rest is allowed before the second and fourth quarters, and 20 minutes of rest is allowed at half-time.
The official game clock is available only to the timekeeper(s), and is not displayed to the players, umpires or spectators. The only public knowledge of game time is when the timekeeper sounds a siren at the start and end of each quarter. Coaching staff may monitor the game time themselves and convey information to players via on-field trainers or substitute players. Broadcasters usually display an approximation of the official game time for television audiences, although some will now show the exact time remaining in a quarter.
### General play
### General play
Games are officiated by umpires. Before the game, the winner of a coin toss determines which directions the teams will play to begin. Australian football begins after the first siren, when the umpire bounces the ball on the ground (or throws it into the air if the condition of the ground is poor), and the two ruckmen (typically the tallest players from each team) battle for the ball in the air on its way back down. This is known as the ball-up. Certain disputes during play may also be settled with a ball-up from the point of contention. If the ball is kicked or hit from a ball-up or boundary throw-in over the boundary line or into a behind post without the ball bouncing, a free kick is paid for out of bounds on the full. A free kick is also paid if the ball is deemed by the umpire to have been deliberately carried or directed out of bounds. If the ball travels out of bounds in any other circumstances (for example, contested play results in the ball being knocked out of bounds) a boundary umpire will stand with his back to the infield and return the ball into play with a throw-in, a high backwards toss back into the field of play.
The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a foot, clenched fist (called a handball or handpass) or open-hand tap but it cannot be thrown under any circumstances. Once a player takes possession of the ball he must dispose of it by either kicking or handballing it. Any other method of disposal is illegal and will result in a free kick to the opposing team. This is usually called "incorrect disposal", "dropping the ball" or "throwing". If the ball is not in the possession of one player it can be moved on with any part of the body.
A player may run with the ball, but it must be bounced or touched on the ground at least once every 15 metres (16 yd). Opposition players may bump or tackle the player to obtain the ball and, when tackled, the player must dispose of the ball cleanly or risk being penalised for holding the ball unless the umpire rules no prior opportunity for disposal. The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees. If the opposition player forcefully contacts a player in the back while performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back. If the opposition tackles the player with possession below the knees (a low tackle or a trip) or above the shoulders (a high tackle), the team with possession of the football gets a free kick.
If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than 15 metres (16 yd) from another player's kick, by way of a catch, it is claimed as a mark (meaning that the game stops while he prepares to kick from the point at which he marked). Alternatively, he may choose to "play on" forfeiting the set shot in the hope of pressing an advantage for his team (rather than allowing the opposition to reposition while he prepares for the free kick). Once a player has chosen to play on, normal play resumes and the player who took the mark is again able to be tackled.
There are different styles of kicking depending on how the ball is held in the hand. The most common style of kicking seen in today's game, principally because of its superior accuracy, is the drop punt, where the ball is dropped from the hands down, almost to the ground, to be kicked so that the ball rotates in a reverse end over end motion as it travels through the air. Other commonly used kicks are the torpedo punt (also known as the spiral, barrel, or screw punt), where the ball is held flatter at an angle across the body, which makes the ball spin around its long axis in the air, resulting in extra distance (similar to the traditional motion of an American football punt), and the checkside punt or "banana", kicked across the ball with the outside of the foot used to curve the ball (towards the right if kicked off the right foot) towards targets that are on an angle. There is also the "snap", which is almost the same as a checkside punt except that it is kicked off the inside of the foot and curves in the opposite direction. It is also possible to kick the ball so that it bounces along the ground. This is known as a "grubber". Grubbers can bounce in a straight line, or curve to the left or right.
Apart from free kicks, marks or when the ball is in the possession of an umpire for a ball up or throw in, the ball is always in dispute and any player from either side can take possession of the ball.
### Scoring
A goal, worth 6 points, is scored when the football is propelled through the goal posts at any height (including above the height of the posts) by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may fly through "on the full" (without touching the ground) or bounce through, but must not have been touched, on the way, by any player from either team or a goalpost. A goal cannot be scored from the foot of an opposition (defending) player.
A behind, worth 1 point, is scored when the ball passes between a goal post and a behind post at any height, or if the ball hits a goal post, or if any player sends the ball between the goal posts by touching it with any part of the body other than a foot or lower leg. A behind is also awarded to the attacking team if the ball touches any part of an opposition player, including a foot, before passing between the goal posts. When an opposition player deliberately scores a behind for the attacking team (generally as a last resort to ensure that a goal is not scored) this is termed a rushed behind. As of the 2009 AFL season, a free kick is awarded against any player who deliberately rushes a behind.
The goal umpire signals a goal with two hands pointed forward at elbow height, or a behind with one hand. Both goal umpires then wave flags above their heads to communicate this information to the scorers. The team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions.
As an example of a score report, consider a match between and with the former as the home team. Sydney's score of 17 goals and 5 behinds equates to 107 points. Geelong's score of 10 goals and 17 behinds equates to a 77-point tally. Sydney wins the match by a margin of 30 points. Such a result would be written as:
" 17.5 (107) defeated 10.17 (77).
And spoken as:
"Sydney, seventeen-five, one hundred and seven, defeated Geelong ten-seventeen, seventy-seven".
Additionally, it can be said that:
"Sydney defeated Geelong by 30 points".
The home team is typically listed first and the visiting side is listed second. The scoreline is written with respect to the home side.
For example, won in successive weeks, once as the home side and once as the visiting side. These would be written out thus:
" 23.20 (158) defeated 8.14 (62)."
" 17.13 (115) defeated by 18.10 (118)."
A draw would be written as:
" 10.8 (68) drew with 10.8 (68)".
## Structure and competitions
The football season proper is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September and October. In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March).
The AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian Football. There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, all of which are affiliated with the AFL. These state leagues hold annual semi-professional club competitions, with some also overseeing more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations.
The AFL is the de facto world governing body for Australian football. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world.
For almost all Australian football club competitions, the aim is to win the Premiership. The premiership is typically decided by a finals series. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ladder after the home-and-away season play off in a "semi-knockout" finals series, culminating in a single Grand Final match to determine the premiers. Between four and eight teams contest a finals series, typically using the AFL final eight system or a variation of the McIntyre system. The team which finishes first on the ladder after the home-and-away season is referred to as a "minor premier", but this usually holds little stand-alone significance, other than receiving a better draw in the finals.
Many metropolitan leagues have several tiered divisions, with promotion of the lower division premiers and relegation of the upper division's last placed team at the end of each year. At present, none of the top level national or state level leagues in Australia utilise this structure.
## Women and Australian football
The high level of interest shown by women in Australian football is considered unique among the world's football codes. It was the case in the 19th century, as it is in modern times, that women made up approximately half of total attendances at Australian football matches—a far greater proportion than, for example, the estimated 10 per cent of women that comprise British soccer crowds. This has been attributed in part to the egalitarian character of Australian football's early years in public parks where women could mingle freely and support the game in various ways.
In terms of participation, there are occasional 19th-century references to women playing the sport, but it was not until the 1910s that the first organised women's teams and competitions appeared. Women's state leagues emerged in the 1980s, and in 2013, the AFL announced plans to establish a nationally televised women's competition. Amidst a surge in viewing interest and participation in women's football, the AFL pushed the founding date of the competition, named AFL Women's, to 2017. Eight AFL clubs won licences to field sides in its inaugural season. By the seventh season, which began in August 2022, all 18 clubs fielded a women's side.
## Variations and related sports
Many related games have emerged from Australian football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Auskick (played by children aged between 5 and 12), kick-to-kick (and its variants end-to-end footy and marks up), rec footy, 9-a-side footy, masters Australian football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside Australia sometimes engage in related games adapted to available fields, like metro footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa rules (played on rugby fields). One such prominent example in use since 2018 is AFLX, a shortened variation of the game with seven players a side, played on a soccer-sized pitch.
### International rules football
The similarities between Australian football and the Irish sport of Gaelic football have allowed for the creation of a hybrid code known as international rules football. The first international rules matches were contested in Ireland during the 1967 Australian Football World Tour. Since then, various sets of compromise rules have been trialed, and in 1984 the International Rules Series commenced with national representative sides selected by Australia's state leagues (later by the AFL) and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The competition became an annual event in 1998, but was postponed indefinitely in 2007 when the GAA pulled out due to Australia's severe and aggressive style of play. It resumed in Australia in 2008 under new rules to protect the player with the ball.
## Global reach
Australian rules football was played outside Australasia as early as 1888 when Australians studying at Edinburgh University and London University formed teams and competed in London. By the early 20th century, the game had spread with the Australian diaspora to South Africa, the United States and other parts of the Anglosphere; however this growth went into rapid decline following World War I. After World War II, the sport experienced growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Papua New Guinea and Nauru, where Australian football is now the national sport.
Today, the sport is played at an amateur level in various countries throughout the world. 23 countries have participated in the International Cup and 9 countries have participated in the AFL Europe Championship with both competitions prohibiting Australian players. Over 20 countries have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL. There have been many VFL/AFL players who were born outside Australia, an increasing number of which have been recruited through initiatives and, more recently, international scholarship programs. Many of these players have been Irish, as interest in recruiting talented Gaelic footballers dates back to the start of the Irish experiment in the 1960s. Irish players have since become not just starters for their clubs but also leading their competitions (Jim Stynes) and winning premierships (Tadhg Kennelly, Ailish Considine).
Most of the current amateur clubs and leagues in existence have developed since the 1980s, when leagues began to be established in North America, Europe and Asia. The sport developed a cult following in the United States when matches were broadcast on the fledgling ESPN network in the 1980s. As the size of the Australian diaspora has increased, so has the number of clubs outside Australia. This expansion has been further aided by multiculturalism and assisted by exhibition matches as well as exposure generated through players who have converted to and from other football codes. In Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and the United States there are many thousands of players.
A fan of the sport since attending school in Geelong, King Charles is the Patron of AFL Europe. In 2013, participation across AFL Europe's 21 member nations was more than 5,000 players, the majority of which are European nationals rather than Australian expats. The sport also has a growing presence in India.
The AFL became the de facto governing body when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council in 2002. The International Cup, held triennially since 2002, is the highest level of international competition.
Although Australian rules football has not yet been a full sport at the Olympic Games or Commonwealth Games, when Melbourne hosted the 1956 Summer Olympics, which included the MCG being the main stadium, Australian rules football was chosen as the native sport to be demonstrated as per International Olympic Committee rules. On 7 December, the sport was demonstrated as an exhibition match at the MCG between a team of VFL and VFA amateurs and a team of VAFA amateurs (professionals were excluded due to the Olympics' strict amateurism policy at the time). The Duke of Edinburgh was among the spectators for the match, which the VAFA won by 12.9 (81) to 8.7 (55). In addition, when Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, the sport was also demonstrated at the Gabba with a rematch on 6 October of that year's VFL Grand Final with Richmond winning by 28.16 (184) to Carlton's 26.10 (166).
## Cultural impact and popularity
Australian football is a sport rich in tradition and Australian cultural references, especially surrounding the rituals of gameday for players, officials and supporters.
Australian football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other football code, and, when compared with all sports throughout the nation, has consistently ranked first in the winter reports, and third behind cricket and swimming in summer. Over 1,057,572 fans were paying members of AFL clubs in 2019. The 2021 AFL Grand Final was the year's most-watched television broadcast in Australia, with an in-home audience of up to 4.11 million.
In 2019, there were 1,716,276 registered participants in Australia including 586,422 females (34 per cent of the overall total) and more than 177,000 registered outside Australia including 79,000 females (45 per cent of the overall total).
### In the arts and popular culture
Australian football has inspired many literary works, from poems by C. J. Dennis and Peter Goldsworthy, to the fiction of Frank Hardy and Kerry Greenwood. Historians Manning Clarke and Geoffrey Blainey have also written extensively on the sport. Slang within Australian football has impacted Australian English more broadly, with a number of expressions taking on new meanings in non-sporting contexts, e.g., to "get a guernsey" is to gain recognition or approval, while "shirt-fronting" someone is to accost them.
In 1889, Australian impressionist painter Arthur Streeton captured football games en plein air for the 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition, titling one work The National Game. Paintings by Sidney Nolan (Footballer, 1946) and John Brack (Three of the Players, 1953) helped to establish Australian football as a serious subject for modernists, and many Aboriginal artists have explored the game, often fusing it with the mythology of their region. In cartooning, WEG's VFL/AFL premiership posters—inaugurated in 1954—have achieved iconic status among Australian football fans. Australian football statues can be found throughout the country, some based on famous photographs, among them Haydn Bunton Sr.'s leap, Jack Dyer's charge and Nicky Winmar lifting his jumper. In the 1980s, a group of postmodern architects based in Melbourne began incorporating references to Australian football into their buildings, an example being Building 8 by Edmond and Corrigan.
Dance sequences based on Australian football feature heavily in Robert Helpmann's 1964 ballet The Display, his first and most famous work for the Australian Ballet. The game has also inspired well-known plays such as And the Big Men Fly (1963) by Alan Hopgood and David Williamson's The Club (1977), which was adapted into a 1980 film, directed by Bruce Beresford. Mike Brady's 1979 hit "Up There Cazaly" is considered an Australian football anthem, and references to the sport can be found in works by popular musicians, from singer-songwriter Paul Kelly to the alternative rock band TISM. Many Australian football video games have been released, most notably the AFL series.
## Australian Football Hall of Fame
For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. That year, 136 significant figures across the various competitions were inducted into the Hall of Fame. An additional 115 inductees have been added since the creation of the Hall of Fame, resulting in a total number of 251 inductees.
In addition to the Hall of Fame, select members are chosen to receive the elite Legend status. Due to restrictions limiting the number of Legend status players to 10% of the total number of Hall of Fame inductees, there are currently 25 players with the status in the Hall of Fame.
## See also
- Australian rules football attendance records
- Australian rules football positions
- List of Australian rules football clubs
- List of Australian rules football rivalries
- List of Australian rules football terms
|
26,260,546 |
D'Estrées-class cruiser
| 1,145,413,651 |
Protected cruiser class of the French Navy
|
[
"Cruiser classes",
"Destrées-class cruisers",
"Ship classes of the French Navy"
] |
The D'Estrées class comprised two protected cruisers of the French Navy built in the late 1890s. The two ships were D'Estrées and Infernet, though a third was projected but was canceled before work began. They were ordered during a period of intense debate in the French fleet between officers who favored large armored cruisers and those who preferred smaller vessels more suited to long-distance cruising abroad. The D'Estrées-class cruisers were intended to operate in the French colonial empire. The ships were armed with a main battery of two 138 mm (5.4 in) guns supported by four 100 mm (3.9 in) guns and they had a top speed of 20 to 20.5 knots (37.0 to 38.0 km/h; 23.0 to 23.6 mph).
D'Estrées and Infernet initially served in the Northern Squadron after entering service in the late 1890s, though they were quickly transferred elsewhere. D'Estrées went to the Atlantic station in 1902, while Infernet had been sent to French Madagascar by 1901. The latter ship then served a stint in the East Indies from 1903 to 1905, thereafter returning to France, where she was lost in an accidental grounding in 1910. D'Estrées was assigned to the 2nd Light Division at the start of World War I in August 1914 before being moved to the Syrian Division, where she took part in operations against Ottoman forces ashore. She patrolled the Red Sea and Indian Ocean from 1916 to the end of the war in 1918. D'Estrées was then sent to East Asia, where she served until being discarded in 1922.
## Design
In the 1880s and 1890s, factions in the French Navy's officer corps argued over the types of cruiser that best served France's interests. Some argued for a fleet of small but fast protected cruisers for commerce raiding, another sought larger and more powerful armored cruisers that were useful for patrolling the country's colonial possessions, while another preferred vessels more suited to operations with the home fleet of battleships. In 1896, the Conseil supérieur de la Marine (Superior Naval Council) ordered the two cruisers of the D'Estrées class for the construction program that was to begin that year at the behest of the colonialists for use in the French overseas empire. A third member of the class, provisionally designated "K3", was authorized in 1897 but was not built; by that time, the French naval command had decided to build larger armored cruisers for all cruiser tasks, including colonial patrol duties.
### Characteristics and machinery
The two ships of the D'Estrées class were 95 m (311 ft 8 in) long overall, with a beam of 12 m (39 ft 4 in) and a draft of 5.39 m (17 ft 8 in). They displaced 2,428 long tons (2,467 t). Their crew numbered 235 officers and enlisted men.
The ships' hulls included a ram bow and an overhanging stern, but unlike other French cruisers of the period, they lacked a double bottom or a longitudinal bulkhead. Below the waterline, they were covered with a layer of wood and copper sheathing to protect them from biofouling on extended voyages overseas, where they would not have reliable access to shipyard facilities. The ships had a flush deck and a minimal superstructure, consisting primarily of a small conning tower. They had three pole masts, though one was later removed from each vessel.
The ships' propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines driving two screw propellers. Each engine was placed in its own engine room, divided by a watertight bulkhead to prevent flooding from disabling both engines. Steam was provided by eight coal-burning Normand-type water-tube boilers that were ducted into two widely-spaced funnels. The boilers were divided into pairs in four boiler rooms.
Their machinery was rated to produce 8,500 indicated horsepower (6,300 kW) for a top speed of 20 to 20.5 knots (37.0 to 38.0 km/h; 23.0 to 23.6 mph). They carried 340 long tons (345 t) of coal for the boilers, and up to 470 long tons (480 t) at full load, which gave the ships a cruising radius of up to 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), according to the contemporary Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Warship International, citing the 1905 Marine Almanac, credits the class with a cruising radius of just 4,500 nmi (8,300 km; 5,200 mi) at 10 knots.
### Armament and armor
The ships were armed with a main battery of two 138 mm (5.4 in) Modèle 1893 45-caliber guns. They were placed in individual pivot mounts with gun shields, one forward and aft on the centerline. They were supplied with a variety of shells, including solid, 30 kg (66 lb) cast iron projectiles, and 35 kg (77 lb) explosive armor-piercing (AP) and semi-armor-piercing (SAP) shells, firing with a muzzle velocity of 730 to 770 m/s (2,400 to 2,500 ft/s).
The main battery was supported by a secondary battery of four 100 mm (3.9 in) Modèle 1891 guns, which were carried in sponsons in the hull. One pair was placed abreast the conning tower, and the other set of guns was located on either side of the rear funnel. The guns fired 14 kg (31 lb) cast iron and 16 kg (35 lb) AP shells with a muzzle velocity of 710 to 740 m/s (2,300 to 2,400 ft/s).
For close-range defense against torpedo boats, the vessels carried eight 47 mm (1.9 in) 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns and two 37 mm (1.5 in) 1-pounder guns. These were mounted in individual pivot mountings that were distributed along the length of the ship, some atop the upper deck and others firing through gun ports in the upper deck. The ships were also equipped with fourteen naval mines.
Armor protection consisted of a curved armor deck that was 38 to 43 mm (1.5 to 1.7 in) thick in the central portion of the ships, where it protected the propulsion machinery spaces and the ammunition magazines. The deck was reduced in thickness toward the bow and stern, falling to 20 mm (0.79 in). Above the deck at the sides, a cofferdam filled with cellulose was intended to contain flooding from damage below the waterline.
## Construction
## Service history
D'Estrées served in the Northern Squadron after her completion in 1899, where she was joined by Infernet by early 1901. The latter vessel was transferred to French Madagascar later in 1901, and in 1902, D'Estrées was reassigned to the Atlantic Training Division. She remained there for the next several years, though the unit went through a series of name changes and reorganizations. Infernet was moved again in 1903, this time to the East Indies to protect French interests in the region. She returned to France in 1905. In 1908, D'Estrées was sent to patrol the West Indies, and by that time, the Atlantic Division had been merged into the Northern Squadron. Infernet's career was cut short in 1910, when she ran aground off Les Sables-d'Olonne in 1910 and could not be pulled free.
At the start of World War I in August 1914, D'Estrées was initially assigned to the 2nd Light Squadron, which was based in the English Channel, but was quickly transferred to reinforce the Syrian Division for operations against the Ottoman Empire. D'Estrées bombarded Ottoman positions along the Syrian coast and helped to enforce a blockade there. She also assisted in the evacuation of some 4,000 Armenians from Antakya on 12 and 13 September, along with several other French cruisers. She was moved to the Red Sea in 1916, where she patrolled for the German commerce raider SMS Wolf, which was known to be operating in the Indian Ocean. She remained in the region for the rest of the war, though she saw no further action. After the war, she was sent to French Indochina, where she spent the remainder of her career. D'Estrées was struck from the naval register in 1922 and broken up.
|
29,487,921 |
U.S. Route 40 Alternate (Hagerstown–Frederick, Maryland)
| 1,173,613,205 |
Highway in Washington and Frederick counties in Maryland
|
[
"Boonsboro, Maryland",
"Frederick, Maryland",
"Hagerstown, Maryland",
"Roads in Frederick County, Maryland",
"Roads in Washington County, Maryland",
"Special routes of the United States Numbered Highway System",
"U.S. Highways in Maryland",
"U.S. Route 40"
] |
U.S. Route 40 Alternate (US 40 Alternate) is an alternate route of US 40 in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs 22.97 miles (36.97 km) from Potomac Street in Hagerstown east to US 40 in Frederick. US 40 Alternate parallels US 40 and much of Interstate 70 (I-70) to the south through eastern Washington County and western Frederick County. The alternate route connects Hagerstown and Frederick with Funkstown, Boonsboro, Middletown, and Braddock Heights. US 40 Alternate crosses two major north–south components of the Blue Ridge Mountains that separate the Great Appalachian Valley and the Piedmont: South Mountain between Boonsboro and Middletown and Catoctin Mountain, which is locally known as Braddock Mountain, at Braddock Heights.
US 40 Alternate is the old alignment of US 40. The highway's path was blazed in the mid-18th century to connect the Hagerstown Valley and Shenandoah Valley with eastern Pennsylvania and central Maryland. In the early 19th century, US 40 Alternate's path was improved as part of a series of turnpikes to connect Baltimore with the eastern terminus of the National Road in Cumberland. The highway was improved as one of the original state roads in the early 1910s and designated US 40 in the late 1920s. Construction on a relocated US 40 between Hagerstown and Frederick with improved crossings of South Mountain and Braddock Mountain began in the mid-1930s; the new highway was completed in the late 1940s. US 40 Alternate was assigned to the old route of US 40 in the early 1950s.
## Route description
US 40 Alternate is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Edgewood Drive in Funkstown to its underpass of I-70 south of Funkstown and from Old Hagerstown Road near Middletown to US 40 in Frederick.
### Hagerstown to South Mountain
US 40 Alternate begins as Baltimore Street at its intersection with one-way southbound Potomac Street within the Hagerstown Historic District on the southern edge of downtown Hagerstown. Baltimore Street, which continues west as a city street toward the Hagerstown City Park, runs east–west two blocks south of US 40, which comprises a one-way pair of Washington Street eastbound and Franklin Street westbound. After heading east for two blocks, during which US 40 Alternate intersects one-way northbound Locust Street, the municipally-maintained alternate route turns southeast onto Frederick Street at a five-way junction that also includes north–south Mulberry Street. US 40 Alternate intersects Memorial Boulevard, which heads east past the former site of Municipal Stadium. The highway meets a CSX rail spur at grade while passing through an industrial area that extends to the southern city limits of Hagerstown at Kenly Avenue.
US 40 Alternate continues southeast as a state-maintained highway that passes the historic home Garden Hill and crosses Antietam Creek into Funkstown, where the highway's name changes to Westside Avenue. Within the Funkstown Historic District, the alternate route turns east onto Baltimore Street, then southeast onto Frederick Street. At the southern town limits of Funkstown, US 40 Alternate becomes Boonsboro Pike, which passes through farmland as it parallels Antietam Creek. The highway passes under I-70 (Eisenhower Memorial Highway) with no access and intersects Poffenberger Road, which leads west to the historic home Valentia. The highway veers away from Antietam Creek just past the historic Cool Hollow House. It then passes through the hamlet of Benevola and traverses Landis Spring Branch and Beaver Creek on its way to Boonsboro.
US 40 Alternate enters the town of Boonsboro and its name changes to Main Street at its intersection with Maryland Route 68 (MD 68) (Lappans Road). The highway meets the south end of MD 66 (Maple Avenue) next to the Bowman House and the east end of MD 34 (Potomac Street) in the center of town. US 40 Alternate leaves the town of Boonsboro after its roundabout with MD 67 (Rohrersville Road). The alternate route continues southeast as Boonsboro Pike and starts to ascend South Mountain. At the summit, known as Turner's Gap, US 40 Alternate intersects Washington Monument Road, which leads north to Washington Monument State Park, and passes the Dahlgren Chapel and the Old South Mountain Inn.
### South Mountain to Frederick
US 40 Alternate's name changes to Old National Pike as it intersects the Appalachian Trail at the Washington–Frederick county line and begins its curvaceous descent of South Mountain into the Middletown Valley. In the western part of the valley, the highway passes the Henry Shoemaker Farmhouse and intersects Mount Tabor Road, which parallels South Mountain north past the historic Daniel Sheffer Farm and Routzahn-Miller Farmstead. In Spoolsville, US 40 Alternate crosses Catoctin Creek and meets Old Hagerstown Road, which passes the Bowlus Mill House. The alternate route's name becomes Main Street as it heads east through Middletown. US 40 Alternate passes the Stonebraker and Harbaugh-Shafer Building and intersects MD 17 (Church Street) within the Middletown Historic District. The highway passes through the Airview Historic District before leaving the town limits.
East of Middletown, US 40 Alternate passes through a suburban area then begins to ascend Braddock Mountain. The highway gains a climbing lane eastbound to the top of the mountain, which contains the community of Braddock Heights. On the descent of Braddock Mountain, US 40 Alternate expands to a four-lane road, with one lane eastbound, two lanes westbound, and a center turn lane. At the base of the mountain, the alternate route temporarily expands to a four-lane divided highway through its half-diamond interchange with I-70, which has ramps to and from the direction of Frederick. East of I-70, US 40 Alternate reduces to two lanes and passes the Highland Lodge. The alternate route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial intersection with US 40 (Patrick Street) at the western edge of Frederick and the Frederick Golden Mile, a heavily commercialized area east to US 15 (Frederick Freeway). There is no direct access from eastbound US 40 Alternate to westbound US 40 or from eastbound US 40 to the westbound alternate route; those movements are made by using Old Camp Road.
## History
### Early paths and turnpikes
The portion of US 40 Alternate between Frederick and Boonsboro roughly follows the Monocacy Road, a pack-horse trail blazed by settlers from Pennsylvania around 1730. The trail connected Philadelphia, Lancaster, and Hanover with Winchester, Virginia, by way of what is now Taneytown, Frederick, Boonsboro, and Williamsport. The portion of the Monocacy Road from Frederick to Williamsport was used by the Braddock Expedition on its way from Alexandria to Cumberland to commence its ill-fated assault on Fort Duquesne. Following the founding of Hagerstown in 1762, a road was laid out north from Boonsboro to connect the new town with the eastern part of the colony. While the Monocacy Road as a whole was disused by 1794, the portion followed by US 40 Alternate remained an important connection between Baltimore and Western Maryland.
The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike Company was chartered in 1805 to build a road along the 62-mile (100 km) path from Baltimore to Boonsboro. This turnpike was the first step in connecting Baltimore with Cumberland, the eastern terminus of the just-commenced National Road. By 1808, the turnpike had been completed west 20 miles (32 km) from Baltimore and another 17 miles (27 km) was under construction. The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike was completed in 1812. That same year, keen for an improved road to fully extend between Baltimore and Cumberland, the Maryland General Assembly conscripted the state's banks to fund turnpike companies to complete the gap between Boonsboro and Cumberland with the benefit of having their charters extended from 1816 to 1835. The banks opposed this measure but reluctantly bankrolled the construction of a road from Conocheague Creek to Cumberland between 1816 and 1818 and from Hagerstown to Conococheague Creek in 1818 and 1819. The Maryland General Assembly used their powers again in 1821, agreeing to extend the banks' charters to 1845 if they would fund a turnpike in the gap between Boonsboro and Hagerstown. When this road, the Hager's-Town and Boonsborough Turnpike (later called just the Boonsboro Turnpike), was completed in 1823, it became the first macadam road constructed in the United States, followed shortly thereafter by the National Road. The Baltimore and Fredericktown and National turnpikes remained in operation through 1909.
### State road construction and bypass
In 1909, the nascent Maryland State Highway Administration (MDSRC) designated the road between Frederick and Hagerstown for improvement as one of the original state roads. The commission's first task was to acquire the necessary right-of-way by purchasing the two turnpikes in 1911. MDSRC reconstructed the road between Frederick and Hagerstown with a 14-foot (4.3 m) wide macadam surface from Frederick to Middletown and from South Mountain to Boonsboro in 1913. The state road was built from Middletown to South Mountain and from Boonsboro to Hagerstown in 1914. The portion of the highway within Boonsboro was paved in 1915. The last portion of the Frederick–Hagerstown state road to be constructed was within Funkstown, where the highway was surfaced with concrete by 1919. The highway was designated part of US 40 in 1927.
Around 1926, US 40 received its first improvement when concrete shoulders were added to expand the roadway from 14 feet (4.3 m) to 20 feet (6.1 m) in width. By 1934, MDSRC recommended widening the highway to 30 feet (9.1 m) from 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Frederick to 5 miles (8.0 km) east of Hagerstown. Ultimately, the commission decided to construct a new highway between the two cities that would shorten the distance by 1.25 miles (2.01 km) and bypass the sharp curves and limited sight distances of the old road. Grading and drainage work on the new highway began in 1936 and was completed in 1938 for the first roadway of what would ultimately become a divided highway. The first 20-foot (6.1 m) wide concrete roadway was constructed from downtown Hagerstown southeast to near Beaver Creek Road in 1938. Surfacing of the remainder of the relocated National Pike was delayed by World War II; construction resumed in 1946 and the new highway opened in 1948.
The relocated National Pike was originally designated US 40 Alternate; the old and new roads switched to their present designations in 1952. Despite the construction of a new highway, improvements continued on the original road. Trolley tracks of the Hagerstown and Frederick Railway were removed from the highway in Funkstown and the street was resurfaced in 1940. Hill climbing lanes were added for a length of 800 to 1,000 feet (240 to 300 m) on both sides of Braddock Mountain and South Mountain around 1942. The highway between Funkstown and Boonsboro had curves modified and was widened and resurfaced in 1949. US 40 Alternate from US 40 in Frederick west to Braddock Mountain underwent the same type of work in 1951 and 1952.
## Junction list
## See also
## Work cited
|
31,771,087 |
Scheiße (song)
| 1,169,731,111 | null |
[
"2011 songs",
"Lady Gaga songs",
"Macaronic songs",
"Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga",
"Song recordings produced by RedOne",
"Songs with feminist themes",
"Songs written by Lady Gaga",
"Songs written by RedOne"
] |
"Scheiße" (German for "shit") is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her second studio album, Born This Way (2011). The song was written and produced by Lady Gaga and Nadir "RedOne" Khayat, and was recorded in Europe on the tour bus during the Monster Ball Tour. "Scheiße" was first introduced as a remix during a Thierry Mugler fashion show held on January 19, 2011. A dance-pop song with heavy, pounding synths, it also has a fast techno beat with electroclash and Eurodisco influences. Gaga speaks the first verse and parts of the chorus of the song in faux-German, as the name of the song is German. The lyrics have a feminist tone, speaking of female empowerment.
The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics, who complimented its heavy dance beat and catchy chorus, despite criticizing the faux-German lyrics and Gaga's accent. The song charted on the South Korean Gaon Music Chart and US Billboard dance charts, as well as entering the component charts in Canada, Germany, and the United States. "Scheiße" was performed in Gaga's concert tours Born This Way Ball (2012–2013), Joanne World Tour (2017–2018) and Las Vegas residency Enigma (2018–2020). It was also the opening number of her 2017 Coachella performance.
## Background
The song was written and produced by Lady Gaga and RedOne. It was originally recorded on a tour bus in Europe in 2010, and was later remixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood, California by Trevor Muzzy. Gaga said that the song was inspired after a night of partying at the Laboratory nightclub in Berlin, Germany. The next day, she wrote "Scheiße", stating that she "meant [the song] like 'shit, it's good.' But I also meant it the other way; because this song is really about wanting to be a strong female without all the bullshit that comes along with. Anything that gets in your way from being brave. It's not the only word I know, I just like that word. It's sexy."
"Scheiße" was first introduced in a Thierry Mugler fashion show held on January 19, 2011 as a remix; the fashion show also featured Gaga on the runway. It featured a thumping dance beat with snippets of German words. The remix ended with the lyrics, "I'll take you out tonight/say whatever you like." On January 20, 2011, Mugler's creative director Nicola Formichetti premiered a short film featuring a remix of the song. Gaga commented on her website, Littlemonsters.com, that she wanted to release "Scheiße" as a single but her label did not want her to put it out. "Scheiße" was released as part of Gaga's second studio album, Born This Way, on May 23, 2011.
## Composition
"Scheiße" is a dance-pop song with techno, electroclash, Eurodisco, and Eurodance influences. Andrew Unterberger of PopDust noted that the song was influenced by Madonna's music, notably "Justify My Love," which, like "Scheiße," has sections in which the artist speaks rather than sings. "Scheiße" has been described as "a strange mash up of digestible, American shopping mecca music and the thud of German nightclub electronica." The song features a "grimy" bass and so many "fizzing" synths that it produces a "keyboard assault on the senses."
The song's lyrics are of female empowerment. Although the theme of "Scheiße" is similar to the inspirational theme of other songs on Born This Way, The Village Voice questioned the sincerity of the feminist lyrics, after Gaga had once said, "I’m not a feminist. I hail men, I love men," but calls herself on the song a "blond high-heeled feminist enlisting femmes for this." "[Is this] someone who we’re watching evolve or someone who, at any given point, doesn’t really know what she’s talking about?" the article wrote of Gaga. The German word "scheiße", the title of the song and a word frequently used in the song, translates into "shit" into English. Gaga repeatedly speaks in German-sounding gibberish during the song, although in a French accent.
The song starts with Gaga saying, "I don't speak German, but I can if you like", then immediately launches into a spoken verse in faux-German. She then moves to the hook of the song, "I’ll take you out tonight, say whatever you like, scheiße be mine". Following the hook is a pre-chorus backed by syncopated synths, with influences of techno music. The chorus of the song, in which Gaga includes the word "Scheiße", is backed by "dueling screechy" synths. It is broken up by Gaga repeatedly singing in-between lines "oh oh oh oh oh" in an electronically altered voice. The next verses, containing lyrics of Gaga being a strong woman, are all backed by "growling, guttural" synths, and are mixed with German and English. According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation, "Scheiße" is written in the time signature of common time, with a tempo of 131 beats per minute. It is composed on the key of C minor, with Gaga's voice spanning from A<sub>3</sub> to Eb<sub>5</sub>. The song follows in the sequence of Cm–Cm/Cm–Eb/Gm as its chord progression.
## Critical response
"Scheiße" received positive reviews from critics, with some calling it a highlight of the album. NME's Dan Martin also found "Scheiße" comparable to a Madonna song, saying it "channels Miss Kittin doing a rave take on Madonna’s 'Erotica'," making it a "commanding pop song" and a "triumph". The Village Voice called "Scheiße" a "highlight" of the album, but questioned the sincerity of the feminist lyrics. BBC Music called the song a "monster tune begging for a sex dungeon-themed video event". Kerri Manson of Billboard found the song to be "dated", but strongly praised the chorus. Tim Jonze of The Guardian also found the chorus of the song "ridiculously catchy" and felt it was the most important aspect of the song. He also noticed Berlin techno influences in the song, which were described as "decadent." Rolling Stone's Jody Rosen, however, felt the chorus was "a whisp" and called the song's beat "generic Eurodisco thump". Gaga's faux-German lyrics were criticized by the magazine, which called it "gibberish that sounds German but isn't." Caryn Ganz from Spin called the opening lines of the song ("I don't speak German, but I can if you like") "hilariously ludicrous."
Tris McCall, in New Jersey On-Line, rewarded "Scheiße" as the "song of the week" and recommended it as Gaga's next single from Born This Way, noting it to be "no less absurd" than the previous singles. McCall also noted Gaga's gibberish lyrics and compared them to what a high school student group's version of Cabaret would sound like. He concluded by praising the song's production. Prefixmag's Craig Jenkins said the song, along with album tracks "Bloody Mary" and "Government Hooker", "cuts the karaoke crap and kicks ass on the dance floor" and "eschew[s] Born This Way's time traveling ethos in favor of a more modern approach." Ed Commentale from Tinymixtapes gave a mixed review of the German in the song, saying "the singer is not so much speaking the language of the German people, but updating it for the new millennium, enjoining this nation to move beyond its tragic history into a new era of love and dancing... ['Scheiße'] reveals a certain disregard for both fact and reality." Nathan Heller from Slate compared the song to Mediterranean dance tracks, while declaring it as being "custom-tailored to an international audience". Adam White of The Independent felt that "Scheiße" is "naked pandering to the Berghain crowd, with its gibberish German lyrics and rampant, aggressive absurdity. But it is such a deer-in-the-headlights racket that it transcends any and all cliche."
While reviewing Born This Way The Tenth Anniversary in 2021, Owen Myers of Pitchfork dubbed "Scheiße" "the best non-single of Gaga’s career". The same year, Bianca Gracie of Uproxx listed it between Gaga's best songs, calling it "utter chaos in a way that only Gaga could pull off" and "one of her most liberating tunes".
## Chart performance
Despite not having been released as a single, the song entered the charts in different countries. In Germany, "Scheiße" debuted at number 90, after Gaga had included parts of it in her performance at the Germany's Next Topmodel TV show. Following the release of Born This Way, "Scheiße" peaked at number 13 on the International Digital Download chart in South Korea, jumping 21 positions from the previous week. It also peaked at number 136 on the UK Singles Chart, for one week. In the United States, the song reached number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart of Billboard. It also charted at number six on the Dance/Electronic Digital Songs, as well as at number 72 on the Canadian Hot Digital Songs chart.
## Live performances
Lady Gaga included the song's first verse in her performance at the Germany's Next Topmodel TV show on June 6, 2011. She emerged from a well-lit doorway wearing a turquoise wig, a black hat, and a long black dress and walked towards a piano. Only the German lines and the first line of the song were performed, after which Gaga moved to a piano decorated with dollar bills and sang an acoustic version of "Born This Way". Ray Rodriguez of ImpreMedia, in a review of the performance, stated that "Gaga took over the stage. Gaga always provides material to talk about. And their presentation was no exception and this time she was seen dancing across a row of cutters labeled with the words 'money', 'sex' and 'vanity' while scantily clad dancers threw her around the stage notes" and Charlie Amter of The Hollywood Reporter stated that "Gaga dazzled German fans". Becky Bain of Idolator was dismissive, arguing that "She [Gaga] Uh, she does know she's performing on a show featuring models, right?"
The opening faux-German lines, first verse and chorus opened Gaga's set at the iHeart Radio music festival in Las Vegas. "Scheiße" was performed on the Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013) as the last song before the encore. Gaga, with long blonde pigtails, performed a complex dance routine wearing a black top and pants, described by Miguel Dumaual of CBS News as containing "solid dance-beats". On some occasions, Gaga invited audience members on stage to dance along with her to "Scheiße".
In 2017, Gaga performed "Scheiße" as the opening track of her Coachella set. She wore a Mugler leather coat with pointy shoulder pads, along with an admiral cap, a big leather belt, and grommet covered boots. Vanessa Franko from The Press-Enterprise opined that she "dressed like a military-inspired dominatrix" for the performance. Peter Larsen from the same newspaper thought that "Scheiße" was an understandable choice as the opening song, "its musical elements fitting neatly with the electronic dance music that dominates a huge part of the festival these days." The track was also part of the setlist of the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018). Gaga was wearing a fringe-covered black leather jacket for the performance, which was custom-made for her by Alexander Wang, along with fishnets and black thigh-high boots.
"Scheiße" is performed on the singer's 2018–2020 Las Vegas residency show, Enigma. For the duration of the song, Gaga is seen sitting on top of a metallic, clawed, robot-like equipment, which journalists compared to a Transformer, and to a giant spider. She wears an armor-like bodysuit with light-up panels.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Born This Way.
- Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriter, producer
- RedOne – producer, songwriter, vocal editor, vocal arrangement, engineer, instrumentation, programmer, recording engineer
- Trevor Muzzy – recording engineer, vocal editor, engineer, mixer
- Gene Grimaldi – mastering engineer
## Charts
|
33,328,232 |
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu
| 1,171,435,558 |
2013 film by Srikanth Addala
|
[
"2010s Telugu-language films",
"2013 drama films",
"2013 films",
"Films about Indian weddings",
"Films about brothers",
"Films about families",
"Films about women in India",
"Films directed by Srikanth Addala",
"Films scored by Mickey J Meyer",
"Films set in Andhra Pradesh",
"Films set in Konaseema",
"Films shot in Ahmedabad",
"Films shot in Andhra Pradesh",
"Films shot in Chalakudy",
"Films shot in Chennai",
"Films shot in Hyderabad, India",
"Films shot in Kerala",
"Films shot in Maharashtra",
"Films shot in Thrissur",
"Films shot in Tirunelveli",
"Indian drama films",
"Indian family films",
"Indian feminist films",
"Social realism in film",
"Sri Venkateswara Creations films"
] |
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu (), also known by the initialism SVSC, is a 2013 Indian Telugu-language family drama film written and directed by Srikanth Addala. It was produced by Dil Raju's Sri Venkateswara Creations, and stars Venkatesh, Mahesh Babu, Anjali and Samantha, while Prakash Raj, Jayasudha, Rao Ramesh, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Abhinaya and Rohini Hattangadi play supporting roles.
In addition to directing the film, Addala worked on the script for three years after the release of his directorial debut, Kotha Bangaru Lokam (2008). He wrote the screenplay, and Ganesh Patro wrote the film's dialogue. Mickey J. Meyer and Mani Sharma composed the soundtrack and score, respectively. Marthand K. Venkatesh edited the film and K. V. Guhan was its cinematographer. Production began on 6 October 2011 in Hyderabad; principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Visakhapatnam, and finished on 24 December. In addition to Hyderabad, scenes were filmed in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released worldwide on 11 January 2013 to generally positive reviews. The film was commercially successful, earning a distributor share of ₹51 crore on a budget of ₹40 crore, and was the second-highest-grossing Telugu film of the year (after Attarintiki Daredi). It received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South and eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards, winning two awards at each: Best Actor Male — Telugu (Mahesh Babu) and Best Playback Singer Female — Telugu (K. S. Chithra). The film won four Nandi Awards, including the Award for Best Home-viewing Feature Film.
## Plot
A benevolent mid-aged man, fondly referred to as Relangi Mavayya (), resides in his hometown with his wife, children, elderly mother and orphaned niece Seetha, whom they fostered. Reticent, "Peddodu" () resigns from his uncle Brahmananda Rao's company, in response to being chastised while "Chinnodu" () is sharp-witted and flirtatious. Friends and kin presume that Seetha, being Peddodu's cross cousin, would marry him. Despite being cognizant of her own feelings for him, Seetha is disappointed with the fact that he never addresses her by her name. Seetha's paternal uncle, a wealthy individual, despises the financial stature of Relangi Mavayya's family; his daughter Geetha and Chinnodu encounter each other at the former's elder sister's wedding, developing feelings for each other in due course.
A distant relative, Kondal Rao and his son Gooduraju envy Relangi Mavayya and his sons' image among everyone. Geetha's elder sister and her in-laws run into Relangi Mavayya and his daughter Chinni inside a train and deem her potential to be the wife of a relative, prompting the alliance to be eventually finalized. Geetha's father humiliates Peddodu during the wedding ceremony, intensifying the tensions between them. Peddodu and Chinnodu go to Hyderabad with an intent to find employment. Geetha, who's been in the city with her family, summons Chinnodu to a restaurant, concealing her family's presence. Geetha's father belittles him and his family once again, causing him to resist and furiously walk out. Geetha attempts to cheer Chinnodu but they stumble upon Peddodu, who is unhappy about their affair and goes home. Geetha's relationship with Chinnodu is thus strained.
Geetha's father finds a suitor for her but his mother resists and commands him to get Seetha married in the first place. Geetha's father discourages Relangi Mavayya's interest in getting Seetha married to Peddodu and finds a marriage proposal for her. Nevertheless, the alliance is spoiled. Relangi Mavayya falls prey to a road accident while rescuing a young boy and sustains minor wounds; Brahmananda Rao, the young boy's uncle, apologizes and offers a job to Chinnodu. Elsehwere, Peddodu and Chinnodu's rift widens, owing to unfinished conversations. Relangi Mavayya and his family attend the annual "Kalyanam" of Rama and Sita in Bhadrachalam, which is co-incidentally attended by Geetha and her family. A short circuit causes chaos; Peddodu and Chinnodu rescue Geetha's family and other devotees. Praising the brothers, their father reminds him of their love for each other and details the importance of adjusting, brotherhood and family. This transforms their attitude, prompting their reconciliation. Having eavesdropped on their conversation, Geetha's father reforms. Peddodu addresses Seetha by her name, hinting his love for her and they marry as Geetha's father performs the rituals on Seetha's father's behalf. Chinnodu and Geetha too harmonize. Later, Chinnodu and Peddodu buy bangles for their grandmother, implying that they have found employment.
## Cast
- Venkatesh as Peddodu
- Mahesh Babu as Chinnodu
- Anjali as Seetha
- Samantha as Geetha
- Prakash Raj as Relangi Mavayya (Relangi Uncle), Peddodu, Chinnodu and Chinni's father
- Jayasudha as Relangi Mavayya's wife, Peddodu, Chinnodu, and Chinni's mother
- Abhinaya as Chinni
- Rao Ramesh as Geetha's father
- Kota Srinivasa Rao as Brahmananda Rao
- Rohini Hattangadi as Seetha's maternal grandmother
- Rama Prabha as Seetha and Geetha's paternal grandmother
- Ahuti Prasad as Geetha's uncle
- Tanikella Bharani as Kondala Rao
- Ravi Babu as Goodu Raju, Kondala Rao's son
- Murali Mohan as MLA
- Rajitha as Geetha's mother
- Dhanya Balakrishna as a girl who proposes to Chinnodu
- Kalpika Ganesh as Geetha's elder sister
- Tejaswi Madivada as Geetha's younger sister
- Venu Madhav as Census Officer
- Praveen as Peddodu's friend
- Srinivasa Reddy as Peddodu's friend
- Satya Dev as Chinnodu's friend
- Raja Ravindra as Police Officer
- Prabhas Sreenu as Goodu Raju's friend
- Pruthviraj
- Suryakantham (photo) as Seetha's mother, Relangi Mavvaya's sister
- SV Ranga Rao (photo) as Seetha's father, elder brother of Geetha's father
- Daksha Nagarkar (uncredited role)
## Production
### Development
After the release of his directorial debut, Kotha Bangaru Lokam (2008), Srikanth Addala worked for three years on Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's script. After Vedam's release, in June 2010 Dil Raju began planning a film directed by Addala and featuring Venkatesh and Pawan Kalyan as the male leads. Scripting began, and the film's title was announced in September. When the project stalled, Addala approached Mahesh Babu with its script in June 2011.
Babu agreed to act in the film after Addala met him to read the script during pre-production for Dookudu (2011). He and Venkatesh cited the script's emotional depth and realistic approach as the reason they signed for the film. Addala approached Ganesh Patro in Chennai to write the film's dialogue. Patro used the dialect spoken in the Godavari region of Andhra Pradesh, edited by Addala. It was his final project as a dialogue writer before his death in January 2015. K. V. Guhan, who worked on the previous Babu films Athadu (2005) and Dookudu, was signed as Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's cinematographer.
Mickey J. Meyer, who worked with Addala on the director's debut, composed the film's soundtrack and Mani Sharma composed its score. Sharma had composed the score for Raju's 2011 production, Oh My Friend, whose soundtrack was composed by Rahul Raj. Although production began in Hyderabad on the eve of Vijayadasami (6 October 2011) with a launch ceremony, Venkatesh and Babu did not attend due to previous film commitments. "Simple but beautiful" was announced as the film's advertising slogan in June 2012.
### Casting
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu is considered the first Telugu star-studded film in the last two or three decades. After listening to Addala's narration, Venkatesh felt that they could work more on the film's script and the director agreed. The actor agreed to the film because he considered it a safe bet which would appeal to a family audience. Raju was interested in casting Babu as the lead for two reasons: the film, revolving around two brothers, required two popular actors as the leads and the producer again wanted to work with the actor after Murari (2001), Takkari Donga (2002), Okkadu (2003) and Athadu. Guhan told The Hindu that Venkatesh's and Babu's unnamed characters would simply be called Peddodu and Chinnodu, respectively. The film is considered to be the first multi-starrer of Telugu cinema in recent decades.
Samantha Ruth Prabhu was signed to play Babu's love interest in the film, and Raju asked her to allow 40 days for shooting. After Trisha, Bhumika Chawla and Anushka Shetty were considered for the other female lead, Amala Paul was signed in mid-December 2011. After a photo shoot and the beginning of principal photography, Paul left the project in late January 2012 and Raju replaced her with Anjali.
Prakash Raj was cast in a principal role as the brothers' father. When he failed to join the film unit in Kutralam, it was rumoured that he had walked out of the film due to differences with Raju but Raju denied the reports. Jayasudha and Rohini Hattangadi were signed for supporting roles, and Hattangadi said that she would play the brothers' grandmother. Rao Ramesh played Samantha's father in the film.
Miss Dabur Gulabari 2011 second runner-up Tejaswi Madivada was signed for a supporting role in her acting debut, and Abhinaya was cast as Babu's sister in the film. Rama Prabha, Tanikella Bharani, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Brahmanandam and Ahuti Prasad later joined the film's supporting cast. Traditional and formal costumes were supplied by the clothing chain Kalamandir.
### Filming
Principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Visakhapatnam, where several of Venkatesh's scenes were filmed near the Andhra University campus and on the Ramakrishna Mission Beach. The next shooting schedule began in Kutralam, Tamil Nadu, on 6 February 2012 and filming continued in Hyderabad during March. In Sanathnagar a crowd disrupted shooting, and the film's crew chose an undisclosed location to resume. Samantha joined the film unit on 28 March. After shooting was disrupted three times in Hyderabad by crowds, Babu suggested that Raju move production to Chennai (where several wedding scenes were filmed at a coconut plantation). Rain increased production costs.
Part of the song "Yem Cheddaam" was shot at the Sabarmati Riverfront in mid-April, the riverfront's first appearance in a Telugu film. In addition to the riverfront, scenes were filmed over a fifteen-day schedule in shopping malls and gardens around Ahmedabad. Addala chose the city for its developing infrastructure, friendly people and climatic similarity to Hyderabad. On 31 May 2012, Raju told the media that 35 percent of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's filming was completed and the next shooting schedule would begin at Ramoji Film City. A house set worth ₹10 million was built at the studio under the supervision of A. S. Prakash. Venkatesh and Anjali began a four-day shooting schedule at Ahobilam on 4 July. After several key scenes were filmed in Relangi, near Tanuku, a new schedule began in Bhadrachalam on 16 July.
Filming was delayed when Samantha became ill, resuming on 19 August after her recovery. By mid-September, the producers had filmed for nearly 80 working days. Wedding and other crucial scenes were filmed in Chennai. By then the shooting of five songs was completed, with work on two more songs and detail work pending. Raju planned two shooting schedules: one from 28 September to 12 October, and the other from 15 November to the end of the month. Filming continued on 2 October 2012 at Ramanaidu Studios. The film's climactic scenes were shot in mid-November 2012 on a custom-built Bhadrachalam Temple set at Ramoji Film City, and the dialogue was wrapped up on 17 November.
A song featuring Babu and Samantha was shot in Magarpatta, Pune, in early December, and scenes following Chinni's wedding were filmed in Dwaraka Tirumala. Another song featuring Venkatesh and Anjali was shot in Kerala under the supervision of Prem Rakshith; its completion marked the end of principal photography on 24 December.
### Post-production
On 6 October 2012, a pooja commemorated the beginning of the film's dubbing. Post-production was planned simultaneously for a December 2012 release. On 23 October, Samantha began dubbing her role in the film. This was the first time she dubbed for herself in a Telugu film; her roles had previously been dubbed by the singer Chinmayi. Babu began dubbing his role on 10 December; Venkatesh had completed most of his dubbing work by then, with only a few reels remaining.
In mid-December, Samantha said that she had dubbed 40 percent of her role and the producers would decide if her voice would be retained; Chinmayi and Dubbing Janaki were later chosen to dub for Prabhu and Hattangadi. Babu finished dubbing his role by early January 2013, and post-production ended on 3 January. The first copy of the film was sent to the Central Board of Film Certification on 7 January, and it was cleared by the Board the following day.
## Themes
Raju said in early October 2011 that Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu would be a family drama; its title focuses on the family system in India, a part of the Indian ideology of one world family. According to Addala, "Seethamma" stands for the goddess Sita, "Vakitlo" for India and "Sirimalle Chettu" for the Indian family. The mentality of a person who does not smile at a fellow human but preaches the need for change in society and improvement in human relations was the basis of the film's script. The director tells the story of two brothers of different ages who are not expressive, showing them safeguarding their identities but having a deep love and respect for each other.
Addala travelled to Yanam and other places in East Godavari district to study the mentality and behaviour of the local people. He noticed that about 80 percent of the families had good fathers, and their sons (who were struggling to find jobs and establish themselves) reconciled easily after small disagreements. Addala decided to convey in the film that life would be easier if small problems can be corrected. Most of the characters, except Seetha, are drawn from real life; Babu's character represents youth, and Venkatesh and Prakash Raj's characters exemplify an elder brother and a middle-class father.
The movie draws similarities to the 1962 movie Gundamma Katha, such as the appearance of late actors Suryakantham and SV Ranga Rao, parent figures in both movies, as well as the idea of two brothers marrying two "almost" sisters (parallel cousins and steps-sisters). Seetha and Lakshmi are both humble orphans, while Saroja and Geetha are more spoiled and live with their parent who conflicts with the main family. Peddhodu and Chinnodu reflect the same mature and immature dynamic as Anji and Raja, as well as ending up with their respective heroine. The movies also share an intro, through which a group of pictures of a certain group of characters is shown on a background before the credits.
## Soundtrack
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's soundtrack was composed by Mickey J Meyer, with lyrics by Ananta Sriram and Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry. Aditya Music acquired its marketing rights in early June 2012, and the soundtrack was released at an event at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda, Hyderabad, on 7 December 2012. A critical and commercial success, it was certified triple platinum at a 19 January 2013 ceremony at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad.
## Release
In late April 2012 the producers planned a worldwide release on 28 September, three weeks before the release of Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's release was expected to be postponed because of a filming delay after Samantha had an adverse drug reaction. Raju later announced that the film would be released on 21 December for Christmas, but due to production delays its release was postponed to 11 January 2013 for the three-day Sankranthi holiday. At Babu's suggestion a statewide premiere was planned a day before the general theatrical release, with the producers hoping to earn ₹10 million from the premiere.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released on 101 screens (considered a record) in the United States and on eight screens in Canada. The film was released in New York, New Jersey, the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was the first South Indian film to be released in Manhattan, premiering on 10 January 2013 at the Times Square AMC Empire 25 theatre. The film opened worldwide on 1,500 screens. In Hyderabad and Secunderabad, it was released on 85 screens and the cities' eight multiplexes scheduled 100 shows per day; tickets for the first week sold out in one day. Raju scheduled screenings for women only on 14, 15 and 16 January.
A Tamil remake proved cost-prohibitive, leading to an announcement of the Tamil-dubbed version Anandam Anandame in early October 2013. Viji Creations acquired the dubbing rights and P. Rajarajan wrote the dialogue for the dubbed version. It was also later dubbed and released in Tamil again under the title Nenjamellam Pala Vannam which was released in 2018.
### Marketing
The film's first-look teaser was released on 31 May 2012. Within a day of its release the teaser attracted 227,319 views on YouTube, and 9,416 members shared it on Facebook. First-look posters saying "Happy birthday to my brother Mahesh Babu", signed by Venkatesh, were released on 8 August. Publicist B. A. Raju announced that another teaser would be released on 12 December, the day before Venkatesh's birthday, since the producers of Businessman (2012) had released a first-look poster featuring Babu on 11 November 2011. The film's theatrical trailer was released on 13 December. Red Label and Mega Mart entered into a co-branding partnership for the film.
### Pre-release revenue
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's television broadcast rights were sold for ₹85 million to an undisclosed channel in early June 2012. Theatrical distribution rights for Krishna district were sold for ₹27.5 million in late October 2012. Vintage Creations and Srinikethan Films acquired the theatrical distribution rights for East Godavari and Nellore districts for ₹28.3 million and ₹18.5 million, respectively. 14 Reels Entertainment, in association with FICUS, acquired the film's overseas theatrical distribution rights in late November 2012.
### Home media
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu's Indian VCD, DVD and Blu-ray discs were marketed by Aditya Videos. Overseas DVD and Blu-ray discs were released in June 2013 by Bhavani Videos, and global television broadcast rights were acquired by MAA TV. After its global television premiere, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu registered a TRP rating of 20.00, the second highest rating ever for a Telugu film after Magadheera (2009) which registered 22.00. It retained that spot until the global television premiere of Baahubali: The Beginning (2015) and Srimanthudu (2015). They registered the TRP ratings of 21.84 and 21.24 respectively, pushing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu to the fourth spot. The film's premiere took place on MAA TV on 9 June 2013.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu received generally positive reviews. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu called the film a "delightful family drama with its celebration of family bonds, love and marriage laced with laughter", and Addala "wants to leave his audience with a thought, wants them to reflect on their relationships and overlook skirmishes that can sour family bonds". Dundoo cited Guhan's cinematography as one of the film's highlights, and praised its performances. Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis called the film a "heartwarming watch that has its emotions and underlying message in the right place". Calling Guhan's cinematography and its music wonderful, Prabhakaran also praised the film's cast.
According to IANS, "It is very unlikely to point out a single dull moment in this crowd-pleasing, tear-jerking healthy family entertainer that presents a story akin to every household". The reviewer added that the film "may or may not inspire one and all, but it will definitely send everybody back home with a smile". Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment called the film a "good family entertainer", adding that the audience would immerse themselves in the film and "feel like they are watching some real life sequences from in and around their house". IndiaGlitz called the film a "heart-tugging family entertainer": "If Mahesh Babu seems to be the most important star, be it in terms of the screen time or the number of lines he gets to speak, it is Venkatesh who takes a lion's share in SVSC's story. It is around Peddodu that Srikanth Addala weaves a drama full of modest emotional highs and lilting moments".
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3.5 out of five stars, calling it a "good old fashioned family drama sans the usual masala" and adding that it is "pleasant, well intended, and has some tender moments as well, but does it pack enough entertainment value". Pasupulate praised the performances, calling them understated like the rest of the film. Sify gave the film 3.25 out of five stars: "Seethamma Vaakitlo Sirimalle Chettu definitely makes you moist-eyed as you walk out from the theatre but it runs on a flimsy story. It is a film that reinforces the great Indian family values and is also a manipulative film like most Sooraj Barjatya's films." The reviewer praised the film's climax, adding that Babu's performance, the score, cinematography and its later scenes overshadowed its flaws.
Radhika Rajamani of Rediff gave the film three out of five stars: "While it cruises along smoothly, delving into relationships within the family, without too many conflicts or twists and turns, one feels an emotional disconnect sometimes because society has changed so much from what is portrayed on screen". She added, "The storyline is realistic, in that it is all about the happenings in a middle class home, but it's more about situations and doesn't develop as a story. So if you want to see a non-violent, family values kind of film, this one is for you. It's just that it seems a little out of date." B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2.5 out of five stars, calling it a "dampener" and its scenes repetitive and tedious. Prakash praised the performances, however, especially those of Venkatesh and Babu.
### Box office
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu earned ₹9.81 crore on its first day at the AP-Nizam box office—according to trade analyst Trinath, probably the best-ever opening for a star-studded Telugu film. Taran Adarsh called the film's opening "mindblowing" as it earned US\$205,347 (₹1.13 crore) at 62 locations on its Thursday previews in the United States. It earned \$338,228 on Friday, bringing its two-day total to \$552,041—the most successful opening for a Telugu film in the U.S. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹25.01 crore in four days at the global box office, the most successful opening in Babu and Venkatesh's careers. The film grossed \$1,262,100 (₹6.87 crore) from reported screens in its first four-day weekend in the United States, affecting other films (such as Naayak and Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola) and surpassing the US lifetime earnings of Gabbar Singh (2012). The film's earnings declined 25 percent on its fifth day, and its five-day total nett was ₹28.66 crore. Earning about ₹35 crore in its first week, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu broke box-office records in several parts of the world. The film's earnings declined 50 percent over its second weekend, with a ten-day global box-office nett of ₹45 crore. In its second U.S. weekend the film earned \$203,160 (₹1.09 crore), bringing its ten-day U.S. total to \$1,548,709 (₹8.31 crore) and setting a record for a Telugu film in that country.
By the end of its second week, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹51 crore at the global box office. In the film's third weekend it was affected by Vishwaroopam, earning about ₹0.193 crore from 20 screens in the United States. It completed its 50-day run on 3 March in 25 theatres. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹38.75 crore at the AP/Nizam box office during its run, earning a distributor share of ₹51 crore at the global box office and declared a commercial success. It was the second-highest-grossing Telugu film of the year, after Attarintiki Daredi.
## Accolades
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was one of twenty Telugu film entries for the 61st National Film Awards. The film received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South, including Best Telugu film, Best Director — Telugu and Best Actor — Telugu. It won two awards: Best Actor — Telugu (Babu) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu (K. S. Chithra for "Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu").
The film received eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards, where Venkatesh and Babu were nominated for Best Actor — Telugu and Anjali and Jayasudha were nominated for Best Supporting Actor Female — Telugu. It won three awards, again for Best Actor — Telugu (Babu) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu (Chithra for "Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu") besides Anantha Sreeram, who earned the award for Best Lyricist — Telugu for the same song. Babu also received the "Best Actor for the Year 2013" award at the 2015 TSR – TV9 National Film Awards.
|
533,975 |
English Standard Version
| 1,173,256,493 |
English translation of the Bible
|
[
"2001 books",
"2001 in Christianity",
"Bible translations into English"
] |
The English Standard Version (ESV) is a translation of the Bible in contemporary English. Published in 2001 by Crossway, the ESV was "created by a team of more than 100 leading evangelical scholars and pastors." The ESV relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts.
Crossway claims that the ESV continues a legacy of precision and faithfulness in translating the original text into English. It describes the ESV as a translation that adheres to an "essentially literal" translation philosophy, taking into account "differences in grammar, syntax, and idiom between current literary English and the original languages." It also describes the ESV as a translation that "emphasizes 'word-for-word' accuracy, literary excellence, and depth of meaning."
Since its official publication, the ESV has received endorsement from numerous evangelical pastors and theologians, including John Piper, R. C. Sproul, and Kevin DeYoung.
## History
### Pre-publication
During the early 1990s, Crossway president Lane T. Dennis engaged in discussions with various Christian scholars and pastors regarding the need for a new literal translation of the Bible. In 1997, Dennis contacted the National Council of Churches (NCC) and proceeded to enter negotiations, alongside Trinity Evangelical Divinity School professor Wayne Grudem, to obtain rights to use the 1971 text edition of the Revised Standard Version (RSV) as the starting point for a new translation. In September 1998, an agreement was reached with the NCC for Crossway to use and modify the 1971 RSV text, thereby enabling the creation of a new translation. Crossway moved forward from this position by forming a translation committee and initiating work on the English Standard Version. Crossway officially published the ESV in 2001.
In 1999, World reported of "feminists" noticing links between Crossway and the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (CBMW). Members of the CBMW had earlier been involved in criticizing plans made by Zondervan's New International Version (NIV) translation committee to publish a gender-neutral edition of the NIV. Grudem, who was president of the CBMW at the time, responded by stating, "This [translation] is not a CBMW project."
#### Translation Oversight Committee
Chaired by Dennis, the fourteen-member Translation Oversight Committee was aided by more than fifty biblical experts serving as review scholars. The translation committee also received input from the Advisory Council, having more than fifty members. J. I. Packer served as general editor of the translation. The translation committee features the following notable individuals:
- Dr. Wayne A. Grudem (Research Professor, Theology and Biblical Studies, Phoenix Seminary)
- Dr. R. Kent Hughes (Senior Pastor Emeritus, College Church in Wheaton)
- Dr. J. I. Packer (Board of Governors Professor of Theology, Regent College, Vancouver, Canada)
- Dr. Vern Sheridan Poythress (Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Westminster Theological Seminary; Editor, Westminster Theological Journal)
- Dr. Gordon Wenham (Old Testament Tutor at Trinity College, Bristol; Emeritus Professor of Old Testament, University of Gloucestershire)
### Post-publication
In 2008, Crossway published the ESV Study Bible, which would go on to sell over 1 million copies. In 2009, the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association named the ESV Study Bible as Christian Book of the Year. This was the first time in the award's 30-year history to be given to a study Bible.
According to Crossway, over 100 million printed copies of the translation had been distributed as of 2015, and over 250 million as of 2021.
#### Debate surrounding translation philosophy
At the 2008 annual meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society, Mark L. Strauss presented a paper titled "Why the English Standard Version should not become the Standard English Version: How to make a good translation much better." In the paper, Strauss criticizes the ESV for using dated language, among other perceived issues, such as using gender-neutral language inconsistently in translation. ESV translator William D. Mounce responded to Strauss's criticism:
> While the content of the paper was helpful, I am afraid that it only increased the gap between the two "sides" of the [translation philosophy] debate. ... He kept saying that the ESV has "missed" or "not considered" certain translational issues. While I am sure they were not intentional, these are emotionally charged words that do not help in the debate. They are in essence ad hominem arguments focusing on our competence (or perceived lack thereof) and not on the facts. He was not in the translation meetings and does not know if we in fact did miss or did not consider these issues. ... The solution to this debate is to recognize that there are different translation philosophies, different goals and means by which to reach those goals, and the goal of the translator is to be consistent in achieving those goals. In all but one of his examples, our translation was the one required by our translation philosophy.
Strauss invited Mounce to engage further through participation at the following annual meeting. In 2009, Mounce presented his formal response paper titled "Can the ESV and TNIV Co-Exist in the Same Universe?" In the paper, Mounce describes various points regarding his view of the need for both formal and functional translations.
In October 2019, University of Oklahoma Sociology Associate Professor Samuel L. Perry published a journal article titled "The Bible as a Product of Cultural Power: The Case of Gender Ideology in the English Standard Version." In the article, Perry attempts to demonstrate "how a more critical approach toward 'the Bible' can provide richer, more sophisticated sociological analyses of power and cultural reproduction within Christian traditions." Perry argues that Crossway's ESV translation committee made "intentional, systematic changes" into the ESV for the purpose of being able to "publish and mass-market a text more amenable to conservative, complementarian interpretations." Perry further argues that the ESV translation committee "have engaged in more covert means of cultural reproduction, not only disseminating their interpretation of the biblical text, but manipulating the text itself." The ESV Study Bible often details in its study notes why a complementarian interpretation of the original text may have been rendered in translation.
In 2020, the Ireland-based Association of Catholic Priests criticized the ESV for its position on the use of gender-neutral language, perceiving the use of terms such as "mankind" and "brothers" to be "not just out of sync with modern usage but are culturally regarded as diminishing and disrespectful of women."
In June 2021, Samuel L. Perry published a journal article titled "Whitewashing Evangelical Scripture: The Case of Slavery and Antisemitism in the English Standard Version." In the article, Perry attempts to demonstrate how "the ESV editors, while modifying certain RSV renderings to establish transitivity for their text among complementarian/biblicist Christians, sought to establish intransitivity between the text and more pejorative social interpretations by progressively re-translating lexically ambiguous terms and introducing footnotes to obviate the Bible’s ostensible promotion of slavery and antisemitism." In turn, Perry was interviewed by Salon regarding the content of the article. Boyce College Professor of Biblical Studies Denny Burk points out that Perry makes a "significant error" in referring to Grudem as the general editor of the ESV. In July 2021, Bible Study Magazine editor Mark Ward published an article to his personal blog in response:
> Perry raises very important questions about Bible interpretation, and about the proper translation of fought-over words like "slave" and "Jew." ... So I carefully read not only the Salon interview but also the scholarly article in the Journal of the American Academy of Religion which gave rise to it. ... They [both] carry the same basic message. And that message is full of frankly cynical, acidic ideas about Bible study ... The first step in interpretation should be transitivity. You should try to fit what you read in the Bible in with your existing tradition. That's simple hermeneutical humility—as long as it's paired with a sincere desire to hold one’s tradition up to the light of Scripture. ... I can be grateful to Perry for some sharp observations, even some warning shots, while still insisting that any view that muzzles God, that severs the link between his intentions and his words, is rebellion. ... To offer "establishing transitivity with existing views" as a wholly sufficient view of evangelical Bible use is to take a small truth and make it the whole truth. It is to say to God, "We can't hear you because other people are talking."
## Literary attributes
### Relationship to the Revised Standard Version
The ESV is derived from the 1971 text edition of the Revised Standard Version. ESV translation committee member Wayne Grudem claims that approximately eight percent (or about 60,000 words) of the 1971 RSV text being used for the ESV was revised as of first publication in 2001. Grudem states that the committee removed "every trace of liberal influence that had caused such criticism from evangelicals when the RSV was first published in 1952." Although, Grudem also states that much of the 1971 RSV text left unchanged by the committee "is simply 'the best of the best' of the KJV tradition."
### Style
Theologian Tim Challies has praised the ESV for its commitment to literary excellence:
> ... the book that has most shaped my writing is the Bible—the ESV. Not only is this the book I’ve read most over the years, but it’s also the book I’ve studied the closest, and memorized most substantially. And then, of all the books I’ve read, it’s one of the finest in its literary quality. ... One thing I’ve always loved about the ESV is its superior use of the English language. Any translation involves a trade-off between precision and readability so that the most-literal translations also tend to be the least-readable. Though the ESV is a precise Bible, its translators chose to place a premium on literary excellence. ... They succeeded well, and the Bible they translated is beautiful to read—far more than any of its contemporaries.
Crossway claims that the ESV "retains theological terminology—words such as grace, faith, justification, sanctification, redemption, regeneration, reconciliation, propitiation—because of their central importance for Christian doctrine and also because the underlying Greek words were already becoming key words and technical terms among Christians in New Testament times." It also claims that the ESV lets the distinct writing styles of the various biblical writers come through the translated text.
### Position on gender-neutral language
The ESV translation committee states that "the goal of the ESV is to render literally what is in the original." The committee expands on this position in claiming that, although the ESV avoids using gender-neutral language (for the purpose of preserving contextual meaning found in the original text), the translation does utilize gender-neutral language in specific cases. The committee further state that their objective was "transparency to the original text, allowing the reader to understand the original on its own terms rather than in the terms of our present-day Western culture."
## Revisions and other editions
### Anglicized edition
In 2002, Collins published the English Standard Version: Anglicized Edition in the United Kingdom.
### 2007 text edition
Crossway published the first revision of the ESV text in 2007 as "ESV Text Edition: 2007." The revision makes minor changes to the 2001 text.
### Oxford Apocrypha edition
In 2009, Oxford University Press published the English Standard Version Bible with Apocrypha. This edition includes the Apocrypha, placed at the back of the Bible, intended for "denominations that use those books in liturgical readings and for students who need them for historical purposes."
### 2011 text edition
Crossway published the second revision of the ESV text in 2011 as "ESV Text Edition: 2011." The revision changes fewer than 500 words in total throughout 275 verses from the 2007 text. The changes were made in each case to "correct grammar, improve consistency, or increase precision in meaning." A notable revision was made in Isaiah 53:5, changing "wounded for our transgressions" to "pierced for our transgressions" in the revised text.
### Gideons edition
In 2013, Gideons International permanently transitioned from the New King James Version to the ESV as their translation of choice for free of charge distribution Bibles. In addition to being granted licensing for the ESV text (for the purpose of distribution), Crossway gave Gideons International permission to modify the text to use alternative readings based on the Textus Receptus. The Gideons edition uses more than 50 alternative readings.
### 2016 text edition
Crossway published the third revision of the ESV text in 2016 as the "ESV Permanent Text Edition (2016)." The revision changes 52 words in total throughout 29 verses from the 2011 text. A notable revision was made in Genesis 3:16 to use a complementarian interpretation of the original text: switching "shall be toward" with "shall be contrary to" in the revised text. The previous rendering can be found in the footnotes (excluding any editions that specifically do not have footnotes, such as the ESV Reader's Bible). The ESV Study Bible details in its study notes the revised interpretation in relation to a parallel understanding of 3:16 with both 4:7 (which shares the Hebrew word teshuqah; this verse having also been updated in the 2016 text) and Ephesians 5:21–32.
Coinciding with the release of the revision, Crossway announced that "the text of the ESV Bible will remain unchanged in all future editions printed and published by Crossway." However, in a statement from Lane T. Dennis the following month, the new policy was abandoned "to allow for ongoing periodic updating of the text to reflect the realities of biblical scholarship such as textual discoveries or changes in English over time." In the statement, Dennis responded to public discourse surrounding the policy: "We have become convinced that this decision was a mistake. We apologize for this and for any concern this has caused for readers of the ESV." The revision was subsequently republished as "ESV Text Edition: 2016."
### Catholic edition
In 2018, the Conference of Catholic Bishops of India published the ESV Catholic Edition Bible (ESV-CE), which includes the deuterocanonical books in Catholic canonical order. With permission from Crossway, a team of Catholic scholars reviewed the text of the ESV in light of the Vatican's translation principles as set forth in Liturgiam authenticam, making approved modifications where needed to adhere to Catholic teaching.
In 2019, the Augustine Institute published the ESV-CE in North America as The Augustine Bible. In October 2021, following these developments, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge published its own version of the ESV-CE, newly typeset and with anglicized spelling, in multiple formats.
### Anglican edition
In 2019, Anglican Liturgy Press published the ESV with Apocrypha. This edition includes the Apocrypha, placed at the back of the Bible. Having been approved by the ESV translation committee, the Apocrypha text found in this edition is a minor revision of the 2009 text published by Oxford University Press. A notable revision was made in retranslating the Book of Tobit.
## Use
### Study Bibles
The ESV has been used as the Bible text for a number of study Bible editions, including but not limited to:
- ESV study Bibles published by Crossway: the ESV Study Bible, the ESV Global Study Bible, the ESV Student Study Bible, and the ESV Literary Study Bible
- The MacArthur Study Bible, published by Thomas Nelson
- The Lutheran Study Bible, published by Concordia Publishing House
- The Reformation Study Bible, published by Ligonier Ministries
- The Fire Bible, published by Hendrickson Publishers
- The Apocrypha: The Lutheran Edition with Notes, published by Concordia Publishing House
- The Scofield Study Bible III, published by Oxford University Press
- The Ryrie Study Bible, published by Moody Publishers
### Liturgical
In August 2006, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod released the Lutheran Service Book (LSB), which uses the ESV as its primary Bible text. With permission from Crossway, the LSB occasionally uses an alternative reading of the ESV in accordance with its original translation principles.
In April 2020, the Catholic Church in India started using a new English lectionary which uses the ESV-CE as its Bible text (excluding the book of Psalms, which uses the Grail Psalms translation instead).
In July 2020, the Bishops' Conference of Scotland approved the preparation of a new lectionary based on the ESV-CE. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales also approved their own lectionary to be based on the ESV-CE.
## See also
- Modern English Bible translations
|
18,974,659 |
English Reformation
| 1,173,452,691 |
16th-century separation of the Church of England from the Catholic Church
|
[
"Anglicanism",
"Anti-Catholicism in England",
"Anti-Catholicism in Wales",
"English Reformation",
"History of Catholicism in England",
"History of the Church of England",
"Protestantism in England",
"Religion and politics"
] |
The English Reformation took place in 16th-century England when the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church. These events were part of the wider European Reformation, a religious and political movement that affected the practice of Christianity in Western and Central Europe.
Ideologically, the groundwork for the Reformation was laid by Renaissance humanists who believed that the Scriptures were the only source of Christian faith and criticized religious practices which they considered superstitious. By 1520, Martin Luther's new ideas were known and debated in England, but Protestants were a religious minority and heretics under the law. The English Reformation began as more of a political affair than a theological dispute. In 1527, Henry VIII requested an annulment of his marriage, but Pope Clement VII refused. In response, the Reformation Parliament (1529–1536) passed laws abolishing papal authority in England and declared Henry to be head of the Church of England. Final authority in doctrinal disputes now rested with the monarch. Though a religious traditionalist himself, Henry relied on Protestants to support and implement his religious agenda.
The theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henry's son Edward VI (1547–1553) largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary I (1553–1558), Roman Catholicism was restored and England was briefly under papal jurisdiction. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement reintroduced the Protestant religion but in a more moderate manner. Nevertheless, disputes over the structure, theology, and worship of the Church of England continued for generations.
The English Reformation is generally considered to have concluded during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), but scholars also speak of a "Long Reformation" stretching into the 17th and 18th centuries. This time period includes the violent disputes over religion during the Stuart period, most famously the English Civil War which resulted in the rule of Puritan Oliver Cromwell. After the Stuart Restoration and the Glorious Revolution, the Church of England remained the established church, but a number of nonconformist churches now existed whose members suffered various civil disabilities until these were removed many years later. A substantial but dwindling minority of people from the late 16th to early 19th centuries remained Roman Catholics in England – their church organization remained illegal until the Relief Act of 1829.
## Competing religious ideas
England began the 16th century as a Roman Catholic nation. Roman Catholicism taught that contrite persons could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works (see synergism). God's grace was given through the seven sacraments—Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, Holy Orders, Anointing of the Sick, Penance and the Eucharist. The Eucharist was celebrated during the Mass, the central act of Catholic worship. In this service, a priest consecrated bread and wine to become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation. The church taught that, in the name of the congregation, the priest offered to God the same sacrifice of Christ on the cross that provided atonement for the sins of humanity. The Mass was also an offering of prayer by which the living could help souls in purgatory. While penance removed the guilt attached to sin, Catholicism taught that a penalty still remained. It was believed that most people would end their lives with these penalties unsatisfied and would have to spend time in purgatory. Time in purgatory could be lessened through indulgences and prayers for the dead, which were made possible by the communion of saints.
Lollardy anticipated some Protestant teachings. Derived from the writings of John Wycliffe, a 14th-century theologian and Bible translator, Lollardy stressed the primacy of scripture and emphasised preaching over the Eucharist, holding the latter to be but a memorial. Though persecuted and much reduced in numbers and influence by the 15th century, Lollards were receptive to Protestant ideas.
Renaissance humanists, such as Erasmus (who lived in England for a time), John Colet and Thomas More, called for a return ad fontes ("back to the sources") of Christian faith—the scriptures as understood through textual and linguistic scholarship—and wanted to make the Bible available in the vernacular. Humanists criticised so-called superstitious practices and clerical corruption, while emphasising inward piety over religious ritual. Some of the early Protestant leaders went through a humanist phase before embracing the new movement.
The Protestant Reformation was initiated by the German monk Martin Luther. By the early 1520s, Luther's views were known and disputed in England. The main plank of Luther's theology was justification by faith alone rather than by good works. In this view, God's unmerited favour is the only way for humans to be justified—it cannot be achieved or earned by righteous living. In other words, justification is a gift from God received through faith.
If Luther was correct, then the Mass, the sacraments, charitable acts, prayers to saints, prayers for the dead, pilgrimage, and the veneration of relics do not mediate divine favour. To believe otherwise would be superstition at best and idolatry at worst. Early Protestants portrayed Catholic practices such as confession to priests, clerical celibacy, and requirements to fast and keep vows as burdensome and spiritually oppressive. Not only did purgatory lack any biblical basis according to Protestants, but the clergy were also accused of leveraging the fear of purgatory to make money from prayers and masses. Catholics countered that justification by faith alone was a "licence to sin".
The publication of William Tyndale's English New Testament in 1526 helped to spread Protestant ideas. Printed abroad and smuggled into the country, the Tyndale Bible was the first English Bible to be mass produced; there were probably 16,000 copies in England by 1536. Tyndale's translation was highly influential, forming the basis of all later English translations. An attack on traditional religion, Tyndale's translation included an epilogue explaining Luther's theology of justification by faith, and many translation choices were designed to undermine traditional Catholic teachings. Tyndale translated the Greek word charis as favour rather than grace to de-emphasize the role of grace-giving sacraments. His choice of love rather than charity to translate agape de-emphasized good works. When rendering the Greek verb metanoeite into English, Tyndale used repent rather than do penance. The former word indicated an internal turning to God, while the latter translation supported the sacrament of confession.
Protestant ideas were popular among some parts of the English population, especially among academics and merchants with connections to continental Europe. Protestant thought was better received at Cambridge University than Oxford. A group of reform-minded Cambridge students (known by moniker "Little Germany") met at the White Horse tavern from the mid-1520s. Its members included Robert Barnes, Hugh Latimer, John Frith, Thomas Bilney, George Joye and Thomas Arthur.
Nevertheless, English Catholicism was strong and popular in the early 1500s, and those who held Protestant sympathies remained a religious minority until political events intervened. As heretics in the eyes of church and state, early Protestants were persecuted. Between 1530 and 1533, Thomas Hitton (England's first Protestant martyr), Thomas Bilney, Richard Bayfield, John Tewkesbury, James Bainham, Thomas Benet, Thomas Harding, John Frith and Andrew Hewet were burned to death. William Tracy was posthumously convicted of heresy for denying purgatory and affirming justification by faith, and his corpse was disinterred and burned.
## Henrician Reformation
### Annulment controversy
Henry VIII acceded to the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17. He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummer's Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day (except during the hunting season); of "powerful but unoriginal mind", he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart, by night or day. He was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear.
This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. As long as Wolsey had his ear, Henry's Roman Catholicism was secure: in 1521, he had defended the Roman Catholic Church from Martin Luther's accusations of heresy in a book he wrote—probably with considerable help from the conservative Bishop of Rochester John Fisher—entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments, for which he was awarded the title "Defender of the Faith" (Fidei Defensor) by Pope Leo X. (Successive English and British monarchs have retained this title to the present, even after the Anglican Church broke away from Roman Catholicism, in part because the title was re-conferred by Parliament in 1544, after the split.) Wolsey's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn.
Anne arrived at court in 1522 as maid of honour to Queen Catherine, having spent some years in France being educated by Queen Claude of France. She was a woman of "charm, style and wit, with will and savagery which made her a match for Henry". Anne was a distinguished French conversationalist, singer, and dancer. She was cultured and is the disputed author of several songs and poems. By 1527, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled. She had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henry's father (Henry VII) ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown. Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragon's only surviving child was Princess Mary.
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God". Catherine had been his late brother's wife, and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her (Leviticus 20:21); a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place. Henry argued the marriage was never valid because the biblical prohibition was part of unbreakable divine law, and even popes could not dispense with it. In 1527, Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. According to canon law, the pope could not annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner.
The combination of Henry's "scruple of conscience" and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his queen compelling. The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 for praemunire (taking the authority of the papacy above the Crown) and Wolsey's subsequent death in November 1530 on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason left Henry open to both the influences of the supporters of the queen and the opposing influences of those who sanctioned the abandonment of the Roman allegiance, for whom an annulment was but an opportunity.
### Actions against clergy
In 1529, the King summoned Parliament to deal with the annulment and other grievances against the church. The Catholic Church was a powerful institution in England with a number of privileges. The King could not tax or sue clergy in civil courts. The church could also grant fugitives sanctuary, and many areas of the law―such as family law―were controlled by the church. For centuries, kings had attempted to reduce the church's power, and the English Reformation was a continuation of this power struggle.
The Reformation Parliament sat from 1529 to 1536 and brought together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take. There were common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their ecclesiastical courts, and there were those who had been influenced by Lutheranism and were hostile to the theology of Rome. Henry's chancellor, Thomas More, successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: he wanted new laws against heresy. Lawyer and member of Parliament Thomas Cromwell saw how Parliament could be used to advance royal supremacy over the church and further Protestant beliefs.
Initially, Parliament passed minor legislation to control ecclesiastical fees, clerical pluralism, and sanctuary. In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible. The Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry. Anne, Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope, but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the Archbishop of Canterbury to act against the Pope's prohibition. Henry thus resolved to bully the priests.
Having first charged eight bishops and seven other clerics with praemunire, the King decided in 1530 to proceed against the whole clergy for violating the 1392 Statute of Praemunire, which forbade obedience to the Pope or any foreign ruler. Henry wanted the clergy of Canterbury province to pay £100,000 for their pardon; this was a sum equal to the Crown's annual income. This was agreed by the Convocation of Canterbury on 24 January 1531. It wanted the payment spread over five years, but Henry refused. The convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfil certain guarantees before they would give him the money. Henry refused these conditions, agreeing only to the five-year period of payment. On 7 February, Convocation was asked to agree to five articles that specified that:
1. The clergy recognise Henry as the "sole protector and supreme head of the English Church and clergy"
2. The King was responsible for the souls of his subjects
3. The privileges of the church were upheld only if they did not detract from the royal prerogative and the laws of the realm
4. The King pardoned the clergy for violating the Statute of Praemunire
5. The laity were also pardoned.
In Parliament, Bishop Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy, inserting into the first article the phrase "as far as the word of God allows". On 11 February, William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, presented the revised wording to Convocation. The clergy were to acknowledge the King to be "singular protector, supreme lord and even, so far as the law of Christ allows, supreme head of the English Church and clergy". When Warham requested a discussion, there was silence. Warham then said, "He who is silent seems to consent", to which a bishop responded, "Then we are all silent." The Convocation granted consent to the King's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531. Later, the Convocation of York agreed to the same on behalf of the clergy of York province. That same year, Parliament passed the Pardon to Clergy Act 1531.
By 1532, Cromwell was responsible for managing government business in the House of Commons. He authored and presented to the Commons the Supplication Against the Ordinaries, which was a list of grievances against the church, including abuses of power and Convocation's independent legislative authority. After passing the Commons, the Supplication was presented to the King as a petition for reform on 18 March. On 26 March, the Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates mandated the clergy pay no more than five percent of their first year's revenue (annates) to Rome.
On 10 May, the King demanded of Convocation that the church renounce all authority to make laws. On 15 May, Convocation renounced its authority to make canon law without royal assent—the so called Submission of the Clergy. (Parliament subsequently gave this statutory force with the Submission of the Clergy Act). The next day, More resigned as lord chancellor. This left Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. (Cromwell never became chancellor. His power came—and was lost—through his informal relations with Henry.)
### Separation from Rome
Archbishop Warham died in August 1532. Henry wanted Thomas Cranmer—a Protestant who could be relied on to oppose the papacy—to replace him. The Pope reluctantly approved Cranmer's appointment, and he was consecrated on 30 March 1533. By this time, Henry was secretly married to a pregnant Anne. The impending birth of an heir gave new urgency to annulling his marriage to Catherine. Nevertheless, a decision continued to be delayed because Rome was the final authority in all ecclesiastical matters. To address this issue, Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals, which outlawed appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters and declared that
> This realm of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality, be bounden and owe to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience.
This declared England an independent country in every respect. English historian Geoffrey Elton called this act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty. Cranmer was now able to grant an annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required, pronouncing on 23 May the judgment that Henry's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God. The Pope responded by excommunicating Henry on 11 July 1533. Anne gave birth to a daughter, Princess Elizabeth, on 7 September 1533.
In 1534, Parliament took further action to limit papal authority in England. A new Heresy Act ensured that no one could be punished for speaking against the Pope and also made it more difficult to convict someone of heresy; however, sacramentarians and Anabaptists continued to be vigorously persecuted. The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed all annates to Rome and also ordered that if cathedrals refused the King's nomination for bishop, they would be liable to punishment by praemunire. The Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown. The Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of Peter's Pence to the Pope, and transferred the power to grant dispensations and licences from the Pope to the Archbishop of Canterbury. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.
The First Act of Supremacy made Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England and disregarded any "usage, custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or] prescription". In case this should be resisted, Parliament passed the Treasons Act 1534, which made it high treason punishable by death to deny royal supremacy. The following year, Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation. Finally, in 1536, Parliament passed the Act against the Pope's Authority, which removed the last part of papal authority still legal. This was Rome's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture.
### Moderate religious reform
The break with Rome gave Henry VIII power to administer the English Church, tax it, appoint its officials, and control its laws. It also gave him control over the church's doctrine and ritual. While Henry remained a traditional Catholic, his most important supporters in breaking with Rome were the Protestants. Yet, not all of his supporters were Protestants. Some were traditionalists, such as Stephen Gardiner, opposed to the new theology but felt papal supremacy was not essential to the Church of England's identity. The King relied on Protestants, such as Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer, to carry out his religious programme and embraced the language of the continental Reformation, while maintaining a middle way between religious extremes. What followed was a period of doctrinal confusion as both conservatives and reformers attempted to shape the church's future direction.
The reformers were aided by Cromwell, who in January 1535 was made vicegerent in spirituals. Effectively the King's vicar general, Cromwell's authority was greater than that of bishops, even the Archbishop of Canterbury. Largely due to Anne Boleyn's influence, a number of Protestants were appointed bishops between 1534 and 1536. These included Latimer, Thomas Goodrich, John Salcot, Nicholas Shaxton, William Barlow, John Hilsey and Edward Foxe. During the same period, the most influential conservative bishop, Stephen Gardiner, was sent to France on a diplomatic mission and thus removed from an active role in English politics for three years.
Cromwell's programme, assisted by Anne Boleyn's influence over episcopal appointments, was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome. He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League. There also seemed to be a possibility that Emperor Charles V might act to avenge his rejected aunt (Queen Catherine) and enforce the pope's excommunication. The negotiations did not lead to an alliance but did bring Lutheran ideas to England.
In 1536, Convocation adopted the first doctrinal statement for the Church of England, the Ten Articles. This was followed by the Bishops' Book in 1537. These established a semi-Lutheran doctrine for the church. Justification by faith, qualified by an emphasis on good works following justification, was a core teaching. The traditional seven sacraments were reduced to three only—baptism, Eucharist and penance. Catholic teaching on praying to saints, purgatory and the use of images in worship was undermined.
In August 1536, the same month the Ten Articles were published, Cromwell issued a set of Royal Injunctions to the clergy. Minor feast days were changed into normal work days, including those celebrating a church's patron saint and most feasts during harvest time (July through September). The rationale was partly economic as too many holidays led to a loss of productivity and were "the occasion of vice and idleness". In addition, Protestants considered feast days to be examples of superstition. Clergy were to discourage pilgrimages and instruct the people to give to the poor rather than make offerings to images. The clergy were also ordered to place Bibles in both English and Latin in every church for the people to read. This last requirement was largely ignored by the bishops for a year or more due to the lack of any authorised English translation. The only complete vernacular version was the Coverdale Bible finished in 1535 and based on Tyndale's earlier work. It lacked royal approval, however.
Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch in his study of The Later Reformation in England, 1547–1603 argues that after 1537, "England's Reformation was characterized by its hatred of images, as Margaret Aston's work on iconoclasm and iconophobia has repeatedly and eloquently demonstrated." In February 1538, the famous Rood of Grace was condemned as a mechanical fraud and destroyed at St Paul's Cross. In July, the statues of Our Lady of Walsingham, Our Lady of Ipswich, and other Marian images were burned at Chelsea on Cromwell's orders. In September, Cromwell issued a second set of royal injunctions ordering the destruction of images to which pilgrimage offerings were made, the prohibition of lighting votive candles before images of saints, and the preaching of sermons against the veneration of images and relics. Afterwards, the shrine and bones of Thomas Becket, considered by many to have been martyred in defence of the church's liberties, were destroyed at Canterbury Cathedral.
### Dissolution of the monasteries
For Cromwell and Cranmer, a step in the Protestant agenda was attacking monasticism, which was associated with the doctrine of purgatory. One of the primary functions of monasteries was to pray for the souls of their benefactors and for the souls of all Christians. While the King was not opposed to religious houses on theological grounds, there was concern over the loyalty of the monastic orders, which were international in character and resistant to the Royal Supremacy. The Franciscan Observant houses were closed in August 1534 after that order refused to repudiate papal authority. Between 1535 and 1537, 18 Carthusians were killed for doing the same.
The Crown was also experiencing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, in contrast to its political weakness, made confiscation of church property both tempting and feasible. Seizure of monastic wealth was not unprecedented; it had happened before in 1295, 1337, and 1369. The church owned between one-fifth and one-third of the land in all England; Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of church lands, and that any reversion to pre-Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm.
In 1534, Cromwell initiated a visitation of the monasteries ostensibly to examine their character, but in fact, to value their assets with a view to expropriation. The visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns, which became the ostensible justification for their suppression. There were also reports of the possession and display of false relics, such as Hailes Abbey's vial of the Holy Blood, upon investigation announced to be "honey clarified and coloured with saffron". The Compendium Competorum compiled by the visitors documented ten pieces of the True Cross, seven portions of the Virgin Mary's milk and numerous saints' girdles.
Leading reformers, led by Anne Boleyn, wanted to convert monasteries into "places of study and good letters, and to the continual relief of the poor", but this was not done. In 1536, the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act closed smaller houses valued at less than £200 a year. Henry used the revenue to help build coastal defences (see Device Forts) against expected invasion, and all the land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy. Thirty-four houses were saved by paying for exemptions. Monks and nuns affected by closures were transferred to larger houses, and monks had the option of becoming secular clergy.
The Royal Supremacy and the abolition of papal authority had not caused widespread unrest, but the attacks on monasteries and the abolition of saints' days and pilgrimages provoked violence. Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings. Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places. In Northern England, there were a series of uprisings against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537. The Lincolnshire Rising occurred in October 1536 and culminated in a force of 40,000 rebels assembling at Lincoln. They demanded an end to taxation during peacetime, the repeal of the statute of uses, an end to the suppression of monasteries, and that heresy be purged and heretics punished. Henry refused to negotiate, and the revolt collapsed as the nervous gentry convinced the common people to disperse.
The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter. The revolt began in October at Yorkshire and spread to the other northern counties. Around 50,000 strong, the rebels under Robert Aske's leadership restored 16 of the 26 northern monasteries that had been dissolved. Due to the size of the rebellion, the King was persuaded to negotiate. In December, the Duke of Norfolk offered the rebels a pardon and a parliament to consider their grievances. Aske then sent the rebels home. The promises made to them, however, were ignored by the King, and Norfolk was instructed to put the rebellion down. Forty-seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed, and 132 from the Pilgrimage of Grace. In Southern England, smaller disturbances took place in Cornwall and Walsingham in 1537.
The failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace only sped up the process of dissolution and may have convinced Henry VIII that all religious houses needed to be closed. In 1540, the last monasteries were dissolved, wiping out an important element of traditional religion. Former monks were given modest pensions from the Court of Augmentations, and those that could sought work as parish priests. Former nuns received smaller pensions and, as they were still bound by vows of chastity, forbidden to marry. Henry personally devised a plan to form at least thirteen new dioceses so that most counties had one based on a former monastery (or more than one), though this scheme was only partly carried out. New dioceses were established at Bristol, Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough, Westminster and Chester, but not, for instance, at Shrewsbury, Leicester or Waltham.
### Reforms reversed
According to historian Peter Marshall, Henry's religious reforms were based on the principles of "unity, obedience and the refurbishment of ancient truth". Yet, the outcome was disunity and disobedience. Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform. Priests said Mass in English rather than Latin and were marrying in violation of clerical celibacy. Not only were there divisions between traditionalists and reformers, but Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs and radicals who held Anabaptist and Sacramentarian views. Reports of dissension from every part of England reached Cromwell daily—developments he tried to hide from the King.
In September 1538, Stephen Gardiner returned to England, and official religious policy began to drift in a conservative direction. This was due in part to the eagerness of establishment Protestants to disassociate themselves from religious radicals. In September, two Lutheran princes, the Elector of Saxony and Landgrave of Hesse, sent warnings of Anabaptist activity in England. A commission was swiftly created to seek out Anabaptists. Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November 1538 for denying the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. At the same time, he shared in the drafting of a proclamation ordering Anabaptists and Sacramentaries to get out of the country or face death. Discussion of the real presence (except by those educated in the universities) was forbidden, and priests who married were to be dismissed.
It was becoming clear that the King's views on religion differed from those of Cromwell and Cranmer. Henry made his traditional preferences known during the Easter Triduum of 1539, where he crept to the cross on Good Friday. Later that year, Parliament passed the Six Articles reaffirming Roman Catholic beliefs and practices such as transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, confession to a priest, votive masses, and withholding communion wine from the laity.
On 28 June 1540 Cromwell, Henry's longtime advisor and loyal servant, was executed. Different reasons were advanced: that Cromwell would not enforce the Act of Six Articles; that he had supported Robert Barnes, Hugh Latimer and other heretics; and that he was responsible for Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife. Many other arrests under the Act followed. On 30 July, the reformers Barnes, William Jerome and Thomas Gerrard were burned at the stake. In a display of religious impartiality, Thomas Abell, Richard Featherstone and Edward Powell—all Roman Catholics—were hanged and quartered while the Protestants burned. European observers were shocked and bewildered. French diplomat Charles de Marillac wrote that Henry's religious policy was a "climax of evils" and that:
> [I]t is difficult to have a people entirely opposed to new errors which does not hold with the ancient authority of the Church and of the Holy See, or, on the other hand, hating the Pope, which does not share some opinions with the Germans. Yet the government will not have either the one or the other, but insists on their keeping what is commanded, which is so often altered that it is difficult to understand what it is.
Despite setbacks, Protestants managed to win some victories. In May 1541, the King ordered copies of the Great Bible to be placed in all churches; failure to comply would result in a £2 fine. Protestants could celebrate the growing access to vernacular scripture as most churches had Bibles by 1545. The iconoclastic policies of 1538 were continued in the autumn when the Archbishops of Canterbury and York were ordered to destroy all remaining shrines in England. Furthermore, Cranmer survived formal charges of heresy in the Prebendaries' Plot of 1543.
Traditionalists, nevertheless, seemed to have the upper hand. By the spring of 1543, Protestant innovations had been reversed, and only the break with Rome and the dissolution of the monasteries remained unchanged. In May 1543, a new formulary was published to replace the Bishops' Book. This King's Book rejected justification by faith alone and defended traditional ceremonies and the use of images. This was followed days later by passage of the Act for the Advancement of True Religion, which restricted Bible reading to men and women of noble birth. Henry expressed his fears to Parliament in 1545 that "the Word of God, is disputed, rhymed, sung and jangled in every ale house and tavern, contrary to the true meaning and doctrine of the same."
By the spring of 1544, the conservatives appeared to be losing influence once again. In March, Parliament made it more difficult to prosecute people for violating the Six Articles. Cranmer's Exhortation and Litany, the first official vernacular service, was published in June 1544, and the King's Primer became the only authorised English prayer book in May 1545. Both texts had a reformed emphasis. After the death of the conservative Edward Lee in September 1544, the Protestant Robert Holgate replaced him as Archbishop of York. In December 1545, the King was empowered to seize the property of chantries (trust funds endowed to pay for priests to say masses for the dead). While Henry's motives were largely financial (England was at war with France and desperately in need of funds), the passage of the Chantries Act was "an indication of how deeply the doctrine of purgatory had been eroded and discredited".
In 1546, the conservatives were once again in the ascendant. A series of controversial sermons preached by the Protestant Edward Crome set off a persecution of Protestants that the traditionalists used to effectively target their rivals. It was during this time that Anne Askew was tortured in the Tower of London and burnt at the stake. Even Henry's last wife, Katherine Parr, was suspected of heresy but saved herself by appealing to the King's mercy. With the Protestants on the defensive, traditionalists pressed their advantage by banning Protestant books.
The conservative persecution of Queen Katherine, however, backfired. By November 1546, there were already signs that religious policy was once again tilting towards Protestantism. The King's will provided for a regency council to rule after his death, which would have been dominated by traditionalists, such as the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Chancellor Wriothesly, Bishop Gardiner and Bishop Tunstall. After a dispute with the King, Bishop Gardiner, the leading conservative churchman, was disgraced and removed as a councilor. Later, the Duke of Norfolk, the most powerful conservative nobleman, was arrested. By the time Henry died in 1547, the Protestant Edward Seymour, brother of Jane Seymour, Henry's third wife (and therefore uncle to the future Edward VI), managed—by a number of alliances such as with Lord Lisle—to gain control over the Privy Council.
## Edwardian Reformation
When Henry died in 1547, his nine-year-old son, Edward VI, inherited the throne. Because Edward was given a Protestant humanist education, Protestants held high expectations and hoped he would be like Josiah, the biblical king of Judah who destroyed the altars and images of Baal. During the seven years of Edward's reign, a Protestant establishment would gradually implement religious changes that were "designed to destroy one Church and build another, in a religious revolution of ruthless thoroughness".
Initially, however, Edward was of little account politically. Real power was in the hands of the regency council, which elected Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, to be Lord Protector. The Protestant Somerset pursued reform hesitantly at first, partly because his powers were not unchallenged. The Six Articles remained the law of the land, and a proclamation was issued on 24 May reassuring the people against any "innovations and changes in religion".
Nevertheless, Seymour and Cranmer did plan to further the reformation of religion. In July, a Book of Homilies was published, from which all clergy were to preach from on Sundays. The homilies were explicitly Protestant in their content, condemning relics, images, rosary beads, holy water, palms, and other "papistical superstitions". It also directly contradicted the King's Book by teaching "we be justified by faith only, freely, and without works". Despite objections from Gardiner, who questioned the legality of bypassing both Parliament and Convocation, justification by faith had been made a central teaching of the English Church.
### Iconoclasm and abolition of chantries
In August 1547, thirty commissioners—nearly all Protestants—were appointed to carry out a royal visitation of England's churches. The Royal Injunctions of 1547 issued to guide the commissioners were borrowed from Cromwell's 1538 injunctions but revised to be more radical. Historian Eamon Duffy calls them a "significant shift in the direction of full-blown Protestantism". Church processions—one of the most dramatic and public aspects of the traditional liturgy—were banned. The injunctions also attacked the use of sacramentals, such as holy water. It was emphasized that they imparted neither blessing nor healing but were only reminders of Christ. Lighting votive candles before saints' images had been forbidden in 1538, and the 1547 injunctions went further by outlawing those placed on the rood loft. Reciting the rosary was also condemned.
The injunctions set off a wave of iconoclasm in the autumn of 1547. While the injunctions only condemned images that were abused as objects of worship or devotion, the definition of abuse was broadened to justify the destruction of all images and relics. Stained glass, shrines, statues, and roods were defaced or destroyed. Church walls were whitewashed and covered with biblical texts condemning idolatry.
Conservative bishops Edmund Bonner and Gardiner protested the visitation, and both were arrested. Bonner spent nearly two weeks in the Fleet Prison before being released. Gardiner was sent to the Fleet Prison in September and remained there until January 1548. However, he continued to refuse to enforce the new religious policies and was arrested once again in June when he was sent to the Tower of London for the rest of Edward's reign.
When a new Parliament met in November 1547, it began to dismantle the laws passed during Henry VIII's reign to protect traditional religion. The Act of Six Articles was repealed—decriminalizing denial of the real, physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The old heresy laws were also repealed, allowing free debate on religious questions. In December, the Sacrament Act allowed the laity to receive communion under both kinds, the wine as well as the bread. This was opposed by conservatives but welcomed by Protestants.
The Chantries Act 1547 abolished the remaining chantries and confiscated their assets. Unlike the Chantry Act 1545, the 1547 act was intentionally designed to eliminate the last remaining institutions dedicated to praying for the dead. Confiscated wealth funded the Rough Wooing of Scotland. Chantry priests had served parishes as auxiliary clergy and schoolmasters, and some communities were destroyed by the loss of the charitable and pastoral services of their chantries.
Historians dispute how well this was received. A.G. Dickens contended that people had "ceased to believe in intercessory masses for souls in purgatory", but Eamon Duffy argued that the demolition of chantry chapels and the removal of images coincided with the activity of royal visitors. The evidence is often ambiguous. In some places, chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so. Some parishes took steps to conceal images and relics in order to rescue them from confiscation and destruction. Opposition to the removal of images was widespread—so much so that when during the Commonwealth, William Dowsing was commissioned to the task of image breaking in Suffolk, his task, as he records it, was enormous.
### 1549 prayer book
The second year of Edward's reign was a turning point for the English Reformation; many people identified the year 1548, rather than the 1530s, as the beginning of the English Church's schism from the Roman Catholic Church. On 18 January 1548, the Privy Council abolished the use of candles on Candlemas, ashes on Ash Wednesday and palms on Palm Sunday. On 21 February, the council explicitly ordered the removal of all church images.
On 8 March, a royal proclamation announced a more significant change—the first major reform of the Mass and of the Church of England's official eucharistic theology. The "Order of the Communion" was a series of English exhortations and prayers that reflected Protestant theology and were inserted into the Latin Mass. A significant departure from tradition was that individual confession to a priest—long a requirement before receiving the Eucharist—was made optional and replaced with a general confession said by the congregation as a whole. The effect on religious custom was profound as a majority of laypeople, not just Protestants, most likely ceased confessing their sins to their priests. By 1548, Cranmer and other leading Protestants had moved from the Lutheran to the Reformed position on the Eucharist. Significant to Cranmer's change of mind was the influence of Strasbourg theologian Martin Bucer. This shift can be seen in the Communion order's teaching on the Eucharist. Laypeople were instructed that when receiving the sacrament they "spiritually eat the flesh of Christ", an attack on the belief in the real, bodily presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Communion order was incorporated into the new prayer book largely unchanged.
That prayer book and liturgy, the Book of Common Prayer, was authorized by the Act of Uniformity 1549. It replaced the several regional Latin rites then in use, such as the Use of Sarum, the Use of York and the Use of Hereford with an English-language liturgy. Authored by Cranmer, this first prayer book was a temporary compromise with conservatives. It provided Protestants with a service free from what they considered superstition, while maintaining the traditional structure of the mass.
The cycles and seasons of the church year continued to be observed, and there were texts for daily Matins (Morning Prayer), Mass and Evensong (Evening Prayer). In addition, there was a calendar of saints' feasts with collects and scripture readings appropriate for the day. Priests still wore vestments—the prayer book recommended the cope rather than the chasuble. Many of the services were little changed. Baptism kept a strongly sacramental character, including the blessing of water in the baptismal font, promises made by godparents, making the sign of the cross on the child's forehead, and wrapping it in a white chrism cloth. The confirmation and marriage services followed the Sarum rite. There were also remnants of prayer for the dead and the Requiem Mass, such as the provision for celebrating holy communion at a funeral.
Nevertheless, the first Book of Common Prayer was a "radical" departure from traditional worship in that it "eliminated almost everything that had till then been central to lay Eucharistic piety". Communion took place without any elevation of the consecrated bread and wine. The elevation had been the central moment of the old liturgy, attached as it was to the idea of real presence. In addition, the prayer of consecration was changed to reflect Protestant theology. Three sacrifices were mentioned; the first was Christ's sacrifice on the cross. The second was the congregation's sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, and the third was the offering of "ourselves, our souls and bodies, to be a reasonable, holy and lively sacrifice" to God. While the medieval Canon of the Mass "explicitly identified the priest's action at the altar with the sacrifice of Christ", the Prayer Book broke this connection by stating the church's offering of thanksgiving in the Eucharist was not the same as Christ's sacrifice on the cross. Instead of the priest offering the sacrifice of Christ to God the Father, the assembled offered their praises and thanksgivings. The Eucharist was now to be understood as merely a means of partaking in and receiving the benefits of Christ's sacrifice.
There were other departures from tradition. At least initially, there was no music because it would take time to replace the church's body of Latin music. Most of the liturgical year was simply "bulldozed away" with only the major feasts of Christmas, Easter and Whitsun along with a few biblical saints' days (Apostles, Evangelists, John the Baptist and Mary Magdalene) and only two Marian feast days (the Purification and the Annunciation). The Assumption, Corpus Christi and other festivals were gone.
In 1549, Parliament also legalized clerical marriage, something already practised by some Protestants (including Cranmer) but considered an abomination by conservatives.
### Rebellion
Enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a struggle. In the West Country, the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer was the catalyst for a series of uprisings through the summer of 1549. There were smaller upheavals elsewhere from the West Midlands to Yorkshire. The Prayer Book Rebellion was not only in reaction to the prayer book; the rebels demanded a full restoration of pre-Reformation Catholicism. They were also motivated by economic concerns, such as enclosure. In East Anglia, however, the rebellions lacked a Roman Catholic character. Kett's Rebellion in Norwich blended Protestant piety with demands for economic reforms and social justice.
The insurrections were put down only after considerable loss of life. Somerset was blamed and was removed from power in October. It was wrongly believed by both conservatives and reformers that the Reformation would be overturned. Succeeding Somerset as de facto regent was John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, newly appointed Lord President of the Privy Council. Warwick saw further implementation of the reforming policy as a means of gaining Protestant support and defeating his conservative rivals.
### Further reform
From that point on, the Reformation proceeded apace. Since the 1530s, one of the obstacles to Protestant reform had been the bishops, bitterly divided between a traditionalist majority and a Protestant minority. This obstacle was removed in 1550–1551 when the episcopate was purged of conservatives. Edmund Bonner of London, William Rugg of Norwich, Nicholas Heath of Worcester, John Vesey of Exeter, Cuthbert Tunstall of Durham, George Day of Chichester and Stephen Gardiner of Winchester were either deprived of their bishoprics or forced to resign. Thomas Thirlby, Bishop of Westminster, managed to stay a bishop only by being translated to the Diocese of Norwich, "where he did virtually nothing during his episcopate". Traditionalist bishops were replaced by Protestants such as Nicholas Ridley, John Ponet, John Hooper and Miles Coverdale.
The newly enlarged and emboldened Protestant episcopate turned its attention to ending efforts by conservative clergy to "counterfeit the popish mass" through loopholes in the 1549 prayer book. The Book of Common Prayer was composed during a time when it was necessary to grant compromises and concessions to traditionalists. This was taken advantage of by conservative priests who made the new liturgy as much like the old one as possible, including elevating the Eucharist. The conservative Bishop Gardiner endorsed the prayer book while in prison, and historian Eamon Duffy notes that many lay people treated the prayer book "as an English missal".
To attack the mass, Protestants began demanding the removal of stone altars. Bishop Ridley launched the campaign in May 1550 when he commanded all altars to be replaced with wooden communion tables in his London diocese. Other bishops throughout the country followed his example, but there was also resistance. In November 1550, the Privy Council ordered the removal of all altars in an effort to end all dispute. While the prayer book used the term "altar", Protestants preferred a table because at the Last Supper Christ instituted the sacrament at a table. The removal of altars was also an attempt to destroy the idea that the Eucharist was Christ's sacrifice. During Lent in 1550, John Hooper preached, "as long as the altars remain, both the ignorant people, and the ignorant and evil-persuaded priest, will dream always of sacrifice".
In March 1550, a new ordinal was published that was based on Martin Bucer's own treatise on the form of ordination. While Bucer had provided for only one service for all three orders of clergy, the English ordinal was more conservative and had separate services for deacons, priests and bishops. During his consecration as bishop of Gloucester, John Hooper objected to the mention of "all saints and the holy Evangelist" in the Oath of Supremacy and to the requirement that he wear a black chimere over a white rochet. Hooper was excused from invoking the saints in his oath, but he would ultimately be convinced to wear the offensive consecration garb. This was the first battle in the vestments controversy, which was essentially a conflict over whether the church could require people to observe ceremonies that were neither necessary for salvation nor prohibited by scripture.
### 1552 prayer book and parish confiscations
The 1549 Book of Common Prayer was criticized by Protestants both in England and abroad for being too susceptible to Roman Catholic re-interpretation. Martin Bucer identified 60 problems with the prayer book, and the Italian Peter Martyr Vermigli provided his own complaints. Shifts in Eucharistic theology between 1548 and 1552 also made the prayer book unsatisfactory—during that time English Protestants achieved a consensus rejecting any real bodily presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Some influential Protestants such as Vermigli defended Zwingli's symbolic view of the Eucharist. Less radical Protestants such as Bucer and Cranmer advocated for a spiritual presence in the sacrament. Cranmer himself had already adopted receptionist views on the Lord's Supper. In April 1552, a new Act of Uniformity authorized a revised Book of Common Prayer to be used in worship by November 1.
This new prayer book removed many of the traditional elements in the 1549 prayer book, resulting in a more Protestant liturgy. The communion service was designed to remove any hint of consecration or change in the bread and wine. Instead of unleavened wafers, ordinary bread was to be used. The prayer of invocation was removed, and the minister no longer said "the body of Christ" when delivering communion. Rather, he said, "Take and eat this, in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving". Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper was a spiritual presence "limited to the subjective experience of the communicant". Anglican bishop and scholar Colin Buchanan interprets the prayer book to teach that "the only point where the bread and wine signify the body and blood is at reception". Rather than reserving the sacrament (which often led to Eucharistic adoration), any leftover bread or wine was to be taken home by the curate for ordinary consumption.
In the new prayer book, the last vestiges of prayers for the dead were removed from the funeral service. Unlike the 1549 version, the 1552 prayer book removed many traditional sacramentals and observances that reflected belief in the blessing and exorcism of people and objects. In the baptism service, infants no longer received minor exorcism and the white chrisom robe. Anointing was no longer included in the services for baptism, ordination and visitation of the sick. These ceremonies were altered to emphasise the importance of faith, rather than trusting in rituals or objects. Clerical vestments were simplified—ministers were only allowed to wear the surplice and bishops had to wear a rochet.
Throughout Edward's reign, inventories of parish valuables, ostensibly for preventing embezzlement, convinced many the government planned to seize parish property, just as was done to the chantries. These fears were confirmed in March 1551 when the Privy Council ordered the confiscation of church plate and vestments "for as much as the King's Majestie had neede [sic] presently of a mass of money". No action was taken until 1552–1553 when commissioners were appointed. They were instructed to leave only the "bare essentials" required by the 1552 Book of Common Prayer—a surplice, tablecloths, communion cup and a bell. Items to be seized included copes, chalices, chrismatories, patens, monstrances and candlesticks. Many parishes sold their valuables rather than have them confiscated at a later date. The money funded parish projects that could not be challenged by royal authorities. In many parishes, items were concealed or given to local gentry who had, in fact, lent them to the church.
The confiscations caused tensions between Protestant church leaders and Warwick, now Duke of Northumberland. Cranmer, Ridley and other Protestant leaders did not fully trust Northumberland. Northumberland in turn sought to undermine these bishops by promoting their critics, such as Jan Laski and John Knox. Cranmer's plan for a revision of English canon law, the Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum, failed in Parliament due to Northumberland's opposition. Despite such tensions, a new doctrinal statement to replace the King's Book was issued on royal authority in May 1553. The Forty-two Articles reflected the Reformed theology and practice taking shape during Edward's reign, which historian Christopher Haigh describes as a "restrained Calvinism". It affirmed predestination and that the King of England was Supreme Head of the Church of England under Christ.
### Edward's succession
King Edward became seriously ill in February and died in July 1553. Before his death, Edward was concerned that Mary, his devoutly Catholic sister, would overturn his religious reforms. A new plan of succession was created in which both of Edward's sisters Mary and Elizabeth were bypassed on account of illegitimacy in favour of the Protestant Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Edward's aunt Mary Tudor and daughter in law of the Duke of Northumberland. This new succession violated the "Third" Succession Act of 1544 and was widely seen as an attempt by Northumberland to stay in power. Northumberland was unpopular due to the church confiscations, and support for Jane collapsed. On 19 July, the Privy Council proclaimed Mary queen to the acclamation of the crowds in London.
## Marian Restoration
### Reconciling with Rome
Both Protestants and Roman Catholics understood that the accession of Mary I to the throne meant a restoration of traditional religion. Before any official sanction, Latin Masses began reappearing throughout England, despite the 1552 Book of Common Prayer remaining the only legal liturgy. Mary began her reign cautiously by emphasising the need for tolerance in matters of religion and proclaiming that, for the time being, she would not compel religious conformity. This was in part Mary's attempt to avoid provoking Protestant opposition before she could consolidate her power. While Protestants were not a majority of the population, their numbers had grown through Edward's reign. Historian Eamon Duffy writes that "Protestantism was a force to be reckoned with in London and in towns like Bristol, Rye, and Colchester, and it was becoming so in some northern towns such as Hessle, Hull, and Halifax."
Following Mary's accession, the Duke of Norfolk along with the conservative bishops Bonner, Gardiner, Tunstall, Day and Heath were released from prison and restored to their former dioceses. By September 1553, Hooper and Cranmer were imprisoned. Northumberland himself was executed but not before his conversion to Catholicism.
The break with Rome and the religious reforms of Henry VIII and Edward VI were achieved through parliamentary legislation and could only be reversed through Parliament. When Parliament met in October, Bishop Gardiner, now Lord Chancellor, initially proposed the repeal of all religious legislation since 1529. The House of Commons refused to pass this bill, and after heated debate, Parliament repealed all Edwardian religious laws, including clerical marriage and the prayer book, in the First Statute of Repeal. By 20 December, the Mass was reinstated by law. There were disappointments for Mary: Parliament refused to penalise non-attendance at Mass, would not restore confiscated church property, and left open the question of papal supremacy.
If Mary was to secure England for Roman Catholicism, she needed an heir and her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth had to be prevented from inheriting the Crown. On the advice of her cousin Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, she married his son, Philip II of Spain, in 1554. There was opposition, and even a rebellion in Kent (led by Sir Thomas Wyatt); even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir, received no estates and had no coronation.
By the end of 1554, Henry VIII's religious settlement had been re-instituted, but England was still not reunited with Rome. Before reunion could occur, church property disputes had to be settled—which, in practice, meant letting the nobility and gentry who had bought confiscated church lands keep them. Cardinal Reginald Pole, the Queen's cousin, arrived in November 1554 as papal legate to end England's schism with the Roman Catholic Church. On 28 November, Pole addressed Parliament to ask it to end the schism, declaring "I come not to destroy, but to build. I come to reconcile, not to condemn. I come not to compel, but to call again." In response, Parliament submitted a petition to the Queen the next day asking that "this realm and dominions might be again united to the Church of Rome by the means of the Lord Cardinal Pole".
On 30 November, Pole spoke to both houses of Parliament, absolving the members of Parliament "with the whole realm and dominions thereof, from all heresy and schism". Afterwards, bishops absolved diocesan clergy, and they in turn absolved parishioners. On 26 December, the Privy Council introduced legislation repealing the religious legislation of Henry VIII's reign and implementing the reunion with Rome. This bill was passed as the Second Statute of Repeal.
### Catholic recovery
Historian Eamon Duffy writes that the Marian religious "programme was not one of reaction but of creative reconstruction" absorbing whatever was considered positive in the reforms of Henry VIII and Edward VI. The result was "subtly but distinctively different from the Catholicism of the 1520s." According to historian Christopher Haigh, the Catholicism taking shape in Mary's reign "reflected the mature Erasmian Catholicism" of its leading clerics, who were all educated in the 1520s and 1530s. Marian church literature, church benefactions and churchwarden accounts suggest less emphasis on saints, images and prayer for the dead. There was a greater focus on the need for inward contrition in addition to external acts of penance. Cardinal Pole himself was a member of the Spirituali, a Catholic reform movement that shared with Protestants an emphasis on man's total dependence on God's grace by faith and Augustinian views on salvation.
Cardinal Pole would eventually replace Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1556, jurisdictional issues between England and Rome having prevented Cranmer's removal. Mary could have had Cranmer tried and executed for treason—he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey—but she resolved to have him tried for heresy. His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup. Unhappily for her, he unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake, thus ruining her government's propaganda victory.
As papal legate, Pole possessed authority over both his Province of Canterbury and the Province of York, which allowed him to oversee the Counter-Reformation throughout all of England. He re-installed images, vestment and plate in churches. Around 2,000 married clergy were separated from their wives, but the majority of these were allowed to continue their work as priests. Pole was aided by some of the leading Catholic intellectuals, Spanish members of the Dominican Order: Pedro de Soto, Juan de Villagarcía and Bartolomé Carranza.
In 1556, Pole ordered clergy to read one chapter of Bishop Bonner's A Profitable and Necessary Doctrine to their parishioners every Sunday. Modelled on the King's Book of 1543, Bonner's work was a survey of basic Catholic teaching organized around the Apostles' Creed, Ten Commandments, seven deadly sins, sacraments, the Lord's Prayer, and the Hail Mary. Bonner also produced a children's catechism and a collection of homilies.
From December 1555 to February 1556, Cardinal Pole presided over a national legatine synod that produced a set of decrees entitled Reformatio Angliae or the Reformation of England. The actions taken by the synod anticipated many of the reforms enacted throughout the Catholic Church after the Council of Trent. Pole believed that ignorance and lack of discipline among the clergy had led to England's religious turmoil, and the synod's reforms were designed to remedy both problems. Clerical absenteeism (the practice of clergy failing to reside in their diocese or parish), pluralism, and simony were condemned. Preaching was placed at the centre of the pastoral office, and all clergy were to provide sermons to the people (rectors and vicars who failed to were fined). The most important part of the plan was the order to establish a seminary in each diocese, which would replace the disorderly manner in which priests had been trained previously. The Council of Trent would later impose the seminary system upon the rest of the Catholic Church. It was also the first to introduce the altar tabernacle used to reserve Eucharistic bread for devotion and adoration.
Mary did what she could to restore church finances and land taken in the reigns of her father and brother. In 1555, she returned to the church the First Fruits and Tenths revenue, but with these new funds came the responsibility of paying the pensions of ex-religious. She restored six religious houses with her own money, notably Westminster Abbey for the Benedictines and Syon Abbey for the Bridgettines. However, there were limits to what could be restored. Only seven religious houses were re-founded between 1555 and 1558, though there were plans to re-establish more. Of the 1,500 ex-religious still living, only about a hundred resumed monastic life, and only a small number of chantries were re-founded. Re-establishments were hindered by the changing nature of charitable giving. A plan to re-establish Greyfriars in London was prevented because its buildings were occupied by Christ's Hospital, a school for orphaned children.
There is debate among historians over how vibrant the restoration was on the local level. According to historian A. G. Dickens, "Parish religion was marked by religious and cultural sterility", though historian Christopher Haigh observed enthusiasm, marred only by poor harvests that produced poverty and want. Recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade of declining ordinations. Repairs to long-neglected churches began. In the parishes, "restoration and repair continued, new bells were bought, and church ales produced their bucolic profits". Great church feasts were restored and celebrated with plays, pageants and processions. However, Bishop Bonner's attempt to establish weekly processions in 1556 was a failure. Haigh writes that in years during which processions were banned people had discovered "better uses for their time" as well as "better uses for their money than offering candles to images". The focus was on "the crucified Christ, in the mass, the rood, and Corpus Christi devotion".
### Obstacles
Protestants who refused to conform remained an obstacle to Catholic plans. Around 800 Protestants fled England to find safety in Protestant areas of Germany and Switzerland, establishing networks of independent congregations. Safe from persecution, these Marian exiles carried on a propaganda campaign against Roman Catholicism and the Queen's Spanish marriage, sometimes calling for rebellion. Those who remained in England were forced to practise their faith in secret and meet in underground congregations.
In 1555, the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden with the revival of the medieval heresy laws, which authorized capital punishment as a penalty for heresy. The persecution of heretics was uncoordinated—sometimes arrests were ordered by the Privy Council, others by bishops, and others by lay magistrates. Protestants brought attention to themselves usually due to some act of dissent, such as denouncing the Mass or refusing to receive the sacrament. A particularly violent act of protest was William Flower's stabbing of a priest during Mass on Easter Sunday, 14 April 1555. Individuals accused of heresy were examined by a church official and, if heresy was found, given the choice between death and signing a recantation. In some cases, Protestants were burnt at the stake after renouncing their recantation.
Around 284 Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy. Several leading reformers were executed, including Thomas Cranmer, Hugh Latimer, Nicholas Ridley, John Rogers, John Hooper, Robert Ferrar, Rowland Taylor, and John Bradford. Lesser known figures were also among the victims, including around 51 women such as Joan Waste and Agnes Prest. Historian O. T. Hargrave writes that the Marian persecution was not "excessive" by "contemporary continental standards"; however, "it was unprecedented in the English experience". Historian Christopher Haigh writes that it "failed to intimidate all Protestants", whose bravery at the stake inspired others; however, it "was not a disaster: if it did not help the Catholic cause, it did not do much to harm it." After her death, the Queen became known as "Bloody Mary" due to the influence of John Foxe, one of the Marian exiles. Published in 1563, Foxe's Book of Martyrs provided accounts of the executions, and in 1571 the Convocation of Canterbury ordered that Foxe's book should be placed in every cathedral in the land.
Mary's efforts at restoring Roman Catholicism were also frustrated by the church itself. Pope Paul IV declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic. Mary refused to let him go. The support she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied. From 1557, the Pope refused to confirm English bishops, leading to vacancies and hurting the Marian religious program.
Despite these obstacles, the 5-year restoration was successful. There was support for traditional religion among the people, and Protestants remained a minority. Consequently, Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations, such as Thomas Bentham, were planning for a long haul, a ministry of survival. Mary's death in November 1558, childless and without having made provision for a Roman Catholic to succeed her, meant that her Protestant sister Elizabeth would be the next queen.
## Elizabethan Settlement
Elizabeth I inherited a kingdom in which a majority of people, especially the political elite, were religiously conservative, and England's main ally was Catholic Spain. For these reasons, the proclamation announcing her accession forbade any "breach, alteration, or change of any order or usage presently established within this our realm". This was only temporary. The new Queen was Protestant, though a conservative one. She also filled her new government with Protestants. The Queen's principal secretary was Sir William Cecil, a moderate Protestant. Her Privy Council was filled with former Edwardian politicians, and only Protestants preached at Court.
In 1558, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, which re-established the Church of England's independence from Rome and conferred on Elizabeth the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The Act of Uniformity of 1559 authorised the 1559 Book of Common Prayer, which was a revised version of the 1552 Prayer Book from Edward's reign. Some modifications were made to appeal to Catholics and Lutherans, including giving individuals greater latitude concerning belief in the real presence and authorising the use of traditional priestly vestments. In 1571, the Thirty-Nine Articles were adopted as a confessional statement for the church, and a Book of Homilies was issued outlining the church's reformed theology in greater detail.
The Elizabethan Settlement established a church that was Reformed in doctrine but that preserved certain characteristics of medieval Catholicism, such as cathedrals, church choirs, a formal liturgy contained in the Prayer Book, traditional vestments and episcopal polity. According to historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, the conflicts over the Elizabethan Settlement stem from this "tension between Catholic structure and Protestant theology". During the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, several factions developed within the Church of England.
"Church papists" were Roman Catholics who outwardly conformed to the established church while maintaining their Catholic faith in secret. Catholic authorities disapproved of such outward conformity. Recusants were Roman Catholics who refused to attend Church of England services as required by law. Recusancy was punishable by fines of £20 a month (fifty times an artisan's wage). By 1574, Catholic recusants had organised an underground Roman Catholic Church, distinct from the Church of England. However, it had two major weaknesses: membership loss as church papists conformed fully to the Church of England and a shortage of priests. Between 1574 and 1603, 600 Catholic priests were sent to England. The influx of foreign trained Catholic priests, the unsuccessful Revolt of the Northern Earls, the excommunication of Elizabeth, and the discovery of the Ridolfi plot all contributed to a perception that Catholicism was treasonous. Executions of Catholic priests became more common—the first in 1577, four in 1581, eleven in 1582, two in 1583, six in 1584, fifty-three by 1590, and seventy more between 1601 and 1608. In 1585, it became treason for a Catholic priest to enter the country, as well as for anyone to aid or shelter him. As the older generation of recusant priests died out, Roman Catholicism collapsed among the lower classes in the north, west and in Wales. Without priests, these social classes drifted into the Church of England and Catholicism was forgotten. By Elizabeth's death in 1603, Roman Catholicism had become "the faith of a small sect", largely confined to gentry households.
Gradually, England was transformed into a Protestant country as the Prayer Book shaped Elizabethan religious life. By the 1580s, conformist Protestants (those who conformed their religious practice to the religious settlement) were becoming a majority. Calvinism appealed to many conformists, and Calvinist clergy held the best bishoprics and deaneries during Elizabeth's reign. Other Calvinists were unsatisfied with elements of the Elizabethan Settlement and wanted further reforms to make the Church of England more like the Continental Reformed churches. These nonconformist Calvinists became known as Puritans. Some Puritans refused to bow at the name of Jesus, to make the sign of the cross in baptism, use wedding rings or organ music in church. They especially resented the requirement that clergy wear the white surplice and clerical cap. Puritan clergymen preferred to wear black academic attire (see Vestments controversy). Many Puritans believed the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt presbyterian polity, under which government by bishops would be replaced with government by elders. However, all attempts to enact further reforms through Parliament were blocked by the Queen.
## Consequences
Traditionally, historians have dated the end of the English Reformation to Elizabeth's religious settlement. There are scholars who advocate for a "Long Reformation" that continued into the 17th and 18th centuries.
During the early Stuart period, the Church of England's dominant theology was still Calvinism, but a group of theologians associated with Bishop Lancelot Andrewes disagreed with many aspects of the Reformed tradition, especially its teaching on predestination. They looked to the Church Fathers rather than the Reformers and preferred using the more traditional 1549 Prayer Book. Due to their belief in free will, this new faction is known as the Arminian party, but their high church orientation was more controversial. James I tried to balance the Puritan forces within his church with followers of Andrewes, promoting many of them at the end of his reign.
During the reign of Charles I, the Arminians were ascendant and closely associated with William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (1633–1645). Laud and his followers believed the Reformation had gone too far and launched a "'Beauty of Holiness' counter-revolution, wishing to restore what they saw as lost majesty in worship and lost dignity for the sacerdotal priesthood." Laudianism, however, was unpopular with both Puritans and Prayer Book conformists, who viewed the high church innovations as undermining forms of worship they had grown attached to. The English Civil War resulted in the overthrow of Charles I, and a Puritan dominated Parliament began to dismantle the Elizabethan Settlement. The Puritans, however, were divided among themselves and failed to agree on an alternative religious settlement. A variety of new religious movements appeared, including Baptists, Quakers, Ranters, Seekers, Diggers, Muggletonians, and Fifth Monarchists.
The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 allowed for the restoration of the Elizabethan Settlement as well, but the Church of England was fundamentally changed. The "Jacobean consensus" was shattered. Many Puritans were unwilling to conform and became dissenters. Now outside the established church, the different strands of the Puritan movement evolved into separate denominations: Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists.
After the Restoration, Anglicanism took shape as a recognisable tradition. From Richard Hooker, Anglicanism inherited a belief in the "positive spiritual value in ceremonies and rituals, and for an unbroken line of succession from the medieval Church to the latter day Church of England". From the Arminians, it gained a theology of episcopacy and an appreciation for liturgy. From the Puritans and Calvinists, it "inherited a contradictory impulse to assert the supremacy of scripture and preaching".
The religious forces unleashed by the Reformation ultimately destroyed the possibility of religious uniformity. Protestant dissenters were allowed freedom of worship with the Toleration Act 1688. It took Catholics longer to achieve toleration. Penal laws that excluded Catholics from everyday life began to be repealed in the 1770s. Catholics were allowed to vote and sit as members of Parliament in 1829 (see Catholic emancipation).
## Historiography
The historiography of the English Reformation has seen vigorous clashes among dedicated protagonists and scholars for five centuries. The main factual details at the national level have been clear since 1900, as laid out for example by James Anthony Froude and Albert Pollard.
Reformation historiography has seen many schools of interpretation with Roman Catholic, Anglican and Nonconformist historians using their own religious perspectives. In addition there has been a highly influential Whig interpretation, based on liberal secularized Protestantism, that depicted the Reformation in England, in the words of Ian Hazlett, as "the midwife delivering England from the Dark Ages to the threshold of modernity, and so a turning point of progress". Finally among the older schools was a neo-Marxist interpretation that stressed the economic decline of the old elites in the rise of the landed gentry and middle classes. All these approaches still have representatives, but the main thrust of scholarly historiography since the 1970s falls into four groupings or schools, according to Hazlett.
Geoffrey Elton leads the first faction with an agenda rooted in political historiography. It concentrates on the top of the early modern church-state looking at it at the mechanics of policymaking and the organs of its implementation and enforcement. The key player for Elton was not Henry VIII, but rather his principal Secretary of State Thomas Cromwell. Elton downplays the prophetic spirit of the religious reformers in the theology of keen conviction, dismissing them as the meddlesome intrusions from fanatics and bigots.
Secondly, A. G. Dickens and others were motivated by a primarily religious perspective. They prioritize the religious and subjective side of the movement. While recognizing the Reformation was imposed from the top, just as it was everywhere else in Europe, it also responded to aspirations from below. Dickens has been criticized for underestimating the strength of residual and revived Roman Catholicism, but has been praised for his demonstration of the close ties to European influences. In the Dickens school, David Loades has stressed the theological importance of the Reformation for Anglo-British development.
Revisionists comprise a third school, led by Christopher Haigh, Jack Scarisbrick and numerous other scholars. Their main achievement was the discovery of an entirely new corpus of primary sources at the local level, leading them to the emphasis on Reformation as it played out on a daily and local basis, with much less emphasis on the control from the top. They emphasize turning away from elite sources, and instead rely on local parish records, diocesan files, guild records, data from boroughs, the courts, and especially telltale individual wills.
Finally, Patrick Collinson and others have brought much more precision to the theological landscape, with Calvinist Puritans who were impatient with the Anglican caution sent compromises. Indeed, the Puritans were a distinct subgroup who did not comprise all of Calvinism. The Church of England thus emerged as a coalition of factions, all of them Protestant inspiration.
The more recent schools have decentred Henry VIII, and minimized hagiography. They have paid more attention to localities, Catholicism, radicals, and theological niceties. On Catholicism, the older schools focused on Thomas More (1470–1535), to the neglect of other bishops and factors inside Catholicism. The older schools tended to concentrate on the capital of London, the newer ones look to the English villages.
## See also
- Anti-Catholicism
- Gunpowder Plot
- History of the Church of England
- History of England
- Putting away of Books and Images Act 1549
- Popery
- Reformation in Ireland
- Religion in England
- Scottish Reformation
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We Found Love (music video)
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2011 film by Melina Matsoukas
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[
"2010s English-language films",
"2010s music videos",
"Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video",
"MTV Video of the Year Award",
"Music video controversies",
"Music videos directed by Melina Matsoukas",
"Rihanna"
] |
The music video for Barbadian singer Rihanna's 2011 single "We Found Love" was directed by Melina Matsoukas. It was filmed on September 26–28, 2011, in the New Lodge area of Belfast and Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland. People driving around the location of the set informed BBC that traffic in the area was congested as drivers wanted to see the singer. The video premiered on October 19, 2011, and was made available to download digitally three days later on October 22. As of July 2023, the video has amassed over 1 billion views on YouTube.
The video begins with a monologue given by fashion model Agyness Deyn. Scenes of Rihanna with her romantic interest (Dudley O'Shaughnessy) in both love and hate scenarios intersperse, as they experience mounting difficulties in their relationship. After enduring the overwhelming effects of recreational drugs and physical violence, she finds her boyfriend unconscious on the floor of his apartment, and leaves him, having had enough of the relationship. Images of the song's producer and featured artist Calvin Harris appear in outdoor DJ scenes, while the video has regular references to popular culture, such as themes of films and content of other singers' videos.
Many critics noted that the video resembled a short film, and compared it to the films Trainspotting and Requiem for a Dream. Some critics also compared the thematic content to those of Rihanna's videos for "S&M" and "Man Down". Despite that, the video caused much controversy among activist groups. Christian youth pastor Brandon Ward, John Colonnello and the Ulster Cancer Foundation criticized the video for Rihanna's portrayal of her character having sex while under the influence of illegal drugs and smoking heavily. Consequently, the video was banned from being shown before 10 pm on French television. It won the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video and MTV's VMA for Video of the Year. The video further managed to peak at number one on the Polish Top Airplay TV Chart and the Romanian TV Airplay Chart.
## Development
The music video for "We Found Love" was shot on September 26–28, 2011, in County Down, Northern Ireland. It was filmed in a field in the town of Bangor, County Down, ahead of Rihanna's embarkment on the European leg of the Loud Tour (2011), and the New Lodge area of North Belfast. It was directed by Melina Matsoukas, who had previously directed the videos for "Rude Boy" (2010), and the controversial "S&M" (2011). During the filming, people driving around the location of the set informed the BBC that traffic in the area was congested as drivers tried to see the singer. Pictures showing Rihanna wearing a red bandana top, long flannel shirt, and "dirty denim", similar to the clothing she wore for the song's artwork, were leaked onto the internet the same day. She filmed scenes while wearing a bikini with the pattern of the US flag, and a denim vest and ripped jeans. The owner of the field, farmer and North Down Borough Council Democratic Unionist Party councillor Alan Graham, expressed distaste after seeing Rihanna topless on his field, saying: "When the filming did become to my mind unacceptable I requested the filming to stop ... it became apparent to me that the situation was becoming inappropriate and I requested them to stop and they did". On September 28, 2011, the shoot location was moved to a closed set in Titanic Quarter, Belfast where both photographers and fans were barred from watching the singer.
Extras for the shoot were not told what was expected of them until the last minute, in order to keep the content of the video as secret as possible. Regarding the video's content, Rihanna posted a message on Twitter that read: "I really can't stop thinking about this video we just shot! EASILY the BEST video I've done thus far!" Rihanna elaborated on the concept of the video: "We've never done a video like this before. This is probably one of the deepest videos I've ever done ... it's all about love and love being like a drug, you definitely get that from this." The male love interest in the video is Dudley O'Shaughnessy, a model and former boxer. Upon the release of the video, Matsoukas explained the content of the video in an interview with MTV:
> We love, obviously, to do provocative imagery ... we always try to definitely push the limits ... I think because, in the end, it's not really at all about domestic violence. It's really just about it being toxic, and they're on this drug trip and that definitely plays a part, but I think it's also about being triumphant over those weaknesses, and she leaves him. It's not trying to glorify that type of relationship. The bad parts of it, that's what you don't want. In the end, her leaving, it represents her getting that out of her life. The drugs and the addiction and the toxic—that's what brings her downfall and brings a lot of harm.
The director went on to explain the content with regard to Rihanna's domestic violence case against former boyfriend Chris Brown in February 2009, saying that it is not a reenactment of what happened between Rihanna and Brown, but rather that Rihanna is acting in the video. Matsoukas said:
> [The song's] totally rave-y ... and that's the feeling, just music rushing over you, and then I started thinking about drugs and addiction and love and how that's an addiction ... we've all lived the ups and downs of being in a toxic relationship. It's really about the obstacles of trying to let it go, but at the same time how great it makes you feel, so it's hard to let it go. Again, it goes back to a story that we all can relate to ... It's not Rihanna's story; it's her story in the video, and she's acting. But everybody's [as well]. Obviously, there's a lot of comparisons to her real life, and that's not at all the intention. It's just that I guess people naturally go there because art imitates life, and it's a story we all relate to and we've all experienced. Like, it's based on my life; it's based on her life; it's based on your life, like, everybody.
In an interview with Pitchfork, Matsoukas explained that she was surprised with the professional standard of Rihanna's acting. The inspiration for Rihanna acting in the video came from when Matsoukas saw the clip for "Man Down" in April 2011; the director stated that she was taken aback at how Rihanna realistically re-enacted a rape scenario. Matsoukas described the process for choosing O'Shaughnessy as the male love interest, stating that Rihanna had asked her to find a man she could "fake fuck" while filming. The director said that she telephoned a boxer her friend had told her about, and asked him to make a tape of himself using the description of how the male love interest should act. When asked if any of the video was improvised, Matsoukas revealed that she would create a scenario and then it was left to Rihanna and O'Shaughnessy to elaborate upon what the director had given them. Matsoukas jokingly said that the scene in which O'Shaughnessy draws a tattoo on Rihanna's buttock cheek was not part of the video's treatment, and that O'Shaughnessy improvised it. Upon the video's release, multiple media outlets and music critics compared the content of the video to a reenactment of Rihanna and Brown's physical altercation. When asked about this, Matsoukas clarified that the video was not linked to Brown in any circumstance, and said, "[O'Shaughnessy] doesn't even really look like Chris Brown to me."
## Synopsis
The video begins with a monologue by fashion model Agyness Deyn about love and heartbreak:
> It's like you're screaming but no one can hear. You almost feel ashamed that someone could be that important, that without them, you feel like nothing. No one will ever understand how much it hurts. You feel hopeless, like nothing can save you. And when it's over and it's gone, you almost wish that you could have all that bad stuff back so you can have the good.
During the narration, Rihanna and her lover are depicted in both love and hate scenarios. Before the song begins to play, lightning bolts are projected onto a wall in which Rihanna stands in front of. She and her lover are depicted as enamored with each other, and enjoying activities such as fairground rides and eating in fast food restaurants. During the chorus, images of drugs, pills, and dilated pupils are shown, while brief scenes of Rihanna and her boyfriend preparing to have sex are shown.
The chorus continues and the video cuts to a scene in which Rihanna and other people dance at an outside rave; Calvin Harris features as the DJ. As the second chorus begins, Rihanna and her boyfriend are happily running amok in a supermarket, pushing each other in a shopping cart and spraying canned drinks at each other. However, they begin arguing in a car. The video then shows the couple experiencing mounting difficulties in their relationship. They eventually begin to physically abuse one another. During the final chorus, a rewind of the whole event is shown, before Rihanna is seen vomiting streamers; she is also seen unconscious on the street while her boyfriend tries to revive her. After finding the boyfriend unconscious on the floor of his apartment, Rihanna decides she has had enough of the relationship and leaves him. The video ends with Rihanna curled up in the corner of a room, crying.
## Release and reception
The video for "We Found Love" premiered on the website Whosay.com on October 19, 2011. Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound praised the production of the video, noting its cinematic feel and that it shows the "ins and outs [and] ups and downs" of love. Coplan compared the video to the film Blue Valentine due to its sexualized content and a narrative that consists of a couple in a turbulent relationship. Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine called the video artful and poignant, and noted that it shows "neon colors, explicit sex, bathtub embraces and painful arguments of the couple's world". Jocelyn Vena of MTV commented that although the song is upbeat and carefree, the video represents the antithesis, depicting "a dark look at love and substance abuse". Vena, like Coplan, noted that the song's video has a cinematic feel, calling it a "mini-movie". She compared the video to the films Trainspotting and Requiem for a Dream, with regard to its opening monologue, which Vena thought foreshadowed the video.
Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone wrote, "the footage looks like a remake of Trainspotting, and, ["We Found Love"] matches its thumping rave beat to footage that often looks like a remake of Trainspotting". Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine was more critical of the video; she criticized Rihanna's undressing in a farmer's field as "the least of its provocations" and listed the activities the couple partake in: "smoking, drinking, dancing on fast-food tables, dancing at raves, heavy petting, stealing groceries, drunk wheelies, and bathing while fully clothed [and] candy-colored drugs". Dobbins noted that the list of illicit and frowned upon activities may aggravate parents and committees because of the explicit nature of the video, which caused controversy for Rihanna in her videos for "S&M" and "Man Down". Charlotte Cowles of the same publication commented that the voice-over provided by Deyn at the start of the video sounded "incredibly depressing".
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly described the video as "a Trainspotting-meets-Drugstore Cowboy portrait of wasted youth and finding love in an apparently very pharmaceutical place". Greenblatt continued her review in a more negative manner, asking if it "paint[s] a too-glamorous portrait of crazy, stupid love for her young fans? Or is it [Rihanna]'s prerogative to push the boundaries of dilated pupils, couch sex, and how many cigarettes two people can conceivably smoke simultaneously?" Jamie Lewis of the International Business Times noted that the video is likely to cause controversy among sections of the public due to the "multitude of illicit and illegal acts", and condemned the activities that the singer appeared to be partaking in, writing, "Rihanna can be seen swallowing unmarked pills, smoking what looks like marijuana, publicly stripping, stealing goods and vandalising". Lewis also wrote that Rihanna had received mixed reactions from her fans via her Twitter and Facebook feeds.
### Accolades
The video was included on many lists of the best music videos of 2011. Out of 50 videos, "We Found Love" ranked at number 21 on NME's Best Music Videos of 2011. A reviewer for NME called it, "an artful mini-movie of a promo, an ode to crazy, youthful love." It ranked at number 12 out of 25 on Slant Magazine's Top 2011 Music Videos. A reviewer for Slant Magazine praised Matsoukas' directorial skills, writing, "Melina Matsoukas's video projects (literally and figuratively) the fleeting rush of both young love and drugs—and the often fatal cocktail that's produced when the two are combined." The video was included on The Guardian's 2011 list, entitled "The best pop videos of 2011". As of January 2015, Billboard named the video as the second best music video of the 2010s (so far). The video received three MTV Video Music Award nominations, including Best Pop Video, and won the award for Video of the Year. The video received the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards which was held on February 10, 2013 at the Staples Center, Los Angeles.
## Controversy
In the UK, The Rape Crisis Centre, an organization that helps victims of sexual abuse and sexual violence, criticized the video. Eileen Kelly, a representative of the group, stated that the video sends "out an inappropriate message" and told The Daily Star that the clip "is a disgrace. It sends the message that she is an object to be possessed by men, which is disturbingly what we see in real violence cases". The video was also criticized by Brandon Ward, a youth pastor of Oasis Christian Center in Staten Island, New York, for "damaging the moral and self-worth of young impressionable teens." Ward wrote how he thought the video affects females' sense of self-worth:
> The real issue is that it moves the moral center more towards the obscene. That it becomes more normal to be more sexually promiscuous, because they are bombarded with imagery that is loaded with innuendo, and that is seen as normal, even preferred ... if girls and women find their identity and self-worth in the approval of people, they will do whatever it takes to become popular and loved. When stars like Rihanna, who blast sexuality, are thrust into the limelight, girls tend to think that is the way for them to be valuable. God tells us that we are fearfully and wonderfully made ... bearing His image. Rihanna is selling a lie.
John Colonnello, a youth pastor from Athens, Alabama, criticized Rihanna's failure as a role model for young girls and women who look up to her. Colonello said that Rihanna is promoting the importance of one's physical appearance, and unhealthy sex: "the message should be that it's about who you are on the inside and your character. That you should be honest, trustworthy, faithful, kind, loving, compassionate and more." On November 23, 2011, the music video for "We Found Love" was banned from broadcast before 10 pm in France, owing to its violent, dangerous, and sexually suggestive nature. Ulster Cancer Foundation, an anti-smoking organization, condemned Rihanna for smoking in the music video. Doreen Reegan, a spokesperson for the organization, commented on the singer's decision to include smoking as part of her promotional image, saying:
> Three-quarters of adult smokers start the habit as teenagers, which is why it is so irresponsible of Rihanna to influence her young fan base in this way ... After so much hype around the filming of the video it was very disappointing to see Rihanna so blatantly smoking throughout it ... Artists such as Rihanna are held in high esteem and regarded as role models by millions of young people.
## Comparisons
### Chris Brown
After the release of the video, critics commented on the resemblance between Rihanna's ex-boyfriend Chris Brown and her fictional love interest in the video, Dudley O'Shaughnessy, and how the video's content appeared to be somewhat of a reenactment of the assault upon Rihanna by Brown on the evening of the 51st Annual Grammy Awards. Chris Doplan of Consequence of Sound explained that O'Shaughnessy strongly resembled Brown in his appearance. Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine concurred with Doplan, and wrote that O'Shaughnessy has short blond hair like Brown once had. Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine also thought that O'Shaughnessy's character is a depiction of Brown, especially in relation to the scene which features the couple in a car, with O'Shaughnessy driving recklessly and Rihanna begging him to stop. William Goodman of Spin provided an analysis of the video with regard to the Brown comparisons. Like many reviewers, he noted the resemblance between Brown and O'Shaughnessy, writing "The clip stars a dead ringer for Brown, complete with dyed hair and bulging biceps". Goodman commented upon the video's opening narration, which was actually voiced by Agyness Deyn, "The video opens with a Rihanna voice-over that warns, 'You almost feel ashamed that someone could be that important. No one will ever understand how much it hurts ... you almost wish that you could have all that bad stuff back, so that you have the good'." In conclusion, Goodman commented that the scene showing an altercation in a car is reminiscent of Brown's assault on Rihanna, which occurred inside a car. Goodman wrote: "during a heated argument between the couple in a muscle car, the Brown look-alike gives the Barbadian beauty a slap on the face. Convinced yet?"
### Britney Spears' "Criminal"
The video also received comparisons to Spears' "Criminal", which was released two days before "We Found Love", on October 17, 2011. Critics noted that both videos were filmed in the United Kingdom and caused controversy there, both contain scenes of sex, violence, and crime, and both featured "bad boy" stereotypes and evoke the personal lives of the artists. Katherine St Asaph of PopDust noted that although most pop stars release videos that draw from their personal lives, they do not make the viewer uncomfortable. The same cannot be said for Spears and Rihanna, regardless of whether they have moved on from past situations, because the discussion about them has not. St Asaph also expressed that neither Spears nor Rihanna said much about the parallels to their lives, but that they do not need to—their videos are much more effective than anything the singers could reveal in an interview. Rae Alexandra of the SF Weekly wrote that both videos feature an anti-British sentiment and that the villains in the video, Rihanna's boyfriend and Spears' policemen, are British, whereas Spears' savior in her video is an American criminal. Alexandra noted that Spears and Rihanna chose to film their grittiest videos in a country with a lower crime rate than the United States. According to her, the videos continue with a tradition of xenophobic portrayals of British people as villains by American film and video directors.
### References to popular culture
The video for "We Found Love" references popular culture in the form of films. According to James Montgomery of MTV News, its main themes are sex, drugs, and violence, which feature heavily in works by independent filmmaker Gregg Araki. Many of Araki's films, including Totally Fucked Up (1993), The Doom Generation (1995) and Nowhere (1997), depict scenes of a sexual nature, drug abuse and violence as part of their narratives. "We Found Love"'s use of vibrant colors and imagery is reminiscent of Oliver Stone's 1994 film Natural Born Killers, which depicts two murderers, Mickey and Mallory, on a killing spree in the southwest of the United States. The film incorporates "nightmarish-colors" and rear wall projected imagery, similar to that shown in "We Found Love". Critics noted that the music video features visual effects that resembled those in Darren Aronofsky's film Requiem for a Dream (2000), which incorporates a close-up shot of a dilated pupil; this effect was used many times in "We Found Loves video.
Elements of the music video for "We Found Love" have been compared to the works of Britney Spears, Eminem and Madonna. The scene in which Rihanna and O'Shaughnessy blow marijuana exhalations into each other's mouths is stylistically reminiscent of the cover artwork on English musician Tricky's 2001 album Blowback. Rihanna's video was compared to the video for Spears' song "Everytime" (2004). Critics noted that Rihanna lay in a bathtub and submerged her head under the water, which can be interpreted as a suicide attempt. In "Everytime", Spears is shown as a successful singer constantly bothered by the media and paparazzi about her turbulent relationship with her boyfriend. In "Everytime"'s video, Spears drowns in a bathtub as a result of a concussion. Rihanna's video also bears resemblances to that for Eminem and Rihanna's "Love the Way You Lie" (2010); both contain lyrical and visual content about a doomed relationship and scenes of graphic violence and substance abuse. Like "We Found Love", "Love the Way You Lie" displays scenes of a couple in various stages of undress and intimacy. "We Found Love"'s video includes stylistic references to Madonna's video for "Ray of Light" (1998). James Montgomery of MTV News noted that "Ray of Light"'s video features "a whole lot of high-speed, time-lapse shots taken in cities around the world", the same technique used for the drug scenes in "We Found Love".
## Credits
Video credits
- Melina Matsoukas via Prettybird ― direction
- Juliette Larthe & Ben Sullivan ― produced
- Candice Ouaknine ― executive producer
- Paul Laufer ― direction of photography
- Mark Gerahty ― art director
- Mark Geraghty ― production designer
- Bert Yukich and Amy Yukich (KromA) ― visual effects
- Jeff Selis ― editional
- Agyness Deyn ― narration
- Calvin Harris ― cameo appearance
- Dudley O'Shaughnessy ― starring role
- Rihanna ― starring role
Song credits
- Rihanna ― vocals
- Calvin Harris ― songwriter, producer, recording, mixing and instrumentation
- Marcos Tovar ― vocal recording
- Alejandro Barajs ― assistant recording engineer
- Phil Tan ― mixing
- Damien Lewis ― assistant mixing
## Charts
## Release history
|
51,506,139 |
World Enough and Time (Star Trek: New Voyages)
| 1,167,809,059 | null |
[
"Fan films based on Star Trek"
] |
"World Enough and Time" is the third episode of the American science fiction web television series Star Trek: New Voyages. It was released on the internet on August 23, 2007, at the same time as a premiere in Beverly Hills, California. It was written by Michael Reaves and Marc Scott Zicree, and directed by Zicree. Set in the 23rd century, the series follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk (James Cawley) and his crew aboard the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise. In this episode, when a failed Romulan weapons test traps Enterprise in an inter-dimensional rift, Lt. Hikaru Sulu (John Lim) and another crewmate are sent over to the wreckage of the Romulan ships. The anomaly's effect on the transporter causes Sulu (George Takei) to come back 30 years older and with a daughter, Alana (Christina Moses).
The plot was based on a Sulu-centric story pitched by Reaves for the 1970s television series Star Trek: Phase II. The idea was reprised when Zicree was introduced to New Voyages by actor Walter Koenig in 2005, and Zicree offered Reaves' story to the production. Once they were interested, Zicree convinced Reaves to team up with him to co-write the actual script, and also gained the agreement of Takei to appear. Moses was hired after a previous actress dropped out. Filming took place over 12 days, split between Ticonderoga, Los Angeles and Orlando. There is a discrepancy in accounts of the production between Zicree and producer Cawley, with the latter saying that Carlos Pedraza completed the direction of the episode uncredited, which was denied by Zicree. The special effects were completed by Ron Thornton, and the graduating class of Jeff Scheetz's Digital Animation and Visual Effects School. Further work was conducted by Daren Dochterman and costume designs by Iain McCaig.
The episode was positively received by critics, who praised the story, production values and effects seen as well as the performances of Takei and Moses. "World Enough and Time" was nominated for multiple awards, both specific for web-based productions and more generally against professional television episodes. These included the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Nebula Award for Best Script. The Nebula Award nomination caused controversy in particular due to criticism over the inclusion of an amateur production in a category for professional productions. The only award won was the 2007 TV Guide Online Video Award for Best Sci-Fi Webisode
## Plot
On the bridge of the USS Excelsior, Captain Hikaru Sulu (George Takei) reminiscences as the shuttlecraft Sturgeon approaches the ship. He recalls a mission on the USS Enterprise that took them into the Romulan neutral zone to save a drifting freighter. Three Imperator-class Romulan warbirds de-cloak and destroy the freighter, in response the Enterprise fires on the Romulans, destroying them but creating a spatial anomaly in the process which will destroy the ship in a matter of hours. Lt. Sulu (John Lim) and Dr. Lisa Chandris (Lia Johnson) are sent on a shuttlecraft to the Romulan wreckage to gain the information required to allow the Enterprise computer to plot a means to escape the rift. They retrieve the information, but cannot return to the shuttlecraft after the warbird is damaged further by gravity waves from the anomaly. As they are being transported back to the Enterprise, the warbird explodes and Lt. Commander Montgomery "Scotty" Scott (Charles Root) loses their signal.
He finds a different signal for Sulu, but when he appears on the transporter pad, he is visibly older (Takei) and dressed as a barbarian. Sulu attacks the crew with a sword, but is disabled by Commander Spock (Jeffery Quinn) using a Vulcan nerve pinch. Sulu explains that to him 30 years have passed, with Chandris dying 15 years prior on a planet they named Caliban. Scotty manages to get a lock on another signal, but cannot re-materialize it without additional equipment. As Sulu explains that he cannot remember the information needed to release the Enterprise, Scotty manages to partly materialize Sulu's daughter Alana (Christina Moses) within a science lab but she remains trapped between universes. Attempting to retrieve the Romulan information, Spock attempts to mind meld with Sulu but the traumatic memories of the death of Chandris nearly kills them both. Spock is subsequently ordered to find a different means to exit the anomaly. As McCoy attempts to aid Sulu's memories with drugs, Kirk and Alana flirt with each other. Following further scans by Spock, they realise that she is tied to the anomaly and may return to the other universe once the Enterprise exits. Kirk initiates Spock's backup plan to implode the rift, but it damages the ship and knocks Alana unconscious.
With only 30 minutes remaining before the ship is destroyed, Kirk considers transporting the entire crew to Caliban so they can survive. Scotty discovers Sulu's original transporter pattern, from when the warbird was destroyed. He theorizes that he could re-integrate it into the older version, resetting his memories so that he could remember the Romulan information and allowing him to pilot the Enterprise to safety but causing him to forget his 30 years on Caliban. Alana reassures him that she'll remind him of the man he became, but McCoy and Spock agree that leaving the rift will cause the death of Alana. Sulu draws his sword and is prepared to fight to save his daughter, but she talks him down. He strides onto the transporter pad and demands they reintegrate his pattern. As he is merged once again, Alana quotes The Tempest. The younger version of Sulu is taken to the bridge and pilots the Enterprise from the anomaly with seconds to spare, with Alana ceasing to exist as he does so. Back on the Excelsior, Captain Sulu meets with the shuttle passengers in his ready room; his daughter Demora (Mimi Chong) and is introduced to his baby granddaughter, Alana.
He would appear to remember at least some of his 30-year ordeal; as the episode ends, he tells Demora, "...you had a sister."
## Production
### Writing and casting
The plot of the episode has origins in the 1970s. Marc Scott Zicree was attending a Clarion Science Fiction Writer's Workshop, and afterwards completed his undergraduate degree at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). While there, he saw that a class was being conducted by Theodore Sturgeon; Zicree snuck in since undergraduates were not allowed to attend. This resulted in Zicree meeting Michael Reaves, who was acting as the teacher's assistant for the lecture; the two became close friends. Around the same time, Reaves pitched a Sulu-based story for Star Trek: Phase II, but after the series went unproduced, the plot was never completed. The two maintained a friendship over following decades, as both launched LA-based writing careers around the same time, working extensively in animation and science fiction, sometimes on the same shows. Amongst many other credits, Reaves wrote the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Where No One Has Gone Before" with Diane Duane. Zicree, meanwhile, amongst his many credits, received a "story by" credit on one episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation ("First Contact") and a similar "story by" credit one episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine ("Far Beyond the Stars").
The TV-writing careers of both Zicree and Reaves wound down around 2002/2003. In 2005, Zicree was introduced to Star Trek: New Voyages by Walter Koenig when they were both on a Star Trek panel at a science fiction convention held at UCLA. Koenig was about to travel to film the episode "To Serve All My Days".
Zicree recalled Reaves' Sulu story and contacted New Voyages to offer it. He received a form response turning him down. Undeterred, he got in touch with John Muenchrath, who is both a producer on the series and portrayed Doctor Leonard McCoy. He was interested and this resulted in further conversations with executive producer James Cawley. After it was confirmed that New Voyages wanted the story, Zicree contacted Reaves, who agreed to co-write the episode with him. A synopsis of the plot was prepared for Zicree to show to George Takei. Takei had previously portrayed Sulu in Star Trek: The Original Series and the associated films. His most recent Star Trek appearance was in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Flashback". Based on the proposal for "World Enough and Time", Takei agreed to appear. Takei explained that the plot of "World Enough and Time" gave Sulu a "whole different life experience" which he saw as being "in keeping with the kind of global or intergalactic lives that the people of the Enterprise lived".
Zicree invested \$60,000 in the production, which included the hiring of an editor. The completed script was shown to Cawley, who offered the directing position to Zicree. (Reaves, who had Parkinson's disease, was not further involved in the production after the script was completed.) Zicree accepted the position, and sought to imitate the production of a television episode by filming in high-definition. During the course of the production, Zicree received advice on directing from J. J. Abrams. In addition to Takei, Grace Lee Whitney appeared as Janice Rand. She too had played the character in The Original Series, and had most recently appeared with Takei in "Flashback". Majel Barrett Roddenberry, widow of series creator Gene Roddenberry, had regular recurring roles across several Star Trek series, including as the voice of most Starfleet computer interfaces; she agreed to voice the computer interface in this production as well. Christina Moses, who portrayed Alana Sulu, was a replacement for an actress who dropped out of the production some four weeks prior to production. The producers held further auditions in California, and Zicree said that "The moment we saw her, she was perfect".
### Filming and special effects
The shoot took 12 days to film, in three different locations around the United States in 2006. A great number of cast and crew worked on the series, with 235 appearing in the credits, plus a further 50 in the special thanks section. Zicree estimated at the time that this number may have been closer to 300, and that around 95% of these worked for free. Cawley later denied that there were 300 people working on the episode, and added that the only people who were paid for it were Zicree and Takei, as well as the editor Zicree hired at his own expense. Nine days were spent on the Enterprise sets in Ticonderoga, New York, two days in Los Angeles on the set for the Excelsior and then finally one day on the Universal soundstages in Orlando, Florida on the Romulan sets.
Zicree explained that he did not consider "World Enough and Time" to be a fan-film, comparing it to the episodes of Sliders he was a producer on. He said that they sought to do it the same way as a network show, but added that "the level of production is way beyond what any network show would be, because you would never have 700 visual effects shots in a single hour on any network show." However, Cawley said that Zicree treated many of the New Voyages crew poorly, and he was removed from the set after they faced a staff walkout. There were further difficulties in production as Zicree also hired a professional assistant director, but this crewmember walked off set during a night shoot early in the production and did not return. Cawley explained that after he spoke to Zicree, the director had a "meltdown" and was unable to complete the shoot; Cawley brought his friend Carlos Pedraza aboard to complete the episode. Pedreza, who is credited on the finished production as co-executive producer and script supervisor, recalls that "The ‘professional’ first assistant director refused to take the advice from our volunteer who had AD’d before, so it was no surprise we got further and further behind schedule by the time Marc had his breakdown, and some of the L.A. people wilted under the pressure.” Pedraza shot 14 pages of script in one day in order to bring the film in on time.
Zicree, while not denying the on-set friction, has said, "No other director worked on [it] at any stage, there's not a frame of it that was shot or edited by anyone else." Cawley later said "Marc is all about using this production to further his own career, a stark difference between his goal and all the others who were there doing it. Did we aspire to be a pro-looking production? Yup. And we were and are proud of it. Did we take salaries and/or compensation? Nope. That was a tough episode to shoot for many reasons."
The special effects on the episode were overseen by Ron Thornton, who had previously worked on the first season of Star Trek: Enterprise as well as the opening shot of the film Star Trek: Nemesis and the updated graphics for the Director's Cut of Star Trek: The Motion Picture. Thornton had first heard about New Voyages through his former colleague Doug Drexler, and started work on the episode after Jeff Scheetz discussed the project with him. The script required the creation of new ships through Computer-generated imagery, these included a new Romulan warbird as well as a Federation freighter. Thornton had previously developed the CGI ships on Babylon 5.
The effects were created by a team of 15, along with five volunteers. This was part of graduation project for the class at Scheetz's Digital Animation and Visual Effects School. LightWave 3D was primarily used for the effects shots, with Blackmagic Fusion used for composition. A new opening credits sequence was created for "World Enough and Time" by Daren Dochterman, who also took the lead on the special effects for the subsequent episode, "Blood and Fire". The outfits for Alana Sulu and Takei's older version of Hikaru Sulu were designed by Iain McCaig and his daughter Christina. McCaig had previously worked on the Star Wars franchise among other projects, where he created the looks of Darth Maul and Padmé Amidala for Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.
## Reception
"World Enough and Time" premiered at the Fine Arts Theater in Beverly Hills, California on August 23, 2007. Between 400 and 600 fans attended, with around half turned away once the screen was filled. Several former Star Trek actors and crew attended the premiere, including Takei, Koenig, David Gerrold, D.C. Fontana, George Clayton Johnson and Ronald B. Moore as well as the son of Gene Roddenberry, Rod Roddenberry. The intention was to live broadcast the episode on the internet, but after this failed due to the level of the fan response, over 40,000 viewers attempted to watch "World Enough and Time" on MagicTimeOnline.com. This resulted in a similar result, with some fans able to watch the episode slowly while others decided to wait for episode to download overnight before viewing. It was subsequently released on DVD for contributors towards a Kickstarter campaign in 2015 to fund later episodes of New Voyages.
Steve Weintraub, while writing for Collider, described "World Enough and Time" as "nothing short of amazing". He added that the "level of quality from the special effects to the script is amazing for a fan made show, and the show manages to capture what made the original 'Star Trek' great." Anthony Pascale, in his review for TrekMovie.com, said that the production design in the episode was the best yet for New Voyages. He credited this to the direction and improvements in the lighting, as well as the improved special effects. Pascale said that the guest appearances of Moses and Takei "fits in the fine tradition of memorable Trek guest characters", saying that the "alluring" Moses played Alana with a "subtle charm". Overall, he said that "fans of fan films and Star Trek: New Voyages are sure to be pleased. But for those like myself who have not really bothered with fan films should really give this one a chance."
Michelle Erica Green, who watched "World Enough and Time" for TrekNation, said that it "raised the bar not only for fan productions but for future professional productions of Star Trek". She said that the story reminded her of episodes such as "The City on the Edge of Forever", "The Inner Light" and "Flashback", while Green suggested that the special effects were better than anything seen on The Original Series and were equal to those from Enterprise. However, she found some of the recasting difficult since the actors were portraying the characters the way that they appeared in The Original Series. When listing the best Star Trek fan productions in The Wall Street Journal, Paul Vigna named "World Enough and Time" as the best. He said that it was "a surprisingly well-written and acted episode, and of all the fan films is the one that comes closest in quality to a 'real' episode." Writer/director Joss Whedon described "World Enough and Time" as "probably the best episode of the original Star Trek I'd ever seen", and convinced Whedon that online series were viable.
### Awards and nominations
The episode was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation; it was the only fanmade production in the category. Others nominated in the category included the episodes "Human Nature"/"Family of Blood" of Doctor Who, "Razor" of Battlestar Galactica and "Captain Jack Harkness" of Torchwood. The award went to the Doctor Who episode "Blink". "World Enough and Time" was nominated for the 2008 SyFy Portal Award for Best Web Production. It competed against other productions including further Star Trek fan films such as "Illiad", an episode of Star Trek: Odyssey, but the award went to the film length Star Trek: Of Gods and Men.
Zicree and Reaves were also nominated for a Nebula Award for Best Script; other entries in the category included the script for "Blink", as well as the films Children of Men, The Prestige and V for Vendetta but it was awarded to Guillermo del Toro for Pan's Labyrinth. "World Enough and Time" won the 2007 TV Guide Online Video Award for Best Sci-Fi Webisode, in a field which included Battlestar Galactica: The Resistance.
### Controversy
Following the nomination of "World Enough and Time" at the Nebula Awards, there was criticism of the inclusion of a fan production. Keith DeCandido, writer of Star Trek tie-in novels, wrote on his blog "Look, this isn't a knock on the fan films as such. But that's what they are – they're fan films. They are not professionally produced. What's more, they're unauthorized and, by the letter of the law, illegal. In fact, one of the reasons why they're not prosecuted, is because they don't turn a profit, which is one of the legion of ways that they're not professionally produced". In response, Zicree replied with a statement to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, explaining that the episode was produced with the full knowledge of Paramount Pictures and CBS. He explained the involvement of Abrams, and the use of the Universal lot for filming as well as commenting on the crewmembers who were paid at industry standard rates. (Cawley, meanwhile, avers that only Takei and Zicree were paid by the production, and that Zicree paid an editor out of his own pocket.) Zicree also claims that executives at CBS Video wanted to license "World Enough and Time" and include it on a Star Trek Blu-ray but they could not convince their chief executive.
|
605,294 |
The Crepes of Wrath
| 1,167,586,634 | null |
[
"1990 American television episodes",
"Student exchange in fiction",
"Television episodes set in Paris",
"Television shows written by John Swartzwelder",
"The Simpsons (season 1) episodes"
] |
"The Crepes of Wrath" is the eleventh episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 15, 1990. It was written by George Meyer, Sam Simon, John Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti, and directed by Wes Archer and Milton Gray.
Bart is sent to France on a student exchange trip, where his hosts treat him like a slave. Meanwhile, an Albanian student takes Bart's place in the Simpson family, and shows great interest in Homer's work at the nuclear power plant.
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics. In 1997, David Bauder from TV Guide named it the greatest episode of The Simpsons, and the 17th-greatest episode of any television series.
## Plot
After Homer trips over Bart's skateboard and falls down the stairs, he is confined to the couch for several days with an injured back. As punishment, Marge makes Bart clean his room, where he discovers an old cherry bomb. At school the next day, he flushes it down a toilet in the boys' restroom while Principal Skinner's mother, Agnes, is using the adjacent girls' restroom. The resulting explosion blows her off the toilet seat and enrages Principal Skinner.
Skinner proposes to Homer and Marge that Bart be deported by enrolling him in the school foreign exchange program. When Bart sees a picture of a lovely French château, he agrees to go there, much to Homer and Skinner's delight. The Simpsons host a student from Albania named Adil Hoxha.
When Bart arrives at Château Maison, he finds a dilapidated farmhouse at a run-down vineyard. His hosts are winemakers César and Ugolin, who treat him like a slave. Bart is starved while being made to carry buckets of water, pick and crush grapes, sleep on the floor, and test wine contaminated with antifreeze.
Adil arrives in Springfield and impresses Marge and Homer with his polite manners and help with household chores. They are unaware that Adil is actually an Albanian spy sent to obtain blueprints of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant's reactor. Homer unwittingly takes him on a tour of the plant and thinks nothing when Adil takes many photographs, which he transmits to Albania with a fax machine hidden in Bart's treehouse.
When Bart's captors send him to town to buy a case of antifreeze, he asks a gendarme for help, but the man does not speak a word of English. Bart walks away, and suddenly begins speaking French. Realizing that he is now fluent, he tells the gendarme about the cruelty that he has suffered at the hands of the winemakers, and about their efforts to sell adulterated wine. The men are swiftly arrested and Bart is hailed as a hero for exposing their scheme to sell adulterated wine.
In Springfield, Adil is caught spying by the FBI and deported to Albania in exchange for the return of an American spy captured there. Bart returns home with gifts for his family.
## Production
"The Crepes of Wrath" was the first episode of The Simpsons for which George Meyer was credited as a writer, and he wrote it together with Sam Simon, John Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti. The episode was inspired by the French movie Manon of the Spring. The writers were trying to figure out which country the foreign exchange student should come from when they decided on Albania. They had not seen many uses of the country on television and decided to make the episode a tribute to actor John Belushi, who has Albanian roots. The writers did not know much about the country and could not think of a good name for the boy, so they gave him the surname Hoxha after the former leader of Albania, Enver Hoxha. They used real Albanian in the scene where Adil says goodbye to his family, and they tried to get the actual language right at Sam Simon's instigation. They also used real French in the scenes of Bart in France. The writers did some research on a certain airport in France for the shots of Bart at the airport in Paris. Principal Skinner's mother, Agnes Skinner, made her first appearance on The Simpsons in this episode, although her voice and personality were a bit different from what the viewers became used to in the later episodes of the show.
César and Ugolin are named after the peasants from the 1986 French language films Jean de Florette and Manon des Sources. Bart's French gift to Maggie is a reference to Le Ballon Rouge, a short French children's film. On the way to the chateau, Bart and Ugolin cycle past scenes depicted in several famous paintings, notably Bassin aux nymphéas by Claude Monet, Champ de blé aux corbeaux by Vincent van Gogh, Le rêve by Henri Rousseau and Déjeuner sur l'herbe by Édouard Manet.
A similar scandal involving the use of anti-freeze in wine emerged from Austria and West Germany in 1985.
Since the show received separate dub tracks for traditional French-speaking versus Canadian French-speaking territories, the scene involving Bart seeking a gendarme's help was slightly altered. In the "France French" dub, Bart and the policeman both speak the same language, thus the impasse is that Bart initially seeks help about his two-month obligation to his host family and the policeman minimizes the matter, but then Bart gets inspiration to stress the wine poisoning to get help. In the Canadian French dub, Bart speaks Quebecois slang which the French gendarme does not understand, and Bart initially mutters, "I thought they spoke French in France." Thus Bart figures out he must speak to the officer in stereotypical Parisian French to make him understand.
## Reception
In its original American broadcast, "The Crepes of Wrath" finished 29th for the week with a Nielsen rating of 15.9, the second highest rated show on Fox. "The Crepes of Wrath" received generally positive reviews from critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said the episode was a "Tour de Force" and that this was "perhaps the first episode to make the viewer's jaw drop at the audacity and invention of the series' makers".
In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated this episode a 2+1⁄2 (of 5), adding: "while the laughs are a bit dry in this episode, the over-the-top plot is indicative of zaniness to come". Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that "it's clear that the writers had started to find their groove by the time this episode was produced. From start to finish, 'Crepes' offered a solid experience, as the show began to feature more style and subtlety." Scott Collura at Hollywood Video praised the episode in a review, saying "it is one of the best of the first season."
In 1997, David Bauder from TV Guide named this episode the greatest episode of The Simpsons, and the 17th greatest episode of any television show of all time. In 2006, IGN listed "The Crepes of Wrath" as the best episode of the first season, saying it "features a strong central storyline, with Bart being shipped off to France as an exchange student and being forced to work for two unscrupulous winemakers [who] mix antifreeze in their wine". The episode's reference to Le Ballon Rouge was named the third greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film.
In Planet Simpson, author Chris Turner notes that many of the episode's French characters and settings are derived largely from American stereotypes of France, writing "[Caeser and Ugolin] are perfect embodiments of the stereotypical Frenchman so loathed in the United States."
|
22,873,005 |
Thelnetham Windmill
| 1,137,254,293 |
Grade II* listed tower mill constructed of brick
|
[
"Borough of St Edmundsbury",
"Grade II* listed buildings in Suffolk",
"Grade II* listed windmills",
"Grinding mills in the United Kingdom",
"Mill museums in England",
"Museums in Suffolk",
"Tower mills in the United Kingdom",
"Windmills completed in 1819",
"Windmills in Suffolk"
] |
Thelnetham Windmill, also known as Button's Mill is a Grade II\* listed tower mill constructed of brick. The windmill is located at Thelnetham, Suffolk, England. It was built in the early nineteenth century to grind wheat into flour. Thelnetham windmill worked by wind power until 1924, latterly on two sails, after which it became derelict.
In 1979, a group of enthusiasts purchased Thelnetham windmill for restoration. Numerous volunteers helped to restore the mill to full working order over an eight-year period. The mill is open to the public, and flour ground at the mill can be bought at the site.
The mill is a small four storey tower mill with Patent sails and winded by a fantail. It drives two pairs of millstones, with a third pair driven by an auxiliary engine.
## History
The earliest record of a windmill in Thelnetham was a post mill which was shown of Joseph Hodgkinson's map of Suffolk of 1778. In 1818, the post mill was moved to Sandy Lane, Diss, Norfolk
The post mill was replaced by a tower mill, which was built by millwright George Bloomfield for William Button in 1819. The mill was set to work on Christmas Day 1819. In 1832, the mill was modernised by the fitting of a cast-iron windshaft, Patent sails and a fantail. The new windshaft was fitted on 16 July 1832. It was made by J Aickman, the King's Lynn millwright, and weighs 13⁄4 tons (1,780 kg). A new stock was fitted in September 1836. William Button died on 11 February 1837. The mill passed jointly to his widow Rebecca and their son Richard. Richard Button worked the mill until 1860, at which date it was conveyed to his sons Richard and William, who sold it to Richard Peverett from Kenninghall, Norfolk in 1862.
The mill was worked by Stephen Peverett, Richard's son. He inherited the mill on the death of his father in 1875 and leased it to Henry Bryant in 1879. In 1884, the mill was sold by auction, and Henry Bryant purchased the freehold. Bryant rebuilt the floors of the mill. From 1892, a portable steam engine was used as auxiliary power, driving an extra pair of millstones on the ground floor. This was replaced in 1914 by a Hornsby oil engine. Bryant ran the mill until 1920 when he sold it to Alphonso Vincent, a retired millwright from Garboldisham, Norfolk. The Hornsby engine was sold in the early 1920s. The mill was tailwinded c1920, and as a result one pair of sails was removed. Vincent carried out some repairs to the mill and ran it until he retired in 1924. One of the remaining two sails was wrecked in 1926 when the mill was again tailwinded.
On the death of Alphonso Vincent in 1932, his son George inherited the property. He lived at the site in an old lorry until his death in 1973. The mill passed to his daughter, who sold it in 1974 to Mr and Mrs Humphries, who intended to convert it into a house. They later changed their minds and offered it for sale for restoration. In 1976, the cap of the mill was blown to pieces in a gale. Thelnetham windmill was purchased by five members of the Suffolk Mills Group in November 1979, and plans for restoration were made. The consortium consisted of Mark Barnard, Charles Dolman, Peter Dolman, David Pearce and Chris Seago. The derelict mill and an acre of land cost £6,000.
In 2013, the mill was gifted to the Suffolk Building Preservation Trust, which also owns Pakenham Watermill. On 14 July 2019, the bicentenary of the windmill was celebrated. The Locomobile lorry that George Vincent had lived in, now restored to its original army condition, was present. Also in 2019, the mill was used as a polling station during the European Parliament election in May, and in the General Election in December. The usual venue, Thelnetham Village Hall being unavailable due to it undergoing a major refurbishment.
## Restoration
The mill was restored over a period of six years. Much of the work was carried out by enthusiasts who used working holidays to repair the mill.
### 1979–1980
The consortium took possession of the mill in November 1979. The first priority was to make the mill as weathertight as possible. Polythene sheets were spread on the dust floor of the mill to prevent further water penetration of the structure. The mill was surveyed and recorded. In spring 1980, the dust floor partially collapsed and was removed as a safety measure. Scaffolding was erected to allow the fanstage to be dismantled, and the cap centering wheels were removed in preparation for the removal of the cap frame.
A two-week work-in was held at the end of July and beginning of August 1980. Thirty-three volunteers worked on the mill over the work-in. Two new main floor beams for the dust floor were made from baulks of pitch pine which had previously been in a maltings at Bury St Edmunds. On 3 August 1980, the windshaft and remaining sail fragments were removed by a mobile crane, followed by the cap frame and the cast-iron curb sections.
New oak joists were laid on the dust floor and temporary boarding laid to provide a working platform for repairs to the top of the mill tower. The bin floor was removed, apart from one oak main beam which was repairable. A replacement main beam was made from pitch pine, and the oak beam was repaired. New oak joists were fitted, along with some salvaged from the original floor which were fit to be reused. One of these had previously been a whip from a Common sail. Some of the joists were made from pitch pine from the Eastbridge Windpump, which, following its collapse on 19 February 1977, had been re-erected at the Museum of East Anglian Life, Stowmarket. The sack hoist was dismantled to enable its repair, brickwork was repaired, and new lintels were made for some of the windows. A tarpaulin was secured over the mill tower to keep the weather out over winter. The floorboards on the bin floor were replaced and one of the two pairs of millstones was removed.
The work was financed by grants of £500 from the Council for the Preservation of Rural Essex, £250 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, £200 from the Scarfe Trust, and £200 from the Suffolk Mills Group. Other donations and income amounted to £65, with the balance of expenditure being met jointly by the five owners.
The "work-in" was reported in both local and national media, including BBC Look East, Bury Free Press, Eastern Daily Press, East Anglian Daily Times, Daily Telegraph, and Radio Orwell.
### 1981
In the 1981 season two separate work-ins were held, the first from 25 July to 2 August and the second from 22 August to 30 August. A total of 37 volunteers participated over the two weeks.
The millstones were removed from the stone floor, which was then repaired. One of the main beams was found to have been attacked by Death Watch beetles, and over a third of the elm beam was replaced with oak. The six supports for the hurst frame were repaired one at a time, as they bore the whole of the weight of the machinery above. One post required replacement. It had rotted and the floor had sunk by 4 inches (100 mm) causing the second main floor beam to fracture. When this work had been completed, the stone floor was removed, including the second main floor beam, which was removed in one piece so that the most suitable route to install its replacement could be assessed.
The new main beam for the stone floor was installed and the ground floor was concreted. The stone floor was reconstructed, reusing the old stone bearers and those joists that were fit for reuse. Other joists were made new from oak or pitch pine. New floorboards were laid in the dust floor, the 1+1⁄4 inches (32 mm) thick elm boards being double-grooved with a metal tongue between them. Those on the bin floor are of a similar configuration. The top four courses of brickwork of the mill tower were removed and work began on rebuilding them, aided by a trammel attached to the upright shaft.
During the second work-in, the remainder of the stone floor was boarded, again using double-grooved boards with a metal tongue between them. The window on the dust floor was rebuilt and the reconstruction of the top four courses of brickwork continued. The top two courses were rebuilt with red engineering bricks. The dust floor window had a reinforced concrete lintel cast as the tower was weak at this point and had distorted. The windshaft, the curb segments and fantail gearing were given two coats of red lead paint. A new finial for the cap was made from a piece of oak 3 feet (910 mm) long by 16 inches (410 mm) diameter. A start was made on removing the old pointing on the brickwork and repointing with gauged mortar.
After the work-in had finished, the boarding of the stone floor was completed and the mill thoroughly cleaned in preparation for an open day which was held in late autumn. The work done in 1981 cost £3,250. Donations received were £2,000 from Rank Xerox, £1,704 from the Historic Buildings Council and £130 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council. Other donations and income received amounted to £70. The project received further coverage in local media, the Eastern Daily Press, and South Norfolk News.
### 1982
The 1982 work-ins took place from 24 July to 1 August and 21 August to 29 August. The work planned included the completion of the brickwork at the top of the tower, installation of the Elm curb, a start on the construction of the new cap, installing machinery and making and fitting various doors and windows. The cap frame was constructed, incorporating two beams from the original cap frame that were fit to be reused. The cap frame was completed in autumn 1982. It had been constructed upside down and a mobile crane was used to turn it over and place the windshaft into position.
### 1983
Work in the early part of 1983 was mainly confined to smaller jobs such as casting various brasses and overhaul of the various parts of the fantail drivetrain and mechanism for controlling the Patent sails. The mill was generally made as safe as possible inside in preparation for scheduled visits, including one from the Wind and Watermill Section of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Other work included the overhaul of the final drive to the 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) stones, including dismantling the stone nut and replacement of three cogs in beech.
When the weather improved, work commenced outside. The cap circle was mostly constructed before the first work-in commenced. The work-ins took place over two separate weeks in July and August, with 35 people participating. During the first work-in, the fantail posts and braces were fitted. The oak cap ribs, which had been prefabricated offsite were fitted and the finial was supported by scaffolding ready for final fitting. Intermediate noggings of oak were fitted and the finial was pulled into position using a windlass. The cap frame was competed with the fitting of intermediate ribs and noggings. The rear of the cap circle was also completed during this time.
Between the two work-ins, the rear dormer was completed and the fitting of noggings to the cap frame completed. This enabled a start to be made on boarding the cap on the Monday of the second work-in. The boards for the cap are 1⁄2 inch (13 mm) thick and 9 inches (230 mm) wide at the petticoat, tapering towards the top. A new neck bearing was installed under the windshaft, not without difficulty and much machining before it would fit. When the boarding of the cap was completed, the cover strips were fitted over the joints. The petticoat was drawn into position using a rope and windlass, and the galvanised steel reinforcing band screwed into position, producing a sturdy structure. The striking rod was fitted through the windshaft and the axle for the fantail fitted in position on top of the fantail posts. At the top of the mill tower, the curb was prepared to accept the cap, and the cast iron curb track plates bolted into position. Repointing of the brickwork of the tower continued, with nearly half of it completed at the end of the second work-in.
After the work-ins had ended, work continued on finishing the cap which was scheduled for lift-on in October. The weather hampered the work initially, but the application of a modern microporous paint, designed to withstand normal movement of the timber and yet remain waterproof, was completed in time for the lift-on. A mini work-in was held the weekend before the cap was lifted, with 17 people participating over the weekend. Final work was done to the cap and a new window was fitted to the stone floor of the mill. The tarpaulin was removed and the trammel dismantled. The 5-ton cap was lifted into place by a mobile crane on 24 October 1983, watched by a crowd of some 70 people. The fitting of the cap was toasted with beer from Adnams Brewery, Southwold.
Restoration work in 1983 cost £1,408. Grants were received from the Association of Independent Museums, Blo' Norton Women's Institute, Ipswich Historical Transport Society, the National Association for Gifted Children, Mr D. Porter and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. Further income came from the sale of guide books and a drawing of the mill by Wilf Foreman.
### 1984
Four work-ins were held during 1984. The first two were by apprentices from Eastern Electricity Board. Thelnetham Windmill was chosen at the project to benefit from the Young Person's Development Project for that year. Pakenham Watermill had previously benefited from the project, and its owners, the Suffolk Preservation Trust, had suggested that Thelnetham Windmill would be a good candidate for the scheme. Two separate parties spent a week each at the mill. A mains electricity supply was provided. An underground cable was laid with assistance from British Telecom who were trialling a thrust borer which had been developed at their research facility at Martlesham Heath. The thrust borer laid 25 yards (23 m) of ducting through which the mains cable was pulled into position. The mill was then supplied with lights and sockets on each floor.
Other work undertaken by the apprentices involved repairing some frost damage to the foundation brickwork, digging a drainage trench around the mill and moving the auxiliary engine into position. A concrete path around the tower was trapping moisture, leading to rising damp. A French drain was constructed around the mill to remedy these problem. A 21 horsepower (16 kW) Ruston & Hornsby 4YHR diesel engine had been purchased in 1981 and was fitted onto a permanent concrete base with the aid of a mobile crane. After fitting it was then painted. Some missing or broken parts were made or repaired as necessary.
Off-site, the new brake wheel and fantail were made. The original brake wheel was too rotten to repair, and showed evidence that it had been altered from the original one installed in 1819. The original brake wheel was 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter to allow the Common sails to run at their optimum speed. When the mill was modernised in 1832 it was necessary to alter the gear ratios within the mill, as Patent sails run at a slower speed than Common sails. The great spur wheel was increased in diameter and the stone nuts reduced in diameter. The brake wheel was also rebuilt, with a cast-iron segment ring fitted in place of the original cogs, resulting in a wheel 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) in diameter. The opinion of professional millwrights was sought, and it was decided that a scaled-up version of the original brake wheel would be made, but retaining the cast iron teeth segments. The remains of the original brake wheel were retained as an exhibit in the mill. The original iron segments were all broken, so a pattern was made and new segments were cast in heat-treated malleable cast iron. When the brake wheel was completed it was dismantled and transported to the mill ready for reassembly.
The fantail was made. Some of the small gears were replaced. The stocks were made from pitch pine and the blades from Douglas fir. Work at the mill over the winter included repairs to the brickwork and windows, with only one window still needing attention when the first work-in began. New beech cogs were fitted to the crown wheel, which was restored to its correct position on the upright shaft.
The stocks and sails were made during the two work-ins held in July and August, a total of 41 people attending over the two weeks. A second-hand stock had been bought in the 1920s and preserved at the mill, but upon examination it was found to be unfit for use. Thus two new stocks were required instead of one. Modern steel stocks had already been discounted on cost and durability grounds, leaving two options. Traditional stocks made from a single piece of timber, or laminated stocks. Good quality pitch pine was not obtainable in the lengths required. Douglas fir was obtainable in such lengths but was discounted on strength and durability grounds. A Douglas fir stock on a nearby mill had rotted after only seven years. Thus it was decided that laminated stocks would be made.
The 52 feet (15.85 m) long stocks were made from Douglas fir. All timber had been pressure treated with preservative and well seasoned. It was estimated that a laminated stock would be up to 20% stronger than a similar stock of solid timber. The timber used was 1+1⁄2 inches (38 mm) thick and nine laminations were required at the centre, where the stock passes through the poll end of the windshaft. Careful attention was paid to where individual joints occurred between different pieces of timber. Both stocks were made during the work-in, with one of them being trimmed and finished ready for use. The stocks were the first laminated stocks made by amateurs.
The four sails were made. The originals being slightly different pairs. Those on the inner stock having bays of 3 feet (910 mm) pitch and those on the outer stock having bays of 3 feet 2 inches (970 mm) pitch. It was decided that the new sails would be identical, at the larger pitch. Four 27 feet (8.23 m) long whips were cut from a baulk of pitch pine obtained from a demolished maltings at Bury St Edmunds. The whips are 6 inches (150 mm) square at their inner end. Sail bars and uplongs were made from modern pitch pine, selected for quality. The mortices for the sail bars were cut. That at the heel of the sail being at 27° and that at the tip being 15°, decreasing by 11⁄2° at each sail bar. Three of the four sails had been completed at the end of the work in.
The fantail and associated gearing was fitted to the mill. At the end of the second work-in, the cap could be turned by means of the hand crank. The fantail itself, with the blades painted red, white and blue was installed shortly afterwards. The clasp arm brake wheel was assembled around the windshaft. It was found that the wallower was eccentric on the upright shaft by 1⁄2 inch (13 mm). When this was corrected the brake wheel was within <sup>1</sup>/<sub>16</sub> th of an inch (less than 1 mm) of true. The clamps for the stocks were sawn from a baulk of pitch pine ready for completion later in the year. Other work included a new frame for one of the ground floor doors, cleaning and painting ironwork and further repointing on the brickwork. The four sails were fitted to the mill with the aid of a mobile crane at the end of the second work-in. The stock, with one sail attached was carefully inserted through the poll end of the windshaft and when wedged in position and the clamps had been attached the second sail was fitted to the stock. The process was repeated for the second pair of sails. The mill turned by wind again on the last day of the second work-in.
Work later in the year included the finishing of the fourth sail, balancing the fantail and sorting out teething troubles with the fantail gearing. The brake and brake lever were made and installed and shutter cranks for the sails were cast.
Restoration work in 1984 cost £2,918. Grants received were £1,209 from English Heritage, £500 from St Edmundsbury Borough Council, Other donations amounted to £52. Income from open days at the mill came to £151. A boost to the funds was £2,000 from Hervey Benham. This money had been allocated to allow the moving of a derelict post mill buck to Thelnetham. In the end, the removal was not proceeded with, and Mr Benham allowed the donation to remain with the Thelnetham Mill Preservation Trust. The project received further support in local media, including the East Anglian Daily Times, one of the work-ins being featured on Anglia Television's About Anglia programme.
### 1985–87
Work planned for 1985 included the replacement of the dust floor window and completion of the stocks and sails. The external walls of the mill were tarred and internal walls plastered. Two work-ins were held, from 20 July to 28 July and 17 August to 26 August. Further work over the next two years saw the restoration completed in 1987.
### Restoration team
The restoration of Thelnetham Windmill was made possible by the efforts of 135 individuals and 61 organisations. This was achieved by the donation of labour, plant, materials or grants of money, or by giving discounts for materials purchased or providing publicity for the project.
## Description
Terms explained in the Mill machinery article are in italics
As built in 1819
A four-storey tower mill with Common sails carried on a wooden windshaft, driving two pairs of overdrift millstones. Brake wheel 6 feet (1.83 m) diameter. Winding was by hand.
As restored
The four-storey tower is built of brick, and stands 31 feet 5 inches (9.58 m) from ground level to the curb. The walls are 2 feet (610 mm) thick at ground level. The mill is described from the top down.
The pepperpot cap sits on top of the tower, giving the mill an overall height of 45 feet (13.72 m) to the finial. It houses the cast-iron windshaft and 7 feet 2 inches (2.18 m) diameter wooden brake wheel internally. Externally the four double Patent sails span 64 feet (19.51 m). They are 9 feet (2.74 m) wide and can develop 30 horsepower (22 kW). The eight bladed fantail keeps the mill turned into wind.
The top floor of the mill is the dust floor. It could be used for storage of grain and gives internal access to the cap. The cast-iron wallower, which is driven by the brake wheel is carried at the top of the upright shaft, in the centre of the mill.
The bin floor is where the grain is stored before being ground into flour. The sack hoist mechanism is housed on this floor, driven from the wooden crown wheel on the floor below by belt.
The stone floor is where the two pairs of underdrift French Burr millstones are located. The stones are 4 feet 4 inches (1.32 m) and 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) diameter. The wooden crown wheel is located towards the ceiling. This drives the sack hoist on the bin floor. Other machinery on this floor are an oat crusher and a flour dresser.
The ground floor of the mill is the meal floor. It is where the freshly ground flour is delivered for bagging up. The wooden great spur wheel, located at the bottom of the extended upright shaft and stone nuts are located on this floor. The great spur wheel has been converted from compass arm construction to clasp arm construction. A third pair of 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) diameter French Burr millstones is located on a hurst frame, driven by the auxiliary engine via a fast and loose pulley.
## Millers
- William Button 1819-37
- Rebecca Button 1837-??
- Richard Button 18??-60
- William Button 1860-62
- Richard Button (Jr) 1860-62
- Stephen Peverett 1862-79
- Henry Bryant 1879-1920
- Alphonso Vincent 1920-24
- George Vincent 1920-24
Reference for above:-
## Culture and media
A video of the restoration of the mill was produced by Viv Codd.
## Public access
Thelnetham Mill is open to the public on Easter Monday, the Sunday of the late May and August bank holidays and the first Sunday in July, August and September. It is also open at other times by prior arrangement.
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20,143,816 |
Albert Gould
| 1,164,543,094 |
Australian politician (1847–1936)
|
[
"1847 births",
"1936 deaths",
"20th-century Australian politicians",
"Australian Anglicans",
"Australian Knights Bachelor",
"Commonwealth Liberal Party members of the Parliament of Australia",
"Free Trade Party members of the Parliament of Australia",
"Members of the Australian Senate",
"Members of the Australian Senate for New South Wales",
"Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly",
"Members of the New South Wales Legislative Council",
"Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia",
"Presidents of the Australian Senate"
] |
Sir Albert John Gould, VD (12 February 1847 – 27 July 1936) was an Australian politician and solicitor who served as the second president of the Australian Senate.
A solicitor, businessman and citizen soldier before his entry into politics, Gould was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1882 to 1898, during which time he served as Minister for Justice in two Free Trade governments. He later served two years in the New South Wales Legislative Council from 1899 to 1901 until his election to the Australian Senate. Gould's interest in parliamentary procedure saw him become involved with the relevant standing committee and he was elected unopposed as the second President of the Senate in 1907. His tenure is remembered as more traditionalist and Anglophilic than his predecessor's.
Defeated by the Labor nominee in 1910 following the Liberal government's defeat, Gould remained in parliament as a backbencher until 1917, when he retired after he was not re-endorsed by the Nationalist Party. He was active in community and religious affairs during his long retirement.
## Early life and career
Gould was born in Sydney, the son of solicitor John Morton Gould and his wife Anne (née Livingstone). He attended William Woolls' school in Parramatta, and went on to study law at the University of Sydney, although he did not take a degree. He served his articles with his father and was admitted to the bar in December 1870. He then worked in Singleton for a Sydney legal firm. Gould also developed significant business interests, being involved with the Great Cobar Copper Mining syndicate and serving as a director of the Electric Light and Power Supply Company, the City Bank of Sydney and the Oriental Timber Corporation. On 12 September 1872, he married Jeanette Jessie Maitland at St Paul's Church of England in West Maitland.
Gould was also a citizen soldier, enlisting as a volunteer in the West Maitland company of the New South Wales volunteer forces. He later took command of the Singleton Company, becoming a major in 1886. He later received the Volunteer Officers' Decoration for long service; he would retire from the regiment in 1902 as a lieutenant-colonel.
## State politics
In 1882, Gould was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as the member for Patrick's Plains (renamed Singleton in 1894). Initially an opponent of the coalition associated with Henry Parkes and John Robertson, he later supported Robertson's government in 1885. By 1887 he was supporting his career with his own legal practice in Singleton and Sydney, and when the party system came into being in New South Wales in that year he identified as a Free Trader. In 1889 he was appointed Minister for Justice under Parkes, serving until 1891; he held the position again under George Reid from 1894 to 1898. During the first period of his ministry he became involved in a dispute with the Chief Justice, Sir Frederick Darley, over requests for improved court accommodation and a contested punishment for contempt of two witnesses. Despite embarrassing his premier, he remained close with Parkes throughout his state career and in later years frequently gave speeches in his memory.
Gould's career as justice minister was marked by consolidation of the law, tightening of licensing laws and reforms relating to police courts. A supporter of Federation, he nevertheless opposed the 1898 bill, which he believed deprived New South Wales of adequate recognition. He was defeated in the election of that year, but in 1899 he was one of Premier Reid's twelve appointments to the Legislative Council that enabled the passage of the legislation for a referendum on Federation.
## Senate career
Following Federation, Gould contested the first federal election in March 1901, standing for the Senate as a Free Trader. He was elected in the third of six positions, entitling him to a six-year term. His first speech was largely devoted to his impassioned support for free trade, and in his early years as a senator he also supported decentralisation and opposed proposals to establish a federal capital. A supporter of the White Australia policy, he expressed concern over Kanaka labour in Queensland, although his assumption that the arrangement was temporary enabled his pragmatism on this issue. Gould was also involved in defence matters, supporting the introduction of conscription and maintaining loyalty to the Empire, where "there are men much more experienced in the principles of government than we are". At the 1906 election, Gould was easily re-elected in the first position, winning the largest vote for any senator to that time.
From 1901 Gould maintained an interest in the procedure of the Senate, and was a member of the standing orders committee from its appointment in 1901 until 1907. He had supported the opening of Senate proceedings with prayer and had made frequent reference to the standing orders of the British House of Commons. He contested the Presidency of the Senate in 1904, but was defeated by the incumbent, Sir Richard Baker.
On Baker's retirement, Gould was unanimously elected President on 20 February 1907. He endeavoured to keep the Senate representative of the states' interests and free from party politics, and his rulings focused on unparliamentary language and relevance. Gould, appointed Knight Bachelor in 1908, differed from his predecessor in his adherence to British influence. With the election of the Fisher Labor Government in 1910, Gould was defeated by Harry Turley for the presidency.
Despite his support for conscription, Gould was not endorsed by the new Nationalist Party to contest the 1917 election. Deeply offended, Gould nevertheless elected to retire rather than run as an independent and split the Nationalist vote.
## Later life
In his retirement, Gould continued his community involvement. A director of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital and the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, he also served as a member and chancellor of the Sydney and Newcastle synods of the Church of England. He died in July 1936 at Rose Bay aged 89; he was survived by two sons and three daughters (his wife died in 1928; one daughter had also predeceased him). Gould was given a state funeral at St Andrew's Cathedral and was buried at South Head Cemetery.
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41,738,621 |
Sora Amamiya
| 1,172,629,987 |
Japanese voice actress and singer (born 1993)
|
[
"1993 births",
"21st-century Japanese actresses",
"21st-century Japanese singers",
"21st-century Japanese women singers",
"Anime singers",
"Japanese YouTubers",
"Japanese video game actresses",
"Japanese voice actresses",
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Living people",
"Seiyu Award winners",
"Singers from Tokyo",
"Voice actresses from Tokyo"
] |
Sora Amamiya (雨宮 天, Amamiya Sora, born August 28, 1993) is a Japanese voice actress and singer. She is affiliated with the talent agency Music Ray'n. After passing an audition held by Music Ray'n, she made her voice acting debut in 2012. She played her first main role as Kaori Fujimiya in the 2014 anime television series One Week Friends.
Some of her anime roles include Elizabeth Liones in The Seven Deadly Sins, Aqua in KonoSuba, Akame in Akame ga Kill!, Touka Kirishima in Tokyo Ghoul, Asseylum Vers Allusia in Aldnoah.Zero, Chizuru Mizuhara in Rent-A-Girlfriend, Isla in Plastic Memories, Mayuri in Date A Live: Mayuri Judgement, Miia in Monster Musume, Hitomi Uzaki in Killing Bites, Ayame Himuro in Science Fell in Love, So I Tried to Prove It, and Nazuna Nanakusa in Call of the Night. She also performed theme songs for various anime she has acted in. In 2015, she received the Best Rookie Actress Award at the 9th Seiyu Awards.
Amamiya is a member of the music unit TrySail, along with voice actresses Momo Asakura and Shiina Natsukawa. She is also active as a solo singer, having released three albums, two compilation albums, and one cover album as of 2022. Her music career has been influenced by various inspirations, including among others CD covers and foreign styles of music.
## Biography
### Early life
Amamiya was born in Tokyo, Japan, on August 28, 1993. She encountered a video collection of voice actress Miyuki Sawashiro's roles while a high-school sophomore. The event inspired her to become a voice actress.
### Acting career
Amamiya, together with Momo Asakura and Shiina Natsukawa, passed an audition held by Music Ray'n in 2011, with the three making their voice acting debut in 2012. Her first lead role was Kaori Fujimiya in the 2014 anime television series One Week Friends. That same year, she played the role of Akame in Akame ga Kill!, Asseylum Vers Allusia in Aldnoah.Zero, Touka Kirishima in Tokyo Ghoul, and Elizabeth Liones in The Seven Deadly Sins.
In 2015, she was cast as Isla in Plastic Memories, Miia in Monster Musume, and Mayuri in the anime film Date A Live: Mayuri Judgement. Amamiya, together with Reina Ueda and Aya Suzaki, received the Best Rookie Actress Award at the 9th Seiyu Awards in March 2015. That same year, she played the role of Aqua in the anime KonoSuba.
In 2017, she played the role of Rui Kanoya in Re:Creators, and Haruka Narumi in Battle Girl High School. The following year, she was cast as Methode in Beatless, Hitomi Uzaki in Killing Bites, and Dancho Arthur in the mobile game Han-Gyaku-Sei Million Arthur; she would later reprise the role in the game's anime adaptation. She played the role of Akemi Sōryūin in the anime How Heavy Are the Dumbbells You Lift?, and reprised her role as Aqua in the anime film KonoSuba: God's Blessing on This Wonderful World! Legend of Crimson in 2019.
In 2020, she played Chizuru Mizuhara in the anime series Rent-A-Girlfriend. In 2021, she voiced Miko Yotsuya in the anime series Mieruko-chan.
### Music career
Amamiya's music career began when she performed the song "Kanade" (奏(かなで), lit. "Symphony"), a cover of a 2004 single by Sukima Switch. The song was used as the ending theme to One Week Friends. She made her official music debut for Music Ray'n by performing Akame ga Kill's opening theme song "Skyreach"; the song peaked at number 13 on the Oricon weekly charts.
In late 2014, Amamiya, Asakura, and Natsukawa formed the music unit TrySail, which released its first single "Youthful Dreamer", used as the opening theme song to the anime television series Ultimate Otaku Teacher, on May 13, 2015. In 2016, she, along with her co-stars, Rie Takahashi and Ai Kayano performed KonoSuba's ending theme song "Chīsana Bōken-sha" (ちいさな冒険者, lit."Little Adventurer"). She released her first solo album Various BLUE on September 7, 2016; the album peaked at number 7 on the Oricon weekly charts. Her second album The Only BLUE was released on July 11, 2018.
In 2020, she performed the song "Kimi o Tooshite" (君を通して), which was used as an insert song in the twelfth episode of Rent-A-Girlfriend. She released her third album Paint It, BLUE on September 2, 2020. In 2021, she performed the songs "Mienai Kara ne!?" (見えないからね!?, "I Can't See Them, Okay!?") and "Mita na? Mita yo ne?? Miteru yo ne???" (ミタナ?ミタヨネ??ミテルヨネ???, "You Saw Me? You Saw Me, Right?? You're Seeing Me Right Now, Right???"), which are used as the opening and ending themes respectively to Mieruko-chan. She released a cover album titled Covers: Sora Amamiya Favorite Songs on October 21, 2021, and two compilation albums titled Red and Blue on January 5, 2022.
## Musical style and influences
In an interview with the anime publication LisAni, Amamiya described the production process of her single "Freesia", the title track of which was used as the ending theme to the Japanese airing of the animated television series Heaven Official's Blessing. She noted that, starting in 2017, she tended to release solo singles in odd-numbered years, and how "Freesia" fit that pattern as well. She noted that "Freesia" has an oriental atmosphere, with the first part having the image of a small room that opens up as a result of becoming rusty; the song's oriental atmosphere also influenced its music video. The appearance of the single's title on the cover, as well as the cover itself, were meant to be reminiscent of a retro 7-inch single, with her emphasizing this point by holding a vintage microphone. For the single's B-side "Jōnetsu no Te Amo", she aimed for the song to have a Latin flavor, with the song featuring a Spanish guitar among other influences. She noted that writing the song was a challenge as she did not play the guitar and she had to research various kinds of instruments. The single's third song "Emerald" was also noted to have an exotic introduction.
## Filmography
### Anime
### Films
### Video games
### Live-action
### Dubbing
## Discography
### Albums
### Singles
|
47,178,651 |
Adventure Time (season 8)
| 1,151,199,964 | null |
[
"2016 American television seasons",
"2017 American television seasons",
"Adventure Time (season 8) episodes",
"Adventure Time seasons"
] |
The eighth season of Adventure Time, an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward, premiered on Cartoon Network on March 26, 2016, and concluded on February 2, 2017, and was produced by Frederator Studios and Cartoon Network Studios. It follows the adventures of Finn, a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the other main characters of the show: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess.
Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Jesse Moynihan, Laura Knetzger, Kris Mukai, Lyle Partridge, Graham Falk, Charmaine Verhagen, Sam Alden, Pendleton Ward, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Hanna K. Nyström, Ako Castuera, Aleks Sennwald, Polly Guo, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto storyboarded and wrote the season. The miniseries Islands, which follows Finn, Jake, BMO (voiced by Niki Yang), and Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino) as they leave Ooo and travel across the ocean to solve the mystery of Finn's past, aired during this season. It also features guest animators Alex and Lindsay Small-Butera (who worked on "Beyond the Grotto") and James Baxter (who worked on "Horse and Ball").
The season debuted with the episode "Broke His Crown", which was watched by 1.13 million viewers marking a slight decrease from the previous season finale, "The Thin Yellow Line", which was seen by 1.15 million viewers. "Islands Part 8: The Light Cloud," the eighth-season finale, was watched by 1 million viewers, making it the lowest-rated Adventure Time season finale at the time. Critical reception to the season was mostly positive, with The A.V. Club writer Oliver Sava expressing pleasant bemusement that the show's quality had not suffered despite this season being its eighth. Critics were also complimentary towards the Islands miniseries: In April 2017, Common Sense Media awarded the miniseries "The Common Sense Seal", and at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2017, the Islands episode "Imaginary Resources" won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation. Several compilation DVDs that contain episodes from the season have been released, and a set containing the entire season was released on September 4, 2018.
## Development
### Concept
The series follows the adventures of Finn the Human, a human boy, and his best friend Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape, grow, and shrink at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the other major characters, including: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess. Common storylines revolve around Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures, dealing with the antagonistic, but misunderstood, Ice King, and battling monsters in order to help others. Multi-episode story arcs for this season include the introduction of the character Fern, and Finn meeting his mother and learning about what became of humanity.
### Production
On July 7, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter announced that the series had been renewed for an eighth season. The season's storyline writers included Jack Pendarvis, Adam Muto, Kent Osborne, and Ashly Burch. Originally, the show's seventh season was supposed to comprise the episodes "Bonnie & Neddy" through "Reboot", and its eighth season was supposed to include the episodes "Two Swords" through "Three Buckets", but when it came time to upload the seventh season onto streaming sites, Cartoon Network chose to end the season with its 26th episode, "The Thin Yellow Line." Consequently, the episodes "Broke His Crown" through "Reboot" (which had originally been ordered as the last episodes of the show's seventh season) and the episodes "Two Swords" through the Islands miniseries (which had originally been ordered as the beginning of the show's eighth season) were combined to form the show's official eighth season. This new episode count was cemented by the release of the complete seventh season DVD on July 18, 2017, which included episodes up until "The Thin Yellow Line", as well as the release of the complete eighth season on the Cartoon Network website.
This season's episodes were produced in a process similar to those of the previous seasons. Each episode was outlined in two-to-three pages that contained the necessary plot information. These outlines were then handed to storyboard artists, who created full storyboards. Design and coloring were done at Cartoon Network Studios in Burbank, California, and animation was handled overseas in South Korea by Rough Draft Korea and Saerom Animation. Continuing a tradition that started with the fifth season episode "A Glitch is a Glitch", this season also features the work of guest animators. "Beyond the Grotto" features 7 minutes of animation courtesy of Alex and Lindsay Small-Butera, a husband and wife duo known for their web series Baman Piderman, and the episode "Horse and Ball" features animation courtesy of James Baxter. He had previously provided guest animation for the fifth-season episode "James Baxter the Horse". In both episodes, James Baxter the animator lends his voice to the equine character of the same name.
Storyboard artists who worked on this season include: Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Jesse Moynihan, Laura Knetzger, Kris Mukai, Lyle Partridge, Graham Falk, Charmaine Verhagen, Sam Alden, Pendleton Ward, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Hanna K. Nyström, Ako Castuera, Aleks Sennwald, Polly Guo, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto. This was the final season to feature several long-serving storyboard artists and production crew members. Moynihan left the show after completing "Normal Man" to finish his web comic Forming. Finally, supervising director Andres Salaff left after this season to storyboard on Cartoon Network's series Uncle Grandpa. Conversely, the season also saw the return of former storyboard artist Ako Castuera (who returned to storyboard the episode "Broke His Crown" with Nyström before working as a storyboard revisionist, starting with "Two Swords"). and former storyboard artist and creative director Cole Sanchez (who took the position of one of the series' supervising directors starting with "Two Swords").
### Miniseries
During the eighth season of Adventure Time, the miniseries Islands aired at the end of January and the beginning of February 2017. This event was first hinted at before the airing of the first Adventure Time miniseries Stakes (2015) when head story writer Kent Osborne revealed that the show would likely produce several more miniseries. Islands tells the story of Finn, Jake, BMO (voiced by Niki Yang) and Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino) leaving Ooo and traveling across the ocean to solve the mystery of Finn's past. During their trip, they encounter various creatures, new friends, and a variety of mysterious islands. The voyage culminates with a trip to Founder's Island, where Finn learns what happened to the rest of the human race and meets his mother, Minerva (voiced by Sharon Horgan).
## Cast
The season's voice actors include: Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog), Tom Kenny (The Ice King), Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters, including Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO in English, as well as Jake's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward's mother, Bettie Ward, plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks. Jessica DiCicco voices Flame Princess, Finn's ex-girlfriend and the sovereign of the Fire Kingdom. Andy Milonakis voices N.E.P.T.R., a sentient robot who makes and throws pies. Justin Roiland provides the voice of the Earl of Lemongrab. Several episodes, including most of the episodes in the Islands miniseries, feature Jackie Buscarino, who voices Susan Strong. The Adventure Time cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to "doing a play reading—a really, really out there play."
In addition to the regular cast members, episodes feature guest voices from a range of professions, including actors, musicians, and artists. In the season opener "Broke His Crown", both Lena Dunham and Pamela Adlon reprise their characters Betty and Gunter the dinosaur. Dan Mintz, Henry Rollins, and Laura Silverman return to reprise their roles as T.V., Bob, and Ethel in "Lady Rainicorn of the Crystal Dimension". This episode also features former storyboard artist Bert Youn and comedian Fred Stoller voicing the rainicorns Lee and Roy. The episode "I Am a Sword" guest stars Amy Sedaris, Agee, and Melinda Hill; Sedaris plays Bandit Princess, Agee plays a Merchant and Science Cat, and Hill plays Space Bear and Sharon the spiky person. Storyline writer Ashly Burch plays Bun Bun in the titular episode, which also features Keith David reprising his role as the former Flame King. In "Elemental", Lauren Lapkus is introduced as the voice of ice elemental, Patience St. Pim. "Five Short Tables" sees the return of Madeleine Martin, Roz Ryan, Donald Glover, Grey DeLisle, and Emo Philips; they voice Fionna, Cake, Marshall Lee, Ice Queen, and Cuber. The episode also guest stars Hannibal Buress as Flame Prince, Crispin Freeman as Turtle Prince and Ice President, Keith Ferguson as Prince Gumball (standing in lieu of the character's original voice actor, Neil Patrick Harris, who was unavailable due to prior commitments), and Elle Newlands as Butterscotch Butler. "The Music Hole" features several guest actors, including Ashley Eriksson as the titular Music Hole, and Jackie Buscarino as Susan Strong. Alia Shawkat voices Charlie, Rich Sommer voices Grand Prix, and Reggie Watts voices the turtle announcer in "Daddy-Daughter Card Wars". "Preboot" sees the return of Buscarino as Susan Strong and Collin Dean as Tiffany; the episode also introduces Lennon Parham as Dr. Gross. Rainn Wilson reprises his role as Rattleballs, as well as voicing the adult version of Sparkle in "Reboot". The episode "Two Swords" introduces the character of Fern, voiced by Hayden Ezzy. The next episode, "Do No Harm", sees both Jeff Bennett and Hill reprise their roles as the Grass Wizard and Doctor Princess, respectively. In "Wheels", Marc Evan Jackson reprises his role as Kim Kil Whan, and Rae Gray guest stars as Jake's granddaughter, Bronwyn. Ron Lynch returns as Mr. Pig in "High Strangeness". "Horse & Ball" features British animator James Baxter, who voices the horse of the same name. Alan Tudyk returns to voice the character Chatsberry in "Jelly Beans Have Power". The Islands miniseries features Josh Fadem as Whipple the sea-dragon, Helena Mattsson as Alva, Reggie Watts as Vinny, Jasika Nicole as Frieda, Livvy Stubenrauch as young Kara/Susan, Sharon Horgan as Finn's mother Minerva, and Laraine Newman as the Widow. The miniseries also sees Lennon Parham reprise her role as Dr. Gross and Stephen Root return to voice Finn's father, Martin.
Other characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Maria Bamford, Steve Little, and Melissa Villaseñor.
## Broadcast and reception
### Broadcast
Much like the sixth and seventh seasons, the eighth season of Adventure Time featured several "bomb" weeks, or weeks when new episodes debuted every day. The first of these began on January 23, 2017, with "Two Swords"/"Do No Harm" and concluded on January 27, 2017, with "Jelly Beans Have Power". The second week-long string of episodes occurred between January 30 and February 2, 2017, during which the whole of Islands aired.
### Ratings
The season debuted on March 26, 2016, with the episode "Broke His Crown". It was watched by 1.13 million viewers and scored a 0.3 Nielsen rating in the 18 to 49-year-old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States. In this case the episode was seen by 0.3 percent of all households with viewers aged between 18 and 49 years old. This marked a slight decrease in viewership compared to the season seven finale, "The Thin Yellow Line", which was seen by 1.15 million individuals, but it marked a marginal increase compared to the previous season's premiere, "Bonnie & Neddy" which had 1.07 million viewers. The season concluded with the eight-part miniseries Islands. This string of episodes saw an uptick in viewers, with the first two episodes scoring a 0.3 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic and being watched by 1.2 million viewers. During the week that Islands aired, Adventure Time attained viewership numbers over 1 million for every episode. Despite this, "Islands Part 8: The Light Cloud" was still the lowest-rated finale for the show at the time of its airing.
### Reviews and accolades
In a review for the episode "The Music Hole", The A.V. Club writer Oliver Sava wrote, "I love that after seven seasons the show hasn't lost sight of what makes it so compelling to such a wide audience." Each episode was also graded by The A.V. Club with a different letter grade; Islands received an A, and the rest of the season received nine B's, and nine A's. The A.V. Club did not review "Daddy-Daughter Card Wars" because episodic coverage of the series was intended to stop following the airing of "The Music Hole". However, after the airing of "Preboot" and "Reboot", their episode coverage returned due to popular demand.
Islands was met with mostly positive reviews. Many criticssuch as Zack Smith of Newsarama and Oliver Sava of The A.V. Clubapplauded how the miniseries started with quirky adventure episodes before culminating in an emotional finale. Other critics complimented the greater development of the miniseries' characters. Zach Blumenfeld of Paste Magazine complimented the miniseries' philosophical musings, which he argued "takes on shades of Black Mirror and existentialism to cast a critical eye on technology and the human spirit."
In April 2017, Common Sense Media awarded the Islands miniseries The Common Sense Seal, calling it a "beautiful animated miniseries [that] explores a deep backstory." In July 2017, the Islands episode "Imaginary Resources" won a Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
## Episodes
## Home media
Warner Home Video released several DVD compilations that contain episodes from the eighth season. The first was Card Wars, released on July 12, 2016. The second release, Islands—which included all of the titular miniseries—was released on DVD on January 24, 2017. This release was notable because it marked the second time that Adventure Time episodes had been released on DVD before officially airing on Cartoon Network. The first instance was the release of the episode "Princess Day" on the DVD of the same name on July 29, 2014, before it first aired on TV on July 31, 2014).
### US release
A DVD set that includes season eight along with seasons nine and ten was released in the United States on September 4, 2018.
### Australian release
On November 28, 2018, the season was released by itself on DVD and Blu-ray in Australia.
|
12,744,043 |
Bowie Seamount
| 1,163,717,621 |
Submarine volcano in the northeastern Pacific Ocean
|
[
"Former islands from the last glacial maximum",
"Former islands of Canada",
"Haida",
"Hotspot volcanoes",
"Marine Protected Areas of Canada",
"Natural hazards in British Columbia",
"Pleistocene volcanoes",
"Polygenetic volcanoes",
"Protected areas of British Columbia",
"Ridge volcanoes",
"Seamounts of Canada",
"Seamounts of the Pacific Ocean",
"Submarine volcanoes",
"Undersea banks of the Pacific Ocean",
"Underwater diving sites in Canada",
"Volcanoes of British Columbia"
] |
Bowie Seamount, or SG̱aan Ḵinghlas ("Supernatural One Looking Outward") in the Haida language, is a large submarine volcano in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, located 180 km (110 mi) west of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada. The seamount is also known as Bowie Bank. The English name for the feature is after William Bowie of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The volcano has a flat-topped summit rising about 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the seabed, to 24 m (79 ft) below sea level. The seamount lies at the southern end of a long underwater volcanic mountain range called the Pratt-Welker or Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain, stretching from the Aleutian Trench in the north almost to Haida Gwaii in the south.
Bowie Seamount lies on the Pacific Plate, a large segment of the Earth's surface which moves in a northwestern direction under the Pacific Ocean. It is adjacent to two other submarine volcanoes; Hodgkins Seamount on its northern flank and Graham Seamount on its eastern flank.
## Geology
### Structure
Seamounts are volcanic mountains which rise from the seafloor. The unlimited supply of water surrounding these volcanoes can cause them to behave differently from volcanoes on land. The lava emitted in eruptions at Bowie Seamount is made of basalt, a common gray to black or dark brown volcanic rock low in silica content (the lava is mafic). When basaltic lava makes contact with the cold sea water, it may cool very rapidly to form pillow lava, through which the hot lava breaks to form another pillow. Pillow lava is typically fine-grained, due to rapid cooling, with a glassy crust, and has radial jointing.
With a height of at least 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and rising to within only 24 m (79 ft) of the sea surface, Bowie Seamount is the shallowest submarine volcano on the British Columbia Coast, as well as in Canadian waters, and one of the shallowest submarine volcanoes in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Most seamounts are found hundreds to thousands of metres below sea level, and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea. In fact, if Bowie Seamount were on land it would be about 600 m (2,000 ft) higher than Whistler Mountain in southwestern British Columbia and 800 m (2,600 ft) lower than Mount Robson, the highest mountain in the Canadian portion of the Rocky Mountains.
Bowie Seamount is about 55 km (34 mi) long and 24 km (15 mi) wide. Its flat-topped summit is made of weakly consolidated tephra and consists of two terraces. The lowest terrace is about 230 m (750 ft) below sea level while the highest is about 80 m (260 ft) below sea level, but contains steep-sided secondary summits that rise to within 25 m (82 ft) below sea level. From a physical perspective, the effective size of the submarine volcano is considerably large. The effects of other submarine volcanoes along the Pacific Northwest, including Cobb Seamount off the coast of Washington, affect the composition and abundance of plankton up to 30 km (20 mi) away from the seamount summit due to the upwelling of nutrients from deeper waters. Because of its similar size, Bowie Seamount most likely has a similar effect on its adjacent waters.
### Eruptive history
Bowie Seamount was formed by submarine eruptions along fissures in the seabed throughout the last glacial, or "Wisconsinian", period, which began about 110,000 years ago and ended between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago. While most submarine volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean are more than one million years old, Bowie Seamount is relatively young. Its base was formed less than one million years ago, but its summit shows evidence of volcanic activity as recently as 18,000 years ago. This is recent in geological terms, suggesting the volcano may yet have some ongoing volcanic activity.
Close to Bowie's submerged summit, former coastlines cut by wave actions and beach deposits show that the submarine volcano would once have stood above sea level, as either a single volcanic island or as a small cluster of shoals that would have been volcanically active. Sea levels during the last glacial period, when Bowie Seamount was formed, were at least 100 m (300 ft) lower than they are today. It would have had a land area similar to, if not larger than, Midway Atoll in the central Pacific Ocean.
### Origins
There is some disagreement about the origin of Bowie seamount: Geological studies indicate that the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain may have formed above a center of upwelling magma called a mantle plume. The seamounts comprising the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain would be formed above the mantle plume and carried away from the mantle plume's magmatic source as the Pacific Plate moves in a northwesterly direction towards the Aleutian Trench, along the southern coastline of Alaska.
The volcanic rocks which make up some of the seamounts in the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain are unusual in that they have an acid-neutralizing chemical substance like typical ocean-island basalts but a low percentage of strontium as found at mid-ocean ridge basalts. However, the strontium-bearing volcanic rocks comprising Bowie Seamount also contain lead. Therefore, the magma mixtures that formed Bowie Seamount seem to have originated from varying degrees of partial melting of a depleted source in the Earth's mantle and basalts which had distinctly high lead isotopic ratios. Estimates during geological studies indicate that the abundance of the depleted-source component ranges from 60 to 80 percent of the erupted material.
Some aspects of the origin of the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain remain uncertain. The volcanic rocks found at the Tuzo Wilson Seamounts south of Bowie are fresh glassy pillow basalts of recent age, as would be expected if these seamounts are located above or close to a mantle plume south of Haida Gwaii. However, the origin of Bowie Seamount is less certain because even though the seafloor which Bowie lies on formed 16 million years ago during the late Miocene period, Bowie's summit shows evidence of recent volcanic activity. If Bowie Seamount formed above a mantle plume at the site presently occupied by the Tuzo Wilson Seamounts, it has been displaced from its magma source by about 625 km (390 mi) at a rate of about 4 cm (2 in) per year. The geologic history of Bowie Seamount is consistent with its flat-topped eroded summit, but the source for Bowie's recent volcanic activity remains uncertain. Still others, such as Dickens Seamount and Pratt Seamount further north of Bowie Seamount, fall a little to the side of the chain's expected trend. Another hypothesized origin of some or all seamounts in the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain is that they formed on top of the Explorer Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary west of Vancouver Island, and have been displaced from it by seafloor spreading.
Although some of the seamounts in the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain appear to follow the expected age progression for a mantle plume trail, others, such as Denson Seamount, are older than that hypothesis would suggest. As a result, the Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain has also been proposed by geoscientists to be a mix of ridge and mantle plume volcanism.
## Biology
Bowie Seamount supports a biologically rich area with a vigorous ecosystem. Studies have recorded high densities of crab, sea stars, sea anemones, sponges, squid, octopus, rockfish, halibut and sablefish. Eight species of marine mammal have been found in the Bowie Seamount area, including Steller sea lions, orca, humpback and sperm whales, along with 16 varieties of seabirds. This has made Bowie Seamount a rare habitat in the northeast Pacific Ocean and one of the most biologically rich submarine volcanoes on Earth. The rich marine life is due to the intense food supply of microscopic animals and plants, including phytoplankton and zooplankton.
### SGaan Kinghlas-Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area
Because of its biological richness, Bowie Seamount was designated as Canada's seventh Marine Protected Area on April 19, 2008 under the Oceans Act. The announcement was made by federal Fisheries Minister Loyola Hearn and Gidansda Guujaaw, President of the Council of the Haida Nation, in Skidegate on Haida Gwaii (formerly called the Queen Charlotte Islands). During the announcement, Natural Resources Minister Gary Lunn said: "Bowie Seamount is an oceanic oasis in the deep sea, a rare and ecologically rich marine area, and our government is proud to take action to ensure it is protected. By working in partnership with the Council of the Haida Nation and groups like the World Wildlife Fund-Canada, we are ensuring this unique treasure is preserved for future generations."
The Marine Protected Area measures about 118 km (73 mi) long and 80 km (50 mi) wide, totaling an area of 6,131 km<sup>2</sup> (2,367 sq mi). The Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area also includes Peirce Seamount (also called Davidson Seamount) and Hodgkins Seamount. Previous to this designation, beginning in 1997, Bowie Seamount was a Haida marine protected area.
## Diving explorations and studies
The shallow depth of Bowie Seamount makes it the only underwater mountain off the British Columbia Coast easily reached using scuba diving equipment. In March 1969, dives were made at the submarine volcano by Canadian Forces Maritime Command divers from the CSS Parizeau. Two dives were made to the summit where monochrome photographs were taken to record the environment and some biological samples were gathered to detect possible harmful plants, animals, or bacteria. These specimens were identified at the Pacific Biological Station in Nanaimo, creating a list of eleven varieties of sea bottom invertebrates.
In August 1969, Canadian Forces Maritime Command divers made more dives during scientific studies by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. They found very dense shoals of rockfish floating over Bowie's flat-topped summit and a variety of bottom life. A number of monochrome photographs were taken and a few seaweeds were collected, but no species record was created for other types of oceanic life around Bowie Seamount.
In November 1996, an issue of the National Geographic Magazine included an article titled "Realm of the Seamount", describing dives made at Bowie Seamount by two explorers named Bill Curtsinger and Eric Hiner. They explored the slopes of Bowie Seamount using scuba diving equipment down to 150 m (490 ft). Their photographs featured one of Bowie's rugged peaks thickly covered with seaweeds and colourful sea bottom invertebrates. Shoals of young rockfish were seen on Bowie's steep flanks.
Scientist Bill Austin of Khoyatan Marine Lab in the Northeast Pacific examined a video made during the National Geographic dives to identify the benthic flora and fauna of Bowie Seamount. From the video, Austin recognized some of the most noticeable invertebrates and noted that a few species generally occurring in the intertidal zone and in shallow subtidal environments were found deeper than might normally be expected, and were bigger than normal.
A team of five divers, led by photographer/videographer Neil McDaniel, visited the seamount August 3–5, 2003 and conducted a biological and photographic survey of the summit down to depths of about 40 m (130 ft). A total of 18 taxa of algae, 83 taxa of conspicuous invertebrates and 12 taxa of fishes were documented, approximately 180 underwater still photographs were taken and approximately 90 minutes of digital video were recorded. Of particular note were the dense schools of rockfish hovering over the summit and numerous curious prowfish.
## Indigenous people
To the Haida, the indigenous people who played a key role in establishing the Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area, the submarine volcano is called SGaan Kinghlas. In Haida language it means "Supernatural Being Looking Outward".
Haida have long recognized seamount as a special place. Gidansda Guujaaw, former President of the Council of the Haida Nation, has said: "SGaan Kinghlas represents a shift in recognizing the need for respect and care for the Earth. This is a very significant turning point in reversing the trends that have been leading to the depletion of life in the sea."
## Marine hazard
Given its shallow depth, Bowie Bank is a potential marine hazard. Waves up to 27 m (89 ft) high have been recorded along the British Columbia Coast during heavy weather, enough to expose the bank by wave troughs and cause devastation to any vessel transiting the seamount. For this reason, Environment Canada has recognized Bowie Seamount as a hazard to navigation, and it is avoided by shipping vessels.
## See also
- Volcanism of Western Canada
- List of volcanoes in Canada
- List of Marine Protected Areas of Canada
- Bowie hotspot
|
43,643,680 |
The Boat Race 1967
| 1,146,708,333 | null |
[
"1967 in English sport",
"1967 in rowing",
"1967 sports events in London",
"March 1967 sports events in the United Kingdom",
"The Boat Race"
] |
The 113th Boat Race took place on 25 March 1967. Held annually, the event is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race was won by Oxford by three-and-a-quarter-lengths. Goldie won the reserve race while Cambridge won the Women's Boat Race.
## Background
The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities, followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the previous year's race by 3+3⁄4 lengths. Cambridge, however, held the overall lead with 61 victories to Oxford's 50 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877).
The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race.
The race was umpired by George Douglas "Jock" Clapperton who had coxed Oxford in the 1923 and 1924 races as well as umpiring in the 1959 boat race.
Cambridge's coaching team included Norman Addison (rowed for Cambridge in the 1939 race), James Crowden (1951 and 1952 races), David Jennens (1949, 1950 and 1951 races), Mike Muir-Smith (1964 race), Mike Nicholson (non-rowing boat club president for the 1947 race), J. R. Owen (1959 and 1960 races) and M. Wolfson while Oxford's comprised Hugh "Jumbo" Edwards (rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races) and Ronnie Howard (1957 and 1959 races).
## Crews
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 11 lb (87.3 kg), 1.75 pounds (0.8 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Oxford's crew containing three former Blues in Martin Kennard, Chris Freeman and Jock Mullard, while Cambridge saw bow-man Lindsay Henderson and Patrick Delafield return. Oxford's American number four, Josh Jensen, was the heaviest oarsman in the history of the race at 15 st 4 lb (96.8 kg). The former Cambridge Blue Donald Legget, writing in The Observer, suggested that the Light Blue crew was "possibly their fastest ever", but nevertheless predicted a two-length victory for Oxford.
## Race
Oxford won the toss for the third successive year and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge. The race commenced at 1.17 p.m. Despite the conditions favouring the Light Blues, Oxford were ahead from the start and led by two seconds the Mile Post in a record-equalling time of 3 minutes 47 seconds. According to Legget, Cambridge "were untidy and rather rushed". Near Harrods Furniture Depository, the crews nearly clashed oars, but Oxford held firm and reached Hammersmith Bridge with a three-second lead. Rounding the corner, Cambridge chose to stay on the tide, while Oxford headed for shelter towards the Surrey shore. The Light Blues reduced the lead marginally but by Chiswick Steps, Oxford were six seconds ahead and moved back to the Middlesex shore, with Cambridge resolute in midstream. Oxford briefly left the shelter of the shoreline to shoot Barnes Bridge through the centre arch, before heading back, with a lead of eight seconds. Despite pushing their rating to 36 strokes per minute, Cambridge could not reduce the deficit, and as Oxford accelerated to a rating of 38, they passed the finishing post 3+1⁄2 lengths ahead, in a time of 18 minutes 52 seconds. It was the first time in 54 years that Oxford had won three consecutive Boat Races. Upon the conclusion of the race, the Oxford boat club president Mullard hailed his coaches from the boat: "Thanks Ronnie, thanks Jumbo".
In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie beat Oxford's Isis by two lengths and five seconds, their inaugural victory on the third running of the contest, in a time of 19 minutes 11 seconds. In the 22nd running of the Women's Boat Race, Cambridge triumphed, their fifth consecutive victory.
|
4,613,833 |
Skin & Bone (film)
| 1,115,540,907 |
1996 film by Everett Lewis
|
[
"1990s American films",
"1990s English-language films",
"1996 LGBT-related films",
"1996 crime drama films",
"1996 films",
"American LGBT-related films",
"American crime drama films",
"Films about male prostitution in the United States",
"Films directed by Everett Lewis",
"Films partially in color",
"Films set in Los Angeles",
"Gay-related films",
"LGBT-related drama films"
] |
Skin & Bone is a 1996 American crime drama film written and directed by Everett Lewis. It is the story of three Los Angeles-area hustlers, or male prostitutes, and their female pimp. The three men are at different stages of their hustling careers: Dean is just beginning; Billy is somewhat more experienced but still naive; and Harry actively wants to get out, and is looking to break into film acting. Ghislane, the pimp, sends each of the three young men into increasingly dangerous scenarios with clients, until both Billy and Harry are killed. The film stars B. Wyatt, Alan Boyce, Garret Scullin, and Nicole Dillenberg.
Lewis financed the film almost entirely, using money earned working on other films. Skin & Bone was originally intended to be entirely improvised, but after a year of filming Lewis decided to script some of it to add shape to the story. The film alternates between black and white and color, marking shifts between depictions of a character's fantasy and reality.
Critical responses to the film were mixed. Some reviewers thought it little more than pretentious titillation, while others praised the performances and direction and congratulated Lewis for raising some difficult questions.
## Plot
Skin & Bone is an episodic account of three Los Angeles-area hustlers, Harry, Billy, and Dean, and their pimp Ghislaine. Ghislaine constantly drives the streets of Los Angeles arranging client appointments. She relies on Harry, the most experienced member of her stable, to train new recruits, including Billy and Dean.
Harry services both male and female clients and always acts as a top; many male clients hire him to beat them. He fantasizes about a woman he once knew. He has convinced himself that he is not a prostitute but an "actor" providing "fantasies". In his unsuccessful pursuit of an acting career, Harry goes on a casting call for a police film. The casting director asks if he will do nudity, implying a casting couch scenario. Harry says he is an artist and loses the role.
Billy, though experienced, is still somewhat goofy and absent-minded. He sometimes helps Harry with scenes and Harry tries to convince him too that he is an actor and not a prostitute. On several occasions, Billy picks up men only to discover that the man is not actually his client. In one case he and the man fall in love and they plan to get Billy out of the business and start a life together. Shortly thereafter, Billy mistakes a man for a client in a public restroom and that man stabs him to death.
Dean is Ghislaine's most recent recruit. While training him, Harry again tries to impart the notion that their job is just acting. Following his training and first successful trick (with a woman), Dean is humiliated when two women force him to start and stop masturbating seemingly at random. Dean then performs as a "nude cleaner" for a client. He learns that the client is an ex-Marine who was paralyzed in combat and still longs for the boy with whom he fell in love, who was killed. The client is still able to achieve an erection and Dean has sex with him.
Harry is at an appointment with a regular, a uniform fetishist called "The General" (Wynston A. Jones). Usually Harry beats him, but unknown to Harry, the client has arranged for something different with Ghislaine. After showing Harry a picture of himself in which he closely resembles Harry, the General orders Harry to strip. When Harry hesitates, the General attacks him from behind, binds his hands with tape and rapes him.
Harry asks his acting agent to set up an "interview" with another casting director. He lets the man fuck him. Later at Dean's place, Harry finds Dean sitting alone burning himself with a cigarette. Dean tells Harry he ran away from home after his father had him arrested at age 14 for stealing a candy bar. Dean was put in a cell with several men who took turns raping him.
After allowing himself to be used by the casting director, Harry gets a small role as a cop in the film for which he had previously been rejected. On-set he impresses the producers and they offer him a part in a TV series.
Ghislaine sends Harry to the local morgue with \$2,500 to bribe an attendant. Harry sees Billy's body and realizes that Ghislaine is acquiring it for a client. He confronts Ghislaine, accusing her of arranging Billy's murder, and tells her he wants to quit and take Dean with him. Ghislaine agrees, if Harry and Dean perform one final scene.
The scene is a cop/prisoner scenario which begins with the cop beating the prisoner then the prisoner overpowering the cop, binding and beating and finally shooting him. Harry plays the cop and Dean the prisoner. Bound and gagged, Harry sees Ghislaine switching his gun (loaded with blanks) for another gun, but fails to convey the danger to Dean. As Ghislaine and the client watch and the client tapes the scene, Dean pulls the trigger and kills Harry. Harry meets "Lovely Girl", who asks him how he feels being dead.
Six months later, Dean is living on the streets. Ghislaine finds him and convinces him to return to work.
## Cast
## Themes
Reviewers agree that Skin & Bone is as much about Los Angeles and the film industry as it is about prostitution or even homosexuality. Writing in Bright Lights Film Journal, critic Gary Morris suggests that the film is "inevitably set in Los Angeles, amid that city's arid strip malls, newsstands, and endless dusty streets" and he points to the significance of Ghislaine's constant movement through the city, "looking glamorous and inscrutable in her opaque sunglasses".
For Anita Gates of The New York Times, "the film's strongest message" is "a questioning of the actor's trade." For Gates, the film comes to sympathize with Harry's notion that prostitutes are in fact actors, or perhaps vice versa: "Mr. Lewis's point seems to be that it's all the same. What's the big difference, he asks, between acting out the fantasies of one rich old man or those of a few million ticket buyers?"
Lewis himself seems to give some weight to these interpretations when he describes Skin & Bone as being about "giving your soul away and rationalizing the loss as a bonus", and as a metaphor "for the experiences I suffered attempting to make a film at an evil film company."
## Production and style
Lewis became interested in making a film about hustlers because (despite there being films about hustlers dating back more than three decades) he had never seen such a film. In Lewis's own words, "When I started, there were no hustler movies and now there's a whole genre." His original concept for Skin & Bone was that it would be a series of 70 one-minute shots. Lewis changed his mind about the concept following some improvisation with actor B. Wyatt in creating the Harry character. Much of the film was improvised. After a year of filming improvisation sessions, Lewis wrote some scripted material to provide some story structure. Shooting took several years to complete because the film was almost entirely self-financed.
The film alternates between color and black and white sequences. Black and white usually denotes that the scene involves one or more of the hustlers engaged with a client, and indicates that one or more of the characters (not necessarily the client) is fantasizing. But the scheme is not always consistent: for example, when Dean has sex with the paralyzed client the scene is in color; and Harry also has an S/M scene that's all in color (although his client never appears on-screen). Equally, Harry's fantasies about "Lovely Girl" (who is apparently dead) are occasionally in color. In their final scene, Harry and Dean are in black and white, but when the client and Ghislaine are shown watching they're in color, raising the question of exactly who is having the fantasy. According to Lewis, the convention grew out of the fact that the initial improvised sequences were shot in black and white; he acknowledges that by the end the distinction had become "very confused."
The film features a number of songs by the queercore band Pansy Division. David Arquette has a cameo appearance as "Buzz Head", one of Ghislaine's regular clients. Arquette himself played a hustler in the film Johns, also released in 1996.
## Critical reception
Reviews for Skin & Bone were decidedly mixed. The New York Times called it a "bleak, disjointed movie" that "often comes across as if it had been planned like a pornographic feature." Director Lewis is praised, however, for "effectively mix[ing] us up as to what's real and what isn't." Bright Lights Film Journal had stronger words of praise for the film, calling it "intense [and] sometimes unsettling" with a "conceptual richness and mocking wit", while also noting the "element of genuine pathos [that] runs beneath the sardonic wit and brutal, sometimes lethal sex."
The Village Voice was much more dismissive, panning the film as "fitfully comic, pitifully pretentious soap opera [that] runs out of promise so quickly that only the most tenacious (or desperate) viewers will hang on till the sorry end." Echoing the Voice, TV Guide, while praising Lewis's "icy style", nonetheless suggests that the film is a half-hour too long and "doesn't really offer much to justify its existence beyond the obvious titillation."
One near-unanimous critical note concerns Nicole Dillenberg's performance as Ghislaine. While the actors playing the three hustlers are variously described as "really quite competent" and "game, gesturally hip and highly empathic", Dillenberg is judged "too callow for Ghislaine" and "stiffly plying monotonous attitude in lieu of creating a real character, rather like a female impersonation of female impersonator Jackie Beat."
## See also
- Male prostitution in the arts
|
2,431,337 |
1977 Pacific hurricane season
| 1,169,224,655 |
Hurricane season in the Pacific Ocean
|
[
"1977 Pacific hurricane season",
"Articles which contain graphical timelines",
"Pacific hurricane seasons"
] |
The 1977 Pacific hurricane season stands alongside 2010 as the least active Pacific hurricane season since reliable records began in 1971. Only eight tropical storms formed throughout the year; four further intensified into hurricanes, yet none strengthened into major hurricanes—a Category 3 or stronger on the Saffir–Simpson scale—an occurrence not seen again until 2003. Most tropical cyclones remained over the open eastern Pacific; however, the remnants of hurricanes Doreen and Heather led to heavy rainfall which damaged or destroyed structures and flooded roadways throughout the Southwest United States. Notably, Hurricane Anita which originally formed in the Gulf of Mexico made the rare trek across Mexico into the eastern Pacific, briefly existing as a tropical depression. Eight deaths were recorded while damage reached \$39.6 million (1977 USD).
## Seasonal summary
The 1977 Pacific hurricane season was an inactive season, with the first cyclone forming on May 26 and the final system dissipating on October 23. Only eight named storms were documented throughout the year. Of those eight, four intensified into hurricanes, and none became major hurricanes, defined as Category 3 storms or stronger on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The number of tropical storms and major hurricanes stood solely as record lows until tied by 2010 and 2003, respectively.
Additionally, the Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) index for the season (Eastern Pacific and Central Pacific combined) as calculated by Colorado State University using data from the National Hurricane Center was 22.3 units. This ranked the season as the quietest Northeastern Pacific basin season on record. The low activity seen in the East Pacific was a common occurrence around the globe in 1977, with the fewest tropical cyclones worldwide, at 69, until 2010 recorded one fewer. May, June, July, and August all saw one named storm per month, with one hurricane each in the latter two months. September was more active with three named storms, of which one became a Category 2 hurricane. The season came to an end in October with one named storm which intensified into a hurricane. Despite the record low number of tropical storms, numerous short-lived tropical depressions existed throughout the eastern Pacific in 1977; like most of the other cyclones, however, these caused little or no impact to land.
## Systems
### Tropical Storm Ava
An area of disturbed weather first formed within a larger thunderstorm complex well south-southwest of Acapulco, Mexico, early on May 24. It moved northwest and slowly organized, becoming a tropical depression by 00:00 UTC on May 26 and further intensifying into Tropical Storm Ava approximately twelve hours later. The system remained over warm waters as it moved west and then north, allowing Ava to reach a peak intensity of 65 mph (105 km/h) early on May 28. A series of subsequent reconnaissance aircraft missions documented an incomplete eye in association with the storm, although this organization soon began to fade amidst increasing wind shear and cooler ocean temperatures. Ava weakened to a tropical depression around 18:00 UTC on May 29 and dissipated less than 24 hours later.
### Tropical Storm Bernice
A tropical disturbance was first identified early on June 25 well southwest of Acapulco, Mexico. It quickly organized into a tropical depression twelve hours later while moving west-northwest. After strengthening into Tropical Storm Bernice around 12:00 UTC on June 26, the cyclone was restricted from further development by the entrainment of low-level clouds from the north. Instead, Bernice transitioned into an extratropical cyclone early on June 28.
### Hurricane Claudia
A tropical disturbance, embedded within a larger area of convective activity, formed early on July 1 while well south of Acapulco, Mexico. On a westward heading, the disturbance coalesced into a tropical depression by 00:00 UTC on June 3 and strengthened into Tropical Storm Claudia six hours later. Rapid development ensued thereafter as an eye became evident on satellite imagery, and Claudia attained its peak intensity as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph (140 km/h) early on July 4. Progression over colder waters caused the system to weaken below hurricane strength by 00:00 UTC on July 5, coincident with the eye becoming obscured on satellite. The cyclone was downgraded to a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on July 7, and it ultimately dissipated six hours later.
### Hurricane Doreen
A tropical disturbance first formed early on August 11. It drifted west and organized into a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on August 13 before intensifying into Tropical Storm Doreen a little under a day later. Data from a reconnaissance aircraft was used to upgrade the system to a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) around 18:00 UTC on August 14; this constituted the storm's peak strength. Doreen turned north-northwest thereafter, briefly drifting onshore the coastline of Baja California near San Carlos as a minimal hurricane. It continued generally northwestward, weakening to a tropical storm around 06:00 UTC on August 16 before making a second landfall around Punta Eugenia, Baja California Sur six hours later. Colder waters caused the system to fall to tropical depression intensity early on August 17 and dissipate around 00:00 UTC the next day while located just south of California.
As Doreen moved parallel to the southwestern coastline of Mexico, it produced heavy rainfall there, with accumulations peaking at 14.80 inches (376 mm) near the Los Cabos Municipality. Farther northwest, Mexicali, Baja California was particularly hard-hit, with more than 2,000 people left homeless after their shanty-style homes were demolished by the rain. Despite dissipating as a tropical cyclone, the remnants of Doreen continued into the Southwest United States, resulting in maximum rainfall accumulations of 7.45 inches (189 mm) in the San Jacinto Mountains of California. Approximately 325 homes and businesses throughout the desert Southwest were destroyed, and several roads were covered or washed out by floodwater across California and Arizona. Throughout San Diego, California and nearby Imperial County, the storm accrued \$25 million in crop damage. Extensive damage to streets, washes, levees, and dikes occurred throughout the Mohave Valley, particularly in Bullhead City, Arizona, where more than 50 people were evacuated and over 12 homes and businesses were heavily damaged. Strong thunderstorms, with winds reaching up to 60 mph (97 km/h), downed trees and caused intermittent power outages in Palm Springs, California. Farther east in Las Vegas, Nevada, meanwhile, less than 2 inches (51 mm) of rain flooded major intersections and caused roofs to collapse. Throughout the region, eight people were reported dead.
### Tropical Depression Eleven
On August 29, a tropical depression formed over the Gulf of Mexico and tracked slowly west. It quickly strengthened, becoming named as Anita 18 hours later, and reaching hurricane strength within 30 hours of formation. It eventually achieved Category 5 status before striking northern Mexico on September 2. The mountainous terrain of Mexico nearly caused Anita to dissipate; however, its circulation survived the crossing and emerged over the Pacific on September 3 as a tropical depression. The system featured a 300 miles (480 km) wide area of convection and traveled west in response to a ridge over Baja California. The depression traversed Islas Marías and soon moved over cooler waters, prompting weakening. Lacking thermal support, the depression degenerated into a remnant low on September 3 off the southern tip of Baja California Sur.
### Tropical Storm Emily
Emily first began as a disturbance early on September 12. It moved west-northwest and developed into a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on September 13. Surface observations from nearby ships were used to upgrade the depression to a tropical storm twelve hours later. Despite persistent, deep convective activity, a trek over colder waters prevented Emily from further intensifying, and the system instead transitioned into an extratropical cyclone around 12:00 UTC on September 14.
### Hurricane Florence
The strongest cyclone of the 1977 season began as a tropical disturbance over the open eastern Pacific. It developed into a tropical depression around 12:00 UTC on September 20 and strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence twelve hours later. The newly formed system moved west-northwest until reaching hurricane strength by 00:00 UTC on September 22, at which point Florence sharply curved toward the north-northeast. With a well-defined eye on satellite imagery, the storm reached peak winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) around 18:00 UTC on September 22, a Category 2 hurricane. Florence accelerated over increasingly cool ocean temperatures, causing it to weaken to a tropical storm early on September 23, weaken to a tropical depression early on September 24, and transition to an extratropical cyclone by 12:00 UTC that day.
### Tropical Storm Glenda
Tropical Storm Glenda formed around 00:00 UTC on September 24 from a previously established area of disturbed weather well southwest of Acapulco. The storm did not intensify beyond minimal tropical storm strength and instead fell to tropical depression strength around 00:00 UTC on September 25. A north to northwestward forward motion brought the cyclone over progressively cooler waters, and it transitioned to an extratropical cyclone by 06:00 UTC on September 27 while located near Punta Eugenia, Baja California Sur.
### Hurricane Heather
The final named storm of the season began as a tropical disturbance late on October 3. It moved west-northwest, organizing into a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on October 4 and further intensifying into Tropical Storm Heather six hours thereafter. A sprawling storm, Heather reached hurricane strength early on October 5 and attained peak winds of 85 mph (137 km/h) by 12:00 UTC that day. A turn toward the north-northwest, however, brought the storm over increasingly cool waters, prompting a weakening trend. Heather fell to tropical storm strength late on October 6 and further to a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC as its low- and mid-level circulations became dislocated, marking an end to its time as a tropical cyclone.
The remnants continued into Arizona, where measurable rainfall peaked at 8.30 in (211 mm), with unspecified reports of up to 14 inches (360 mm) in mountainous locales. As a result, the Santa Cruz River near Tucson witnessed its highest discharge since at least 1892, and the San Pedro River saw its sixth-highest crest since 1913. At least 16,000 acres (6,500 hectares) of farmland were inundated, and about 90 homes were damaged mainly near Nogales, Arizona, though some property damage occurred throughout Amado, Green Valley, and Sahuarita as well. In addition, about 175 families were evacuated from Nogales; in the aftermath of the rains, residents were asked to conserve water after the city's wells were inundated with mud and rendered unusable. Two bridges were destroyed while an additional twelve to fifteen were damaged, in addition to telephone lines and other utilities. Damage equated to about \$14.6 million.
### Other systems
Despite the season featuring the lowest number of tropical storms on record at the time, there were numerous tropical depressions that failed to intensify into named storms. The first two tropical depressions existed from May 25–30 and from May 30–June 1, both west of the Honduras–Nicaragua border. Tropical depressions Six and Seven occurred in quick succession from July 8–9 and July 9–10, respectively. Tropical Depression Eight occurred solely on July 25, while Tropical Depression Nine existed from August 1–2. Yet another cyclone existed from September 3–4, while the seventeenth and final unnamed system formed on October 22 and dissipated on the next day.
## Storm names
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the Eastern North Pacific in 1977. This is the same list used in the 1973 season. This is also the final year that this list was used, as the practice of using all-female names for tropical cyclones was replaced with a mixture of male and female names beginning in 1978.
## See also
- List of Pacific hurricanes
- Pacific hurricane season
- 1977 Atlantic hurricane season
- 1977 Pacific typhoon season
- 1977 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
- Australian cyclone seasons: 1976–77, 1977–78
- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1976–77, 1977–78
- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1976–77, 1977–78
- Timeline of the 1977 Pacific hurricane season
|
74,018,575 |
81 Willoughby Street
| 1,173,316,673 |
Commercial building in Brooklyn, New York
|
[
"1898 establishments in New York City",
"Beaux-Arts architecture in New York City",
"Commercial buildings completed in 1898",
"Commercial buildings in Brooklyn",
"Downtown Brooklyn",
"New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn",
"Renaissance Revival architecture in New York City",
"Telephone exchange buildings"
] |
81 Willoughby Street (formerly the New York and New Jersey Telephone and Telegraph Building) is a commercial building in the Downtown Brooklyn neighborhood of New York City. Built from 1896 to 1898 as the headquarters for the New York and New Jersey Telephone and Telegraph Company (later the New York Telephone Company), it is located at the northeast corner of Willoughby and Lawrence Streets. The building is eight stories tall and was designed by Rudolphe L. Daus in a mixture of the Beaux-Arts and Renaissance Revival styles.
The facade is largely clad with limestone on its bottom four stories, as well as brick and terracotta on its top four stories. The Willoughby and Lawrence Street elevations are each divided vertically into three bays and are highly similar in design. The main entrance is through an ornamental arch on Willoughby Street, at the southeast corner of the building. The remainder of the building contains ornamental details such as a curved corner with an oculus window, as well as a deep cornice on the upper stories. The building measures eight stories high with a basement and was largely constructed with a steel frame. When the building was constructed, the entire structure contained various departments, with a telephone exchange on the top floor.
The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company constructed 81 Willoughby Street in 1896 in response to increased business. Plans for the new structure were filed in May 1896, and the building was occupied by early 1898. The company's business grew so rapidly that it moved some operations to another building in 1904 and constructed a six-story annex at 360 Bridge Street between 1922 and 1923. New York Telephone acquired 81 Willoughby Street in 1929 and retained central office equipment there after a new telephone building opened in 1931 at 101 Willoughby Street. In 1943, the company sold off the building, which has remained a commercial structure ever since, accommodating offices, laboratories, and educational institutions. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building as a city landmark in 2004.
## Site
81 Willoughby Street is in the Downtown Brooklyn neighborhood of New York City. It occupies a rectangular land lot on the northeastern corner of Lawrence and Willoughby Streets, with an alternate address of 119–127 Lawrence Street. The site has frontage of 100 feet (30 m) on Lawrence Street to the west and 107.5 ft (32.8 m) on Willoughby Street to the south, with an area of 10,749 sq ft (998.6 m<sup>2</sup>). Nearby buildings include the Brooklyner and Brooklyn Commons (formerly MetroTech) to the north; the BellTel Lofts (101 Willoughby Street) and Duffield Street Houses to the east; 388 Bridge Street and AVA DoBro to the southeast; and 370 Jay Street and the Old Brooklyn Fire Headquarters to the west. In addition, entrances to the New York City Subway's Jay Street–MetroTech station, served by the , are just outside the building.
The site was formerly occupied by a stable on Lawrence Street and four houses on Willoughby Street. Before the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company Building was developed at 81 Willoughby Street, the adjacent section of Willoughby Street had largely contained houses. By the 1890s, many of these houses were replaced by commercial buildings.
## Architecture
Rudolphe L. Daus designed 81 Willoughby Street. The AIA Guide to New York City describes the structure as being in a mixture of the Beaux-Arts and Renaissance Revival styles, but a contemporary publication from 1897 characterized the building as being solely of Italian Renaissance design. The building is eight stories, with a curved corner to its southwest.
### Facade
The facade is largely clad with tan brick and limestone and is ornamented with terracotta. Limestone was used on the lowest stories, while brick and terracotta were used above. The southern and western elevations of the facade, which respectively face Willoughby and Lawrence Street, are each divided vertically into three bays and are highly similar in design. At the easternmost section of the Willoughby Street elevation is an additional, narrow bay without ornament and clad almost entirely in brick. A curved corner connects the western and southern elevations. The building has stone cornices above the first, fourth, and sixth stories and a copper cornice above the eighth story. The windows all consist of one-over-one sash windows with aluminum frames. There are telephone-related motifs on the curved corner. The juxtaposition of plain facade materials was intended to emphasize the building's ornamentation, while the cornice and the oculus at the corner were intended to draw attention to the building from the intersection of Willoughby and Lawrence Streets.
#### Ground story
On Willoughby Street, the easternmost bay contains the building's main entrance, a double-height arch with an entablature above. Recessed beneath the center of the archway is a rectangular door frame with molded earpieces, receivers, wires, and other telephone-related motifs. Immediately above this door frame, an entablature runs horizontally across the archway; this is topped by a triangular pediment. The second story of the archway is filled with windows. The archway itself has a coffered ceiling, supported by two columns on either side of the doorway; these columns contain capitals in the Corinthian order. The top of the arch has a keystone. There is a double-height pier on either side of the archway, which has more moldings of telephone-related motifs. These piers support the entablature, which contains the words "Telephone Building". Above the piers, on the third story, are medallions with eagles.
A recessed service entrance is located within the easternmost, narrow bay to the right of the main entrance. The remainder of the facade is clad with rusticated, cement-coated limestone blocks. The center bay on Lawrence Street has another service entrance, placed within an arch that has largely been infilled with cement; this entrance is reached by metal steps. The corner of Lawrence and Willoughby Streets contains a stoop with metal balustrades, ascending to a glass door. All the other openings on the ground story consist of windows with awnings above them. A stone-and-brick cornice runs horizontally above the ground story.
#### Upper stories
On the second to fourth stories, the facade is clad in brick and contains grooves at regular intervals, which give it a rusticated look. There are three windows per floor in each of the three main bays on Lawrence and Willoughby Streets, as well as on the curved corner. Each of the windows is rectangular, with a stone window sill below and a flat lintel above. The easternmost bay on Willoughby Street contains one window per floor. A protruding cornice runs above the facade on the fourth story, continuing onto the narrow Willoughby Street bay. There are medallions below the cornice between each of the bays on Lawrence and Willoughby Streets, as well as brackets below the cornice along the curved corner.
On the fifth and sixth stories, a pair of engaged columns flanks each of the three primary bays on Lawrence and Willoughby Streets. Within each bay, the central fifth-story window is flanked by colonettes that hold up triangular pediments. Another cornice runs above the sixth story; this cornice protrudes from the facade, except within each bay, where it is recessed between the windows above and below. At the seventh story, the curved corner has an oculus with terracotta decorations and cresting. The primary bays contain arched windows, which are divided vertically into three panes; a keystone tops the center pane, and the entire arch contains ornate moldings. On the eighth story, each of the primary bays has three windows, which are separated by short pilasters. A copper cornice runs above the eighth story, protruding from the facade. Above the cornice was a short penthouse (not visible from the street), which had restrooms and dining rooms.
### Interior
The building measures eight stories high with a basement. The structure is largely constructed with a steel frame, although the foundations are composed of concrete walls measuring 4 to 5 ft (1.2 to 1.5 m) thick. These concrete walls support a grillage from which the beams in the superstructure ascend. The floor slabs are made of hollow brick flat arches and "Columbian fireproof" slabs. The building contained a ventilation shaft that rose 25 ft (7.6 m) above the roof. Air was drawn down the shaft to the basement, passing through several filters, and then was supplied to the offices inside the building via fans and ducts. A separate system of exhaust ducts ventilated the air onto the roof. A set of pipes also carried hundreds of telephone and telegraph cables from the cellar to the telephone switchboards on the top floor.
When the building was constructed, the basement and first four floors were dedicated to various New York and New Jersey Telephone Company departments. The first floor contained the supply department, the second floor contained the repair shop, and the fourth floor contained the general superintendent's office. The fifth floor contained the offices of the general manager and vice president, the sixth floor contained the treasurer's office, and the seventh floor contained the offices of the auditors' department. The eighth floor originally housed the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company's primary Brooklyn exchange and could accommodate 5,000 to 6,000 subscribers when the building opened. This story contained the offices of the "hello girls", the company's mostly female telephone operators.
## History
The Bell Telephone Company was established in 1877 and merged with the New England Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1879 to form the National Bell Telephone Company. One of the subsidiaries of the combined firm was the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company, which was created in 1883. Originally, the New York and New Jersey Telephone Company operated telephone exchanges in North Jersey, Staten Island, and Long Island, licensing them from National Bell. At its inception, the company had 2,339 subscribers, most of whom lived in Brooklyn. With the growing popularity of telephones, the number of subscribers grew to nearly 20,000 by 1897.
### Development
The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company decided in early 1896 to increase its capital stock. That April, the company decided to purchase a land lot on the southwest corner of Willoughby and Bridge Streets, just to the southeast of the site at 81 Willoughby Street. Local media reported shortly afterward that the company had agreed to acquire the northeast corner of Lawrence and Willoughby Streets, on which the company's central office would be constructed. Rudolphe Daus created preliminary sketches for a ten-story, stone-and-brick building in May 1896. At the time, the building was planned to cost between \$250,000 and \$275,000. Work on the structure was slightly delayed because of difficulties in acquiring a portion of the site.
Excavations were underway by March 1897, when the building had been downsized to eight and a half stories. When the contractors began installing plumbing in the building that August, they hired plumbers affiliated with a labor union in the then-separate city of New York, prompting workers affiliated with the Brooklyn union to go on strike. Union-affiliated roofers, tin workers, and sheet iron workers also went on strike in September to advocate wage increases for the workers who were installing the building's cornices and skylights. When these union workers went on strike again the next month, the workers' bosses decided to complete the cornices and skylights themselves. The building was completed by February 1898, and the company's main telephone exchange opened at the building in November 1899.
### Use as telephone office
The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company's business grew so rapidly that, by 1903, the company had decided to move some of its operations to a new building at Atlantic Avenue and Clinton Avenue. The Atlantic Avenue building was completed in March 1904. All of the trunk lines from Nassau and Suffolk counties were moved from 81 Willoughby Street to the Atlantic Avenue building, as were the storerooms, repair shops, and supply rooms. The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company opened a training center for telephone operators on the top story in 1905 and installed equipment in the training center the next year. 81 Willoughby Street served as the general business office for subscribers in western and southern Brooklyn by 1908. New York and New Jersey Telephone and five other companies were merged in 1909, becoming the New York Telephone Company, which continued to operate from 81 Willoughby Street. The building also contained other tenants, such as a company selling security alarms.
The New York Telephone Company filed construction plans in November 1920 for an eight-story annex between Bridge and Lawrence Streets. The company began constructing a six-story annex at the northwest corner of Willoughby and Bridge Streets in April 1922. The annex, extending 107 ft (33 m) along Willoughby Street and 250 ft (76 m) along Bridge Street, was to cost \$1.25 million. Although the annex was structurally separate from the original building, it would be connected to the original structure at every story, and the two lobbies were to be connected by a ground-story arcade. The annex was designed so it could be expanded to 12 stories if needed. A central office for emergency fire alarms was established within the building in 1921, allowing operators to transmit fire alarms during emergencies. The annex's construction required the demolition of nine existing structures, which had been razed by September 1922. The annex at 360 Bridge Street was completed in October 1923 at a cost of \$1.5 million; it housed three central office departments that could not be accommodated in the old building.
During 1923, New York Telephone hired Western Electric to install one manually-operated and one machine-operated central office at 81 Willoughby Street. The company allocated money in 1927 for the creation of a dispatching bureau and a central testing bureau within the annex. The same year, New York Telephone relocated its Long Island headquarters to the building from Manhattan. New York Telephone, which had long rented 81 Willoughby Street, formally acquired the structure in 1929. The New York Telephone Company announced in late 1929 that it would relocate 3,500 employees from various buildings, including 81 Willoughby Street, into a new structure designed by Ralph Walker at 101 Willoughby Street. A central office for dial telephones was installed at 81 Willoughby Street and 360 Bridge Street in early 1931. After 101 Willoughby Street was completed in October 1931, the company continued to use the older structures to accommodate central office equipment.
### Subsequent use
The New York Telephone Company sold the building, which at the time housed the Sperry Gyroscope Corporation, to an investor from Manhattan in August 1943. Poly Tech's Institute of Polymer Research moved to 81 Willoughby Street in late 1946, operating five laboratories there. The same year, the Sperry Gyroscope Company moved its training school to the building, occupying the second floor; the space could accommodate 80 daily students. By the early 1950s, Poly Tech's polymer institute occupied three of 81 Willoughby Street's eight floors, and the institute had 520 graduate-level students, including 120 full-time students. The New York state government also opened a rent-collection office within the building in 1956, replacing an earlier rent office on Fulton Street. Over the years, 101 Willoughby Street was sold several times and contained medical offices and a school. Meanwhile, New York Telephone Company and its successor NYNEX retained ownership of the annex at 360 Bridge Street.
Lebanese-American businessman Albert Srour bought 81 Willoughby Street in 1990 and cleaned the building's cornice and facade, as well as replaced the elevator. The Municipal Art Society's Preservation Committee, along with local civic group Brooklyn Heights Association, began petitioning the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) to designate over two dozen buildings in Downtown Brooklyn as landmarks in 2003. The LPC designated 81 Willoughby Street as a landmark in June 2004, along with New York Telephone's later building at 101 Willoughby Street later the same year. The buildings were designated shortly after the city government had approved a development plan for Downtown Brooklyn. The New York Times wrote that 81 Willoughby Street's landmark designation "is only the beginning of a potential wave" of landmarks in the neighborhood.
After the landmark designations, 81 Willoughby Street continued to be used as offices. The New York Times described the building as being occupied by nonprofit organizations, as well as doctors' and dentists' offices. By the late 2000s, ASA College occupied the ground floor and had mounted a canopy outside the building; the college was shuttered in 2023. Discount store Dollar Jackpot leased about 10,000 sq ft (930 m<sup>2</sup>) on the building's ground floor in 2021. In addition, NY Beauty Suites opened a coworking space for beauty salon operators in early 2022. The coworking space contained 20 suites, each of which spanned between 100 and 200 sq ft (9.3 and 18.6 m<sup>2</sup>).
## Critical reception
Christopher Gray of The New York Times referred to the building in 2008 as "a robust structure dominated by six great three-story arches", which nonetheless had "delicate and inventive" decoration. According to Gray, the two telephone buildings at 81 and 101 Willoughby Street were one block apart physically but "eons apart in their architecture", contrasting number 81's Beaux-Arts design with number 101's Art Deco design. Francis Morrone wrote in 2001 that 101 Willoughby Street "and the earlier telephone building at the northeast corner of Lawrence Street [at 81 Willoughby Street] make Willoughby one of the most exciting streets in downtown Brooklyn". The historian Barbaralee Diamonstein-Spielvogel wrote in 2011 that the building "served as a major statement of [New York and New Jersey Telephone]'s expansion in the area, providing offices and telephone switching in the heart of Brooklyn's expanding business district".
## See also
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn
|
1,868,998 |
Burn (Usher song)
| 1,168,814,622 |
2004 single by Usher
|
[
"2000s ballads",
"2004 singles",
"2004 songs",
"Arista Records singles",
"Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Contemporary R&B ballads",
"Music videos directed by Jake Nava",
"Number-one singles in New Zealand",
"Song recordings produced by Jermaine Dupri",
"Songs about heartache",
"Songs written by Bryan-Michael Cox",
"Songs written by Jermaine Dupri",
"Songs written by Usher (musician)",
"UK Singles Chart number-one singles",
"Usher (musician) songs"
] |
"Burn" is a song by American R&B singer Usher, which he wrote with American songwriters Jermaine Dupri and Bryan-Michael Cox. The song was produced by Dupri and Cox for Usher's fourth studio album, Confessions (2004). A downtempo track about the breakup of a relationship, it was originally planned as the album's lead single, but "Burn" was pushed back after favorable responses for the song "Yeah!". "Burn" was eventually released as the second single from the album on March 21, 2004.
"Burn" topped various charts around the world, including the US Billboard Hot 100 for eight non-consecutive weeks; it succeeded "Yeah!" at number one. Both singles gave Usher nineteen consecutive weeks at the top spot, longer than any solo artist of the Hot 100 era. "Burn" was certified platinum in Australia and United States and gold in New Zealand. The song was well received by critics and garnered award nominations. In 2009, it was named the 21st most successful song of the 2000s on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade. This song won the 2005 Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Song.
## Background
When Usher planned to make a new record after his third album, 8701 (2001), he decided to not branch out much with collaborators and continue building music with his previous producers. Usher again enlisted record-producer Jermaine Dupri, who had collaborated on his two previous albums, along with The Neptunes and R. Kelly, among others, to work on his fourth studio album, Confessions (2004). Dupri contacted his frequent collaborator Bryan-Michael Cox, who had also made hits like the 2001 single "U Got It Bad" for Usher. During an early session for the album, Dupri and Cox talked about a situation which later became "Burn". At that time, Usher's two-year relationship with TLC's Chilli was flaming out. They said, "Yo, you gotta let that burn ... That's a song right there", and started writing.
## Release
Usher submitted the album to his label Arista Records after he felt it was completed. After he and the company's then-president Antonio "LA" Reid listened to the songs, they felt the album needed a first single and that they needed to create one or two more songs, which caused the album's release to be postponed. Usher went back to the studio and collaborated with Lil Jon, who said, "He needed a single. They had 'Burn,' 'Burn' was hot, but they needed that first powerful monster. That's when I came in." They worked on few more tracks, including "Red Light", which was not included in the first release of the album, and "Yeah!", which features Ludacris and Lil Jon.
Label personnel were undecided as to what to consider as the lead single. Reid was considering whether "Yeah!" would be released then, being as they also had "Burn". Usher was doubtful if the former was the right choice, after he wanted an R&B record. Until "Yeah!" was leaked, "Burn" was chosen as the official first single from Confessions. "Yeah!", which was intended as a promotional song and a teaser for Usher's fans, was released to street DJs and mixtapes. However, the favorable response to the song led to a change; "Yeah!" was the lead single and "Burn" was set as its follow-up. "Burn" was sent to US rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporaryradio stations on March 1, 2004. It was released commercially in the United States on March 21, 2004, as a CD single, digital download, and 7-inch single. In the United Kingdom, a CD and 12-inch single were issued on June 28, 2004.
## Lyrical interpretation
Usher decided about the new material "to let it all hang out by singing about some of his own little secrets, as well as a few bones from his homies' skeleton-filled closets." The public speculated that he was referring to his recent personal struggles, on which he promised a "real talk".
In early 2004, Usher broke up with Chilli due to "irreconcilable differences and because they found it almost impossible to make compromises." Usher said in an interview: "It's unfortunate when you have to let a situation go because it's not working", which added reference to the breakup. It was later revealed that Chilli in fact broke up with Usher because of cheating, and the media said otherwise because of the lyrics in the song, which was not based on their relationship. Dupri, however, confessed that his personal life is the real story of the album. Usher said he took inspiration collectively by looking at his friends' personal situations.
## Composition
"Burn" is a slow jam R&B ballad. The song is performed with a moderate groove. It is composed in the key of D-flat major. The melody line of the song has influences from "Ignition (Remix)" by R. Kelly. "Burn" has a combination of robotic noises, synthesized strings and guitar lines.
The lyrics are constructed in the traditional verse-chorus form. The song starts with a spoken intro, giving way to the first verse. It continues to the chorus, following the second verse and chorus. The bridge follows, leading to a break and finalizing in the chorus.
"Burn" was considered a "window to Usher's inner thoughts", along with the controversial track "Confessions" and "Confessions Part II". The song is about breakups and ending relationships. According to Matt Cibula of Popmatters, "Burn" is constructed from "two-step concept". In the lyrics "You know that it's over / You know that it was through / Let it burn / Got to let it burn", Usher breaks up with his woman but found her sad about feeling bad about what happened to their relationship. However, Usher says that she must deal with it before she can accept the truth. For the lines "It's been fifty-eleven days / Umpteen hours / I'm gonna be burnin' / Till you return", the direction changes after Usher realized that breaking up with her was a huge mistake and that he wanted her back.
## Critical reception
"Burn" was lauded by contemporary music critics. Jem Aswad of Entertainment Weekly complimented Dupri and Cox for producing what he called the "best song" from the album, along with "Confessions Part II", which they also produced. Aswad said the songs feature "mellifluous melodies". Laura Sinagra of Rolling Stone found Usher's singing a "sweet falsetto on the weepy breakup song ", adding, it "convincingly marries resolve and regret, but when it comes to rough stuff, there's still no 'u' in p-i-m-p." Cibula called the song brilliant and considers its step one and step two technique a hit. Jon Caramanica of Blender complimented the song for being the only "serviceable" track among all ballad-influenced songs in the album which "often drown in their own inanity." Andy Kellman of Allmusic considered "Burn" as one of the Usher's best moments in the album, together with "Caught Up", the final single from Confessions. Steve Jones of USA Today stated that Usher is singing about a relationship that cannot be saved because of the "flame has simply died".
"Burn" was nominated at the 47th Grammy Awards for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. The song earned British record company EMI the "Publisher of the Year" at the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers 2005 Pop Music Awards. In 2016, Complex ranked the song number two on their list of the 25 greatest Usher songs, and in 2021, American Songwriter ranked the song number four on their list of the 10 greatest Usher songs.
## Chart performance
"Burn" was another commercial success for Usher. In the United States, the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty-five, months prior to its physical release. It reached the top spot on May 29, 2004, replacing "Yeah!"'s twelve-week run at number one. The single was beaten by Fantasia's 2004 single "I Believe", which charted on its debut. It returned to number one for one last week, before it was finally knocked off by the album's third single, "Confessions Part II". The single failed to remain on the top spot as long as "Yeah!" did, staying only for eight non-consecutive weeks. "Burn" was the fifth most-played song in 2004 for earning 355,228 total plays, alongside "Yeah!" which topped the tally with 496,805 plays. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 1,000,000 units. It became the second best-selling single in the United States, behind Usher's single "Yeah!". This gives him the distinction, alongside The Beatles in 1964, to have two of his singles occupying the top two spots on the Billboard Year-End Chart. Like "Yeah!", "Burn" helped Confessions remain on the top spot.
Internationally, several music markets responded equally well. In the United Kingdom, the single debuted at number one and stayed for two weeks. Across European countries, the single performed well, reaching the top ten in Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland. It entered the top twenty in Austria, Belgium, Germany, and Sweden. In Australia, the single debuted at number three and peaked at number two. The single was certified 2× platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling 140,000 units. In the 2004 year ender charts, "Burn" became the thirty-first best-selling single in Australia. In New Zealand, it peaked at number one for three weeks, and remained on the charts for twenty-three weeks. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand.
## Music video
### Background
The music video for "Burn" was directed by Jake Nava, who had produced a wide array of videos for Atomic Kitten, Beyoncé Knowles, among others. It was shot at the former Hollywood house of American popular singer Frank Sinatra. The video features model Jessica Clark. In the July 2008 issue of Vibe magazine, Usher told writer Mitzi Miller, "Women have started to become lovers of each other as a result of not having enough men." On June 26, 2008, AfterEllen.com writer Sarah Warn revealed that Jessica Clark, the lead in Usher's "Burn" music video, was in fact an openly gay model. In the article, Warn writes, "Maybe it's not a lack of men that's turning women gay, Usher – maybe it's you!"
### Synopsis and reception
The video starts with Usher sitting on a sofa with a backdrop of his girlfriend. When the verse starts, Usher goes to a wide glass window pane, looking at his girlfriend swimming in the pool. The surface is aflame after she is immersed in the water. In the next scene, Usher and his mistress are having sex. While sitting on the edge of the bed, Usher reminisces about the moments he and his girlfriend had have in the same bed. The bedsheets burn, the scene then cutting to Usher riding a silver right-hand drive Aston Martin DB5 with a British registration - EGF 158B (the car was featured in the TV series Fastlane). The video cuts with the backdrop also burning. Continuing to the car scene, Usher stops as he sees his imaginary girl again. He and dances, executing various hand routines. Video intercuts follow and the video ends with Usher standing. Right before the last chorus, the screen changes from a small screen to a full one with no framework.
The music video debuted on MTV's Total Request Live at number six on May 4, 2004, debuting with "Confessions Part II". The video reached the top spot and remained on the countdown for thirty-three days.
## Impact
Cox benefited from co-creating Confessions, as well as from the success of "Burn". He had previously contributed to records for Alicia Keys, B2K, Mariah Carey and Destiny's Child, but he felt 2004 introduced him to another landscape in the music industry. His contribution to this song elevated him to fame, and garnered more attention for his past work. "Burn" earned him two Grammy nominations. Cox said, "Everybody who does this for a living, dreams about being nominated. It's the ultimate accomplishment. I've always been the silent guy — I come in, do my job and head out. I like to leave all the glory and shine to others, but this is the validation that means the most to me. It also makes me want to work harder to get that same recognition again."
## Track listings
Notes
- signifies a co-producer
- signifies a remix producer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end charts
### All-time charts
## Certifications
## See also
- List of number-one singles from the 2000s (New Zealand)
- List of number-one singles from the 2000s (UK)
- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2004 (U.S.)
- List of number-one R&B singles of 2004 (U.S.)
- List of Billboard Rhythmic number-one songs of the 2000s
|
66,445,374 |
The Hill We Climb
| 1,163,847,916 |
Poem by Amanda Gorman
|
[
"2021 in the United States",
"2021 poems",
"Inaugural poems",
"Inauguration of Joe Biden"
] |
"The Hill We Climb" is a spoken word poem written by American poet Amanda Gorman and recited by her at the inauguration of Joe Biden in Washington, D.C., on January 20, 2021. The poem was written in the weeks following the 2020 United States presidential election, with significant passages written on the night of January 6, 2021, in response to the storming of the United States Capitol. Gorman was twenty-two years old when she recited the poem, making her the youngest inaugural poet ever.
The poem was written to call for "unity and collaboration and togetherness" among the American people and emphasize the opportunity that the future holds. "The Hill We Climb" was widely praised for its message, phrasing, and delivery. Critics generally considered the recitation one of the highlights of the inauguration. Many felt that the poem represented a call for unity and would remain relevant beyond the inauguration. Gorman drew large amounts of attention, particularly on social media, after the poem's recitation and two upcoming books by Gorman topped best seller lists.
## Background and writing
Amanda Gorman is an American poet from Los Angeles, California. In 2017, aged 19, she was named the first National Youth Poet Laureate. On January 14, 2021, the Inaugural Committee, which was organizing the inauguration of Joe Biden in Washington, D.C., announced that Gorman would be giving a poetry reading at the event on January 20. Gorman said that she began to write the poem by reviewing poems written by past inaugural poets, who have included Robert Frost and Maya Angelou. She also studied famous orators such as Abraham Lincoln, Frederick Douglass, Martin Luther King Jr., and Winston Churchill. Gorman also spoke with Richard Blanco and Elizabeth Alexander, two previous inaugural poets.
In December 2020, Joe Biden's wife, Jill Biden, asked Gorman to deliver a poem at the inauguration. She was informed of her selection on December 30, 2020, and asked to write a poem that contributed to the inauguration's overall theme of "America United", but without any other direction. Gorman wrote several lines a day, and had the poem around half completed when the storming of the United States Capitol occurred on January 6. Gorman told The New York Times that she had been struggling to complete the poem and worrying about whether it would be adequate. In an interview with CBS News, she said that the storming marked "the day that the poem really came to life" as she worked the events into it. Gorman finished the poem on the night of January 6.
Gorman, who had a speech impediment as a child, was twenty-two years old when she read the poem, making her the youngest poet to read at a presidential inauguration. She practiced the poem repeatedly before delivering it. She said that she sought to use the poem as an opportunity to call for "unity and collaboration and togetherness."
## Content
"The Hill We Climb" took Gorman around five minutes to read and is 723 words long. It begins with the line: "When day comes, we ask ourselves where can we find light in this never-ending shade?" and then describes the storming of the Capitol as "a force that would shatter our nation rather than share it" before stating that, "while democracy can be periodically delayed, it can never be permanently defeated." She also spoke about her heritage, being descended from slaves, and her dreams for the future. She described America as "not broken but simply unfinished" and noted its losses but also the opportunity for reconciliation. In the poem Gorman makes use of large amounts of alliteration and "reassuring aphorisms".
The poem has several references to the musical Hamilton. After the inauguration, in response to praise from Hamilton playwright Lin-Manuel Miranda, Gorman explained that her poem includes references to the musical; Hillel Italie of The Associated Press wrote that references include the line "History has its eyes on us," which echoes the Hamilton song "History Has Its Eyes on You." The poem also references the Bible, quoting Micah 4:4: "that everyone shall sit under their own vine and fig tree, and no one shall make them afraid", a verse quoted in the Hamilton song "One Last Time". It also bears some resemblance to a famous discourse by John Winthrop, transforming the "City upon a Hill" into "The Hill We Climb".
## Reception
The poem was widely praised by figures including Lin-Manuel Miranda, Oprah Winfrey, Hillary Clinton, Stacey Abrams, Michelle Obama, and Barack Obama. Critics generally received the poem very well, noting that it would likely remain significant beyond the inauguration. Many critics named the poem as a highlight of the inauguration and praised Gorman's messages of unity, reflections on the past, and hope for the future. Several critics also drew parallels between her poem and the works of other inaugural poets, such as Frost and Blanco.
A critic for The Guardian, Adam Gabbatt, considered the poem a tour-de-force for Gorman, while Julie Bykowicz in The Wall Street Journal described it as a "star turn" and noted that for a time she was gaining followers on Twitter at a faster rate than Joe Biden. Jeneé Osterheldt in The Boston Globe praised the poem as "a forever spiritual to sing. A poem for us." She noted that Gorman's message could be about every African-American girl who has a dream and drew connections to Kamala Harris. Osterheldt also compared the poem and its delivery to Angelou's "On the Pulse of Morning" that was delivered at the first inauguration of Bill Clinton in 1993, and its message to Langston Hughes's "A Dream Deferred." Shayla Harris writes for Ebony that "Her poignant reflections on the country's past and her vision for progress were brought to life through masterful delivery. Through this performance Gorman has marked a place for herself in the African American oral tradition."
BBC News critic Will Gompertz described the poem as "a beautifully paced, well-judged poem for a special occasion" that would resonate beyond Biden's inauguration, and praised Gorman for delivering it with "grace." The Atlantic's Spencer Kornhaber described the reading as "flawless." A critic for NPR praised Gorman's reading, her poem, and its message. Dwight Garner of The New York Times Critic's Notebook wrote that Gorman was "a one-person reminder that if winter is here, then spring cannot be far behind," and "If her performance made you vaguely feel that you’d had a blood transfusion, it was perhaps because you could sense the beginning of a remade connection in America between cultural and political life."
Liesl Schillinger in The Guardian described the recitation of the poem as the crowning moment of Gorman's rise to become "the voice of a new American era" and called the final lines a "poetic battle cry". She also noted that Gorman's "assurance and bearing made her seem to stand outside time". Seth Perlow, an English teacher at Georgetown University, wrote in The Washington Post that, while Gorman makes use of many "generic Americanisms", she distinguished the poem "by performing with remarkable dynamism and grace". He felt that "The Hill We Climb" was not as good as Alexander's "Praise Song for the Day" but that Gorman's reading was the best reading at a presidential inauguration.
Not all reviews were positive. The journalist Melanie McDonagh received the poem negatively in The Spectator, arguing that while the delivery "stole the show" at the inauguration, the poem itself was hard to understand and poorly written. Poet and critic William Logan panned the poem in The New Criterion, describing it as "a sorry affair, composed of stock metaphors and dreary banalities, with the rhymes of a breakfast-cereal jingle and the heart of a stockbroker".
### Outfit
Several reporters noted Gorman's outfit, which included jewelry that was given to her by Oprah Winfrey, a yellow coat designed by Miuccia Prada, and a red puff satin headband, also designed by Prada. She sought to honor Angelou by wearing a ring that depicted a caged bird, referencing Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.
## Publication
Shortly after the inauguration, Penguin Young Readers announced a publication of 150,000 hardcover copies of the poem in spring 2021, set to begin on April 27. The poem was also included in a Gorman's first published collection of poetry, titled The Hill We Climb, which was released by Viking Books for Young Readers in September 2021. The day after the inauguration, Change Sings, a picture book by Gorman then scheduled for publication by Viking in September 2021, and The Hill We Climb were the two best-selling print books at Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
### Controversies over translation
Translators into various languages were divided over the question of who could best translate Gorman's work. Many critics maintained that only a young black woman could properly translate the poem, while others argued that this was unpractical, particularly when considering the scarcity of competent translators fitting those specifications. Aaron Robertson, a black translator, told The New York Times that "this feels something of a watershed moment".
In March 2021, Marieke Lucas Rijneveld was selected to translate Gorman's poetry collection The Hill We Climb into Dutch. The decision, which Gorman had approved, was criticized due to Rijneveld being white, and Rijneveld eventually withdrew from the assignment.
Later that month, Víctor Obiols was dropped from translating the poem into Catalan, after having already completed the translation, by the publisher Univers. Obiols told AFP that the publisher told him they were "looking for a different profile, which had to be a woman, young, activist and preferably black". He also added: "If I cannot translate a poet because she is a woman, young, black, an American of the 21st century, neither can I translate Homer because I am not a Greek of the eighth century BC. Or could not have translated Shakespeare because I am not a 16th-century Englishman."
The German edition was published by Hoffmann und Campe in a translation by Kübra Gümüşay, Hadija Haruna-Oelker, and Uda Strätling. Neither Gümüşay nor Haruna-Oelker had worked as translators before. The German translation was criticized, with the Austrian newspaper Der Standard deeming it "extremely unsuccessful".
## Restriction
Gorman's poetry collection The Hill We Climb was restricted to an area reserved for middle school students at Bob Graham Education Center in Miami Lakes, Florida in 2023. The restriction was based on a complaint to Miami-Dade County Public Schools that the book contains "hate messages" in the following stanzas:
> > We've braved the belly of the beast. We've learned that quiet isn't always peace, And the norms and notions of what "just is" Isn't always justice.
> >
> > And yet the dawn is ours before we knew it. Somehow, we do it. Somehow, we've weathered and witnessed A nation that isn't broken, but simply unfinished.
Daily Salinas, the mother who requested the removal of the book, also requested the removal of poetry by Langston Hughes and other works. "Advocacy group Miami Against Fascism posted photos of Salinas at rallies with members of Proud Boys and Moms for Liberty, a conservative group that has protested school curriculums that mention LGBTQ rights, critical race theory, and other issues." Salinas denies that she was a member of either group.
## See also
|
30,516,519 |
Hurricane Carol (1953)
| 1,165,454,279 |
Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 1953
|
[
"1953 Atlantic hurricane season",
"Cape Verde hurricanes",
"Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes",
"Hurricanes in Bermuda",
"Hurricanes in Canada",
"Hurricanes in New England"
] |
Hurricane Carol was one of only five Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes to not have its name be retired, the others being Esther, Edith, Emily and Lorenzo. Carol was also the strongest storm of the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season and the first Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane. Carol is also the first named storm to attain Category 5 status. Carol developed on August 28 off the west coast of Africa, although the Weather Bureau did not initiate advisories until five days later. On September 2, Carol attained hurricane status, based on a ship report. It moved northwestward, attaining peak winds of 160 mph (260 km/h), based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters. After weakening, it brushed Bermuda and turned northeastward near New England, passing west of Nova Scotia before making landfall near Saint John, New Brunswick on September 7. While crossing Atlantic Canada, Carol became an extratropical cyclone, which dissipated on September 9 southwest of Greenland.
When Carol initially threatened to strike Bermuda, several planes were evacuated from the island. Later, the hurricane produced high waves along the New England coastline which, in combination with foggy conditions, caused several boating accidents. At least 40 people required rescue, and four people were killed. Although winds in the region were minor, fishing damage totaled about \$1 million (1953 USD, \$ 2023 USD). In Nova Scotia, hurricane-force wind gusts downed trees and power lines, as well as heavy damage to the apple crop totaling \$1 million (1950 CAD, \$ 2023 USD). High waves washed several boats ashore, and also killed one person. Ferry travel was halted across Atlantic Canada, although impact was less severe outside of Nova Scotia. In Prince Edward Island, gusty winds caused isolated power outages, and minor flooding occurred in New Brunswick.
## Meteorological history
In late August, a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa, developing into a tropical depression developed near Cape Verde on August 28. It moved west-southwestward for two days before turning to the west. The depression is estimated to have intensified into a tropical storm on August 31, and subsequently it turned to the west-northwest. On September 2, the S.S. Umatilla reported winds up to force 12 on the Beaufort scale, or hurricane strength; the ship also reported very high seas and a rapidly decreasing pressure. Based on the report, the Miami Weather Bureau office initiated advisories on Hurricane Carol about 750 miles (1200 km) east-northeast of Barbados.
After reaching hurricane status, Carol embarked a steady intensification trend as it moved northwestward. On September 3, the Hurricane Hunters flew into the storm and reported winds of 160 mph (260 km/h), along with a minimum pressure of 929 mbar. This made Carol the strongest storm of the season. At its peak, the maximum winds were in an area 3 mi (4.8 km) in diameter across the center. The hurricane maintained peak winds for about a day before beginning to weaken. Early on September 6, Carol passed about 225 mi (362 km) southwest of Bermuda with winds of about 110 mph (180 km/h). The next day the hurricane turned to the north-northeast, bypassing Cape Cod by about 140 mi (230 km). Late on September 7, Carol brushed western Nova Scotia before making landfall near Saint John, New Brunswick with winds of around 75 mph (121 km/h). Shortly after making landfall, Carol transitioned into an extratropical cyclone, which crossed the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, eastern Quebec, and Labrador before dissipating southwest of Greenland on September 9.
## Preparations and impact
As Carol was threatening Bermuda, planes flew away from the island and ships returned to harbor for safety. Although hurricane-force winds were initially predicted, Carol only brushed the island with high waves and gale-force winds. The winds toppled a few trees and power lines, and also injured two motorcyclists after they lost control of their vehicles.
Along the East Coast of the United States, the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from New Jersey through Maine due to the approaching hurricane. The combination of high waves and foggy conditions caused several boating accidents in New England, killing four people and left at least 40 people in need of Coast Guard rescue. Winds across much of the region were not significant, reaching only 50 mph (80 km/h) on Nantucket. Across southeast Maine, Carol produced at least 1 in (25 mm) of rainfall, which was beneficial due to gardeners and trees due to previously dry conditions. Effects were generally minimal in the state, although the rainfall prompted the cancellation of a few Northeast Airlines flights. The hurricane caused moderate damage to the fishing industry in New England, totaling around \$1 million (1953 USD, \$ 2023 USD).
In the Grand Banks of Canada, the threat of the hurricane prompted fishing boats to venture back to port. In the Bay of Fundy, foggy conditions drove an ocean liner aground. Across Nova Scotia, rough seas washed a boat near Dartmouth, a schooner near Halifax, four yachts in Chester, and another three boats in Shelburne ashore. In addition, eleven yachts in Chester sank during the storm. The seas flooded a coastal road and nearby field in Prospect, destroying a garage. In Cow Bay, a man drowned after falling off of a yacht. Rough seas halted ferry service between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, as well as between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick; other ferry services across the region were delayed.
As Carol moved through eastern Canada, it dropped light to moderate rainfall along its path, peaking at 4.33 inches (110 mm) in the Côte-Nord region of eastern Quebec, along the northern coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Strong winds affected much of the region, primarily Nova Scotia, including an 80 mph (129 km/h) gust in Halifax. Across the province, the combination of winds and rain downed the equivalent of about 500,000 ft<sup>3</sup> (14,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of trees, most of which in areas where some trees were already cut. The winds blew trees onto power lines, leaving widespread areas without telephone, telegraph, or power. In Annapolis Valley, strong winds heavily damaged the apple and grain crop, with farms experiencing losses up to 50%. Losses from the apple crop was estimated around \$1 million (1950 CAD, \$ 2023 USD). Strong winds left some property damage, including broken windows and at least one instance of a blown-off roof. Across the province, Carol left several people injured.
Outside of Nova Scotia, the winds from Carol were strong enough to knock down trees and power lines in New Brunswick. Light rainfall, peaking at 2.44 inches (62 mm) in the province, caused street flooding in Moncton. The rainfall reached as far west as Ontario, and as far east as Prince Edward Island, where rainfall reached 1.73 inches (44 mm). Winds in the latter province damaged roofs and downed some trees, resulting in minor power outages. Further north in Quebec, adverse conditions from the storm delayed a search party after a plane crash.
## See also
- Other storms of the same name
- List of Bermuda hurricanes
|
67,358,448 |
Eric Anthony Abrahams
| 1,169,884,671 |
Jamaican public servant
|
[
"1940 births",
"2011 deaths",
"20th-century Jamaican politicians",
"Alumni of St Peter's College, Oxford",
"BBC newsreaders and journalists",
"Jamaica Labour Party politicians",
"Jamaican Rhodes Scholars",
"Members of the House of Representatives of Jamaica",
"Members of the Senate of Jamaica",
"University of the West Indies alumni"
] |
Eric Anthony Abrahams (5 May 1940 – 7 August 2011) was a Jamaican public servant and broadcaster. He was director of tourism from 1970 to 1975, and minister of tourism and information from 1980 to 1984. After leaving office, he co-created a radio show with Beverley Manley, "The Breakfast Club". He was involved in a libel suit against the Gleaner Company, which initially resulted in a major settlement to him. Abrahams was educated at Jamaica College and later at the University of the West Indies and University of Oxford (as a Rhodes Scholar). At Oxford, he was elected president of the Oxford Union, a debating society. In 1964, he hosted a debate attended by Malcolm X. In Britain, he briefly worked for the BBC as its first black TV reporter.
When Abrahams returned to Jamaica, he became involved in the tourism industry, overseeing increased efforts to advertise Jamaica and its culture as the youngest director of tourism yet. Abrahams was a member of the Jamaican Senate (1977) and a director of Air Jamaica. After being elected to the Jamaican House of Representatives in 1980, the prime minister of Jamaica, Edward Seaga, made him the first dedicated minister of tourism in a Jamaican cabinet. As minister, Abrahams led a revitalization of the nation's tourism industry. He was also an advocate for the 1983 United States invasion of Grenada. Abrahams left his post of minister in 1984, officially for "personal reasons", though the actual reason is unclear. He was a member of the Jamaica Labour Party until 1985 and served four years in parliament as an independent, not running for re-election in 1989.
After leaving office, Abrahams sought to develop a tourism consultancy, pursued libel cases, primarily against the Gleaner Company, and co-ran a radio show, The Breakfast Club.
## Early life and education
Eric Anthony Abrahams, also known as "Tony", was born on 5 May 1940, to Eric Abrahams and Lucille Abrahams. His father was a director of a corporation. He was educated at Jamaica College and studied economics, history and English at the University of the West Indies beginning in 1958. Abrahams graduated in 1961 with a Bachelor of Arts from the University of London. Abrahams was active in debating and was president of the debating club and competing in the United States. He did not run for the role of president of the college's student union after falling ill with mumps and an eye infection, but was elected vice president in 1959. As vice president, he attended an international congress representing undergraduates in Baghdad. Abrahams was also a skilled cricketer, captaining the University of the West Indies' team, and a mediocre student. He was a Rhodes Scholar and was eventually admitted to St Peter's College at the University of Oxford, where he studied jurisprudence. Abraham's weak academics had caused him trouble in admission—St Peter's was the fifth college at Oxford that Abrahams had sought to enter. The other four rejected him because of his academics. After arriving, the master of St Peter's wrote that there was "no chance" he could finish a degree in three years.
Abrahams occasionally participated in civil rights protests while at Oxford, emerging as a leader at the college known for being charismatic, a talented speaker and criticizing racism. In early 1964 Abrahams became involved in the Oxford Union, a debating society. He was secretary in spring of that year, and was elected to a one year term as president in June. Around 1964 he gave a speaking tour across the Middle East. Abrahams organized the debate held in December 1964, picked the topic, secured funding and television coverage from the BBC, and invited speakers including Malcolm X, who accepted. Abrahams hosted the debate. While Malcolm X was at Oxford for the debate, Abrahams was "gated" in his apartment under house arrest after 6:00pm as he had protested Nelson Mandela's arrest. Protests relating to apartheid had been banned during the visit of the Ambassador of South Africa to the United Kingdom.
## Early career
After graduation, Abrahams worked at the BBC, in 1965 becoming the first black TV reporter there. By January 1966 he was reporting for 24 Hours on BBC1. His assignments there included reporting on a coup in Ghana and interviewing François Duvalier in Haiti, as well as reports from Nigeria and London. Abrahams then moved back to Jamaica and on 5 March 1967 started work in the Ministry of Tourism as administrative assistant to the director, at the time E. Stuart Sharpe. In October 1967 he was made assistant director of tourism. Abrahams was named acting director of tourism on 23 December 1969. In March 1970 he toured Florida to look for insights into how to attract tourists. Abrahams also successfully advocated for the lifting of immigration restrictions into the nation. He was made full director of tourism in April 1970. Abrahams was almost thirty years old, the youngest to hold the role. In 1973 Abrahams toured the United States to promote tourism to Jamaica.
As director, Abrahams sought to improve worldwide advertising about traveling to Jamaica, to improve vacation quality there, and make tourism a larger part of Jamaican society. The ministry was restructured under his oversight and new branches established. His initiatives included a "Meet the People" program, October "Tourism Month", and a "Courtesy Corp" tourist police. Abrahams also oversaw the establishment of the Jamaican Association of Villas and Apartments (JAVA), which organized owners who were willing to rent properties into a cooperative. He sought to play into the culture and tradition of Jamaica to make it more appealing to visitors. Some tourist attractions offered windows into rural Jamaican life or Arawak life. Abrahams also worked to develop programs such as rafting on the Martha Brae River.
From 1970 to 1976 Abrahams was executive director of the Private Sector Organization of Jamaica. He was also chairman of the Jamaica Tourist Board around the same time, overseeing a large increase in tourism—tourist arrivals rose 40 percent and "foreign travel receipts" 56 percent, almost doubling the number of guest rooms on the island. Abrahams resigned from his role as director of tourism and the board in April 1975. He also directed Air Jamaica, served on the Jamaican Government Air Policy Committee and negotiated air travel agreements. Abrahams was on the Public Passenger Transport Board and Chairman of the Jamaica Hotel School from 1974 to 1976.
## Political career
Abrahams was also a politician, initially representing the parliamentary constituency of Eastern Portland in the Jamaican Parliament. In September 1976, he ran for parliament as a member of the Jamaica Labour Party and was defeated by Keith Rhodd, 9,292 to 7,433. In 1977 he became a member of the Jamaican Senate. In August 1977, Abrahams resigned from the senate to work in the Organisation of American States as the director of Multi-National Tourism Programme of the Organisation of American States until 1979. Abrahams also wrote articles for the Jamaica Herald.
In 1980 he was made minister of the Jamaica Labour Party and was elected to Jamaican House of Representatives, defeating Rhodd 10,196 to 7,827. In the elections of 1983 Abrahams switched to represent Kingston East and Port Royal, succeeding Glen Webley. From 1980 to 1985 he was minister of tourism and minister of information. This was the first time there had been a dedicated minister for tourism. Shortly after becoming minister, he reportedly told advertising executives that although the Jamaican government had previously not had kickbacks, "things may be different in the new administration." An advertising executive later described Abrahams as carrying a gun in a briefcase for protection against political unrest when they met in the early 1980s. In 1982, The Globe and Mail described changes he oversaw as a "spectacular recovery for Jamaica tourism", which had declined in the aftermath of the bloody 1980 Jamaican general election. Abrahams divested state-owned hotels and oversaw the creation of a "two-tier currency system" where Jamaica had an "unofficial" and "premium" dollar, with different values. He also led programs that improved existing hotels, developed new tourist attractions, and cleaned up old ones.
Prime Minister Edward Seaga supported the 1983 invasion of Grenada by the United States, as did Abrahams. This may have been an outgrowth of hostility towards Michael Manley's People's National Party. According to an interview he later gave, he was in the Jamaican delegation that met with members of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and led to an early request for American involvement in Grenada. Abrahams and Neville Gallimore were later the main Jamaican representatives at a Caribbean Community conference where intervention in the region was further discussed and shortly afterwards a formal plea was issued for American intervention. Abrahams worked to persuade Trinidad to support the invasion and made use of his contacts from Oxford with politicians such as Wahid Ali, president of the senate. He was largely unsuccessful. In 1984 Abrahams told a conference of the Inter American Press Association that poverty posed the largest threat to freedom and defended intervention in Grenada as a necessary "rescue mission".
Seaga removed Abrahams from his ministerial post after a disagreement, although he formally resigned in 1984 for "personal reasons". Abrahams told The Daily Gleaner the resignation was aimed at allowing him to develop his career in tourism consulting internationally. Upon Abrahams departure from the post Seaga publicly said "I pay tribute to the job he has done in managing the recovery of tourism during his three and a half years as minister. The current success now enjoyed is in no small measure due to his efforts." The Daily Gleaner praised his accomplishments but maintained that he had not completely revealed "all the circumstances" surrounding his resignation. The paper speculated that the move might have been provoked by Abraham's anger at the party's choice to fire several people or the party feeling he had peaked. Abrahams left the party, remaining in parliament as an independent. In 1986 Abrahams sought to be made Leader of the Opposition, a request that was not entertained. That same year he announced that he would not seek re-election due to "the political violence and character assassination which was the order of the day." Abrahams intended the withdrawal to be temporary and reinforced his intent to work on developing a tourism consultancy. He left parliament in 1989.
## Libel suit
In 1987, the Associated Press (AP) published a story which alleged that Abrahams was bribed by Young & Rubicam, an American advertising company, when serving as minister of tourism to grant them a \$29 million contract for an advertising campaign in the early 1980s. The campaign's theme was "Come back to Jamaica". Abrahams and an advisor , Arnold Foote Jr., were reportedly offered a third of Young & Rubicam's 15 percent commission as a kickback and given \$900,000 as a bribe. In order to hide the profits, Abrahams and Foote allegedly created "Ad Ventures Ltd.", a fake advertising corporation based in the Cayman Islands. The Associated Press's story was republished by two Jamaican newspapers, The Daily Gleaner and The Jamaica Star. Young & Rubicam was indicted in 1989 in Connecticut for the bribery. In 1990, the corporation pled guilty. Abrahams was indicted but never prosecuted for accepting the bribes.
In 1987, Abrahams sued The Daily Gleaner and The Jamaica Star for libel. He also filed a defamation suit against the author Robin Moore who had testified in the bribery case which was dismissed by judge Peter C. Dorsey because Abrahams would not participate in pretrial discovery. He appealed the decision The two Jamaican papers sued the AP for indemnity because they had used the AP's wire reports. The AP sought for the transcripts of testimony that was used to indict Young & Rubicam to be made public for the case. Abrahams sued Young & Rubicam in 1991 on charges that included libel and slander. In 1993 Moore was ordered to pay Abrahams \$6.3 million. On 17 July 1996, the Gleaner Company, owner of The Daily Gleaner, was ordered by a jury to pay Abrahams J\$80.7 million in damages. The company appealed the decision, which they considered "manifestly excessive", to the Jamaica Court of Appeals. The Committee to Protect Journalists reported on the case, describing it as having "a chilling effect on the entire Jamaican media." By 1999, the decision was still being appealed. In 2000, the amount was lowered by the Court of Appeals to J\$35 million. The case was settled in July 2003 at J\$35 million.
## Later career
In 1990 Abe Dabdoub, a politician and attorney, wrote a letter to the JLP alleging that he had evidence proving members of the party had been spied on and hit men were hired to kill himself and Abrahams. In 1992, Abrahams and Beverley Anderson-Manley created a radio show that focused on current events, "The Breakfast Club". The show aired on KLAS Radio. Abrahams was described by a former host of the show as living and breathing the show, and his obituary in The Daily Gleaner described it as his "crowning achievement". "The Breakfast Club" was intended to have a similar structure to morning television news shows in the US with emphasis on panel discussions. In 1997 the show was described as possibly the most influential radio shows on KLAS, including prominent figures and attracting high advertising rates.
When Rose Leon was assassinated in 1999, Manley used the show to apologize for anything she might have done to contribute to the instability of the nation and the Jamaican political conflict that led to Leon's death. Abrahams and other politicians similarly admitted partial fault. Abrahams said he would fully discuss his actions if he was granted unconditional immunity and said that "[w]e were part of the process, we are part of a failed state and as such we failed the country. With all the opportunity I had, I just slipped into the political system without really bucking it." In 2005 Edward Seaga sued Abrahams and the Breakfast Club show for libel over a 1999 airing. He won after Abrahams did not show up for trial. Abrahams left the show in 2010 as his bone cancer became worse.
## Death and funeral
Abrahams died on 7 August 2011, and his funeral was held at the St Andrew Parish Church. He had two children and six grandchildren at the time of his death. A tribute was paid by Prime Minister of Jamaica Bruce Golding, who said "He was never afraid to challenge the status quo or demand change. He broke down many barriers".
|
2,031,138 |
Albany Pine Bush
| 1,169,792,900 |
Pine barren in Albany, New York
|
[
"Capital District (New York)",
"Geography of Albany County, New York",
"Geography of New York (state)",
"Important Bird Areas of New York (state)",
"National Natural Landmarks in New York (state)",
"Natural history of New York (state)",
"Nature Conservancy preserves in New York (state)",
"Nature centers in New York (state)",
"Nature reserves in New York (state)",
"New York (state) state forests",
"Parks in Albany, New York",
"Protected areas of Albany County, New York"
] |
The Albany Pine Bush, referred to locally as the Pine Bush, is one of the largest of the 20 inland pine barrens in the world. It is centrally located in New York's Capital District within Albany and Schenectady counties, between the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The Albany Pine Bush was formed thousands of years ago, following the drainage of Glacial Lake Albany.
The Albany Pine Bush is the sole remaining undeveloped portion of a pine barrens that once covered over 40 square miles (100 km<sup>2</sup>), and is "one of the best remaining examples of an inland pine barrens ecosystem in the world." By 2008 it included all parcels of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve (a state nature preserve spanning 3,200 acres (1,300 ha)), the properties that connect these protected parcels, and some of the surrounding areas that abut the preserve. The 135-acre (55 ha) Woodlawn Preserve and surrounding areas in Schenectady County are the western sections of the Pine Bush, separated geographically by other properties from the Albany Pine Bush Preserve in Albany County.
Historically regarded by European settlers as desolate and dangerous to cross, the Pine Bush has come to be seen as a historical, cultural, and environmental asset to the Capital District and Hudson Valley regions of New York. It is home to the Karner blue butterfly, an endangered species first identified by author Vladimir Nabokov in 1944 using a type specimen from the Pine Bush. In 2014, Albany Pine Bush was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.
## History
### European colonization
Around 10,000 years ago Native Americans moved into the Pine Bush area. When Europeans arrived in the early 17th century, two groups lived in the immediate area: the Mohawk nation of the Haudenosaunee to the west along the Mohawk River, and the Mohican to the east, along the Hudson River. The Dutch traded with both native groups from their outpost at Fort Orange (present-day Albany), which was established in 1624. For the natives the Pine Bush was an important source of firewood and animal pelts to trade with the Dutch. By 1640 the natives were having trouble finding enough animals in the Pine Bush to supply the growing European demand. The Mohawk referred to the settlement at Fort Orange as skahnéhtati, meaning "beyond the pine plains," referring to the large area of the Pine Bush between the Hudson and Mohawk rivers.
The Dutch granted a patent in 1661 under the name of Schenectady to a settlement on a bend in the Mohawk River to the west of the Pine Bush and about 20 miles from Fort Orange. To the settlers at Fort Orange, the settlement on the Mohawk River started by Arent van Curler was "beyond the pine plains", and therefore the name Schenectady (in various spellings) became associated with the village at that site. In 1664, the Dutch surrendered their entire colony of New Netherland, including Albany and Schenectady, to the English.
What became known as the King's Highway were a series of footpaths which the Mohawk had long used to get from west in the valley through the Pine Bush to trade with other tribes at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. This area was later the site of the Dutch Fort Orange. After the founding of Schenectady, the name was used for what became a major route between the two settlements but, until the mid-18th century, it was not improved beyond a footpath. During the war from 1699 to 1707, Albany residents collected firewood from the Pine Bush for the large army that was camped at Fort Frederick.
In 1710, Germans immigrated from Palatine to the Albany area. To pay off the cost of their passage some were sent to work camps in the Pine Bush to harvest pines for pitch and rosin for the construction of English naval vessels. Some of these immigrants named the Helderberg Escarpment and settled Schoharie County. Others, largely from work camps in Dutchess County along the Hudson River, settled further west in the valley in 1723, past Little Falls on the Burnetsfield Patent.
During the French and Indian Wars, the British military improved the road significantly for use by its forces. After the war it was used by numerous settlers moving west into the Mohawk Valley. During the late-18th century, taverns and the occasional homesteader began to dot the Pine Bush along the King's Highway, while development began to encroach on the Pine Bush at the Albany and Schenectady edges as those settlements began to grow. The highway and the Pine Bush was a frontier wilderness and extremely dangerous even after the end of the war. Starting in 1765, militiamen took turns escorting travelers through the area to protect them from outlaws, bandits, smugglers, and other dangers. During the American Revolutionary War, the Bush was home to Loyalists of the British Crown. Among the taverns established in the 1760s catering to Pine Bush travelers was the Truax Tavern owned by Isaac Truax, a descendant of French Huguenots and a Tory sympathizer; he said that he was "not a Tory, but a man for the King". Rumors circulated of several murders/robberies being carried out at the tavern.
Travel became easier in 1793 following the revolution, when a stage coach began carrying passengers between the two cities and through the Pine Bush for three cents per mile.
### 19th century
The 19th century saw great improvements in modes of transportation for traveling through the Pine Bush with better roads and soon thereafter railroads. Beginning in 1799 the Great Western Turnpike (today's US Route 20) and the Albany-Schenectady Turnpike (New York Route 5) were built through the Pine Bush. The Western Turnpike connected Albany west across the state to the American Midwest, while the Albany-Schenectady Turnpike replaced the King's Highway to Schenectady. The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad was chartered in 1826 in order to reduce travel time between Schenectady and Albany via the Erie Canal; it was the first railroad in the state of New York, and the fourth in the United States. On July 2, 1830, the DeWitt Clinton pulled the first passenger train in the United States, traveling over the 16-mile (26 km) route through the heart of the Pine Bush.
Over time, the turnpikes and railroad opened up parts of the Pine Bush to settlement, farming, and land speculation. One of the earliest residents was Theophillus Roessle, who owned a large farm and manor in what is now the hamlet of Roessleville, just outside Albany in the town of Colonie. He claimed that the sandy soil of the Pine Bush was "the best land for fruits in the world." Further west, part of the Pine Bush was carved up in 1858 into 860 plots as part of what is now known as the "Great Land Swindle" and sold to buyers outside the region. When they came to inspect their land, they thought the barrens were useless for agriculture; they tried to recoup their money by selling the land to other unsuspecting outsiders.
As in the colonial period, the Pine Bush continued to be tapped for its natural resources, with water becoming a target for development. The Patroon Creek, roughly where three feeder streams joined in the heart of the Pine Bush along Albany's northern border, was dammed in 1850 to form Rensselaer Lake waterworks.
In 1871, the northwestern portion of Albany west of Magazine Street, consisting of mostly undeveloped Pine Bush, was annexed to the neighboring Town of Guilderland after the Town of Watervliet refused it.
Portions of this territory were ceded to Albany in 1910 established its current border. A telling perspective of how it was viewed at the time is contained in the enabling law (Chapter 375 of the Laws of New York, 1910), which described the Pine Bush as "being a territory lying to the west of the present boundary line of the city and which is in large part waste and unoccupied land, the ownership of which is uncertain." This law authorized Albany to lay out the newly annexed territory into lots and acquire land for a park system to connect the Rensselaer Lake waterworks property to the old city border.
### 20th century
As part of the Great Migration of African Americans out of the rural South to industrial cities in the early 20th century, the Reverend Louis W. Parson and his wife migrated in 1927 from Mississippi to Albany, where he founded the First Church of God in Christ. In four trips to Mississippi, Parson encouraged friends and family to move to Albany and join the church, which many did during the 1930s and 1940s. The reverend felt that the mores of Albany's South End, where they originally settled, was not conducive to religious life. He started a community in the Pine Bush along Rapp Road, purchasing two 14-acre (5.7 ha) undeveloped properties in 1930 and 1933. It is a rare example of a chain migration community surviving from the Great Migration. This narrow entity is today designated as the Rapp Road Community Historic District, listed on both the state and the National Register of Historic Places.
In 1912, the city of Albany commissioned a study by notable architect Arnold W. Brunner and landscape architect Charles Downing Lay for beautification of the city; it was published as Studies for Albany. Brunner and Lay proposed using the Rensselaer Lake waterworks property as the core of a new 1,000-acre (400 ha) natural park, preferably leaving much of the grounds in their natural state; "[i]n fact the less done to it the better." The city never acquired more land for a park here, and portions of the original waterworks property were sold off piecemeal and developed over the following century.
In the 1950s, the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) was built through the Pine Bush, disrupting habitat and ecology. Further development took place in the 1950s and 60s with the construction of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus and the SUNY Albany uptown campus. In the 21st century, the remaining Pine Bush represents only about 10% of the undeveloped land that existed prior to 1950.
In the 1960s, longtime Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd pushed forward the Washington Avenue Extension, a four-lane divided highway extending Washington Avenue westward from Fuller Road through the Pine Bush to New Karner Road (NY Route 155). This opened the heart of the Pine Bush and the western section of the city to development and has been described as "a knife through the heart of the Pine Bush". Soon afterward, Neil Hellman, a race horse magnate and major developer in the city, proposed a huge "city within a city" on 390 acres (160 ha) that would have apartments, stores, an office park, one or two schools, and fire and police stations. Mayor Corning estimated between 10,000 and 15,000 persons would live there. Environmentalists and neighborhood groups fought and ultimately defeated this proposal.
Mayor Corning gave archaeologist Don Rittner a \$500 donation in 1972 to excavate the Truax Tavern along the King's Highway. Rittner disproved the prevailing historical beliefs concerning the sophistication and structure of the tavern. He discovered several skeletons under the tavern's floor, which may confirm rumors of murders having taken place at the tavern. As a result of this project, Rittner was appointed as Albany's first municipal archaeologist, possibly the first of such a position in the nation.
While Mayor Corning supported the largest purchases of Pine Bush land as a city preserve, he also approved placing the Albany landfill in the Pine Bush, the construction of the Washington Avenue Extension, and authorizing much of the development that occurred during his 42 years in office as mayor. These all had adverse environmental effects on the Bush. In 1967, a portion of Albany's waterworks/Pine Bush property in the town of Colonie along Central Avenue was sold to developers who built the Northway Mall. Two years later the city moved its dump to the Pine Bush. The Dunes, a single-family housing development in the middle of the Pine Bush off the Washington Avenue Extension, was built in the mid-1970s.
In response to these developments, concerned citizens worried about the future of the habitat formed Save the Pine Bush in 1978. The organization filed lawsuits for the next several decades to stop further developments in the barrens. The activist group opposed construction of Crossgates Mall in the town of Guilderland. First proposed in 1978, it was finished in 1984, then expanded to doubled to 1.5 million square feet in 1994, becoming the third-largest mall in New York. Widespread regional opposition rose against plans in the late 1990s to more than double the mall againwith more than 2 million additional square feet of retail space, plus a 12-story hotel, and activities such as bowling, ice skating, miniature golf and soccer; the project was finally dropped in 1999.
In 1985, a bill to establish a state-controlled preserve to protect Pine Bush lands never made it out of committee. The bill was proposed the following year by Assemblyman Robert Connor (D)-New City. Among the local politicians who opposed the bill was Albany Mayor Thomas Whalen III, who sparred with Assemblyman Connors in a series of letters. Connors stated, "if the mayor allows the final destruction of the Pine Bush, the city of Albany will be an ancient archaeological ruin before the pine barren is replaced." Assemblyman Arnold Proskin (R)-Colonie, whose district included portions of the proposed preserve, opposed on the grounds that the bill was creating another state agency (like the Adirondack Park Agency) that would wrest control from local communities over their development.
The legislature established the Albany Pine Bush Preserve Commission in 1988. Its members consist of representatives of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, The Nature Conservancy, the towns of Colonie and Guilderland, and the city of Albany, Albany County; and four private citizens appointed by the governor. In 2001, the State Employees Federal Credit Union (SEFCU) donated their bank branch on New Karner Road to the state, following the discovery of an underlying issue with the title. The bank branch was adapted for use as the Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center.
Located since 1969 in the Pine Bush, the Albany landfill has been expanded several times, the latest by 15 acres (6.1 ha) in 2010. As of 2010, the landfill is expected to have seven years of operating life remaining. Fees paid by other jurisdictions and businesses enable the landfill to generate \$4–5 million annually to the Albany budget; city residents are provided with free trash collection. The city committed to spending \$18 million to restore Pine Bush habitat in exchange for gaining approval of the 2010 expansion.
In 1969, when Albany opened its landfill, the city of Schenectady set aside its only patch of Pine Bush as the Woodlawn Preserve, designating the 135-acre (55 ha) as a forever wild preserve. Since then, numerous developers have approached the city with proposals for development. In 2009 Schenectady County acted to protect as parkland 24 acres (9.7 ha) in the neighboring town of Niskayuna; this is part of the Woodlawn Pine Barrens–Wetlands Complex which borders the Woodlawn Preserve. The county deeded this property to the town. This action complemented larger plans to connect the complex to the larger Pine Bush Preserve in Albany County
## Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center
The Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center is a nature center in Albany, New York with exhibits and activities about the Albany Pine Bush Preserve's natural history, geologic and cultural significance. The center offers public programs such as teaching programs for school groups, guided hikes, lectures and after school programs, all of which are led by Pine Bush staff. Additionally, Pine Bush Discovery Center staff lead events like invasive species removal programs to allow community members to participating in maintaining the Pine Bush. The Pine Bush Discovery Center also encourages citizen science by running programs such as ant collection, where participants can collect and identify ants, providing data for Pine Bush staff to monitor their conservation efforts. It occupies a former SEFCU credit union bank branch on New Karner Road.
## Geography
The Pine Bush is within the Hudson Valley section of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province in the state of New York, and occupies parts of the city of Albany and the towns of Colonie and Guilderland within Albany County, as well as parts of Schenectady County to the west . The Pine Bush includes not only pine barrens, but also grasslands of prairie grasses, northern and southern successional forests, and numerous ravines with some wetlands. The Pine Bush ranges in elevation from 260 feet (79 m) to 360 feet (110 m) above sea level.
## Geology
Underlying the Albany Pine Bush is a bedrock consisting of shale and siltstone, laid down 450 million years ago during the Middle Ordovician. The bedrock is covered by glaciolacustrine deposits which make up the sandy topsoils of the barrens.
As the glaciers of the Wisconsin glaciation began to recede from the Hudson Valley area, a glacial lake known today as Lake Albany extended across the mid and upper Hudson Valley and a large delta formed west of Albany where the predecessor of the Mohawk River flowed into the lake. Along the shoreline of the lake, lacustrine sands were deposited between the present-day cities of Hudson and Glens Falls; this became the Hudson Valley sandplain. Relieved from the weight of the glacier, the land began to rebound, and the lake receded by draining into the Hudson River. The deposits of sand in the delta area were gradually sculpted by wind into sand dunes. Plants later colonized the land and stabilized the dunes. The Pine Bush originally occupied 40 square miles (100 km<sup>2</sup>), or 60,000 acres, at which point it was the largest inland pine barrens in North America.
## Ecology
### Flora
Less than half of the protected areas of the Albany Pine Bush (42%, or 952 acres (385 ha)) are currently pitch pine-scrub oak barrens, with an additional 680 acres (280 ha) of disturbed areas with invasive plant growth. As this area is now under protection, it can be restored to the status of pine barrens, especially with the use of controlled burning. The remaining pine barrens are dominated by pitch pine (Pinus rigida), a tall shrub layer consisting of bear oak and dwarf chestnut oak (Quercus ilicifolia and Quercus prinoides), and a low shrub layer composed of lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium and Vaccinium pallidum), black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), and sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina). Between areas of pitch pine-scrub oak barrens are small patches of grassland dominated by prairie grasses, including big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), as well as small trees like the shrubby willows (Salix humilis and Salix tristis). Characteristic flowering plants include bush clover (Lespedeza capitata), goat's-rue (Tephrosia virginiana), and wild lupine (Lupinus perennis).
Due to prolonged periods of natural fire suppression, much of the Pine Bush has evolved into northern or southern hardwood forests. These forests, often dominated by invasive species, occupy roughly 500 acres (200 ha) of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve. The southern hardwood forests are dominated by black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), which is exotic, and black cherry (Prunus serotina); with lesser numbers of native oaks (Quercus) and maples (Acer), and the exotic, invasive tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima). The shrub layer is dominated by black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) and other brambles (Rubus sp.). In contrast the northern hardwood forests are dominated by aspen (Populus), black cherry, red maple (Acer rubrum), white pine (Pinus strobus), gray birch (Betula populifolia), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and oaks.
Ravines within the Pine Bush contain mixed forests of pine-northern hardwoods and Appalachian oak-pine. The pine-hardwood forests are dominated by species such as white pine and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), mixed with scattered red maple, a shrub layer dominated by witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), and a herbaceous layer composed of a variety of herbs, mosses, and lichens. The Appalachian oak-pine forest has a tree canopy of one or more oak species, primarily black oak, white oak, and red oak (Quercus velutina, Quercus alba, and Quercus rubra); these are mixed with pitch pine and some white pine, and a shrub layer dominated by heath shrubs, typically blueberries and black huckleberry. Marshes and wetlands occur along the northern boundary of the Pine Bush and along the bottoms of ravines. Roughly 35 acres (14 ha) of vernal pools have been mapped, these are ground-water fed ponds that are dominated by grasses, sedges, herbs, and low shrubs.
The Pine Bush is home to bog bluegrass (Poa paludigena), a federal species of concern, as well as the rare red-rooted flatsedge (Cyperus erythrorhizos), Houghton's umbrella-sedge (Cyperus houghtonii), and Schweinitz's flatsedge (Cyperus schweinitzii). Bog bluegrass occurs at the bottom of a ravine in the Pine Bush and is the only place in the New York Bight watershed where this plant appears. Bayard's malaxis (Malaxis bayardii) is a rare orchid that occurs in the Pine Bush as well.
### Fauna
The Albany Pine Bush is home to hundreds of species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), including over 40 Noctuidae considered to be pine barrens specialists. The most well-known species in the area is the Karner blue (Plebejus melissa samuelis), discovered in the 1940s and named by the author and lepidopterist Vladimir Nabokov. The butterfly is now on the Endangered Species List. Once found in large numbers throughout the grassy openings of the pine barrens, it is today extremely rare and found in a handful of sites. Attempts to reintroduce the butterfly focus on the food and host plant for its larvae – the wild blue lupine, which needs frequent forest fires to maintain its habitat. Other regionally rare butterflies include the dusted skipper (Atrytonopsis hianna), Henry's elfin (Incisalia henrici), frosted elfin (Incisalia irus), and Edward's hairstreak (Satyrium edwardsii). The inland barrens buck moth (Hemileuca maia) is a state-listed special concern animal; and other rare moths include the broad-lined catopyrrha (Catopyrrha coloraria), several noctuid moths (Apharetra purpurea, Chaetaglaea cerata, Chytonix sensilis, Macrochilo bivittata, and Zanclognatha martha), bird dropping moth (Cerma cora), and a geometrid moth (Itame). The Albarufan dagger moth was last seen in the Pine Bush in 1983 and is presumed locally extinct.
The Pine Bush is also home to 30 of the 44 species of amphibians and reptiles that are indigenous to Albany County. Seven of these species are generally not seen so far north in the state of New York. Three species of salamander, the Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonium), blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale), and spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), are state-listed special concern animals. Two species of turtle, the spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) and wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta), are also special concern animals. It is listed as a state-level Important Bird Area. About 45 species of birds breed in the Albany Pine Bush (according to the 1985 New York State Breeding Bird Atlas) and are fairly common species for the area. About 32 species of common small mammals have been found in and adjacent to the Pine Bush.
## See also
- History of Albany, New York
- List of National Natural Landmarks in New York
- List of pine barrens
Other notable pine barrens
- Long Island Central Pine Barrens
- Pine Barrens (New Jersey)
- Rome Sand Plains
|
10,628,838 |
Veera (1994 film)
| 1,173,721,328 |
1994 film by Suresh Krissna
|
[
"1990s Tamil-language films",
"1990s musical comedy films",
"1994 films",
"1994 romantic comedy films",
"Films about fraud",
"Films about music and musicians",
"Films about musical groups",
"Films directed by Suresh Krissna",
"Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja",
"Films with screenplays by Panchu Arunachalam",
"Indian musical comedy films",
"Indian nonlinear narrative films",
"Indian romantic comedy films",
"Polygamy in fiction",
"Tamil remakes of Telugu films"
] |
Veera () is a 1994 Indian Tamil-language romantic comedy film directed by Suresh Krissna and written by Panchu Arunachalam. It is a remake of the Telugu film Allari Mogudu (1992) and stars Rajinikanth, Meena and Roja with Janagaraj, Senthil, Vadivukkarasi, J. Livingston, Mahesh Anand, Vinu Chakravarthy, Ajay Rathnam, Vivek and Charuhasan in supporting roles. The film is about a man who marries twice because of circumstances beyond his control and is forced to live a double life to cover his tracks.
Krissna initially refused to remake Allari Mogudu because he disliked it but agreed after Rajinikanth told him their next film after Annaamalai (1992) should be different to avoid comparisons. The screenplay of Veera was written to be substantially different from the original; it was tailored to Rajinikanth's style and had logic added to the scenario. Arunachalam, who made script changes, received sole screenwriting credit. The film was produced by Arunachalam's wife Meena, photographed by P. S. Prakash and edited by Ganesh–Kumar.
Veera was released on 14 April 1994 during the Puthandu holiday. The film received mixed reviews from critics and audiences were disappointed because they expected a film like Annaamalai. Ticket sales improved within a few weeks of its release and Veera became a commercial success, running for over 100 days in theatres.
## Plot
Muthuveerappan, an idler from Karamadai, falls in love with Devayani alias Devi, the daughter of Carnatic musician Krishnamurthy Shastri. To lure her, Muthu pretends to learn music from Shastri. One day, Devi overhears Muthu discussing his plans to seduce her with his friends, and confronts him. Chastened, Muthu concentrates on his music and later wins over Devi. They marry in secret but before they can make this official, Rathnavelu, son of the village landlord, tries to rape Devi. Muthu saves her by subduing Rathnavelu. Enraged, the landlord insults Muthu's mother, tells her about a loan owed to him by Muthu's late father and threatens to evict her if the loan is not paid within a week. Muthu goes to Madras to earn money.
In Madras, Muthu tries to enter a music competition to win the prize money. He meets tabla player Ravikanth, who gives him the stage name Veera. Both make repeated attempts to enter the competition but are unsuccessful. Muthu saves the competition promoter's owner Viswanathan's daughter Roopakala from Harichandran, a gangster. With Roopa's help, Muthu is able to perform at the competition with Ravikanth, and wins the prize money. Muthu returns to Karamadai and repays the loan, clearing his mother's debt. He learns Devi's house had been destroyed by a flood; the bodies of Devi and her father were not found. With Devi presumed dead, Muthu's mother tells him to return to Madras so that he can start afresh.
After Muthu and his mother arrive in Madras, he gets a full-time job in the music industry as Veera. Viswanathan appoints him as the new company manager after firing the previous manager Chandran for selling pirated cassettes. Roopa, having fallen in love with Muthu, wants to marry him. Muthu initially refuses because he misses Devi but his mother persuades him to marry her. After her marriage, Roopa and Viswanathan go to the United States as the latter needs a heart surgery there. One day, at his recording studio, Muthu finds Devi alive and well. She survived the flood but was left with amnesia; her memory was restored when she heard Muthu singing on the radio so she went to Madras in search of him. Muthu decides not to tell Devi about his marriage to Roopa.
After Roopa and Viswanathan return, Muthu tries to tell Roopa about Devi but decides not to after she tells him about how her friend, at Roopa's suggestion, murdered her lover for infidelity. Devi and Muthu go to a temple to formally marry on Devi's demands, and Ravikanth is tasked with preventing Roopa from going there but fails. Roopa arrives at the temple; Ravikanth helps Muthu to hide his marriage to Devi from Roopa and vice versa. When Roopa sees her husband leaving with Devi, Ravikanth lies that Muthu and Veera are different men. As a result, Muthu is forced to live a double life as Devi's husband Muthu and as Roopa's husband Veera.
Chandran, aware of Muthu's double life, tries to blackmail him but Muthu gives him an altered photograph showing two of him. Believing it is genuine, Chandran gives the photograph to Harichandran who sees through the fraud, commits a murder and frames Muthu as Veera's killer. After Muthu reveals the truth about his double life to his wives, they fight over him and refuse to share. The wives are kidnapped by Harichandran's men. Muthu subdues Harichandran and Chandran, who are arrested. Muthu's wives reconcile with him but not with each other. Muthu's mother persuades him to leave Madras and return to Karamadai. When he, his mother and Ravikanth enter Muthu's house, they find Devi, Roopa and Viswanathan already there. Devi and Roopa take a bag each from Muthu then flounce off in opposite directions.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
After Rajinikanth saw the Telugu film Allari Mogudu (1992) with the director Suresh Krissna and producer-screenwriter Panchu Arunachalam, he expressed his desire to remake it in Tamil as their next collaboration. Krissna objected to this idea as he did not like the film and found it unsuitable for him. Rajinikanth said he wanted to make a "two-wife" comedy, but Krissna noticed Allari Mogudu lacks the values associated with typical Rajinikanth films and felt fans would not accept his character being bigamous. Rajinikanth said changes could be made to suit the local milieu. Krissna wanted to begin work on Baashha but Rajinikanth said if their next film was heavy on action like their previous film Annaamalai (1992), "we will get caught. Bring the hopes down, bring the level down and then take it up again." Krissna agreed but avoided making a shot-for-shot remake of Allari Mogudu.
Rajinikanth and Krissna went to the Taj Banjara hotel in Hyderabad to discuss the plot. They prepared a fresh outline in ten days; Krissna tailored the story to Rajinikanth's style and added logic to the scenario. He submitted the final draft to Arunachalam, who liked it and suggested plot changes. According to Krissna, the remake has more "emotional profundity" than the Telugu original, and it was established that the protagonist Muthuveerappan (Muthu) is a pious person who married twice due to circumstances beyond his control. He differentiated Muthu from the original's protagonist, saying although circumstances drive him to another woman (Roopa), Muthu's feelings for his first wife Devi are sincere, he has not forgotten her and is forced by his mother into marrying Roopa.
The symbolism in a scene in which Muthu removes a thread tied by Devi from his wrist to suggest their bond has ended was Arunachalam's idea. Whereas in Allari Mogudu the second wife's desire for the protagonist is sexual, that aspect in Veera was made secondary. According to Krissna, "we polished the screenplay over and over again till it gathered sheen. Eventually, but for the basic plot, Veera emerged as a near-new product." Veera was produced by Arunachalam's wife Meena under their banner P. A. Art Productions. Arunachalam received sole credit for the screenplay while P. Satyanand, the writer of Allari Mogudu, received credit for the original story. Cinematography was handled by P. S. Prakash, editing by the duo Ganesh–Kumar, and art direction was done by Magie. The action choreography was handled by Raju and dance sequences were choreographed by Raghuram. Meena was chosen to play Devi, reprising her role from Allari Mogudu, and Ramya Krishnan was offered to reprise her role as well; she declined, citing scheduling conflicts, and Roja was cast as Roopa instead. Bollywood actor Mahesh Anand portrayed the antagonist Harichandran in his first Tamil film.
### Filming
Veera was formally launched with a puja at the Lord Ganapathi temple within AVM Studios, although principal photography began at Rajahmundry. A four-day filming schedule with 40 background dancers was planned for the song "Maadethile Kanni" at Talakona. After the first day's filming, Krissna was unhappy because the location did not provide him with the expected quality. The crew returned to Madras and filmed the song at Raghavendra Kalyana Mandapam and at a house at AVM Studios. The song "Konji Konji" was filmed at Narada Gana Sabha, Madras. Because the song that depicts Muthu performing on stage "didn't lend itself to anything vibrant", Krissna intercut it with scenes in which Roopa visualises Muthu in various outfits and begins to find him attractive. According to Krissna, this was a chance to show Muthu in a variety of costumes because he is only shown wearing a simple white shirt and black trousers until the song begins, and would not change his clothing and appearance until much later in the film. Krissna decided to "let the audience get a glimpse of how [Muthu] would look later on in the film" through this song.
The song "Malai Kovil Vaasalil" was filmed at the MRF Racing Track in Sriperumbudur. As it depicts Devi having formed Muthu's name (முத்து) by arranging thousands of lamps, 20,000 lamps were made to glow simultaneously. Krissna decided to use chimney lamps that stopped the wind from extinguishing the lights. The song had to be filmed from above to emphasise the glowing lamps while Devi "should appear as a mere spot in the middle of gigantic lamps", so Prakash went to a tower that stood about 200 feet (61 m) away from the actual spot so the camera could zoom in and out for best results. Krissna described it as "one of the most strenuous and painstakingly shot sequences" in his career. Rajinikanth and Anand did not rehearse the fight sequence in which Muthu and Harichandran jump towards each other, then fall to the ground with their hands interlocked; they watched the stuntmen perform and followed their instructions. Rajinikanth performed all of his stunts without using a stunt double.
Magie's assistant Mani designed the film's large, multicoloured kolam that was 100 ft × 200 ft (30 m × 61 m); a rope was attached to a pulley, one side of which was attached to Mani's waist. He was made to hang horizontally from it, with his face and hands turned towards the floor; completing the task took him two days and two nights. A scene in which Muthu and Ravikanth (Senthil) attempt to fool Roopa at a temple was filmed at Hyderabad's Birla Mandir, which does not generally permit filming. Most of Rajinikanth's acting was improvised on set. For the scene in which Muthu trips on his dhoti while changing into formal clothing, there were no retakes. While filming a scene in which Ravikanth talks to Chandran (J. Livingston) while Muthu silently witnesses, Rajinikanth could not control his laughter at Senthil's dialogue delivery and covered his mouth with a towel. In the post-production phase, Meena's voice was dubbed by K. R. Anuradha and the introductory "Super Star" graphic title card from Annaamalai was re-used. The length of the final film is 4,406.34 metres (14,456.5 ft).
## Themes
Writer S. Rajanayagam compared Veera to another Rajinikanth film Panakkaran (1990) because both of them stress that "true wealth consists of good parents, wife, children and friends". Though the film is a remake of Allari Mogudu, many writers have compared Veera with Rettai Vaal Kuruvi (1987) and Micki & Maude (1984), both of which also have bigamy as their themes. According to writer Archanaa Sekar, in Tamil films women married to the same man show "an unusual display of sisterhood" and "female solidarity", citing Veera as an example because the two female leads are initially friends (despite being unaware that they are married to the same man), and once a conflict arises amongst them, "the friendship helps smooth things over, and the film ends with the two choosing to co-exist with the man".
## Soundtrack
The soundtrack of Veera was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, who also wrote lyrics along with Vaali and Panchu Arunachalam. It is the last Rajinikanth film for which Ilaiyaraaja composed music. The soundtrack album was released on the label Pyramid Music. During the filming schedule at Rajahmundry, Ilaiyaraaja had composed a duet and sent it to Krissna, who liked the song but felt it did not suit the situation. Rajinikanth and other crew members expressed similar views. On returning to Madras, Krissna told Ilaiyaraaja the duet's tune did not suit the situation; Ilaiyaraaja was angry with Krissna but a few hours later, he replaced the duet with other tunes.
Many of the songs are set in Carnatic ragas such as "Konji Konji" in Dharmavati, "Malai Kovil Vaasalil" in Asaveri, "Pattu Poo Poo" in Chalanata, and "Thirumagal" in Lalitha. "Maadethile Kanni" is set in the Hindustani raga, Brindavani Sarang. Two versions of "Konji Konji" were recorded; one was sung by S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and the other by K. S. Chithra. Over 100,000 cassettes of Veera's soundtrack were sold on the release date.
## Release
Veera was released on 14 April 1994 during the Puthandu holiday. The film opened in competition with Indhu, Honest Raj, Sakthivel and Seeman, which were released the same week.
### Critical reception
Veera received mixed critical reviews; audiences and fans of Rajinikanth were disappointed because they expected a film like Annaamalai and were discontent with the title character's lack of heroism. Malini Mannath of The Indian Express wrote, "Veera starts promisingly enough", praising Rajinikanth's comedy timing in the first half, but said the manner in which Muthu learns of Devi's presumed death is "not very convincingly told". She said, "The script takes a nosedive" with the return of Devi, "never to recover". Mannath added Rajinikanth's comedy in the second half feels forced and that "At this stage of his career [Rajinikanth] could have taken more meaningful roles" but concluded by praising the songs. K. Vijiyan of New Straits Times praised the film's action sequences, the performances of the female leads and the music by Ilaiyaraaja but said Harichandran has "little to do with the main story" and was included "just to satisfy Rajni's action-oriented fans". Vijiyan concluded the review by saying, "Veera has a bit of everything to satisfy all sections of the audience to provide a superb evening's entertainment". A writer for the magazine Manushi said, "The director has displayed much ingenuity in bringing the first supposedly dead 'wife' back to life, bringing the two wives together, etc. The final scenes were shoddy, ill-conceived and in bad taste." R. P. R. of Kalki gave the film a mixed review, criticising the screenplay and lack of originality, but lauded Ilaiyaraaja's music.
### Box office
During the first few weeks of its release, Veera had a mediocre response at the box office because of comparisons with Annaamalai but after a few weeks, audiences increased and the film completed a 100-day run in theatres. Krissna attributed the film's success to its comedy and Rajinikanth's popularity after Annaamalai, which had "soared to unimaginable heights" while other commentators attributed its success to its music. According to journalist Sudhir Srinivasan, Veera is the first Tamil film to collect ₹1 crore (equivalent to ₹6.5 crore or US\$820,000 in 2023) in the NSC (North Arcot, South Arcot and Chengalpattu) areas; historian G. Dhananjayan said it collected that much "in Chengalpettu alone".
## Legacy
Veera partially redeemed Rajinikanth's reputation following the commercial failure of his home production Valli (1993). Veera has been dubbed in Hindi and released under several titles, despite Allari Mogudu having been remade in Hindi as Saajan Chale Sasural (1996). Rajinikanth's English line "How is it?" (pronounced "Owwizzit?") became immensely popular, as did the response "Super" (pronounced "Soopar"). Producer Elred Kumar obtained permission to reuse the film's title; his production Veera was released in 2018.
|
27,126,665 |
Not Afraid
| 1,166,643,603 |
2010 single by Eminem
|
[
"2010 singles",
"2010 songs",
"Aftermath Entertainment singles",
"Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Eminem songs",
"Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance",
"Interscope Records singles",
"MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Video",
"Music videos directed by Rich Lee",
"Shady Records singles",
"Song recordings produced by Boi-1da",
"Song recordings produced by Eminem",
"Songs written by Boi-1da",
"Songs written by Eminem",
"Songs written by Luis Resto (musician)",
"Songs written by Matthew Burnett"
] |
"Not Afraid" is a song by American rapper Eminem from his seventh studio album Recovery (2010). It was released as the album's lead single on April 27, 2010, by Interscope Records. "Not Afraid" was first revealed as a single by Eminem via Twitter, after which the song debuted on radio. To promote the single's release, a freestyle rap, "Despicable", was released on the Internet and received attention for its tone and lyrical content. "Not Afraid" was written and produced by Eminem, Boi-1da, Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett; keyboardist Luis Resto was also attributed with songwriting credit. According to Eminem's manager Paul Rosenberg and music critics, "Not Afraid" carries a positive message and depicts Eminem's change in direction from drugs and violence. The hip hop song features a choir that assists Eminem in a heavily layered chorus and vocals are sung over a guitar, synthesizer and piano; no Auto-Tune was used on the sung vocals, but many reverberation tools were.
"Not Afraid" received positive reviews from music critics, who praised the song for being anthemic in nature and carrying a positive message. The song did, however, face criticism for its sudden change in theme from previous singles, and was considered to be less affecting than some of his other songs. Despite mixed reception, "Not Afraid" became the 16th song in Billboard history to debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number one; it also debuted as a chart-topper in Canada. In June 2014 the song was certified 10× Platinum by RIAA, making Eminem the first artist with digital diamond awards for two songs. "Not Afraid" has earned Eminem MTV Video Music Awards, MTV Video Music Awards Japan, Grammy Awards, Billboard Music Awards and Detroit Music Awards.
The song was accompanied by a music video, which Rich Lee directed in May 2010. New York City and Newark, New Jersey, were chosen as settings to shoot the video. Reviewers praised the video as it followed the lyrics and praised the video for such depictions. However, the product placement in the video by Nike shoes and Beats by Dr. Dre headphones was criticized. In 2010, Eminem performed "Not Afraid" at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 (E3 2010), Oxegen 2010, T in the Park 2010 and the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. He has also performed the song at the Bonnaroo Music Festival, Lollapalooza and the V Festival. Rolling Stone ranked it the 24th best song of 2010.
## Writing and recording
In 2009, Eminem planned to release a sequel of his sixth studio album Relapse titled Relapse 2, but cancelled the project and released a completely different studio release titled Recovery. He said, "as I kept recording and working with new producers, the idea of a sequel to Relapse started to make less and less sense to me, and I wanted to make a completely new album." "Not Afraid" was primarily produced by the Canadian hip hop musician Boi-1da. According to Mike Strange, who recorded "Not Afraid", he wanted to work with Boi-1da after listening to his "Forever", which he had produced for the rapper Drake. Boi-1da sent Strange many tracks, to some of which Eminem wrote lyrics. These tracks were opened in Pro Tools, as Strange proceeded to record Eminem's vocals. Recording sessions took place at Effigy Studios, in Ferndale, Michigan, but Boi-1da was absent during the sessions of the track.
The original tracks sent to Strange included mostly drums and keyboard pads; they were placed under an inactive track titled "Orig beatz". The instrumentation included a Roland TR-808 kick, a regular live kick, a hi-hat, a ride cymbal and a snare drum. Underneath the track, there were horn, orchestra hit and pads, including a Mellotron sound that plays the chord progression. Strange told Sound on Sound magazine, "I like to have the vocal tracks at the top of the Session, because in hip-hop they are the most important element." Two of Eminem's were placed underneath his main vocal track, as one of them featured his introductory words. Each play of the chorus was an overdub and not copies of a sample; the only exception was the intro. The vocals for the bridge were overdubbed six times; Auto-Tune was not used at all in the song. The Detroit musician Luis Resto provided keyboard tracks on the bridge, including piano and guitar sound effects. Resto also added orchestration in the chorus and bridge of the song.
Strange arranged the Pro Tools session in a more traditional manner by laying out the drums, bass instruments, guitars, keyboards, main vocals and overdubs from left to right. While mixing, he began with drums, then the main vocals. He added the chorus and bridge, followed by other instrumentation. Strange mixed the track to satisfy Eminem, who, after entering the studio, made his own adjustments, providing additional production; by then, Resto's tracks were added. Strange made adjustments to Boi-1da's tracks, using SSL equalization (EQ) and some compression. To keep the track in tune from pitch fluctuation, Strange used Trim and Auto-Tune on Resto's TR-808 kick. Strange arranged reverberation tools, including the Bricasti, Eventide 2016, the Lexicon 480, Lexicon PMC70, and the Yamaha SPX90.
The two rap tracks in the session used the Massenburg EQ plug-in, "the '9' send goes to the eighth-note delay track immediately above the two rap tracks" and Digidesign Extra Long Delay. Strange also used compressors, including the Alta Moda Unicomp, which he felt works well on vocals, as well as the kick and snare drums. Boi-1da's track mostly used SSL and compression, but the bass used an API 550a. A Digidesign compressor limiter was set up on one of the horn sounds while the Massenburg EQ was used on an OB8 sound. Answering Eminem's request, string overdubs were arranged and recorded by Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett—providing additional production—and Robert Reyes recorded the choir's vocals.
## Composition
"Not Afraid" is a hip hop song written and produced by Rick Crowe, Eminem, Evans and Burnett; Resto did additional writing. Boi-1da provided drums; Evans and Burnett provided string sounds. The lyrics focus on a positive change from Eminem's past experiences, including an end to drug abuse, feuds and violence. The Los Angeles Times noted that a person hearing this song for the first time may identify it as Christian hip hop. MTV News writer Shaheem Reid noted that "There are no jabs at pop-culture icons, no jovial goofballing." Led by a guitar, synthesizer and piano, "Not Afraid" is published in the key of C minor and has a moderate tempo of 86 beats per minute, according to the sheet music published by Sony/ATV Music Publishing. A writer for MuchMusic website noted that Eminem chose to use his Marshall Mathers ego for the song, rather than Slim Shady. He follows a chord progression of Cm–A<sub>(maj7)</sub>–E–B in the chorus.
The song begins with a brief introduction in which Eminem says while the chorus plays underneath, "Yeh, it's been a ride. I guess I had to go to that place to get to this one." When he begins the first verse, his lyrics threaten people who have looked down on him: "You can try to read my lyrics off of this paper before I lay 'em/ But you won't take the sting out these words before I say 'em." On the second verse, Eminem says that he has indeed made mistakes, commenting on his Relapse album: "That last Relapse CD was ehh/ Perhaps I ran them accents into the ground/ Relax, I ain't going to do that now." When he says "All I'm trying to say is get back, click clack, pow", a gunshot is heard. Approaching the end of the second verse, Eminem raps about his personal experiences: "But I think I'm still trying to figure this crap out/ Thought I had it mapped out, but I guess I didn't/ It's time to exercise these demons/ These motherfuckers are doing jumping jacks now." After the chorus, Eminem sings a bridge and focuses on a positive change, as he says "I just can't keep living this way, so starting today I'm breaking out of this cage." Before the final chorus, he says that he "shoots for the moon". The song features a choir composed of Kip Blackshire, Christal Garrick II, Terry Dexter, Rich King, Kristen Ashley Cole and Sly Jordan. This song is also about how Slim Shady is leaving Eminem so he can "handle his responsibilities as a father." He promises to get his life together for better. In his new album Kamikaze, Fall shows him getting the Slim Shady part of him "back." As he desperately runs away from the shadow, it catches up with him and he realizes he can't escape it.
## Release and reception
On April 26, 2010, Eminem posted a message through his Twitter account that read, "I'm 'Not Afraid'", without any elaboration. Fans and news organizations were able to interpret the message and announced that Eminem's first single from his seventh studio album, Recovery would be titled "Not Afraid". Radio personality Angela Yee, from radio station WWPR-FM, confirmed that the new single would debut on Eminem's uncensored radio station, Shade 45. Eminem's manager, Paul Rosenberg, told Billboard that "It's not a dark song, it's an uplifting song."
The new single was initially slated to impact radio on April 30, 2010; however, the date was changed to one day earlier and the song eventually aired at 10 am ET, on Shade 45's show The Morning After with Angela Yee. On May 5, 2010, the single was made available for digital download at online retailers through Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records. In the song, Eminem makes a reference to Relapse and spoke at Friday Night with Jonathan Ross about it: "...looking back on it now in retrospect, I feel like there was a lot of stuff on there that was humorous and shock value and I had to go back and listen to my older material and figure out why ... Relapse didn't make me feel like [what] used to and kind of put the feeling back into what I do."
The song was featured in a trailer for the war film Act of Valor.
### Pre-release promotion
Two days before "Not Afraid"'s slated release, Eminem released a freestyle rap video to promote the release of the album's lead single. Titled "Despicable", the vocals in the video are played over the instrumental versions of "Over" by Canadian rapper Drake and "Beamer, Benz or Bentley" by former G-Unit member Lloyd Banks; the verse switches to the latter well into the two-minute song. Lyrics make a reference to football quarterback Ben Roethlisberger in the line "I’d rather turn this club into a bar room brawl/Get as rowdy as Roethlisberger in a bathroom stall." These lyrics refers to sexual assault allegations in March 2011 at a nightclub in Milledgeville, Georgia, causing controversy. Other references include those to fictional comic book character Superman: "I give as much of a flying fuck as that Superman dude" and to general popular culture: "Like a leaf suck in a vacuum, y’all/there ain’t nothing but a whole lotta sucking going on in rap." Eminem's final lyric makes a reference to Looney Tunes character Daffy Duck.
Music critics commented on the freestyle rap. Ray Roa of music website Consequence of Sound noted Eminem's obvious frustration in the song, saying that he "sounds pissed off as ever on a new freestyle". He also added, "The first minute and a half of the track is mellow by his standards, but when the beat switches to Banks’ track, Eminem goes apeshit." Melinda Newman of HitFix gave a positive review and wrote that the freestyle sounds like a "blast that sucks all the air out of room. It's better than anything on Relapse, and the sheer dexterity of his rhyming skills is awe-inspiring." Thaindian News's Madhuri Dey felt that "Eminem takes his usual route of taking a hit at some personality". Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic wrote positively: "Eminem spits with the crazed desperation we remember from the albums."
## Critical reception
Reception of "Not Afraid" was mixed to positive. Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone praised the song's tone: "Over a dark, operatic beat. Eminem delivers rhymes that are typically acrobatic—and typically heavy-handed. But the anger has a gathering quality." Dolan also praised the song's inspirational theme. Henry Adaso of About.com gave a positive review on the song, noting "Boi-1da's bouncy charm" and "heartwrenching lyrics from a master poet" as good aspects of the song and noted no negative aspects. In Adaso's guide review, he praised Boi-1da's production and Eminem's affecting lyrics; he considered the former's work "shimmering" and Eminem's "sensitive lyrics entwine on this knocker"; overall, he gave the song four and a half stars out of a possible five. After the song's release, AllHipHop called it "an anthem in nature and rebellious to the core." In her review of the Recovery, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone noted that even if Eminem—reaching his late 30s—is becoming "a grumpy middle-aged man, at least he's owning it". Winston Robbins of music website Consequence of Sound called "Not Afraid" one of the songs on Recovery "with catchy hooks, choruses, and beats multiplied by the endless pool of wit and anger that Eminem possesses". In his album review, Thomas Nassiff wrote on behalf of AbsolutePunk; he noted the song for being radio-friendly and that it "doesn't sacrifice anything to be friendly to the masses." Andy Gill of The Independent said that this is where "the only completely commendable sentiment on the entire album comes" and called it a "proud rehab anthem". In his review for Recovery, Benjamin Meadows-Ingram of Spin magazine called "Not Afraid" a "stadium-ready lead single"; he went on to say, "Finally, Eminem addresses his personal and professional failings head-on, rather than hiding behind a joke or inside a nightmare. It's a necessary first step in moving on."
The song also faced mixed and negative reviews. After "Not Afraid" leaked onto the Internet on April 29, 2010, Simon Vozick-Levinson of Entertainment Weekly magazine commented on the song, noting both positive and negative characteristics; he first complimented Eminem's change of lyrical theme, calling it anthemic in nature and noting its inspirational and powerful message. He compared the song's theme to Eminem's 2002 single "Sing for the Moment" and his 2009 single, "Beautiful". Vozick-Levinson called Eminem's rapping "wild" but was dismissive of the production, saying, "The track behind 'Not Afraid' has the same tinny, repetitive, wannabe-epic quality that's annoyed me on Boi-1da productions like 'Forever.'" Mayer Nissem of British site Digital Spy gave the song three stars out of a possible five, and wrote a mixed review; the reviewer first commented, "Thank heavens! – Marshall Mathers III has opted against his usual trick of cobbling together a hook and some 'satire' via two-year-old back issues of the Inquirer to trail it." However, Nissem criticized other aspects of the song, saying that Eminem's "decision to chronicle ... feels a little worthy and more than a touch dull." He felt that Eminem's previous songs never bored the listener, unlike "Not Afraid". Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times commented that "Not Afraid" was an improvement from the lead singles of Encore (2004) and Relapse, "Just Lose It" and "We Made You", respectively, giving for a more serious and inspirational theme. However, Weiss misses the comic nature of Eminem's classic singles, such as "My Name Is"; instead, he felt that the song was composed of "vague self-help bromides and a bombastic but nondescript beat from ... Boi-1da." When discussing the chorus, Weiss commented that it "doesn’t make for very engaging listening." Finally, he discussed possible influences by American rapper T.I., but overall, he named it a disappointing lead single.
John Ulmer of website One Thirty BPM gave the song seven points out of a possible ten, and published a mixed review; he praised it for being a more serious track compared to previous lead singles "Just Lose It" (2004) and "We Made You" (2009) but criticized it for being less powerful compared to his 2002 hit single, "Lose Yourself", and "Beautiful". According to Ulmer, "Upon first listen it's a bit corny, but it's appropriately anthemic, and not bad enough to deter from the strength of the overall track." He noted that although Eminem does not have as much of a frustrated voice as he does in "Despicable", he admits that Relapse was a silly album. Pitchfork Media's Jayson Greene wrote a rather negative review on Recovery and was very dismissive on the song: "Eminem spends nearly half of Recovery insisting he's the best rapper alive, but for the first time in his career, he actually sounds clumsy." Kitty Empire of newspaper The Guardian also wrote negatively on the song in her album review, criticizing the song's lyrics: "Rhyming 'through a storm' with 'whatever weather/ cold or warm' in the chorus is unforgivable for a master rhymer." As part of his album review, Greg Kot of daily newspaper Chicago Tribune criticized Eminem's lyrics and rhymes in "Not Afraid", comparing them to his rhyming skills back when his 2002 hip hop drama film, 8 Mile, premiered: "Doesn't he realize that's the kind of cheese that the battle-rhyming Eminem of 8 Mile would've mercilessly mocked?"
## Chart performance
According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Not Afraid" sold 380,000 digital copies in its first week, giving Eminem the biggest sales week for a digital single between the beginning of 2010 and the date of the song's release. Three songs received higher sales during their first week: Flo Rida's "Right Round", The Black Eyed Peas' "Boom Boom Pow" and Eminem's "Crack a Bottle", which were all singles released in 2009.
"Not Afraid" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number one, a feat only 15 songs had accomplished previously. The song was Eminem's third number one single on the Hot 100 chart, coming after "Lose Yourself" and "Crack a Bottle". "Not Afraid" was also the first to debut at number one since October 17, 2009, when American recording artist Britney Spears's "3" debuted atop the chart. It became the first hip hop single by an unaccompanied male artist to debut at number one, and the first hip hop song to debut atop the chart, since "Doo Wop (That Thing)" by American rapper and singer Lauryn Hill in 1998.
After entering the Digital Songs chart at number one, the song fell down to number four the next week, and to number six on the Hot 100, with sales of 202,000 digital copies. On June 14, 2010, "Not Afraid" rose to number five again with sales of 157,000 copies. On July 14, 2010, it rose from 22 to 24 on the Hot 100; by then, the song was downloaded a total of 1,750,000 times. On July 25, 2010, the song crossed the two million mark, based on total sales. As of August 2013, the song has sold 5,000,000 digital copies. In June 2014 the song was certified 10× Platinum by RIAA.
In Canada, "Not Afraid" debuted at the top of the Canadian Hot 100, remaining on the chart for 20 weeks. In the United Kingdom, "Not Afraid" debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart on May 30, 2010 – for the week ending date June 5, 2010. It dropped to number six the following week, to number ten on July 4, 2010 – for the week ending July 10, 2010 – and to number 14 the week after. On August 1, 2010, the song dropped to number 20 and its last appearance on the UK Singles Chart would be on August 29, giving the song a total of 14 weeks on the chart.
In New Zealand, "Not Afraid" entered and peaked at number eight on the New Zealand Singles Chart on May 10, 2010. Lasting on the chart for a total of twenty-three weeks, the song would not make its last chart appearance in New Zealand until September 9, 2010, at number Thirty-four. In Australia, the song entered at number sixteen on the Australian Singles Chart in its first week and reached its peak at number four the following week; its lowest and final chart position occurred during the song's twenty-seventh week on the chart, at number forty-eight.
On the Ö3 Austria Top 40, Austria's official singles chart, May 21, 2010 marked the song's chart debut, at number 22. It reached its peak on August 13, at number five and would stay at that position for another week. Before re-entering on January 14, 2011 at number 72, the song made a last consecutive chart appearance on November 19, 2011 at number 52. The song dropped to the bottom of the chart (number 75) on January 21, 2011, before exiting it. In Italy, the song only charted for one week, at number three; the same occurred in France, on February 19, 2011, at number 97.
"Not Afraid" lasted 19 weeks on the Irish Singles Chart and made a final chart appearance on September 30, 2010, at number 36. Flanders' chart, Ultratop 50, gave the song a debut position at number 13 on May 15, 2010; the song would not reach a higher position and would drop to number 49 in its 16th and final week. On Wallonia's chart, Ultratop 50, the song debuted at number 14 and would not chart again until July 3, 2010, at number 40. Longer than on any other chart, "Not Afraid" charted in Sweden for 43 consecutive weeks, debuting at number five and charting at number 49 in its final week.
## Music video
### Development
Before filming began, Eminem spoke to Paul Rosenberg on the telephone about his ideas for a music video of "Not Afraid"; the two shared thoughts and started collaborating in May 2010. American director Richard "Rich" Lee was hired to direct the video, which was shot on Market Street, in Newark, New Jersey, as well as New York City. On the first day, Eminem filmed the opening scene on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building. Lee called the moment "sort of like a very internal feeling kind of video". In an interview, while the video was being shot, Eminem spoke about working with Lee "as pretty anti-climactic, for the most part, you know what I mean... It's good working with him, you know, he's about his business". The scene in which Eminem jumps from a cliff and dives, was done at Greenpoint Warehouse, in Brooklyn with Lee and video producer Justin Diener. Also working with Eminem on the video included Dennis Dennehy and Chris Clancy for marketing. The final scene filmed on the first day was where Eminem would try to escape from a dark basement on a set built by production designer Ethan Tobman; shooting in Newark also continued.
The second day of shooting focused on Eminem as he walked through Market Street in Newark. Eminem's final shoot before wrapping up was a mirror scene, which included many glass mirrors, and a fake one among them, through which he would have to break through. On May 30, 2010, Eminem confirmed the video's release date in a Twitter message: "For those 'patiently waiting,' the NOT AFRAID video will premier Saturday 6/5. Details later..." The day before the video's premiere, a teaser trailer was uploaded onto video sharing site YouTube, which combines many clips from the full video. The music video was uploaded on video website Vevo on June 5, 2010 at 11:30 am ET. Vevo stylized their logo with the E reversed, similar to Eminem's logo. On June 7, the television premiere took place on MTV and VH1, and the former featured a primetime encore the day after.
As of March 2022, the music video has received over 1.6 billion views and 10 million likes on YouTube.
### Synopsis
The music video opens with a scene in which Eminem stands on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York City, saying the introductory lyrics. The video cuts between scenes where he raps on the rooftop and another scene where Eminem is trapped inside a dark basement. Eminem moves closer towards the edge of the building until he leaves to go downstairs as the chorus begins. He starts walking down Market Street in Newark and jaywalks across the street, avoiding vehicles that pass by. Eminem sees distorted reflections of himself on the window of a car; he continues on, only to be surrounded by a series of mirrors. Confused, Eminem tries to escape, and towards the end of the second chorus, he breaks through a mirror to find himself in the middle of the street. Interspersing scenes show Eminem as he tries to break out of the basement. As the camera zooms out, the viewers see him on the edge of a destroyed street while a subway tunnel can be seen below the road.
Eminem then jumps off the edge and makes a steep dive, but flies straight up again; his speedy flight down Market Street causes sonic booms on vehicles nearby. Eventually, Eminem flies up, back to the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building, where the video began.
### Reception
The video was received with generally positive reviews. Following the video's Vevo release, Monica Herrera of Billboard named Eminem's jumping sequence "a moment of triumph" and compared his flying scene to Superman. She also noted similarities of the video's events and the song's lyrics, deeming them a powerful word to Eminem's haters, where Eminem raps about destroying one's balcony. Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone felt that Eminem "similarly puts his redemption in the spotlight" and notices courage. Kreps went on to compare Eminem's flying scene to Canadian actor Keanu Reeves from the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix. In his review for Entertainment Weekly, Vozick-Levinson wrote: "We are to understand that he is once again at wit's end with the world, full of barely contained energy that he's not yet sure how to direct." Although he didn't feel that the video was Eminem's best, Vozick-Levinson praised the video for its message in relation to the song's vibe; he also made a comparison to Eminem's music video for "The Way I Am", as both videos involve Eminem as he jumps from a great height. Patrick D'Arcy of Spin thought that Eminem is "an satria unlikely motivational speaker, but an effective one."
With over a billion views, the video is Eminem's second-most viewed on YouTube after "Love the Way You Lie" from the same album.
## Live performances
On June 2, 2010, Eminem performed "Not Afraid" in France on the set of the French show Le Grand Journal. On June 5, 2010, Eminem performed "Not Afraid" on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross. In celebration of the then-upcoming release of Treyarch-developed shooter game Call of Duty: Black Ops, video game publisher Activision organized many artists to perform at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 (E3 2010)—which took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles—including Eminem. Joined by Blink-182 drummer Travis Barker, Eminem performed songs from his album, including "Not Afraid", "Love the Way You Lie" and "Won't Back Down". At E3 2011, a choir, as well as hypeman Mr. Porter sung with Eminem during the chorus of "Not Afraid", while his band played with an orchestra. The audience presumed the performance was over; however, Eminem shortly returned to the stage to end with "Lose Yourself". News distributor PR Newswire wrote, "Eminem ignited the crowd as he closed the all-star event". Matt Elias of MTV News also praised the show, and said that "Eminem performed an electrifying set ..., crushing any doubts that he is truly back in the game". Antony Bruno of Billboard called the performance "a literal bang" while Seve Appleford of Rolling Stone wrote, "The rapper marched along the catwalk with his usual intensity, previewing new songs from next week's release Recovery." Activision reportedly spent six million dollars on party costs.
"Not Afraid" was included on Eminem's set list as the final song before Eminem's "Lose Yourself" encore in his performance at the T in the Park festival, which took place on July 10, 2010. This would be his first European concert in five years. Eminem wore black shorts and a hoodie. He commented on the weather, saying, "I know it's muddy and sloppy and shit but this is fun", and also thanked the crowd for supporting him. "Everybody who's an Eminem fan, I just wanna say thank you so much for the support you've shown over the years, for not giving up on me," he said, "I hope you enjoyed the show as much as we did tonight. Peace." At the end of the performance, Eminem said, "Edin-borg, did you enjoy yourself tonight?" That evening, members of the audience accused Eminem of lip syncing, but others defended him of such accusations. The T in the Park performance of "Not Afraid" is included as the second track on the "Love the Way You Lie" CD single. Eminem performed "Not Afraid" for a small audience in a small room at the beginning of the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards; he performed the song once again at the Los Angeles Nokia Theatre, the main site of the ceremony, and performed "Love the Way You Lie" with Barbadian singer Rihanna. The audience voted his performance the best with 34 percent of all votes.
Eminem performed "Not Afraid" alongside Porter at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival. He arrived in a Bad Meets Evil T-shirt, camouflage shorts, a black hoodie and a black hat. His set list included other hits from previous years, including "Cleanin' Out My Closet", "The Real Slim Shady", "Without Me" and "Like Toy Soldiers"; he also performed with Bad Meets Evil partner Royce da 5'9" for "Fast Lane" and "Lighters". Almost 80,000 members of the audience chanted "Shady!" for five minutes until Eminem returned to perform an encore with "Lose Yourself". Before performing "Not Afraid", Eminem told the audience, "All jokes aside... Thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me." At one point during the show, he told them, "Everybody here tonight, I just wanna say thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me." News sources praised the performance; James Montgomery of MTV News wrote, "what stood out the most about Em's performance was the sheer tenacity with which he attacked it." News agency Associated Press said that "Bonnaroo's crowd may be a hippie enclave, but you wouldn't have known it Saturday night". HitFix blog's Katie Hasty considered the "Not Afraid" performance "triumphant, perhaps due to crowd buzz". Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone wrote, "Eminem's hour-and-a-half set was a triumph, with the rapper constantly bouncing across the stage, performing hit after hit with the energy of a prizefighter."
Eminem performed the song as part of a set list on the second day of Chicago's Lollapalooza festival with Porter, in front of an audience of 90,000 people. The Hollywood Reporter's Steve Baltin wrote, "given the infrequency with which he tours, it's sometimes easy to forget just how dynamic a performer he is, but after a spectacular 90-minute show, there was no denying the rapper's power." Adam Graham of The Detroit News said that "Eminem delivered the goods to the huge throng of people". Gil Kaufman of MTV News felt that "Eminem came, saw and conquered his Lollapalooza debut." Eminem performed a 28-song set list at Virgin Group's V Festival (V2011) on August 20, 2011 and the following day, which included "Not Afraid" as the final song before the encore of "Lose Yourself". The first day took place in Chelmsford, Essex and the second day took place in Staffordshire. Chris Salmon of The Guardian called Eminem's performance of "Not Afraid" "majestic"; he went on to writing that "It's a set fit to close any festival, pop-centred or otherwise." BBC's Chi Chi Izundu noted that Eminem's performance was "fast-paced".
## Awards and nominations
## Track listings and formats
Digital download
CD single
Notes
- signifies an additional producer.
## Credits and personnel
The credits for "Not Afraid" are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery.
Recording
- Recorded at: Effigy Studios in Ferndale, Michigan, Encore Studios in Burbank, California, and Ajax, Ontario.
Personnel
- Eminem – vocals, audio mixing, additional production and songwriting
- Boi-1da – producer, recording, songwriting and drums
- Jordan Evans – songwriting, additional production and strings
- Matthew Burnett – songwriting, additional production and strings
- Luis Resto – songwriting and keyboards
- Mike Strange – recording and audio mixing
- Joe Strange – engineering assistant
- Robert Reyes – choir vocals recording
- Kip Blackshire – choir vocals
- Christal Garrick II – choir vocals
- Terry Dexter – choir vocals
- Rich King – choir vocals
- Kristen Ashley Cole – choir vocals
- Sly Jordan – choir vocals
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release and radio add history
## See also
- Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance
- List of best-selling singles
- List of best-selling singles in the United States
- List of best-selling singles in Australia
- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2010 (Canada)
- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2010 (US)
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22 Short Films About Springfield
| 1,173,430,658 | null |
[
"1996 American television episodes",
"Film and television memes",
"Television episodes written by David X. Cohen",
"Television episodes written by Matt Groening",
"The Simpsons (season 7) episodes"
] |
"22 Short Films About Springfield" is the twenty-first episode of the seventh season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on April 14, 1996. It was written by Richard Appel, David X. Cohen, Jonathan Collier, Jennifer Crittenden, Greg Daniels, Brent Forrester, Dan Greaney, Rachel Pulido, Steve Tompkins, Josh Weinstein, Bill Oakley, and Matt Groening, with the writing being supervised by Daniels. The episode was directed by Jim Reardon. Phil Hartman guest starred as Lionel Hutz and the hospital board chairman.
The episode depicts brief incidents experienced by a wide array of Springfield residents in a series of interconnected stories that take place over a single day. The episode's concept originated from the end segment of the season four episode "The Front", and serves as a loose parody of Pulp Fiction, which gave the staff the idea of a possible spin-off from The Simpsons. The title is a reference to the film Thirty Two Short Films About Glenn Gould.
The episode received positive reviews from critics and is noted for its popularity among fans, with the "Steamed Hams" segment becoming a popular Internet meme in 2016.
## Plot
The episode is a series of shorts ranging in length from under half a minute to over two and a half minutes, each showing daily life in Springfield, after Bart wonders if anything interesting happens to the town's citizens.
1. Bart and Milhouse spit and squirt condiments from a highway overpass onto cars, then go to the Kwik-E-Mart.
2. Apu closes the Kwik-E-Mart for five minutes to attend a party at Sanjay's house, trapping Moleman in the store.
3. Bart unknowingly throws gum in Lisa's hair, and Marge tries to remove the gum by putting peanut butter and mayonnaise on her hair. Lisa's hair attracts a swarm of bees, one of which flies away.
4. While bike riding with Mr. Burns, Smithers suffers an allergic reaction to the bee's sting and rides to the hospital, but the orderlies admit only Burns.
5. Dr. Nick is criticized by the hospital board for his unorthodox medical procedures, only to treat Grampa with an electric light socket, saving his career.
6. Moe gets robbed by Snake after Barney gives him \$2,000 to pay for a portion of his \$14 billion bar tab.
7. While hosting Superintendent Chalmers for lunch, Principal Skinner burns his roast and bluffs his way through the meal, setting his house on fire in the process.
8. Homer accidentally traps Maggie in a newspaper vending box.
9. Chief Wiggum, Lou, and Eddie compare McDonald's and Krusty Burger.
10. Bumblebee Man arrives home after a horrible day at work and his house is destroyed, causing his wife to leave him.
11. Snake runs Wiggum over, and their ensuing fight ends with Herman capturing them at gunpoint in his store.
12. Reverend Lovejoy urges his pet Old English Sheepdog to use Ned Flanders's lawn as a toilet.
13. Various townspeople advise Marge and Lisa how to remove the gum stuck in Lisa's hair.
14. Cletus offers Brandine some shoes he found on a telephone line.
15. Milhouse tries to use the bathroom in Comic Book Guy's Android's Dungeon, but can only use it if he buys something, and his father forces him to leave the store before he can use it. They go to use the bathroom in Herman's store and Milhouse accidentally knocks out Herman with a flail, saving his father, Snake, and Wiggum.
16. Jake the barber cuts the gum out of Lisa's hair, leaving her with a different hairstyle.
17. Nelson laughs at Lisa's new haircut and an extremely tall man in a small car, who then publicly humiliates Nelson to teach him a lesson.
18. Bart and Milhouse squirt ketchup and mustard onto Nelson from the overpass, and conclude that life is interesting in their town after all.
19. Professor Frink attempts to tell his story but is cut off by the ending credits.
## Production
The episode's principal idea came from the season four episode "The Front", which contained a short sequence entitled The Adventures of Ned Flanders, featuring its own title card and theme song, at its conclusion. The scene has no relevance to the main plot of the episode and was designed solely as filler to accommodate the episode's short runtime. The staff loved the concept and attempted to fit similar scenes into other episodes, but none were short enough to require one. Show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein decided to make an entire episode of linked short scenes involving many of the show's characters, similarly to Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction. The title "22 Short Films About Springfield" was decided upon from the start of the episode's production even though there are not actually twenty-two stories in it, due to the standard 22-minute length of an episode. Originally there were more scenes, but several of them had to be cut out for time. To decide who would write each of the segments, all the writers chose their top three favorite characters and put them into a hat, the names were drawn out, and the writers were assigned their parts. Oakley wrote the Superintendent Chalmers story, Weinstein did the Comic Book Guy and Milhouse scene, David Cohen penned the Reverend Lovejoy sketch, as well as the deleted Krusty the Clown scene. Brent Forrester wrote the Krusty Burger scene, while Rachel Pulido wrote the Bumblebee Man one. Richard Appel wrote a deleted "elaborate fantasy segment" revolving around Marge, the only remnant of which is her cleaning the sink during the first Lisa scene, and also a scene with Lionel Hutz that was dropped.
The episode's first draft was 65 pages long and needed to be cut down to just 42, so numerous scenes were cut for time or because they did not fit into the overall dynamic of the episode. To solve this problem, a scene before the second act break, where the townspeople go to the Simpson house to provide advice of how Lisa can get the gum out of her hair, was created to include every character that did not appear anywhere else during the course of the episode. Weinstein and writing supervisor Greg Daniels were responsible for ordering and linking together the episodes, and director Jim Reardon had the challenge of segueing between each section in a way that did not make the change seem abrupt. Those that were hard to link were put before or after an act break or were given a theme song, one of which was cut from the Apu story, but was included as a deleted scene on The Complete Seventh Season DVD.
Bill Oakley wrote the Chalmers scene because he is his all-time favorite character from the show. The main reason he loved him was that, until Frank Grimes was created for the season eight episode "Homer's Enemy", Chalmers was the only character that "seemed to operate in the normal human universe". In previous episodes, Skinner and Chalmers' scenes together revolved around one joke: Skinner tells Chalmers an unbelievable lie, but Chalmers believes him anyway. So, their scene in this episode is made up of a string of thirteen interconnected lies. The dialogue between him and Skinner was something that had never been done before, in that it is just a long relaxed conversation with nothing important being said at all. The idea behind the scene was to make fun of the classic sitcom trope of taking the boss home for dinner, the boss doubting his employee's lies and ultimately believing them. Oakley wrote all the scene in one afternoon, and the finished product resembles almost exactly its first draft. Layout artist Sarge Morton was given the task to storyboard the whole scene, as he had an affinity for scenes featuring both Skinner and Chalmers.
In the Mr. Burns story, every single word he yells at Smithers is real and used correctly. To maintain accuracy, the writers used a 19th-century slang thesaurus to look up words. Many of the Spanish words used in Bumblebee Man's segment are easily understood cognates of English and not accurate Spanish; this was done deliberately so that non-Spanish speakers could understand the dialogue without subtitles. The very tall man was a caricature of writer Ian Maxtone-Graham, and the crowd on the street who laugh at Nelson includes caricatures of Matt Groening, Bill Oakley, and Josh Weinstein. Oakley wrote in the script that the street was filled with Springfield's biggest idiots; the animators drew him, Weinstein, and Groening into the scene.
## Cultural references
The episode contains numerous references to Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction. Like the film, the episode's plot is episodic, though the stories are interconnected. The policemen's conversation about McDonald's parallels the famous "Royale With Cheese" discussion, and the music played during the segment's beginning was also taken from the film. The story involving Chief Wiggum and Snake is a direct parody of the "Gold Watch" segment of the film. Snake runs over Wiggum at a red light, alluding to the segment of the film where the character of Butch Coolidge did the same to Marsellus Wallace, before crashing into a fire hydrant and beginning an on-foot chase. The two run into Herman's Military Antique shop, where Herman beats, ties up and gags the two, then waits for "Zed" to arrive, exactly as Maynard does in Pulp Fiction. The writers were pleased that Herman already existed, as otherwise they would have had to create another character just for this scene. The episode's title is a reference to the film Thirty Two Short Films About Glenn Gould.
## Reception
In its original broadcast, "22 Short Films About Springfield" finished tied for 73rd in the weekly ratings for the week of April 8–14, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 6.9. It was the seventh highest rated show from the Fox network that week. The episode is Bill Oakley's personal favorite episode, but he claimed that it is hated by two prominent (and unnamed) figures within the running of the show. The episode is frequently cited as a popular one among the show's fans on the Internet.
In 1998, TV Guide listed it in its list of top twelve Simpsons episodes.
Entertainment Weekly, in 2003, placed the episode 14th on their top 25 The Simpsons episode list, praising the episode's structure and finding the Pulp Fiction references "priceless". The episode is the favorite of British comedian Jimmy Carr who, in 2003, called it "a brilliant pastiche of art cinema".
In 2004, Empire named the episode's Pulp Fiction parody the seventh best film gag in the show, calling Wiggum and Snake bound and gagged with red balls in their mouths "the sickest visual gag in Simpsons history".
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, called it "an untypical episode, and a very good one", naming the Skinner and Chalmers story as the best.
In The A.V. Club, Emily St. James praised the episode: “'22 Short Films” is fundamentally an experiment, an attempt by the series to do something different at a time when coming up with stories must have started to get exhausting. But it’s also a wonderful reminder of how everybody on this show was the protagonist of some other, weirder show. The Simpsons might have been the center of the series, but they didn’t need to be the only thing in it anymore. Springfield had ceased to be a solar system with them as the sun. Instead, everybody else had become stars of their own, and the show expanded into a galaxy.“
In 2019, several sources cited the episode as one of the show's best, including Consequence of Sound who ranked it number five on its list of top 30 Simpsons episodes; Entertainment.ie who named it among the 10 greatest Simpsons episodes of all time; The Guardian who named it one of the five greatest episodes in Simpsons history; and, in early 2010, IGN named "A Fish Called Selma" the best episode of the seventh season, adding that "22 Short Films About Springfield" was "good competition" for the crown. When The Simpsons began streaming on Disney+ in 2019, Oakley named this one of the best classic Simpsons episodes to watch on the service.
### Legacy
#### Unproduced spin-off
The episode sparked the idea among the staff for a spin-off series entitled Springfield Stories or simply Springfield. The proposed show would focus on the town in general, rather than the Simpson family. Every week would be a different scenario, such as three short stories, an adventure with young Homer, or a story about a background character that was not tied into the Simpson family at all. According to Bill Oakley, the show was not just going to focus on secondary and minor characters, but also in other things that were outside the normal Simpsons universe, with the episodes being "free-form", but Josh Weinstein recalls that executive producer James L. Brooks "didn't go for it". The idea never resulted in anything, as Groening realized that the staff did not have the manpower to produce another show as well as The Simpsons. By 2006, the staff maintained that it was something that they would still be interested in doing, and by 2007 that it "could happen someday". "22 Short Films About Springfield" also helped inspire the Futurama episode "Three Hundred Big Boys".
#### "Steamed Hams"
In one segment of the episode, titled "Skinner & The Superintendent", Seymour Skinner invents the term "steamed hams" to refer to hamburgers, claiming that it is an expression in the regional dialect of Albany, New York. Starting in 2016, over two decades from the episode's premiere, the scene gained renewed popularity in Facebook groups and pages relating to The Simpsons. It has also spawned numerous parody and remix videos on YouTube, many of them featuring "Steamed Hams But..." in their titles.
In 2016, 20 years after the episode aired, around 1000 people commented on the Facebook page of Australian supermarket chain Woolworths inquiring about "steamed hams". The company responded by posting an image of hams with the caption, "We've received a lot of feedback from you all in the last 24 hours about whether we stock 'Steamed Hams'. Please note that in Australia, we call them Hamburgers. 'Steamed Hams' is an Albany, New York expression. Fans of The Simpsons, this is for you." The continuing popularity of the segment caused an upsurge in fan-made YouTube remixes and variants.
In January 2018, Bill Oakley, the writer of the segment, posted the original draft for the segment on Twitter. He said he believed it was the most famous thing he had written and one of his favorites.
In April 2018, a reporter for GameSpot, during an interview with actor Jeff Goldblum for the video game Jurassic World Evolution, had Goldblum read the part of Skinner in a reenactment of the scene. Goldblum commented at the end of the read: "I like the writing, too—that was from what?" Oakley responded immediately on Twitter, writing "[I'm] not a fan of fairly big companies like GameSpot having famous actors perform scripts I wrote, verbatim, without giving me any sort of credit whatsoever." The video was taken down within days of its posting.
In an April 2021 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Oakley, Weinstein, animation director Jim Reardon, voice actor Hank Azaria and current Simpsons showrunner Al Jean shared their thoughts about the popularity of "Steamed Hams". Azaria said he was confused about how popular the segment had become. Reardon became aware of it when his daughters pointed it out a few years prior. They shared their favorite "Steamed Hams" parodies, including one made with Lego animation, one animating the characters in the style of the music video for the song "Take On Me" by A-ha, and one with the dialogue synchronized to the vocals of "Basket Case" by Green Day. Weinstein said that Groening also enjoyed the phenomenon. A Twitch channel streaming a 24/7 series of procedurally generated "Steamed Hams" parodies premiered in 2023. Oakley described it as "truly uncanny". The channel is no longer available, after being permanently banned for an incident involving inappropriate content.
## Availability
On March 12, 2002, the episode was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled The Simpsons Film Festival, along with the season eleven episode "Beyond Blunderdome", the season four episode "Itchy & Scratchy: The Movie", and the season six episode "A Star is Burns".
The DVD boxset for season seven was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on December 13, 2005, nine years after it had completed broadcast on television. The episode 22 Short Films About Springfield features an optional audio commentary track featuring Richard Appel, David X. Cohen, Matt Groening, Bill Oakley, Rachel Pulido, Jim Reardon, David Silverman, Yeardley Smith and Josh Weinstein.
|
3,976,320 |
John Cullen
| 1,160,710,870 |
Canadian ice hockey player (born 1964)
|
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"Tampa Bay Lightning players",
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] |
Barry John Cullen (born August 2, 1964) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Pittsburgh Penguins, Hartford Whalers, Toronto Maple Leafs and Tampa Bay Lightning. He was a standout player for Boston University and is the school's all-time leading scorer. After the Buffalo Sabres selected him in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft but chose not to offer him a contract, Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League (IHL) for the 1987–88 season where he was named the IHL's co-Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player after leading the league in scoring.
His career was halted in 1997 when he was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. He attempted a brief comeback in 1998 after an 18-month battle with the disease, for which the NHL awarded him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, before retiring to serve as an assistant coach for a year with the Lightning. Cullen played in two NHL All-Star Games in his career. He joined his brother in the car dealership business after leaving the game, and briefly operated his own dealership until forced to close during the automotive industry crisis of 2008–10.
## Early life
Cullen was born in Puslinch, Ontario on August 2, 1964. He is one of six children of Barry and Loretta Cullen. His father and uncles Brian and Ray all played in the NHL, and while Cullen and his three brothers all played as well, their father never pressured them, preferring that they enjoy the game.
He idolized his elder brother Terry, who was considered a top NHL prospect until Terry's career was ended when he suffered a broken neck after being hit from behind into the boards during a college game. While his brother was highly sought by American universities, John received only two scholarship offers, choosing to play for Boston University (BU) in 1983. His other offer came from Ferris State University.
At the same time, his mother Loretta was diagnosed with skin cancer. Following her death early in his freshman year, Cullen contemplated returning to his Ontario home, but was convinced by his father to continue with both school and hockey. He used the game to cope with the loss and dedicated every game he played to his mother's memory. Cullen felt that the inspiration he drew from his mother's battle allowed him to become a better player.
## Playing career
Cullen was a standout with BU; he was named the East Coast Athletic Conference Rookie of the Year in 1983–84 after leading his team in scoring with 56 points. The National Hockey League passed him over, however, as he went unclaimed in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft. He was named to the Hockey East All-Star Teams in 1985, 1986 and 1987, and a National Collegiate Athletic Association East Second Team All-American in 1986. He graduated as BU's all-time scoring leader with 241 points, and was named to BU's Hockey East 25th anniversary team in 2009.
Passed over in the Entry Draft, Cullen was finally selected by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft. When the Sabres failed to offer him a contract, Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League (IHL) for the 1987–88 season. He led the league with 157 points, scoring 48 goals, and won the James Gatschene Memorial Trophy as league most valuable player while sharing the Gary F. Longman Memorial Trophy with Ed Belfour as rookie of the year. Cullen's outstanding season in Flint caught the attention of the Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins. He signed a contract with the Penguins for the league minimum, passing up a superior contract offer from Buffalo as he remained upset at how they released him the year before.
### National Hockey League
Cullen made his NHL debut in 1988–89, appearing in 79 games with the Penguins and scoring 49 points. He was given a greater role with the Penguins the following year after Mario Lemieux missed 21 games due to a back injury and responded by scoring 32 goals and 92 points to finish third in team scoring. Additionally, he played for Team Canada at the 1990 World Championship, scoring four points in ten games. Cullen had his best season in 1990–91. As one of the team's top offensive centres, he scored 94 points in the Penguins' first 65 games and played in his first NHL All-Star Game. However, when Lemieux returned after missing an additional 50-games due to injury, Cullen's playing time and production declined.
The Penguins' needs led them to complete a blockbuster trade on March 1, 1991. Cullen was sent to the Hartford Whalers, along with Zarley Zalapski and Jeff Parker in exchange for Hartford's all-time leading scorer, Ron Francis, along with Ulf Samuelsson and Grant Jennings. The Penguins almost turned down the deal as they were concerned about giving up Cullen's playmaking and leadership abilities, while his former teammates credited Cullen as being the primary reason they were in a playoff position at the time the trade happened. After the Penguins won their first Stanley Cup that season, Phil Bourque later said it "broke his heart" that Cullen was not able to share in that championship.
In Hartford, Cullen worked to overcome the team's fans' disappointment at losing Francis. The Hartford fans initially booed him to show their dissatisfaction with the trade. He scored 16 points in 13 regular season games to finish the season with 110 points combined between the Penguins and Whalers, and was the team's best player in their first round loss to the Boston Bruins in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs. He initially accepted an invitation to join the Canadian team at the 1991 Canada Cup, but subsequently chose not to participate as his contract had expired, leading to greater insurance concerns. Still without a contract when the 1991–92 season began, Cullen missed the first four games before signing a four-year deal with Hartford worth a total of \$4 million. He returned to score 77 points in 77 games in his first full season with the Whalers and represented the team at the 1992 All-Star Game.
Midway through the 1992–93 NHL season, the Whalers sent Cullen to the Toronto Maple Leafs for Toronto's second round selection at the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. Cullen was excited to play for his father's old team, but injuries reduced his ability to perform. His most significant injury was a herniated disc in his neck that doctors initially feared would end his career. A bulky neck brace allowed Cullen to return and play out his contract in Toronto. When the Leafs chose not to re-sign him following the 1993–94 season, he returned to the Penguins for one season before Tony Esposito convinced him to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1995.
Cullen enjoyed immediate success with linemates Shawn Burr and Alexander Selivanov as the trio combined to score 130 points and helped lead the Lightning to the first playoff appearance in franchise history. They were eliminated by the Philadelphia Flyers in five games while Cullen led the team in playoff scoring with three goals and three assists. The Lightning looked to improve in 1996–97; Cullen was leading the team in scoring, but was suffering flu-like symptoms that he could not shake. As Tampa was fighting for a playoff spot, he played through his condition for weeks.
### Cancer and comeback
After two months of quietly dealing with his symptoms, Cullen's wife finally called team trainers and asked them to check into his illness. The team took an x-ray and found a large black shadow in his chest. He underwent a CAT scan which revealed Cullen had a baseball-sized tumor; he was diagnosed as having Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The diagnosis ended his season, and he immediately began chemotherapy treatments that quickly reduced his cancer. The tumor was gone by September 1997, but a precautionary test prior to training camp revealed that Cullen still had cancer cells in his body. He missed the entire 1997–98 NHL season as he continued to battle the disease, while his teammates wore a uniform patch with his \#12 in support throughout the year.
On one day during his treatments, as his wife was wheeling him down a hospital corridor, Cullen went into cardiac arrest, requiring doctors to use a defibrillator to revive him. He underwent a bone marrow transplant that briefly reduced his immune system to the point that he could have very little human contact. Another examination in April 1998 revealed that the cancer was finally gone, and Cullen immediately began training for a comeback.
The Lightning signed Cullen to a one-year, \$500,000 contract for the 1998–99 season. He played his first game in nearly 18 months on September 18, 1998, in an exhibition game between the Lightning and Sabres at Innsbruck, Austria. Cullen scored the game-winning goal in a 3–1 victory, after which he said he sat on the bench in disbelief over how he was given a second chance. He was named to the roster and was greeted with a loud standing ovation by the fans in Tampa Bay when he was introduced prior to their season opening game.
Cullen appeared in four of the Lightning's first eight games, but it was evident that he had lost much of his speed and strength. The Lightning assigned him to the IHL's Cleveland Lumberjacks, but also gave him the option of retiring and taking up a position as an assistant coach. He chose to accept the demotion, giving himself one month to determine if he could continue playing. He appeared in six games for Cleveland, and in one game against the Chicago Wolves tied an IHL record when he scored seven points in a 7–3 victory.
However, a bout of bronchitis led Cullen to fear that his cancer had returned. Tests came back negative, but after spending time with his family, he realized that neither he nor his family were interested in returning to Cleveland. Cullen announced his retirement on November 28, 1998, and accepted the Lightning offer to become an assistant coach. In recognition of his comeback attempt, the NHL named him the 1999 winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance, while the IHL renamed its Comeback Player of the Year award the John Cullen Award.
Former Lightning head coach Terry Crisp has stated publicly that Cullen was a player that stood out as something special saying "John Cullen ... beat cancer and came back to play and helped us win."
## Off the ice
Cullen and his wife Valerie have three daughters, Kennedy and twins Karlyn and Kortland. Unwilling to spend so much time away from his family, he left the Lightning in 1999 and settled in the Atlanta area, joining his brother's car dealership in Jonesboro, Georgia. He had always expected to become a car dealer after his hockey career, as his father, uncles and brother all worked in the industry. After apprenticing under his brother for five years, he bought a Dodge dealership in Newnan, Georgia in 2007. However, he owned the dealership for less than two years before Chrysler closed him down as part of its recovery plan in response to the Automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010. He has since returned to his brother's dealership, serving as its general manager.
Cullen's battle with cancer inspired Timm Harmon of the Moffitt Cancer Centre to partner with the Lightning to raise awareness and money for cancer research. The NHL itself joined the cause in the winter of 1998, creating the Hockey Fights Cancer program to raise money for research. Cullen has spent time promoting the initiative.
Prior to marrying his wife Valerie, John dated Carolyn Bessette the future wife of John F. Kennedy, Jr. The two met while attending Boston University.
## Career statistics
### Regular season and playoffs
### International
## Awards
Cullen is the namesake of the John Cullen Award, previously given to key IHL players.
## See also
- List of NHL players with 100-point seasons
|
14,547,249 |
William Anderson (RAAF officer)
| 1,173,567,418 |
Royal Australian Air Force senior commander (1891–1975)
|
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Air Vice-Marshal William Hopton Anderson, CBE, DFC (30 December 1891 – 30 December 1975) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). He flew with the Australian Flying Corps in World War I, earning the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Belgian Croix de guerre for his combat service with Nos. 3 Squadron on the Western Front in 1917. The following year he took command of No. 7 (Training) Squadron and, later, No. 3 Squadron. Anderson led the Australian Air Corps during its brief existence in 1920–21, before joining the fledgling RAAF. The service's third most senior officer, he primarily held posts on the Australian Air Board in the inter-war years. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1934, and promoted to air commodore in 1938.
At the outbreak of World War II, Anderson was Air Member for Supply. In 1940 he acted as Chief of the Air Staff between the resignation of Air Vice-Marshal Stanley Goble in January and the arrival of Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett, RAF, the next month. He led the newly formed Central and Eastern Area Commands between December 1940 and July 1943, returning to the Air Board as Air Member for Organisation and Equipment from September 1941 to May 1942. Anderson was founding commandant of the RAAF Staff School from July to November 1943, after which he was appointed Air Member for Personnel. He again served as Staff School commandant from October 1944 until his retirement in April 1946. Known to his colleagues as "Andy" or "Mucker", Anderson died on his birthday in 1975.
## Early life and World War I
Born on 30 December 1891 in Kew, a suburb of Melbourne, William Hopton Anderson was the third son of English-born surveyor Edward Anderson and his wife Florence (née Handfield), a native Victorian. Anderson was educated at Melbourne Church of England Grammar School, where he joined the cadet corps. In December 1910 he began his professional military career as a Royal Australian (Garrison) Artillery officer, based in Sydney. He transferred to the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force as battery commander at Rabaul, in Australian-occupied German New Guinea, in March 1915. The following January, Anderson joined the Australian Flying Corps (AFC) as a captain, sailing to Egypt with No. 1 Squadron. During April and May 1916 he was attached to No. 17 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). He then undertook flying training in Britain, where he saw further service with the RFC. In August 1917 he was posted to No. 3 Squadron (designated No. 69 Squadron RFC by the British), operating Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 two-seat reconnaissance aircraft on the Western Front.
From October 1917, No. 3 Squadron was heavily involved in artillery ranging, activity that left the slow R.E.8s vulnerable to attack by enemy fighters. Twice that month Anderson's plane was dived upon by several German aircraft. He was, in his own words, "too scared to think" on the first occasion, but both times managed to manoeuvre his plane so that his observer could hold off their opponents with Lewis gun fire until other R.E.8s came to their aid. Anderson was spotting for artillery near the Messines Ridge on 6 December when he engaged a German two-seat DFW that observer John Bell was able to shoot down; it was No. 3 Squadron's first confirmed aerial victory.
In January 1918, Anderson was given the temporary rank of major and posted to England to take charge of No. 7 (Training) Squadron AFC. He was recommended for the Military Cross (MC) on 12 March for his achievements with No. 3 Squadron in France, the citation noting his "resolute fight" and "cool and capable flying" in evading attacks by enemy aircraft and successfully carrying out reconnaissance missions. In the event, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) in the King's Birthday Honours promulgated in the London Gazette on 3 June, becoming the first Australian to receive the newly created decoration. He was also awarded the Belgian Croix de guerre, gazetted on 9 July. Anderson returned to France in October 1918 as commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron. The unit converted to Bristol Fighters the same month, and flew its last operation the morning of 11 November; it was subsequently employed in transporting mail for Australian forces in Europe.
## Inter-war years
Anderson relinquished command of No. 3 Squadron in January 1919 and returned to Australia two months later. He was mentioned in despatches on 11 July. In December the AFC was disbanded, to be replaced on 1 January 1920 by the short-lived Australian Air Corps (AAC), which was, like the AFC, a branch of the Army. The AFC's senior officer, Lieutenant Colonel Richard Williams, was still in England, and Anderson was appointed commander of the AAC, a position that also put him in charge of Central Flying School (CFS) at Point Cook, Victoria. As Anderson was on sick leave at the time of the appointment, Major Rolf Brown temporarily assumed command; Anderson took over on 19 February. The AAC was an interim organisation intended to exist until the establishment of a permanent Australian air service. In September 1920, Anderson piloted one of two Airco DH.9A bombers detailed to search for the schooner Amelia J., which had disappeared on a voyage from Newcastle to Hobart. Anderson safely completed his search without locating the lost schooner but the other DH.9A disappeared with its two-man crew, the only fatalities suffered by the AAC.
On 31 March 1921, Anderson joined the newly formed Australian Air Force ("Royal" being added in August) as a squadron leader, becoming its third most senior officer after Williams and former Royal Naval Air Service pilot Stanley Goble, both now wing commanders. During 1921, Anderson commanded the RAAF's Point Cook base and Point Cook's two major units, No. 1 Flying Training School (No. 1 FTS)—the successor to CFS—and No. 1 Aircraft Depot (No. 1 AD). Over the next four years he served as Director of Personnel and Training and as Chief of the Administrative Staff (Second Air Member) on the RAAF's controlling body, the Air Board, usually when Goble was away on overseas postings. In April 1922, Anderson took part in the new service's first army co-operation exercise, piloting a DH.9 with Flight Lieutenant Adrian Cole, who spotted for artillery firing from an emplacement at Queenscliff, Victoria. A year later, Anderson proposed a special RAAF workshop for research and development, which was duly formed at Point Cook later that year.
The young Air Force staged many public displays in its early years; on one such occasion over the Melbourne suburb of Essendon in September 1924, Anderson, Flight Lieutenant Ray Brownell and another pilot took part in a mock dogfight while Flight Lieutenant Harry Cobby gave a demonstration of balloon busting. That December, Anderson and Brownell interviewed Reg Pollard and Frederick Scherger, two undergraduates at the Royal Military College, Duntroon, who had applied to transfer to the RAAF; Scherger was selected, and went on to become the RAAF's first air chief marshal, while Pollard rose to become Chief of the General Staff. Scherger was also the first member of the Duntroon graduating class to transfer direct to the Air Force; previous such transfers had involved graduates already serving in the Army. During 1925–26, Anderson again took command of No. 1 FTS, as well as occupying a position on the Air Board as Air Member for Personnel. He was posted to England between 1927 and 1929, attending RAF Staff College, Andover, and serving as air liaison officer (ALO) to the British Air Ministry. In March 1927 he was promoted to wing commander. As ALO in 1928, he provided information to the Air Board concerning shortcomings of the de Havilland Hound light day bomber, then being strongly considered for the RAAF, that led to the Westland Wapiti being ordered instead.
Returning to Australia in mid-1929, Anderson was for a short time in charge of No. 1 AD, now based at RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, before appointment to the Air Board as Air Member for Supply in October. He spent most of the 1930s in this position, aside from an acting role as Air Member for Personnel from January 1933 to June 1934, and attendance at the Imperial Defence College, London, the following year. As Anderson had no formal training in the supply field, Air Force historian Alan Stephens concluded that he relied heavily on the specialist knowledge of his experienced subordinate, the RAAF Director of Transport and Equipment, George Mackinolty. According to the official post-war history of the Air Force, Anderson was generally regarded with affection but was also described as being "not quite on the same wave length as others". Joe Hewitt found him "admirable" but "so immersed in the minutiae of administration that some important policy matters languished" and "although courageous he was indecisive and loath to take disciplinary action". Anderson's chronic shyness with women other than his unmarried sister also made him an object of fun in some quarters. He was raised to group captain in December 1932 and air commodore in January 1938. Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1933 King's Birthday Honours, he was promoted Commander in the same order (CBE) in the 1934 New Year Honours.
## World War II
Anderson was still serving as Air Member for Supply when Australia declared war in September 1939. On 9 January 1940 he was appointed acting Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), following the resignation of the incumbent, Air Vice-Marshal Goble. Anderson remained in the position until 10 February, when Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett, seconded from the Royal Air Force, arrived to take over. According to author Norman Ashworth, the Australian government had at this stage so little faith in the leadership of its Air Force that it had briefly considered offering temporary command of the service to the Royal Australian Navy's Second Naval Member, Commodore Maitland Boucher, RN, before deciding against such a "monumental slight to the senior ranks of the RAAF" and settling on Anderson. After relinquishing his temporary position as CAS, Anderson briefly reverted to his previous role as Air Member for Supply before taking over as Air Member for Personnel (AMP) in March 1940; he was succeeded as AMP in November by Air Vice-Marshal Henry Wrigley. The next month, Anderson took over from Air Commodore Cole as Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Central Area, with responsibility for air defence, protection of adjacent sea lanes, and aerial reconnaissance for most of New South Wales; he remained at this post until it was disbanded in August the following year.
Promoted acting air vice-marshal in September 1941, Anderson resumed his position on the Air Board by replacing Air Marshal Williams as Air Member for Organisation and Equipment. In May 1942, he was appointed AOC of the newly established Eastern Area, which was headquartered in Sydney and controlled seven squadrons in New South Wales and southern Queensland. One of the area's main roles was anti-submarine warfare; its squadrons also included fighters and army co-operation aircraft. Japanese submarine activity off the east coast peaked during April and May 1943. RAAF Bristol Beauforts were credited with damaging a Japanese submarine on 19 June, but neither the Air Force nor the Navy was able to destroy any enemy submarines in coastal waters during 1943. The efforts of the two services within the region Eastern Area covered were hampered by poor liaison and command arrangements, as well as the RAAF placing a relatively low priority on protecting merchant shipping.
Anderson handed over command of Eastern Area to Air Commodore John Summers in July 1943. That month Anderson became the inaugural commandant of the RAAF Staff School at Mount Martha, Victoria. The school was instituted to further the training of officers at the squadron leader and wing commander level, whose basic education standards Anderson, among others, found sadly lacking. The curriculum was largely based on the war staff course at the RAF Staff College. In December Anderson was again appointed AMP, taking over from Air Commodore Frank Lukis, before returning to command the RAAF Staff School in September 1944. He continued in the latter role until being forcibly retired, along with several other senior Air Force commanders including Williams and Goble, in April 1946, ostensibly to make way for younger and equally qualified officers. A confidential report in September 1944 had found Anderson "hard working, conscientious and loyal" but lacking in "constructive capacity and organising ability". He was still four years below the statutory retirement age of fifty-seven for his substantive rank of air commodore.
## Retirement
Following his discharge from the RAAF as an honorary air vice-marshal, Anderson lived in East Melbourne. A lifelong bachelor, he shared a house with his sister, who also never married. From 1947 until 1971, Anderson served as honorary chairman of the Victorian branch of the Services Canteens Trust Fund. On 31 March 1971, he was among a select group of surviving founder members of the RAAF who attended a celebratory dinner at the Hotel Canberra to mark the service's Golden Jubilee; his fellow guests included Air Marshal Williams, Air Vice-Marshal Wrigley, Air Commodore Hippolyte (Frank) De La Rue, and Wing Commander Sir Lawrence Wackett. Anderson died at his residence on his 84th birthday in 1975, and was buried in Boroondara General Cemetery, Kew.
|
1,608,776 |
Eduard von Capelle
| 1,135,397,611 |
German admiral (1855–1931)
|
[
"1855 births",
"1931 deaths",
"Admirals of the Imperial German Navy",
"German Empire politicians",
"German untitled nobility",
"Imperial German Navy admirals of World War I",
"Military personnel from Lower Saxony",
"People from Celle",
"People from the Kingdom of Hanover",
"Recipients of the Hanseatic Cross (Bremen)",
"Recipients of the Hanseatic Cross (Lübeck)",
"Recipients of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria), 1st class",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)"
] |
Admiral Eduard von Capelle (10 October 1855 – 23 February 1931) was a German Imperial Navy officer from Celle. He served in the navy from 1872 until his retirement in October, 1918. During his career, Capelle served in the Reichsmarineamt (Imperial Navy Office), where he was primarily responsible for writing the Fleet Laws that funded the expansion of the High Seas Fleet. By the time he retired, Capelle had risen to the rank of admiral, and had served at the post of state secretary for the Reichsmarineamt. From this post, he oversaw the German naval war during the latter three years of World War I. Capelle retired to Wiesbaden, where he died on 23 February 1931.
## Early career
Eduard Capelle was born on 10 October 1855, in Celle, in what was then the Kingdom of Hanover. His father, Eduard (1832–1897), was a factory owner, and his mother was Emilie Kraus (1831–1903); the younger Eduard had a brother, Hans (1864–1948), a physicist who served as President of the German Naval Observatory. Capelle joined the Imperial German Navy in 1872, as a naval cadet. He served in various capacities in the fleet, including in the Torpedowesen (Torpedo Department) with Alfred von Tirpitz. In December 1894, he was serving as the executive officer of the battleship SMS Weissenburg. He was later assigned to the Reichsmarineamt (RMA), the Imperial Navy Office, as the chief of the administrative department. In this capacity, he began to work closely with now-Admiral von Tirpitz, who had been promoted to become the State Secretary for the Navy. Capelle was responsible for drafting the legislation that became the Flottengesetz, the Fleet Laws, and the supplementary laws in 1906, 1908, and 1912. During this period, he and other senior members of the naval command worked repeatedly to break monopolies in the shipbuilding industry, as a means to keep costs low and stable. The only firm that proved resistant to their efforts was Krupp, which held a near monopoly on armor plating and large-caliber guns, and proved to be too powerful for the RMA to effectively pressure.
Capelle was promoted to konteradmiral (rear admiral) in 1906, and to vizeadmiral (vice admiral) three years later. In 1912, Capelle was elevated to the nobility, which allowed him to add "von" to his name. He rose to the rank of admiral in 1913, and by 1914, he was Tirpitz's deputy. During the July Crisis that instigated World War I, Capelle was temporarily the acting state secretary, as Tirpitz was away at his summer home. In this capacity, he endorsed the "blank check" Kaiser Wilhelm II had extended to Austria-Hungary in the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian terrorists the previous month. With regard to the deepening crisis, Capelle stated that while "many swords will be rattled and much poisonous ink spilled, Europe will not tear itself to pieces over Serbia.
## World War I
By late August 1915, Capelle had fallen ill, and so requested retirement from the navy, though he agreed to remain in the post until 1 November. In March, 1916, Capelle was recalled to service and replaced Tirpitz, whose views on the naval war had become unpopular, as the State Secretary for the Navy. Tirpitz had by this point pushed for unrestricted submarine warfare in order to break the deadlock on the Western Front; Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, fearing war with the United States, manoeuvred to have Tirpitz relieved of command. He meanwhile secured the support of Capelle and brought him out of retirement. Capelle's position as state secretary was decidedly weaker than under Tirpitz's tenure; this was in large part due to the course of the war and the discrediting of the surface fleet policy advocated at first by Tirpitz and then by Capelle. Admiral Paul Behncke, who would later serve as Capelle's deputy, stated that, "In the Navy, the position of the RMA has become purely administrative, it no longer plays a leading role." Though Capelle was initially opposed to unrestricted submarine warfare, a group of senior officers led by the commander of the High Seas Fleet, Admiral Reinhard Scheer, convinced Capelle to change his mind, who in turn worked to convince Wilhelm II to permit a return to unrestricted submarine warfare. By January 1917, Wilhelm II had consented, and Germany resumed the U-boat campaign against Britain on 1 February. The US Congress voted to declare war with Germany on April 6, 1917.
Even though he agreed to resume the U-boat campaign, Capelle did not believe that submarines had replaced the battleship as the decisive naval weapon, arguing in February 1917 that new battleship construction—that of the L 20e α design—should not be stopped. In order to keep costs down, Capelle announced that the Navy would not build any ships over 41,000 t (40,000 long tons; 45,000 short tons) displacement or with a draft in excess of 9.8 m (32 ft); these were the maximum dimensions of the existing harbours and dry docks. Larger designs would require prohibitively expensive dredging on harbours and channels and new docks. Nevertheless, by February 1918, design work on the new class of battleships had ground to a halt, and Capelle could do nothing about it; by this far into the war, the U-boat arm had absorbed all of the limited production capabilities of the Navy. Capelle also advocated for shipbuilding contracts with the Ottoman Empire, Germany's wartime ally; he secured contracts for twelve torpedo boats and twelve U-boats for the Ottoman Navy. Capelle also used the naval construction program to keep skilled workers out of the Army, in order to preserve their expertise for the Navy's needs.
In August 1917, Capelle banned socialist literature from the fleet, in the aftermath of several disturbances. On 9 October 1917, in a speech to the Reichstag, he accused the radical, independent branch of the Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD–Social Democratic Party) of knowingly supporting these revolutionary actions, which drove moderate SPD members closer to the radical independent faction. This led to the toppling of Chancellor Georg Michaelis, who was replaced by Georg von Hertling. On 9 January 1918, Capelle was awarded the Pour le Mérite, Germany's highest military award. By August 1918, Scheer and a group of prominent commanders in the High Seas Fleet had convinced Wilhelm II that the senior officers in the naval high command needed to be replaced by more dynamic individuals. To this end, Wilhelm II requested the resignation of Capelle, Henning von Holtzendorff, the Admiralty Chief, and Georg Alexander von Müller, the head of the Naval Cabinet. Capelle resigned from the Navy in October 1918, shortly before the end of the war. His deputy, Paul Behnke, briefly replaced him but was also forced out due to his opposition to Scheer, who had by this time been promoted to the Seekriegsleitung (Chief of Naval Staff).
In 1919, Capelle testified before the Reichstag War Failures Committee about his tenure as State Secretary during the war, particularly relating to the U-boat campaign against Britain. Capelle died in Wiesbaden on 23 February 1931.
## Decorations and awards
Kingdom of Prussia/ German Empire
- Order of the Red Eagle, 1st class with Oak Leaves and Swords
- Order of the Crown, 1st class
- Pour le Mérite (9 January 1918)
- Knight's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
- Iron Cross of 1914, 1st and 2nd class
- Service Award
Other German states
- Kingdom of Bavaria: Military Merit Order, 1st class with Swords
- Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck: Hanseatic Cross
- Grand Duchy of Hesse: Commander Second Class of the Order of Philip
- Mecklenburg-Schwerin: Commander of the Order of the Griffon
- Oldenburg: Honorary Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis
- Oldenburg: Friedrich August Cross, 1st class
- Kingdom of Saxony: Grand Cross of the Albert Order with golden star and swords
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