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Halo 4
| 1,172,829,999 |
2012 video game
|
[
"2012 video games",
"343 Industries games",
"D.I.C.E. Award for Outstanding Technical Achievement winners",
"Esports games",
"First-person shooter multiplayer online games",
"First-person shooters",
"Halo (franchise) games",
"Microsoft games",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Spike Video Game Award winners",
"Split-screen multiplayer games",
"Video game sequels",
"Video games developed in the United States",
"Video games scored by Neil Davidge",
"Video games with user-generated gameplay content",
"Windows games",
"Xbox 360 games"
] |
Halo 4 is a 2012 first-person shooter video game developed by 343 Industries and published by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox 360 video game console. Halo 4's story follows a cybernetically enhanced human supersoldier, Master Chief, and his artificial intelligence construct Cortana, as they encounter unknown threats while exploring an ancient civilization's planet. The player assumes the role of Master Chief who battles against a new faction that splintered off from remnants of the Covenant, a former military alliance of alien races, and against mechanical warriors of the Forerunner empire known as the Prometheans. The game features a selection of weapons, enemies, and game modes not present in previous titles of the series.
Development of Halo 4 began in 2009 and continued until September 2012. Halo 4 is 343 Industries' first original title within the Halo series—previously, development of the main series was undertaken by Bungie, the creator of the franchise. In the developmental process, 343 Industries decided to explore the Forerunner fiction within the Halo universe, leading the team to design a new setting, enemies, and main antagonist. Existing characters and assets received visual overhauls, recreated from the ground up, and motion capture was used for animation within cutscenes. A goal for Halo 4's story was to incorporate more human elements; to achieve this, the developers chose to delve more deeply into the relationship between the two protagonists, Master Chief and Cortana. Several external studios assisted 343 Industries with developing Halo 4, and over 350 people worked on the game in total.
The game was officially announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011 (E3) on June 6. Prior to launch, Microsoft stated that Halo 4 was the most expensive video game title the company had created so far. The game was marketed with promotional events and videos, including the creation of a live-action film, Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn. Halo 4 grossed US\$220 million on its launch day and \$300 million in its opening week—a record for the franchise. More than one million people played Halo 4 on Xbox Live within the first 24 hours of its release. The game was met with positive reviews by professional critics and received multiple nominations and awards from the press. It was re-released as part of Halo: The Master Chief Collection for the Xbox One in 2014, and was followed by a sequel, Halo 5: Guardians, in 2015.
## Gameplay
Halo 4 is a shooter game in which players predominantly experience gameplay from a first-person perspective; the game perspective switches to third-person when using certain weapons, abilities and vehicles. The player's head-up display (HUD) shows real-time information on the player character's armor system, such as shield status, information on current weapons and abilities, and waypoints for goals and objectives. The HUD also has a motion tracker that detects allies, enemies, and vehicles within a certain radius of the player. The game sees the return of the alien species who were formerly members of the Covenant as foes, and introduces a new type of enemy called the Prometheans, which are Forerunner artificial intelligence (AI) constructs. There are three types of Prometheans: Knights serve as leaders of the group and are considered the deadliest of the Promethean forces; Crawlers are a weaker class that often attack in packs; and Watchers offer support and have the ability to shield or revive Promethean allies.
Halo 4 features updated versions of many human and Covenant weaponry from previous Halo games, as well as introducing new weapons for the humans, Covenant and Prometheans. The game also features reusable equipment, called armor abilities, introduced in Halo: Reach. New armor abilities are autosentry; the hardlight shield, which activates a protective barrier similar to a riot shield; Promethean vision, which diminishes environment detail and shows hidden players as silhouettes; a regeneration field, which heals all players in close proximity and can emit a short range kinetic blast; and finally the thruster pack, which allows the player to launch themselves several feet in a horizontal direction. Returning abilities include active camouflage; jetpack; and hologram, which creates a doppelgänger of the player running towards a target point. Sprinting returns in Halo 4; however, players can now use it independently of their armor ability. New gameplay mechanics introduced to the series include throwing and catching, which has been implemented into the multiplayer game modes Oddball and Grifball.
### Modes
Halo 4's story or campaign mode can be played alone or cooperatively with one other player on the same console via split screen, and up to three other players through Xbox Live. Unlike in Halo 3 cooperative campaign where each player takes the role of a different character, in Halo 4 all players assume the role of Master Chief. Players can enable "skulls" in the campaign menu which act as gameplay modifiers such as increasing enemy health, changing NPC behavior or removing elements of the player's HUD. The campaign also features terminals which provide the player with additional backstory via videos viewed in the Halo Waypoint application on the Xbox 360.
In Halo 4's multiplayer component, titled "Infinity", players assume the role of a customizable Spartan-IV super-soldier. Players can progress through ranks by earning experience points from completing matches and challenges. Gameplay items such as visual customizations, weapons, armor abilities, and various upgrades are unlocked and can be acquired by players when they gain ranks. Once players attain rank SR-50, they can enlist into a "Specialization", enabling them to unlock further cosmetic and gameplay-enhancing customizations for their Spartan. War Games is a competitive multiplayer matchmaking mode. There are various playlists with different game types ranging from standard deathmatch to objective oriented modes such as capture the flag. War Games can be played with up to sixteen players on Xbox Live and has up to four-player split screen support. In Halo 4, players are able to join certain multiplayer matchmaking sessions while they are in progress. Spartan Ops is a story-driven episodic game mode, that can be played solo or cooperatively like the campaign mode. It serves as a replacement for the Firefight game mode that featured in Halo: Reach and Halo 3: ODST. Ten episodes of content were released for Spartan Ops, each featured a cinematic and five objective-based missions. The first five episodes were delivered on a weekly basis following Halo 4's launch, the final five episodes were released in early 2013.
Other game features include Forge, a map-editing tool first introduced in Halo 3. Like War Games it has both split screen and Xbox Live support. Using the tool, players can edit default multiplayer maps by adding or modifying spawn points, weapons and items, or create new ones using canvases. Forge in Halo 4 contains a new "magnet" feature for connecting forge pieces together. Theater mode allows players to view films, create video clips, and capture screen shots from recent matches in War Games or custom games. Halo 4 also offers a file sharing system that allows players to upload and share video clips, screenshots, custom maps and game variants.
## Synopsis
### Setting and characters
Halo 4 takes place in a futuristic science fiction setting in the year 2557, four years after the events of Halo 3. Backstory details that hundreds of thousands of years before the modern era, humans were one of several interstellar civilizations. Following a war with the parasitic Flood, the humans came into conflict with the Forerunners, a powerful race that upheld a policy of benevolent shepherding of other races known as the Mantle of Responsibility. After centuries of war the Forerunners defeated the humans and stripped them of their technology and empire. The Forerunners soon fought the Flood themselves; after exhausting every other strategic option available to them, the Forerunners activated weapons of mass destruction known as the Halo Array. The Array's firing killed all sentient life in the galaxy to deprive the Flood of their food. Life that the Forerunners cataloged was then reseeded throughout the galaxy.
In the 26th century, humanity came under attack by the Covenant, an alien collective of species that worship the Forerunners as gods. The human supersoldier Master Chief Petty Officer John-117 and his artificial intelligence companion Cortana, were instrumental in stopping the Halos from being activated, sterilizing the Flood outbreak before they could menace the galaxy once again, and defeating the Covenant resulting in the end of the war. At the end of Halo 3, Chief and Cortana were left stranded in unknown space aboard the remains of the vessel Forward Unto Dawn.
### Plot
#### Campaign
Forward Unto Dawn drifts towards an unknown Forerunner planet, later revealed to be the shield world Requiem. Cortana wakes Master Chief from cryonic sleep shortly before forces from a newly formed Covenant splinter faction board the vessel. The remnants of Forward Unto Dawn are caught in Requiem's gravity well and pass through an opening to crash-land on its interior. As Chief and Cortana explore Requiem, fighting hostile forces from the new Covenant faction and mechanical warriors called "Promethean Knights", Cortana malfunctions. She reveals that she is experiencing "rampancy", a declining mental state faced by smart AIs past their usual seven-year life span. Chief promises to get Cortana to Earth, believing that Cortana's creator, Doctor Catherine Halsey, can fix Cortana's condition. Chief and Cortana pick up garbled transmissions from a human ship, UNSC Infinity, who have picked up the Dawn's distress call. Cortana attempts to warn Infinity away from Requiem's gravity well and directs the Chief to deactivate what she believes are communications jammers. Instead, the Chief unwittingly releases the Didact, an ancient Forerunner warrior, from imprisonment. The Didact, who deems Man unworthy of the Mantle of Responsibility, takes control of the Prometheans and the Covenant faction, then attacks Infinity after it is dragged into Requiem.
Chief makes contact with Infinity and helps repel the Didact's attack. Chief and Cortana recommend attacking the Didact while he is vulnerable, but Infinity captain Del Rio orders them to destroy the gravity well so their ship can escape. In the process, Chief is contacted by a Forerunner known as the Librarian—the wife of the Didact, as well as ancient humanity's protector. She explains that the Forerunners were divided on how best to combat the Flood. After failing to discover a way to immunize biological beings from the parasite, the Didact used a device called the Composer to convert the warriors under his command into Promethean Knights immune to infection. Requiring more soldiers, the Didact forcibly converted captured humans into Prometheans, before being stopped and imprisoned by the Librarian. The Librarian, who has guided humanity's development, accelerates the Chief's evolution to grant him immunity to the Composer.
After destroying the gravity well, Del Rio orders a retreat back to Earth, doubting the Chief and Cortana's testimony. The Master Chief disobeys orders to stand down and relinquish the malfunctioning Cortana, and stays behind to oppose the Didact. Chief and Cortana attempt to sabotage the Didact's ship before he leaves, but are unsuccessful. They follow the Didact to a Halo ring, Installation 03. The Composer has been moved from the ring onto the nearby Ivanoff Research Station, which the Covenant faction attacks. The Chief defends Ivanoff, but the Didact retrieves the Composer and uses it on the station, composing every individual save Chief.
Chief and Cortana use a fighter to follow the Didact's ship to Earth. Aided by Infinity and the home fleet, the Chief boards the Didact's ship with a nuclear warhead. Cortana inserts copies of herself into the Didact's computer systems to overwhelm the Didact's shield, but not before the Didact directs the Composer at Earth and begins composing the population of New Phoenix. With the help of Cortana, the Chief defeats the Didact, who falls into a portal underneath the Composer. The Master Chief activates the bomb but is saved by Cortana, who sacrifices herself. The Chief is found by a rescue team and is taken back to Infinity, where he mourns the loss of Cortana.
In a post-credits scene, the Didact proclaims the Forerunners' role as custodians of the galaxy having to bear the Mantle of Responsibility, and humanity as the greatest threat in the galaxy. Master Chief removes his armor aboard Infinity; if the player completes the game on Legendary difficulty, the Chief's heavily scarred face is briefly shown.
#### Spartan Ops
Six months after the New Phoenix incident, the UNSC Infinity returns to Requiem, where the Prometheans and the Covenant splinter faction—led by Jul 'Mdama, who styles himself as "the Didact's Hand"—are still active. Sarah Palmer, commander of the Spartan-IVs, deploys Spartan squads to clear out Jul 'Mdama's Covenant and Promethean forces in Requiem's interior in order to set up research bases. Fireteam Crimson recovers a mysterious artifact excavated by 'Mdama's Covenant; Infinity scientist Doctor Glassman disappears after studying the device. Catherine Halsey is brought to Infinity due to her knowledge of Forerunner technology. She is kept under guard by marines and Spartans including Gabriel Thorne, who lost his family during the Didact's attack on Earth. While studying the artifact, Halsey begins receiving messages on her computer from an anonymous sender. The source of the transmissions is 'Mdama, who captures Glassman and forces him to work on a Forerunner device that supposedly contains the Librarian. Palmer arrests Halsey for communicating with 'Mdama, but Halsey uses an override code to force Infinity's AI, Roland, to assist her. Halsey contacts 'Mdama to try and strike a deal, as they both want to find the Librarian; Roland breaks free of Halsey's control and summons guards to apprehend Halsey. Promethean forces invade Infinity, capture Halsey, and teleport her to 'Mdama's base. Serin Osman, head of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), orders Infinity captain Thomas Lasky to kill Halsey, but he is reluctant to do so. Palmer sets off to Requiem to kill Halsey; Lasky tells Fireteam Majestic to intervene and rescue Halsey from 'Mdama.
Halsey steps into the Forerunner device and makes contact with the Librarian. The Librarian gives Halsey the two pieces of the "Janus Key", an instrument that provides the location for all Forerunner technology in the galaxy, and instructs Halsey to use the key to advance humankind. Upon receiving the key, Halsey exits the device and 'Mdama takes half of the key from her. Halsey passes the second piece to Fireteam Majestic. Palmer wounds Halsey in the arm just before a Promethean teleports 'Mdama and Halsey from the base. 'Mdama sets Requiem to collide with the nearby sun and his forces evacuate the planet. Fireteams Crimson and Majestic disable devices that anchor Infinity to Requiem, allowing the ship to escape before the installation is destroyed. Meanwhile, Halsey, who has lost her arm, offers to ally herself to 'Mdama.
## Development
In October 2007, shortly after the release of Halo 3, Halo developer Bungie split off from parent company Microsoft. Microsoft retained the intellectual property and rights to Halo, and Bungie continued developing Halo games until 2010. During this period of time Microsoft formed an internal division, 343 Industries, to manage the franchise and develop future games.
In 2008, while 343 Industries was still in formation, Microsoft approached Starlight Runner Entertainment to help assemble the "Halo bible". Starlight Runner is a New York-based company that specializes in creating and producing transmedia franchises. Their job was to examine all content of the Halo universe, clean it up, and make it coherent and understandable for the people involved with the creation of Halo games and media. Frank O'Connor, a content manager at Bungie, assisted the team with the creation of the "Halo bible" before moving to 343 Industries to become Halo franchise development director. Unlike the original trilogy, the story for Halo 4 was designed to be part of a multi-game arc from the beginning. In addition, 343 Industries aimed for "a more complete connectivity between all of their future media than before"; relating Halo 4's story to the Forerunner Saga and Kilo-Five Trilogy novels as well as using terminals in Halo: Combat Evolved Anniversary to introduce background knowledge on the Forerunners.
343 started with a staff of roughly a dozen people, but grew to nearly 200 through development. Halo 4's development team included former employees of more than 25 triple-A studios. Prospective employees could not be told they were going to be working on Halo 4. "We had people who we hired who hated Halo because of 'X,'" said Frank O'Connor, 343 Industries' franchise development director. "But what that really meant was, 'I feel like this game could be awesome because of 'Y input' that I'm going to bring into it. I want to prove it, and I'm passionate about proving it.' So we ended up with a bunch of people who were genuinely passionate about the product. That is a huge advantage, and that helped in hiring and forming our team." This rapid hiring and growth occurred during development of the game, creating issues; because the team was committed to a delivery date, Halo 4 executive producer Kiki Wolfkill said that the team was forced to make "necessary mistakes", with production difficulties and a team inexperienced with working together contributing to development difficulties. Nine months before shipping, the developers restructured the game's production pipeline and gave individual teams more control due to bottlenecks in development. With so many developers from different backgrounds, forging a common goal and company culture was different. Creative director Josh Holmes recalled that an "epiphany moment" that proved the team was headed in the right direction was early in development, when the team completed a section of the game that was "very traditional [Halo]". Despite positive feedback from testers, 343 Industries discarded the prototype as too traditional, but felt that it showed the team could work together.
Including contractors, 350 people worked on the game. 343 Industries contracted Certain Affinity, an independent video game development studio, to help with the development of Halo 4; they started work on the game in early 2011. Certain Affinity has worked alongside Bungie and 343 Industries on producing multiplayer content for previous Halo titles. The studio developed the Forge mode, co-developed War Games and created a number of maps and multiplayer modes for Halo 4.
Halo 4 and Halo: Combat Evolved Anniversary were both officially announced on June 6, 2011, at the E3 2011. Halo 4 is the first installment in the Reclaimer Saga of Halo games. The studio's creative team, which included nearly 200 people led by creative director Josh Holmes, started developing the game as early as 2009. Prior to the release of the game, Microsoft Studios Vice President Phil Spencer stated that the Halo franchise is the "most important entertainment product in the company" and that Halo 4 was the most expensive game that Microsoft had made. A demonstration of the game's campaign was first shown at E3 2012. The developers described it as a pivotal moment in development, as it was the first time the game had been shown publicly. The positive reaction was a morale boost for the team, who were unsure how the public would react. On July 7, 2012, a pre-release build of Halo 4's Forge mode was showcased by 343 Industries and Certain Affinity at RTX which took place at the Austin Convention Center. On September 26, 2012, O'Connor announced that the game's development was complete.
### Design
Following Halo 4's announcement, O'Connor reported that both Master Chief and Cortana would undergo "radical" changes in appearance for the game, some of them attributed to better graphics and others to story elements. The studio wanted Master Chief's appearance to convey an imposing mass and weight, to show that one of his characteristics is his 800-pound (360 kg) armor. They studied the armor changes that were made for the Spartans in Halo: Reach, which were much bulkier than renditions in previous Halo games. Character and concept artists began redesigning the Master Chief by creating sketches; these sketches would be rendered into 3D models so the team could analyze the design from every possible angle. The team would then return to creating sketches to make adjustments, and repeat the process until the main structure for the Master Chief was created. The team then worked on the finer details of his appearance.
During the concepting process of Halo 4, O'Connor decided it would be best for the franchise to explore the Forerunner fiction of the Halo universe, which had remained largely a mystery before 343 Industries' involvement in the franchise. This ultimately led to the creation of a new race of enemy, the Prometheans, warriors of the Forerunner empire. Given that the Forerunners themselves had never been featured in previous Halo games, the design process for the appearance of the Prometheans was long and tedious. The art team produced a large number of sketches, which were presented to other members of the studio to get feedback and reactions. Many variations of different character models were considered before the team decided on a final design. The main goal when designing their appearance was to make them resonate with the player, and evoke the image of the Forerunner architecture and language that had been portrayed in previous Halo media. Upon death, the Promethean Knight dissolves from the point where it was last shot; this visual effect also occurs when certain enemies are killed by Promethean weapons. From a gameplay standpoint the design for the Prometheans also needed to fit in well with the sandbox so they would be suitable enemies to fight. A goal when designing their behavior was to make them highly adaptive from a tactical standpoint. For example, the Promethean Knight can phase in and out of space, allowing it to retreat or charge the player at any given moment; this changes the way that a player engages in a combat encounter.
Holmes explained that one of the goals for Halo 4's campaign was to incorporate more human elements into the story. To accomplish this the team wrote a B story that explored Master Chief's relationship with his AI partner, Cortana, who would break down into a dementia-like state. The development team realized that Halo 4's narrative could be dense and hard to approach, making it inaccessible for new players. They found incorporating such a storyline into an action game to be extremely challenging and considered dropping it during development. Holmes was adamant about including it; he took inspiration from his mother's battle with dementia, which she was diagnosed with near the start of the game's development. This led Holmes to want to capture the emotion and tell "a perfect story".
The senior art director for Halo 4 is Kenneth Scott; he described the visual style of Halo 4 as being more ingrained in the expanded universe fiction, and more "mature" than before. With the game's increased focus on the Forerunners, the artists invested heavily into the look and feel of Forerunner technology. The game also features more diversity in Forerunner structures, including fully active Forerunner technology as opposed to the mostly inert and abandoned structures seen in the earlier games. The majority of the game is lit statically using lightmaps; this allowed the art team to achieve realistic lighting effects with full global illumination and ambient occlusion. Image-based lighting is also used to ground scenes and make everything fit together better.
The cooperative Spartan Ops mode originally began as a Firefight-type mode, similar to that featured in Halo: Reach, but was composed of different objective-oriented mission types. Over the course of development, changes were made to Spartan Ops to include a narrative that would tie Halo 4's multiplayer together. The missions were designed primarily for four player co-op. The Spartan Ops development team worked with the narrative team to use ideas and storylines to shape the mode such that the cinematics would tie in with the missions.
Glasgow based animation studio, Axis Animation, assisted 343 Industries on the creation of CGI cinematics for the Spartan Ops game mode. Axis have produced animations for numerous video games, including the award-winning announcement trailer for Dead Island. To make each Spartan Ops episode as engaging as possible the team at Axis shot and edited episodes in live action using performance capture. The team then used the reference cameras at the live action shoot to create a performance edit, before shooting with CG cameras to provide more coverage of all scenes and a greater selection of shots for the editorial team. The shading team at Axis made use of the 3D animation package, Houdini, to procedurally generate the environment in the cinematics. Axis worked with Glasgow-based audio post production company Savalas on sound design and the final mix for the Spartan Ops cinematics. Facial motion capture was also utilized to take the movements and facial expressions from actors and apply them to the in-game cinematics for both Spartan Ops and campaign. Performance capture for both campaign and Spartan Ops cutscenes was directed and recorded at Giant Studios. Axis worked in conjunction with Giant Studios and Cubic Motion to develop a special facial motion capture solution that would retain facial expressions from the actors when creating the animation.
Visual effects house The Sequence Group, who had previously developed animation for Halo: Combat Evolved Anniversary's terminals, returned to create additional animation for Halo 4. The Terminals feature a painterly artistic style, which Sequence president Ian Kirby felt appealed to gamers familiar with the style of concept art. In addition to creating the visuals for the Halo 4 terminals, their work appeared in one of the game's main cinematics. To save time and expense using traditional motion capture methods to animate the 3D characters, The Sequence Group used twin Microsoft Kinect infrared sensors to create a home-made solution.
The game utilizes much of the "sandbox" that has been featured across all six prior Halo games and other media, in addition to introducing new characters, weapons, vehicles, and other elements. The game engine used is a heavily modified version of the engine established by Bungie. Unlike previous games in the Halo series, Halo 4 runs natively in 720p resolution. The game itself comes on two discs and requires 4GB of available storage space either on an 8GB USB flash drive or Xbox 360 hard drive to play the multiplayer component. Disc two is used to install the multiplayer content and disc one is used for launching the game. Due to rendering issues and significant engine changes, Theater support for Halo 4's campaign and Spartan Ops was not featured in the game on launch; however 343 Industries expressed that this feature may be implemented in the future.
As with previous Halo titles, 343 Industries provides a statistic tracking service for players of Halo 4. Player data such as game history, character progression, and various statistics can be accessed in game or via the Halo Waypoint website. The web services team at 343 Industries utilized the Windows Azure Service Bus messaging infrastructure to relay data from the Xbox Live network to back-end databases, where player data and information is stored. Halo 4 player data can also be accessed via the Xbox SmartGlass application.
### Audio
British record producer and composer Neil Davidge wrote the music for Halo 4. Davidge is best known for his work as a co-writer and producer for the band Massive Attack, and also composed the scores for numerous films. Davidge intended to add "a touch of romance" to the score as well as adding more electronic sounds while keeping Halo's style.
Sotaro Tojima, best known for his work on Konami's Castlevania: Circle of the Moon and Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, served as Halo 4's audio director. The team performed many live audio recording sessions, several of which occurred in Tasmania, Australia. Some of these recording sessions took place in generally inhospitable environments, such as underwater, in fire, and in ice, through the use of specially designed microphones; other recording sessions have utilized "home made" explosives. Tojima intended for the game's audio to be clearly grounded in the Halo universe, while also having a more realistic quality than in past titles.
Music composer Kazuma Jinnouchi, also formerly from Konami, joined 343 Industries during the production of Halo 4 in 2011. He contributed several additional tracks for the game. He would later go on to be the sole composer of the game's sequel, Halo 5: Guardians, in 2015.
### Cast
Voice actors returning to reprise their roles in Halo 4 include Steve Downes as Master Chief, and Jen Taylor as both Cortana and Halsey. The two actors recorded together for the first time, as Downes actually flew to 343's Washington headquarters instead of recording in his hometown of Chicago. Voices for new characters include Mark Rolston as Captain Andrew Del Rio, Darren O'Hare as Thomas Lasky, Jennifer Hale as Sarah Palmer, Adrienne Barbeau as Dr. Tillson, Keith Szarabajka as the Didact, Travis Willingham as Jul 'Mdama, and Lori Tritel as the Librarian. Additional voices provided include Conan O'Brien, Andy Richter, and Jason Bradbury. Employees of Rooster Teeth Productions' have cameo roles in Spartan Ops, as characters from the Halo machinima Red vs. Blue. Bruce Thomas was the performance capture actor playing the role of Master Chief and actress Mackenzie Mason played the performance role of Cortana. Taylor served as the motion capture source for Halsey.
## Marketing
On January 19, 2012, McFarlane Toys announced that they would be creating action figures for Halo 4, bringing new characters, weapons and vehicles from the video game to the fans. McFarlane Toys CEO and founder, Todd McFarlane said that he was "really excited to be working with the all-star team of 343 Industries". McFarlane also stated that they would continue and expand their previous figure line which would be rebranded as Halo Universe. On February 14, 2012, toy company Mega Brands revealed a new product series in their Mega Bloks Halo Universe collector's line. Both McFarlane Toys and Mega Brands revealed their figures at the 2012 American International Toy Fair. Jada Toys launched a new line of Halo 4 die-cast toys in August 2012; Sideshow Collectibles also revealed a Halo 4 Premium Cortana Figure. Toy manufacturer Funko released Master Chief, Cortana and Spartan-IV figures for their Pop! Vinyl toyline on November 8, 2012. On June 11, 2012, video game console peripherals manufacturer, Mad Catz Interactive, Inc. announced that they had signed a deal with Microsoft Studios to create a Halo 4-branded gaming headset; the product shipped on October 30, 2012.
343 Industries and Microsoft also created a Halo 4 art book, titled Awakening: The Art of Halo 4; it was published by Titan Books and released on November 6, 2012. The book contains a collection of concept art and sketches accompanied by commentary from the artists at 343 Industries. A limited edition version of the book was also released with only a thousand copies available worldwide. Another book, Halo 4: The Essential Visual Guide was created by 343 Industries in collaboration with DK Publishing and was released September 24, 2013. It contains annotated artwork and profiles on characters, items, and locations within the Halo universe.
Microsoft once again partnered up with PepsiCo, having done so previously while promoting Halo 3. In the United States players were able to earn double experience in Halo 4 by purchasing Mountain Dew and Doritos and then redeem product codes found on the packaging using an iOS and Android app game called Halo 4: King of the Hill Fueled by Mountain Dew. Players were able to redeem product codes from October 15, 2012, on websites that PepsiCo set up for the promotion. In the United Kingdom, a promotion ran from September 24, 2012, until December 4, 2012, where purchasers of Mountain Dew were able to redeem codes to have a chance of winning copies of Halo 4, Xbox 360 avatar items and a trip to Seattle to attend a tour around the studio of 343 Industries. Microsoft also partnered with Pizza Hut branches in the United Kingdom; people who entered the contest via an official website had a chance of winning Halo 4-themed prizes. The contest was open from October 22, 2012, until December 30, 2012; entering participants also received a free code for a Halo 4 Xbox 360 avatar outfit. Microsoft partnered with American Express to offer a promotion for eligible card holders in the United States and United Kingdom. Card holders who sync their American Express card with their Xbox Live account receive coupons and credits and are also rewarded with additional credits and coupons for obtaining achievements in Halo 4. Microsoft also offered Halo 4 armor, for Xbox Live avatars, to people who watched at least thirty minutes of footage from the 2012 United States presidential debates on their Xbox 360.
On October 31, 2012, Microsoft and government-owned organization Liechtenstein Marketing transformed the countryside of Liechtenstein for a special live action event for fans and members of the press. The Gutenberg Castle was transformed into a military fortification where guests tried out Halo 4 for the first time. A nearby countryside had a United Nations Space Command military camp installed and Balzers Quarry was transformed into a battleground where fifteen actors played out a two-hour-long adventure.
### Promotional videos
Halo 4 was announced with a trailer at E3 2011, titled "Awakening". It was directed by Joseph Kosinski and visual effects were created by animation company Digital Domain. Kosinski and Digital Domain had collaborated previously on the Halo 3 "Starry Night" commercial. The trailer is set on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn during the opening events of Halo 4. It depicts the Master Chief being awakened from cryonic sleep by Cortana, as the remnants of the frigate drift towards Requiem. The trailer was short-listed in the Visual Effects and Design categories at the 2012 AICP Show and NEXT Awards.
On April 30, 2012, it was announced that a web series, titled Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn, would play on Machinima Prime and Halo Waypoint during the weeks leading up to the release for Halo 4. The series debuted on October 5, 2012, and contained five 15-minute live action shorts. It was directed by Stewart Hendler and the project was Microsoft's largest investment in a live action promotion. The series is set in 2526, 31 years before the events of Halo 4 at the beginning of the Human-Covenant War. The plot is centered around the character Thomas Lasky, who appears in the video game, he is primarily portrayed by Australian actor Tom Green in the live action series. The series also ties in with the plot of the Halo 4 campaign and Spartan Ops mode. The Master Chief is featured in the latter part of the series, and is played by actor Daniel Cudmore.
At E3 2012, the presentation of Halo 4 was preceded with a live action segment called "The Commissioning". The video was directed by Nicolai Fuglsig and filmed over two and a half days, with four weeks of post-production and visual effects were added by Method Studios. Music in the trailer was scored by Neil Davidge. The video shows the UNSC Infinity vessel being pulled within the confines of the planet Requiem. Mark Rolston portrays Captain Andrew Del Rio in the live action video.
On October 18, 2012, the Halo 4 launch trailer, titled "Scanned", premiered on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. The trailer was produced by David Fincher and directed by Tim Miller. The trailer was filmed in Prague and features both CGI and live action sequences. It shows Master Chief, bound by a force shield, being approached by an enemy. The enemy moves toward John, scanning his mind to find the source of his strength and search for weaknesses. A live action sequence proceeds with flashbacks of John's past; showing him being kidnapped as a child, the Spartan-II augmentation procedure, and him being suited into his MJOLNIR armor. The trailer then shows John attacking Promethean Knights, before returning to the scene of him bound and being faced by his enemy, the Didact. On October 23, 2012, the Halo 4 launch gameplay trailer was revealed; it featured segments of gameplay footage from the campaign and multiplayer.
In October 2012, visual effects company Framestore assisted advertising agency McCann London in producing live TV adverts for Halo 4. The adverts aired on November 9, 2012; they featured live data on how many people were playing Halo 4 online, correct to within five minutes of the broadcast.
## Release
Halo 4 was released in all territories except Japan on November 6, 2012; the Japanese version was released on November 8. Microsoft initially released the game in two separate retail versions, branded as "Standard" and "Limited" editions. The Limited Edition includes digital items for Xbox 360 avatars and in-game Spartan-IVs, as well as access to future downloadable content in the form of three competitive multiplayer map packs, containing a total of nine maps. It also includes a 90-minute extended version of the live action digital series, Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn and a UNSC Infinity Briefing Packet. At launch, two Specializations were available to all players; only owners of the Halo 4 Limited Edition had access to all eight Specializations. However, 343 Industries later granted access to players, in certain countries, who participated in an online multiplayer match during the opening fortnight. For the remaining players, the Specializations were gradually unlocked in the months following launch.
Microsoft produced an Xbox 360 Limited Edition Halo 4 console bundle that launched alongside the game. The bundle features two custom designed controllers, a standard edition of Halo 4, a wired headset, exclusive downloadable content and a Halo 4-themed Xbox 360 containing a 320GB hard drive. It was also announced that Microsoft would be releasing a standalone Xbox 360 Halo 4 Limited Edition wireless controller featuring a different design to the one included in the console bundle.
Microsoft reported that their security teams and law enforcement were investigating the possibility of Halo 4 content being leaked on the internet in October 2012. Jessica Shea, Community Manager at 343 Industries, warned fans to be wary of Halo 4 spoilers that were posted on the internet. O'Connor stated at New York Comic Con that leaks of the game and footage would not have any impact on how the game is released or marketed and that unlicensed uploading of high-profile games is inevitable.
Over ten thousand stores across forty countries opened for the midnight launch of Halo 4. On the evening before the release of the game, a fifty-foot diameter illuminated Didact glyph was flown by a helicopter over the River Thames in London, from the Greenwich Peninsula to Tower Bridge. The glyph was created by a team of over fifty designers, engineers and fabricators and took approximately eight weeks to design and construct. Following the release of the game, New Zealand censors declared many copies of Halo 4 illegal, after deciding to label it with an R13 rating, restricting it to buyers aged 13 and over. Many copies of the game had already gone on sale with an unrestricted M certificate, but these copies are in breach of the Films, Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993.
On February 5, 2013, a digital version of the game was released via the Xbox Live Games on Demand service. A game of the year edition of Halo 4, featuring the season pass and Champion's Bundle DLC, pre-order bonuses, special avatar prop and the entire first season of Spartan Ops, was released on October 8.
### Sales
Halo 4 grossed US\$220 million on its launch day and \$300 million in its opening week. The gross was a new record for the franchise, surpassing Halo: Reach's \$200 million first-day gross. More than one million people played Halo 4 on Xbox Live within the first 24 hours of release. While Halo 4 debuted at the top of the UK Video Games Chart and became the eighteenth biggest launch ever in the UK, it failed to beat the week one sales records of Halo 3 and Halo: Reach. U.S. retail tracking firm NPD reported that Halo 4 was the second most sold retail video game of November 2012, the third most sold retail video game of December 2012, and the third most sold retail video game of the year. In the United States Halo 4 became the best-selling Microsoft Studios title for sales counted during respective launch years. In 2012, Halo 4 was the third most played game on Xbox Live based on average unique users per day.
## Post-release
Halo 4 supports downloadable content (DLC), which is available to download via the Xbox Live Marketplace. Three War Games map packs, each containing three maps, can be purchased individually, or bought together with the Halo 4 War Games Pass. The pass is included in the Limited Edition version of the game and is available to purchase on the Xbox Live Marketplace. The first map package, the "Crimson Map Pack", was released on December 10, 2012. Players who were awarded early access to Specializations received complimentary access to the Crimson Map Pack for a limited time. The "Majestic Map Pack" was released on February 25, 2013, followed by the "Castle Map Pack" on April 8. Forge Island, a map designed for Forge mode creations was made available at no cost to Xbox Live users on March 29. Microsoft released additional DLC on August 20 that could be purchased together as the Champions Bundle or separately. The three DLC packs include: the "Bullseye Pack" containing two multiplayer maps and early access to the Ricochet gametype; the "Steel Skin Pack", which offers steampunk-themed skins for weapons; and the "Infinity Armor Pack", which includes new armor for customizing the player's Spartan.
Aside from map packs, the game is supported by regular matchmaking playlist updates. These updates make playlist and balance changes, sandbox tweaks and fix minor glitches. A title update to fix various game issues and glitches was released in December 2012. Spartan Ops went on a mid-season break that December and resumed on January 21, 2013; the back half of the season was made available as a free download from the Xbox Live Marketplace. On January 29, an in-game search feature was implemented for Halo 4's file sharing system; a web version of the Halo 4 file browser was made available on February 27, 2013. On April 8, 343 Industries launched a competitive skill ranking system akin to that featured in Halo 2 and Halo 3.
During Spartan Ops' mid-season break, a free-to-enter Halo 4 tournament, titled Halo 4 Infinity Challenge, was launched by Microsoft in partnership with Virgin Gaming. Players could register on the Halo 4 Infinity Challenge website to participate in the tournament, giving them the opportunity to win various prizes. On July 3, 2013, 343 Industries announced a second tournament in partnership with Virgin Gaming, titled Halo 4 Global Championship. The tournament spanned a period of five weeks with a grand prize of \$200,000. The tournament began on July 5 at RTX 2013, and on July 15 on Xbox Live. The tournament finals took place on September 1 at the 2013 Penny Arcade Expo; the event was streamed live and was hosted by Larry Hryb, Blair Herter, and Jessica Chobot.
Halo 4 was re-released as part of Halo: The Master Chief Collection for the Xbox One on November 11, 2014, and for Microsoft Windows on November 17, 2020. A sequel, Halo 5: Guardians, was released for the Xbox One on October 27, 2015.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Halo 4 received positive reviews from critics, with aggregate review website Metacritic assigning it an average score of 87 out of 100, based on 87 reviews. Many reviewers were impressed by 343 Industries' debut effort and considered it a worthy addition to the series. Ryan McCaffrey of IGN gave Halo 4 a very positive review, considering it to be the best game of the series to date and the best Xbox 360 game of 2012; he called it "a bar-raising triumph for the entire first-person shooter genre." Wesley Yin-Poole of Eurogamer remarked that although he was initially skeptical of changes being made to the formula, 343's greatest achievement was managing to stay true to what Halo is. He was enthusiastic to see what the developer would do with Halo 5 and expected them to deviate further while retaining the series' "magic".
Halo 4's campaign received a mixed reception from critics. Reviewers enjoyed Master Chief's return as the protagonist, and the emotional connection between Master Chief and Cortana was highly praised. Mike Mahardy of Game Informer complimented the characterization improvements of Chief and Cortana, calling their evolved love story more "focused" and "relatable" to the player, in comparison to the "cloudy and impersonal" stories from the prior games of the franchise. GameSpot editor, Chris Watters, described the "thrilling and emotional return of Master Chief and Cortana" as the highlight of the game. GamesRadar maintained that the narrative was enthralling and the campaign's structure was much better than its predecessors. IGN's McCaffrey praised the game's lighting, movements, animations, and lauded the campaign for its pacing, "deftly mixing on-foot combat, vehicle sequences, quiet story moments, and key Chief-and-Cortana interactions." Although Neil Davidge's work on the musical composition was noted as a "bold shift", McCaffrey claimed the music seemed "complementary rather than additive."
1UP.com reviewer Jose Otero was critical of Halo 4's story, writing that the ending of the game "doesn't make a lot of sense". He also remarked that while the narrative tied the main plot lines together well, it was disappointing to see some of the smaller story points were ignored entirely. Both G4 and Official Xbox Magazine agreed that the plot became convoluted on occasions and might be difficult to understand for new players of the franchise. G4 reviewer, Adam Rosenburg, also stated that while the soundtrack had some memorable moments, he was disappointed that composer Neil Davidge had chosen to ditch the familiar theme of previous games. Michael Gapper of Computer and Video Games drew a comparison between Halo 4 and Halo 2. He stated that the hardware limitations of the Xbox 360 had negatively impacted Halo 4's campaign, in the same way that they had throttled Bungie's ambitions for Halo 2 on the original Xbox. He explained that although the game was visually stunning, this had detracted from the scale and spectacle that was present in Halo 3's campaign. He found the spaces within the campaign to be narrow and constrained which led to a lack of tactical options in encounters.
Competitive multiplayer received a mixed reception by critics. Chris Watters of GameSpot welcomed the new armor abilities and gameplay tweaks introduced in multiplayer. He praised the continuing robustness of Custom Game options and the accessibility of level editing in Forge. CVG's Gapper stated that the new scoring system alone made Halo 4 multiplayer the best in the series, emphasizing that recognition for assists and completing objective tasks was a positive change. Polygon writer, Arthur Gies, said that the new game mode Dominion was the best addition to Halo multiplayer since the introduction of Xbox Live. He also thought that the multiplayer component was more approachable to people outside of the core player-base without dumbing anything down.
Reception towards Spartan Ops was mixed to negative; some reviewers expressed their disappointment in Spartan Ops replacing the cooperative Firefight mode. Criticisms were aimed at the brevity of missions and lack of replay value. Despite any shortcomings, IGN said the mode was a must-play for the "incredible pre-episode cinematics" which open up "a number of interesting narrative possibilities for future episodes and seasons." Martin Robinson of Eurogamer complained about the repetition of environments within the first half of the season and noted that missions quickly become a chore. He felt that Spartan Ops was a "weak, bloated alternative" compared to Firefight. 1UP.com found that while the short length felt odd initially, the mode was still fun to play and offered more opportunities to play Halo cooperatively.
### Accolades
|
49,828,008 |
Gråt Fader Berg och spela
| 1,091,383,235 |
Song by the 18th century Swedish bard Carl Michael Bellman
|
[
"1770 compositions",
"Fredmans epistlar",
"Swedish songs"
] |
Gråt Fader Berg och spela (Cry, Father Berg, and Play) is No. 12 in the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman's 1790 song collection, Fredman's Epistles. The epistle is subtitled "Elegi över Slagsmålet på Gröna Lund" ("Elegy on the Battle at Gröna Lund [Tavern]"). It is a lament over a pub brawl, caused by Fredman's drinking a soldier's beer and dancing with someone else's girlfriend. Set to the melody from the aria "The flocks shall leave the mountains" in George Frideric Handel's opera Acis and Galatea, it is the best-known of his poems describing the consequences of brandy-drinking. Bellman used the contrast between the romantic associations of the melody and the brutal reality of heavy drinking to humorous effect.
## Context
## Song
### Music and verse form
The epistle was written in the summer of 1770, and set to a melody from the aria "The flocks shall leave the mountains" in George Frideric Handel's 1718 opera Acis and Galatea. There are four stanzas, each of twelve lines. The rhyming scheme is ABBA-CCEF-CFCF. Its time signature is and its tempo is marked Lamentabile.
### Lyrics
The epistle, like all of Fredman's Epistles, was first published in 1790, towards the end of Bellman's life: he died in 1795. It was No. 12 in the book, and was subtitled "Elegi över Slagsmålet på Gröna Lund" ("Elegy on the Battle at Gröna Lund [Tavern]"). The corpus of epistles did not change after that, though the book has been reprinted repeatedly and translated into other European languages.
In the text, Fredman, accompanied by Father Berg on flute, begins in accordance with a pattern from classical elegies and meditates on the greatness of the past and the ravages of time. It becomes clear that a drinking-place, Stockholm's Gröna Lund Tavern, has been smashed up in a fight. The epistle narrates in a naive preaching style that Fredman, drunk, has taken a soldier's beer and danced with someone else's girl. The song derives its effect from the contrast between the clear melody with its elegiac touch, and harsh reality.
## Reception
The musicologist James Massengale writes that although the melody was borrowed, the amount of work that Bellman had to put into the music for this epistle, as for no. 24 ("Kära Syster!") was "surely tantamount to the production of new melodies." Borrowing was accepted, even encouraged at the time, but the "poetic possibility", Massengale suggests, is that Bellman wished to exploit the humorous contrast between a melody of one type and a story of another, or between an existing image associated with the melody, and a fresh one presented in an epistle. In addition, Bellman was able to use what his audience knew to be borrowed music to reinforce the historical flavour of the epistles, introducing exactly the kind of ambiguity that he was seeking.
The translator and Bellman's biographer Paul Britten Austin calls the epistle "the most famous of the poems lamenting the violent effects of brandy". He finds it "surprising" that Bellman has chosen to take an aria from Handel's Acis and Galatea, but notes that by marking it lamentabile and "cunningly interweav[ing] a flute obbligato with the vocal phrases", he manages to create a "tragi-comic picture".
Carina Burman writes in her biography of Bellman that the tune of the epistle was one of several that Bellman borrowed from Handel's heroic pastoral opera. In the aria, a trio, the two lovers sing of their eternal love "while the jealous Polyphemus mumbles threats". The audience in his day were well aware of that dramatic context, so hearing the melody as a backdrop to the sharply contrasting situation of a pub brawl created a powerfully comic effect.
The song has been recorded by Sven-Bertil Taube on his 1959 album Fredmans epistlar och sånger, Martin Bagge, by Fred Åkerström with Katarina Fritzén and Orjan Larson on his 1974 album Glimmande Nymf, by Peter Ekberg Pelz on his 1985 album C. M. Bellman, and by Mikael Samuelsson on his 1988 album Carl Michael Bellman.
|
30,930,869 |
A Meeting by the River
| 1,161,246,813 |
1993 studio album by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt
|
[
"1993 albums",
"Blues albums by American artists",
"Blues albums by Indian artists",
"Collaborative albums",
"Grammy Award for Best World Music Album",
"Hindustani classical music albums",
"Instrumental albums",
"New-age albums by American artists",
"New-age albums by Indian artists",
"Pop rock albums by American artists",
"Pop rock albums by Indian artists",
"Ry Cooder albums",
"Water Lily Acoustics albums",
"World music albums by American artists",
"World music albums by Indian artists"
] |
A Meeting by the River is an album recorded by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt; it was recorded in September 1992 and released in April 1993 through the record label Water Lily Acoustics. This improvised, collaborative album features Cooder on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena, a stringed instrument created by Bhatt. A Meeting by the River was produced by Kavichandran Alexander and Jayant Shah, engineered by Alexander, and mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine. It peaked at number four on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart, and earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album at the 36th Grammy Awards in 1994. The album is included in Tom Moon's 2008 book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die.
## Composition
A Meeting by the River was recorded in September 1992; it features Cooder solely on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena, a stringed instrument he created. Allmusic's Daniel Gioffre described the instrument as a hybrid between a guitar and a vichitra veena; it is played with a metal slide moving across steel rods along the neck. Cooder had heard a recording of Hindustani classical music performed by Bhatt and was impressed by his playing and the "haunting clarity" of the Mohan veena. Cooder and Bhatt met for the first time less than one hour before recording began; they improvised much of the set; the album's liner notes state, "this recording was unplanned and unrehearsed". The album was produced by Kavichandran Alexander, founder of Water Lily Acoustics, and Jayant Shah. It was engineered by Alexander, and was mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine. Cooder and Bhatt are accompanied by Cooder's then fourteen-year-old son Joachim on dumbek, a Middle Eastern drum, and by Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari on tabla.
The collaboration between Cooder and Bhatt is Alexander's first attempt to record musicians of different cultures together, one of his goals when he founded the record label. Author George Plasketes described Bhatt's playing as "highly nuanced" and said, Cooder performs in a more "loose-jointed, slip 'n' slide style". According to Gioffre, Cooder and Bhatt use improvisation and "voice-like" phrasing, showing melodic performances in an alternating fashion and in unison. The album contains four tracks, three of which are credited to Cooder and Bhatt; tracks range in duration from approximately seven-and-a-half minutes to twelve minutes. "Longing" has a structure similar to a raga. Author Tom Moon said Cooder takes the lead on the hymn "Isa Lei" as Bhatt contributes "elaborate squiggling asides" and "swooping nosedives". In 2011, Bhatt performed "A Meeting by the River" at a music festival in honor of guru Kelucharan Mohapatra. Bhatt said of the song, "Music has no religion and no geographical or linguistic barrier. It speaks a universal language. My composition – 'A Meeting by the River' – aims at explaining this." Bhatt has said he considers working with Cooder his "most special" collaboration.
## Reception
Gioffre wrote a positive review of the album and called Cooder and Bhatt "genuine masters" of their respective instruments. He described the musical interplay between the musicians as "nothing short of astounding" and the album as a rare instance in which a combination of genres works. Gioffre also wrote, "this album is masterfully recorded; each instrument is clear, distinct, and three-dimensional sounding. A Meeting by the River is a must-own, a thing of pure, unadulterated beauty, and the strongest record in Cooder's extensive catalog." Peter Margasak of the Chicago Tribune awarded the album four stars out of four, describing Cooder's performance as "arresting" and Bhatt's as "haunting". Margasak wrote that the fusion revealed a "rare, often transcendental beauty" as the two artists "gently and intuitively" found common ground. Rolling Stone called the album "fruitful" and awarded it three stars out of five.
## Chart performance and recognition
A Meeting by the River reached a peak position of number four on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart. In 1994, the album earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album. Bhatt became one of a few Indian musicians to have received a Grammy Award until A. R. Rahman won at the 52nd Grammy Awards in 2010. Previous Indian award winners had been recognized jointly with Western artists. The February 25, 1995, issue of Billboard, which featured the annual "Indies Spotlight" and covered independent music between the January 29, 1994, and January 21, 1995, issues of the magazine included A Meeting by the River at number ten on its list of the "Top Indie World Music Albums". The album is included in Tom Moon's 2008 book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die: A Listener's Life List.
## Track listing
All tracks by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt unless noted otherwise.
1. "A Meeting by the River" – 10:03
2. "Longing" – 11:56
3. "Ganges Delta Blues" – 9:57
4. "Isa Lei" (Caten) – 7:39
Track listing adapted from Allmusic.
## Personnel
- Kavichandran Alexander – engineer, liner notes, producer
- Vishwa Mohan Bhatt – Mohan veena, performer, slide guitar
- Joachim Cooder – dumbek
- Ry Cooder – bottleneck guitar, guitar, performer
- Tim de Paravicini – technical consultant
- Kevin Michael Gray – mastering
- Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari – tabla
- Rumi – liner notes, quotes
- Mike Sexton – cover photo, photography
- Jayant Shah – producer
- Leslie Shirack – art direction
- Gus Skinas – authoring
- Paul Stubblebine – digital mastering
- Susan Titelman – photography
Credits adapted from Allmusic.
|
42,534,244 |
Billy's Bucket List
| 1,151,200,846 | null |
[
"2014 American television episodes",
"Adventure Time (season 5) episodes"
] |
"Billy's Bucket List" is the final episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time. The episode was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan, from a story by Kent Osborne, Pendleton Ward, Jack Pendarvis, and Adam Muto. It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 17, 2014. The episode guest stars Lou Ferrigno, Andy Samberg, and Mark Hamill; Castuera herself also voiced a character.
The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. In this episode, Finn finds Billy's (voiced by Ferrigno) bucket list and decides to complete the unfinished items, as a tribute toward the fallen hero. After completing most of the items, including giving Billy's ex-girlfriend Canyon (voiced by Castuera) one last motorcycle ride, and conquering his fear of the ocean, an apparition of Billy appears to Finn, telling him that Finn's biological father is still alive.
The episode was the last to feature Castuera as a storyboard artist until her return to the series during the seventh season; in the interim time, she focused on her art career. This episode also marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director; he left to direct the animated mini-series Over the Garden Wall. "Billy's Bucket List" was met with critical acclaim, with one reviewer complimenting the episode's cliffhanger and emotional growth. In addition, the episode was watched by 2.335 million viewers.
## Plot
During a freestyle rap battle with Rap Bear, hosted by Party Pat (voiced by Andy Samberg), Finn is approached by Billy's (voiced by Lou Ferrigno) ex-girlfriend, Canyon (voiced by Ako Castuera). She delivers Billy's loincloth to Finn, and Finn and she venture back to Billy's lair to pay their respects and move on. At his cavern, Finn defeats a group of fairies and then discovers a bucket list penned by Billy. Canyon and Finn decide to complete it as a tribute to the fallen hero. The two go on a joy ride in a desert environment, and afterwards Canyon and Finn part ways. Finn soon discovers that the list contains one more item hidden at the bottom left corner reading: "Lie on my back in the ocean. Just float."
Finn, terrified of the ocean, decides to do this final task for Billy, but the Fear Feaster (voiced by Mark Hamill) manifests and taunts him, until he knocks himself unconscious; during this time, he has an intense dream of swimming through the ocean and being consumed by a whale. Eventually he wakes up, and — possibly involuntarily — uses his grass sword to slice through and destroy the Fear Feaster, ending Finn's ocean fear for good. The spirit of Billy manifests itself before Finn in the sky, thanking him for completing his list. Before his spirit departs, he reveals to Finn that his human father is still alive, trapped in a mysterious place known only as the "Citadel".
## Production
"Billy's Bucket List" was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan, from a story by Kent Osborne, Pendleton Ward, Jack Pendarvis, and Adam Muto. This episode was the last to feature Castuera—who had been storyboarding on the show since the first season finale "Gut Grinder"—until her return to the series during the seventh season. According to Moynihan, Castuera left the show "to do something different and pursue other interests" as well as to "pursue a different path from television animation." On September 29, 2014, however, Kent Osborne posted an image on Instagram, confirming that Castuera and Moynihan would again be partners for the seventh season. Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings, whereas supervising direction was cohelmed by Nate Cash and Adam Muto. This episode marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director, as he later left the series to direct the animated mini-series Over the Garden Wall.
Castuera herself voiced Canyon. The episode also features the return of Lou Ferrigno as the hero Billy; Ferrigno had previously appeared in the first-season episode "His Hero" and the fourth season finale "The Lich". In addition, both comedian and rapper Andy Samberg, as well as actor Mark Hamill, reprise their roles as Party Pat and the Fear Feaster, respectively. Samberg had previously voiced the character in the second season episode "Belly of the Beast", whereas Hamill had appeared in the first-season episode, "Ocean of Fear".
The rap battle music was scored by Moynihan, who made heavy use of orchestra hits. The instrumental was later uploaded to SoundCloud and shared by the official Adventure Time production blog. In one of the episode's background art pieces, artist Derek Ballard inserted a buried car, homemade bombs, and a hole in the side of a cliff, additions that he claims were in honor of "one of America’s greatest film treasures: Tremors".
## Reception
"Billy's Bucket List" first aired on Cartoon Network on March 17, 2014. The episode was viewed by 2.335 million viewers and scored a 0.5 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States, which means that the episode was seen by 0.5 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode's airing. Furthermore, the episode was the 43rd most-watched cable program on the night it aired.
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an "A−", arguing that it was an example of the series' continued growth: he wrote, "as Finn grows, so does this series". Sava opined that, "the final minute of “Billy’s Bucket List” drops a major plot-bomb that gives the series an exciting direction for next season, and while the events leading up to the cliffhanger aren't quite as provocative or substantial as the last few episodes, they represent all the things that make this show such a great 10-minute oasis at the beginning of the week." Sava also noted that, "Trippy psychedelia is another major ingredient of this series, and 'Billy’s Bucket List' delivers a heavy serving when Finn finds himself underwater."
Andrea Reiher of Zap2it called the episode "a great ending to Season 5". Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode an "A", noting that while the series "can do hilarious weirdness in its sleep," this episode in particular "showcases its soulfulness". He described the main plot as "oddly introspective", and wrote that the end was "a surprise reveal—a mythology boost that could push the show in a radical new direction."
## Explanatory notes
|
23,419,867 |
Green-head ant
| 1,167,512,750 |
Species of ant
|
[
"Ants of New Zealand",
"Ectatomminae",
"Endemic fauna of Australia",
"Hymenoptera of Australia",
"Hymenoptera of New Zealand",
"Insects described in 1858"
] |
The green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica), also known as the green ant or metallic pony ant, is a species of ant that is endemic to Australia. It was described by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 as a member of the genus Rhytidoponera in the subfamily Ectatomminae. These ants measure between 5 and 7 mm (0.20 and 0.28 in). The queens and workers look similar, differing only in size, with the males being the smallest. They are well known for their distinctive metallic appearance, which varies from green to purple or even reddish-violet. Among the most widespread of all insects in Australia, green-head ants are found in almost every Australian state, but are absent in Tasmania. They have also been introduced in New Zealand, where several populations have been established.
This species lives in many habitats, including deserts, forests, woodland and urban areas. They nest underground below logs, stones, twigs, and shrubs, or in decayed wooden stumps, and are sometimes found living in termite mounds. They are among the first insects to be found in burnt-off areas after the embers have stopped smouldering. Rain presents no threat to colonies as long as it is a light shower in continuous sunshine. The green-head ant is diurnal, active throughout the day, preying on arthropods and small insects or collecting sweet substances such as honeydew from sap-sucking insects. They play an important role in seed dispersal, scattering and consuming seeds from a variety of species. Predators include the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and a number of bird species.
Green-head ant workers are gamergates, meaning they can reproduce with winged males. With workers taking over the reproductive role, queens are relatively insignificant and are rarely produced in colonies. Nuptial flight begins in spring, with males mating with one or two females. Queens that establish their own colonies are semi-claustral, going out and foraging to support their young. Another way colonies are formed is through budding, where a subset of the colony leaves the main colony for an alternative nest site. The green-head ant is known for its painful and venomous sting that can cause anaphylactic shock in sensitive humans. However, they can also be beneficial to humans, acting as a form of pest control by preying on agricultural pests such as beetles, moths and termites.
## Taxonomy
The green-head ant was first described in 1858 by British entomologist Frederick Smith in his Catalogue of Hymenopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum part VI, under the binomial name Ponera metallica based on two syntypes; a worker and a queen he collected in Adelaide, South Australia. These specimens were later reviewed in 1958 with the designation of a lectotype from the syntypes, but it is unclear which specimen was designated. The material is currently housed in the Natural History Museum in London. In 1862 Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr moved the species from the genus Ponera and placed it in Rhytidoponera as Ectatomma (Rhytidoponera) metallicum, which at the time was a newly erected subgenus of Ectatomma. Mayr's original reclassification was short-lived as in 1863 he moved the ant from Rhytidoponera to Ectatomma. In 1897 Italian entomologist Carlo Emery named the ant Rhytidoponera metallica and in 1911 designated it as the type species of Chalcoponera, a subgenus of Rhytidoponera; the ant was, however, mistakenly identified as the type species of Rhytidoponera by some scientists.
The taxonomy of the green-head ant and other species related to it (forming the R. metallica species group) were a source of confusion due to the high geographic variations in the green-head ant and similar-looking species having been treated as forms (occurrence of multiple morphs). These forms have been described under different names through inadequate characterisations. In 1958 American entomologist William Brown Jr., synonymised Rhytidoponera caeciliae, Rhytidoponera pulchra, Rhytidoponera purpurascens and Rhytidoponera varians with the green-head ant after reviewing the ants in a 1958 journal article. The taxon R. purpurascens was named after its dark-purple appearance by William Morton Wheeler, but R. metallica tends to appear purple around the regions where Wheeler originally collected R. purpurascens. After examining collected specimens, Brown also noted no morphological differences between R. pulchra and R. caeciliae. The species R. varians was described from specimens collected in Darlington, Western Australia. American entomologist Walter Cecil Crawley stated that the subspecies differs from R. metallica by its smaller size and faded metallic colour, varying from yellow-brown in most specimens to a metallic green on the head, thorax and gaster with no evidence of purple colouring. An examination of R. varians showed that the superficial punctures of the gastric dorsum are coarser than usual, but these variants are found not only around the original collection site, but also throughout the southern regions of Australia. Such feature may occur naturally, which disallows R. varians to be considered as a separate population from R. metallica. Under the present classification, the green-head ant is a member of the genus Rhytidoponera in the tribe Ectatommini, subfamily Ectatomminae. It is a member of the family Formicidae, belonging to the order Hymenoptera, an order of insects containing ants, bees, and wasps. Other than its name "green-head ant", it is commonly known as the "metallic pony ant" or "green ant" in Queensland. However, this may be confusing, as residents living in northern Queensland call the green-tree ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) "green ants".
## Description
In general, green-head ants are monomorphic (occurs in a single form), measuring 5 to 7 mm (0.20 to 0.28 in) in length and varying in colour, ranging from green-blue to green-purple. Their exoskeletons are hard and heavily armoured with a single-segmented waist.
The queens measure 7.4 mm (0.29 in) with the head, thorax, and abdomen exhibiting various metallic colours. The head is usually green behind the eyes and ferruginous (rust in colour) at the front with a less obvious purple tint between the colours. The antennae are ferruginous and the eyes are ovate (shape resembling an egg). The head is emarginate (having a notched tip or edge) from its posterior view and also rugose, along with the thorax and node (a segment between the mesosoma and gaster); these body parts are covered with large confluent punctures. The basal segment of the abdomen has transversely curved striae (grooves which run across the body). The colour of the thorax is usually greenish, the wings are subhyaline (they have a glassy appearance), and the nervures (the veins of the wings) are testaceous (brick-red colour). The legs and apex are ferruginous, and the abdomen is purple.
The workers and queens closely resemble each other, making the two castes hard to distinguish, but the workers differ in having a compressed and elongated thorax, and an abdomen that is predominately green-tinted. The workers are also slightly smaller than the queens, measuring 6 mm (0.24 in). The males are smaller than the workers and queens, measuring 5.5 mm (0.22 in) and appear to be black and fuscous (dark and sombre). The tarsus is fuscous, and the mandibles are rugose. In contrast to the workers and queens, the funicular joints are shorter, the sculpture is denser on the head and thorax, the number of punctures is less than that of the other castes and the postpetiole is coarser. The first segment of the gaster is transversely roughened, and the pilosity (hair) on the legs is less dense. The genitalia of the male is consistent with other formicids, composed of an outer, middle, and inner pair of valves.
The predominant metallic colour is green, but can vary by region, ranging from metallic green to purple. In the Flinders Ranges of South Australia and Alice Springs, the colour of the ants shifts from the typical green to a dark purple colour. In areas with more rainfall such as the New South Wales tablelands and Victorian savannahs, green-head ants are mostly green with purplish tints seen on the sides of the mesosoma. In the northern regions of New South Wales and Queensland, the alitrunk is reddish-violet, which shades into golden around the lower portions of the pleura. The green colour is either limited or completely absent in this case. Most populations have a bright green gaster, except for those living in the central desert. In some areas examined near Brisbane, two different colour forms were discovered within a single colony. One possibility is that the two colour forms may represent two sibling species, but this cannot be confirmed because of lack of evidence. In far north Queensland, populations appear to be dull green and distinct to those living in the south, but it is unknown how the ants in the far north and south hook up at the western and southern regions of the Atherton Tableland. With this said, it is unknown if the far north populations are actually a different species. In addition to colour variation, there are morphological differences among populations. For example, the size and shape of the head and petiole, the length of the appendages, and other sculptural details of the body may all vary.
Sub-mature larvae measure 4.4 mm (0.17 in) and appear similar to sub-mature R. cristata larvae. They can be distinguished by a less-swollen abdomen and shorter body hairs, measuring 0.096 to 0.15 mm (0.0038 to 0.0059 in). On the thorax and abdomen somite, they measure 0.2 mm (0.0079 in). On the flagelliform and ventral portion of the abdominal somites, they measure 0.075 to 0.15 mm (0.0030 to 0.0059 in). The hairs on the head have short denticles, and the antennae have three apical sensilla, each containing a somewhat bulky spinule. Young larvae are much smaller than sub-mature larvae at 1.5 mm (0.059 in) long. They appear similar to sub-mature larvae, but the diameter differs, gradually decreasing from the fifth somite to the anterior end. The hairs measure 0.02 to 0.18 mm (0.00079 to 0.00709 in), with the longest found on the flagelliform and on all somites; the hairs on the somites, however, become sparse. The tips of the hairs on the head are simple or frayed, and overall the hairs measure 0.02 to 0.076 mm (0.00079 to 0.00299 in). Both antennae have a subcone and three apical sensilla that resemble a spinule. The mandibles are sub-triangular with a curved apex. The apical and subapical teeth are sharp and short, but the proximal tooth is blunt. Unlike the mature larvae, the proximal tooth is not divided into two portions.
## Distribution and habitat
The green-head ant is among the most widespread of all insects endemic to Australia. The ant is found throughout Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia. It can be found in most areas of Western Australia but is less common in the north, and is present in the lower regions of the Northern Territory and east of Queensland. They are not present in Tasmania. The green-head ant is an introduced species to New Zealand and was first seen in 1959. Populations of the ant were probably introduced into the country on cargoes of timber; a number of other Rhytidoponera species were most likely introduced the same way. Populations have been established in Napier, as the ants were collected in the town between 2001 and 2003. Nests were previously found in the suburb of Penrose in Auckland and Mount Maunganui, but no specimens have been collected there since the 1960s.
The habitat of the green-head ant varies, ranging from desert, heath, open forests, urban areas and woodland. These ants mainly live in moderate wooded or open areas, but they are abundant in lawns and gardens in cities. Nests have been found in dry and wet sclerophyll woodland, mallee, savannah woodland, on roadsides, and in native vegetation. Green-head ants are mostly found at altitudes of between 5 and 1,000 m (16 and 3,281 ft) above sea level. The workers construct small and loosely integrated nests underground or in decaying wooden stumps. They may also nest in the termite mounds of Amitermes laurensis. These nests are commonly found beneath grass roots or under logs, stones, twigs, or at the base of shrubs. Green-head ants can nest in disturbed areas, and, as a result, colonies of these ants are rather common in urban areas. They are among the first insects to be seen foraging for food in areas where bushfires have occurred, and in some cases they return right after the embers have stopped smouldering. Rain also presents no threat to green-head ants as long as it is a light shower in continuous sunshine.
## Behaviour and ecology
Colonies show variation as to favoured nest location, with some, for example, avoiding nesting under small rocks and preferring larger ones, which apparently promote colony growth. The promotion of colony growth is associated with territory size, border disputes, the increase of alates (fertile females and males), colony survival, and stable worker production. Colony growth under smaller rocks is slow and restricted. A colony that increases in size requires a larger space to accommodate such growth and the extra brood and workers. Despite this, green-head ants do not discriminate among rocks according to their thickness or temperature. Instead, they choose a rock based on its ground cover dimensions. The distance of a rock is also important; colonies move no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) to a rock they prefer. This suggests that the cost of moving to a suitable nesting site outweighs the benefits of moving to a larger rock. A large expenditure of energy is required for a move: scouts must first find a suitable site, brood must be transported safely, and the colony is exposed to an increased risk of predation. Nest abandonment by the green-head ant varies, but peaks during summer. Like other temperate species, activity in colonies is greatly reduced during the colder months, which may be the reason there is a high proportion of nest abandonment during summer. Nests abandoned by green-head ants are unlikely to be invaded by other species, so nest invasions are an unlikely cause of nest vacation. The structural breakdown of a nest and competition with other neighbouring colonies is also unlikely, but a possible factor is the seasonal production of food sources and food competition.
### Foraging, diet and predators
The green-head ant is a diurnal species that is active throughout the day, quickly foraging on either the ground or vegetation. They are scavengers, predators and seed-eaters, generally having a broad diet of animal material, insects, small arthropods, honeydew from sap-sucking insects and seeds. The workers usually prey on beetles, moths and termites, using their stingers to kill them by injecting venom. The removal of the capitula (structure similar to an elaiosome) from Eurycnema goliath eggs reduces the chances of them being collected by green-head ants that carry them back into their nests. In areas where the meat ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus) is dominant, the green-head ant is not affected by its presence and is still successful in finding food sources. As green-head ants are primitive general predators, in contrast to the more advanced species (which forage in groups and always communicate via trail pheromones), they are unable to defend food sources from dominant ants. They rely heavily on any food source, and the impossibility of successfully defending it from other ants may have led to their peaceful coexistence with dominant species, including meat ants.
Experiments suggest that the specific diets can result in differentiated mortality rates among colonies. In one experiment, three captive colonies were given three different diets: one colony was given the "Bhatkar and Whitcomb diet", an artificial diet consisting of whole raw eggs, honey and vitamin-mineral capsules, another was given honey-water and Drosophila flies while the third colony was given a standardised artificial diet of digestible carbohydrates. The two colonies that were given the standardised artificial diet and honey-water and flies were shown to raise more brood with a lower mortality in workers in contrast to the colony that received the Bhatkar and Whitcomb diet.
The green-head ant is a seed-eating species, showing a preference for seeds with low mechanical defence properties, with stronger seeds being rarely eaten. They are known to collect non-arillate seeds and disperse the seeds of the myrtle wattle (Acacia myrtifolia), golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), coastal wattle (Acacia sophorae), sweet wattle (Acacia suaveolens) and juniper wattle (Acacia ulicifolia). Green-head ants relocate almost half of the seeds they feed on approximately 60 to 78 centimetres (24 to 31 in) away from their nests in both unburned and burned habitats. In some cases, the seeds of Adriana quadripartita are dispersed much farther; the green-head ant accounts for 93% of all ants that collect these seeds and can disperse them as far as 1.5 metres (59 in). One study shows that the green-head ant, along with Aphaenogaster longiceps, removed the highest number of seeds and discarded them on top of their nest, with a few remaining several centimetres under the nest. Most seeds dispersed by the green-head ant and A. longiceps are eventually eaten by Pheidole ants. Since the seeds have a higher survival rate if they are not collected by Pheidole, these two ants are more beneficial to the seeds than Pheidole. Seeds in green-head ant nests rarely germinate.
Foraging factors such as time spent outside and distance travelled by workers has been correlated to colony size. Workers living in smaller colonies tend to forage smaller distances and spend less time outside, whereas those in larger colonies spend more time outside and at greater distances from their nest. Such results have also been seen in the western honey bee (Apis mellifera), but, unlike the honey bees, workers from small and large colonies transported equal workloads. The decreased foraging time may reduce the risk of predation and save energy; for example, the limited energy in R. aurata is a result of time spent looking for food sources, rather than the collection of food items. The shorter foraging periods seen in smaller colonies results in these nests preserving energy and adopting behaviour that is less energetic. Group retrieval only occurs if a worker encounters another nestmate that is heavily loaded with resources. As these ants are solitary foragers and rarely recruit other nestmates, the chance of a worker encountering others is improved by marking the ground with trail pheromones. This behaviour may serve as a simple method of localised chemical recruitment of other nestmates. Marking behaviour increases when workers encounter large prey items, which suggests that foragers with heavy loads deliberately try to raise the encounter rate with nestmates. However, when workers are transporting small to large crickets, marking behaviour decreases to ensure transport efficiency and lower the retrieval time for other ants. Workers can quickly readjust their foraging activity in accordance with food quality.
Large green-head ant colonies exhibit age caste polyethism, where the younger workers act as nurses and tend to the brood and the older workers go out and forage. In smaller colonies, age caste polyethism does not occur, with nursing and foraging initiated by both younger and older workers. These results show that ageing is not the mechanism that drives labour among colonies. The emergence of age polyethism in larger colonies is a result of worker specialisation. Workers in small colonies usually tend to the brood much more than those in larger colonies, but this is due to the differentiated social environment between small and large societies. In contrast, old workers from large colonies forage for significant periods of time, and those in small colonies forage less. A predatory species such as the green-head ant may not be able to increase prey retrieval within its environment, even if there is a larger foraging force. This means that the workers may have to spend more time foraging to retrieve any prey item. Contact among nestmates also differs between small and large colonies, strongly suggesting that colony size regulates contact rates. Higher contact rates allow colonies to scan their environment and determine their needs more quickly, which makes a colony react faster. Task allocation patterns (referring to the way that tasks are chosen) are different in small and large colonies, which may determine the contact rate.
Green-head ants are prey for a number of predators, including assassin bugs and the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), in the faeces of which have been found worker ants. Birds also eat these ants, including the Australian white ibis (Threskiornis moluccus), black kite (Milvus migrans), masked lapwing (Vanellus miles) and the Australian owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus). Workers and larvae can be infected by parasites; examined workers were seen with late-stage pupae of an unidentified parasite in their thoraces. In some nests of the green-head ant, some myrmecophilous insects such as the beetle Chlamydopsis longipes are sometimes seen living inside colonies.
### Life cycle and reproduction
Green-head ant males are produced irregularly throughout the year and are low-flying ants. Recorded nuptial flights begin between September and November at temperatures of 20–25 °C (68–77 °F), when a number of males begin to emerge from their nest. Sometimes, however, the males may return to their nest after briefly appearing outside. The green-head ant is a gamergate species, which means that males can successfully mate with the workers. These workers remain outside their nest with their head and thorax appressed and gaster elevated into the air. Observation has shown the workers first attacking the males when the two first encounter each other, followed by the male mounting the worker by grasping it in the cervical region with its mandibles, successfully attaching itself. Both ants usually rest when they mate, but sometimes the workers may groom themselves or move about several moments after, thereby disengaging with the male. On a few occasions, workers have been seen to move as soon as copulation begins and drag the male, eventually dislodging it. Copulation usually occurs at 8 to 9 in the morning, with pairs lasting for 30 seconds to almost one minute. Most pairs mate once, but others may copulate with each other twice. In some cases, males will successfully mate with two workers, and some pairs may return to their nest while mating.
The green-head ant is known for its rarity of virgin queens, with some nests occasionally producing winged females; queens are able to establish their own colonies in captivity, but out in the wild they have never been seen to establish a colony, suggesting that the species is losing its queen caste. The majority of observations show males mating with workers, but not queens. One factor further suggesting the loss of the queen caste is that the green-head ant is going through an evolutionary process where queens are a rare morphological form with little significance, so workers usually replace the queens and take on the reproductive role. Queens still undertake the role of nuptial flight as some have been seen mating with males. They are known to release a sex pheromone from the pygidial gland, an exocrine gland found between the last two abdominal segments. The ergatoid (wingless reproductive females) queens emerge from their nest and, like the workers, appress their head onto the ground and elevate their gaster, from which the intersegmental membrane at the back of the abdomen extends. The queens then release the sex pheromones, which attracts the males, who frantically search for the queens through agitated locomotion. The males may attempt to copulate with workers that did not "call" for them, suggesting that workers might be able to release these pheromones. When a male makes contact with a queen, the male touches her with his antennae and grasps the female's thorax with his mandibles. A queen is ready to mate when she turns her abdomen to the side, where the male will search for the genitalia with his copulatory apparatus (parts of the organ involved with copulation). The pair may copulate for several minutes.
Colony founding is mostly initiated by a fertilised worker that establishes herself in a closed cell, from which she sometimes emerges to forage for food. Observations show that most workers establishing their own colonies follow the typical behaviour of a Ponerine ant, laying eggs and rearing their larvae. However, the brood in captive colonies founded by workers only emerges as males. Such a case would mean that a new colony is probably formed by a number of workers leaving their parent nest, of which a few individuals are fertilised. This process is called budding, also called "satelliting" or "fractionating", where a subset of the colony leave the main colony for an alternative nest site. This may not be the case entirely, as some queens can establish their own colonies. Inseminated queens can successfully establish a colony in non-claustral, haplometrotic conditions (as in founded by a single queen that hunts for food to feed her young), but the development of a colony straight after colony founding is very slow, whereas other Rhytidoponera species tend to grow faster. There is also a clear sign of division of labour between the queens and workers. Upon the death of a queen, workers may sometimes compete and exhibit sexual calling behaviour, which means that workers are able to reproduce in queenless nests. Despite the near-absence of queens, long-range dispersal with winged queens may still be an option. Colonies start small but can rapidly expand to the point they are considered mature.
Genetic patterns suggest that green-head ant workers mate with unrelated males from distant colonies. The relatedness among workers is also very low, and there is a high proportion of gamergate ants. If the gamergates are all unrelated, the number of gamergates living in a nest can reach as many as nine; all of these gamergates contribute to the reproduction of young. The average number of gamergates can still be very high if they are related and get a larger share in reproduction. Most of the time, however, gamergates are generally unrelated, and it is uncommon for them to have a degree of relatedness. In many colonies, workers and gamergates police young females, which prevents them from reproducing. The increased intra-colony genetic variance resulting from low kinship is considered to provide a selective advantage in the form of an expanded pharmacological venom repertoire.
## Relationship with humans
The green-head ant possesses a highly potent sting that can be painful but is short-lived. An icepack or commercially available spray can be used to relieve the pain, but individuals experiencing an allergic reaction are normally taken to the hospital for treatment. The venom is powerful enough to cause anaphylactic shock in sensitive humans. In a 2011 Australian ant allergy venom study, of which the objective was to determine which native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, researchers were able to identify the ant venom causing the allergic reactions of 299 participants. 34 of the participants reacted to the venom of the green-head ant. The rest of the participants reacted to Myrmecia venom, in particular, 186 to M. pilosula alone. The study concluded that four main groups of Australian ants were responsible for causing anaphylaxis. The green-head ant was the only ant that was not a Myrmecia species to cause allergic reactions in participating individuals. Green-head ants have been reported causing mortality amongst poultry. Despite its potential danger to sensitive humans, green-head ants can be beneficial. They can serve as a form of pest control by killing agricultural pests such as beetle and moth larvae and termites.
|
66,225,258 |
Skyline Restaurant
| 1,171,434,363 |
Diner in Portland, Oregon, U.S.
|
[
"1935 establishments in Oregon",
"Diners in Portland, Oregon",
"Northwest Portland, Oregon",
"Restaurants established in 1935",
"Sullivan's Gulch, Portland, Oregon"
] |
Skyline Restaurant (formerly The Speck and nicknamed "The Skyliner") is a diner in northwest Portland, Oregon, in the United States. Established in 1935, the restaurant initially sold fried chicken by a gas station. It gained popularity during the 1950s, and Skyline's menu of American cuisine has changed little since then. Michelle Nelson has owned the diner since 1999; previous owners have included Benny and Phyllis Lum, as well as Ken Hom, who eliminated drive-in service. Skyline's burgers and milkshakes have received a generally positive reception. In 1975, James Beard said the restaurant's burger was among the best in the country, and Food Network Magazine said Skyline had the best burger in Oregon in 2009.
A spin-off restaurant called Sky Two operated during the 1980s, and a second location called Skyline Burgers operated in northeast Portland from 2011 to 2014.
## Description
Skyline Restaurant is located on Skyline Boulevard at Cornell Road in northwest Portland. KOIN has described Skyline as an "iconic drive-in diner that has been serving Portlanders by the thousands every year for the past seven decades". The restaurant has also been described as an "old-school" and "child-friendly, old-fashioned, locally-owned" drive-in with a patio and picnic tables. The Los Angeles Times has described Skyline as a "true '50s diner" with a soda fountain. The Portland Mercury has described the clientele as a "cross-section of high school kids and families, travelers, and even leather-clad couples roadtripping on Harleys".
In 2001, Willamette Week's Jim Dixon said of the interior: "There's an espresso hut tacked onto the Cornell Road side to service the stream of commuters that pours by every morning and an ATM inside... The dining room, a warren of roomy booths and a few small tables, still wears the faded glory of an 40-year-old upgrade." He also wrote, "Wood paneling, acoustic tile ceiling, and those Jetson-y light fixtures from the days of Sputnik provide a fitting setting for food that might have been transported from the Kennedy era as well."
Skyline is open seven days a week, except for Thanksgiving and Christmas. The restaurant has a sign advertising the "Best Burger in Portland". Classic rock is played outside, and orders are announced over a speaker. According to Martin Cizmar of Willamette Week, the restaurant's soundtrack has "lots of Beach Boys and the pre-Tiffany version of 'I Think We're Alone Now'."
### Menu
The restaurant serves American cuisine such as burgers, chili cheese burgers and tater tots, and French fries. The menu also included fish and chips with coleslaw, fried chicken, hot dogs, tuna melt sandwiches, chili, and a Cobb salad. Vegetarian options included a garden burger and a beyond burger. There are two dozen float, malt, and milkshake varieties, including banana, butterscotch, caramel apple, chocolate-covered cherry, hazelnut, marionberry, mocha, peanut butter, peppermint, and pineapple. Pie shake flavors have included banana cream and coconut cream. Skyline has also served a 30-ounce shake. The weekend breakfast menu has included omelettes and pancakes.
## History
Originally known as The Speck, Skyline Restaurant was established in 1935. It initially sold fried chicken next to a gas station, and gained popularity in the mid 1950s. Benny and Phyllis Lum owned the business for fifteen years, before selling it to their relative Ken Hom. Hom, who is of Chinese ancestry, considered adding Chinese cuisine to the menu, but did not "because of the restaurant's tradition". Hom did, however, eliminate drive-in service due to limited interest by customers.
In 1986, The Oregonian's Elizabeth Amsden said Skyline "has changed little since it started serving a hambuger menu more than 25 years ago". She described booths with black cushions, white formica tables, copies of a column written by American chef James Beard on display, and 1950s popular music in the background. Hom had owned the business for a decade at the time. He told The Oregonian that 70 to 80 percent of customers were visitors from downtown Portland. Amsden noted, "At 800 feet elevation, the Skyliner closes for three weeks every winter to give employees vacations when severe weather often affects business. Sometimes it closes two or three times in winter months when snow or freezing rain becomes too severe for car travel on the roads winding up and down the hillside."
Michelle Nelson purchased the business in June 1999. In 2022, KOIN said Skyline "remains true to its original roots of classic American Diner fare". The business suffered multiple break-ins in 2022–2023. Skyline was also impacted by Portland General Electric's temporary public safety power shutoff in September 2022, the result of high risk fire conditions.
### Sky Two and Skyline Burgers
In 1983, Hom established the spin-off restaurant Sky Two at the Yamhill Marketplace. The Oregonian said Sky Two was recently closed, as of August 1986.
Skyline opened a second location, called Skyline Burgers, on Broadway in northeast Portland in 2011. The Sullivan's Gulch space was previously occupied by Chez Jose. Danielle Centoni described the outpost as a "sports bar with a '50s fetish". The menu included steak burgers and cocktails, including a Mai Tai variant called the Hollywood Bowl. The interior had a red-checkered floor, retro decor, and depicting "'50s bobby-sockers' and ... the Portland skyline".
Skyline Burgers had a food challenge called the Quadzilla Challenge, which included: 32 ounces of beef across four patties between two buns with onion rings, bacon, and cheese; 16 ounces of French fries; and a large soda. Patrons who completed the challenge received reimbursement plus a photo on the wall. Andy Kryza included the Quadzilla in Thrillist's 2013 overview of the "craziest" food challenges in the U.S. The location was closed in 2014.
## Reception
The restaurant's burgers and milkshakes have received a generally positive reception. After visiting Skyline in 1975, James Beard said, "People are constantly arguing about where you get the best hamburgers. Well, I've tasted a lot of them in my time and I honestly believe that the hamburger I had this summer at Skyline Drive-In Restaurant ... stands out as one of the best in the country." In 2009, Food Network Magazine said Skyline had the best burger in Oregon.
Josh Ozersky of Time magazine said Skyline's hamburger was "just so-so" and the surrounding scenery ... was awe-inspiring" in 2010. In her 2014 book Portland: A Food Biography, Heather Arndt Anderson said Skyline's burgers and shakes "are a testament to the utter pointlessness of reinventing the wheel". In 2016, Julie Lee of 1859 Oregon's Magazine said "not much has changed over time, including the customers. This is a diner joint loyalists love, with old fashioned red booths and great greasy food".
Drew Tyson included the steak burger in Thrillist's 2014 list of Portland's nine best "under-the-radar" burgers, in which he recommended the original location over the northeast Portland outpost. Rachel Pinsky included Skyline in Eater Portland's 2021 list of 12 "road-trip-worthy" drive-ins for "beefy burgers and swirls of ice cream" in the Portland metropolitan area. In 2022, writers for the website called the diner "the ideal spot for a weekend lunch" after hiking in Forest Park. Similarly, Nathan Williams included Skyline in his overview of "where to grab a bite after an Oregon hike", in which he called the diner a "longtime staple burger joint" ideal for visiting after a Coastal Range hike. The website's Maya MacEvoy also included the restaurant in a 2022 overview of Portland's best milkshakes.
### Newspapers
In 2004, Phil Amara of the Portland Mercury wrote:
> Tucked at the end of a winding, hilly Northwest Portland road, Skyline appears like a lighthouse on rough seas. Going more by the 'build it and they will come' philosophy and less by the realtor mantra of 'location, location, location,' the owners of the '50s-style diner must've gambled that quality, not convenience, would bring customers in the door. And they were right. Skyline has successfully operated for a few decades without hype, clown pitchmen, or toys with your child's food.
Amara opined, "While it may be a blueprint for neo-nostalgia places like Johnny Rockets and Ruby's, Skyline is not a kitschy museum of '50s pop culture. Its interior is humble. No records on the walls, no tacky homage to Elvis, The Beatles, or Buddy Holly. Just great diner food--the way it was intended." Following Food Network Magazine's recognition of Skyline's burger, Grant Butler of The Oregonian disagreed and wondered how research was completed. Michael Russell ranked Skyline number two in the newspaper's 2011 overview of the best "classic" burgers in the metropolitan area. After acknowledging Beard's appreciation for Skyline's burger, Willamette Week's Walker MacMurdo wrote in 2017: "Skyline's burger is no longer among the best in the country." In the newspaper's Burger Madness competition, Skyline lost to Little Big Burger. Writers for Willamete Week said the restaurant's sign advertising the city's best burger was "for good reason" in 2022.
## See also
- List of diners
|
18,557,405 |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2008 Summer Olympics
| 1,059,363,308 | null |
[
"2008 in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines",
"Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics",
"Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the Summer Olympics by year"
] |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. The year's team included two athletes engaged in track and field events (Kineke Alexander and Jared Lewis), and was accompanied by the team coach, manager, and chaperone. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines' appearance in Beijing marked its sixth consecutive Olympic appearance since its 1988 debut in Seoul, South Korea, and its smallest delegation to date. Alexander bore the flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in the opening ceremony and neither athlete medaled in their events or advanced to later rounds.
## Background
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines debuted in the Olympic Games at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea and, as of 2008, has participated in every edition since. The Beijing Games marked the smallest Vincentian delegation in the country's history, the size having declined over the years from its largest delegation of eight participants at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. At the conclusion of the 2008 Summer Olympics, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines' team has yet to medal in an event. The delegation arrived in Beijing on 28 July 2008, and stayed in the Olympic Village for the duration of their time in China. The Vincentians arrived early, three days after the Village itself opened, to make adjusting to the new environment easier. The delegation was accompanied by coach Gideon Labban; team manager Leroy Llewellyn; and chaperone Jacintha Ballantyne. Kineke Alexander was the flagbearer at the opening ceremony, leading Saint Vincent and the Grenadines as the 64th nation in line.
## Athletics
The athletes competing on behalf of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines competed in track and field. Kineke Alexander participated in the women's 400 m sprint, while Jared Lewis took part in the men's 100 m sprint. Neither medaled or advanced to subsequent rounds.
Men
Mississauga Track and Field Club member Jared Lewis qualified for the men's 100 m sprint. At the Beijing Olympics, the first round of Lewis' event took place on 14 August. Lewis was placed in Heat 3, competing against athletes such as Trinidad and Tobago's Richard Thompson, who would later win silver in the event. Lewis ran his event in 11.00 seconds, ranking seventh among of eight competitors, 0.29 seconds ahead of Kiribati's Rabangaki Nawai and 0.54 seconds slower than Indonesia's Suryo Agung Wibowo. Thompson, who took first place in the heat, was 0.76 seconds faster than Lewis. Overall, Lewis tied Danny D'Souza of the Seychelles for 63rd place out of 80 people and did not advance to the second round, which took place on the same day.
Women
University of Iowa student Kineke Alexander qualified for the 400 m sprint, an event in which she earned eight all-American honors during college competitions. Her participation in the Beijing Olympics marked her Olympic debut. At the Games Alexander competed in the first round of the event on 16 August. She was placed in Heat 6 and ranked fourth, completing the race in 52.87 seconds. She was 0.01 seconds faster than Grenada's Trish Bartholomew (5th place), 0.10 seconds slower than Sudan's Nawal El Jack (3rd place), and 1.35 seconds slower than heat leader Novelene Williams of Jamaica. Overall, in the first round, Alexander ranked 32 out of 50 competitors, finishing just ahead of Bartholomew and India's Mandeep Kaur and just behind Poland's Monika Bejnar. The overall round one leader, the United States' Sanya Richards, ran 2.33 seconds faster than Alexander. Alexander did not advance to the semifinal round, as she was neither in the top three places in her given heat nor in the top three fastest of those who did fall below third place in their heats.
Key
- Note–Ranks given for track events are within the athlete's heat only
- Q = Qualified for the next round
- q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or, in field events, by position without achieving the qualifying target
- NR = National record
- N/A = Round not applicable for the event
- Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
## See also
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2007 Pan American Games
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
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History of the United States Navy
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[
"History of the United States Armed Forces by service branch",
"History of the United States Navy",
"History of the United States by topic",
"Military units and formations established in 1775"
] |
The history of the United States Navy divides into two major periods: the "Old Navy", a small but respected force of sailing ships that became notable for innovation in the use of ironclads during the American Civil War, and the "New Navy" the result of a modernization effort that began in the 1880s and made it the largest in the world by 1943.
The United States Navy claims October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, when the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution creating the Continental Navy. With the end of the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Navy was disbanded. Under the Presidency of George Washington, merchant shipping came under threat while in the Mediterranean by Barbary pirates from four North African States. This led to the Naval Act of 1794, which created a permanent standing U.S. Navy. The original six frigates were authorized as part of the Act. Over the next 20 years, the Navy fought the French Republic Navy in the Quasi-War (1798–99), Barbary states in the First and Second Barbary Wars, and the British in the War of 1812. After the War of 1812, the U.S. Navy was at peace until the Mexican–American War in 1846, and served to combat piracy in the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas, as well as fighting the slave trade off the coast of West Africa. In 1845, the Naval Academy was founded at old Fort Severn at Annapolis, Maryland by the Chesapeake Bay. In 1861, the American Civil War began and the U.S. Navy fought the small Confederate States Navy with both sailing ships and new revolutionary ironclad ships while forming a blockade that shut down the Confederacy's civilian coastal shipping. After the Civil War, most of its ships were laid up in reserve, and by 1878, the Navy was just 6,000 men.
In 1882, the U.S. Navy consisted of many outdated ship designs. Over the next decade, Congress approved building multiple modern steel-hulled armored cruisers and battleships, and by around the start of the 20th century had moved from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place in terms of numbers of ships. Most sailors were foreigners. After winning two major battles during the 1898 Spanish–American War, the American Navy continued to build more ships, and by the end of World War I had more men and women in uniform than the British Royal Navy. The Washington Naval Conference of 1921 recognized the Navy as equal in capital ship size to the Royal Navy, and during the 1920s and 1930s, the Navy built several aircraft carriers and battleships. The Navy was drawn into World War II after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and over the next four years fought many historic battles including the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, multiple naval battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign, and the largest naval battle in history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Much of the Navy's activity concerned the support of landings, not only with the "island-hopping" campaign in the Pacific, but also with the European landings. When the Japanese surrendered, a large flotilla entered Tokyo Bay to witness the formal ceremony conducted on the battleship Missouri, on which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender. By the end of the war, the Navy had over 1,600 warships.
After World War II ended, the U.S. Navy entered the 45 year long Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam proxy wars. Nuclear power and ballistic missile technology led to new ship propulsion and weapon systems, which were used in the Nimitz-class aircraft carriers and Ohio-class submarines. By 1978, the number of ships had dwindled to less than 400, many of which were from World War II, which prompted Ronald Reagan to institute a program for a modern, 600-ship Navy. Following the 1990-91 collapse of the Soviet Union the Soviet Navy was divided among the former Soviet Republics and was left without funding, which made the United States the world's undisputed naval superpower, with the ability to engage and project power in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts. This ability was demonstrated during the First and Second Persian Gulf Wars.
In March 2007, the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size, with 274 ships, since World War I. Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to 'aggressive moves by Iran and China.' The United States Navy was overtaken by the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy in terms of raw number of ships in 2020.
## Foundations of the "Old Navy"
### Continental Navy (1775–1785)
The Navy was rooted in the American seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains and shipbuilders in the colonial era. During the Revolution, several states operated their own navies. On June 12, 1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy, and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government.
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants' widespread smuggling activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On August 26, 1775, Rhode Island passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress. The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on October 3, 1775, but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, starting with the schooner USS Hannah that was paid for out of Washington's own pocket. Hannah was commissioned and launched on September 5, 1775, under the command of Captain Nicholson Broughton, from the port of Marblehead, Massachusetts.
The US Navy recognizes October 13, 1775, as the date of its official establishment—the date of the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that created the Continental Navy. On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships. On December 13, 1775, Congress authorized the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months, five ships of 32 guns, five with 28 guns and three with 24 guns.
On Lake Champlain, Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 Navy vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada. The British fleet did destroy Arnold's fleet, but the U.S. fleet managed to slow down the British after a two-day battle, known as the Battle of Valcour Island, and managed to slow the progression of the British Army. By mid-1776, a number of ships, ranging up to and including the thirteen frigates approved by Congress, were under construction, but their effectiveness was limited; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy, and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781.
Privateers had some success, with 1,697 letters of marque being issued by Congress. Individual states, American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions; taking duplications into account more than 2,000 commissions were issued by the various authorities. Over 2,200 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers, amounting to almost \$66 million, a significant sum at the time.
One particularly notable American naval hero of the Revolution was John Paul Jones, who in his famous voyage around the British Isles defeated the British ship Serapis (1779) in the Battle of Flamborough Head. Partway through the battle, with the rigging of the two ships entangled, and several guns of Jones' ship Bonhomme Richard (1765) out of action, the captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors, to which Jones has been quoted as replying, "I have not yet begun to fight!"
France officially entered the war on June 17, 1778, and the ships of the French Navy sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies, and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November. The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island, but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778. In 1779, a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savannah, Georgia.
In 1780, a fleet with 6,000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste, comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport, Rhode Island, and shortly afterwards the fleet was blockaded by the British. In early 1781, Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François, comte de Grasse. Successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York, Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia, and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown, Virginia. On September 5, 1781 a major naval action was fought by de Grasse and the British at the Battle of the Virginia Capes, ending with the French fleet in control of the Chesapeake Bay. The U.S. Navy continued to interdict British supply ships until peace was finally declared in late 1783.
### Disarmament (1785–1794)
The Revolutionary War was ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, and by 1785 the Continental Navy was disbanded and the remaining ships were sold. The frigate Alliance, which had fired the last shots of the American Revolutionary War, was also the last ship in the Navy. A faction within Congress wanted to keep the ship, but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service. Other than a general lack of money, factors for the disarmament of the navy were the loose confederation of the states, a change of goals from war to peace, and more domestic and fewer foreign interests.
After the American Revolutionary War, the brand-new United States struggled to stay financially afloat. National income was desperately needed and most came from tariffs on imported goods. Because of rampant smuggling, the need was immediate for strong enforcement of tariff laws. On August 4, 1790, the United States Congress, urged on by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, created the Revenue-Marine, the forerunner for the United States Coast Guard, to enforce the tariff and all other maritime laws. Ten cutters were initially ordered. Between 1790 and 1797 when the Navy Department was created, the Revenue-Marine was the only armed maritime service for the United States.
American merchant shipping had been protected by the British Navy, and as a consequence of the Treaty of Paris and the disarmament of the Continental Navy, the United States no longer had any protection for its ships from pirates. The fledgling nation did not have the funds to pay annual tribute to the Barbary states, so their ships were vulnerable for capture after 1785. By 1789, the new Constitution of the United States authorized Congress to create a navy, but during George Washington's first term (1787–1793) little was done to rearm the navy. In 1793, the French Revolutionary Wars between Great Britain and France began, and a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar which had kept the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean. Soon after, the pirates sailed into the Atlantic, and captured 11 American merchant ships and more than a hundred seamen.
In reaction to the seizure of the American vessels, Congress debated and approved the Naval Act of 1794, which authorized the building of six frigates, four of 44 guns and two of 36 guns. Supporters were mostly from the northern states and the coastal regions, who argued the Navy would result in savings in insurance and ransom payments, while opponents from southern states and inland regions thought a navy was not worth the expense and would drive the United States into more costly wars.
### Establishment (1794–1812)
After the passage of the Naval Act of 1794, work began on the construction of the six frigates: USS United States, President, Constellation, Chesapeake, Congress, and Constitution. Constitution, launched in 1797 and the most famous of the six, was nicknamed "Old Ironsides" (like the earlier HMS Britannia) and, thanks to the efforts of Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., is still in existence today, anchored in Boston harbor. Soon after the bill was passed, Congress authorized \$800,000 to obtain a treaty with the Algerians and ransom the captives, triggering an amendment of the Act which would halt the construction of ships if peace was declared. After considerable debate, three of the six frigates were authorized to be completed: United States, Constitution and Constellation. However, the first naval vessel to sail was USS Ganges, on May 24, 1798.
At the same time, tensions between the U.S. and France developed into the Quasi-War, which originated from the Treaty of Alliance (1778) that had brought the French into the Revolutionary War. The United States preferred to take a position of neutrality in the conflicts between France and Britain, but this put the nation at odds with both Britain and France. After the Jay Treaty was authorized with Great Britain in 1794, France began to side against the United States and by 1797 they had seized over 300 American vessels. The newly inaugurated President John Adams took steps to deal with the crisis, working with Congress to finish the three almost-completed frigates, approving funds to build the other three, and attempting to negotiate an agreement similar to the Jay Treaty with France. The XYZ Affair originated with a report distributed by Adams where alleged French agents were identified by the letters X, Y, and Z who informed the delegation a bribe must be paid before the diplomats could meet with the foreign minister, and the resulting scandal increased popular support in the country for a war with France. Concerns about the War Department's ability to manage a navy led to the creation of the Department of the Navy, which was established on April 30, 1798.
The war with France was fought almost entirely at sea, mostly between privateers and merchant ships. The first victory for the United States Navy was on July 7, 1798 when USS Delaware captured the French privateer Le Croyable, and the first victory over an enemy warship was on February 9, 1799 when the frigate Constellation captured the French frigate L'Insurgente. By the end of 1800, peace with France had been declared, and in 1801, to prevent a second disarmament of the Navy, the outgoing Federalist administration rushed through Congress an act authorizing a peacetime navy for the first time, which limited the navy to six active frigates and seven in ordinary, as well as 45 officers and 150 midshipmen. The remainder of the ships in service were sold and the dismissed officers were given four months pay.
The problems with the Barbary states had never gone away, and on May 10, 1801 the Tripolitans declared war on the United States by chopping down the flag in front of the American Embassy, which began the First Barbary War. USS Philadelphia was captured by the Moors, but then set on fire in an American raid led by Stephen Decatur. The Marines invaded the "shores of Tripoli" in 1805, capturing the city of Derna, the first time the U.S. flag ever flew over a foreign conquest. This act was enough to induce the Barbary rulers to sign peace treaties. Subsequently, the Navy was greatly reduced for reasons of economy, and instead of regular ships, many gunboats were built, intended for coastal use only. This policy proved completely ineffective within a decade.
President Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican party opposed a strong navy, arguing that small gunboats in the major harbors were all the nation needed to defend itself. They proved useless in wartime.
The Royal Navy continued to illegally press American sailors into the Royal Navy; an estimated 10,000 sailors between 1799 and 1812. In 1807, in the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, HMS Leopard demanded that USS Chesapeake submit to an inspection, ostensibly looking for British citizens but in reality looking for any suitable sailors to press into the Royal Navy. Leopard severely damaged Chesapeake when she refused. The most violent of many such encounters, the affair further fueled the tensions and in June 1812 the U.S. declared war on Britain.
### War of 1812 (1812–1815)
Much of the war was expected to be fought at sea; and within an hour of the announcement of war, the diminutive American navy set forth to do battle with an opponent outnumbering it 50-to-1. After two months, USS Constitution sank HMS Guerriere; Guerriere's crew were most dismayed to see their cannonballs bouncing off Constitution's unusually strong live oak hull, giving her the enduring nickname of "Old Ironsides". On December 29, 1812 Constitution defeated HMS Java off the coast of Brazil and Java was burned after the Americans determined she could not be salvaged. On October 25, 1812, USS United States captured HMS Macedonian; after the battle Macedonian was captured and entered into American service. In 1813, USS Essex commenced a very fruitful raiding venture into the South Pacific, preying upon the British merchant and whaling industry. Essex was already known for her capture of HMS Alert and a British transport the previous year, and gained further success capturing 15 British merchantmen/whalers. The British finally took action, dispatching HMS Cherub and HMS Phoebe to stop the Essex. After violating Chile's neutrality, the British captured Essex in the Battle of Valparaíso.
The capture of the three British frigates led the British to deploy more vessels on the American seaboard to tighten the blockade. On June 1, 1813, off Boston Harbor, the frigate USS Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Sir Philip Broke. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Don't give up the ship!". Despite their earlier successes, by 1814 many of the Navy's best ships were blockaded in port and unable to prevent British incursions on land via the sea.
During the summer of 1814, the British fought the Chesapeake Campaign, which was climaxed by amphibious assaults against Washington and Baltimore. The capital fell to the British almost without a fight, and several ships were burned at the Washington Navy Yard, including the 44-gun frigate USS Columbia. At Baltimore, the bombardment by Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner", and the hulks blocking the channel prevented the fleet from entering the harbor; the army reembarked on the ships, ending the battle.
The American naval victories at the Battle of Lake Champlain and Battle of Lake Erie halted the final British offensive in the north and helped to deny the British exclusive rights to the Great Lakes in the Treaty of Ghent. Shortly before the treaty was signed, USS President was captured by four British frigates. Three days after the treaty was signed, Constitution captured HMS Levant and Cyane. The final naval action of the war occurred almost five months after the treaty on June 30, 1815 when the sloop USS Peacock captured the East India Company brig Nautilus, the last enemy ship captured by the U.S. Navy until World War II.
### Continental Expansion (1815–1861)
After the war, the Navy's accomplishments paid off in the form of better funding, and it embarked on the construction of many new ships. However, the expense of the larger ships was prohibitive, and many of them stayed in shipyards half-completed, in readiness for another war, until the Age of Sail had almost completely passed. The main force of the Navy continued to be large sailing frigates with a number of smaller sloops during the three decades of peace. By the 1840s, the Navy began to adopt steam power and shell guns, but they lagged behind the French and British in adopting the new technologies.
Enlisted sailors during this time included many foreign-born men, and native-born Americans were usually social outcasts who had few other employment options or they were trying to escape punishment for crimes. In 1835, almost 3,000 men sailed with merchant ships out of Boston harbor, but only 90 men were recruited by the Navy. It was unlawful for black men to serve in the Navy, but the shortage of men was so acute this law was frequently ignored.
Discipline followed the customs of the Royal Navy but punishment was much milder than typical in European navies. Sodomy was rarely prosecuted. The Army abolished flogging as a punishment in 1812, but the Navy kept it until 1850.
During the War of 1812, the Barbary states took advantage of the weakness of the United States Navy to again capture American merchant ships and sailors. After the Treaty of Ghent was signed, the United States looked at ending the piracy in the Mediterranean which had plagued American merchants for two decades. On March 3, 1815, the U.S. Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers, beginning the Second Barbary War. Two powerful squadrons under the command of Commodores Stephen Decatur, Jr. and William Bainbridge, including the 74-gun ships of the line Washington, Independence, and Franklin, were dispatched to the Mediterranean. Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers, Decatur's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshuda, and, in the Action of 17 June 1815, captured it. Not long afterward, the American squadron likewise captured the Algerian brig Estedio in the Battle off Cape Palos. By June, the squadrons had reached Algiers and peace was negotiated with the Dey, including a return of captured vessels and men, a guarantee of no further tributes and a right to trade in the region.
Piracy in the Caribbean sea was also a major problem, and between 1815 and 1822 an estimated 3,000 ships were captured by pirates. In 1819, Congress authorized President James Madison to deal with this threat, and since many of the pirates were privateers of the newly independent states of Latin America, he decided to embark on a strategy of diplomacy backed up by the guns of the Navy. An agreement with Venezuela was reached in 1819, but ships were still regularly captured until a military campaign by the West India Squadron, under the command of David Porter, used a combination of large frigates escorting merchant ships backed by many small craft searching small coves and islands, and capturing pirate vessels. During this campaign USS Sea Gull became the first steam-powered ship to see combat action. Although isolated instances of piracy continued into the 1830s, by 1826 the frequent attacks had ended and the region was declared free for commerce.
Another international problem was the slave trade, and the African squadron was formed in 1820 to deal with this threat. Politically, the suppression of the slave trade was unpopular, and the squadron was withdrawn in 1823 ostensibly to deal with piracy in the Caribbean, and did not return to the African coast until the passage of the Webster–Ashburton treaty with Britain in 1842. After the treaty was passed, the United States used fewer ships than the treaty required, ordered the ships based far from the coast of Africa, and used ships that were too large to operate close to shore. Between 1845 and 1850, the United States Navy captured only 10 slave vessels, while the British captured 423 vessels carrying 27,000 captives.
Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802, but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers. During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846, midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion, and their warrants were often obtained via patronage. The poor quality of officer training in the U.S. Navy became visible after the Somers Affair, an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS Somers in 1842, and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer. George Bancroft, appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845, decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers. He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers, and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution in 1845 which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy by Congress in 1851.
Naval forces participated in the effort to forcibly move the Seminole Indians from Florida to a reservation west of the Mississippi. After a massacre of army soldiers near Tampa on December 28, 1835, marines and sailors were added to the forces which fought the Second Seminole War from 1836 until 1842. A "mosquito fleet" was formed in the Everglades out of various small craft to transport a mixture of army and navy personnel to pursue the Seminoles into the swamps. About 1,500 soldiers were killed during the conflict, some Seminoles agreed to move but a small group of Seminoles remained in control of the Everglades and the area around Lake Okeechobee.
The Navy played a role in two major operations of the Mexican–American War (1845–1848); during the Battle of Veracruz, it transported the invasion force that captured Veracruz by landing 12,000 troops and their equipment in one day, leading eventually to the capture of Mexico City, and the end of the war. Its Pacific Squadron's ships facilitated the capture of California.
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry led the Perry Expedition, a squadron of four ships which sailed to Japan to establish normal relations with Japan. Perry's two technologically advanced steam-powered ships and calm, firm diplomacy convinced Japan to end three centuries of isolation and sign the Treaty of Kanagawa with the U.S. in 1854. Nominally a treaty of friendship, the agreement soon paved the way for the opening of Japan and normal trade relations with the United States and Europe.
### American Civil War (1861–1865)
Between the beginning of the war and the end of 1861, 373 commissioned officers, warrant officers, and midshipmen resigned or were dismissed from the United States Navy and went on to serve the Confederacy. On April 20, 1861, the Union burned its ships that were at the Norfolk Navy Yard to prevent their capture by the Confederates, but not all of the ships were completely destroyed. The screw frigate USS Merrimack was so hastily scuttled that her hull and steam engine were basically intact, which gave the South's Stephen Mallory the idea of raising her and then armoring the upper sides with iron plate. The resulting ship was named CSS Virginia. Meanwhile, John Ericsson had similar ideas, and received funding to build USS Monitor.
Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army at the beginning of the war, devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to death the Confederate economy, but overruled Scott's warnings that his new army was not ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack.
On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy initiated the first combat between ironclads when Virginia successfully attacked the blockade. The next day, Monitor engaged Virginia in the Battle of Hampton Roads. Their battle ended in a draw, and the Confederacy later lost Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture. Monitor was the prototype for the monitor warship and many more were built by the Union Navy. While the Confederacy built more ironclad ships during the war, they lacked the ability to build or purchase ships that could effectively counter the monitors.
Along with ironclad ships, the new technologies of naval mines, which were known as torpedoes after the torpedo eel, and submarine warfare were introduced during the war by the Confederacy. During the Battle of Mobile Bay, mines were used to protect the harbor and sank the Union monitor USS Tecumseh. After Tecumseh sank, Admiral David G. Farragut famously said, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!". The forerunner of the modern submarine, CSS David, attacked USS New Ironsides using a spar torpedo. The Union ship was barely damaged and the resulting geyser of water put out the fires in the submarine's boiler, rendering the submarine immobile. Another submarine, CSS H.L. Hunley, was designed to dive and surface but ultimately did not work well and sank on five occasions during trials. In action against USS Housatonic the submarine successfully sank its target but was lost by the same explosion.
The Confederate States of America operated a number of commerce raiders and blockade runners, CSS Alabama being the most famous, and British investors built small, fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba, and The Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton and tobacco. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.
The blockade of the South caused the Southern economy to collapse during the war. Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, and foraging by Union and Confederate armies. The standard of living fell even as large-scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency. By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down, leaving cities without enough food and causing food riots across the Confederacy. The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port, virtually ending blockade running and hastening the end of the war.
### Decline of the Navy (1865–1882)
After the war, the Navy went into a period of decline. In 1864, the Navy had 51,500 men in uniform, and almost 700 ships and about 60 monitor-type coastal ironclads which made the U.S. Navy the second largest in the world after the Royal Navy. By 1880 the Navy only had 48 ships in commission, 6,000 men, and the ships and shore facilities were decrepit but Congress saw no need to spend money to improve them. The Navy was unprepared to fight a major maritime war before 1897.
In 1871, an expedition of five warships commanded by Rear Admiral John Rodgers was sent to Korea to obtain an apology for the murders of several shipwrecked American sailors and secure a treaty to protect shipwrecked foreigners in the future. After a small skirmish, Rodgers launched an amphibious assault of approximately 650 men on the forts protecting Seoul. Despite the capture of the forts, the Koreans refused to negotiate, and the expedition was forced to leave before the start of typhoon season. Nine sailors and six marines received Medals of Honor for their acts of heroism during the Korean campaign; the first for actions in a foreign conflict.
By the 1870s most of the ironclads from the Civil War were laid up in reserve, leaving the United States virtually without an ironclad fleet. When the Virginius Affair first broke out in 1873, a Spanish ironclad happened to be anchored in New York Harbor, leading to the uncomfortable realization on the part of the U.S. Navy that it had no ship capable of defeating such a vessel. The Navy hastily issued contracts for the construction of five new ironclads, and accelerated its existing repair program for several more.
By the time the Garfield administration assumed office in 1881, the Navy's condition had deteriorated still further. A review conducted on behalf of the new Secretary of the Navy, William H. Hunt, found that of 140 vessels on the Navy's active list, only 52 were in an operational state, of which a mere 17 were iron-hulled ships, including 14 aging Civil War era ironclads. Hunt recognized the necessity of modernizing the Navy, and set up an informal advisory board to make recommendations. Also to be expected, morale was considerably down; officers and sailors in foreign ports were all too aware that their old wooden ships would not survive long in the event of war. The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the United States from projecting power overseas, and until the 1890s the United States would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers.
## "New Navy"
### Rebuilding (1882–1898)
In 1882, on the recommendation of an advisory panel, the Navy Secretary William H. Hunt requested funds from Congress to construct modern ships. The request was rejected initially, but in 1883 Congress authorized the construction of three protected cruisers, USS Chicago, USS Boston, and USS Atlanta, and the dispatch vessel USS Dolphin, together known as the ABCD ships. In 1885, two more protected cruisers, USS Charleston and USS Newark which was the last American cruiser to be fitted with a sail rig, were authorized. Congress also authorized the construction of the first battleships in the Navy, USS Texas and USS Maine. The ABCD ships proved to be excellent vessels, and the three cruisers were organized into the Squadron of Evolution, popularly known as the White Squadron because of the color of the hulls, which was used to train a generation of officers and men. Before 1910, when an apprenticeship system was established, most enlisted sailors were foreign mercenaries who spoke little English.
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783, published in 1890 had momentous impact on major navies around the globe. In the United States it justified Expansion to both the government and the general public. With the closing of the frontier, geographical expansionists had to look outwards, to the Caribbean, to Hawaii and the Pacific, and with the doctrine of Manifest Destiny as philosophical justification, many saw the Navy as an essential part of realizing that doctrine beyond the limits of the American continent.
In 1890, Mahan's doctrine influenced Navy Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy to propose the United States start building no less than 200 ships of all types, but Congress rejected the proposal. Instead, the Navy Act of 1890 authorized building three battleships, USS Indiana, USS Massachusetts, and USS Oregon, followed by USS Iowa. By around the start of the 20th century, two Kearsarge-class battleships and three Illinois-class battleships were completed or under construction, which brought the U.S. Navy from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place among the world's navies.
Battle tactics, especially long-range gunnery, became a central concern.
USS Puritan and the four Amphitrite-class monitors, originally ordered after the 1873 Virginius war scare, were completed in the 1880s and 1890s. They were followed by the USS Monterey and the Arkansas-class monitors. All of these vessels except the Arkansas-class would later take part in the Spanish–American War of 1898.
The development of the modern torpedo in Europe between 1866 and 1890 would also lead the Navy to build 35 steam-powered torpedo boats between 1890 and 1901 for coastal defense.
### Spanish–American War (1898)
The United States was interested in purchasing colonies from Spain, specifically Cuba, but Spain refused. Newspapers wrote stories, many which were fabricated, about atrocities committed in Spanish colonies which raised tensions between the two countries. A riot gave the United States an excuse to send USS Maine to Cuba, and the subsequent explosion of Maine in Havana Harbor increased popular support for war with Spain. The cause of the explosion was investigated by a board of inquiry, which in March 1898 came to the conclusion the explosion was caused by a sea mine, and there was pressure from the public to blame Spain for sinking the ship. However, later investigations pointed to an internal explosion in one of the magazines caused by heat from a fire in the adjacent coal bunker.
Assistant Navy secretary Theodore Roosevelt quietly positioned the Navy for attack before the Spanish–American War was declared in April 1898. The Asiatic Squadron, under the command of George Dewey, immediately left Hong Kong for the Philippines, attacking and decisively defeating the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay. A few weeks later, the North Atlantic Squadron destroyed the majority of heavy Spanish naval units in the Caribbean in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
The Navy's experience in this war was encouraging in that it had won but also cautionary in that the enemy had one of the weakest of the world's modern fleets. Also, the Manila Bay attack was extremely risky in which the American ships could have incurred severe damage or run out of supplies, as they were 7,000 miles from the nearest American harbor. That would have a profound effect on Navy strategy and American foreign policy for next several decades.
### Rise of the Modern Navy (1898–1914)
Fortunately for the New Navy, its most ardent political supporter, Theodore Roosevelt, became President in 1901. Under his administration, the Navy went from the sixth largest in the world to second only to the Royal Navy. Theodore Roosevelt's administration became involved in the politics of the Caribbean and Central America, with interventions in 1901, 1902, 1903, and 1906. At a speech in 1901, Roosevelt said, "Speak softly and carry a big stick, you will go far", which was a cornerstone of diplomacy during his presidency.
Roosevelt believed that a U.S.-controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest to the U.S. Navy, because it would significantly shorten travel times for ships between the two coasts. Roosevelt was able to reverse a decision in favor of a Nicaraguan Canal and instead moved to purchase the failed French effort across the Isthmus of Panama. The isthmus was controlled by Colombia, and in early 1903, the Hay–Herrán Treaty was signed by both nations to give control of the canal to the United States. After the Colombian Senate failed to ratify the treaty, Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted, the US Navy would assist their cause for independence. Panama proceeded to proclaim its independence on November 3, 1903, and USS Nashville impeded any interference from Colombia. The victorious Panamanians allowed the United States control of the Panama Canal Zone on February 23, 1904, for US\$10 million. The naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba was built in 1905 to protect the canal.
The latest technological innovation of the time, submarines, were developed in the state of New Jersey by an Irish-American inventor, John Philip Holland. His submarine, USS Holland was officially commissioned into U.S. Navy service in the fall of 1900. The Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and the launching of HMS Dreadnought in the following year lent impetus to the construction program. At the end of 1907 Roosevelt had sixteen new Pre-dreadnought battleships to make up his "Great White Fleet", which he sent on a cruise around the world. While nominally peaceful, and a valuable training exercise for the rapidly expanding Navy, it was also useful politically as a demonstration of United States power and capabilities; at every port, the politicians and naval officers of both potential allies and enemies were welcomed on board and given tours. The cruise had the desired effect, and American power was subsequently taken more seriously.
The voyage taught the Navy more fueling stations were needed around the world, and the strategic potential of the Panama Canal, which was completed in 1914. The Great White Fleet required almost 50 coaling ships, and during the cruise most of the fleet's coal was purchased from the British, who could deny access to fuel during a military crisis as they did with Russia during the Russo-Japanese War.
### World War I (1914–1918)
#### Mexico
When United States agents discovered that the German merchant ship Ypiranga was carrying illegal arms to Mexico, President Wilson ordered the Navy to stop the ship from docking at the port of Veracruz. On April 21, 1914, a naval brigade of marines and sailors occupied Veracruz. A total of 55 Medals of Honor were awarded for acts of heroism at Veracruz, the largest number ever granted for a single action.
#### Preparing for war 1914–1917
Despite U.S. declarations of neutrality and German accountability for its unrestricted submarine warfare, in 1915 the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk, leading to calls for war. President Wilson forced the Germans to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare and after long debate Congress passes the Naval Act of 1916 that authorized a \$500 million construction program over three years for 10 battleships, 6 battlecruisers, 10 scout cruisers, 50 destroyers and 67 submarines. The idea was a balanced fleet, but in the event destroyers were much more important, because they had to handle submarines and convoys. By the end of the war 273 destroyers had been ordered; most were finished after World War I ended but many served in World War II. There were few war plans beyond the defense of the main American harbors.
Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, a pacifistic journalist, had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College an essential experience for would-be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms (no wine in the officers' mess, no hazing at Annapolis, more chaplains and YMCAs). Ignoring the nation's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice. He chopped in half the General Board's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, was Daniels' top aide in 1914; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead, he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William S. Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany.
In 1915 Daniels set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. Daniels and Benson rejected proposals to send observers to Europe, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43% of their seamen. Only a third of the ships were fully ready. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if no one had noticed the U-boat factor that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan" assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight."
#### Fighting a world war, 1917–18
President Wilson ordered the United States Marine Corps enlisted strength increased on March 26; and the United States Naval Academy class of 1917 graduated three months early on March 29 before America entered the war in April 1917. Retired officers were recalled to active duty at shore station billets freeing younger officers for sea duty. The Navy was given control of the Coast Guard and of the Naval Militia of 584 officers and 7,933 men who were assigned to coast patrol service and the Naval Reserve Flying Corps. The Navy took possession of all United States wireless (radio) stations and dismantled those in less useful locations to salvage equipment for military use. The Navy's role was mostly limited to convoy escort and troop transport and laying the North Sea Mine Barrage. The first United States military unit sent to Europe was the First Aeronautic Detachment of seven naval officers and 122 enlisted men who arrived in France on June 5, 1917 to form the Northern Bombing Group. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The first victory for the Navy in the war occurred on November 17, 1917 when USS Fanning and USS Nicholson sank the German U-boat U-58. During World War I, the Navy was the first branch of the United States armed forces to allow enlistment by women in a non-nursing capacity, as Yeoman (F). The first woman to enlist in the U.S. Navy was Loretta Perfectus Walsh on March 17, 1917.
The Navy's vast wartime expansion was overseen by civilian officials, especially Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt. In peacetime, the Navy confined all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, naval guns, and shells to Navy yards. The Navy yards expanded enormously, and subcontracted the shells and explosives to chemical companies like DuPont and Hercules. Items available on the civilian market, such as food and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate and airplanes were purchased on the market.
### Inter-war entrenchment and expansion (1918–1941)
At the end of World War I, the United States Navy had almost 500,000 officers and enlisted men and women and in terms of personnel was the largest in the world. Younger officers were enthusiastic about the potential of land-based naval aviation as well as the potential roles of aircraft carriers. Chief of Naval Operations Benson was not among them. He tried to abolish aviation in 1919 because he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation." However Roosevelt listened to the visionaries and reversed Benson's decision.
After a short period of demobilization, the major naval nations of the globe began programmes for increasing the size and number of their capital ships. Wilson's plan for a world-leading set of capital ships led to a Japanese counter-programme, and a plan by the British to build sufficient ships to maintain a navy superior to either. American isolationist feeling and the economic concerns of the others led to the Washington Naval Conference of 1921. The outcome of the conference included the Washington Naval Treaty (also known as the Five-Power treaty), and limitations on the use of submarines. The Treaty prescribed a ratio of 5:5:3:1:1 for capital ships between treaty nations. The treaty recognized the U.S. Navy as being equal to the Royal Navy with 525,000 tons of capital ships and 135,000 tons of aircraft carriers, and the Japanese as the third power. Many older ships were scrapped by the five nations to meet the treaty limitations, and new building of capital ships limited.
One consequence was to encourage the development of light cruisers and aircraft carriers. The United States's first carrier, a converted collier named USS Langley was commissioned in 1922, and soon joined by USS Lexington and USS Saratoga, which had been designed as battlecruisers until the treaty forbade it. Organizationally, the Bureau of Aeronautics was formed in 1921; naval aviators would become referred to as members of the United States Naval Air Corps.
Army airman Billy Mitchell challenged the Navy by trying to demonstrate that warships could be destroyed by land-based bombers. He destroyed his career in 1925 by publicly attacking senior leaders in the Army and Navy for incompetence for their "almost treasonable administration of the national defense."
Chief of Naval Operations William V. Pratt (1930-1933) agreed with President Hoovers's emphasis on disarmament and went along with postponement of new construction and cutting the fleet. Other naval officers disagreed sharply with Hoover's policies.
President Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945) had been in effect in civilian control of the Navy during World War I, knew many senior officers, and strongly supported naval expansion. The Vinson-Trammell Act of 1934 set up a regular program of ship building and modernization to bring the Navy to the maximum size allowed by treaty. The Navy's preparation was helped along by another Navy assistant secretary turned president, Franklin D. Roosevelt. The naval limitation treaties also applied to bases, but Congress only approved building seaplane bases on Wake Island, Midway Island and Dutch Harbor and rejected any additional funds for bases on Guam and the Philippines. Navy ships were designed with greater endurance and range which allowed them to operate further from bases and between refits.
The Navy had a presence in the Far East with a naval base in the US-owned Philippines and river gunboats in China on the Yangtze River. The gunboat USS Panay was bombed and machine-gunned by Japanese airplanes. Washington quickly accepted Japan's apologies and compensation.
African-Americans were enlisted during World War I, but this was halted in 1919 and they were mustered out of the Navy. Starting in the 1930s a few were recruited to serve as stewards in the officers mess. African-Americans were recruited in larger numbers only after Roosevelt insisted in 1942.
The Naval Act of 1936 authorized the first new battleship since 1921, and USS North Carolina, was laid down in October 1937. The Second Vinson Act authorized a 20% increase in the size of the Navy, and in June 1940 the Two-Ocean Navy Act authorized an 11% expansion in the Navy. Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark asked for another 70% increase, amounting to about 200 additional ships, which was authorized by Congress in less than a month. In September 1940, the Destroyers for Bases Agreement gave Britain much-needed destroyers—of WWI vintage—in exchange for United States use of British bases.
In 1941, the Atlantic Fleet was reactivated. The Navy's first shot in anger came on April 9, when the destroyer USS Niblack dropped depth charges on a U-boat detected while Niblack was rescuing survivors from a torpedoed Dutch freighter. In October, the destroyers Kearny and Reuben James were torpedoed, and Reuben James was lost.
#### Submarines
Submarines were the "silent service"—in terms of operating characteristics and the closed-mouth preferences of the submariners. Strategists had, however, been looking into this new type of warship, influenced in large part by Germany's nearly successful U-boat campaign. As early as 1912, Lieutenant Chester Nimitz had argued for long-range submarines to accompany the fleet to scout the enemy's location. The new head of the Submarine Section in 1919 was Captain Thomas Hart, who argued that submarines could win the next war: "There is no quicker or more effective method of defeating Japan than the cutting of her sea communications." However Hart was astonished to discover how backward American submarines were compared to captured German U-boats, and how unready they were for their mission. The public supported submarines for their coastal protection mission; they would presumably intercept enemy fleets approaching San Francisco or New York. The Navy realized it was a mission that isolationists in Congress would fund, but it was not actually serious. Old-line admirals said the mission of the subs ought to be as eyes of the battle fleet, and as assistants in battle. That was unfeasible since even on the surface submarines could not move faster than 20 knots, far slower than the 30 knot main warships. The young commanders were organized into a "Submarine Officers' Conference" in 1926. They argued they were best suited for the commerce raiding that had been the forte of the U-boats. They therefore redesigned their new boats along German lines, and added the new requirement that they be capable of sailing alone for 7,500 miles on a 75-day mission. Unrestricted submarine warfare had led to war with Germany in 1917, and was still vigorously condemned both by public opinion and by treaties, including the London Treaty of 1930. Nevertheless, the submariners planned a role in unrestricted warfare against Japanese merchant ships, transports and oil tankers. The Navy kept its plans secret from civilians. It was an admiral, not President Roosevelt, who within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack, ordered unrestricted warfare against any enemy ship anywhere in the Pacific.
The submariners had won over Navy strategists, but their equipment was not yet capable of handling their secret mission. The challenge of designing appropriate new boats became a high priority by 1934, and was solved in 1936 as the first new long-range, all welded submarines were launched. Even better were the S-class Salmon class (launched in 1937), and its successors the T-class or Tambor submarines of 1939 and the Gato class of 1940. The new models cost about \$5–6 million each. At 300 feet in length and 1500 tons, they were twice as big as the German U-boats, but still highly maneuverable. In only 35 seconds they could crash dive to 60 feet. The superb Mark 3 TDC Torpedo Data Computer (an analog computer) took data from periscope or sonar readings on the target's bearing, range and angle on the bow, and continuously set the course and proper gyroscope angle for a salvo of torpedoes until the moment of firing. Six forward tubes and 4 aft were ready for the 24 Mk-14 "fish" the subs carried. Cruising on the surface at 20 knots (using 4 diesel engines) or maneuvering underwater at 8-10 knots (using battery-powered electric motors) they could circle around slow-moving merchant ships. New steels and welding techniques strengthened the hull, enabling the subs to dive as deep as 400 feet in order to avoid depth charges. Expecting long cruises the 65 crewmen enjoyed good living conditions, complete with frozen steaks and air conditioning to handle the hot waters of the Pacific. The new subs could remain at sea for 75 days, and cover 10,000 miles, without resupply. The submariners thought they were ready—but they had two hidden flaws. The penny-pinching atmosphere of the 1930s produced hypercautious commanders and defective torpedoes. Both would have to be replaced in World War II.
## Worldwide expansion
### World War II (1941–1945)
#### Command structure
After the disaster at Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt turned to the most aggressive sailor available, Admiral Ernest J. King (1878–1956). Experienced in big guns, aviation and submarines, King had a broad knowledge and a total dedication to victory. He was perhaps the most dominating admiral in American naval history; he was hated but obeyed, for he made all the decisions from his command post in the Washington, and avoided telling anyone. The civilian Secretary of the Navy was a cipher whom King kept in the dark; that only changed when the Secretary died in 1944 and Roosevelt brought in his tough-minded aide James Forrestal. Despite the decision of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Admiral William D. Leahy to concentrate first against Germany, King made the defeat of Japan his highest priority. For example, King insisted on fighting for Guadalcanal despite strong Army objections. His main strike force was built around carriers based at Pearl Harbor under the command of Chester Nimitz. Nimitz had one main battle fleet, with the same ships and sailors but two command systems that rotated every few months between Admiral Bull Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. The Navy had a major advantage: it had broken the Japanese code. It deduced that Hawaii was the target in June 1942, and that Yamamoto's fleet would strike at Midway Island. King only had four carriers in operation; he sent them all to Midway where in a miraculous few minutes they sank the Japanese carriers. This gave the Americans the advantage in firepower that grew rapidly as new American warships came on line much faster than Japan could build them. King paid special attention to submarines to use against the overextended Japanese logistics system. They were built for long-range missions in tropical waters, and set out to sink the freighters, troop transports and oil tankers that held the Japanese domains together. The South West Pacific Area, based in Australia, was under the control of Army General Douglas MacArthur; King assigned him a fleet of his own under Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, without any big carriers.
#### Carrier warfare
On December 7, 1941, Japan's carriers launched the Attack on Pearl Harbor, sinking or disabling the entire battleship fleet. The stupendous defeat forced Admiral King to develop a new strategy based on carriers. Although the sunken battleships were raised, and many new ones were built, battleships played a secondary role in the war, limited chiefly to bombardment of islands scheduled for amphibious landings. The "Big Gun" club that had dominated the Navy since the Civil War lost its clout.
The U.S. was helpless in the next six months as the Japanese swept through the Western Pacific and into the Indian Ocean, rolling up the Philippines as well as the main British base at Singapore. After reeling from these defeats the Navy stabilized its lines in summer 1942.
At the start of the war, the United States and Japan were well matched in aircraft carriers, in terms of numbers and quality, but the Mitsubishi A6M Zero carrier fighter plane was superior in terms of range and maneuverability to its American counterpart, the F4F Wildcat. By reverse engineering a captured Zero, the American engineers identified its weaknesses, such as inadequate protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks, and built the Hellcat as a superior weapon system. In late 1943 the Grumman F6F Hellcats entered combat. Powered by the same 2,000 horsepower Pratt and Whitney 18-cylinder radial engine as used by the F4U Corsair already in service with the Marine Corps and the UK's allied Fleet Air Arm, the F6Fs were faster (at 400 mph) than the Zeros, quicker to climb (at 3,000 feet per minute), more nimble at high altitudes, better at diving, had more armor, more firepower (6 machine guns fired 120 bullets per second) than the Zero's two machine guns and pair of 20 mm autocannon, carried more ammunition, and used a gunsight designed for deflection shooting at an angle. Although the Hellcat was heavier and had a shorter range than the Zero, on the whole it proved a far superior weapon. Japan's carrier and pilot losses at Midway crippled its offensive capability, but America's overwhelming offensive capability came from shipyards that increasingly out produced Japan's, from the refineries that produced high-octane gasoline, and from the training fields that produced much better trained pilots. In 1942 Japan commissioned 6 new carriers but lost 6; in 1943 it commissioned 3 and lost 1. The turning point came in 1944 when it added 8 and lost 13. At war's end Japan had 5 carriers tied up in port; all had been damaged, all lacked fuel and all lacked warplanes. Meanwhile, the US launched 13 small carriers in 1942 and one large one; and in 1943 added 15 large and 50 escort carriers, and more arrived in 1944 and 1945. The new American carriers were much better designed, with far more antiaircraft guns, and powerful radar.
Both sides were overextended in the exhaustive sea, air and land battles for Guadalcanal. The Japanese were better at night combat (because the American destroyers had only trained for attacks on battleships). However, the Japanese could not feed its soldiers so the Americans eventually won because of superior logistics. The Navy built up its forces in 1942–43, and developed a strategy of "island-hopping, that is to skip over most of the heavily defended Japanese islands and instead go further on and select islands to seize for forward air bases.
In the Atlantic, the Allies waged a long battle with German submarines which was termed the Battle of the Atlantic. Navy aircraft flew from bases in Greenland and Iceland to hunt submarines, and hundreds of escort carriers and destroyer escorts were built which were specifically designed to protect merchant convoys. In the Pacific, in an ironic twist, the U.S. submarines fought against Japanese shipping in a mirror image of the Atlantic, with German submarines hunting U.S. merchant ships. At the end of the war the U.S. had 260 submarines in commission. It had lost 52 submarines during the war, 36 in actions in the Pacific. Submarines effectively destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet by January 1945 and choked off Japan's oil supply.
In the summer of 1943, the U.S. began the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. After this success, the Americans went on to the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944. Following their defeat at the Battle of Saipan, the Imperial Japanese Navy's Combined Fleet, with 5 aircraft carriers, sortied to attack the Navy's Fifth Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, which was the largest aircraft carrier battle in history. The battle was so one-sided that it became known as the "Marianas turkey shoot"; the U.S. lost 130 aircraft and no ships while the Japanese lost 411 planes and 3 carriers. Following victory in the Marianas, the U.S. began the reconquest of the Philippines at Leyte in October 1944. The Japanese fleet sortied to attack the invasion fleet, resulting in the four-day Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. The first kamikaze missions were flown during the battle, sinking USS St. Lo and damaging several other U.S. ships; these attacks were the most effective anti-ship weapon of the war.
The Battle of Okinawa became the last major battle between U.S. and Japanese ground units. Okinawa was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles (560 km) south of the Japanese mainland. Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on April 1, 1945, to begin an 82-day campaign which became the largest land-sea-air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives. Japanese kamikaze pilots inflicted the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 36 and the damaging of another 243. Total U.S. casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded, while the Japanese lost over 110,000 men, making Okinawa one of the bloodiest battles in history.
The fierce fighting on Okinawa is said to have played a part in President Truman's decision to use the atomic bomb and to forsake an invasion of Japan. When the Japanese surrendered, a flotilla of 374 ships entered Tokyo Bay to witness the ceremony conducted on the battleship USS Missouri. By the end of the war the US Navy had over 1200 warships, surpassing the size of the Royal Navy.
### Cold War (1945–1991)
The immediate postwar fate of the Navy was the scrapping and mothballing of ships on a large scale; by 1948 only 267 ships were active in the Navy. In 1948 the Women's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Navy.
#### Revolt of the Admirals
The military services were unified in 1947 over the strong objections of Navy Secretary James Forrestal. President Truman appointed him Secretary of Defense, but the two disagreed over budgets and Truman fired him in 1949 when Forrestal took the Navy's side in a public protest against White House policy known as the Revolt of the Admirals. A basic political problem was that the Secretary of Defense did not fully control the budgets of the three services. Each one worked with powerful Congressmen to enhance their budgets despite the White House determination to hold down spending. In 1948–49 the "Revolt of the Admirals" came when a number of retired and active-duty admirals publicly disagreed with President Truman and with his replacement for Forrestal Louis A. Johnson because they wanted less expensive strategic atomic bombs delivered by the Air Force. Forrestal had supported the Navy position and had obtained funding for an aircraft carrier from Congress. Truman fired Forrestal, and Johnson cancelled the carrier and announced plans to move Marine Corps aviation out of the Navy and into the Air Force. During Congressional hearings public opinion shifted strongly against the Navy. In the end the Navy kept Marine aviation and eventually got its carrier, but its revolting admirals were punished and it lost control over strategic bombing. The Truman administration essentially defeated the Revolt, and civilian control over the military was reaffirmed. Military budgets following the hearings prioritized the development of Air Force heavy bomber designs, accumulating a combat ready force of over 1,000 long-range strategic bombers capable of supporting nuclear mission scenarios.
The Navy gradually developed a reputation for having the most highly developed technology of all the U.S. services. The 1950s saw the development of nuclear power for ships, under the leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the development of missiles and jet aircraft for Navy use and the construction of supercarriers. USS Enterprise was the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier and was followed by the Nimitz-class supercarriers. Ballistic missile submarines grew ever more deadly and quiet, culminating in the Ohio-class submarines. Rickover had a strong base of support in Congress and in public opinion, and he forced nuclear power to be a high Navy priority, especially for submarines. Combined with missile technology, this gave the United States the assured second-strike capability that was the foundation of deterrence against the Soviet Union.
#### Korean War and naval expansion
Tension with the Soviet Union and China came to a head in the Korean War, and it became clear that the peacetime Navy would have to be much larger than ever imagined. Fleets were assigned to geographic areas around the world, and ships were sent to hot spots as a standard part of the response to the periodic crises. However, because the North Korean navy was not large, the Korean War featured few naval battles; the combatant navies served mostly as naval artillery for their in-country armies. A large amphibious landing at Inchon succeeded in driving the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel. The Battle of Chosin Reservoir ended with the evacuation of almost 105,000 UN troops from the port of Hungnam.
The U.S. Navy's 1956 shipbuilding program was significant because it included authorization for the construction of eight submarines, the largest such order since World War II. This FY-56 program included five nuclear-powered submarines – Triton, the guided missile submarine Halibut, the lead ship for the Skipjack class, and the final two Skate-class attack submarines, Sargo and Seadragon. It also included the three diesel-electric Barbel class, the last diesel-electric submarines to be built by the U.S. Navy.
#### Vietnam War
An unlikely combination of Navy ships fought in the Vietnam War 1965–72; aircraft carriers offshore launched thousands of air strikes, while small gunboats of the "brown-water navy" patrolled the rivers. Despite the naval activity, new construction was curtailed by Presidents Johnson and Nixon to save money, and many of the carriers on Yankee Station dated from World War II. By 1978 the fleet had dwindled to 217 surface ships and 119 submarines.
#### Soviet challenge
Meanwhile, the Soviet fleet had been growing, and outnumbered the U.S. fleet in every type except carriers, and the Navy calculated they probably would be defeated by the Soviet Navy in a major conflict. This concern led the Reagan administration to set a goal for a 600-ship Navy, and by 1988 the fleet was at 588, although it declined again in subsequent years. The Iowa-class battleships Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin were reactivated after 40 years in storage, modernized, and made showy appearances off the shores of Lebanon and elsewhere. In 1987 and 1988, the United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran, most notably Operation Praying Mantis, the largest surface-air naval battle with US involvement since World War II.
### Post–Cold War (1991–present)
> When a crisis confronts the nation, the first question often asked by policymakers is: 'What naval forces are available and how fast can they be on station?'
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Soviet Navy fell apart, without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them—indeed, many of them were sold to foreign nations. This left the United States as the world's undisputed naval superpower. U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world, however, United States dwarfs other nations' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups. During the 1990s, the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the United States to engage in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts.
The ships of the Navy participated in a number of conflicts after the end of the Cold War. After diplomatic efforts failed, the Navy was instrumental in the opening phases of the 1991 Gulf War with Iraq; the ships of the navy launched hundreds of Tomahawk II cruise missiles and naval aircraft flew sorties from six carriers in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. The battleships Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16-inch guns for the first time since the Korean War on several targets in Kuwait in early February. In 1999, hundreds of Navy and Marine Corps aircraft flew thousands of sorties from bases in Italy and carriers in the Adriatic against targets in Serbia and Kosovo to try to stop the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. After a 78-day campaign Serbia capitulated to NATO's demands.
As a result of a large number of command officers being fired for failing to do their job properly, in 2012 the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) ordered a new method of selecting command officers across the Navy.
In March 2007, the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size, with 274 ships, since World War I. Since the end of the Cold War, the Navy has shifted its focus from preparations for large-scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts. The Navy participated in the Iraq War and is a major participant in the ongoing War on Terror, largely in this capacity. Development continues on new ships and weapons, including the Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship. One hundred and three U.S. Navy personnel died in the Iraq War. U.S. Navy warships launched cruise missiles into military targets in Libya during Operation Odyssey Dawn to enforce a UN resolution.
Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to "aggressive moves by Iran and China". As part of the pivot to the Pacific, Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta said that the Navy would switch from a 50/50 split between the Pacific and the Atlantic to a 60/40 percent split that favored the Pacific, but the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Jonathan Greenert, and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Martin Dempsey, have said that this would not mean "a big influx of troops or ships in the Western Pacific". This pivot is a continuation of the trend towards the Pacific that first saw the Cold War's focus against the Soviet Union with 60 percent of the American submarine fleet stationed in the Atlantic shift towards an even split between the coasts and then in 2006, 60 percent of the submarines stationed on the Pacific side to counter China. The pivot is not entirely about numbers as some of the most advanced platforms will now have a Pacific focus, where their capabilities are most needed. However even a single incident can make a big dent in a fleet of modest size with global missions.
On January 12, 2016, Iranian armed forces captured ten Navy personnel when their two boats entered Iranian territorial waters off the coast of Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf. They were released the next day following diplomatic discussions between the U.S. and Iran.
In mid-2017, two Navy ships, USS Fitzgerald and USS John S. McCain, were involved in collisions with merchant ships during regular transits that resulted in fatalities.
In 2020, the United States Navy was overtaken by the Chinese Navy in terms of raw number of ships. The United States had previously held the title of largest navy since it overtook the Royal Navy in 1943.
## See also
- Bibliography of early American naval history
- Board of Naval Commissioners
- General Board of the United States Navy
- History of homeland security in the United States
- List of United States Navy ships
- Naval History and Heritage Command - museums
- Seabees
- Ship Characteristics Board
- United States Coast Guard History and Heritage Sites
- United States Navy bureau system
- United States Navy systems commands
|
68,237,138 |
Demeanor (song)
| 1,159,216,205 |
2021 single by Pop Smoke featuring Dua Lipa
|
[
"2021 singles",
"2021 songs",
"American disco songs",
"British disco songs",
"Dua Lipa songs",
"Electropop songs",
"Music videos directed by Nabil Elderkin",
"Pop Smoke songs",
"Songs released posthumously",
"Songs written by Dua Lipa",
"Songs written by Pop Smoke"
] |
"Demeanor" is a song by American rapper Pop Smoke, featuring English-Albanian singer Dua Lipa, from the former's posthumous second studio album, Faith (2021). The song was written by the two artists alongside Daniel Mlzrahi, Michael Gomes, Dru Decaro, Sarah Hudson, and Coffee, while the production was handled by Mantra. It was released to rhythmic contemporary and contemporary hit radio formats in the United States on July 20, 2021, as the second single from the album. A disco-pop and electropop track, it features a rhythm guitar, bassline, drums, funky groove, and bounce, alongside rhythmic verses.
On "Demeanor", Pop Smoke discusses suffering from poverty, while mentioning how women like how he acts and being heavily intoxicated. Lipa pays tribute to him in her verse. Several music critics criticized the lyrics and thought the song was not something Pop Smoke would make. Commercially, it reached number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 62 on the Billboard Global 200. Outside of the United States, the song peaked within the top 50 of charts in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
A Nabil Elderkin-directed music video for "Demeanor" was released on July 29, 2021. The video features Pop Smoke as a ghost and being seen on a painting that comes to life and depicts different versions of him, as well as showing white doves flying around. Lipa wears a vintage corset-style lace-trimmed ballgown from Jean Paul Gaultier's Spring 1998 couture collection, which was inspired by Marie Antoinette and the Age of Enlightenment, as she does different activities and dances throughout. Several critics complimented its theme and production.
## Background and release
On July 9, 2021, Dua Lipa teased a collaboration with Pop Smoke by posting a video on social media of the rapper listening to her 2018 single "One Kiss". The video was accompanied with the caption "You can't say Pop without Smoke" in all caps, along with specifying the album's release date. The track listing for Faith was later revealed on July 15, 2021, confirming Lipa's feature on the song. The lyrics and composition were written by Pop Smoke and Lipa alongside Dru Decaro, Sarah Hudson, and Coffee with Daniel Mlzrahi and Michael Gomes also credited as composers. The production was handled by Mantra. Recording took place at Quad Recording Studios in New York City by Corey "Cutz" Nutile. The song was mixed by Jess Jackson and she also handled the mastering with Ciel Eckard-Lee and David Bone; both duties were done at London Town Studios in Los Angeles.
Pop Smoke's second posthumous studio album Faith was released via Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records on July 16, 2021, with "Demeanor" as the sixteenth track on Faith. The song impacted rhythmic contemporary and contemporary hit radio in the United States on July 20, 2021, as the album's second single. It also sent for radio airplay in Italy on July 23, 2021.
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Demeanor" is a disco-pop and electropop song. The track features a rhythm guitar, bassline, drums, funky groove, and bounce, accompanied by "woozy" vibes, and rhythmic verses. It contains a spliced-in verse from an unreleased Pop Smoke track called "Face2Face". Writing for The Ringer, Micah Peters opined the song is about "popping Perc 30s and shooting people". Mankaprr Conteh for Rolling Stone said Pop Smoke raps about "asserting a will not only to survive, but to thrive".
On the song, Pop Smoke sings about his "baba treesha", which is Brooklyn slang for a promiscuous woman. In connection with the slang, the rapper sings about how women like how he acts, and being heavily intoxicated. The late rapper then raps about suffering through poverty: "Look, eleven dollars a hour ain't enough to live/So I'ma go in every store and I'ma swipe this shit/They tryna lock a nigga up and I'm like, 'Fuck a pig'/'Cause either way, mommy still gon' love her kid." Lipa has her own verse, as she sings: "You can't say Pop without Smoke/So fill up your lungs, my diamonds'll make you choke/You like the way I move/My demeanor is meaner than yours/So clap for the encore", referring to Pop Smoke's line "You cannot say Pop and forget the Smoke" in his 2019 song "Gatti" with JackBoys and Travis Scott.
## Critical reception
David Crone of AllMusic said even though Lipa is "ostensibly at home on the slick grooves of 'Demeanor'", she "stumbles out" during the couplet: "You can't say Pop without Smoke/So fill up your lungs, my diamonds will make you choke", and described it as "excruciating". Robin Murray from Clash stated the song "shows the potential Pop [Smoke] had to cross over", but called it one of the weaker tracks on the album. For Exclaim!, Antoine-Samuel Mauffette Alavo viewed "Demeanor" as an "improbable duet" and thought Pop Smoke's fans will "undoubtedly be frustrated". In HipHopDX, Anthony Malone called the song "jarring", and stated that at worst, "it sounds like a bad DJ Khaled crossover and at best, a summertime Calvin Harris record but never a Pop Smoke song by any stretch of the imagination". Keith Nelson Jr. of Mic saw the song is a "clear attempt at expanding Pop [Smoke's] star beyond the streets and into the pop realm, but his dungeon dark vocals over drums soft enough to make Maroon 5 sound like Metallica garner mixed results".
Kyann-Sian Williams, for NME, thought the track is "underdeveloped and slight, the singer's delivery disjointed". She opined that with a "few more tweaks, it might have been worth releasing". Alphonse Pierre for Pitchfork described the track as the "most confusing record" on Faith. He mentioned the song has "a short Pop [Smoke] verse and rough hook [that] are laid over the type of bubbly production that could backdrop an episode of Gossip Girl". Pierre concluded by saying it does not "work and feel out of line with Pop [Smoke's] music—he never had to sacrifice his drill sound or intensity to make a hit". For Variety, A. D. Amorosi viewed the song as a "dud". Thomas Stremfel of Spectrum Culture declared the song's "placement over a Future Nostalgia B-side topped off with Dua Lipa’s 'female alpha' persona makes for one of the worst Frankensteins of a song all year". Mr. Wavvy for Cult MTL claimed "Demeanor" was "in fact quite the misdemeanor". He ruled that it is a "mess of a mashup, essentially throwing some sped up, unreleased lines from the rapper over an otherwise great Dua [Lipa] track".
In a more positive review, Jordan Rose of Complex said Lipa "laces the song with brilliant vocals and a strong verse". In Rolling Stone, Mosi Reeves called the song "sleazy" and said it is one of the album's more impressive tracks. Peters said the song "goes down surprisingly smooth", while Steve Juon for RapReviews was surprised by Lipa's appearance. The Wall Street Journal's Natalia Barr viewed the song as a "smoky club track". Udit Mahalingan for The Line of Best Fit mentioned "Demeanor" seems "precursory to the retro-inflected sonic landscape of pop radio at present". Preezy Brown of Vibe magazine perceived the track as an "addictive salvo".
### Accolades
Rolling Stone ranked "Demeanor" at number 45 on their "The 50 Best Songs of 2021" list. Mosi Reeves described the song as a "fun track that evokes the kind of mainstream superstardom [Pop Smoke] should have lived to enjoy".
## Commercial performance
Following the release of Faith, "Demeanor" debuted and peaked at number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song also peaked at number 19 on the US Rhythmic chart, number 35 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, number 28 on the Mainstream Top 40, and number 62 on the Billboard Global 200. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 14, becoming Pop Smoke's eighth and Lipa's 19th top 40 hit in the UK, respectively. Additionally, the song reached number 20 in Ireland, number 26 in Canada, number 41 in Sweden, number 43 in Australia, number 63 in Switzerland, and number 94 in Lithuania.
## Music video
### Background
The music video for "Demeanor" was directed by Australian-American director Nabil Elderkin. A day before the video's release, Lipa posted a preview clip on her Instagram account. While announcing the release of the video on the platform, Lipa thanked Pop Smoke's team and family for allowing her to appear on the single. The video was released to YouTube on July 29, 2021.
### Analysis and synopsis
The music video for "Demeanor" is set in the 19th century. Being inspired by Marie Antoinette and the Age of Enlightenment, Lipa wears a vintage corset-style lace-trimmed ballgown with a metallic bodice and ivory full skirt from Jean Paul Gaultier's Spring 1998 couture collection, with drop earrings, emerald pendant necklace, and a Vram ring. Lipa's outfit was created by Lorenzo Posocco. The singer's hairstylist and global creative director of Color Wow Hair Chris Appleton decided to add two bows made of real hair on the crown of her head, while her makeup artist Mary Phillips gave her sultry lids and rose-colored lipstick.
The visual begins with Lipa sitting at a dressing table, applying makeup as a lady whispers to her. It then transitions to a large castle overlooking a red sunset and goes toward the window of a great hall, showing an expensive feast. People wear powdered wigs, Rococo and Baroque petticoats, and ruffled sleeves and collars, with them being seen dancing, drinking, and feeding each other grapes. Pop Smoke appears on a medieval tableau, with the painting coming to life. The painting depicts different versions of the late rapper, including him as a Roman emperor. He is also seen with white doves flying around him. Claire Shaffer for Rolling Stone stated the painting mimics Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper.
Pop Smoke is later seen as a bright blue ghost sitting in an ornate chair at the top of a table, rapping his verse as a white dove is seen next to him. A young child looks at the deceased rapper in amazement. The visual cuts to Lipa, who is seen descending a spiral staircase and cutting through the crowd of people. She takes part in the festivities, including performing several choreographed dance routines with different partners on the floor. The singer then raises a glass with the guests to give a toast and all provide an encore. As the visual comes to an end, the camera goes back to the painting as the music fades in as a concluding tribute to Pop Smoke.
### Critical reception
The staff of Rap-Up viewed the video as "fairytale-themed", while Jamie Samhan for Entertainment Tonight Canada labeled it as "medieval themed". For Allure, Sara Miranda thought the bows worn by Lipa are "the standouts". Both Kelsey Stiegman of Seventeen and Rebecca Cope of Tatler noted Lipa was paying homage to the American television series Bridgerton. Maria Bobila of Nylon stated the singer channeled royalcore. For Vulture, Justin Curto said Lipa stole the "show [by crashing] the party in a shimmering dress". Sarah Kearns for Hypebeast noted the video has "high-production". HipHopDX writer Michael Saponara opined the song "has been brought to life with a royal visual". Erica Gonzales for Harper's Bazaar mentioned it as an "over-the-top visual". W ranked Lipa's outfit as one of the best celebrity vintage fashion moments of 2021.
## Personnel
- Pop Smoke – vocals
- Dua Lipa – vocals
- Michael Gomes – co-production, backing vocals
- Dru Decaro – co-production
- Mantra – production, bass, drums, guitar, keyboards, percussion
- R&S – co-production
- Corey "Cutz" Nutile – additional production, programming, recording
- Jess Jackson – mixing, mastering, programming
- Ciel Eckard-Lee – assistant mixing, mastering
- David Bone – assistant mixing, mastering
## Charts
## Release history
|
4,029,351 |
Portugal at the 2006 Winter Olympics
| 1,076,047,706 | null |
[
"2006 in Portuguese sport",
"Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics",
"Portugal at the Winter Olympics by year"
] |
Portugal sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10 to 26 February 2006. This marked the country's fifth appearance in a Winter Olympic Games, their first in eight years as they missed the 2002 Winter Olympics. The Portuguese delegation consisted of a single competitor, Danny Silva, who participated in cross-country skiing. In his only event, the 15 kilometre classical race, he finished in 93rd place.
## Background
Portugal debuted in Olympic competition at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics, and have appeared in every Summer Olympics since. The nation made its first appearance in a Winter Olympic Games in 1952. Since then, their attendance has been sporadic, with the country making its second appearance in the 1988 Winter Games. They participated in 1994 and 1998, but missed the 1992 and 2002 editions. Thus, the Turin Olympics were the nation's fifth appearance at a Winter Olympics. The Portuguese delegation to Turin consisted of a single cross-country skier, Danny Silva. He would go on to be the only athlete to represent Portugal again at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Silva was selected as the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony.
## Cross-country skiing
Danny Silva was 32 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics. His only event was the 15 kilometre classical race, in which he posted a time of 54 minutes and 34 seconds. This placed him 93rd out of 96 competitors who finished the race, and over 16 minutes behind the gold medal time.
|
52,525,208 |
Johnny Papalia
| 1,173,288,851 |
Italian-Canadian mobster (1924–1997)
|
[
"1924 births",
"1997 deaths",
"1997 murders in Canada",
"Buffalo crime family",
"Canadian crime bosses",
"Canadian drug traffickers",
"Canadian gangsters",
"Canadian male criminals",
"Canadian people convicted of drug offences",
"Canadian people of Italian descent",
"Deaths by firearm in Ontario",
"French Connection gangsters",
"Murdered Canadian gangsters",
"Murdered Mafiosi",
"Organized crime in Hamilton, Ontario",
"Organized crime in Toronto",
"People extradited from Canada to the United States",
"People from Hamilton, Ontario",
"People murdered by Canadian organized crime",
"People murdered in Ontario"
] |
John Joseph Papalia (; March 18, 1924 – May 31, 1997), also known as Johnny Pops Papalia or "The Enforcer", was a Canadian crime boss of the Papalia crime family based in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The Papalia crime family is one of three major crime families in Hamilton, the other two being the Musitano crime family and the Luppino crime family.
Papalia was born in Hamilton, to Italian immigrants who also had a history in organized crime. At a young age, he was involved in petty crimes, but by the 1950s, moved his way up to drug trafficking and formed a powerful alliance with the Buffalo crime family. Papalia also operated various gambling bars and vending machine businesses. In the 1960s, he played a role in the French Connection drug smuggling operation, for which he was extradited to the United States and served five years of a 10-year prison sentence. On May 31, 1997, Papalia was shot to death outside his vending machine business by Kenneth Murdock, a hitman hired by Angelo and Pat Musitano of the Musitano crime family.
## Early life and criminal activities
Papalia was born on March 18, 1924, in Hamilton. His father, Antonio "Tony" Papalia, who had early Picciotteria values, was a bootlegger who immigrated to Canada from Delianuova, Calabria, Italy, in 1912. He first came through New York City before moving on to Montreal, Quebec, then to New Brunswick to work in the coal mines, before finally settling on Railway Street in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1917. His father became associated with Calabrian compatriot and notorious bootlegger Rocco Perri, and later Guelph mobster Tony Sylvestro, working as a bootlegger who operated speakeasies. Tony Papalia was working as a driver for Perri's bootlegging operations at least by 1922, if not earlier. He was suspected in playing a role in the murder of Perri's wife Bessie Starkman in 1930. Papalia said of his father, in a 1986 interview with The Globe and Mail'''s Peter Moon, "I grew up in the '30s and you'd see a guy who couldn't read or write but who had a car and was putting food on the table. He was a bootlegger and you looked up to him."
Papalia's mother, Maria Rosa Italiano, also came from a Mafia family, the Italiano clan, who also participated in Perri's gang. Maria Rosa initially married Antonio's younger brother Giuseppe Papalia Jr., giving birth to two sons in Italy, however when Giuseppe died, she immigrated to Canada with her two sons in 1913 to live with Antonio, whom she married at some point, through it remains unclear when the wedding actually took place. Papalia's parents were not married at the time of his birth, which was a source of much shame for him. Moon stated, "John was a bastard. He was born out of wedlock. And he as always very self-conscious about it. You have to remember, he grew up in an era when it was a terrible thing to be conceived out of wedlock. Apparently it bothered him all his life and you had to very careful about calling John a 'bastard'." Johnny, the oldest brother to Frank, Rocco and Dominic Papalia, half-brothers Joseph and Angelo Papalia, brother-in-law Tony Pugliese, and associates, all worked in running his clubs and gambling operations.
Papalia attended St. Augustine Catholic School on Mulberry Street, dropping out in grade 8 after he suffered from a case of tuberculosis that put him in a sanitorium for several months. In 1986, Papalia stated that his biggest regret in life was never attending high school, saying of his life, "It's been an interesting one. But maybe I'd liked it to be different." As a teenager, Papalia was a member of a gang that staged burglaries in Hamilton, with the icehouse at the corner of Railway and Mulberry streets serving as their base. Papalia later described himself as a "wild kid" who was known for his womanizing, and who had contracted syphilis by the age of 19. Papalia had "a reputation for extreme violence" from the start of his criminal record as a teenager in the 1930s, and despite being only 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m) with a slender build, was widely feared.
## Wartime career
In 1940, Papalia's father was arrested and sent to internment at Camp Petawawa as part of the Italian Canadian internment, as potentially dangerous enemy aliens with alleged connections to Benito Mussolini's fascist regime, causing his son to have a grudge against the Canadian government. Papalia later gave his father's internment as the reason as to why he did not serve in the military during World War II. When Antonio Papalia was interned, his profession was listed as "bootlegger." Antonio Papalia was released in 1941 after he convinced the authorities that he was not a Fascist. The authorities imposed conditions upon his release such as he stay out of Hamilton and regularly check in with the police. After his release, the Papalia family aligned with the Buffalo crime family, causing tensions with the still interned Perri who saw this as a betrayal. The Papalia family were still angry with Perri for his refusal to support the Italiano family and made an alliance with Stefano Magaddino against him. Johnny Papalia did not volunteer for overseas service (until November 1944, Canada only sent volunteers overseas to fight in World War II). He later claimed that his reputation for violence dated back to the war years when he was the subject of anti-Italian bullying and insults, leading Papalia to engage in violence for self-defense. In 1943, Papalia moved to Toronto, where he joined a gang that specialized in burglaries. During this period, Papalia started to work for Harvey Chernick, one of Toronto's biggest heroin dealers.
During his time in Toronto, Papalia served with a youth gang consisting of Paul Volpe, Pasquale Giodrano , Roy Pasquale, and Alberto Mignacchio. Many of the members of the gang such as Volpe remained long-time associates of Papalia. One who knew the gang stated, "They were a very tough bunch. They had a lot of balls. John himself talked tough, although he wasn't tough himself. He was smart enough, though, to make sure he was with people who were. John was the type of guy-even back then-that if he sensed fear in you, he tried to prey on it." On January 27, 1944, Papalia was arrested for failing to register for conscription for the defense of Canada as he was legally obliged to do in 1942 when he turned 18. Papalia's criminal record, health problems and his anger at the Canadian government for interning his father ensured that he was not conscripted.
On October 17, 1943, Perri was released from internment as Italy had signed an armistice with the Allies on September 3, 1943. It is believed Antonio and Johnny Papalia, along with Stefano Magaddino of the Buffalo crime family, played a role in Perri's disappearance in 1944 after Perri left members of his Mafia crew "slighted", though the case remains unsolved. On April 23, 1944, Perri vanished after going out for a walk and it is believed Papalia along with his father was involved in "the mysterious affair" of Perri's disappearance. In 1944, Papalia, Giondrano, and Pasquale robbed a Toronto-Dominion bank to provide themselves with venture capital for their criminal enterprises. When visiting Toronto, Papalia was known to joke that the particular branch of the Toronto-Dominion bank that he robbed in 1944 was "our bank."
## Postwar career
Papalia was involved in petty crimes from a young age. Papalia was first arrested for burglary in 1945, but was given a short sentence. He was arrested again in 1949 and sentenced to two years in prison at the Guelph Reformatory for possession of narcotics, down from conspiracy to distribute narcotics. At his trial, Papalia claimed that he was not selling heroin as the prosecution claimed, but rather buying it as he maintained he needed heroin to treat the pain caused by the syphilis he contacted. The judge at the trial accepted this defense, and sympathetically advised Papalia to see a doctor after his release from prison, saying there were better ways of treating syphilis-induced pain. The fact that Papalia refused an offer of a plea bargain from the Crown under which he would serve a lesser sentence in exchange for testifying against his employers gave him a reputation in the underworld as someone who could be trusted to observe omertà (the code of silence).
When Papalia was released in 1951, he moved to Montreal for a stint, where he worked with Luigi Greco and New York City Bonanno crime family representative Carmine Galante in heroin trafficking. Vincenzo Cotroni, the boss of the Cotroni family of Montreal, had formed an alliance with Antoine d'Agostiono, a Corsican gangster based in Marseille, to smuggle heroin that was the prototype of the French Connection smuggling network and by 1956 it was estimated that 60 percent of the heroin in North America had arrived via Montreal. Cotroni had made contact with exiled Charles "Lucky" Luciano in 1951, saying he wanted access to the American market. Luciano had assigned Montreal to the Bonnano family. The Bonanno family in turn had sent Galante to Montreal to supervise the heroin smuggling. Galante who been impressed by Papalia appointed him to serve as his agent for Ontario. Both Galante and Cotroni served as mentors for Papalia, whom modelled himself after them. In 1954, Papalia was running a taxi company in Hamilton, which attracted police attention when one of the cab drivers, Tony Coposodi, was killed execution-style. In June 1955, while collecting money from various Montreal businesses together with the boxer Norm Yakubowitz, Papalia was the subject of an assassination attempt when someone opened fire on the duo. Yakubowitz was shot in the leg while Papalia was unharmed. He later shifted to Toronto extorting brokers and running gambling clubs.
## "Made Man"
By the mid-1950s, Papalia was called back to Ontario by Magaddino and inducted as a made man into the Canadian arm of the Buffalo crime family and to be boss of the Papalia family in Ontario. It is not clear just precisely when Papalia became a made man, but it appears to have occurred sometime in 1955. Galante had forged an alliance with the Cotroni family, placing Quebec in the sphere of influence of the Bonanno family, and Magaddino, who wanted to keep southern Ontario in his sphere of influence, chose Papalia as one of his instruments for doing so. Magaddino informed Papalia that he was not to replace the older leaders in Ontario, but rather to work with them. Papalia was to serve as the enforcer boss who was to accept the advice of the older dons who were to play a role almost analogous to a consigliere. Papalia's territory covered Hamilton, Burlington, Oakville, St. Catharines, Welland, Niagara Falls and much of Toronto. Papalia also had influence into northern Ontario with his power extending into North Bay. By 1955, Papalia was known for wearing expensive suits and driving equally expensive automobiles, together with his womanizing habits. He liked to flash what he called "reds and browns" (\$50 and \$100 bills) as a sign of his wealth.
In 1954, Papalia paid the tax arrears of the Porcupine Miners' Club of Timmins, a social group for the miners in northern Ontario founded in 1929 that had been out of business for some time. Papalia used the right that he gained with the social club charter to reopen the Porcupine Miners' Club in Hamilton in 1955, which served as a cover for an illegal gambling club that operated for the next two years. Papalia had the games rigged at his gambling club, having the dice loaded to favour certain numbers, having small dents placed in the cards to let the dealers know what the cards were and clips were placed under the gambling tables to remove cards with high values.
Papalia often seized control of various businesses by asking of the business owners the question "Johnny Papalia-does that mean anything to you?" When the answer was no, Papalia replied "Well, it's going to. I'm your new partner." Those who refused his offers of partnership were then beaten bloody by Papalia's thugs. Papalia especially liked to target stockbrokers who worked on Toronto's Bay Street, usually demanding that they pay him about \$1,000 per week as "protection", supposedly against their enemies, but in fact for protection against being beaten by Papalia's crew. The Hamilton police chief, Leonard Lawrence, stated in a press conference that Papalia was the leading suspect in a number of beatings of businessmen, saying, "We have heard rumors that gangland beatings have taken place here recently, but when we question people who are said to be involved, nobody-including the victims-shows much interest in talking to us. It is typical of what happens when a syndicate tries to take over and organize crime." The protection payments served as seed money for Papalia's loan sharking business, which he called "shylocking." Papalia's principle enforcer was Howard "Baldy" Chard, a professional heavyweight boxer with a scarred face. Chard failed to win any professional titles, but during his time in Kingston Penitentiary, had been the prison boxing champion, a title that commanded both respect and fear on the streets. In 1955, Papalia organized in Toronto a bare-knuckle boxing match between Chard and James. J. Parker, the former British Empire and Canadian heavyweight champion. Papalia, a boxing fan, together with 100 guests watched the last known bare knuckles boxing match in Canada, a fight that was notorious for its bloodiness and ended with Chard defeating Parker.
In 1955, with assistance from Sylvestro, Papalia started opening charter gambling clubs in Hamilton and Toronto. Sylvestro's son-in-law Danny Gasbarrini, Papalia's brothers Frank, Rocco and Dominic, half-brothers Joseph and Angelo, brother-in-law Tony Pugliese, and associates Red LeBarre, Freddie Gabourie, Frank Marchildon and Jackie Weaver, all worked in running Papalia's clubs. After police raids, Papalia started working with James McDermott and Vincent Feeley, two major figures in gambling, in several clubs throughout southern Ontario. Together with Alberto Agueci of the Magaddino family, Papalia contacted Antoine Cordoliani and Joseph Césari, two Corsican leaders of Le Milieu, to buy high-quality heroin. In October 1958, Papalia made contact with Vinnie Mauro and Frank Caruso of the Genovese family, saying he wanted to smuggle heroin into the United States and needed someone to sell the heroin. Agueci went to Buffalo to see Madaddino and secured his support by paying him US\$4,000 and a promise of the half the profits. In 1959, Papalia was the only Canadian who attended the meeting in New York that formally set up the French Connection smuggling network. Under the "French Connection", the Mafia brought heroin via France into North America. The "French Connection" heroin was grown in the poppy fields of Turkey and further afield in the "Golden Crescent" nations of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran or the "Golden Triangle" nations of Burma, Thailand and Laos. Joseph Valachi, who also attended the same meeting in New York, and later turned informer, testified that he knew Papalia as a capo (boss) who dominated southern Ontario under the authority of the Magaddino family of Buffalo.
## The Bluestein beating
The illegal gambling business in Toronto was very lucrative, dominated by Maxie Bluestein who kept the Mafia out of his pocket. Bluestein's Lakeview Club earned more than \$13 million a year, but on March 21, 1961, at the Town Tavern in Toronto, Papalia met with Bluestein. It was understood that if Bluestein accepted a drink paid for by Papalia, it would mean submission to Papalia and he refused it, it would mean defiance; Bluestein refused the proffered drink. Bluestein refused to "merge" his operations with Papalia's and was beaten with brass knuckles, iron bars and fists as a result. The beating of Bluestein attracted much media attention, and the Toronto Star newspaper columnist Pierre Berton called the attack a "semi-execution" brazenly committed in public view. Berton turned the Bluestein beating into a cause célèbre, constantly demanding in his column that Papalia be brought to justice. Berton described the beating, "...as terrible a beating as it is possible to give a man without killing him...Iron bars with ropes attached to them for greater leverage rained down on Bluestein's head and across his forehead, eyes and cheekbones. His scalp was split seven or eight times. Brass knuckles were smashed into his eyes and a broken bottle was ground into his mouth. When Bluestein dropped to the floor, he was kicked in the face. His overcoat, torn and slashed, was literally drenched in his own blood... When I saw Bluestein, some 10 days after the affair, he looked like a piece of meat." Several of the witnesses to the Bluestein beating received threatening phone calls in the days after, warning them that it would be "healthier" for them to forget what they had just seen.
The 100 some witnesses to the beating were reluctant to come forward, but in May of that year Papalia turned himself in to police to take some heat off of the crime family, and he was sentenced in June to 18 months in prison for the assault. Berton's columns had their effect, causing massive public outrage and Papalia was ordered to turn himself in. As Papalia entered the Toronto police station, he displayed his hatred of journalists yelling insults at the assembled reporters, being quoted as saying "look at the dirty rats. The creeps. Those crummy, rotten cameras and all you crummy rotten guys." In 1986, Papalia expressed no remorse for the beating, saying "Bluestein was greedy, he wanted it all for himself." At the trial, which started on June 27, 1961, the witnesses were visibly terrified of Papalia, and several times, the presiding judge, Joseph Addison, accused several of the witnesses of perjury, saying he did not find their testimony about not being able to remember who had beaten Bluestein very credible. The trial ended with Papalia being found guilty of assault and Judge Addison sentenced Papalia to 18 months in prison. Addison noted that the witnesses had all taken oaths on the Bible to tell the truth before testifying, which led him to sourly note that the fear of Papalia seemed greater than the fear of God with the witnesses at this trial. While Bluestein kept control of the Toronto gambling market, he had paranoia and was later committed to a mental institution in 1973 after he had killed a friend, before later dying of a heart attack in 1984.
A profile of Papalia was published in Toronto Star Weekly Magazine by Peter Sypnowich under the title "He Wanted To Be Canada's Al Capone." However, Synowich focused on Papalia's sex addiction, calling him "a compulsive womanizer." Synowich wrote, "His relationships with women provide the best clue to his character. Papalia has an inbred need to steal other men's women. They serve as his trophies." Papalia's fondness for the wives and girlfriends of other men led him to engage in a succession of fights with the cuckolded men.
Later in 1961, Papalia demolished the family home and built a warehouse for his vending machine business, an all-cash business, to serve as the front for his criminal operations. The office for the Monarch Vending company was located at 20 Railroad Street and became Papalia's principle base, through officially Monarch Vending was owned and managed by his brother Frank Papalia together with Bruno Monaco. Through the company records listed Johnny only as an employee of his brother Frank, he was considered by almost everyone to be the real boss of Monarch Vending. Monarch Vending and its successor company Galaxy Vending had a monopoly on the vending machine business in Hamilton as no other vending machine company was willing to compete with Papalia. Monarch Vending was a profitable concern, making a daily profit of \$12,000. Papalia began to hijack trucks to supply cigarettes for his vending machines. Papalia was also associated with F.M. Amusements, a pin-ball machine company and Beer Magic, which had a virtual monopoly on supplying beer dispensers for bars in Ontario for decades to come. As a loan shark, Papalia forced those who took loans from him to pay back \$6 for every \$5 they had borrowed with the interest compounding on a weekly basis, amounting to an annual 1,040 percent interest on the loans. Businessmen who were unable to repay their loans were forced to take on vending machines from Papalia on his terms while those who could still not repay their loans were further threatened "or worse."
## Extradition and sentencing
By the early 1960s, he earned his reputation from the "French Connection", which had then been responsible for supplying over 80 percent of America's heroin market between the 1960s and 1970s. He worked in this operation with the Sicilian Agueci brothers, Alberto and Vito, along with the vending machine businesses with Alberto, until he was brutally murdered by the Buffalo crime family in late 1961, and Vito jailed. On May 22, 1961, several people were indicted related to the "French Connection" from informants Salvatore Rinaldo and Matteo Palmeri.
In July 1961, Papalia was ordered to be extradited to the United States for his role in the smuggling ring. After his sentence for the Bluestein assault was commuted on March 15, 1962, he was finally extradited. As Papalia was marched by officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to the plane that was to take him to the United States, he shouted at the assembled reporters, "I'm being kidnapped! Help me! They're taking me somewhere I don't want to go!" Papalia's behaviour was such that he was refused admission to the airplane, and instead the RCMP were forced to drive him to the U.S. border at Fort Erie with Papalia vomiting in the backseat to be handed over to the agents of the federal Bureau of Narcotics. The "French Connection" case was described by Robert F. Kennedy, the attorney-general of the United States, as "the deepest penetration ever made in the illegal international trafficking of drugs." While waiting trial in New York's West Street jail, Papalia was known as "Canadian John" and learned how to play chess. Papalia came to be fascinated with chess and therefore often likened himself to a chess master who always carefully pondered his every move. He was regarded as a rude, foul-mouthed prisoner with another Canadian prisoner, James Roxburgh saying, "He was anything but a gentleman. I knew some other people that knew him, acquaintances of Carmine Galante and those guys were class acts in comparison." While waiting his trial, he coughed up blood due to the tuberculosis he contracted as a child.
On March 4, 1963, Papalia pleaded guilty just as his trial was about to begin. On March 11, 1963, Papalia was sentenced to 10 years in prison. His conviction in New York generated massive press coverage in Canada. One Hamilton policeman told a reporter from The Toronto Star, "In the 15 years I've known him, I've never known him to engage in a legal activity. He is a cop-hater, a primitive. He got where he is through fear. He's hard, hard, hard." Another Hamilton policeman told the same reporter, "A real deadly man who would crush you without thinking. No regard for anyone or anything, neither for the criminal laws nor the laws of the underworld." Papalia later sought to reverse his conviction, claiming that he was of unsound mind when he made the guilty plea due to the anti-tuberculosis drugs he was taking and wanted a new trial, taking his case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States, which refused to hear his appeal on October 12, 1964. Had he been granted a new trial, Papalia then planned to ask to have the charges dismissed under the grounds that his guilty plea and the resultant negative publicity made it impossible to find an impartial jury to hear his case. The lawyers for the Department of Justice noted that Papalia had explicitly stated he was of sound mind when he made his guilty plea and there was no medical evidence to support his claims of drug-induced mental incompetence at the time of his guilty plea.
Due to the indictment, Magaddino promoted Santo Scibetta to leader of the Buffalo family's Ontario branch, replacing Papalia. In 1963, Papalia was convicted in absentia in Italy of gangsterism and sentenced to 10 years in prison. It was for this reason that Papalia never visited Italy. Later upon his return to Canada, the Canadian authorities refused the extradition request from Italy under the grounds that Papalia was a Canadian citizen and that the offense of "Mafia associations" did not exist in the Criminal Code of Canada. Papalia worked closely with the Italian branch of his 'ndrina (clan). There is also an Australian branch of the Papalia family based in Griffith, but the precise relationship, if any, between the Australian and Canadian Papalias beyond blood ties remains unclear. Two of Papalia's Australian cousins were murdered.
## Return to Hamilton
On January 25, 1968, after serving less than half the sentence, he was released from a United States penitentiary in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania and sent back to Canada. His father died on May 14, 1964, while Papalia was in jail, while his mother died on July 27, 1970. Giacomo Luppino and Santo Scibetta also answered to Magaddino while Papalia was imprisoned. Papalia's homecoming to Hamilton was a lavish affair as Railway Street was filled up with a vast assortment of parked Lincolns and Cadillacs as a number of the underworld figures of southern Ontario arrived to pay their respects. Much to Papalia's annoyance, some of his interests in Toronto were handed over by the Magaddinos to Volpe. Papalia met with Luppino to ask that his interests in Toronto be returned, a request that was refused, but Luppino did say that there was still work for Papalia to do in Toronto. At a meeting with Luppino in November 1968, Papalia expressed some uncertainty as to whom the Cotroni family of Montreal answered to, saying it was either the Magaddino family or the Bonanno family, leading to Luppino to answer "We are still under the Commission."
On June 6, 1969, Papalia visited Toronto to meet with Luppino. On the following day, the bullet-ridden body of Filippo Vendemini was found in the parking lot behind his shoe store on Bloor Street. Vendemini's widow, Giuseppina, told the police that her husband was frequently on the phone with a man she only knew as Vincenzo. Using the phone records, the police discovered that Vincenzo was Vincenzo Sicari, the owner of a pizzeria in Montreal who often visited Toronto. Sicari stated to the police that on the day of the murder, he had driven Vendemini to Hamilton to see an unnamed mutual friend and then drove Vendemini to the Toronto airport; he denied knowing anything about the murder. On July 28, 1969, Papalia again returned to Toronto to meet with Luppino, and on the same day, the bullet-ridden body of Sicari was found in Toronto. The way that murders in Toronto always seemed to occur at the same time that Papalia met with Luppino led the police to suspect that Papalia was the killer. It was around this time that Papalia started to be known in the underworld as "the Enforcer."
On June 4, 1970, a NDP MPP, Morton Shulman, gave a speech at Queen's Park, that detailed the close friendship between Papalia and a locally prominent Oakville businessman with a long criminal record, Clinton Duke as well as with the commissioner of the Ontario Provincial Police Eric Silk. The speech caused a media storm in Ontario. Papalia behaved with characteristic insolence when interviewed by two police officers, giving flippant answers to questions about his relationship with Duke. At a public inquiry to examine Shulman's allegations, Papalia admitted that Duke was a long-standing friend of his, but denied corrupting the police, claiming to be unaware that Duke was a close friend of Silk's. The photographs of Papalia entering the Old City Hall of Toronto to testify at the inquiry dressed in a trench coat and a fedora while smoking a cigarette made the frontpages of the Canadian newspapers. The inquiry commissioner found no evidence that Papalia had corrupted Silk via Duke, but did criticize Silk for associating with Duke, whom he stated was an unsavory figure.
In August 1970, Papalia attended a crime summit in Acapulco representing the Magaddino family to meet with gangsters from Canada, the United States, France, and Mexico to discuss plans to take over the soon to be legalized casino industry in Quebec. The chairman of the Acapulco summit was Meyer Lansky who represented "the Commission" of New York while Vic Cotroni, Paolo Violi and Frank Cotroni were present to represent the Cotroni family. The various gangsters who attended the summit numbered at least 100 and it was intended to use the Quebec casinos to engage in money laundering on a colossal scale. French gangsters of Le Milieu attended the summit as it was planned to use the casinos to launder the profits from the French Connection smuggling network. The plans turned out to be moot when the Quebec premier, Robert Bourassa, later dropped his plans to legalize casinos as his government took a tough law-and-order stance in response to the FLQ. The allegation made by the FLQ in its manifesto of October 8, 1970 that was read out on national television and radio in both French and English following the kidnapping of the British trade commissioner James Cross on October 5 that Bourassa was working for "the election riggers Simard-Cotroni" caused Bourassa to change his policies that were perceived to be friendly towards organized crime. Papalia remained close to American gangsters whom he often met in the resort towns of Turkey Point and Port Rowan on the shores of Lake Erie. In August 1971, at a meeting in Toronto, Luppino shifted control of the construction unions in Toronto from Papalia to Volpe, which was a major blow to Papalia's ego. In August 1971, Papalia assaulted a court employee, Len Joy, who arrived at the Monarch Vending office to give him a summons. The incident led to Papalia being charged with assault, but a month later, in September 1971 the assault charges were dropped when Joy accepted a written apology from Papalia who stated he "been under a great deal of pressure at the time" and refused to testify against him.
In 1972, Papalia was summoned to a meeting in Toronto by Michele Racco to discuss the situation with his son Domenic who was facing three counts of attempted murder after he lost his temper and impulsively shot three men whom he felt had insulted him. The meeting was held in Italian, a language that Papalia could speak competently, albeit he was "not fluent in the delicacies of the language." However, inviting Papalia to the meeting to discuss a problem within the Racco family was sign of great respect, showing that Racco held him in high esteem. Despite their efforts, Domenic Racco was convicted of three counts of attempted murder. Racco asked Papalia to look after his son after his death, which was a mark of great honor within the Mafia subculture. Papalia took this duty seriously, attempting to serve as a surrogate father to Domenic Racco and tried to discourage him, albeit unsuccessfully, from abusing drugs. In 1974, Papalia attended the murder trial of Peter Demeter in Toronto, which was already a media circus and his presence in the courtroom caused a "media sensation" as there was much speculation about why he was attending a trial in which the Papalia family was apparently not involved in.
In 1971, Stanley Bader, a disreputable Toronto stockbroker with a talent for swindling his investors went into business with Sheldon "Sonny" Swartz, who was the son of a Papalia family associate. In 1973, Bader swindled a group of Montreal investors, which Swartz mentioned to Papalia. Papalia devised a plan under which Swartz would tell Bader that the investors were from the Cotroni family, and that Papalia would volunteer to "return" the stolen money to Montreal in exchange for sparing Bader's life. On August 26, 1973, Swartz told Bader that the defrauded investors were from the Cotroni family who were planning to "maim" him, but that Papalia had stepped in to save him by agreeing to take \$300,000 to Montreal. Bader believed these claims, saying he had noticed "strange" cars parked outside of his house at night, whom he felt were from Montreal, and agreed to hand over the money to Papalia.
The next year, Bader mentioned to a friend from the Montreal underworld about what had happened to him in August 1973, who in turn passed along the news to the Cotroni family. In 1974, Montreal mobsters Vincenzo Cotroni and Paolo Violi were overheard on a police wiretap threatening to kill Papalia and demanding \$150,000 after he used their names in the \$300,000 extortion of Toronto business man Stanley Bader without notifying or cutting them in on the score. On April 30, 1974, Papalia went to Montreal, where at the Reggio Bar Cotroni told him, "I don't want chicken feed. He used our name. Half." Violi agreed, saying, "That's it. He got to his person because he used our name. Not because he used his name. The guy was afraid of us and he paid. People who use our name pay." Cotroni did not believe Papalia's claims of ignorance, telling him, "Let's hope not because, eh, we'll kill you." Papalia responded with a humility and meekness that was unusual for him as he replied, "I know you'll kill me, Vic. I believe you'll kill me." Inspector Ron Sandelli of the Toronto police stated, "This was a period in John's life when John was afraid." During the trial, Papalia who was angry that it was the policeman Robert Ménard who recorded him talking in the Reggio Bar twice challenged Mario Latraverse, the chief of the Montreal police's anti-gang squad, to a fight in the men's washroom in the courthouse. Papalia backed down both times after Latraverse proved willing to take him up on his challenges. After the second incident, Cotroni told Latraverse in French, "Monsieur Latraverse, I just found out what happened. Don't worry about it. I'll talk to him. I know you're a gentleman and he's not going to treat you like that". Cotroni kept his word, and Papalia ceased trying to provoke fights with Latraverse.
Bader testified against them, and the three were convicted of extortion in 1975 and sentenced to six years in prison. Violi and Cotroni got their sentences appealed to just six months, but Papalia's was rejected; he served four of the years. Justice Peter Wright said of the three men convicted, "The evidence in his case is grim and appalling. It exposes a world of big money grabbed and held by the exercise of brute power. You did not fear the laws of this country and you have chosen to live their lives in a sub-strata of society that operates beyond the rule of law." The fact that Cotroni had threatened to kill Papalia if he went to prison caused him much alarm, and it came as a considerable relief to him in May 1977 when Violi and Cotroni were acquitted on most of the charges on an appeal. After his release from prison, Papalia went to his cottage at Lake Temagami in northern Ontario.
In 1979, Monarch Vending was sold to Allind Distributors of Toronto while a non-competition agreement was signed with Frank Papalia and Monaco, stating the two were not to compete with Monarch Vending in the greater Toronto area for the next five years. After the sale, two of Papalia's other brothers, Rocco and Dominic, promptly set up a new company, Galaxy Vending, whose office was located at the Monarch Vending's old office at 20 Railroad Street. Rick Page, the manager of Allind Distributors, was shocked to discover the aggressive way that Galaxy Vending went about taking away his customers with Monarch Vending machines often being found dumped in back alleys. At a press conference, Page answered the question if he was naïve with the remark, "Yes, we knew the connotations, yes, we were naïve. We though we had a noncompetition agreement. I think it is unethical as hell."
In 1982, after Bader had moved south to Miami, he was sprayed with bullets when answering his front door. Papalia has been linked with his death, as well as the 1983 murder of Volpe, but no charges were laid. In 1977, Papalia was featured in the CBC television documentary, Connections, about Mafia influence on the Canadian economy. Papalia refused to be interviewed, exploding in rage and swearing at a CBC television crew that tried to interview him on the streets, believing that this would render the footage un-airable. The footage was aired anyhow with the four-words being beeped out, which made Papalia appear crude and vulgar on national television. Papalia told the camera crew, "You fucking degenerate motherfucker! Drop the camera and come with me alone, you cocksucker bastard! I'll tear your fucking eyes out of your head, you degenerate, you, you...go suck your mother's cunt, you cocksucker! Cocksucker!" Papalia then kicked the camera man.
## The "Godfather" of Hamilton
As a boss, Papalia was feared rather than loved; one of his associates stated, "We had to respect him because of his role. But he got on everybody's nerves." Papalia had a propriety attitude towards the wives and mistresses of his men, taking the viewpoint that it was his right as a boss to sleep with the girlfriends and wives of his men, which made him unpopular. He was a tyrannical boss who had no tolerance for failure, and made a point of taunting and punishing his men for any mistake, no matter how minor. As Papalia grew more wealthy and powerful, he came to display a sultanistic attitude alongside his megalomania. In 1975, Papalia founded the Gold Key Club nightclub in Hamilton. Only members and their guests who knew the password were allowed entry. Detective Sergeant John Gordon Harris of the Hamilton police said, "There wasn't actually any gold key. They used a password that changed from time to time, just like in gangster movies." The Gold Key Club became Papalia's principal base for entertaining visitors as the large, illuminated neon yellow key on the front of the club became a symbol of his power in Hamilton. By the 1980s, Papalia's firms were the largest suppliers of beer dispensers for bars in Ontario while leasing out at least 2,000 vending and pinball machines.
Papalia came to play a "Godfather" role in the Italian Canadian community, serving as a community mediator as Papalia's biographer Adrien Humphreys noted, "There are hundreds of people throughout Hamilton who will attest to Johnny's helping hand." A police officer said, "John Papalia would like nothing better than to walk into a bar and have everyone in the room bow their head in respect." A man who knew him stated, "John was revered on Railroad Street. I was standing there talking with John and this old Italian guy was walking by and the old guy bows his head to John and says, 'Ah comapare [an Italian expression meaning "godfather"]. He was very good to all the kids and very good to all the people who lived in the area. If a guy needed a few bucks, John would give him a job taking the garbage out, or painting something, or whatever needed to be done. He would look after them."
In January 1981, Papalia married Janetta Hayes in a private ceremony; they separated in 1983. In July 1983, Réal Simard moved to Ontario from Montreal where he met with Papalia in Hamilton on behalf of Frank Cotroni. At a meeting at Hanrahan's strip bar in Hamilton, Papalia told Simard, "Maybe you have friends? In Montreal, for instance?... Maybe we have friends in common, like F.C. [Frank Cotroni]" Simard replied that F.C is "my friend", leading Papalia to ask "Can you get in touch with him? Now?" Simard phoned Cotroni in Montreal and then handed the phone over to Papalia, who was told that Simard was his representative and he was to work with him. The meeting was tense as Papalia had brought along three bodyguards. Simard seized the Ontario market, bringing Quebec strippers to Toronto clubs, where he allowed Papalia to put his pinball machines in his clubs. The strippers from Quebec were the first to engage in nude table dancing in Ontario, which made them very popular. Despite their first meeting, Papalia managed to get along well with Simard, who spoke fluent English and always respectful towards him. During a visit to Montreal, Cotroni asked Simard if Papalia was being polite. Cotroni's right-hand man, Claude Faber, told Simard, "If he makes any trouble, kill the fucker — he's old enough to die." In contrast to Simard, Papalia hated Eddie Melo, a boxer turned mob enforcer for the Cotroni family, who had replaced Simard as the Cotroni's family's supervisor for the Toronto area. Papalia is reported to have told Cotroni, "Put a leash on Melo or I'll kill him."
The murder of Volpe in November 1983, together with the fact that Luppino had suffered mental decline in his old age, forced the Magaddinos to put Papalia in charge of southern Ontario again. The police considered Papalia to be one of the prime suspects behind Volpe's murder. The journalists Peter Edwards and Antonio Nicaso, in their 1993 book Deadly Silence, accused Papalia of being the one responsible for Volpe's murder. Papalia read Deadly Silence and later briefly met Nicaso; the latter found it significant that Papalia did not actually deny the accusation about Volpe's murder. Despite the unflattening picture of him in Deadly Silence, Papalia never sued Edwards and Nicaso for libel. Ron Sandelli, a staff inspector with the Toronto police and a Mafia specialist said in 1986 about Papalia's claims to have never killed anyone, "He is probably telling the truth in a stretched way. He many never have pulled the trigger himself, but for him to say he never killed anybody when he directed other people to do it, I find hard to believe.""
Papalia became more cautious in his last years as he greatly feared returning to prison. Papalia refused to break his parole conditions that he was not leave to Hamilton. Despite his fondness for Chinese food, Papalia refused to go to Lee's Garden, his favourite Chinese restaurant, which was located just outside outside of Hamilton in Burlington, instead patiently waiting in his car for someone to pick up the food he ordered. Papalia always had his meetings with his men on the street, talked vaguely in words that were always open to interpretation while engaging in hand gestures to convey his real meaning. The police placed bugs on the parking meters on Railroad Street, hoping to catch Papalia say something incriminating as he held his meetings while walking up and down the street. Sandelli stated, "You can't infiltrate Johnny Papalia. It would take you forever to infiltrate somebody like that to the extent that you would be a personal trust to him, that he would take you as one of his boys to tell you to do things for him. It wasn't for a lack of trying, he was just too smart. I tell you, this guy was like a fox."
Several times, the police were able to pressure criminals to wear wires while visiting Papalia at his office on Railroad Street, but he never said anything that would had allowed the police to lay charges. One criminal who wore a wire at a meeting with Papalia later stated in an interview with Humphreys:, "It would have been a horrendous situation if he had found the wire. To John, it would have been the fact that he was taken for a fool, which he couldn't handle; that he had trusted somebody that he couldn't. No question, I would have had to move. John would have had me hit. Killed. It would be such an insult to him that he put me in confidence, that he let me know what he was trying to do. He would looked like a complete fool. To save face he would had to order a hit on me, he would had no choice." Papalia greatly resented the police surveillance, and was once overheard by a police bug complaining about the "lady Mountie" who had been assigned to follow him, saying, "What's the world coming to? I don't mind these cops following me, but when I have bits and piece of me out and there are girls following me, there is no honor in that."
In 1984, Papalia attempted to redevelop an entire city block he owned in Hamilton to put up a luxury hotel, which was frustrated by the city of Hamilton, which refused the necessary permits to redevelop the block. In the 1980s, Papalia tried to seize control of the illegal gambling houses in Toronto's Greektown on the Danforth, sending his right-hand man Carmen Barillaro to lead a crew to beat up patrons and rob the gambling houses that refused to pay the extortion. In December 1985, several of Papalia's associates were charged with extortion in Greektown. The police did not charge Papalia for his role in the Greektown case out of the fear that he might be acquitted, which would add to the already almost legendary mystique that he had by the 1980s. Besides Barillaro, Papalia's other principal lieutenant was Enio Mora. Mora ran the Papalia family's operations in the greater Toronto area while Barillaro ran the operations in the Niagara Peninsula. Mora was known for his practice of dosing those behind in loans to Papalia with gasoline and threatening to burn them alive in order for them to pay up. Barillaro was considered to be the more important of the two as the geographical proximity of the Niagara peninsula to the U.S. border was better situated for drugs to be smuggled into Canada. Another of Papalia's lieutenants was a man known as "Pennybender", whose special talent was to place a penny between his teeth while bending it with his hand, which considered to be a terrifying act by those who saw it, and inspired many people to give in to Papalia's demands. One Toronto businessman, Donald Pressey, paid Papalia \$10,000 after "Pennybender" threatened him and said he was working on behalf on the Montreal underground. In response to an appeal for help, Papalia told Pressey just to give him \$10,000 and he would protect him. It was only later that Pressey learned that "Pennybender" was working of Papalia.
In October 1985, Papalia was one of the principal suspect in the disappearance of Louis Iannuzzelli, a prominent businessman in Niagara Falls who vanished after angering Papalia by operating a loansharking business in what Papalia saw as his turf. Iannuzzelli, the owner of the House of Frankenstein Wax Museum, was a loanshark who was under the protection of Dominic Longo. When Longo died, Iannuzzeli disappeared three days later. A police officer stated in 1986, "He [Iannuzzelli] didn't commit suicide. He was killed. And with him gone, there's no competition for John [Papalia] in Niagara Falls." The police suspect that Barillaro was involved in Iannuzzelli's presumed murder.
Regarding the Greektown case, Papalia said in 1986, "Yeah, I know the people they charged — they're friends of mine. But that doesn't mean I was involved; I wasn't, because I wouldn't have anything to do with Greeks — I don't like them, I don't like their restaurants, I don't like their food." In the same interview with Peter Moon of The Globe & Mail'', Papalia listed his hobbies as watching boxing, baseball, American football and old films as he could not stand "this porno stuff" as he labelled modern films. He listed jazz as his favourite genre of music. Papalia told Moon that he had stopped taking vacations in Mexico because there was "too much crime" in that nation, and now preferred the West Indies. Papalia said about his occupation, "I go into a bar and I tell them my name and I intimidate people into taking our equipment. That's what the police tell you, isn't it? Listen, I'm lucky to have a couple of good brothers who look after me." About his reputation for violence, Papalia said he had "a short fuse" and added, "Hey, we all lose our temper sometime, don't we?" About why he was seen with gangsters so often, Papalia replied, "You go to Italian weddings, you meet people. I go to lots of Italian weddings." Papalia admitted, however, "I did shylocking and bookmaking, but was back in the fifties. For a guy who been doing so much in this country, the police haven't been able to come up with anything on me. They got nothing better to do than run around following me all the time at taxpayers' expense."
Papalia was known for his hatred of outlaw bikers, whom he found to be intolerably stupid and crude, and, in the 1980s and '90s, made it very clear that he did not want a Hells Angels chapter in Hamilton. Papalia was prepared to grudgingly tolerate other outlaw biker clubs such as the Outlaws and Satan's Choice, but drew a line at the Hells Angels. The Quebec biker war confirmed his prejudices as he found the Angels to be too violent and too vulgar for his liking. Another reason was his opposition to the Rizzuto family. The elite Nomad chapter of the Hells Angels based in Montreal purchased their cocaine from the Rizzuto family, and in return sold the cocaine to the other Hells Angels chapters. Papalia was especially opposed to the Hells Angels moving into Ontario because of their close alliance with the Rizzuto family as he felt that any Hells Angels chapters in Ontario would in effect be Rizzuto family chapters. Walter Stadnick, a Hamilton native and Hells Angels in charge of expanding them into Ontario, was forced to keep a low profile in his hometown as long as Papalia lived. The crime expert Jerry Langton wrote, "Well into the '90s, Papalia was the undisputed Godfather in Hamilton, especially after Luppino died in 1987. He owned an entire city block among his vast real estate holdings. His companies were the biggest vending-machine and liquor-dispensing equipment firms in Canada. He made millions and laughed about it in the media." In 1994, Papalia began suffering from health problems, and spent most of his time either at his penthouse apartment on Market Street or his office at the Galexy Vending company across the street.
In the 1990s, Mora borrowed \$7.2 million from Montreal mob boss Vito Rizzuto and gave the bulk of the money to Papalia to open an upscale restaurant and nightclub in Toronto. After the Rizzuto crime family were not repaid, in September 1996, Mora was shot in the head four times at a Vaughan farm; Giacinto Arcuri was arrested and charged with Mora's murder, but was acquitted for lack of evidence.
## Death
In April 1997, Pasquale "Fat Pat" Musitano, the boss of the Musitano family, met with Gaetano "Guy" Panepinto, the Toronto agent of Montreal's Rizzuto family, in Niagara Falls. Musitano was unhappy with the way that his family was subordinate to the Papalia family, which in turn was the Canadian branch of the Magaddino family. Both Papalia and his right-hand man Barillaro were "made men" in the Magaddino family, and Musitano needed the "protection" of a more powerful family to avoid retaliation from the Buffalo family should either be killed. Musitano wanted an alignment with the Rizzuto family, which in turn was looking to expand into Ontario.
Papalia was fatally shot in the head on May 31, 1997, at the age of 73 in the parking lot of 20 Railway Street outside his vending machine business, Galaxy Vending, in Hamilton. The hitman Kenneth Murdock claimed that he had been ordered to kill Papalia by Angelo and Pat Musitano of the Musitano crime family who owed \$250,000 in bookmaking debts to Papalia. Murdock went to Galaxy Vending to meet with Papalia, whom he had met several times before, to speak in the parking lot of Galaxy Vending under the false pretense of seeking his help to get money back from the Musitanos. After Papalia refused to get involved, he turned his back, and Murdock pulled out his handgun and shot him. Papalia was brought to Hamilton General Hospital where he was pronounced dead.
Amid controversy, Papalia was refused a full Funeral Mass by the Diocese of Hamilton due to having been a career criminal. He was buried at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery, in a family plot, in Burlington.
### Aftermath and legacy
Murdock also killed Papalia's right-hand man Carmen Barillaro two months after he killed Papalia. In November 1998, Murdock pleaded guilty to three counts of second degree murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, and he named Pat and Angelo as the men who had ordered the murders; he was released on parole after serving 13 years. In February 2000, the brothers were sentenced to 10 years for conspiracy to commit murder in the murder of Barillaro in a plea bargain arrangement. No conviction was obtained in relation to the murder of Papalia. In October 2006, the Musitano brothers were both released from prison.
Papalia's brother Frank, the former underboss of the family, who would have been the heir to the operation, decided not to retaliate; instead, he retired and lived inconspicuously. He died of natural causes in April 2014, at the age of 83. Peter Edwards and Antonio Nicaso wrote that with the murders of Mora, Papalia and Barillaro over a ten month period "created more space" for the Rizzuto family, which was then able to dominate Ontario. The journalists André Cédilot and André Noël described the Musitano brothers as merely proxies for Vito Rizzuto, the boss of the Rizzuto family, who saw Papalia, who was loyal to the Magaddino family, as an obstacle for his plans to dominate Ontario. On October 22 and 23, 1997, Rizzuto met twice in a Hamilton restaurant with his Toronto agent Gaetano "Guy" Panepinto and Pasquale "Fat Pat" Musitano. Rizzuto appointed Musitano as one of his Ontario lieutenants to work under the authority of Panepinto.
Crime expert Jerry Langton called Papalia the most important Ontario Mafioso of his generation. Langton noted Papalia had a marked distaste for outlaw bikers and, in a sign of his power, Walter Stadnick, the former president of Hells Angels Canada, had trouble establishing the Angels in Ontario while Papalia was alive. Langton stated, "It's hard for people to understand now just how powerful Johnny Pops was. He was basically the only Canadian Mafia figure who could sit at the table with the top guys in New York. He was part of the French connection; he ruled a big swath of Canada, particularly Southern Ontario, for a very long time. After the Mafia imploded in less than a year, there was no one to oppose the bikers and they came rushing in." In a sign of the new power structure, one of Papalia's leading lieutenants, Gerald Ward of Welland, who had served as the Papalia family's principle drug dealer in the Niagara Peninsula, defected over to the Hells Angels after his murder. One police officer, Shawn Clarkson, of the Niagara Falls Police Department, stated: "There was nobody to stand up to the Hells Angels the way Barillaro or Papalia would have. Papalia, even though he was 73 when he died, he wouldn't have put up with that."
|
46,894,313 |
2015 Emirates Cup
| 1,166,628,036 | null |
[
"2015 sports events in London",
"2015–16 in English football",
"2015–16 in French football",
"2015–16 in German football",
"2015–16 in Spanish football",
"Emirates Cup",
"July 2015 sports events in the United Kingdom"
] |
The 2015 Emirates Cup was a pre-season football friendly tournament hosted by Arsenal at its home ground, the Emirates Stadium in London. It was the eighth Emirates Cup, an invitational competition inaugurated in 2007. Held on the weekend of 25–26 July 2015, the participants were Arsenal, Villarreal, Olympique Lyonnais, and Wolfsburg.
Each team played two matches, with three points awarded for a win, one point for a draw and none for a loss. An additional point was awarded for every goal scored. Arsenal did not face Villarreal, and Lyon did not play against Wolfsburg. Arsenal claimed their fourth Emirates Cup and first in five years by beating Lyon 6–0 on the first day, and then Wolfsburg the day after by a single goal. Villarreal finished runners-up winning both of their matches, while Wolfsburg and Lyon ended the tournament with no wins. Wolfsburg, which scored one goal in the tournament, placed third, and Lyon, which scored none, placed last.
## Background
The Emirates Cup began in July 2007 once Arsenal finalised plans to stage a pre-season competition at its home ground. Named after Arsenal's main sponsor Emirates, the competition's inaugural edition was attended by over 110,000 people across the two days.
In May 2015, Bundesliga club Wolfsburg, Villarreal of La Liga and Ligue 1 outfit Olympique Lyonnais (Lyon) were confirmed as participants, alongside hosts Arsenal, for the eighth edition of the Emirates Cup. It marked Lyon's second appearance in the tournament; they also participated in 2010. Arsenal chief executive Ivan Gazidis said of the three other clubs in a statement, "Lyon, Villarreal and Wolfsburg have some fantastic players and will all contribute to an entertaining weekend of football for our supporters."
## Summary
Villarreal took on Wolfsburg on the opening day of the 2015 Emirates Cup. Wolfsburg's squad included former Arsenal player Nicklas Bendtner, while Manchester City-bound midfielder Kevin De Bruyne started for the German side. The match got off to a lively start with two goals scored in the opening 15 minutes. Villarreal took the lead through Mario in the 8th minute when the team drove forward and he placed his shot into the top left-hand corner of the goal. Almost immediately, Ivan Perišić levelled the score with a left-footed shot. The winner came in the 16th minute; Gerard Moreno's headed pass found Matías Nahuel in the penalty box, and the Villareal forward's hard shot found its way into the net. The second half was a subdued affair despite several clear chances to score – according to FourFourTwo, "Bendtner's return to the Emirates was the main highlight for the home crowd," when the striker came on for Max Kruse in the 60th minute.
Arsenal faced Lyon in the day's late kick-off. Forward Alex Iwobi started for Arsenal, while goalkeeper Petr Čech, who left Chelsea to join the North London club, was named on the substitutes' bench. For Lyon, Alexandre Lacazette played upfront alongside Clinton N'Jie, who later left to join Tottenham Hotspur. Arsenal started well, moving the ball around in Lyon's half, and went a goal up just after the half-hour mark when Olivier Giroud headed in a free kick awarded for a foul on Mathieu Debuchy. A flurry of goals followed: Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain made it 2–0, and Iwobi and Ramsey each scored before the break, leaving it 4–0 in favour of Arsenal. Mesut Özil, who match reporter Amy Lawrence noted "was able to mix a more direct style with his penchant for assisting" added a fifth, and then substitute Santi Cazorla rounded off the 6–0 victory with a final goal in the 85th minute. Arsenal's big win delighted manager Arsène Wenger who said afterwards: "We have a good squad. We score goals. We can create chances," though he maintained the club was "open-minded" to make additions in the transfer window.
Lyon and Villarreal faced each other on the final day of the tournament. Manager Hubert Fournier made a number of changes from Lyon's defeat to Arsenal, including a start for former Tottenham and Fulham midfielder Steed Malbranque. He was involved in Lyon's first chance of the match, setting up Aldo Kalulu who had his shot saved by the Wolfsburg goalkeeper. Villarreal were awarded a penalty in the 31st minute for a foul on Javier Espinosa, which Roberto Soriano slotted in. The Spanish side doubled their lead early in the second half when Léo Baptistão chipped the ball over goalkeeper Mathieu Gorgelin. In the day's late match, Arsenal beat Wolfsburg by a single goal to regain the Emirates Cup. Theo Walcott scored the only goal of the match, assisted by winger Jeff Reine-Adelaide who Wenger described as having "something special".
Arsenal finished the two-day tournament in top place, with 13 points. Villarreal were second, Wolfsburg third and Lyon with no wins or goals scored came last with zero points. The Emirates Cup was postponed the following year due to pitch reconstruction works at Arsenal's home ground; the tournament continued in 2017.
## Standings
Each team played two matches, with three points awarded for a win, one point for a draw, and a point for every goal scored. In addition, shots on target were taken into account and used to decide the competition winners if teams had the same points total and goal difference tally.
## Matches
## Goalscorers
|
1,537,599 |
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
| 1,170,668,053 |
Nerve in the human body
|
[
"Human throat",
"Nerves of the head and neck",
"Vagus nerve"
] |
The recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) is a branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) that supplies all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, with the exception of the cricothyroid muscles. There are two recurrent laryngeal nerves, right and left. The right and left nerves are not symmetrical, with the left nerve looping under the aortic arch, and the right nerve looping under the right subclavian artery then traveling upwards. They both travel alongside the trachea. Additionally, the nerves are among the few nerves that follow a recurrent course, moving in the opposite direction to the nerve they branch from, a fact from which they gain their name.
The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply sensation to the larynx below the vocal cords, give cardiac branches to the deep cardiac plexus, and branch to the trachea, esophagus and the inferior constrictor muscles. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscles that can open the vocal folds, are innervated by this nerve.
The recurrent laryngeal nerves are the nerves of the sixth pharyngeal arch. The existence of the recurrent laryngeal nerve was first documented by the physician Galen.
## Structure
The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch from the vagus nerve, relative to which they get their names; the term "recurrent" from Latin: re- (back) and currere (to run), indicates they run in the opposite direction to the vagus nerves from which they branch. The vagus nerves run down into the thorax, and the recurrent laryngeal nerves run up to the larynx.
The vagus nerves, from which the recurrent laryngeal nerves branch, exit the skull at the jugular foramen and travel within the carotid sheath alongside the carotid arteries through the neck. The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch off the vagus, the left at the aortic arch, and the right at the right subclavian artery. The left RLN passes in front of the arch, and then wraps underneath and behind it. After branching, the nerves typically ascend in a groove at the junction of the trachea and esophagus. They then pass behind the posterior, middle part of the outer lobes of the thyroid gland and enter the larynx underneath the inferior constrictor muscle, passing into the larynx just posterior to the cricothyroid joint. The terminal branch is called the inferior laryngeal nerve.
Unlike the other nerves supplying the larynx, the right and left RLNs lack bilateral symmetry. The left RLN is longer than the right, because it crosses under the arch of the aorta at the ligamentum arteriosum.
### Nucleus
The somatic motor fibers that innervate the laryngeal muscles, and pharyngeal muscles are located in the nucleus ambiguus and emerge from the medulla in the cranial root of the accessory nerve. Fibers cross over to and join the vagus nerve in the jugular foramen. Sensory cell bodies are located in the inferior jugular ganglion, and the fibers terminate in the solitary nucleus. Parasympathetic fibers to segments of the trachea and esophagus in the neck originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve.
### Development
During human and all vertebrate development, a series of pharyngeal arch pairs form in the developing embryo. These project forward from the back of the embryo towards the front of the face and neck. Each arch develops its own artery, nerve that controls a distinct muscle group, and skeletal tissue. The arches are numbered from 1 to 6, with 1 being the arch closest to the head of the embryo, and the fifth arch only existing transiently.
Arches 4 and 6 produce the laryngeal cartilages. The nerve of the sixth arch becomes the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The nerve of the fourth arch gives rise to the superior laryngeal nerve. The arteries of the fourth arch, which project between the nerves of the fourth and sixth arches, become the left-sided arch of the aorta and the right subclavian artery. The arteries of the sixth arch persist as the ductus arteriosus on the left, and are obliterated on the right.
After birth, the ductus arteriosus regresses to form the ligamentum arteriosum. During growth, these arteries descend into their ultimate positions in the chest, creating the elongated recurrent paths.
### Variation
In roughly 1 out of every 100–200 people, the right inferior laryngeal nerve is nonrecurrent, branching off the vagus nerve around the level of the cricoid cartilage. Typically, such a configuration is accompanied by variation in the arrangement of the major arteries in the chest; most commonly, the right subclavian artery arises from the left side of the aorta and crosses behind the esophagus. A left nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve is even more uncommon, requiring the aortic arch be on the right side, accompanied by an arterial variant which prevents the nerve from being drawn into the chest by the left subclavian.
In about four people out of five, there is a connecting branch between the inferior laryngeal nerve, a branch of the RLN, and the internal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. This is commonly called the anastomosis of Galen (Latin: ansa galeni), even though anastomosis usually refers to a blood vessel, and is one of several documented anastomoses between the two nerves.
As the recurrent nerve hooks around the subclavian artery or aorta, it gives off several branches. There is suspected variability in the configuration of these branches to the cardiac plexus, trachea, esophagus and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
## Function
The recurrent laryngeal nerves control all intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle. These muscles act to open, close, and adjust the tension of the vocal cords, and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscle to open the vocal cords. The nerves supply muscles on the same side of the body, with the exception of the interarytenoid muscle, which is innervated from both sides.
The nerves also carry sensory information from the mucous membranes of the larynx below the lower surface of the vocal fold, as well as sensory, secretory and motor fibres to the cervical segments of the esophagus and the trachea.
## Clinical significance
### Injury
The recurrent laryngeal nerves may be injured as a result of trauma, during surgery, as a result of tumour spread, or due to other means. Injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerves can result in a weakened voice (hoarseness) or loss of voice (aphonia) and cause problems in the respiratory tract. Injury to the nerve may paralyze the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle on the same side. This is the sole muscle responsible for opening the vocal cords, and paralysis may cause difficulty breathing (dyspnea) during physical activity. Injury to both the right and left nerve may result in more serious damage, such as the inability to speak. Additional problems may emerge during healing, as nerve fibres that re-anastamose may result in vocal cord motion impairment, uncoordinated movements of the vocal cord.
### Surgery
The nerve receives close attention from surgeons because the nerve is at risk for injury during neck surgery, especially thyroid and parathyroid surgery; as well as esophagectomy. Nerve damage can be assessed by laryngoscopy, during which a stroboscopic light confirms the absence of movement in the affected side of the vocal cords. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve is more susceptible to damage during thyroid surgery because it is close to the bifurcation of the right inferior thyroid artery, variably passing in front of, behind, or between the branches. Similarly, thermal injury can occur with the use of radio frequency ablation to remove thyroid nodules. The nerve is permanently damaged in 0.3–3% of thyroid surgeries, and transient paralysis occurs in 3–8% of surgeries; accordingly, recurrent laryngeal nerve damage is one of the leading causes of medicolegal issues for surgeons. A 2019 systematic review concluded that the available evidence shows no difference between visually identifying the nerve or utilizing intraoperative neuroimaging during surgery, when trying to prevent injury to recurrent laryngeal nerve during surgery.
### Tumors
The RLN may be compressed by tumors. Studies have shown that 2–18% of lung cancer patients develop hoarseness because of recurrent laryngeal nerve compression, usually left-sided. This is associated with worse outcomes, and when found as a presenting symptom, often indicates inoperable tumors. The nerve may be severed intentionally during lung cancer surgery in order to fully remove a tumor. The RLN may also be damaged by tumors in the neck, especially with malignant lymph nodes with extra-capsular extension of tumor beyond the capsule of the nodes, which may invade the area that carries the ascending nerve on the right or left.
### Other disease
In Ortner's syndrome or cardiovocal syndrome, a rare cause of left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy, expansion of structures within the heart or major blood vessels impinges upon the nerve, causing symptoms of unilateral nerve injury.
## Other animals
Horses are subject to equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy, a disease of the axons of the recurrent laryngeal nerves. The cause is not known, although a genetic predisposition is suspected. The length of the nerve is a factor since it is more common in larger horses, and the left side is affected almost exclusively. As the nerve cells die, there is a progressive paralysis of the larynx, causing the airway to collapse. The common presentation is a sound, ranging from a musical whistle to a harsh roar or heaving gasping noise (stertorous), accompanied by worsening performance. The condition is incurable, but surgery can keep the airway open. Experiments with nerve grafts have been tried.
Although uncommon in dogs, bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve disease may be the cause of wheezing (stridor) when middle-aged dogs inhale.
In sauropod dinosaurs, the vertebrates with the longest necks, the total length of the vagus nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve would have been up to 28 metres (92 ft) long in Supersaurus, but these would not be the longest neurons that ever existed: the neurons reaching the tip of the tail would have exceeded 30 metres (98 ft).
## Evidence of evolution
The extreme detour of the recurrent laryngeal nerves, about 4.6 metres (15 ft) in the case of giraffes, is cited as evidence of evolution, as opposed to intelligent design. The nerve's route would have been direct in the fish-like ancestors of modern tetrapods, traveling from the brain, past the heart, to the gills (as it does in modern fish). Over the course of evolution, as the neck extended and the heart became lower in the body, the laryngeal nerve was caught on the wrong side of the heart. Natural selection gradually lengthened the nerve by tiny increments to accommodate, resulting in the circuitous route now observed.
## History
Ancient Greek physician Galen demonstrated the nerve course and the clinical syndrome of recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis, noting that pigs with the nerve severed were unable to squeal. Galen named the nerve the recurrent nerve, and described the same effect in two human infants who had undergone surgery for goiter. In 1838, five years before he would introduce the concept of homology to biology, anatomist Richard Owen reported upon the dissection of three giraffes, including a description of the full course of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Anatomists Andreas Vesalius and Thomas Willis described the nerve in what is now regarded as an anatomically standard description, and doctor Frank Lahey documented a way for its interoperative identification during thyroid operations.
|
2,364,484 |
Isaac Charles Parker
| 1,171,749,313 |
American politician (1838–1896)
|
[
"1838 births",
"1864 United States presidential electors",
"1896 deaths",
"19th-century American judges",
"19th-century American politicians",
"Arkansas Republicans",
"Burials at Fort Smith National Cemetery",
"Judges of the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas",
"Missouri Democrats",
"Missouri state court judges",
"Ohio lawyers",
"People from Barnesville, Ohio",
"People of Missouri in the American Civil War",
"People of the American Old West",
"Politicians from Fort Smith, Arkansas",
"Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma",
"Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri",
"School board members in Arkansas",
"Union Army non-commissioned officers",
"United States federal judges appointed by Ulysses S. Grant"
] |
Isaac Charles Parker (October 15, 1838 – November 17, 1896), also known as “Hanging Judge” Parker, was an American politician and jurist. He served as a United States representative from Missouri and was appointed as the first United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas, which also had jurisdiction over Indian Territory.
Parker became known as the "Hanging Judge" of the American Old West, because he sentenced numerous convicts to death. In 21 years on the federal bench, Judge Parker tried 13,490 cases. In more than 8,500 of these cases, the defendant either pleaded guilty or was convicted at trial. Parker sentenced 160 people to death; 79 were executed. The other 81 either died while incarcerated, were pardoned, or had their sentences commuted.
## Early life
Born in Ohio, Parker was the youngest son of Joseph Parker and his wife Jane Shannon. He was the great-nephew of Ohio Governor Wilson Shannon. He was raised on the family farm near Barnesville, Ohio. He attended Breeze Hill Primary School, followed by the Barnesville Classical Institute, a private school. He taught in a county primary school to pay for his secondary education. At 17, he began an apprenticeship in law, called "reading the law" with an established firm, and passed the Ohio bar exam in 1859 at the age of 21.
Parker moved to St. Joseph, Missouri between 1859 and 1861, where he joined his maternal uncle's law firm of Shannon and Branch. On December 12, 1861, Parker married Mary O'Toole, with whom he had sons Charles and James. By 1862, Parker had his own law firm. He represented clients in the municipal and country courts.
## Political career
In April 1861, Parker ran as a Democrat for part-time position of city attorney for St. Joseph. He served three one-year terms, from April 1861 to 1863. When the American Civil War broke out four days after Parker took office, he enlisted in a pro-Union home guard unit, the 61st Missouri Emergency Regiment. He had reached the rank of corporal by the end of the war.
During the 1860s, Parker continued both his legal and political careers. In 1864, he formally split from the Democratic Party over conflicting opinions on slavery. He ran as a Republican for county prosecutor of the Ninth Missouri Judicial District. By the fall of 1864, he was serving as a member of the Electoral College and voted for re-election of Abraham Lincoln. In 1868, Parker won a six-year term as judge of the Twelfth Missouri Circuit.
Parker was nominated for Missouri's 7th congressional district on September 13, 1870, backed by the Radical faction of the Republican party. He resigned his judgeship and devoted his energy to his campaign. Parker won the election after his opponent withdrew two weeks prior to the vote. Parker was elected as a Republican to the United States House of Representatives of the 42nd and 43rd United States Congresses, serving from March 4, 1871, to March 3, 1875. He was the caucus nominee of his party for United States Senator in 1874.
The first session of the 42nd Congress convened on March 4, 1871. During his first term, Parker helped to secure pensions for veterans in his district and campaigned for a new federal building to be built in St. Joseph. He sponsored a failed bill designed to enfranchise women and allow them to hold public office in United States territories. He also sponsored legislation to organize the Indian Territory under a territorial government.
Parker was again elected to Missouri's 7th district in the forty-third Congress. A local paper wrote of him, "Missouri had no more trusted or influential representative in ... Congress during the past two years".
In his second term, Parker concentrated on Indian policy, including the fair treatment of the tribes residing in the Indian Territory. His speeches in support of the Bureau of Indian Affairs gained national attention.
In 1874, Parker was the caucus nominee of the Republican Party for a Missouri Senate seat. But, the political tide had shifted in Missouri; it seemed unlikely that the legislature would elect him to the Senate, so he sought a presidential appointment as judge for the Western District of Arkansas.
## Federal judicial service
On May 26, 1874, President Grant nominated Parker as Chief Justice of the Utah Territory to replace James B. McKean. At his own request, Parker was instead nominated by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 18, 1875, to a seat on the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas. It had been vacated by Judge William Story, who resigned under threat of impeachment for allegations of corruption.
Parker was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 19, 1875, and received his commission the same day. He served in this position until his death in office, on November 17, 1896.
Parker arrived in Fort Smith on May 4, 1875, initially without his family. Parker's first session as the district judge was on May 10, 1875, with court prosecutor W. H. H. Clayton. Clayton served as the United States Attorney for the Western District of Arkansas for fourteen of Parker's twenty-one years on the court.
Also on May 10, Parker commissioned Bass Reeves as a Deputy US Marshal. Reeves became one of the first African American lawmen west of the Mississippi River.
In May 1875, Parker tried 18 men during his first session of court, all of whom were charged with murder; 15 were convicted in jury trials. Parker sentenced eight of them to a mandatory death penalty. He ordered six of the men to be executed at the same time on September 3, 1875. One of those sentenced to death was killed trying to escape. The governor commuted the sentence of another to life in prison due to his youth. In an interview with the St. Louis Republic on September 1, 1896, Parker said that he had no say in whether a convict was to be hanged due to compulsory death sentences, and that he favored "the abolition of capital punishment".
Parker's court had final jurisdiction over federal crimes in the Indian Territory from 1875 until 1889, as there was no court available for appeals. The Five Civilized Tribes and other Native American tribes in the Indian Territory had jurisdiction over their own citizens through their tribal legal systems and governments. Federal law in Indian Territory applied to non-Indian United States citizens.
According to Congress, the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas was to meet in four separate terms each year: in February, May, August, and November. The court had such a large caseload that the four terms ran together. Parker's court sat six days a week in order to ensure prosecuting as many cases as possible each term, and often up to ten hours each day. In 1883, Congress reduced the jurisdiction of the court, reassigning parts of the Indian Territory to federal courts in Texas and Kansas; however, the increasing number of European-American settlers moving into the Indian Territories still increased the court's workload.
From May 1, 1889, Congress made changes to allow appeals of capital convictions to the United States Supreme Court. Forty-four cases in which Parker imposed the death penalty were appealed to the Supreme Court. It overturned and ordered a re-trial for 30 of them.
While serving as a district judge in Fort Smith, Parker also served on the Fort Smith School Board. He was the first president of St. John's Hospital, established by the local St. John's Episcopal Church. (In the 21st century, the hospital is known as Sparks Health System).
In his time on the court, Parker presided over a number of high-profile cases, including the trial of Crawford Goldsby, known as "Cherokee Bill", and the "Oklahoma Boomer" case involving David L. Payne, a non-Indian who illegally settled on lands in the Indian Territory. In 1895, Parker heard two cases involving Crawford Goldsby (Cherokee Bill). In the first, Goldsby was charged with killing a bystander during a general-store robbery in 1894.
He was convicted in a case that lasted from February 26 to June 25, 1895, and Parker sentenced him to death. While awaiting execution, Goldsby attempted to escape prison and killed a prison guard. He was tried again and convicted in Parker's court; the judge sentenced him to death on December 2, 1895. Goldsby was hanged on March 17, 1896. Bill was sentenced to be hanged twice, one for the by stander killed in the general store robbery, and once fore killing a Guard while trying to escape. Up holding with the law, judge parker ordered him hung twice, by commuting the word in the first case, to be hung,( cut out the words (until dead). So the day of the hanging bill was placed on a three legged milking stool, and it was pulled out from under from him he was allowed too dangle and be hung for about 2 mins.he was then replaced back on the stool, given a min too get a few breaths, and hung again until dead. Satisfying both family's seeking justice..and Satisfying the letter of the law.
### Later years
Keeping with continued settlement in the West, the Courts Act of 1889 established a federal court system in the Indian Territory. This decreased the span of jurisdiction of the Western District Court at Fort Smith.
Parker clashed with the Supreme Court on a number of occasions. In around two-thirds of cases appealed to the Supreme Court from his court, his rulings were upheld. In 1894, Parker gained national attention in a dispute with the Supreme Court over the case of Lafayette Hudson.
Hudson was convicted of assault with intent to kill and sentenced to four years' imprisonment. He appealed to the Supreme Court and was granted bail. Parker refused to release Hudson on the grounds that statute law did not provide the Supreme Court with the authority to demand Hudson's release.
In 1895, Congress passed a Courts Act that removed the remaining Indian Territory jurisdiction of the Western District, effective September 1, 1896.
## Death and legacy
When the August 1896 term began, Parker was at home, suffering from Bright's disease and too ill to preside over the court. The jurisdiction of the court over Indian Territory was ended on September 1, 1896. Reporters wanted to interview Parker about his career, but had to talk to him at his bedside. Parker died on November 17, 1896, of a number of health conditions, including heart degeneration and Bright's disease. His funeral in Fort Smith had the highest number of attendees up to that point. He is buried at the Fort Smith National Cemetery.
In 2019, the city of Fort Smith unveiled a statue of Parker representing law and order.
## Representation in other media
- Charles Portis features Parker in his novel True Grit, which has twice been adapted as films of the same name. Parker is also a featured character in the sequel to the first film. He was portrayed by James Westerfield in the 1969 movie and by John McIntire in the sequel. He was played by Jake Walker in the 2010 remake of True Grit.
- Zeke Proctor, one of Parker's deputy marshals, is featured in Larry McMurtry's 1997 novel Zeke and Ned.
- Carlyle Mitchell was cast as Judge Parker in the 1961 episode "A Bullet for the D.A." on the television series Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. Carole Mathews played Belle Starr recently released from federal prison. In the story line, Belle unsuccessfully plots the revenge assassination of U.S. Attorney W.H.H. Clayton (Don Haggerty) during a Wild West show in Fort Smith.
- In the pilot episode of the TV series Hec Ramsey, the title character (a former United States Marshal) briefly discusses having ridden for Parker for several years.
- In the 1968 film Hang 'Em High, the character of Adam Fenton loosely resembles the person of Parker, who is known by the epithet "the hanging judge."
- In the Steve Earle song, "Tom Ames' Prayer," the narrator Ames is sentenced to death by Parker.
## See also
- George Maledon, an American hangman aptly nicknamed "The Prince of Hangmen", who served in the federal court of Judge Isaac Parker
- Shannon Political Family
|
2,104,591 |
Hugo Danner
| 1,168,513,228 |
Fictional character in Gladiator
|
[
"DC Comics characters with superhuman strength",
"Fictional French Army personnel",
"Fictional World War I veterans",
"Fictional characters from Colorado",
"Fictional characters from the 19th century",
"Fictional characters from the 20th century",
"Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds",
"Fictional characters with accelerated healing",
"Fictional characters with superhuman strength",
"Fictional players of American football",
"Literary characters introduced in 1930",
"Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength"
] |
Hugo Danner is a fictional character and the protagonist of Philip Wylie's 1930 novel Gladiator. Born in the late 19th century with superhuman abilities via prenatal chemical experimentation, Danner tries to use his powers for good, making him a precursor of the superhero. However, Danner grows disillusioned with his inability to find a permanent outlet for his great strength, and dies frustrated.
Apart from Wylie's novel, the character has also appeared in a feature film and publications by Marvel Comics and DC Comics. Comedic actor Joe E. Brown portrayed him in a 1938 movie adaptation of the book. Decades later the character starred in an adaptation titled "Man-God" in Marvel's black-and-white comics magazine Marvel Preview \#9 (Winter 1976). He next appeared in DC's standard color comic book Young All-Stars in 1988 and 1989, as the estranged father of an illegitimate son named Iron Munro. In 2005, he returned in the comic book miniseries Legend, published by the DC imprint Wildstorm. Here Danner, in the late 1960s, fights as a U.S. Army supersoldier in the Vietnam War rather than as a super Legionnaire in World War I.
## Publication history
### Creation
In early February 1930, Wylie described the inspiration for Danner's creation in the introduction to one of the earliest printings of Gladiator:
> A temperamental consciousness of material force brought Hugo Danner into being. The frustration of my own muscles by things, and the alarming superiority of machinery started the notion of a man who would be invincible. I gave him a name and planned random deeds for him. I let him tear down Brooklyn Bridge and lift a locomotive. Then I began to speculate about his future and it seemed to me that a human being thus equipped would be foredoomed to vulgar fame or to a life of fruitless destruction. He would share the isolation of geniuses and with them would learn the inflexibility of man's slow evolution. To that extent Hugo became symbolic and Gladiator a satire. The rest was adventure and perhaps more of the book derives from the unliterary excitement of imagining such a life than from a studious juxtaposition of incidents to a theme"
### Development
The novel begins during the closing years of the 19th century, as Colorado science Professor Abednego Danner searches for a way to improve the innate weaknesses of human biology and create a new "race that doesn't know fear — because it cannot know harm". After 14 years of research he finally discovers "alkaline radicals" that vastly improve "muscular strength and the nervous discharge of energy". Following very successful animal testing, which yields super-strong tadpoles and a bulletproof kitten capable of taking down cattle as prey, he injects this super-serum into the womb of his pregnant wife, Matilda. Hugo Danner is born on Christmas several months later.
His parents imbue him with a strong moral compass during his formative years and warn him never to use his great strength in anger. However, during kindergarten, Danner nearly kills the school's bully in a one-sided fight after being assaulted by the child. This event brands him as an outsider in the eyes of the other children. Because they treat him with such abhorrence, his only solace comes in the form of unleashing his powers within the Colorado wilderness (uprooting trees, throwing huge boulders, leaping to the mountain tops, etc.). This stigma eventually wears off, though, and is forgotten by the time Danner enters high school.
Danner leaves Colorado after graduating high school to attend Webster University. There, he becomes an unstoppable football star and the most popular boy in school. During the summer months, he works as a circus strong man and even enters a fight competition for money. However, after returning to college and accidentally killing another player during a game, he quits school and becomes a sailor. A year later, his ship is trapped in France by the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
He and a fellow American sign up with the French Foreign Legion and find themselves on the battlements after a short training period. He eventually reveals his powers to his Legionnaire superiors, who believe him to be a devil or supernatural Native American, and he is given free rein to roam the battlefield and kill as many German soldiers as he possibly can. Stories of "Le Colorado" (The Colorado) quickly spread from trench to trench and Danner becomes a sort of mythical hero. After a short stint in an American Legionnaire unit, Danner grows weary of war and devises a plan with an airplane:
> He would drive it far into Germany. When its petrol failed, he would crash it. Stepping from the ruins, he would hasten on in the darkness, on, on, like Pheidippides, till he reached the centre of the enemy government. There, crashing through the petty human barriers, he would perform his last feat, strangling the Emperor, slaying the generals, pulling buildings apart with his Samsonian arms, and disrupting the control of the war.
However, the Treaty of Versailles is signed the very day he prepares to leave, and so he is forced to abort his mission, much to his dismay. He returns to the United States and works in a number of professions — steel mill worker, bank teller, farm hand, and disarmament lobbyist — but his unique stature among mortal men forever brings him grief. He eventually offers his services to a noted history professor preparing a Mayan archaeological dig and travels with the group to the Yucatan Peninsula.
During the trip, Danner wonders if the Mayans and Egyptians had discovered the same formula as his father, "which could be poured into the veins of the slaves [who built the pyramids], making them stronger than engines". There, he works as the head steward of the hired Mayan helpers and proves himself an asset to the team. But when a mishap reveals his great strength to the professor, the elderly man suggests Danner use his father's formula to create a new race of men known as the "Sons of Dawn", who will use their powers to right the world's wrongs. The idea appeals to him at first, but Danner fears that these sons would also be hated by humanity for their superiority and treated much the same as himself. In the end, he climbs a mountain amidst an oncoming thunderstorm, and is struck dead by lightning while praying to God. The formula is lost in the resulting fire. The professor discovers his charred remains three days later and buries him among the Mayan ruins.
## Powers and abilities
Even during his early years, Danner displays superhuman strength. He demolishes his wooden crib as a newborn, saves a man's life by lifting a two-ton supply wagon at 6 years old, and uproots entire trees at 10. He progressively grows stronger as he gets older. During his twenties, he can stop and kill a charging bull with a single punch, bend a railroad rail, lift a seventy-five millimeter howitzer cannon singlehandedly, lift a car and its driver singlehandedly, rip open a 5-foot-thick (1.5 m) bank vault, and easily catch a falling 8,000-pound block of stone.
Danner's physical strength extends to his legs, allowing him to leap great heights and distances. At age 10 he can leap 40 feet (12 m) into the air and run faster than a train. During his freshman year in college, he easily breaks a world track record, though he actually doesn't run at his full speed. While in the service of the French Foreign Legion in World War I, he traverses 37 miles (60 km) round trip in just thirty minutes (a speed of about 148 miles per hour (238 km/h)); all while carrying 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of food, water, and ammunition for his unit. Despite his great strength, he is still susceptible to fatigue.
He first learns of his body's superior resistance to physical injury during the war. Bullets and bayonets glance off his tough skin. He believes he can even survive a plane crash. The only weaponry capable of penetrating his skin at the time are the largest artillery shells. Although, he still feels the effects of the elements, sweating under the heat of the sun and freezing during winter. Danner's only vulnerability is lightning, which ultimately kills him.
Danner's bodily tissues have a somewhat greater density than those of an ordinary human being. Though he has an athletic build, his strength is far greater than what his frame would naturally allow. People guess him to be 155 pounds (70 kg), but he actually weighs 211 pounds (96 kg). During his stint as a sailor, he goes pearl diving with the natives of Cristobal and is able to dive deeper and stay under longer because of his density.
His body can heal damaged tissue much faster and more extensively than an ordinary human can. He collapses from exhaustion and wounds sustained from artillery shells after he goes berserk against the Germans to avenge a friend's death. When he wakes up in an army hospital, he finds "his wounds had healed without the necessity of a single stitch". Long periods of comatose sleep (up to 20 hours) and the consuming of huge meals also aid in his regenerative process.
## In other media
### Film
Danner was portrayed by comedic actor Joe E. Brown in the 1938 film The Gladiator, which loosely adapted science-fiction drama as a comedy, and, among the many changes, renamed the protagonist "Hugo Kipp". The film begins when Kipp wins a large sum of money in a contest and decides to return to college. There, he is talked into joining the football team and fails to live up to his athletic father's legendary reputation. But after a Professor Danner (Lucien Littlefield) injects Kipp with a serum that gives him superhuman strength, he becomes an unstoppable player and wins the heart of the self-centered quarterback's girlfriend (June Travis). In the end, he faces Man Mountain Dean in a wrestling match, but the serum runs out at the last minute.
### Comics
In comics, Danner first appeared in the 52-page story "Man-God", by writer Roy Thomas and artist Tony DeZuniga (credited as Antony DeZuniga) in Marvel Comics' Marvel Preview \#9 (Winter 1976). Only the first half of the novel is adapted.
Danner next appeared in DC Comics' Young All-Stars \#9-11 (Feb.-April 1988) and \#28-31 (Aug.-Nov. 1989), as the estranged father of Iron Munro, his illegitimate son. Munro was not a character or even a possibility in the original novel, where, as Danner's ailing scientist father explained, "the effect of the process is not inherited by the future generations. It must be done over each time".
In this storyline, Munro comes into possession of his father's diary and learns of Danner's troubled life as the 20th century's first metahuman. After having read the diary, Munro turns to the government's secret Project M, demanding to know the location of the "Dinosaur Island" mentioned by Danner. There he meets a person who leads him instead to Maple White Land in South America. Munro is surprised when he finds his father is alive. Danner apparently faked his death in the Yucatan and briefly returned home to have a one-night stand with his former high school sweetheart Anna Blake. The resulting union bore Munro, who took his surname from his mother's new husband (who believed the child to be his own). Danner has, by this time, succeeded in rearing the first generation of the Sons of Dawn. He later reveals to the Young-All Stars that the villain Übermensch has stolen the formula in order to create his own race of supermen.
Munro is forced to oppose his father when Danner orders the Sons of Dawn to attack a Brazilian city. The combined might of the All-Star Squadron defeats the Sons of Dawn and Danner is killed during the final battle.
Danner starred in the four-issue miniseries Legend (April–July 2005) by writer Howard Chaykin and artist Russ Heath, published by the DC imprint Wildstorm. Cover blurbs on the first two issues read, "Inspired by Philip Wylie's Novel Gladiator". The story now takes place in the second half of the 20th century, with the Vietnam War replacing World War I, but the story remaining for the most part intact.
## Comparison with later heroes
No confirmation exists that Superman co-creator Jerry Siegel was influenced by Gladiator. He and co-creator Joe Shuster began developing Superman in 1934.
Superman as originally published came from an unnamed planet whose inhabitants were millions of years more evolved than humans. When they reached maturity, "the people of his race became gifted with titanic strength". Their advanced evolution and great strength accounted for Superman's superhuman abilities on earth. As Siegel described them: "When maturity was reached, he discovered he could easily: leap 1⁄8th of a mile; hurdle a twenty-story building...raise tremendous weights...run faster than an express train...and that nothing less than a bursting shell could penetrate his skin!"
Siegel and Shuster compared Superman's strength and leaping abilities to those of an ant and a grasshopper, respectively, as did Abednego for his son. Danner also claims descent from a far-off land (Colorado) inhabited by a race of super-strong, indestructible men. In order to keep his true "experimental" origins a secret, he tells his Legionnaire superiors, "[Colorado is a] place in America. A place that has scarcely been explored. I was born there. All the men of Colorado are born as I was born and are like me. We are very strong. We are great fighters. We cannot be wounded except by the largest shells." Other examples of similarities include both of their biological fathers are scientists (Jor-El and Abednego), both grow up in rural settings (Smallville and Indian Creek, Colorado), both are imbued with a strong moral compass from a young age both lift cars over their heads, and both hide their powers from the world.
One critic noted that Danner's "creation and upbringing by a scientist father recall Doc Savage's origins" and a "prototype for the famous scene in which the fledgling Spider-Man defeats a hulking wrestler to make money is found in Wylie's novel; Hugo's bout in the ring is similar to that in the Spider-Man's origin story in 1962's Amazing Fantasy \#15."
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Non-constituency Member of Parliament
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MP without constituency in Singapore
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[
"1984 in Singapore",
"Singapore government policies",
"Singaporean Non-constituency Members of Parliament"
] |
A Non-constituency Member of Parliament (NCMP) is a member of an opposition political party in Singapore who, according to the Constitution and Parliamentary Elections Act, is declared to have been elected a Member of Parliament (MP) without constituency representation, despite having lost in a general election, by virtue of having been one of the best-performing losers. When less than 12 opposition MPs have been elected, the number of NCMPs is the difference to total 12. NCMPs enjoy all of the privileges of ordinary members of Parliament, apart from the salary, which is substantially lower.
The incumbent NCMPs are Leong Mun Wai and Hazel Poa from the Progress Singapore Party, both of whom were declared elected on 16 July 2020.
## History
The NCMP scheme was introduced in 1984, and was a significant modification of the single-member simple-plurality electoral system traditionally associated with Westminster systems of government. Since the ruling People's Action Party had won all parliamentary seats in the four general elections since independence, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew argued that the NCMP scheme would ensure that opposition voices would be heard in Parliament. According to him, this would be beneficial to Singapore as it would give the younger generation of Singaporeans a chance to see what an opposition can or cannot do. When the first constitutional amendment was made to initiate the NCMP scheme, between three and six NCMPs were allowed in Parliament. In 2010, the Constitution was amended again to allow for a maximum of nine NCMPs in Parliament. With effect from 2017, the maximum number of NCMPs increased from nine to 12, and they were conferred the same voting powers in Parliament as elected MPs.
Since its inception, the scheme has been widely criticised. It has been considered undemocratic as it allows candidates who do not have the mandate of the people to air their views in Parliament. Furthermore, members of the opposition have criticized the scheme for creating an unequal playing field in a general election by enabling the ruling People's Action Party (PAP) to argue that the electorate need not vote for opposition candidates as there will already be opposition representation in Parliament. Despite this critique, several opposition politicians have accepted NCMP seats, including 2 different parties like Lee Siew-Choh, J. B. Jeyaretnam and Sylvia Lim from the Workers' Party and also Steve Chia from Singapore Democratic Alliance. NCMPs have raised notable points in Parliament with regards to various public policy issues such as criminal procedure, education, health and social welfare.
The 2011 general election brought three NCMPs into Parliament from 2 different political parties: Lina Loh (the wife of Chiam See Tong, the former MP for Potong Pasir Single Member Constituency) of the Singapore People's Party, and Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong of the Workers' Party.
The 2015 general election brought in three different NCMPs into Parliament which only consists of one political party: Dennis Tan, Leon Perera and Daniel Goh from the Worker's Party. A NCMP seat was offered to former MP for Punggol East SMC, Lee Li Lian from the Worker's Party but she declined and the seat was eventually accepted by Associate Professor Daniel Goh also from the Worker's Party.
The 2020 general election brought in two different NCMPs into Parliament which consists of one political party: Leong Mun Wai & Hazel Poa from the Progress Singapore Party.
## Position of NCMP
A Non-constituency Member of Parliament ("NCMP") is a candidate of an opposition political party who, despite having lost in a general election, is declared elected as a Member of the Parliament of Singapore ("MP") by virtue of provisions in the Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act enabling the unsuccessful candidates who have performed the best to be accorded the status. The NCMP does not represent any constituency (or electoral division) in Parliament.
The NCMP scheme was introduced on 22 August 1984 by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1984 and the Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Act 1984. Under Article 39(1)(b) of the Constitution which was introduced by the constitutional amendment Act, the maximum number of NCMPs was set at six. However, the actual number that could be declared elected at any general election was fixed at three, less the total number of Opposition MPs elected to Parliament. The President, acting on the advice of the Cabinet, could order that between four and six NCMPs be declared elected for the purpose of a particular general election. Such an order ceased to have effect at the next dissolution of Parliament. On 1 July 2010, the need for a presidential order to increase the number of NCMPs was removed. Instead, the maximum number of NCMPs in Parliament was increased from six to nine, and the actual number that would be declared elected following a general election would be nine less the number of opposition MPs elected to Parliament.
On 9 November 2016, a bill to amend the Constitution was passed to increase the maximum number of NCMPs from nine to 12, and to confer upon NCMPs the same voting powers as elected MPs. NCMPs could exercise their enhanced voting powers with effect from 1 April 2017, while the procedure for electing up to 12 NCMPs after a general election was brought into effect on 2 January 2019.
### Becoming an NCMP
NCMPs have been called the "best losers" of each general election. As NCMPs are declared elected from candidates who fail to win at general elections, they are subject to the same qualifying criteria as elected MPs:
- They must be Singapore citizens aged 21 or above.
- Their names must appear in a current register of electors.
- They must have been residents of Singapore for at least ten years.
- They must be able to speak, read and write in at least one of the four official languages (English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil).
- They must not be disqualified under Article 45 of the Constitution.
The Constitution and the Parliamentary Elections Act provide for a maximum of 12 NCMPs in Parliament. After the polling results for a general election have been released, the opposition candidates receiving the highest percentage of votes in their electoral divisions but not elected into Parliament will be offered NCMP seats. However, this is subject to several conditions. There must be fewer than 12 opposition members voted into Parliament, and the candidate must have garnered at least 15% of the total number of votes polled at the election in the contested electoral division. In addition, there can be no more than two NCMPs from one Group Representation Constituency ("GRC") and no more than one NCMP from an electoral division that is not a GRC (that is, a Single Member Constituency or SMC).
If the number of opposition candidates elected is fewer than 12, losing opposition candidates who have the highest percentage of votes during the election will be declared elected as NCMPs to make up the minimum number of opposition MPs. Hence, the number of NCMP seats offered is 12 minus the number of elected opposition MPs.
In the event that a group of candidates contesting in a GRC is offered an NCMP seat, the group must decide within seven days the person or persons to be declared elected as NCMPs and notify the returning officer. Elected NCMP must take an oath of allegiance to Singapore and to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore". If this is not done at the first or second sitting of Parliament during its first session after the general election, Parliament may by resolution declare that the NCMP's seat has become vacant and that it will be filled by the next succeeding eligible candidate at the general elections, the candidates having priority based on the percentage of votes polled by them.
Opposition members who qualify to become NCMPs are allowed to reject their seats in Parliament. During the 2011 general election, several opposition leaders stated that they would not want to accept NCMP seats. Among them was Low Thia Kiang, the Secretary-General of the Workers' Party of Singapore ("WP").
### Parliamentary role
Before 1 April 2017, NCMPs could engage in debate in Parliament and were allowed to vote on all bills except the following:
- Amendments to the Constitution.
- Any motion pertaining to a bill to amend a supply bill, supplementary supply bill or final supply bill. (These are bills authorizing the Government to expend public money.)
- Any motion pertaining to a Bill to amend a money bill.
- A motion of no confidence in the Government.
- Removal of the President from office.
With effect from that date, they were conferred the same voting rights as elected MPs.
## Reasons for the NCMP scheme
During the Second Reading of the NCMP bill, the Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew presented to Parliament three main justifications for the NCMP scheme. First, he said that having a minimum number of opposition members in Parliament through the NCMP scheme would provide younger People's Action Party ("PAP") MPs with sparring partners to "sharpen their debating skills". Secondly, the presence of opposition members in Parliament would educate the younger generation of voters about the role of a constitutional opposition and the limits of what it can do. He said this was especially important because the younger generation who had not lived and witnessed the conflicts within Parliament in the 1950s and 1960s "harbour[ed] myths about the role of an Opposition" and "had no idea how destructive an Opposition could be". Thirdly, the presence of non-PAP MPs in Parliament would act as a check and balance against any governmental impropriety. According to Lee, "some non-PAP MPs will ensure that every suspicion, every rumour of misconduct, will be reported to the non-PAP MPs". The readiness of non-PAP members to bring forth any allegation of misfeasance, or corruption, or nepotism would "dispel suspicions of cover-ups of alleged wrongdoings".
More importantly, the NCMP scheme was introduced to "ensure the representation in Parliament of a minimum number of Members from a political party or parties not forming the Government". The PAP possessed "unbroken hegemony" in Parliament from 1968 until 1981 when J. B. Jeyaretnam won a seat in the Anson by-election. As a result of his sole opposition presence in the Parliament, he could not initiate a meaningful debate in Parliament, being unable to find another MP to second his motions. The fact that there was absolutely no opposition representation in Parliament in the four general elections before 1984 (as indicated in the table below) added to the impetus for the inception of the scheme.
## Criticisms
The NCMP scheme has been the subject of criticism, both within the PAP and among opposition MPs and Nominated Members of Parliament (NMPs). During parliamentary debates in April 2010 on increasing the number of NCMPs from six to nine, several MPs expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of legitimacy and anti-democratic nature of the NCMP concept. For instance, PAP MP Alvin Yeo expressed doubts as to whether the NCMP scheme had served to raise the level of debate in Parliament, while NMP Calvin Cheng said:
> [P]eople who are proposed to be NCMPs are politicians who stood for an election and lost. Sir, they lost. They lost. I do not know how much more emphatic I can be about this. These are politicians who have stood on certain political platforms, for certain political issues and the majority of the electorate have considered these issues, these politicians and have rejected them at the polls. To then allow them into Parliament flies in the face of the logic of a democratic election at best and, at worst, is a slap in the face to the people who have voted against them.
The opposition has, from the introduction of the NCMP scheme, decried it as a "sham" and a "toothless" office. Opposition member J. B. Jeyaratnam questioned whether it was "a trick or a ploy" by the ruling party to maintain its dominance in Parliament. It has been argued that the system has placed the opposition at a disadvantage at general elections for a number of reasons. For one, there are restrictions on NCMPs as to what they can or cannot vote on in Parliament. Thus, it has been suggested that the presence of NCMPs in Parliament "does not seem to extend beyond the decorative and the provision of debating foils for the younger PAP generation unexposed to the gladiatorial quality of parliamentary debate". Moreover, the effectiveness of the NCMP scheme is limited by the perception that the NCMP is obliged to be adversarial by virtue of being party to the opposition. This is so even if privately the Member can apprehend the benefits of a Government proposal. Finally, the NCMP scheme has been criticized as a ploy to discourage voters from voting in opposition MPs because of the guarantee of at least a number of NCMP seats. This inhibits the natural growth of an elected opposition voice in Parliament as the electorate's motivation to vote in an opposition Member into Parliament is conceivably diluted by the assurance that a default mechanism exists for the "best losers".
Opposition MP Low Thia Khiang has cited an NCMP's lack of "muscle and real grassroot[s] grounding" as a reason for his refusal to take up an NCMP seat. NCMPs do not represent any constituency and are thus denied of opportunities to expand their influence.
During the 2010 debates, Sylvia Lim, then the sole NCMP in Parliament, commented that having NCMPs "make[s] a bad situation better, but increasing NCMPs is not the solution towards a more robust political system". She identified an NCMP's lack of any official capacity to represent the people or write letters on their behalf as a drawback of the scheme. Moreover, an NCMP has no physical base to organize activities or dialogues with the people. In her view, it would be better for politics in Singapore if the NCMP scheme was regarded merely as a "stop-gap measure" to deal with the lack of alternative voices in Parliament as a result of the ruling party's alleged abuse of the GRC system and gerrymandering.
In 2011 during a live television forum, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong refuted claims that NCMPs were not a "real opposition" by stating that the PAP had introduced and expanded the scheme "because it acknowledged both the desire among Singaporeans for alternative voices and the need for an opposition to represent the diverse views in society". He noted that NCMPs were free to debate issues in Parliament, and that the scheme provided opposition politicians with an opportunity to "establish themselves and strengthen their positions in subsequent general elections".
## List of NCMPs
In the 1984 general election, the first held after the NCMP scheme was introduced, as the opposition MPs J. B. Jeyaretnam of the WP and Chiam See Tong of the Singapore Democratic Party were elected to Parliament, the single NCMP seat available was allocated to the WP's M. P. D. Nair. However, the WP decided that its defeated candidates should not take up NCMP seats. Jeyaretnam, the WP's Secretary-General, said that the "real object" behind the scheme was to persuade the electorate to return the PAP to all the seats in Parliament, which was "the antithesis of what Parliament is". The NCMP seat was then allocated to Tan Chee Kien of the Singapore United Front, but his party also decided to reject the seat. This was regarded as a "resignation", and the NCMP seat was thus not filled.
The first NCMP to take up a seat in Parliament, Dr. Lee Siew Choh of the WP, did so following the 1988 general election at which Chiam See Tong was the only opposition MP elected. The WP's Lee and Francis Seow were declared elected as NCMPs on 16 September 1988. However, on 9 January 1989 the Speaker of Parliament Tan Soo Khoon announced that Seow had lost his seat with effect from 17 December 1988 under Article 45 of the Constitution after he was convicted and fined for tax evasion. In the general election that followed in 1991, a special provision was made for four instead of three NCMP seats, but none were offered because four opposition members were successful in their respective electoral divisions.
In the 1997 general election, it was back to the default three NCMP seats. After two opposition members were elected, one NCMP seat was offered to, and accepted by, J. B. Jeyaratnam. He was declared elected with effect from 14 January 1997. Subsequently, with effect from 23 July 2001, Jeyaretnam fell into bankruptcy due to an unpaid debt and thus lost his seat in Parliament. The general election that year saw one NCMP seat occupied by Steve Chia of the Singapore Democratic Alliance.
In the 2006 general election, Sylvia Lim, Chairman of the Workers' Party, garnered 43.9% of the votes in Aljunied GRC, making her the "best loser" of the election. She was subsequently declared elected as the next NCMP in Parliament on 12 May 2006.
Following the increase in the number of NCMP seats in Parliament to nine in 2010, since the Workers' Party garnered six seats at the 2011 general election, three NCMP seats were offered. They were taken up by Lina Loh from the Singapore People's Party who contested in Potong Pasir Single Member Constituency (SMC), and Yee Jenn Jong and Gerald Giam of the Worker's Party who contested in Joo Chiat SMC and East Coast GRC respectively.
In the 2015 general election,the Worker's Party garnered back six seats at the 2015 general election, three NCMP seats were offered. They were taken up by Dennis Tan who contested in Fengshan SMC and Leon Perera and Daniel Goh who contested in East Coast GRC of the Worker's Party.
In the 2020 general election, Tan Cheng Bock, led the PSP in West Coast GRC which garnered 48.32% of the votes, making them the "best loser" of the election. Two NCMP seats were offered. They were taken up by Leong Mun Wai and Hazel Poa from the Progress Singapore Party who contested in West Coast GRC, They were subsequently declared elected as the next NCMP in Parliament on 16 July 2020.
## Notable issues raised by NCMPs
NCMPs have raised and debated in Parliament a wide range of issues. What follows are some of the more notable issues mentioned.
### Steve Chia
In November 2002, NCMP Steve Chia supported a motion by the Minister for Education stating that "this House ... (1) supports the new JC [junior college] curriculum which will better develop thinking, communication and other process skills and engage students in greater breadth of learning; and (2) endorses greater diversity and opening of new pathways in JC/Upper Secondary education to cater to the different strengths and interests of students." He suggested that there should be a focus on "creative spontaneity", expressing the view that the education system in 2002 was one that focused on churning out a production line of workers, managers and instruction takers. Given that Singapore had reached the standards of a First World economy, Singapore should focus on instilling an inquisitive spirit within students, to encourage students to ask questions. He placed most emphasis on the importance of ensuring that the focus of education should be character building, stating: "It will be failure of our education system if we are to train our best and brightest with our best resources only to be told that they are going to be the quitters of our society; or that they lack the compassion for the weak and the down; or that they behave in a snobbish class of their own; or behave condescendingly to their peers and followers; or that the elites only care about their own self-interests."
In 2003, Chia mooted the idea that Singaporeans should be able to borrow from their own Central Provident Fund (CPF) savings to tide over periods of financial difficulty. His rationale was that if individuals could borrow from their own CPF accounts to buy depreciating property and money-losing stocks, there was no reason why they should not be allowed to do so to pay for bills. Dr. Ong Seh Hong, MP for Aljunied GRC, opposed the view, stating that it was important and for the good of Singapore that Singaporeans were independent individuals who could assume the risks and successes of their investments and be self-sufficient.
With the advent of the Integrated Resorts, which are casino-based vacation resorts, in 2005 Chia expressed concern in Parliament over whether the Government had systems and institutions in place to lessen their negative impact such as problem gambling and the spectre of people gambling away family assets.
### Sylvia Lim
Sylvia Lim was an NCMP from 2006 till Parliament was dissolved in 2011 for the general election held that year, at which she was elected as one of the MPs for Aljunied GRC. While she was an NCMP, Parliament debated the Human Organ Transplant (Amendment) Bill 2009 which would permit an organ donor to receive a reasonable amount of payment as a reimbursement for medical checks, insurance and other medical expenses, and loss of income. Lim spoke of her worry that the bill might lead to a backdoor organ trading and profiteering.
In 2010, Lim mooted the idea that the proportion of each Primary 1 cohort that would be seeking a university education should be increased beyond the 30% by 2015 that the Government was planning. She noted that in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries in 2006 about 37% of each age cohort received a degree-level education, and that a sizeable number of Singaporean students who failed to gain entry into local universities had done well in reputable universities overseas. She also suggested giving concessionary fares to disabled individuals who make up 2% of the adult population under 60 years.
Lim expressed concerns about a proposed constitutional amendment introduced in April 2010 that would allow magistrates to hear what are called "first mentions" through video conferencing. A first mention is a hearing that must be held within 48 hours of a person's arrest. She felt it failed to adequately assure accused people that they were allowed to complain to magistrates about injuries they had sustained or acts of misfeasance against them by the authorities. In response, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Home Affairs Wong Kan Seng assured MPs that processes would be in place to ensure that accused people are treated fairly. For example, during a video conference, an accused person will be alone in a room with no police officer, and will be able to see what is happening in the entire courtroom. Secondly, the screen that will be used is large enough for the judge to clearly see whether the accused is under duress. Finally, accused people who have been mistreated can either complain to the police or to the judge when they are later present in court.
The following month, during parliamentary debates on major revisions to the Criminal Procedure Code, Lim suggested there was a need to improve pre-trial disclosure procedures and to ensure that victims of crimes received redress. Further, she expressed concerns over the leniency of community-based sentencing. The bill eventually incorporated several of her suggestions.
In 2011, Lim noted that the Compulsory Education Act ensures that all children have the opportunity to receive an education. However, she expressed concern that processes for entry to schools for children with special needs were cumbersome. Furthermore, education for children with special needs was not subject to the same subsidies that students in mainstream schools had. She thus brought to the House's attention the fact that special needs children might have been unintentionally marginalized. These concerns were supported by Penny Low, MP for Pasir Ris–Punggol GRC.
## See also
- Member of Parliament
- Nominated Member of Parliament
- Parliament of Singapore
- Parliamentary elections in Singapore
|
62,308,621 |
Cántalo
| 1,160,307,804 |
2019 single by Ricky Martin
|
[
"2019 singles",
"2019 songs",
"Bad Bunny songs",
"Residente songs",
"Ricky Martin songs",
"Songs written by Bad Bunny",
"Songs written by Residente",
"Songs written by Ricky Martin",
"Songs written by Rubén Blades",
"Sony Music Latin singles",
"Spanish-language songs"
] |
"Cántalo" (transl. "Sing It") is a song recorded by Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin with Puerto Rican rappers Residente and Bad Bunny for Martin's first extended play, Pausa (2020). The song was written by Residente, Bad Bunny, Danay Suárez, Martin, Rubén Blades, and Johnny Pacheco, while the production was handled by Residente and Trooko. It was released for digital download and streaming by Sony Music Latin on November 12, 2019, as the lead single from the EP. A Spanish language salsa and reggaeton song, it is about union and celebration.
"Cántalo" received widely positive reviews from music critics, who complimented its lyrics, and fusion of sounds and genres. The song reached the top 10 in Martin's native Puerto Rico, and the top 15 in Panama. It was nominated for Best Urban Fusion/Performance at the 21st Annual Latin Grammy Awards. To promote the song, Martin, Residente, and Bad Bunny performed it at the 2019 Latin Grammy Awards. For further promotion, Spotify promoted the release on billboards in Times Square.
## Background and development
Telegramgate, also known as Chatgate, was a political scandal involving Ricardo Rosselló, then Governor of Puerto Rico, which began on July 8, 2019, with the leak of hundreds of pages of a group chat on the messaging application Telegram between Rosselló and members of his cabinet. The messages were considered vulgar, misogynistic, and homophobic toward several individuals and groups, including Ricky Martin. Therefore, Martin, Bad Bunny, Residente and several other artists, and more than half a million Puerto Ricans led the call to take to the streets of Puerto Rico, demanding Rosselló's resignation. Martin started recording his eleventh studio album, initially titled Movimiento, in the second half of 2019, inspired by the political protests in Puerto Rico.
On November 6, 2019, Martin shared the artwork for his new single on his Instagram and announced that it would be a collaboration with Bad Bunny and Residente, titled "Cántalo". The cover replicates Puerto Rican protest posters demanding the resignation of Roselló. Four days later, Martin shared a photo of himself and his fellow artists in studio, and revealed the single's release date as November 12, 2019. In an interview with El Nuevo Día, he told the newspaper about "Cántalo", saying it has "a fascinating story, starting with the fact that La Fania gave me the master [recordings] of 'Mi Gente' to work on this song, which is a very great responsibility and it fills my heart with pride". He continued:
> I've always wanted to bring generations together through my music, and I have to give much credit to Residente, an excellent producer and lyricist, and certainly to Bad Bunny, the new face of the genre and a very young person who has very important things to tell. We have many things in common and that's where magic is born. I'm really excited I can collaborate with artists as talented and special as them.
Residente also told El Nuevo Día about the collaboration, saying it "continues to show the union through music and within a circle of different generations that represent our culture and heritage", going on to call the song "an incredible experience to integrate 'Mi Gente' a song with a rich history from its creation in Africa to its global impact". "Cántalo" marked the first collaboration between Martin and the two other artists, while Residente and Bad Bunny had previously worked on the 2019 singles "Bellacoso" and "Afilando los cuchillos" together.
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "Cántalo" is a Spanish language salsa and reggaeton song, written by Residente, Bad Bunny, Cuban singer-songwriter Danay Suárez, Martin, Panamanian musician Rubén Blades, and Dominican musician Johnny Pacheco. Its production was handled by Residente and Trooko, and the song features elements of trap, hip hop, Afro-Latin pop, jazz, and bossa nova. The song runs for a total of 3 minutes and 38 seconds, uses several instruments including a tambora and trumpet, and inspires the union of the human race regardless of religion, social status or flag color.
Throughout the roaring and richly cultural song, the trio sing about union and celebration. The chorus of the track references Héctor Lavoe's 1974 song "Mi Gente", and reverts to "full-throttle salsa" between Residente and Bad Bunny rap verses. After Bad Bunny's verse, the song nods to a half-time tempo, before another chorus.
## Release and promotion
The song was released for digital download and streaming as a single by Sony Music Latin on November 12, 2019. For further promotion, Spotify promoted the release on billboards in Times Square. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent personal experiences, Martin decided to split the album Movimiento into the two EPs Pausa and Play. "Cántalo" was included as the sixth track on his debut EP Pausa, released May 28, 2020. On June 23, 2020, an accompanying lyric video was released on Martin's YouTube channel. A headphone mix of the song, created using "Orbital Audio" technology, was included as the sixth track on the headphone mix version of the EP, released July 30, 2020.
Martin, Residente, and Bad Bunny gave their first live performance of "Cántalo" at the 20th Annual Latin Grammy Awards on November 14, 2019, which was ranked as one of the best moments of the ceremony by Rolling Stone. The song was included on Martin's the Movimiento Tour, which began at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum in San Juan, Puerto Rico on February 7, 2020. During the performances of "Cántalo" for the tour, he wore a black outfit, and usually appeared at the top of a staircase placed in the middle of a stage. Martin also performed "Cántalo" along with his other hits during the 61st Viña del Mar International Song Festival on February 23, 2020.
## Critical reception
Upon release, "Cántalo" was met with widely positive reviews from music critics. Suzette Fernandez from Billboard gave the song a positive review, praising it for leaving aside the commercial sound and becoming a cultural song that carries a message of union and celebration. She also complimented the song for its perfectly fusion of sounds, and admired "the combination of Martin's voice with Residente and Bad Bunny's rap style and the lyrics" that make the track "unique". Writing for Hypebeast, Sophie Caraan praised "Cántalo", saying: "Fusing traditional sounds found in Latin music and Residente and Bunny's trap style, the track calls for everybody to stand for what’s right instead of turning a blind eye to injustice." She also described the song as "[a] cultural anthem that calls for unification and celebration". Alicia Alonso from Cadena Dial described it as "a song with Latin rhythms that promises to be the song that everyone is going to dance and sing".
An author of Los 40 complimented the track, labeling it "a song that brings together all cultures regardless of religion or country". An author of Rádio Comercial wrote about the song: "A little bit of classic salsa, a few splashes of reggaeton (enough) and a little bit of hip-hop. Everything moves, joins the power trio Ricky Martin, Residente and Bad Bunny and the result is 'Cántalo'." Writing for 20 minutos, David Moreno Sáenz described the song as "a true tribute to Latin music that fuses genres from reggaeton to bossa nova through more urban music or jazz".
### Accolades
TNT Latin America ranked "Cántalo" as one of the Best Collaborations of 2019. It was nominated for Best Urban Fusion/Performance at the 21st Annual Latin Grammy Awards, but lost to "Yo x Ti, Tu x Mi" by Rosalía and Ozuna.
## Commercial performance
"Cántalo" debuted at number 35 on the US Hot Latin Songs chart, becoming Martin's 48th entry on the chart, Residente's second, and Bad Bunny's 62nd. It also peaked at number 23 on the US Latin Airplay chart, number 11 on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Latin Rhythm Airplay charts, and number 3 on the US Latin Digital Song Sales chart, becoming Residente's highest peak and his longest running hit on the last chart. The song was certified Latin gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for track-equivalent sales of over 30,000 units in the United States. Besides the US, "Cántalo" reached the top 10 in Puerto Rico, and the top 15 in Panama.
## Track listing
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from Tidal.
- Ricky Martin – vocal, composer, lyricist, associated performer, executive producer
- Residente – vocal, composer, producer, lyricist, associated performer
- Bad Bunny – vocal, composer, lyricist, associated performer
- Trooko – producer, recording engineer
- Danay Suárez – composer, lyricist
- Johnny Pacheco – composer, lyricist
- Rubén Blades – composer, lyricist, background vocal
- Karina Pagán – A&R coordinator
- Mireille Bravo – A&R coordinator
- Amber Urena – A&R coordinator
- Isabel De Jesús – A&R director
- Tito Allen – background vocal
- Carmila Ramírez – background vocal
- Daniel Díaz – congas
- Ted Jensen – mastering engineer
- Tom Elmhirst – mixing engineer
- Leo Genovese – piano
- Daniel Prim – percussion
- Enrique Larreal – recording engineer
- Phil Joly – recording engineer
- Luis Quintero – timbales
- Rey Alejandre – trombone
- Diego Urcola – trumpet
- Jean Rodriguez – vocal engineer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
|
45,493,429 |
Home Made Mince Pie
| 1,167,796,793 | null |
[
"1910 comedy films",
"1910 films",
"1910 lost films",
"1910s American films",
"American black-and-white films",
"American comedy short films",
"American silent short films",
"Lost American comedy films",
"Silent American comedy films",
"Thanhouser Company films"
] |
Home Made Mince Pie is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company. The film is a comedy of circumstances, in which the Gale family is going to host a dinner. The focus of the humor is in a mince pie that brandy is added to in an attempt to make it more appreciable, but three people each add brandy to the pie. Everyone becomes tipsy upon eating the pie, including the family cat, and the film concludes. No cast or staff credits for this film are known. The film was released on September 27, 1910, to mixed reviews in trade publications. Reviewers mentioned that the film was too long and it was unbelievable that one pie split eight ways would be able to impact everyone. The film is presumed lost.
## Plot
Though the film is presumed lost, a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 24, 1910. It states: "Life in a country town is often tedious and tiresome, and were it not for the little dinners and teas the townsfolk are constantly given, existence in some localities would be a very dreary thing indeed. So the time honored get-togethers of the small town are an established feature to the social calendar; they are just as much a matter of necessity and as such have come to stay. The Gales thought well of this established feature. They made it a joyous occasion for themselves as well as their guests. They were hardly an overly wealthy family, and their table was never notable for an oversupply of the good things of life, but whenever they gave a dinner they cast all thoughts of economy to the country winds and worked to the one end that their guests have a pleasant time."
"On the night before such an event neither Mamma, Pappa, or Daughter Gale could get those minutes' solid sleep for thought that they might have overlooked some essential in the guests' comfort. At the first crow of the rooster they would come hopping down to the kitchen to get the larder into shape. So little wonder that on occasion of the dinner here pictured - when the prize dish was a splendid homemade mince pie - the Gales were ever looking after the need of the said pie. First Mamma Gale would tiptoe to the table whereupon it sat in solemn state, and give it a stir; then Pappa Gale would tiptoe over and give it a stir; finally Daughter Gale would have to come over and honor it likewise. Then arrived the guests. The Minister and the Mrs. Minister, they were, and some neighbors. While she was receiving them the recollection came to Mamma Gale that the beloved mince pie had not received its flavoring. Off she speeds to a decanter of whiskey in the kitchen. She pours into the pie the right proportion of liquor, and goes back to her guests. Then Pappa Gale remembers that the pie has not been flavored. He, too, excuses himself and a moment later is found pouring whiskey into the sacred mince. No sooner has he ceased and returned to his guest than Daughter Gale, who has just remembered about the forgotten flavoring, rushes in and makes for the whiskey. She pours 'the right proportion' in, too."
## Production
The writer of the scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. The film director is unknown, but it may have been Barry O'Neil. Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production, but at least two possible candidates exist. Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company, but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer. The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions. The cast credits are unknown, but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary. In late 1910, the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films. The list includes G.W. Abbe, Justus D. Barnes, Frank H. Crane, Irene Crane, Marie Eline, Violet Heming, Martin J. Faust, Thomas Fortune, George Middleton, Grace Moore, John W. Noble, Anna Rosemond, Mrs. George Walters. A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying eight actors.
## Release and reception
The single reel comedy, approximately 1,000 feet long, was released on September 27, 1910. The film likely had a wide national release, with advertisements in theaters known in Indiana, Kansas, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. The film would also be shown in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and was met with praise by the audience at the Province Theatre. In 1917, years after the film's release, the film was approved without censorship by the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures.
The Moving Picture World reviewer found the subject to be too long, but did not find it to be a fault. The reviewer states, "A domestic comedy with a different flavor. In fact, with a mince pie for a basis the flavor comes to resemble brandy very strongly by the time that the cook, the maid and the mistress of the house and her daughter have added the proper proportion of flavoring, neither one knowing that the others have done likewise. The humor in this piece centers around this pie. What happened to the guests who partook of it certainly draws upon the imagination. Imagine eight people, not to speak of the cat, getting drunk on the brandy in one mince pie! ... We do not single out this subject as being more evidently padded than others shown on the screen this week. Licensed as well as Independents were guilty and it is time that the manufacturers realize the importance of the scenario end of matters. The mince pie episode was well done, which is the faint praise that we do not like to mete out to anyone." Walton of The Moving Picture News was not amused by the plot and stated, "To me the last scene had no humor. It was only the necessary ending to the beginning. True humor does not emanate from cognac." The New York Dramatic Mirror stated, "This is the old story of too many cooks, and it is quite funny after the first scenes are out of the way. The early part of the film takes too much time with trivial details leading up to the final situation. ... A weak point in the story is the fact that the pie is cut into eight small pieces, making it difficult to believe in its remarkable power. Two pies would have been as easy to make as one and would have been more convincing. The character parts are all well taken, although the cook would have been better if she had not seized so many opportunities to talk directly at the camera."
## See also
- List of American films of 1910
|
46,789,860 |
Pilot (The Blacklist)
| 1,146,064,148 | null |
[
"2013 American television episodes",
"American television series premieres",
"The Blacklist (season 1) episodes",
"Works about the Serbian Mafia"
] |
"Pilot" is the pilot episode of the first season of the American crime drama The Blacklist. The episode premiered in the United States on NBC on September 23, 2013. It was written by series creator Jon Bokenkamp and was directed by Joe Carnahan.
NBC bought the rights to The Blacklist from Sony Pictures Television in August 2012 and green-lit production in January 2013. Producers said that the casting process was difficult. They initially offered the male lead to Kiefer Sutherland before James Spader accepted the role three days before filming began. Even though the series is set in Washington, D.C., the pilot was mainly filmed in the same Manhattan studio where Law & Order was filmed.
In this episode, ex-US Navy Office of Naval Intelligence officer turned professional criminal and FBI Most Wanted fugitive Raymond Reddington (James Spader) turns himself in to the FBI and offers to give up information about the criminals he has worked with in exchange for sole communication with FBI profiler Elizabeth Keen (Megan Boone). After Reddington convinces Keen to work with him, they work to capture Serbian terrorist Ranko Zamani (Jamie Jackson), a terrorist thought to be dead by the FBI.
"Pilot" debuted the series for the 2013–14 season. The episode received generally positive reviews, with several critics praising James Spader's portrayal of Raymond Reddington. In its original airing, "Pilot" received a 3.8/10 Nielsen rating with 12.58 million viewers, making it the highest-rated television show in its time slot and the eleventh most-watched television show of the week.
## Plot
One of the FBI's most wanted men, Raymond Reddington (James Spader), strolls into the bureau headquarters in D.C. and turns himself in. He has information on a crime about to be perpetrated by a Serbian terrorist believed by the bureau to be dead. When the Serbian is recognized at the airport by facial identification software as Ranko Zamani (Jamie Jackson), the division head answers to Reddington's demands in order to get his help catching Zamani. Reddington insists on working exclusively with Elizabeth Keen (Megan Boone), a profiler who had just been hired. Reddington knows quite a bit about Keen, which convinces her and the SAC to acquiesce to Reddington's plan. Zamani plans to kidnap and booby trap the daughter of a general responsible for destroying a chemical weapons factory that poisoned Zamani's family.
Keen gets to the girl first but loses her in a daring raid by Zamani's forces. Now aware of Keen, Zamani attacks her husband, Tom, in their home, gravely wounding him. Keen notes a stamp on the man's hand and deduces the attack will take place at a zoo. Reddington briefly escapes custody to meet with Zamani, revealing that unbeknownst to the FBI, he masterminded the ploy, as well as the attack on Tom. Reddington removes the tracking device and places it with Zamani, which helps the FBI track down and kill the latter. Keen finds the daughter and a bomb in her backpack. Reddington calls in a clandestine bomb tech to disable the bomb, who then escapes with it. Reddington tells Elizabeth that her husband, with whom she is trying to adopt a baby, is not what he appears to be.
Returning to the FBI, Reddington offers to provide information on a number of the world's dangerous criminals, his "blacklist", in order to commute sentence and work with Keen. At home, Keen discovers a hidden box of cash, passports, and a gun, all belonging to her husband. She confronts Reddington to find out what he knows and stares at him as the episode ends.
## Production
### Background
NBC bought the rights to The Blacklist from Sony Pictures Television in August 2012 and greenlighted the show in January 2013. During an NBC upfront presentation in May 2013, The Blacklist was NBC's highest-testing drama in 10 years.
After showing a screening of "Pilot" at Comic-Con, producers revealed that their inspiration for The Blacklist came from the capture of Whitey Bulger. Recalling the experience in an interview with Collider, executive producer John Eisendrath stated:
> So, the idea was, "Well, what would happen if a man like Whitey Bulger turned himself in and said, 'I am here. I have some rules that I want you to follow, but if you follow them I will give you the names of people that I have worked with, during the 20 years that I have been a fugitive"'. So, there was a real world influence that affected the shaping of the show that was already being thought about. How can you put someone that you don't trust in the center of a show about trying to find criminals? And here was an example in the real world of just such a person. It was a fortuitous turn of events, where the idea for a show was being considered, and then here comes a real life story that helped give it some shape.
### Casting
Eisendrath said the casting process for "Pilot" was difficult. In February 2013, Zap2it reported that NBC offered Kiefer Sutherland the lead role of Raymond Reddington. After considering other actors for the role, Einsendrath and Bokencamp called James Spader to see if he would be interested in it. Feeling confident in Spader's understanding of the character, they cast him three days before filming began.
Megan Boone took a week to prepare for her audition as FBI profiler Elizabeth Keen. After getting called back for multiple auditions, Boone accepted the role as the female lead in the series in March.
### Filming
The episode debuted the series for the 2013–14 season. Written by series creator Jon Bokenkamp, Eisendrath joined John Davis and John Fox of Davis Entertainment as executive producers, while Joe Carnahan directed the episode.
Despite being set in Washington, D.C., the series is mainly filmed in the same Manhattan studio where Law & Order was filmed for 20 years. Producer Richard Heus said they chose to film specific Washington, D.C. locations for "Pilot" because they were "iconic American locations". These locations included the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the National Mall. In March, NBC filmed the bridge action scene for "Pilot" on the Michael Valente Memorial Bridge in Long Beach. Since it took two days to film that scene, northbound traffic had to be diverted onto one lane of the southbound bridge. NBC covered all overtime costs and permit fees, as the scene involved numerous special effects, such as fire, smoke, and car collisions.
## Reception
### Ratings
"Pilot" premiered on NBC on September 23, 2013, in the 10–11 p.m. time slot. The episode garnered a 3.8/10 Nielsen rating with 12.58 million viewers, making it the highest-rated show in its time slot. The series premiere was the eleventh most-watched television show of the week, and was the highest-rated 10 p.m. drama since Revolution on September 17, 2012. In addition, the episode added 5.696 million DVR viewers within seven days after its original broadcast, bringing a total of 18.279 million viewers.
### Reviews
Reviews for "Pilot" were generally favorable. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B+, calling the show "a slick action-adventure tale with knotty plotting and zeitgeisty villains". Hank Steuver of The Washington Post praised the episode for being "stylish and swiftly paced" with "intriguing plot twists", but felt that there was "not a lot of motivation to keep coming back". Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette felt that the "tone change" in the episode was "a bit abrupt", but noted that "viewers who can handle the twists and turns will be intrigued". James Poniewozik gave a mixed review of the episode, noting that the show is "setting itself up to be largely a bad-guy-of-the-week show" and that its success will "depend on how interesting Reddington and Keen’s backstories become". Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said the episode was "stylish and expertly paced", saying that "it is never boring". Dorothy Rabinowitz of The Wall Street Journal gave a positive review of the episode, saying that the episode "reaches undeniably satisfying levels of menace".
Several critics praised James Spader's performance as Raymond "Red" Reddington in "Pilot". Diane Werts of Newsday labeled Spader "TV's most voracious thespian", but felt that he was "the only one who actually [understood] the gameplay" of the series. Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said that Spader was "the ace in the hole" of the episode, noting that "the sheer swoony pleasure of watching James Spader chew through scenes and scenery with epicurean delight" was the "reason to watch" the show. Brian Lowry of Variety said that Spader was the only actor "that lifts The Blacklist above mundane", saying that Spader did not get enough screen time. Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post praised Spader's performance in the episode, stating that Spader "digs into this part with all the relish of Hannibal Lecter tucking into some organic escarole-and-human parts pie".
|
71,819,335 |
Fort Andross
| 1,169,105,683 |
Site of colonial forts & cotton mills, Brunswick Maine
|
[
"1688 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies",
"1736 disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies",
"British forts in the United States",
"Buildings and structures in Brunswick, Maine",
"Colonial forts in Maine",
"Cotton mills in the United States",
"King Philip's War",
"King William's War",
"Military installations closed in 1736",
"Military installations established in 1688",
"Pejepscot, Maine"
] |
Fort Andross, also known as Fort George and Cabot Mill, originally was a historic trading post and garrison built by the colonial British Empire to fortify against the Wabanaki Native Americans who were aligned with France during King William's War (1688–1697). It was adjacent to Brunswick Falls on the Androscoggin River in Brunswick, Maine. In the 19th century, the location of the fort has been used for several cotton mills including the Cabot Manufacturing Company. In 1986, the mills were transformed into office and retail space and renamed Fort Andross.
## Trading post and forts
### Trading post
In the year 1620, a charter was granted by King James I of England to forty noblemen, knights, and gentlemen, calling themselves the Plymouth Company. Their territory extended from the fourteenth to the forty-eighth parallel of latitude, and from sea to sea. The council, on June 16, 1632, granted a patent to Thomas Purchase and his brother-in-law George Way. Purchase had settled in the area, four years prior, in 1628, setting up a trading post to buy and sell goods, mainly salmon, sturgeon and furs along the Androscoggin River. The site was adjacent to a 41 foot (12 metres) waterfall known then as Pejepscot Falls, in what is now Brunswick, Maine. The Wabanaki Native Americans referred to this area of Brunswick, Topsham and Harpswell Maine as Pejepscot which translates to "long, rocky rapids part".
In , the settlements in Pejepscot were burned by the French and their native allies during King Philip's War and Purchase fled to Boston.
### Fort Andross
In 1688, Fort Andross was the first fortification on the banks of the Androscoggin River and controlled by the British Empire.
After King Philip's War and during King William's War, Governor Edmund Andros of the Dominion of New England, who desired the promotion of eastern settlements, came to Pejepscot in the midwinter of . Andros with an army of 1,000 men, built a new fort on the occasion that the Wabanaki Native Americans would attack the area, as it was a highly sought after location for fishing and hunting. The location of the fort is in the same location as the preceding trading post owned by Thomas Purchase. Fort Andross was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel McGregory and Major Thomas Savage; it was destroyed during King William's War by the French and their Wabanaki allies in .
Although Fort Andross was named after Governor Edmund Andros, it is not known as to why the spelling changed, adding an extra "S" at the end. In 1878, the Wheeler brothers wrote a book titled The History of Brunswick, Topsham, and Harpswell, Maine. This book is, what the Pejepscot Historical Society states as, "the authoritative text on the three towns through ." There are several notations of the fort where it is spelled both with one "S", and with two.
### Fort George
After Queen Anne's War, a new fort was built in 1715 by Captain John Gyles on the ruins of Fort Andross. This fort was named Fort George, named after King George I of Great Britain. The fort was 3 feet (0.91 m) underground with a 3-foot-thick (0.91 m) wall base, standing 10 feet (3.0 m) high above ground, laid with lime mortar. The barracks housed fifteen men. A large two story dwelling house, appearing above the walls and a cannon protecting the local settlers.
During the span of Fort George (1715–1736), many local proprietors of the lands in Brunswick and Topsham volunteered as soldiers to garrison the Fort.
During the many Native American wars that were fought in the area, the inhabitants of Brunswick and Topsham would gather within the walls of the fort whenever they felt unsafe. But there were also times when trade ran fluidly with the natives.
As the series of wars were beginning to end in the region, the government of Massachusetts deemed it unnecessary to retain the fort any longer, even though earlier in the year, Adam Hunter, of Topsham Maine, received a commission as Captain, with the authority to raise an independent company.
In 1736, the General Court of Massachusetts decided to dismantle Fort George. A petition was sent to the legislature, by the inhabitants of Brunswick and Topsham, asking for the fort to remain. The petition was denied. The property was reverted to the proprietors who leased it, together with all the buildings and land connected with it, to George Harwood. He occupied the premises until November 1, 1761.
At a meeting of the Pejepscot Proprietors, held in 1761, Belcher Noyes (Municipal clerk) was instructed to execute a deed of the old fort, with the buildings and land belonging to it, and the privilege of the stream at the falls, half to Jeremiah Moulton, Esquire, the other half to Captain David Dunning, for the sum of one hundred thirty three pounds six shillings and eight pence. Noyes gave Harwood a written order to surrender the fort and buildings to either Moulton or Dunning.
The ruins of the fort, with some portions of the wall yet standing, were seen as late as 1802. The materials of the old fort were used in the construction of dwellings in Brunswick and Topsham. Some of the lime mortar from the fort was used for the foundations of these buildings.
### Memorials
#### 1810
To mark the location of both forts, in , three surveyors from the town of Brunswick, John Abbot, John Perry Jr. and Jacob Abbot, while surveying Maine Street, drilled a hole into a rock in the ground and drove an iron bolt 1.25 inches (32 mm) think, in diameter and 18 inches (460 mm) in length. Technically not a memorial, as it was used for surveying purposes, the iron bolt was removed during the Cabot Manufacturing Company expansion of 1891.
#### 1930
Adjoining the stone fort built by Governor Andros in 1689, a cemetery was used until the town was incorporated in 1739. There were headstones marking the burial place of Benjamin Larrabee, agent of the Pejepscot proprietors, one of the commanders of Fort George, and the ancestor of the Larrabees living in this vicinity. There were also the gravestones of Robert and Andrew Dunning, who were killed by Native Americans at Mason's rock in Brunswick. The site of this cemetery was covered with mill buildings in the early 1800s.
In 1930, the Daughters of the American Revolution, a nonprofit organization, that promotes education and patriotism, erected a monument in honor of Fort Andross and Fort George, as well as respecting the place of burial of Larrabee and the Dunnings.
> "To mark the site of Fort Andross (1688–1694) and Fort George (1715–1737). Also the earliest burial place, where are buried Benjamin Larrabee, agent of the Pejepscot Proprietors and Commander of Fort George also Robert and Andrew Dunning killed by the indians."
## Mill factories
After Fort George was abandoned in 1736, seventy three years would pass before the site was once again occupied. There were several mills built on the site from 1809 to the 1950s, manufacturing cotton and wool products.
### Brunswick Cotton Manufacturing Company
The first factory built on the site of Fort Andross was established by the Brunswick Cotton Manufacturing Company, harnessing power from the Androscoggin River at Brunswick Falls. This was the first cotton mill to be built in Maine and only the sixth in the USA. The company was incorporated March 4, 1809. Ezra Smith, Governor William King (1820–1821), and Doctor Porter were among the proprietors. The company was formed for the manufacture of cotton yarn, which was shipped to other mills to be made into cloth. The mill did not prove a success, and the shareholders lost all their capital. The mill was a three-story, gambrel roofed, wooden building, and stood next to Brunswick Falls on the ruins of Fort Andross and Fort George.
### Maine Cotton and Woolen Factory Company
The second mill was that of the Maine Cotton and Woolen Factory Company, which was incorporated in October 1812. The mill was made from wood and Deacon John Perry was the first agent.
In 1820 there were 1,248 cotton spindles in full operation, and 240 woollen spindles, nine woollen looms, nine carding machines and nine fulling machines. 100,000 yards (91,000 m) of cotton cloth were made per season. About one hundred people were employed at that time but the mill was destroyed by a fire in 1825.
Soon after the fire, a mill for carding wool and dressing cloth was established by John Dyer. It was called the Eagle Factory and it stood at the end of the previous mill. It was removed in 1834.
### The Brunswick Company
In 1834, The Brunswick Company was incorporated and bought the land. Among the corporators was the 11th governor of Maine, Governor Robert P Dunlap (1843–1847) as well as members of the Dunning and McKean families. The new mill consisted of granite, four stories high, 146 feet (45 m) long, capable of containing 5,120 spindles of cotton.
In total, aside from the Fort Andross site, the company had four additional mills of equal size, two dwelling houses, three stories high, one store, a counting room, stone picker-house, cotton store, and a forging-shop, all completely finished, with all but four situated in Brunswick. They also occupied the whole breadth of the Androscoggin River with islands and dams, thirteen and a half acres of land in Brunswick and Topsham, and Hydropower sufficient to have as many saws and spindles of cotton machinery as there was space.
The Brunswick Company ran this factory until 1840, when they leased it to Mr. Allen Colby, who managed it until March 1843, when it was sold at auction in Boston, Massachusetts to Whitwell, Seaver, & Co., for \$34,400. The original cost was about \$190,000. Whitwell, Seaver, & Co. entrusted the management of it to Messrs A.P. Kimball and John Dunning Coburn, of Boston, who soon afterwards purchased it. The company, after carrying on with business for a few years, failed.
On July 3, 1847, the Warumbo Manufacturing Company (not to be confused with Worumbo Mill in Lisbon Falls, Maine) was incorporated and the stock of the Brunswick Company, consisting of mortgages from the previous owners, was bought for \$40,000. The company was organized in the summer of 1848, but a few years later, it also failed.
### Cabot Manufacturing Company
In 1853 the Cabot Company, of the Cabot family from Boston, Massachusetts, bought the factory. Due to a large amount of debt and a number of the shareholders failing to pay their assessments, it was sold at auction in 1857. A number of the former owners bought up the stock and re-organized under the name of The Cabot Manufacturing Company (also known as Cabot Mill), with a capital of .
In 1857 the company had two hundred and thirty-five looms. There were 9,000 spindles at work; the mill gave employment to one hundred and seventy-five employees, and turned out 50,000 yards of cotton per week.
In 1865 an addition to the building of 70 feet (21 m) was made on the east side and 50 feet (15 m) on the west side, making two wings on the ends. In 1867 the mill had 26,000 spindles. The company owned thirty acres of land on the two sides of the river and seventy-five tenements, and made its own gas, which it also supplied to the town. In 1877 the capital stock was \$600,000; the number of spindles, 35,000; the number of employees was five hundred and fifty. The buildings of the company were a factory, office, storehouse, store, and one hundred tenements.
In 1891 the Cabot Manufacturing company asked, and was granted access to the town owned lot within feet (meters) of their mill for the purpose of expansion. This small lot is where the memorial of the old Fort George stood. The addition was 196 feet (60 m) long and 118.5 feet (36.1 m) wide and four stories high, putting the capacity of spindles up to 65,000 with 900 employees.
After the American Civil War ended in 1865, Brunswick saw an influx of French Canadians looking for work. In response to this demand, the Cabot mill built tenement housing for the new force of Franco-American workers. These tenements were located on Mill Street within walking distance of the mill.
On August 12, 1881, Franco-American children as young as seven years old went on strike and the mill had to shut down for three days. The striking children were offered one penny more an hour, the same pay as the nearby Bates Mill, in the neighboring town of Lewiston. A few days later, the adults, knowing of the success of their children, banned together and went on strike as well. A few days after the strike, Benjamin Greene, the face of the Cabot Manufacturing Company in town, gave a 30 day's Notice to Vacate to the residents in the company-owned tenements.
In 1885, when a diphtheria epidemic raced through the Brunswick's Franco-American population, the State of Maine ordered the Cabot Manufacturing Company to clean up the tenements it had neglected.
In 1942 the Cabot Manufacturing Company sold the factory to the Verney Corporation who called the mill Verney Brunswick Mills. This would be the last mill to occupy the site first built in 1809. The Verney Brunswick Mill was used for cotton, rayon and shoe manufacturing and concluded operations in 1955.
## Industrial Buildings
### Lewis Industrial Building
In 1955 the Gera Corporation bought the mill from the Verney Corporation but quickly sold it to George Lewis, a Portland realty developer and food wholesaler who bought the old mill at a cost of \$500,000 and named it the Lewis Industrial Building.
Among the tenants of the Lewis Industrial Building was the Auerbach Shoe Company. In 1968, Auerbach Shoe was ranked tenth for footwear manufacturers in all of New England selling women's and children's boots.
During the 1970s gas crisis, Auerbach Shoe was experiencing a shortage of vinyl, a petroleum derivative. in 1974 Auerbach went through a "slack period", which was supposed to be temporary, but the plant never reopened. The following year a lawsuit was filed on behalf of the employees who lost their pensions.
It was standard practice for small independent shoe manufacturers to close over the December holidays. A full two and one-half months after the time when annual operations were normally resumed, management still publicly claimed that the layoff was merely seasonal. They closed in December 1973 and never resumed operations.
### Fort Andross
In the 1980s the old mill was briefly used for storage by Bath Iron Works, but the building was in disrepair.
In 1986 Coleman P. Burke of New York City, founder and managing partner of Waterfront Maine (North River Company), purchased the land and mill building at auction. Due to the non-use of the 45,000 square foot (4,200 m<sup>2</sup>) structure, 857 windows had to be replaced before it could be rented for retail and office space.
Coming full circle, the name of the building was changed to Fort Andross, reflecting the original fort that occupied the site in 1688.
#### Mural
In August of 2023 a mural was completed on the south side of the building facing U.S. Route 1. The painting is 40 feet (12 m) tall and 35 feet (11 m) wide and is named Many Stitches Hold Up the Sky. It took ten years to acquire the from donations to the organization Brunswick Public Art and was made by artists Jen Greta Cart and Chris Cart of Hallowell, Maine. The mural is a contemporary depiction of eight culturally significant peoples that have inhabited the area.
## See also
- Pejepscot Historical Society
|
24,165,382 |
Nice Is Different Than Good
| 1,162,647,128 | null |
[
"2009 American television episodes",
"Desperate Housewives (season 6) episodes"
] |
"Nice Is Different Than Good" is the sixth-season premiere episode of the American comedy-drama series Desperate Housewives, and the 112th overall episode of the series. It originally aired in the United States on September 27, 2009, on ABC. In the episode, Mike (James Denton) marries Susan (Teri Hatcher) and Angie Bolen (Drea de Matteo) and her family move onto Wisteria Lane as they attempt to escape their sordid past.
The episode was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw. It included the introduction of the Angie character, as well as her husband, Nick (Jeffrey Nordling), and their son, Danny (Beau Mirchoff). The Bolen family is the subject of the series' yearly mystery. "Nice Is Different Than Good" enacted the long-running storylines of Katherine's (Dana Delany) nervous breakdown, Lynette's (Felicity Huffman) attempts to conceal her pregnancy, and the Fairview serial strangler.
"Nice Is Different Than Good" received generally positive reviews, with critics raving about the rivalry between Susan and Katherine and the possible connection between the Bolen and serial strangler storylines. According to Nielsen ratings, the episode drew 13.6 million viewers, the smallest audience for a Desperate Housewives season premiere until the seventh-season premiere on September 26, 2010.
## Plot
### Background
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane. In recent episodes, Mike Delfino (James Denton) married an unidentified bride, who was either Susan Mayer (Teri Hatcher), his ex-wife, or Katherine Mayfair (Dana Delany), his fiancée and Susan's close friend. Lynette Scavo (Felicity Huffman) learned that she and her husband, Tom (Doug Savant), are expecting twins, two of what will be six children. Gabrielle (Eva Longoria) and Carlos Solis (Ricardo Antonio Chavira) agreed to take in his niece, Ana (Maiara Walsh), and she and Gabrielle began to antagonize one another. Bree Hodge (Marcia Cross) sought a divorce from her husband, Orson (Kyle MacLachlan); however, Orson refused to end their marriage and blackmailed her into staying in the relationship. As a result, Bree began an affair with her divorce lawyer and Susan's ex-husband, Karl Mayer (Richard Burgi).
### Episode
In the eight weeks leading up to her wedding, Susan avoids any contact with Katherine. Katherine begins to resent Susan, even threatening to pour tomato sauce on Susan's wedding dress. Mike is concerned for Katherine, but Susan is frustrated with her behavior. On the day of the wedding, Katherine demands that Susan apologize to her in public. Susan obliges, expressing her sorrow to Katherine during the wedding ceremony. Katherine tells Susan that the apology does not help mend their friendship.
Angie (Drea de Matteo) and Nick Bolen (Jeffrey Nordling) move into a house on Wisteria Lane with their college-bound son, Danny (Beau Mirchoff). Danny takes interest in Julie Mayer (Andrea Bowen), Susan's daughter, and asks her to start tutoring him. She agrees, but at Nick's urging, tells Danny that she is not interested in a relationship. Later, elderly neighbor Karen McCluskey (Kathryn Joosten) sees Julie and Danny arguing. On Susan and Mike's wedding night, Julie is strangled outside of her home by an unidentified attacker, who flees the scene.
Lynette grows increasingly weary at the idea of having more children. She confesses to Tom that while she began loving her other children before they were born, she does not have the same feelings for her unborn twins. Tom assures her that she will love them once she is able to hold them in her arms. At Lynette's request, the couple conceals the pregnancy from their family and friends. Meanwhile, Gabrielle is irritated with Ana's poor attitude, provocative wardrobe, and disregard for her curfew or other rules. Carlos insists that Gabrielle sign a contract that would make her Ana's legal guardian, but she refuses. However, when Ana expresses interest in becoming a model, Gabrielle understands that they are more alike than she initially thought and signs the guardianship documents.
Bree continues to hide her affair with Karl, but her difficulty with adjusting to the sinful and secretive lifestyle prompt Karl to end the affair. In that time, Orson suggests that they enter marriage counseling, but Bree insists that she no longer sees herself as his wife, but rather his captive. Realizing that guilt is a small price for happiness, Bree reignites her affair with Karl.
## Production
"Nice Is Different Than Good" was written by series creator and executive producer Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw. It marked the debut of Drea de Matteo as Angie Bolen, the matriarch of an Italian family. While brainstorming ideas for the sixth season, the Desperate Housewives writing staff decided to introduce an Italian New Yorker housewife, as she would be unlike the other title characters. When she was offered the role of Angie, de Matteo was best known for her Emmy Award-winning performance as Adriana La Cerva on The Sopranos, an HBO drama series about the Italian Mafia. She accepted the offer without knowing the character's name or storyline. Cherry described the Angie character as "a very loving but tough Italian woman who comes [to Wisteria Lane] with her husband and her kid ... [and] will do what she has to to protect her family." Jeffrey Nordling and Beau Mirchoff made their series debuts in this episode as well, appearing as Nick, Angie's landscaper husband, and Danny, their "tightly-wound" son, respectively. Maiara Walsh also joined the cast as a series regular, having made her debut as Ana Solis in a guest starring capacity during season five.
"Nice Is Different Than Good" revealed the identity of Mike Delfino's bride, a mystery which served as the cliffhanger for the fifth season finale. Cherry revealed that he initially intended to have Mike marry Katherine Mayfair rather than Susan Mayer, but fans "were insistent" on having Mike marry Susan. As a result, Cherry decided to change the storyline "as opposed to frustrating the fans for another year by keeping Mike and Susan apart." The episode also introduced the long-running storyline of Katherine suffering a nervous breakdown after losing Mike to Susan. Cherry commented that it would be "one of the funniest breakdowns you've ever seen." Actress Dana Delany, who portrays Katherine, was not informed about the storyline change until a week before the episode began filming. She called the change "brilliant" and was pleased with her character's new storyline "because happiness is great in life, but it's kind of [sic] boring dramatically." To keep the identity of Mike's bride confidential, a stunt actress was used in the season five finale. When filming of the episode took place in July 2009, both Hatcher and Delany were photographed wearing wedding dresses on set. "Nice Is Different Than Good" also introduced the secondary ongoing mystery of the Fairview strangler. The episode ended with a cliffhanger in which Julie Mayer is strangled by an unknown attacker. Cherry said of the storyline, "I've come up with my own version of 'Who Shot J.R.?'," referencing the murder mystery plotline surrounding the J. R. Ewing character (Larry Hagman) in the popular primetime soap opera Dallas.
## Reception
### Ratings
According to Nielsen ratings, "Nice Is Different Than Good" was seen by 13.643 million viewers and held an 8.6 rating/13 share on its original American broadcast on September 27, 2009. Among viewers between 18 and 49 years of age, the episode drew a 4.7 rating. The episode is the least-watched season premiere of Desperate Housewives at the time, with a thirty-five percent decrease in viewers from the fifth season premiere a year earlier. The seventh season premiere drew in lower ratings, with 13.056 million viewers and an 8.1 rating/12 share on its September 26, 2010 broadcast. "Nice Is Different Than Good" was outperformed by the following episode, "Being Alive", on October 4, which drew 14.641 million viewers and a 9.2 rating/14 share in the 18-49 demographic. Nevertheless, the premiere episode had a higher viewership than the season six average of 12.823 million viewers and 4.2 rating in the 18-49 demographic per episode. The episode was outperformed by Sunday Night Football on NBC, which drew 18.461 million viewers in the Desperate Housewives timeslot.
### Critical reception
The episode received positive critical reviews. Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly praised the Julie storyline and expressed sympathy for the Katherine character. Additionally, while he enjoyed the introduction of the Bolen family, he commented that "it's not even worth speculating [about the Bolens] because the family honestly didn't reveal anything much about themselves." He also noted the realness of the Lynette story and the comedic relief provided by the Gabrielle and Bree stories. Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad also gave the episode a positive review, expressing interest in Katherine's storyline now that Mike has married Susan. She declared, "Karl and Bree are now my favorite couple on Wisteria Lane. They are twisted, flawed and complex characters," calling the pair reminiscent of Bree and Orson when the first started dating. She also credited the introduction of the Ana character for making the Gabrielle story "really fun to watch" and complimented Beau Mirchoff's portrayal of the "extremely weird" Danny Bolen character, speculating that he strangled Julie.
USA Today's Robert Bianco awarded the season premiere three out of four stars, opining that the episode "starts with a bang, ends with a cliffhanger jolt, and offers a good story for each of the wives in between while dropping a possibly worthy new addition in their midst." He predicted that viewers would be satisfied with the revelation of the mystery bride's identity and commented: "There's humor and poignancy in all the stories and good work all around." Bianco praised Felicity Huffman's "strong and varied" acting skills, complimented Eva Longoria's comedic talents, and declared Richard Burgi's performance as his best in the entire series. He concluded that while the show has declined in quality since its first season, "it remains a very good TV series" and noted that "there's also the potential for a season that returns this already-solid show to top form." TV Guide writer Mickey O'Connor was negative in his review. He criticized the Lynette story as being "an awful development" and said the chemistry between actress de Matteo and her costars "a little off." However, he was more receptive of Katherine's reaction to losing Mike, saying "what could have played out as a typical weepy, hos-before-bros make-up session has been elevated to something much richer."
|
26,256,650 |
Hadropithecus
| 1,158,731,658 |
Extinct genus of lemurs
|
[
"Fossil taxa described in 1899",
"Lemur genera",
"Monotypic primate genera",
"Prehistoric primate genera",
"Subfossil lemurs"
] |
Hadropithecus is a medium-sized, extinct genus of lemur, or strepsirrhine primate, from Madagascar that includes a single species, Hadropithecus stenognathus. Due to its rarity and lack of sufficient skeletal remains, it is one of the least understood of the extinct lemurs. Both it and Archaeolemur are collectively known as "monkey lemurs" or "baboon lemurs" due to body plans and dentition that suggest a terrestrial lifestyle and a diet similar to that of modern baboons. Hadropithecus had extended molars and a short, powerful jaw, suggesting that it was both a grazer and a seed predator.
The monkey lemurs are considered to be most closely related to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs, although recent finds had caused some dispute over a possible closer relation to living lemurids. Genetic tests, however, have reaffirmed the previously presumed relationship. Hadropithecus lived in open habitat in the Central Plateau, South, and Southwest regions of Madagascar. It is known only from subfossil or recent remains and is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur. It died out around 444–772 CE, shortly after the arrival of humans on the island.
## Etymology
The common names that Hadropithecus shares with Archaeolemur, "monkey lemurs" and "baboon lemurs", come from their dental and locomotor adaptations, which resemble that of modern African baboons. The genus Hadropithecus is derived from the Greek words αδρος, hadros, meaning "stout" or "large", and πίθηκος, pithekos, meaning "ape". The species name derives from the Greek root στενο-, steno-, meaning "narrow", and γναθος, gnathos, meaning "jaw" or "mouth".
## Classification and phylogeny
Hadropithecus stenognathus is classified as the sole member of the genus Hadropithecus and belongs to the family Archaeolemuridae. This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes, which includes all the Malagasy lemurs. The species was formally described in 1899 from a mandible (lower jaw) found at Andrahomana cave in southeastern Madagascar by paleontologist Ludwig Lorenz von Liburnau, who thought it represented an ape. A year later, Lorenz von Liburnau also described Pithecodon sikorae based on photographs of a skull, which upon further review turned out to be a juvenile version of Hadropithecus stenognathus. In a publication from 1902, he declared that Hadrophithecus stenognathus was not an ape, but a lemur. Over 100 years later, the rarity of its skeletal remains has made this species one of the least understood species of subfossil lemur.
Based on similarities in their skull and teeth, it was later thought that monkey lemurs (Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur) were a sister group to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs (family Palaeopropithecidae). However, there was some debate over whether the monkey lemurs or the sloth lemurs were more closely related to today's indriids. The monkey lemurs had skulls that more closely resembled the indriids, but their teeth were very specialized and unlike those of the indriids. The sloth lemurs, on the other hand, had teeth like the indriids, but very specialized skulls. The matter was settled with the discovery of new skeletons of Babakotia and Mesopropithecus, two genera of sloth lemur, both of which had indriid-like skulls and teeth. More recently, postcranial remains of Hadropithecus found in the early 2000s prompted the suggestion that the monkey lemurs were more closely related to the lemurids. However, DNA sequencing has reaffirmed the sister group status of the monkey lemurs to indriids and sloth lemurs.
## Anatomy and physiology
Hadropithecus stenognathus has been estimated to have weighed between 27 and 35 kg (60 and 77 lb) and to have been roughly as large as Archaeolemur, although more gracile. Newer subfossil finds, however, suggest that Hadropithecus may have been more robust, and more like a gorilla than a baboon. It may also have been less agile than Old World monkeys. Both lemurs were quadrupedal (walked on four legs). There is no evidence of cursoriality (adaptations specifically for running) in either species, and although Hadropithecus could have climbed trees, it lacked adaptations for leaping or suspension.
Although fewer postcranial remains have been discovered for Hadropithecus than for Archaeolemur, what has been found indicates that both were adapted for a terrestrial or semi-terrestrial lifestyle, an unusual trait for lemurs. Both genera had short limbs and a powerful build. Due to its specialized dentition and likely diet, Hadropithecus is thought to have been the more terrestrial of the two, since Archaeolemur may have sent more time foraging and sleeping in the trees. Both genera also have shortened hands and feet, an adaptation for walking on the ground.
The face of Hadropithecus was shortened and adapted to heavy stress from chewing. The monkey lemurs had highly specialized teeth, but Hadropithecus went further by specializing in strong grinding. It had expanded molars that wore down quickly, much like those of ungulates, and its posterior premolars acted like molars to extend the grinding surface. It also had a robust mandible to facilitate crushing hard objects. Even the strepsirrhine toothcomb was reduced in this species. Its dental formula was
The skulls of both Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur indicate that monkey lemurs had relatively large brains compared to the other subfossil lemurs, with Hadropithecus having an estimated endocranial volume of 115 ml.
## Ecology
Like all other lemurs, Hadropithecus was endemic to Madagascar. Because it died out only recently and is only known from subfossil remains, it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur. It once ranged across the Central Plateau, South, and Southwest regions of Madagascar. Within its original range, there were few other lemurs to overlap its ecological niche, and it has been shown to be the only subfossil lemur to consume both C3 and C4 (or CAM) plants, an indication that it lived in more open habitats and had a varied diet. Its physiology and dentition suggest that it may have been much like the Gelada Baboon in locomotion and diet, acting as a manual grazer (picking grass with the hands) since its teeth were well-adapted for grinding either grass or seeds. Microwear patterns on its teeth, as well as its overly large molars, indicate it processed hard objects like nuts or seeds, making it a seed predator. More recent microwear analysis suggests differences between Gelada Baboons and Hadropithecus, indicating that this extinct lemur may not have been a grazer, but strictly a hard object processor.
## Extinction
Because of the low number of subfossil finds, Hadropithecus is thought to have been rare, and it died out sooner than its sister taxon, Archaeolemur. Both disappeared shortly after the arrival of humans to the island, but being a large, specialized, terrestrial grazer, Hadropithecus would have faced more pressure from domestic livestock, introduced pigs, and spreading human populations than its more generalized cousin. The last known record was radiocarbon dated to around 444–772 CE.
|
62,998,831 |
Dorothy Thomas (entrepreneur)
| 1,171,905,357 |
Montserrat slave owner (1756–1846)
|
[
"1756 births",
"1846 deaths",
"18th-century British businesswomen",
"18th-century slaves",
"19th-century British businesswomen",
"Afro-Caribbean history",
"Black British former slaves",
"British slave owners",
"Caribbean women",
"Guyanese businesspeople",
"Montserratian women",
"Women slave owners"
] |
Dorothy Thomas (also known as Dolly Kirwan or Doll Thomas; 1756 – 5 August 1846) was a Caribbean entrepreneur and former slave who engaged in business in Montserrat, Dominica, Grenada, Barbados, and Demerara. Having purchased her own manumission, Thomas spent nearly sixteen years securing the freedom of her children, mother, and several other relatives. Though she owned hotels one of which had a French restaurant, her primary source of income was hiring out female hucksters to whom she supplied goods to be sold to plantation workers and slaves. She also hired out her slaves as labourers, earned income from lodging houses, ran a plantation, and rented out properties which she owned. Known as one of the few black women who derived compensation from the government scheme to reimburse slave owners, she received £3,413 for the loss of her labourers when Britain abolished slavery.
Thomas travelled frequently to London, and ensured that her descendants were educated in Britain. Although her daughters were all partnered with prominent white businessmen, it was Thomas who kept the families afloat when they were in financial peril. She was influential among a wide circle of business and elite connections in the colonies of the British West Indies and used her networks when needed to improve her circumstances. In 1824, in London, she protested a discriminatory law against free women of colour and was successful in having it overturned by the colonial authority. She lived until 1846 and left not only a large and prominent family scattered throughout the British Empire, but a significant historical legacy which provides insight into free women of colour and their lives in her era.
## Early life
Dorothy Kirwan was born as a slave between 1756 and 1763 in Montserrat to Betty, a slave owned by the Kirwan family. Dorothy's owner was Andrew Kirwan, who called her "Dolly". Because she was given the family surname, raised as a Catholic, and is described in records as mulatto, despite of being of black complexion, it is presumed she was fathered by a member of the Kirwan family. Little is known of her early life before she arrived in Dominica but prior to her arrival she had given birth to three children. Though illiterate, she was known for her business acumen and insisted that her children be recorded with their correct fathers' surnames in their records for manumission. Her eldest daughter, Elizabeth Kirwan, was probably sired by Andrew Kirwan or another member of his family. Following Elizabeth was Catherina Cells, most likely the daughter of the planter John Coesvelt Cells, and Edward Iles, son of the planter Ellis Iles.
Life on Montserrat became very difficult by 1781 when during the American War of Independence the colonial authorities put an embargo on trade with the Thirteen Colonies, cutting off shipments of supplies; arable land was diminished after years of having been overworked; more than 1,200 enslaved people died of starvation; and Montserrat was hit by a disastrous hurricane. Andrew, in the wake of famine and hurricane damage on Montserrat, was in the process of moving to Demerara when Kirwan arranged for the manumission of her son Edward on 24 July 1781. About that time, she was purchased from Andrew Kirwan by William Foden, who fathered two of her children, William and Charlotte Foden. It has been understood that Kirwan paid for the two transactions and that she may have earned the money by having "the freedom to sell her person as a courtesan to the planter class". At some point, Kirwan also purchased the freedom of her two eldest daughters.
Foden, Kirwan, and her son Edward soon left Montserrat for Dominica, where Foden worked as an estate manager and planter on the plantation owned by William Barrow, an absentee landlord from Lancaster. Foden died in 1782 and in 1784, Kirwan came before the executors of his will to secure her inheritance. Under the provisions of the will, she was left his household goods and one-third of his livestock. She was discharged from any debts she might owe him and the will specified that she had paid to him money to manumit herself and her three children, William, Charlotte, and a baby, Ann (also known as Nan), who was the daughter of Joseph Thomas, a minor merchant. The executors, Thomas Brayshaw and Charles Bates, on agreeing to grant Kirwan and her children their freedom, prepared a formal deed of manumission, which was witnessed on 10 July 1784 by Joseph Thomas and Alexander Fraser.
Joseph Thomas, who owned a 1/4 interest in a merchant vessel, the Mary, engaged in inter-island trade from Grenada. While he was the most significant partner in Kirwan's life, theirs was not an exclusive relationship. Around 1785–1786, she gave birth to another daughter, Francis "Fanny" Owens, probably the daughter of John Owens, the skipper of Nelly, a sloop co-owned by Foden's former employer, William Barrow. In August 1786, Joseph had returned to Dominica and witnessed a deed of manumission for Kirwan on a slave named Sally, who may have been Kirwan's grandmother. Purchasing an interest in a second trading sloop, the Jack, Joseph, Kirwan, and her family moved to Grenada in March 1787.
## Grenada 1787–1799
According to available records in Grenada, Kirwan was engaged in business and operated independently from Joseph, signing her own transactions with her mark. Though it is unclear whether she had a shop, or employed hucksters there, she owned a hotel in St. George's, Grenada and may have had other business ventures. She had four more children with Thomas, who were baptized in the Anglican Church records: Eliza (1787), Joseph (1789), Harry (1790), and Christina (1796). Each was recorded as the child of Joseph and Kirwan, "a free mulattress", none being noted as natural or illegitimate. It may well be that Joseph and Kirwan had a marital contract, though due to social conventions it would have been impossible for them to exchange public marriage vows. Kirwan also took the precaution of having her family members' manumissions inscribed in the records in Grenada to ensure that their status was not in doubt in the colony.
During the French Revolutionary Wars, Joseph's business suffered. His ship Mary and her cargo were seized as a war prize in 1794, and his ship Jack sank in 1797. As his fortunes declined, Kirwan's were rising. At the conclusion of Fédon's rebellion, she stressed her ties to her English husband and quietly buried her own Catholicism. As the insurrection was led by French-speaking free coloureds, it was widely seen as a revolt against the British colonial administration of Grenada. The Grenada Assembly and the governor increasingly implemented measures to expel freed slaves, specifically targeting free women of colour. Recognizing that the political climate might be turning against her, in October 1797 Kirwan manumitted her mother. Though she remained in Grenada for a couple of years after Joseph's death, probably in 1799, Kirwan moved to Bridgetown, Barbados.
## Barbados 1799–1807
Barbados was a logical choice, because Kirwan had contacts there. Her daughters Elizabeth and Ann had married and were living there, as was her sister Henrietta Moore, and John Owens, the ship captain who had fathered Kirwan's daughter Fannie. Bridgetown was the home of the British Caribbean fleet and war offered opportunities for business, though competition from other free coloured women like, Suzy Austin, Nancy Clarke, and Betsy Lemon would have limited Kirwan's prospects. Looking further afield, she began to search for better possibilities, such as the Dutch Colony of Demerara, where by 1800 two-thirds of the white population were British, many from Barbados. Immigration of free coloured people to Demerara was also increasing from throughout the British West Indies, as a result of the collapse of the Dutch Republic in 1795 and British occupation to prevent the colony falling into French hands. Though the colony was returned to the Dutch, it was reoccupied in 1803 by the British and formally transitioned to British rule between 1814 and 1815. Taking advantage of the opportunities offered in Demerara, Kirwan's daughter Catherina had moved there in the 1790s, followed in 1802 and 1805 by her daughters Charlotte and Eliza.
## Demerara 1807–1846
Kirwan had moved to Demerara by 1807 and initially was known by that surname, but after 1808, she insisted on being called Mrs. Thomas. She set up a rooming house near Werk-en-rust, a plantation on the southern edge of Georgetown. Within a year, she moved to the northern edge of Georgetown, to a new neighbourhood known as Cumingsburg, a fashionable and growing area adjacent to the plantation owned by Thomas Cuming. She bought several lots there and paid taxes in 1808 for 16 slaves. Notices in the Demerara Gazette indicate that she offered lodging and employed her slaves as hucksters. The closed plantation system, under which the estate provided for all the needs of its inhabitants, had ceased to exist when the British began occupying the colony at the end of the 18th century. Instead, plantation owners' orders for goods, typically made once or twice a year, were supplemented by provisions brought by travelling peddlers. As the inhabitants were thinly spread across the colony, shops were impractical, and hucksters were an essential part of the society.
Thomas was able to use her white sons-in-law to obtain supplies on credit for her hucksters, sending them out to the countryside to peddle their goods. Her business became very profitable, though occasionally she posted notices for runaway slaves who had absconded with her goods. Many of her hucksters were women, but advertisements for services she provided included hiring out male slaves as boatmen, carpenters or painters; women as housekeepers, nursemaids and seamstresses; and leasing out properties she owned in and around Georgetown. By 1810, she was quite wealthy and travelled to England where she took her youngest children, Henry and Christina, along with 17 of her grandchildren to enroll in school. While the girls attended Kensington House Academy, a finishing school in London for which Thomas served as benefactor, the boys were enrolled in the Dollar Academy near Glasgow. That year, Thomas moved again, this time to the most fashionable street in Georgetown, Robb Street.
By 1815, Thomas was running the plantation Kensington, formerly owned by her son Joseph, along with her daughter Charlotte and son-in-law, Gilbert Robertson. Her largest hotel, which had a cistern capable of holding 5,000 or more gallons of water, began employing a French chef, Louis le Plat, in 1817 and that same year, she purchased a live lion from Africa as an amusement for her guests. Local newspapers reported on her activities of purchases and sales of properties near the port, and as far away as Mahaica and the nearby colony of Berbice. In 1819, she organized a reception for Stapleton Cotton, 1st Viscount Combermere, the Governor of Barbados. By the second decade of the 19th century, Thomas regularly travelled abroad with servants and was known as one of the wealthiest persons in the colony. In 1820, she owned 83 slaves and while her business was prospering, her white sons-in-law were frequently in need of financial assistance, which she provided, though at times grudgingly. The sons-in-law were subject to accruing debt to secure merchandise for overseas trade and ran the risk of having shipments seized by privateers during periods of war; whereas Thomas' income was stable and property based.
Although she had taken measures to manumit her own family, Thomas is not known to have ever manumitted a slave that she owned who was not kin. Her slave count remained at around 80, even during the slave rebellion of 1823. The following year, she journeyed to England to press the claims of a group of free women of colour who had unsuccessfully petitioned the Court of Policy to reduce the tax on hucksters. Freedwomen had long paid separate taxes, which freedmen were not required to pay as they served military duty and performed other civic services, but a new head tax imposed in 1823 was considered unfair. The women lamented in their petition that competition had increased in the colony and that the new tax exempted free coloured men, slaves, and whites. In 1824, various accounts report she went to England and called upon Lord Bathurst, Colonial Secretary, demanding that the tax be repealed. Her efforts were successful and when she returned to Demarara, she was presented with a silver cup and plate by well-to-do women of colour. When slavery was abolished in 1833 she participated in the government compensation scheme for loss of her labour and recovered £3,413, equivalent to £ in 2023, according to calculations based on retail price index measure of inflation, the largest amount paid to a freedwoman in Demerara.
Thomas survived the yellow fever epidemic which hit the area in 1837 and continued to use her influential business networks for the rest of her life. She was well respected, as in spite of her illiteracy, she was able to converse on a wide variety of topics with many distinguished people. She died on 5 August 1846 in Georgetown, leaving extensive bequests to her relatives. The will implies that the only children who survived her were Catherina, Ann, Harry, and Christina and the witnesses to the will and codiciles "read like a roll call of influential white men in the colony". For each of her heirs, she reduced their inheritance based on funds she had distributed to them during her lifetime, meaning that Catherina received only clothes and table linens, while Harry and Ann received a full sixth of her estate. Christina's share went directly to her children, noting that she had already received funds in the past. The remainder of the estate was divided among her grandchildren and great-grandchildren, again taking into consideration whether Thomas had already expended funds on their behalf.
## Legacy
### Historical significance
In her lifetime, Dorothy Thomas was a legendary figure and many apocryphal stories were written about her, including accounts of visits to both houses of Parliament and a personal audience with George IV. She lived in an era when war opened opportunities to free women of colour, but threw them back into obscurity when it ended. Thomas' life is illustrative of the difficult and complex society that existed in the British Caribbean. It offers significant insight into the system of slavery and manumissions, as well as the difficulties and success she faced as a free woman of colour and a business woman. The fact that she was able to be successful in multiple colonies shows her ability to use the fluidity of changing times to her advantage.
### Family
Thomas' family tree stretched in a broad swathe across the British Empire and many of them became notable in their own right, thanks in part to the education she provided for her descendants. They include actors, journalists, merchants, physicians, and planters. Elizabeth Kirwin, a free woman of colour, entered into a common-law marriage prior to 1794 in Grenada with John Coxall, son of the British merchant John Cavalero Coxall. Coxall was a member of a large and influential, Scottish merchant family, and heir to their business enterprises. The couple had six children in Grenada: "James, Jane, Dorethea, William, Charlotte, and Ann".
Catherina Cells, also a free woman, married the Demerara planter D. P. Simon by 1793 and had at least six children with him. One of their daughters, Henrietta Catharina Simon, married Augustus John James Sala, performed on the London stage as Madame Sala, and was the mother of Augusta, Frederick, Charles, Albert, and George Augustus Sala, a Victorian journalist.
Edward Isles died in Grenada in 1792 and his brother William Foden disappeared from the record books. Charlotte Foden partnered with the merchant John Fullerton and by 1802 was living in Demerara. Their sister, Ann Thomas, was the common-law wife of John Gloster Garraway, who served in Grenada as the Master of the Court of Chancery. Ann's son, Joseph Garraway, trained in law in Scotland, returned to the Caribbean, and was appointed as a magistrate in 1836. He later served as a judge in the Court of Appeal.
Fanny Owens remained in Grenada, conducting business there, but Eliza Thomas relocated to Demerara, where she became the wife of Gilbert Robertson in 1805. Robertson was a partner in Robertson, Sandbach and Parker, one of the dominant trading companies in the Caribbean at the time, and a cousin of Anne Mackenzie Robertson, wife of Sir John Gladstone, a Jamaican planter, parents of British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. Eliza and Gilbert were probably the parents of Ann, an infant who died in 1806, and had a son, Henry Robertson, who became a licensed apothecary in 1828 and later had a successful surgical practice in London.
Joseph Thomas died in Demerara in 1815, though his brother Harry Thomas survived their mother. Christina, also known as Dorothea Christina, contracted to marry Robert Garraway, brother of her sister Ann's husband John, in Demerara in 1813. The nature of the contract held that if Garraway returned to England before Christina attained 21 years old the marriage was null and void. The couple had a daughter Ann Garraway, who was baptized in 1816 in Barbados, before Garraway returned to England, reneging on the contract to marry. In 1819, Christina returned to Demerara and contracted a marriage arrangement with Major John Gordon. When he returned to Scotland with his regiment in 1821, she followed and gave birth that year to their son, Huntly George Gordon, who became surgeon-general in the British Army.
## In popular culture
Thomas is the protagonist of Vanessa Riley's 2021 novel Island Queen.
## See also
- Elizabeth Swain Bannister
- Amaryllis Collymore
- Susannah Ostrehan
- Rachael Pringle Polgreen
|
50,655,340 |
2015 Monaco GP2 Series round
| 1,092,392,190 |
Pair of Monaco motor races
|
[
"2015 GP2 Series rounds",
"2015 in Monégasque sport",
"May 2015 sports events in Europe",
"Motorsport in Monaco"
] |
The 2015 Monaco GP2 Series round was a pair of motor races held on 22 and 23 May 2015 at the Circuit de Monaco, Monte Carlo, Monaco as part of the GP2 Series. It was the third round of the 2015 GP2 season and was run in support of the 2015 Monaco Grand Prix. The first race, a 40-lap feature event, was won by ART Grand Prix driver Stoffel Vandoorne who started from fourth position. Alexander Rossi finished second for Racing Engineering, and MP Motorsport driver Sergio Canamasas came in third. Status Grand Prix driver Richie Stanaway won the second event, a 30-lap sprint race, ahead of Trident's Raffaele Marciello and Sergey Sirotkin of the Rapax team.
Rossi, who started from pole position, was overtaken by Maricello at the start of the first lap. He had a small lead which was reduced because he was using super soft tyres which had higher degradation levels, allowing Rossi and Vandoorne to draw closer. Rossi gained the lead after Maricello made a pit stop for new tyres. Vandoorne became the new leader after passing Rossi when both drivers made pit stops, and maintained it to win the event. In the second race, Marciello began from pole position but lost the lead to Stanaway as a result of a slow start. The race was processional with few overtakes as Stanaway led the rest of the race to win.
Vandoorne's feature race victory was the seventh of his GP2 Series career and the third in a row in 2015. Stanaway's sprint race win was his and Status Grand Prix's first. The results of the round increased Vandoorne's lead in the Drivers' Championship to 44 points over Rossi who moved from third to second. Rio Haryanto fell to third, with Mitch Evans and Alex Lynn fourth and fifth. ART Grand Prix extended their lead over Racing Engineering in the Teams' Championship to 37 points ahead. Third-placed Campos Racing moved further ahead of DAMS, with eight rounds left in the season.
## Background
The 2015 Monaco GP2 Series round was the third of eleven scheduled events in 2015. It was held on 22 and 23 May 2015 at the Circuit de Monaco, Monte Carlo, Monaco and supported the 2015 Monaco Grand Prix. Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the red-banded supersoft and the yellow-banded soft compound dry tyres along with one wet-weather compound to Monaco. The drag reduction system (DRS) had one activation zone for the race: on the main straight linking the final and first turns. A total of 13 teams of 2 participants each for a total of 26 competitors were entered for both races and every driver piloted the Dallara GP2/11 car.
Before the race, ART Grand Prix driver Stoffel Vandoorne led the Drivers' Championship with 86 points, 37 ahead of Rio Haryanto, who in turn, was a further three in front of Alexander Rossi in third. Mitch Evans was fourth on 28 points, and Alex Lynn was three points behind him in fifth place. ART Grand Prix led the Teams' Championship with 93 points; Racing Engineering in second were six points ahead of Campos Racing in third. DAMS were in fourth on 41 points, and Russian Time were fifth on 34 points.
## Practice and qualifying
One 45-minute practice session was held on Thursday before the two races. The session was held on a dry race track upon having dried up from earlier rain. Arthur Pic of Campos Racing lapped fastest with a time of 1 minute, 20.556 seconds, ahead of Rossi, Pierre Gasly, Vandoorne, Sergio Canamasas (MP Motorsport), Raffaele Marciello (Trident), Richie Stanaway (Status Grand Prix), André Negrão (Arden International), Haryanto and Norman Nato. Evans caused a brief early red flag period when he stopped his car atop a hill entering Massenet corner, and was unable to set a timed lap. Canamasas went onto the Sainte Dévote run-off area, and Marco Sørensen (Carlin) locked his tyres, causing him hit the barrier at Rascasse corner, and reversed out of the turn. Daniël de Jong stopped his car at the Novelle chicane because of a car mechanical failure.
Friday afternoon's qualifying session ran for 30-minutes. Qualifying was divided into two groups of thirteen cars, with odd numbered vehicles in Group A and even numbered cars in Group B. The drivers' fastest lap times determined the starting order for the first race. The driver who won the pole position was awarded four points that went towards the Drivers' and Teams' Championships. Light rain fell as the session started and some drivers elected to equip the super soft tyres to their cars while other competitors chose to utilise wet-weather compounds. Rossi clinched the second pole position of his GP2 Series career with a time of 1 minute, 37.019 seconds. The achievement ended Vandoorne's run of consecutive pole positions which started at the 2014 Spa-Francorchamps round. He was joined on the grid's front row by Marciello who had the pole until the latter's lap. Marciello pushed hard and narrowly avoided a loss of car control at Massenet's barriers. Pic qualified third and Vandoorne fourth. Rapax's Sergey Sirotkin improved his lap time late on to start from fifth place. He shared the third row with Julián Leal of Carlin who was ahead of Hilmer Motorsport's Nick Yelloly and Jordan King of Racing Engineering. Canamasas and de Jong were ninth and tenth; de Jong slid into the Mirabeau barrier in the closing minutes of qualifying.
Nobuharu Matsushita was the fastest driver not to qualify in the top ten. Gasly in 12th went deep into Sainte Dévote but did not damage his car. Artem Markelov followed in 13th, ahead of Stanaway whose front wing was damaged in a collision with the Mirabeau barrier, requiring him to enter the pit lane for a replacement nose cone. Negrão placed 15th, with Zoël Amberg in 16th who aquaplaned off the circuit because of an oversteer and struck the exit Tabac corner barrier, removing his right-rear wheel. The two were followed by Lynn and Evans; the latter overshot the entry of Sainte Dévote but avoided damaging his vehicle. Sørensen's car briefly launched airborne after mounting the kerbs through the swimming pool complex and qualified in 19th position. René Binder and Johnny Cecotto Jr. started 20th and 21st; Cecotto went onto Mirabeau's run-off area but avoided damaging his car. Nathanaël Berthon qualified 22nd and Haryanto incurred a three-place starting penalty for being unable to slow sufficiently during a yellow flag period in the track's second sector and started from 23rd. Nato, Marlon Stöckinger and Robert Vișoiu were the final qualifiers.
### Qualifying classification
Group A
Group B
## Races
The first race was held over 140 km (87 mi) or 60 minutes (which ever came first) and the regulations required drivers to make one pit stop. The first ten finishers scored points, with two given to the fastest lap holder. The grid for the second race was determined by the finishing order of the first but with the first eight drivers in reverse order of where they finished. It was run for 100 km (62 mi) or 45 minutes (which ever came first) and, in contrast to the first race, drivers were not required to make pit stops. The top eight finishers earned points towards their respective championships.
### Feature race
The weather at the start of the race was sunny and warm with an air temperature of 19 °C (66 °F) and a track temperature of 28 °C (82 °F). The race started at 11:10 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) on 22 May. Matsushita stalled his car on his starting position because of losing oil pressure, and five other drivers stalled soon after, prompting marshals to push them away from the grid. A further delay was caused during the wait for the stalled cars when confusion arose over who started where, and it was later decided to perform another formation lap, shortening the race by one lap. Gasly was deemed to have jumped the start and was required to begin from the pit lane. When the race started 20 minutes later after one extra lap was removed from the race distance, Maricello made a brisk getaway to move in front of Rossi around the outside for the lead into Sainte Dévote corner. Further down the field, Amberg damaged his front wing and made a pit stop for repairs at the end of the first lap. Pic maintained third position from Vandoorne, while Stanaway moved from 14th to tenth, while King made up three positions over the same distance. Maricello held a 2.1 second lead over Rossi by the end of lap one because he had the super soft tyres equipped on his car.
Maricello's super soft tyres began to degrade quickly, allowing Rossi and Vandoorne to draw closer over the next two laps. Rossi caught Maricello by the start of the sixth lap but the latter remained on the circuit. King, who was delayed by a long queue of vehicles behind him, was the first driver to make a scheduled pit stop on the same lap and rejoined the track in clear air. On lap eight, Matsushita collided heavily with de Jong at the Novelle chicane, causing him to retire and was later penalised with a three-place grid penalty for the sprint race after the stewards judged him to have missed the corner's braking point. De Jong was able to continue. Marciello made his pit stop for new tyres on the next lap, allowing Rossi and Vandoorne to move into first and second and both drivers built an advantage over the rest of the field. Maricello rejoined in eleventh, behind Pic, who made his pit stop one lap later. Sørensen was placed into the Casino Hairpin barriers at the apex of the corner by Nato on lap ten, ending his race. Nato incurred a ten-second time penalty, but the safety car was not deployed. Markelov retired from the race in the pit lane with damage to his car after running off the circuit, and drove over a kerb at the exit to the left-hand Louis Chiron corner, launching him airborne into a trackside barrier.
Rossi led Vandoorne by a second who pushed hard to stay with Rossi. Evans attempted to overtake Yelloly leaving the tunnel at the chicane but Yellowly steered into Evans, who was forced to retire on lap 18. The incident necessitated the activation of the virtual safety car (VSC) to allow track officials to clean the circuit. Rossi and Vandoorne elected to make pit stops for super soft tyres during the VSC with Vandoorne emerging in the lead. Leal moved into third despite making contact with Sirotkin. At the race's restart, Vandoorne extended his lead over Rossi by 3.4 seconds in one lap. This was the case until Rossi drove two seconds faster on the following lap and was half a second behind Vandoorne by the 23rd lap. Yelloly set the feature race's fastest time on the same lap, completing a circuit in 1 minute, 22.314 seconds. Vandoorne's and Rossi's releases from their pit stall were investigated by the stewards but chose not to take any further action. A brief second VSC period was deployed when debris was located into Rascasse corner. Canamasas overtook Pic at Sainte Dévote to move into fourth at the beginning of the 28th lap.
With ten laps remaining, Rossi radioed his team that his front tyres were degrading, with Vandoorne experiencing the same issue. King quickly closed up to Yelloly and overtook him for ninth place on the 32nd lap. Vandoorne held the lead for the rest of the race and achieved his third consecutive GP2 feature race victory of 2015, and his seventh in the series. He finished six seconds ahead of Rossi who slowed, with Leal third on the road, but was issued with a ten-second time penalty upon being judged by the stewards to have been unsafely released from his pit stall. Hence, Canamasas inherited third-place, ahead of Pic and Sirotkin. Leal, Stanaway, Maricello, King and Yelloly rounded out the top-ten points-scoring finishers. Binder, de Jong, Lynn, Gasly and Vișoiu were the next five finishers, with Haryanto, Berthon, Nato, Stöckinger, Cecotto, Negrão and Amberg the final classified finishers.
#### Feature race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
### Sprint race
The second event began at 16:10 local time on 23 May. The weather at the start of the race were cooler than the previous day's event with dark clouds in the sky and a chance of rain. The air temperature was at 17 °C (63 °F) and the track temperature 23 °C (73 °F). All drivers began on the soft compound tyres. Evans did not start the event because his car stopped on the track's halfway section while driving to his starting position. Sørensen stalled in his grid position but was able to start soon after before he was issued with a ten-second time penalty because his mechanics were tending to his car after the 15-second signal was given. Matsushita was required to start from the pit lane because of his collision with de Jong in the feature event. When the race started, pole position starter Maricello made a slow start and was overtaken on the outside by Stanaway into the first corner. Maricello held off Sirotkin, Leal and Canamasas. Rossi damaged the front wing in a collision with the rear of Pic's car but continued. Cecotto squeezed Amberg sideways into a barrier uphill to Massenet corner, forcing the retirement of both cars.
Shortly afterwards Nato, Haryanto and Binder went three abreast at the Casino hairpin which saw Haryanto squeezed wide at the corner's exit by Nato and was unable to leave the turn, causing a brief usage of the VSC to allow the three cars to be extracted from the circuit by a trackside crane. Nato was able to continue but made a pit stop for repairs and was issued with a ten-second time penalty because he was judged to have caused the collision. The race resumed on the second lap with Stanaway leading Maricello and Sirotkin. Stanaway pulled away from the rest of the field. Leal was overtaken for fourth place by Canamasas at Sainte Dévote on the seventh lap's start and narrowly made the corner. Stanaway led the field by three seconds at the race's mid-way point while Maricello was two seconds in front of Sirotkin. Stanaway's team cautioned him about the possibility of tyre degradation if he continued to push hard. Few overtakes took place as the field spread out. Rossi and Vandoorne intentionally fell back from the leaders and both drivers started to record fastest lap times in an effort of earning the accolade of two points for setting the event's fastest lap. Vandoorne temporarily claimed the award with a lap time of 1 minute, 21.926 seconds, before Nato gained the accolade on the 30th lap with a time of 1 minute, 21.886 seconds.
King had battled with Gasly for most of the race and continued to apply pressure on Gasly despite not being able to pass him. He became more frustrated at Gasly's blocking manoeuvres and complained that the latter drove straight across the chicane on lap 24. On the following lap, King gained momentum leaving the tunnel and Gasly was slower than the former. King's front-left tyre made contact with the right-rear of the DAMS car, launching him into the air. He drove onto the escape road at high speed and became the race's fourth retirement with heavy damage to his car. King was unhurt. He was transported to the local hospital for a precautionary check-up which found bruising but no serious injuries. Having been behind him for most of the race, Markelov braked later than Binder and passed him on the outside at Sainte Dévote on lap 28, and later passed Berthon for 14th position.
Stanaway drifted at La Rascasse corner after his car's rear gave way and narrowly avoided a collision against a wall on the race's final lap. He regained control of his car and crossed the start/finish line to win the race. Marciello finished second, two seconds behind the race winner and Sirotkin took third. Canamasas secured fourth, and Leal was fifth. Pic, Rossi and Vandoorne filled the remainder of the points-scoring positions and were all separated by 2.5 seconds. Yelloly and Gasly rounded out the top ten. Lynn, de Jong, Vișoiu, Markelov and Berthon followed in the next five places, while Binder, Negrão, Stöckinger, Matushita, Sørensen and Nato were the last of the classified finishers. The victory was Stanaway's first in the GP2 Series and the maiden triumph for his team Status Grand Prix following its take over of the former Caterham Racing entry. Stanaway's victory was the best success for a New Zealand driver at Monaco since Denny Hulme won the 1967 Monaco Grand Prix.
#### Sprint race classification
Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold.
## Post-round
The top three drivers of both races appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and at a later press conference. After the first race, Vandoorne said his third victory of the season was a special feeling and that he had had to work hard to achieve the win. He revealed that he was happy to have overtaken Rossi in the pit lane having felt he was slightly faster than him before he made his pit stop and praised his mechanics for installing his car's tyres in a fast time period. Rossi admitted that he was disappointed not to win the event as he was aware that it would be difficult to remain in front of those who had the super soft tyres installed on their cars heading into the first corner but was not worried over the issue because he was aware that they would make early pit stops. Canamasas felt "very happy" to finish third and earning another podium position result in Monaco was "an amazing feeling". He said he was aware that he had to overtake Pic as soon as possible because he knew that Pic had more grip than him.
Stanaway said that it felt quite "surreal" to win in Monaco and that it was the ideal place to take his first series victory. He stated that GP2 was still new to him and it was a "fantastic feeling" to achieve success in his third race weekend. He hoped that he would improve as the season progressed. His team's managing director David Kennedy stated that it was "the best result that you can have in your maiden GP2 season" and praised Stanaway for demonstrating his speed and talent. Marciello said finishing second would serve to bring positive motivation for his team but that they needed reminding that the result came during the shorter sprint race and hoped they would secure a podium finish in Austria's feature event. Sirotkin said that his sprint race went better than the previous day's longer feature event as he felt that he should have a secured a podium finish in that race. The driver stated that the first podium of his GP2 Series career in Monaco was "a great feeling" but stated he should have been battling for a podium position in the season's first two rounds.
The stewards imposed a three-place grid penalty on King for his role in the collision with Gasly, which he took at the season's next race in Austria. He said that it was a "disappointing" conclusion to the race weekend and he and Gasly discussed the incident and the pair had no issue regarding the matter. Gasly said that his team had hoped for a better result in Monaco but the car's amount of performance was not the reason that his team was unable to score points. He further stated that while he was happy with the behaviour of his vehicle he was unfortunate: "I put my head down and fought my way back, but when you start from so far back on the grid in Monaco scoring points is a hopeless task."
Vandoorne's results increased his lead in the Drivers' Championship on 114 points, as Rossi moved to second place, 44 points behind Vandoorne. Haryanto's poor form dropped him to third. Although they scored no points, Evans and Lynn remained in fourth and fifth positions with 28 and 25 points respectively. ART Grand Prix extended its lead over Racing Engineering in the Teams' Championship by two points. Campos Racing remained in third position on 68 points, and moved further away from DAMS in fourth place, while Russian Time were fifth with eight rounds left in the season.
## Standings after the round
Drivers' Championship standings
Teams' Championship standings
- Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
|
37,935,491 |
Kubah
| 1,095,516,124 |
Book by Ahmad Tohari
|
[
"1980 novels",
"Indonesian literature",
"Novels by Ahmad Tohari",
"Novels set in Indonesia"
] |
Kubah (literally Cupola or Dome) is an Indonesian novel written by Ahmad Tohari. It follows a poor man named Karman who becomes a member of the Indonesian Communist Party, only to find himself a victim of the ongoing political struggles in 1950s Indonesia. After the Party's destruction he spends twelve years as a prisoner at Buru before returning to his hometown and becoming a devout Muslim.
Tohari's second novel, Kubah was written in two months and based on the events surrounding the Communist Party and the 30 September Movement coup in 1965. Published in 1980 by Pustaka Jaya, Kubah came at a time when literary works with similar themes – the victimisation of Communist Party members – were scarce. The novel has also been characterised as dawah (Islamic preaching). Reception of Kubah was mostly mixed; critics praised the novel for its subject matter and criticised it for its predictability. It received a literary award in 1981, and in 1986 it was translated into Japanese.
## Plot
After twelve years imprisoned at Buru Island, the former Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or PKI) member Karman returns to Central Java. During his time at Buru, his wife Marni has remarried and the area has modernised considerably, rendering him uncertain where to go. He decides to stay at his cousin's home for a while. Meanwhile, Marni has heard of Karman's release and realises that she still loves him, and would thus feel uncomfortable if he returned to their hometown of Pegaten. However, their grown daughter Tini wishes to meet her father.
In a series of flashbacks, Karman's life is told. He lost his pro-Dutch father during the Indonesian National Revolution and was raised in poverty before going to work for the rich merchant Haji Bakir as a child, babysitting his daughter Rifah. In the two years Karman lived with them, the family raised him to be a devout Muslim; Karman, for his part, was a diligent worker and cared deeply for Rifah. When his uncle returned from the front, Karman was brought back home and educated until junior high school, dropping out for a lack of funds. When he was in his twenties Karman found a job at the local village chief's office with the help of a civil employee named Triman and a teacher named Margo.
Unknown to Karman, both men were PKI members and intent on making him join the party. They gave him communist pamphlets and indoctrinated him in Party philosophy. When Karman was late in telling Rifah his feelings, losing her to another man, the PKI manipulated his emotions to make him leave Islam and hate Haji Bakir. Ultimately this was successful: Karman abandoned his mandatory prayers and began to espouse the Party's politics. After Karman was refused marriage to Rifah a second time, following her husband's death, he had Haji Bakir imprisoned. In this time Karman married Marni, intending to convert her family to communism.
By 1965 Karman had become a respected member of the PKI, although the public knew him as a member of Partindo. However, following the failure of the 30 September Movement (Gerakan 30 September, or G30S) coup in the national capital at Jakarta – orchestrated by the PKI – Karman realised that his position was unsound. He and his fellow PKI members began praying regularly, but many were ultimately killed – including Triman and Margo. Karman escaped from Pegaten hours before soldiers came to arrest him and managed to avoid capture for nearly two months, generally hiding in cemeteries. After his capture Karman was exiled to Buru.
In the present day, Karman has returned to Pegaten to a warm reception. Marni, although she admits that she still loves Karman, insists that she will stay with her new husband; Haji Bakir, Karman's uncle, and Karman's mother have likewise forgiven him. Tini and Haji Bakir's grandson Jabir are betrothed as planned, and, when the villagers renovate the dilapidated mosque, Karman makes the cupola. He receives much praise for his work and finds a sense of belonging in the mosque.
## Background and writing
Kubah was inspired by Indonesian history, beginning in the 1940s and continuing until the 1980s. Following the national revolution from 1945 to 1949, the country was set in a state of political turmoil and abject poverty which became increasingly severe towards the end of the 1950s. By the early 1960s the PKI and other leftist parties had the support of President Sukarno, giving them greater power; PKI membership grew quickly in this period, aided by a hyperinflation and widespread poverty.
On 1 October 1965, a group of Indonesian National Armed Forces members calling themselves the 30 September Movement killed six Army generals and announced that the president was under their power; the coup was quashed the following day. Contemporary reports indicated that the PKI had been behind the G30S, a position endorsed by the Indonesian government. As a result, hundreds of thousands of registered and suspected PKI members were killed or exiled over the following decade, effectively destroying the Party. By 1974 Buru held some 10,000 prisoners, while others were held elsewhere or forced to stay abroad. Political prisoners began to be released by the 1970s, but saw systematic discrimination at all levels of society: they found themselves under surveillance and with little hope of employment.
Kubah was the second novel written by Ahmad Tohari, who had been in senior high school when the G30S announced its coup. A devout Muslim who had trained as a doctor and ran a pesantren (Islamic boarding school) in Central Java, Tohari began to focus on writing when his first novel, Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak (On the Foothill of Cibalak; 1978), won a prize from the Jakarta Arts Council. He finished Kubah in two months, first making a thematic overview for each chapter and then developing it further while writing. He deliberately left the novel's ending open to interpretation, intending for readers to think for themselves.
## Themes
Kubah is an early example of literature dealing with the G30S and PKI, although earlier examples exist. Former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid described it as the first to deal with reconciliation between PKI members and general Indonesian society after G30S, an issue which was "hyper-sensitive" at the time. The historian Anna-Greta Nilsson Hoadley writes that Kubah explored why a person would be motivated to join the party, emphasizing poverty, cultural pressure, and active propaganda by the PKI. In the end, Karman is ultimately an "innocent victim", who only joined the Party to improve his own standing. Even after his release Karman remains in a state of fear, "marked by a prisoner's vulnerability." The literary critics Maman S. Mahayana, Oyon Sofyan, and Achmad Dian wrote that, in this sense, Karman becomes representative of all PKI members who were arrested following G30S.
Mahayana, writing elsewhere, sees Karman as undergoing an existential quest to establish his identity, seemingly finding an answer in the PKI but ultimately becoming trapped by them. Mahayana indicates that a religious message is evident beginning with the novel's opening, in which Tohari provides a four-line quote from an old Javanese text regarding faith and becoming more explicit later on. He finds Karman's dealing with the raftsman Kastagethek while escaping from the government the most explicit expression of Tohari's intent; unlike Karman, Kastagethek is a devout yet simple man who is happy in his poverty, leading Karman to question his own views before ultimately finding his identity in Islam. Mahayana thus argued that Kubah was meant as dawah, or Islamic preaching, with its message that humans should recognise their status as creatures of God conveyed through characters' dialogue and actions.
## Release and reception
Kubah was originally published by the Jakarta-based Pustaka Jaya in 1980; unlike Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak and most of Tohari's later novels, it had not been serialised first. Since 1995 it has been published by Gramedia, seeing four printings as of 2012. The work was translated into Japanese by Shinobu Yamane in 1986, under the title Shinsei.
The novel's reception was mixed. It was awarded the Buku Utama Prize in 1981 for "increasing knowledge, spreading manners, and maturing Indonesian culture," an award which included a trophy and Rp. 1 million in prize money. Mahayana found it worthy of this prize, praising Kubah's use of flashback and the complicated issues it raised. Wahid, at the time an active Islamic intellectual with the Nahdlatul Ulama, wrote in 1980 that Kubah had poorly realised its potential; he characterised it as a beginner's work: lacking suspense, overly moralistic, and predictable.
Tohari's trilogy Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk (The Dancer of Paruk Village; 1981–1985), which has proven to be his most famous, also dealt with the G30S and the PKI. However, unlike Kubah, parts of Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk remained censored until 2003. Numerous novels dealing with G30S and the PKI, written by other authors, have also been published since Kubah.
## Explanatory notes
|
609,459 |
Fort Saskatchewan
| 1,170,358,696 | null |
[
"1899 establishments in the Northwest Territories",
"Cities in Alberta",
"Edmonton Metropolitan Region",
"Fort Saskatchewan",
"Populated places established in 1875",
"Populated places on the North Saskatchewan River"
] |
Fort Saskatchewan is a city along the North Saskatchewan River in Alberta, Canada. It is 25 kilometres (16 mi) northeast of Edmonton, the provincial capital. It is part of the Edmonton census metropolitan area and one of 24 municipalities that constitute the Edmonton Metropolitan Region Board. Its population in the 2021 federal census was 27,088.
The city was founded as a North-West Mounted Police fort and later home to a large provincial jail. The original fort was located across the river from the hamlet of Lamoureux, and Fort Saskatchewan opened a replica of the fort next to its original site in 2011. Fort Saskatchewan is bordered by Strathcona County to the south and east, Sturgeon County to the north and west, and the City of Edmonton to the southwest. Sturgeon County is across the North Saskatchewan River.
The city is best known for its proximity to petrochemical facilities, including Dow Chemical, Sherritt International, Nutrien (formerly Agrium), and Shell Canada. It is also known for its flock of 50 sheep that roam the Fort Heritage Precinct throughout the summer months, eating the grass.
## History
### Pre-colonization and founding
Prior to colonization of the region, the area around what is now Fort Saskatchewan was a gathering place and home for many Indigenous nations, including the Cree (Néhinaw) and Nakota. Indigenous Peoples of the region commonly traveled the North Saskatchewan River by canoe. The mouth of the Sturgeon River, located near modern-day Fort Saskatchewan's industrial business park, was an ideal location to gather the materials necessary to construct canoes. The area of modern-day Fort Saskatchewan was called "Birch Hills", as birch bark was an important component in canoe making.
Inspector William D. Jarvis, who led a column of North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) during the March West, established Sturgeon Creek Post in 1875. The post was soon renamed "Fort (on the) Saskatchewan", and it became a key northern police garrison. Its location caused outrage among residents of Edmonton, who held a meeting voicing their concern that the police garrison was located far from their settlement. Chief Factor Richard Hardisty, in charge of Fort Edmonton, wanted the police garrison to be located across the river and slightly upstream from his fort. However, Inspector Jarvis preferred the downstream site because he believed that its narrower and shallower river banks were better suited for a future railway crossing.
The NWMP made Fort Saskatchewan the headquarters of 'G' Division in 1885, and considered moving it to Edmonton to accommodate an expansion. The residents of Edmonton were enthusiastic about this proposal; they held a meeting to voice their support for the move, and submitted a 250-signature petition to the Minister of the Interior. However, the existing (temporary) NWMP barracks in Edmonton were so dilapidated that some officers mutinied in 1886 – an event known among police at the time as "the Big Buck". It was cheaper to expand Fort Saskatchewan at its current location than to rebuild and expand the garrison in Edmonton. Despite the efforts of Edmonton's residents, who would continue to protest and voice their discontent until 1888, Fort Saskatchewan remained where it was.
The palisade wall surrounding the fort was dismantled in 1886, and the fort was expanded for a second time in 1889. As headquarters of 'G' Division, it hosted patrols that extended as far as Fort Simpson and Chesterfield Inlet. The NWMP transferred the property to the Alberta government in 1911 for the construction of a provincial jail, and the fort was soon demolished. Artifacts and structural features have been discovered during subsequent digs, including clothing buttons, a possible privy deposit, and structural remains of the original palisade wall. The site of the fort has been partially damaged by the installation of underground utilities, and the construction of the provincial jail. Fort Saskatchewan was incorporated as a village in 1899, a town in 1904, and a city in 1985.
#### Hanging of Swift Runner
Five hangings were conducted at the fort between 1879 and 1914. On December 20, 1879, Fort Saskatchewan's police garrison conducted the first hanging in the North-West Territories (which included present-day Alberta).
Swift Runner (Ka-Ki-Si-Kutchin), a Cree man, was considered by locals to be smart and trustworthy, and he had previously served as a guide for local police. He was expelled from Fort Saskatchewan, and later his tribe as well, after developing a severe addiction to whisky. After he eventually arrived back at Fort Saskatchewan alone, it was discovered that he killed and ate his six children, his wife, his brother, and his mother. Possible motives for his acts have been proposed, such as trauma from previously being forced to eat a deceased hunting partner out of necessity, or being possessed by Wendigo – a flesh eating spirit in some Indigenous cultures.
Charged for murder and cannibalism, Swift Runner was sentenced to death in August 1879 by a jury consisting of three Métis residents, four locals who knew the Cree language, and a Cree translator. Scaffolding was built for his hanging in December, and an army pensioner was paid \$50 to act as the hangman. Local Indigenous Chiefs were also invited to observe the execution to pacify rumours of unnecessary cruelty inflicted upon the condemned. The hanging was delayed after locals used the trap from the scaffolding as fire kindling, and the hangman forgot straps to bind Swift Runner's arms. At 9:30 am, Swift Runner was hanged in front of 60 onlookers and pronounced dead shortly after. Within an hour, his body was cut from the rope and buried in the snow outside the fort walls.
### Early growth
#### Arrival of the railway
Prior to the arrival of the railway, people travelling to and from Edmonton had to traverse a dirt trail that wound around woods and swamps.
The Canadian Northern Railway (CNR) reached Fort Saskatchewan in 1905, placing the town on what would eventually become a transcontinental rail line. The CNR station is a modified third-class station design (100-19 plan); a "special station" that was used by CNR at the most significant stops along their line. It had several unique features, such as a longer footprint than other third-class stations, and a freight shed; these reflected Fort Saskatchewan's status as the centre of an agricultural district and the largest community on the CNR line between Edmonton and North Battleford, Saskatchewan. A second freight shed was built on the west side of the station in 1911; a sign of the growth in population and rail traffic that Fort Saskatchewan experienced. The station is the only surviving model 100-19 railway station in Alberta. In the decade after the railway arrived, the town's population nearly doubled to 993.
The first bridge leading to Fort Saskatchewan, crossing the North Saskatchewan River, was also built at this time; CNR paid for it in exchange for free land for its station. It had a train deck on its upper level and a wooden road deck on its lower level. Previously, the only method to cross the river at Fort Saskatchewan was via ferry. At the time of the bridge's construction, the Edmonton Bulletin described it as the second largest bridge in the CNR. The road deck was too narrow to allow more than one-way traffic, and traffic lights were later installed on each side of the bridge to help prevent collisions. Some drivers ignored the traffic lights at night, and proceeded if they did not see any oncoming headlights; even if they had a red light. A heavy vehicle struck the bridge in 1950, and a girder was forced 18 inches (46 cm) out of alignment by the impact. The safety concerns illustrated by these two factors caused the province to open a new two-lane bridge downstream of the railway bridge. After it opened in 1957, the rail bridge's lower vehicle deck was dismantled.
The train station and railway line through Fort Saskatchewan were in use until the late 1980s. Declining rail traffic and safety concerns regarding the transportation of dangerous goods prompted the Canadian National Railway to divert the line away from the city's non-industrial areas. The station and its property, including the railway track directly in front of it, were sold to the Province of Alberta, which immediately re-sold it to Fort Saskatchewan. The train bridge was demolished soon after the rail line was diverted. The old piers still stand in the river as of 2022.
As of 1987, all freight and passenger rail connections occur in Edmonton, and a new bridge, located upstream near the Clover Bar and Beverly bridges (Anthony Henday Drive), carries a rail line that goes through Fort Saskatchewan's industrial area without going through residential areas.
#### Combined fire and town hall
Town council, meeting in the Odd Fellows' Hall, approved the construction of a combined fire and town hall in 1905. The building would also contain two cells for police use. Council originally voted to purchase land for the building behind the Queen's Hotel for \$675, but a public petition successfully persuaded council to instead purchase land on the north-west corner of 100 Avenue and 103 Street for \$1,250. Local taxpayers voted for \$6000 to be spent on the construction of the building, and \$7000 on fire-fighting equipment.
The fire and town hall was completed in 1906; the fire department occupied the bottom level, and the town hall and council chamber were located on the upper floor. The fire department occupied the bottom floor until 1958, while the town hall was located in the building until 1970. The building is now privately owned and used as commercial space.
#### Hydroelectric dam
After purchasing the Fort Electric Company in 1910, Town Council voted to purchase land near the mouth of the Sturgeon River, and construct a \$30,000 wooden hydroelectric dam and power plant which were expected to last approximately 20 years. The town had to take over construction of the dam and plant in 1911 after the contracted firm went bankrupt. There were two separate instances in June 1911 where water rose above the dam and flooded the construction area. By its completion in December 1911, Fort Saskatchewan had spent \$80,000 on the project. Minor leaks were detected throughout the next few months, and the plant was shut down in April 1912 after a washout at the penstock damaged the canal, a bulkhead, and parts of the natural riverbank. This incident was blamed on faulty construction.
The town decided in September 1912 that there was no cost-effective way to repair the dam. It instead retrofitted its old power house for \$3000, and absorbed the financial losses associated with prematurely decommissioning the dam. The power plant on the grounds of the gaol supplied the entire town for eight years, during-which Fort Saskatchewan faced numerous issues with residents neglecting to pay their power bills. The town finalized an agreement for Calgary Power to purchase the town's equipment for \$26,000 in June 1928, and supply the town with power for ten years.
#### Public emergencies
##### Downtown fire
A fire swept through a large portion of the town's business section on January 21, 1913. It is thought to have started in the Queen's hotel, before quickly leaping across the street to nearby buildings. The fire department struggled to start their engine, and their hose froze; by the time they fixed their equipment, the fire was too large to be contained. Five businesses, primarily located in the Fetherstonhaugh Block, were lost to the fire — costing a total of \$24,000 in damages. In the spring of 1913, construction began on \$69,500 worth of buildings in the business section. These new buildings included the Williamson Block, which replaced the Fetherstonhaugh Block, and a new Queen's Hotel.
##### Influenza epidemic of 1918–1919
In response to the worsening Spanish Influenza outbreak, the local Board of Health placed Fort Saskatchewan under quarantine on October 30, 1918. Guards were placed at all roads leading into the town, and nobody could enter or leave without a pass from the health board. The town reached 86 cases of the Spanish Flu in November 1918, representing approximately nine percent of its total population. Fort Saskatchewan did not have its own hospital, so a local home owner, Mrs. Graham, donated her house to be used as a temporary medical facility; four residents were treated there. Three residents died from the Spanish Flu. The town's quarantine lasted for three weeks, and was lifted on November 17, 1918.
### Provincial jail
A \$200,000 provincial jail opened in 1915 on the site of the old fort, to replace the 34-cell guard house that had been used since the NWMP fort was constructed in 1875. This was necessary because by the early 1900s, the guard house was often filled beyond capacity; in August 1912, it held up to 71 prisoners at one time. The fort was demolished after the gaol opened, and in 1927 the prison's warden unveiled a cairn on the site of the old guard room, made from stones taken from its foundation, to commemorate the old fort.
There were various additions to the jail throughout the next 70 years, including more cell blocks, a gymnasium, a stand-alone power plant, and carpentry, auto body, and license plate shops. The prison grew food for inmates on a nearby 324 hectare (800 acre) farm. A new house for the warden and his family was completed in 1937, replacing the commanding officer's quarters of 1889. The warden's house was symbolically constructed on municipal grounds near the prison, rather than on the prison grounds themselves — providing convenient access to the prison for the warden while normalizing life for his wife and children. The warden's house was converted into office space in early 1973.The prison was primarily used to house people awaiting their trials or serving sentences of under two years, and 29 prisoners were hanged on-site between 1914 and 1960. Noteworthy prisoners who were executed include Florence Lassandro (the only woman hanged in Alberta), and Robert Raymond Cook (the last man to be hanged in Alberta). By 1973, the jail employed 220 people and housed 300 male and female offenders. The jail was replaced in 1988 when a new provincial correctional centre, which houses 546 inmates, was built south of Highway 15 (Veterans Way) on 101 Street. The cell blocks were demolished in 1992. The warden's house is the only remaining structure linked to the old gaol; the last building on the actual prison grounds, the facility workshop, was demolished in 2014.
#### Riot
96 inmates rioted in the prison dining room on January 19, 1955, led by 12 ringleaders who barricaded themselves in the prison's bakery. The riot started only 24 hours after the chief guard and two other guards were dismissed. Dishes and furniture were thrown and smashed, and a store room in the bakery was destroyed by fire after the ringleaders torched clothing, boots, and other supplies that they found. Prisoners in a cell block believed to contain rioters shouted phrases such as "get the story straight" to nearby reporters. They claimed that they rioted because of the food at the gaol. The fire was doused by the local fire department, and the riot was put down by 50 Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers from Edmonton, who were armed with tear gas and smoke grenades. After the ringleaders were pulled from the bakery, they were returned to their cells. The prison had previously seen an inmate sit-down in October 1950, and a small disturbance in March 1949, but this was the most significant act of aggression by inmates that the prison had seen. The riot caused \$10,000 worth of damage.
### 1950–present
Sherritt Gordon Mines started construction on a \$25-million nickel refinery in 1952, which started production in 1954. As a result, more industries constructed plants in Fort Saskatchewan. Between 1951 and 1956, the town's population doubled from 1,076 to 2,582. Dow Chemical acquired 700 acres in Fort Saskatchewan in 1959, opening its plant in 1961 and further expanding it in 1967. The population increased from 2,972 in 1961, when operations at Dow began, to 4,152 in 1966.
The Fort Saskatchewan Town Police force (est. 1904) was disbanded in 1972, and the RCMP resumed policing duties in the town for the first time since 1917. As part of a royal tour during the XI Commonwealth Games, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip arrived in Fort Saskatchewan from Vegreville via a special train on August 2, 1978. The royal couple met with then-Premier Lougheed on the platform of the CNR station, gave a speech to local residents at Turner Park, and then traveled to Edmonton in a limousine.
Muriel Abdurahman was elected as Fort Saskatchewan's first female mayor in 1980. Abdurahman was elected for a second term in 1983, and she became the first mayor of the City of Fort Saskatchewan after it gained official city status in 1985. She later resigned as mayor to pursue a career in provincial politics, and was succeeded by Pryce Alderson.
Fort Saskatchewan annexed 952 hectares (2,350 acres) of land from Strathcona County on January 1, 2020. The land is mainly located south of the city's old boundaries. Fort Saskatchewan originally requested 2,000 hectares (4,900 acres) from Strathcona County, including industrial land to the north, but the two municipalities negotiated an agreement involving less land.
Since Fort Saskatchewan was incorporated as a town in 1904, it has had 30 residents serve as its mayor as of 2021.
#### Annexation dispute
Fort Saskatchewan submitted a bid to annex 784 hectares (1,940 acres) of industrial land to its east from Strathcona County in 1988. Dow Chemical was constructing a plant on some of this land, and the refinery was expected to generate \$4 million in tax revenues once it was complete. After Fort Saskatchewan declined to split Dow's taxes between the two municipalities, and in protest over being "chiseled away" by its urban neighbours, Strathcona County submitted a counter-bid to the Local Authorities Board in 1989 to retake 1,400 hectares (3,500 acres) of land from Fort Saskatchewan. The claim encompassed most of Fort Saskatchewan's tax-rich industrial land, which had been ceded to the city in 1959. In the late 1980s, Fort Saskatchewan had the richest tax base in the Edmonton Area, with 74% involving commercial or industrial properties, and it had the lowest homeowners tax in the region. After the provincial government tried unsuccessfully to mediate an agreement between the two sides in late 1989, the Edmonton Metropolitan Regional Planning Commission voted in 1990 in favour of Fort Saskatchewan's bid, and rejected Strathcona County's counter-bid.
As the dispute continued into late 1990, Fort Saskatchewan purchased a full-page advertisement in the Edmonton Journal, urging the provincial government to respect the Local Authorities Board's "non-political decision", regardless of what its verdict was. The province announced that Fort Saskatchewan's bid was successful in 1991, stating that the city would annex 1,144 hectares (2,830 acres) of land from Strathcona County on December 31, 1991. In turn, the county would be protected from further annexations for 20 years, and the two municipalities would have to reach an agreement on tax-sharing. The two sides continued to face difficulties negotiating with one-another, and neither believed that an arbitration process could be agreed upon. In March 1992, a Court of Queen's Bench judge ruled in favour of Strathcona County. He declared that over the next 19 years, the county was to receive approximately \$27 million in tax revenue from the land annexed by Fort Saskatchewan, while the city would receive about \$55 million of tax revenue over that same period. Mayor Pryce Alderson of Fort Saskatchewan, and Reeve Iris Evans of Strathcona County, issued a joint statement that welcomed the decision, stating that they would work together moving forward.
## Geography
### Climate
Fort Saskatchewan has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) with warm summers and cold winters. Precipitation peaks during summer time, and snowfall peaks from November to January.
### Neighbourhoods
Fort Saskatchewan is divided into seven residential neighbourhoods and two industrial parks. Downtown is the city's oldest neighbourhood, and currently experiencing a larger commercial vacancy rate than the local average due to its low catchment area. Bridgeview, Clover Park, Pineview, and Sherridon are mature residential neighbourhoods, and Westpark and Southfort — the city's newest neighbourhoods — are still under development as of 2021. Eastgate Business Park and the Industrial Business Park both sit on the eastern edge of the city.
## Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Fort Saskatchewan had a population of 27,088 living in 10,420 of its 10,896 total private dwellings, a change of 12.1% from its 2016 population of 24,169. With a land area of 56.5 km<sup>2</sup> (21.8 sq mi), it had a population density of in 2021.
Fort Saskatchewan's population, according to its 2019 municipal census, is 26,942; a change of 2.3% from its 2018 municipal census population of 26,328.
In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Fort Saskatchewan had a population of 24,149 living in 9,261 of its 9,939 total private dwellings, a change of 26.8% from its 2011 population of 19,051. With a land area of 48.18 km<sup>2</sup> (18.60 sq mi), it had a population density of in 2016.
As of 2016, the top three areas of employment are: Trades, transport and equipment operators and related occupations (3,140 residents), sales and service occupations (2,685), and business, finance and administration occupations (1,915 residents). The three most common levels of education are: Post secondary certificate, diploma or degree (10,420 residents), secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate (5,735 residents), and college, CEGEP or other non-university certificate or diploma (4,565 residents).
### Ethnicity
According to the 2016 census, the largest visible minority populations in the community are Filipino with 535 residents, followed by South Asian with 350 residents. 1,390 residents identified as Aboriginal in 2016: 415 as First Nations, 965 as Métis, and 15 as Inuk (Inuit). 15 residents also claimed multiple Aboriginal identities, bringing the total number of Aboriginal identity claims to 1,410.
### Language
Regarding the official languages of Canada, 22,160 residents are proficient only in English, 15 are only proficient in French, 1,385 residents are bilingual, and 60 residents are not proficient in either official language.
## Economy
Fort Saskatchewan's main industries are commercial and heavy industry. It is part of Alberta's Industrial Heartland, the largest Canadian industrial area west of Toronto. Companies with operations in the area include Dow Chemical, Sherritt International, Nutrien (formerly Agrium) and Shell Canada. These plants are major employers for residents of Fort Saskatchewan and the surrounding area.
The city has attracted a number of major retailers including Wal-Mart, The Home Depot, Canadian Tire, Safeway, Federated CO-OP, and Freson Bros. Fort Saskatchewan has also developed as a regional hub for stores and services; in 2019 it served a catchment area of approximately 75,000 people, both locally and from communities to its north and east, including Lamont, Bruderheim, and Redwater.
### Fort Station Mall
The original Fort Mall was located on a 49,000-square-metre (12-acre) parcel on the east side of downtown, and contained 16,000 square metres (170,000 sq ft) of retail space. On September 15, 2015, Haro Developments opened phase one of its redevelopment of the site, which it renamed Fort Station Mall. The majority of the old mall was demolished and replaced with outward-facing commercial units. Future plans for development include the construction of additional commercial units, apartments, and an assisted-living facility for seniors. A report commissioned by the City of Fort Saskatchewan noted: "As of 2019, there is another phase of the site, yet to be redeveloped, but the project continues to progress towards completion."
## Attractions
### Recreational
The centerpiece of Fort Saskatchewan's recreation and culture is the Dow Centennial Centre, a multi-use facility that includes an ice arena, gymnasium, field house, indoor track and fitness centre. The facility, which opened in September 2004, also features a 550-seat performing arts theatre, a permanent art gallery with monthly shows, a banquet hall and the local pottery guild.
The city has two other indoor ice arenas the Jubilee Recreation Centre and the Sportsplex, that are used during the winter months by hockey, ringette and figure skating associations. In the summer months, the lacrosse association uses them. Fort Saskatchewan also has Harbour Pool: An indoor swimming pool with a hot tub, sauna, and slide. The city opened Taurus Field in 2018 – a FIFA-certified artificial turf field for soccer and football matches. It features seating for more than 1000 people, a press box, four large dressing rooms, and lights surrounding the field.
There is one nine-hole golf course located within the city's boundaries, and a six-sheet curling club; they are both operated by the Fort Golf and Curling Club. The city's west end features a boat launch into the North Saskatchewan River, called Red Coat Landing, and a provincially preserved natural area called the Fort Saskatchewan Prairie. Elk Island National Park is located southeast of the city.
#### Trail network
Fort Saskatchewan has over 75 km (47 mi) of paved multi-use trails as of 2021, including approximately 20 km (12 mi) throughout the river valley and the city's parks. A pedestrian bridge crossing the North Saskatchewan River has been under construction since 2019; once completed it will connect Fort Saskatchewan's trail network to Sturgeon County's trails. This is part of the Trans Canada Trail network, reflecting Fort Saskatchewan's status as a hub for numerous provincial and national trails.
### Cultural
The 11 hectare (27 acre) Fort Heritage Precinct is a municipally operated museum and historic site. It contains a variety of historically significant buildings from the area which form a historical village. The Fort Heritage Precinct features a full-scale replica of the original NWMP fort, which can be explored in guided tours. Phase one of the replica fort, which included the Men's Quarters and the Officers' Quarters, opened in 2011. The fort also features a horse stable, a guard room with jail cells, and an ice house which was completed in the summer of 2015.
The replica fort was constructed beside the site of the original fort to preserve the original site's archaeological integrity. The city has placed eight wooden markers to show the position of the original fort: one marker is at each of the four corners where the wall once stood, and two sets of markers indicate the positions of the original east and west gates (which provided access to the settlement and to the river respectively).
The historical society hosts a two-day event called "The Peoples of the North Saskatchewan" every May, which educates students about Métis and settler cultures. A flock of sheep are kept at the Heritage Precinct every summer to maintain the grass, and members of the public are allowed to interact with them. The city's mascot is a sheep mascot named Auggie, which is a reference to the North West Company's Fort Augustus which was located nearby.
Fort Saskatchewan is served by a public library located in the same building as City Hall. The city is also home to a local theatre group, called The Sheeptown Players Drama Society, which regularly performs throughout the community.
## Sports
The Pyramid Corp. Hawks of the Capital Junior Hockey League play out of the Jubilee Recreation Centre. The Fort Saskatchewan Traders, of the Alberta Junior Hockey League, relocated to St. Albert in 2007, and renamed the St. Albert Steel.
Fort Saskatchewan is home to the Heartland Roller Derby Association, a flat-track roller-derby league formed in 2016. There are youth sports associations for hockey, soccer (indoor and outdoor), baseball, ringette, indoor lacrosse, and figure skating, and sports associations for cross-country skiing and swimming.
## Infrastructure
### Emergency services
#### Policing
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police's K Division maintains a detachment which serves Fort Saskatchewan and the surrounding region. In 2015, the detachment moved into a new 5,100 m<sup>2</sup> (55,000 sq ft) station, which also houses the city's protective services and municipal enforcement personnel. A local police official predicted that the new location, which provides direct access to Highway 21 (Veterans Way), would allow officers to cut emergency response times by 60–90 seconds. The station features a boardroom that local organizations are able to use. The Families First Society, a local not-for-profit resource centre for families, parents, and children, moved into the old police station in April 2016.
#### Fire department
The Fire Department (est. 1906), based at the Walter Thomas Fire Station, is staffed by 14 full-time firefighters who are supported by part time firefighters and three full-time administrative staff. The full-time firefighters rotate between a 10-hour day shift and a 14-hour night shift.
The full-time staffing model was introduced in early 2020. Prior to its introduction, the fire station was vacant every evening, and paid on-call volunteers would have to travel to the station before they could respond to an emergency. The introduction of full-time staff has reduced response times from up to 15 minutes, to a standard of 105 seconds in 2019. New sleeping quarters were constructed at the fire station to accommodate the full-time staff.
The city purchased property for a second fire station in 2017, reflecting the increase in call volumes coming from its newer neighbourhoods.
Fort Saskatchewan was also home to Canada's longest serving firefighter: Walter Thomas (1922–2017). Walter joined the department on May 1, 1947, and served until May 2017, a few months before he died. Walter's last position in the department was as its official historian.
### Public health
`Fort Saskatchewan has one hospital — the 38-bed Fort Saskatchewan Community Hospital. It opened in 2012 to replace the city's aging health centre. It is attached to a new health facility that provides home care, mental health, rehabilitation, community health, and child and family services.`
The city also has a 58-bed, publicly operated, supportive-living seniors lodge, called Dr. Turner Lodge. Southfort Bend, a privately operated facility, also has supportive living for seniors. The lone assisted-living facility in Fort Saskatchewan, the Rivercrest Care Centre, is also home to a hospice.
Fort Air Partnership (FAP) monitors the air quality of the 4,500-square-kilometre (1,700 sq mi) airshed located immediately north and east of Edmonton. FAP maintains 10 continuous monitoring stations — three of which are located in Fort Saskatchewan — and 47 passive monitoring stations.
### Public transit
Fort Sask Transit (FST) operates two daily routes, which mostly traverse the same parts of the city but go in opposite directions. To help facilitate regional travel, Edmonton Transit Service is contracted by Fort Saskatchewan to provide peak-hour service between Fort Saskatchewan and the Clareview Transit Centre in Edmonton. All three routes converge at the FST park and ride, and at a North Transfer Station on 99th Ave. All of FST's buses are accessible to riders with mobility issues, and the Special Transportation Service Society, a volunteer service operated by the Fort Saskatchewan Lions Club, offers a specialized minivan service for people who cannot use regular transit options because of physical disabilities.
Fort Saskatchewan is a member of the Edmonton Metropolitan Transit Services Commission, which will begin service in mid-2022.
### Utilities
Fort Saskatchewan's water is supplied by the Capital Region Northeast Water Services Commission. The commission purchases water from the Edmonton-based utilities company EPCOR, which supplies treated water from the North Saskatchewan River. Waste water is treated at a facility in Strathcona County, which is owned by the Alberta Capital Region Wastewater Commission. EPCOR provides the Regulated Retail Offering for electricity in Fort Saskatchewan, and the wire service (distribution and transmission) is provided by Fortis Alberta. Direct Energy Regulated Services provides regulated natural gas to the city, and its distribution is provided by ATCO.
### Waste management
Fort Saskatchewan's residents separate their household waste into three categories: organic waste is put into green bins, garbage is picked up in black bins, and recycling is collected in blue bags. The three-stream system was introduced in June 2018, after a successful pilot program. Garbage is collected bi-weekly, organics are collected weekly or bi-weekly depending on the time of year, and recycling is collected weekly. Blue bins were used for recycling in the pilot program, but the city reverted to blue bags when launching the new waste system city-wide. This was because objects could get jammed in the blue bins, and crews could not easily tell if the loads inside blue bins were contaminated like they could with blue bags. Prior to the introduction of this system, the municipality contracted out collection of garbage and recycling only; recycling was collected in blue bags, but garbage cans were not regulated by the city.
## Government
Fort Saskatchewan is directly governed by a city council consisting of one mayor and six councillors. Municipal elections, which are non-partisan, occur every four years on the third Monday in October. The last election was held on October 18, 2021, where Gale Katchur was re-elected for a fourth term as Mayor; becoming the longest-serving Mayor in Fort Saskatchewan's history. The mayor is elected separately from the councilors, who are elected at-large (as opposed to the ward system).
At the provincial level of government, Fort Saskatchewan is part of the Fort Saskatchewan-Vegreville riding, which has been represented by Jackie Armstrong-Homeniuk (United Conservative Party) since 2019.
At the federal level, Fort Saskatchewan is part of the Sherwood Park—Fort Saskatchewan riding and is represented by Garnett Genuis (Conservative Party of Canada).
## Education
Fort Saskatchewan has no post-secondary schools that are open to the public, but its corrections centre partners with NorQuest College to provide academic upgrading, personal development courses, and employment training courses to inmates. Most residents of Fort Saskatchewan commute or move to Edmonton to attend post-secondary classes at the University of Alberta, MacEwan University, or NAIT.
Fort Saskatchewan's schools are governed by two different school boards – Elk Island Public Schools and Elk Island Catholic Schools. Both school boards have their head offices located in Sherwood Park. Fort Saskatchewan's elected trustees on the EIPS board are Heather Wall and Harvey Stadnick. Al Stewart is the lone Fort Saskatchewan trustee on the EICS board.
## Media
Fort Saskatchewan has two local newspapers. The Fort Saskatchewan Record (The Fort Record) is a weekly home-delivered newspaper published on Thursdays. It took over the offices and plant of The Conservator, the previous weekly newspaper, and was first published on Wednesday, April 5, 1922. The Sturgeon Creek Post, established in 1996, is a weekly newspaper published on Wednesdays that is available at local businesses and newsstands. The Edmonton Journal and the Edmonton Sun are also distributed in the community.
Fort Saskatchewan has one local radio station that broadcasts live on air. It is branded Mix 107.9 FM, and owned by Kenner Media Ltd. Fort Saskatchewan had an internet radio station named FortRadio.com, which came online in November 2010.
## See also
- List of communities in Alberta
|
3,742,552 |
Littlefield Fountain
| 1,104,213,257 |
Fountain and sculpture in Austin, Texas, U.S.
|
[
"1933 establishments in Texas",
"1933 sculptures",
"Bronze sculptures in Texas",
"Buildings and structures in Austin, Texas",
"Fountains in Texas",
"Horses in art",
"Outdoor sculptures in Austin, Texas",
"Sculptures by Pompeo Coppini",
"Sculptures of women in Texas",
"Statues in Austin, Texas",
"University of Texas at Austin campus",
"World War I memorials in the United States"
] |
Littlefield Fountain (also known as the Littlefield Memorial Gateway) is a World War I memorial monument designed by Italian-born sculptor Pompeo Coppini on the main campus of the University of Texas at Austin in Austin, Texas, at the entrance to the university's South Mall. Completed in 1933, the monument is named after university regent and benefactor George W. Littlefield, whose donation paid for its design and construction.
## History
In 1916 Major George W. Littlefield, a former regent of the University of Texas at Austin and major benefactor to its development, proposed the construction of a memorial arch over the university's southern entrance that would honor the Confederate dead from the Civil War. In 1919 Littlefield contacted San Antonio-based Italian-born sculptor Pompeo Coppini, requesting a design that would include images of notable figures from the history of Texas and the American South, and proposing to fund the project with a donation of \$200,000 ().
Coppini developed a design featuring a 40-foot (12 m) blind arch framing statues of six Confederate figures behind a pool and fountains, but he warned Littlefield that the project would require a larger budget, even after Littlefield agreed to increase his donation to \$250,000. On April 15, 1920, Coppini presented university officials with a new, cheaper design that eliminated the arch and expanded the fountain pool to hold a large allegorical sculpture. Coppini also persuaded Littlefield to dedicate the monument to the students and alumni who had died in the Great War (now known as World War I), arguing that a Confederate memorial would only prolong the lingering resentments from the Civil War.
Littlefield died in November 1920, and Coppini spent most of the next decade developing the sculptures that he intended for the memorial. The project was impeded by cost overruns and delays, including a labor strike by Coppini's bronze workers. The six human figures were completed in 1925 and temporarily displayed in the Texas State Capitol, and the central sculpture was completed in 1928. Construction of the fountain was begun in the fall of 1932, with its plan somewhat altered by campus architect Paul Philippe Cret and the six statues relocated to the adjoining South Mall. The memorial was dedicated on April 29, 1933, and the water was turned on that March.
### Statue and inscription controversy and removals
The Littlefield Fountain's function as a memorial to the Confederacy drew criticism even when it was first proposed in the early twentieth century. After the fountain's installation, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the fountain attracted controversy, as did a dedication inscribed on a wall along the west edge of the fountain complex, which honored the Confederate cause along with American participation in World War I. In 2004 university President Larry Faulkner wrote a letter recommending that the six Coppini statues be moved up to the edges of the fountain and supplemented by a plaque that would explain the symbolism intended by the artist and provide historical context for the figures, but no such steps were taken during his tenure.
Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In March 2015 UT's student government passed a resolution calling for the removal of Coppini's statue of Jefferson Davis from the South Mall. That August the university removed the statues of both Davis and Woodrow Wilson from the Mall and placed them in storage, despite a lawsuit from the Texas Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, which failed to persuade the Texas Supreme Court to block the plan. Davis' statue was later relocated to the university's Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, where it has been displayed since 2017.
In July 2016 the university removed the stone panels bearing the dedication inscription from the fountain complex and stored them, possibly for future display at the Briscoe Center. On August 20, 2017, in the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, the university removed the remaining four Coppini statues of Confederate notables from the South Mall.
## Design
The memorial consists of a fountain set in a three-tiered semicircular granite pool, with a large bronze sculpture rising above the water, backed by a limestone wall. Two rows of fountain nozzles run from front to back in the top tier along the sides of the central sculpture, spraying diagonal jets of water onto the sculpture's base.
The sculpture depicts the prow of a ship emerging from the stone wall behind it, with an eagle perched on its tip. The ship bears the winged figure of Columbia, who holds two raised torches and is flanked by the figures of a soldier and a sailor. Ahead of the ship are three hippocamps, partially submerged in the pool, two of which are mounted by mermen. The group represents American armed forces sailing overseas to defend democracy in the Great War, surrounded by symbols of American strength and unity.
The limestone wall behind the fountain bears two bronze plaques. One is inscribed "THESE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS GAVE THEIR LIVES TO THEIR COUNTRY IN THE WORLD WAR," followed by two columns of names listing all UT students and alumni killed in the Great War; the other reads "BREVIS A NATVRA NOBIS VITA DATA EST AT MEMORIA BENE REDDITAE VITAE SEMPITERNA" (Latin: "A short life hath been given by Nature unto man; but the remembrance of a life laid down in a good cause endureth forever").
### Changes to Coppini's design
In Coppini's original design, the fountain was to be backed by a pair of 37-foot (11 m) stone obelisks, representing the Confederacy and the Union. In front of the Confederacy's pylon he intended to place a statue of Jefferson Davis, faced on the Union's side by one of Woodrow Wilson. Coppini meant to present the men as two "war presidents," one governing the Confederacy through the Civil War, the other leading America through the Great War, with their juxtaposition symbolizing the reunification of the United States after the divisions of the Civil War. Littlefield also selected Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Albert Sidney Johnston, Confederate postmaster general John Reagan, and Texas governor Jim Hogg to be depicted in bronze statues which would flank the fountain, representing historical figures of Texas and the South.
However, in the late 1920s the university regents decided to remove the obelisks from the plan, in part to reduce the memorial's cost (which had overrun Littlefield's donation), and in part to preserve the view of the university's Main Building along the South Mall. In 1930 the university's campus architect, Paul Philippe Cret, decided that the six bronze statues Coppini had meant to surround the fountain would instead be installed at various points along the South Mall, asserting that the figures would appear too crowded in the small space around the memorial. These alterations were vehemently opposed by Coppini, who felt that the omission of the obelisks ruined the symbolism he had intended, and that the disarrangement of the statues reduced them to mere decorations.
|
34,446,347 |
Winifred Lamb
| 1,156,241,043 |
British art historian
|
[
"1894 births",
"1963 deaths",
"20th-century British archaeologists",
"Alumni of Newnham College, Cambridge",
"Archaeologists of the Bronze Age Aegean",
"Archaeology of Greece",
"Archaeology of Turkey",
"BBC people",
"British art historians",
"British curators",
"British intelligence operatives",
"British women archaeologists",
"British women curators",
"British women historians",
"Classical archaeologists",
"Women art historians",
"Women classical scholars"
] |
Winifred Lamb (3 November 1894 – 16 September 1963) was a British archaeologist, art historian, and museum curator who specialised in Greek, Roman, and Anatolian cultures and artefacts. The bulk of her career was spent as the honorary keeper (curator) of Greek antiquities at the University of Cambridge's Fitzwilliam Museum from 1920 to 1958, and the Fitzwilliam Museum states that she was a "generous benefactor ... raising the profile of the collections through groundbreaking research, acquisitions and publications."
She directed archaeological excavations in Greece and Turkey; was a founding member of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara; and was the author of numerous books on Greek and Roman antiquities, including the 1929 publication Greek and Roman Bronzes, which was standard reading for studies on the subject.
## Early life and education
Lamb was born on 3 November 1894 at Holly Lodge, Campden Hill, London. She was the daughter of Edmund Lamb, who was a Member of Parliament from 1906 to 1910, and Mabel Lamb (née Winkworth), an alumna of Newnham College, Cambridge, who was active in the promotion of women's university education and women's suffrage. Lamb was educated at home by governesses and tutors, and from 1913 to 1917 attended Newnham College, Cambridge, studying Classics with a specialisation in Classical Archaeology, and earning first-class marks (although at this point women could not receive degrees from Cambridge). While a student she participated in archaeological fieldwork at prehistoric sites near Cambridge led by Thomas McKenny Hughes; she was also active in politics, attending meetings of the Union of Democratic Control.
## Intelligence work during World War I
After completing her studies in the summer of 1917, Lamb worked in a hospital for soldiers. In January 1918, she joined 'Room 40', the cryptanalysis section of the British Naval Intelligence Department, where she probably worked on the decipherment of coded messages sent to German submarines, leaving after the end of the war, in December 1918. It was here that Lamb met John Beazley, a renowned archaeologist also working in British Intelligence, who encouraged her in her research. During this time she also attended sales of antiquities, publishing an article in the Journal of Hellenic Studies on a collection of vases she purchased in one sale, as well as carrying out some cataloguing work in the British Museum.
## Fitzwilliam Museum
Lamb began working at the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge in October 1918, at the invitation of Sydney Cockrell: her initial duties included writing labels for items on display. In 1920, she was appointed as Honorary Keeper (Curator) of Greek and Roman Antiquities at the Fitzwilliam; in this position, she arranged new displays (including the creation of displays focusing on prehistoric and Cycladic material), sorted and catalogued the collections, and enhanced them by acquiring new materials through purchases and donations, as well as donating numerous items herself (especially bronzes and pottery). Key publications from her work at the Fitzwilliam include a book on Greek and Roman bronze statues and two volumes of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum (corpus of ancient vases). Throughout her time at the Fitzwilliam, Lamb also worked as an archaeologist in Greece and later Turkey. By the time she retired from the role of Honorary Keeper in August 1958, she had become one of the museum's greatest benefactors of Greek and Roman antiquities.
## Excavations in Greece
Lamb first visited Greece in May 1920, briefly joining the excavations at Mycenae led by Alan Wace. She was admitted to the British School at Athens as a student for the academic year of 1920–1921, and spent the year visiting archaeological sites in Attica, the Peloponnese, and Crete, attending lectures in the British School and other archaeological schools, and working on the frescoes found at Mycenae. In May 1921 she joined the Mycenae excavation team and was made responsible for the excavation of the palace as well as for the publication of the frescoes. In the next excavation season, May–June 1922, Lamb was appointed as second-in-command of the dig, with particular responsibility for excavating the tombs near the settlement (including the tholos Tomb of Aegisthus) and co-authored many of the excavation reports with Wace.
Lamb next joined the British School's excavation at Sparta in spring 1924, and subsequently excavated with W.A. Heurtley in northern Greece, at the site Vardaroftsa near Thessaloniki in 1926 and at Sarátse in 1929. From 1928, she began looking for her own site to direct excavations; her work in northern Greece, with a focus on the links between the southern Balkans, the northern Aegean, and northwest Anatolia, led her to explore the island of Lesbos in the eastern Aegean. After a trial excavation at Methymna, where she found evidence of occupation from at least the seventh century BCE until the Roman period, she and her colleague Richard Wyatt Hutchinson identified prehistoric pottery at the site of Thermi. Lamb led excavations on this site from 1929 to 1933, largely funded at her own expense, discovering a series of prehistoric settlements. She visited the archaeological excavation of Troy in 1930 and 1932, which inspired further work, allowing her to associate Thermi towns IV and V with Troy IIa, and gave a lecture, expanding on these views, as part of the 1936 exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts on British Archaeological Discoveries in Greece and Crete 1886–1936. Lamb published her results from Thermi as a book in 1936 – for which she was awarded a Doctor of Science degree from Cambridge in 1940, examined by V. Gordon Childe and Carl Blegen – and provided a selection of finds from the dig to the Fitzwilliam Museum's prehistoric gallery. She subsequently conducted excavations at Antissa (1931–33; also on Lesbos), where she discovered prehistoric, archaic, classical, and Hellenistic settlements and burials, and at the archaic sanctuary of Apollo Phanaios at Kato Phano on Chios (1934).
## Excavations in Turkey
Lamb's archaeological work on Lesbos had focused on links between Thermi and Troy; after this, she turned her attention to ancient Anatolia (modern Turkey), following in the footsteps of other women archaeologists, including Gertrude Bell, Margaret Hardie, and Dorothy Lamb (no relation), who had excavated there before the war. Lamb selected the site of Kusura, conducting a trial excavation in 1935 with Elinor W. Gardner and full excavations in 1936 and 1937 with James Rivers Barrington Stewart, Eleanor Mary Barrington Stewart, Rachel Maxwell-Hyslop, R.H. Macartney, and Nine Six; as well as excavating the cemetery, finds included a cult site and pottery relating to Troy VI. Lamb presented her findings in a lecture to the Society of Antiquaries in London on 'Recent developments in the prehistory of Anatolia' in 1937, pointing out Kusura's location on a major Bronze Age route between central Anatolia and the Aegean. A second lecture to the Society of Antiquaries in 1938 similarly emphasized Kusura's relationships with both of these areas. Lamb also published the Anatolian material held by the Fitzwilliam Museum. She felt that more excavation was required in Anatolia, but her work was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II.
Lamb was a founding member of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, whose creation was initiated in 1946 by John Garstang, and served as its honorary secretary from its formal opening in 1948 until 1957, when she resigned from this role and took on the position of vice president. Her work for the BIAA included a programme for the BBC on the Institute and Turkish archaeology, broadcast shortly after the BIAA's creation in 1948; a review of the development of Anatolian archaeology, especially work published in Turkish and German; and a project on the cultures of north-eastern Anatolia in the third millennium BCE, conducted at Erzerum and Trabzon in 1952 and published in 1954.
## BBC work during World War II
In late 1941 Lamb joined the BBC's European Intelligence Unit as a Greek language supervisor, and was probably responsible for an intelligence report of 17 November 1941 relating to BBC broadcasts to Greece and the Greek resistance to the German occupation. In January 1942 she transferred to the Near Eastern Department's Turkish section, where she continued to work until 1946: her responsibilities included preparing bi-monthly intelligence reports on Turkish radio services and newspapers, and briefing Turkish journalists based in London; she also worked on reports relating to Iran and Arabic-speaking countries. In October 1944 Lamb was seriously injured when a V2 rocket hit her lodgings in north London and required a long period of recuperation, returning to work in late April 1945; following the end of the war she resigned from the BBC in February 1946.
## Later life
Lamb retired from her post at the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1958, having become one of the museum's greatest benefactors of Greek and Roman antiquities. She continued to be involved with the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, but from 1959 her health deteriorated, often preventing her from attending meetings of the institute. She died of a stroke on 16 September 1963 in the Cottage Hospital at Easebourne.
## Selected publications
### Books
- Greek and Roman Bronzes (Argonaut, 1929)
- Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum: Great Britain. Cambridge – Fitzwilliam Museum I & II (Oxford University Press, 1930 & 1936)
- Excavations at Thermi in Lesbos (Cambridge University Press, 1936)
### Articles
- 'Some Vases from the Hope Collection', Journal of Hellenic Studies 38 (1918), pp. 27–36
- 'Excavations at Mycenae III: The Frescoes from the Ramp House', Annual of the British School at Athens 24 (1921), pp. 189–99
- 'Excavations at Mycenae § VIII.—The Palace, Annual of the British School at Athens 25 (1923), pp. 147–282 (with A. Wace & L. Holland)
- 'Stamped Pithos Fragments in the Collection of the British School', Annual of the British School at Athens 26 (1925), pp. 72–77
- 'Arcadian Bronze Statuettes', Annual of the British School at Athens 27 (1926), pp. 133–48
- 'Excavations at Sparta, 1906–1910: 6. Notes on some Bronzes from the Orthia Site' ,Annual of the British School at Athens 28 (1927), pp. 96–106
- 'Excavations at Sparta, 1927: 5. Bronzes from the Acropolis, 1924–1927', Annual of the British School at Athens 28 (1927), pp. 82–95
- 'Excavations at Thermi on Lesbos', Annual of the British School at Athens 30 (1930), pp. 1–52 (with R.W. Hutchinson)
- 'Excavations at Thermi', Annual of the British School at Athens 31 (1931), pp. 148–65 (with J.K. Brock)
- 'Antissa', Annual of the British School at Athens 31 (1931), pp. 166–178
- 'Antissa', Annual of the British School at Athens 32 (1932), pp. 41–67
- 'Grey Wares from Lesbos', Journal of Hellenic Studies 52 (1932), pp. 1–12
- 'Schliemann's Prehistoric Sites in the Troad', Prähistorische Zeitschrift 23 (1932), pp. 111–31
- 'The Site of Troy', Antiquity 6:21 (1932), pp. 71–81
- 'Excavations at Kato Phana in Chios', Annual of the British School at Athens 35 (1935), pp. 138–64
- 'Excavations at Kusura near Afyon Karahisar', Archaeologia 86 (1937), pp. 1–64
- 'Excavations at Kusura near Afyon Karahisar II', Archaeologia 87 (1938), pp. 217–273
- 'Report on the Lesbos Charcoals', Annual of the British School at Athens 39 (1939), pp. 88–89 (with H. Bancroft)
- 'Sigillata from Lesbos', Journal of Hellenic Studies 60 (1940), pp. 96–98 (with F.N. Pryce)
- 'New Developments in Early Anatolian Archaeology', IRAQ 11:2 (1949), pp. 188–293
- 'Face-Urns and Kindred Types in Anatolia', Annual of the British School at Athens 46 (1951), pp. 75–80
- 'The Culture of North-East Anatolia and its Neighbours', Anatolian Studies 4 (1954), pp. 21–32
- 'Some Early Anatolian Shrines', Anatolian Studies 6 (1956), pp. 87–94
|
71,270,570 |
HMS Sheldrake (1911)
| 1,145,948,916 |
Destroyer of the Royal Navy
|
[
"1911 ships",
"Acorn-class destroyers",
"Ships built on the River Clyde",
"World War I destroyers of the United Kingdom"
] |
HMS Sheldrake was one of 20 Acorn-class (later H-class) destroyers built for the Royal Navy. The destroyer served in the First World War. The Acorn class were smaller than the preceding Beagle class but oil-fired and better armed. Launched in 1910, Sheldrake served with the Second Destroyer Flotilla of the Grand Fleet as an escort, transferring to Malta to serve with the Fifth Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Mediterranean Fleet in 1916. The ship once again served as an escort, protecting ships from submarines and mines, including the troopship Ivernia, as well as unsuccessfully attempting to rescue the sloop Nasturtium. After the Armistice, the destroyer was reduced to reserve before being sold to be broken up in 1921.
## Design and description
After the preceding coal-burning Beagle class, the Acorn-class destroyers saw a return to oil-firing. Pioneered by the Tribal class of 1905 and HMS Swift of 1907, using oil enabled a more efficient design, leading to a smaller vessel which also had increased deck space available for weaponry. Unlike previous destroyer designs, where the individual yards had been given discretion within the parameters set by the Admiralty, the Acorn class were a set, with the propulsion machinery the only major variation between the different ships. This enabled costs to be reduced. The class was later renamed H class.
Sheldrake was 240 feet (73 metres) long between perpendiculars and 246 ft (75 m) overall, with a beam of 25 ft 5 in (7.7 m) and a deep draught of 8 ft 6 in (2.6 m). Displacement was 748 long tons (838 short tons; 760 tonnes) normal and 855 long tons (958 short tons; 869 t) full load. Power was provided by Parsons steam turbines, fed by four Yarrow boilers. Parsons supplied a complex of seven turbines, a high-pressure and two low pressure for high speed, two turbines for cruising and two for running astern, driving three shafts. The high-pressure turbine drove the centre shaft, the remainder being distributed amongst two wing-shafts. Three funnels were fitted, the foremost tall and thin, the central short and thick and the aft narrow. The engines were rated at 13,500 shaft horsepower (10,100 kW) and design speed was 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). On trial, Sheldrake achieved 28.3 knots (52.4 km/h; 32.6 mph). The vessel carried 170 long tons (170 t) of fuel oil which gave a range of 1,540 nautical miles (2,850 km; 1,770 mi) at a cruising speed of 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph).
The armament consisted of a single BL 4 in (102 mm) Mk VIII gun carried on the forecastle and another aft. Two single QF 12-pounder 3 in (76 mm) guns were mounted between the first two funnels. Two rotating 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes were mounted aft of the funnels, with two reloads carried, and a searchlight fitted between the tubes. The destroyer was later modified to carry a single Vickers QF 3-pounder 2 in (47 mm) anti-aircraft gun and depth charges for anti-submarine warfare. The ship's complement was 72 officers and ratings.
## Construction and career
The 20 destroyers of the Acorn class were ordered by the Admiralty under the 1909–1910 Naval Programme on 8 September 1909. Sheldrake was laid down at the Dumbarton shipyard of William Denny and Brothers with the yard number 918 on 15 January 1910, launched on 18 January 1911 and completed on 19 May 1911. The ship was the sixth in Royal Navy service to be named after the sheldrake, an alternative name for the shelduck, which had been first used in 1806. On commissioning, the vessel joined the Second Destroyer Flotilla.
After the British Empire declared war on Germany at the beginning of the First World War in August 1914, the Flotilla became part of the Grand Fleet. Between 13 and 15 October, the Flotilla supported the battleships of the Grand Fleet in a practice cruise. Soon afterwards, the destroyers were deployed to Devonport to undertake escort and patrol duties, protecting merchant ships against German submarines. During December 1915, Sheldrake was posted to the Royal Navy base in Malta to operate under Rear Admiral Arthur Limpus. The destroyer escorted a troopship taking soldiers and materiel from Britain, arriving in January 1916.
Sheldrake was assigned to the Fifth Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Mediterranean Fleet. On 23 March 1916, the destroyer rescued 166 crew members and the sole passenger from the horse fodder transport Minneapolis that had been sunk by the German submarine U-35. On 27 April, Sheldrake attempted to tow the sloop HMS Nasturtium, stricken after hitting a mine. However, the poor weather and sloop's increasing list meant that the operation was unsuccessful and the ship sank the following day. For the remainder of the war, the destroyer saw service, frequently escorting troopships including Ivernia, which sailed with 2,500 troops from Alexandria to Marseilles, on 26 and 27 June, protecting them from submarines and mines. Sometimes simply having an escort was sufficient to deter attack. On 2 June 1917, the ship was escorting the transport Minnetonka when U-35 approached, but could not get close enough to launch an attack due to the presence of the destroyer. On 20 January 1918, Sheldrake was attached to the Aegean Squadron, undertaking patrols as well as escort work.
After the Armistice, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength and both the number of ships and the amount of personnel needed to be reduced to save money. Sheldrake joined 57 other destroyers in reserve at the Nore. The vessel was sold to Thos. W. Ward to the broken up at Grays, Essex, on 9 May 1921.
## Pennant numbers
|
8,982,496 |
To Ramona
| 1,172,419,646 | null |
[
"1964 songs",
"Bob Dylan songs",
"Song recordings produced by Tom Wilson (record producer)",
"Songs written by Bob Dylan"
] |
"To Ramona" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, first released on his fourth studio album, Another Side of Bob Dylan (1964). The song was written by Dylan, and produced by Tom Wilson. The lyrics were started at the May Fair Hotel in London in May 1964, and finished during a week-long stay in the Greek village of Vernilya later that month. Dylan recorded all the tracks for the album, including the song, in a single three-hour session on June 9, 1964, at Studio A, Columbia Recording Studios, New York. Its narrator advises Ramona, who is preparing to return to "the South", not to follow the advice of others. Critics have suggested several different people as inspirations for the song, including Joan Baez, Suze Rotolo, and Sara Lownds.
The song has received a positive critical response, and several assessments have ranked it as one of Dylan's 100 best. "To Ramona" was the B-side to "If You Gotta Go, Go Now" on a single issued in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg in 1967, and has since been included on some of Dylan's compilation albums. Several live versions have been officially released, including the first live performance, at the 1964 Newport Folk Festival, and the Isle of Wight Festival 1969 version by Dylan and the Band.
## Background and recording
The lyrics of "To Ramona" were started by Bob Dylan at the May Fair Hotel in London in May 1964, and finished during a week-long stay in the Greek village of Vernilya later that month; at least seven other songs, including "It Ain't Me Babe" and "All I Really Want to Do", were completed during the same visit. Some of the song's lyrics were originally in Dylan's draft for the humorous "I Shall Be Free No. 10", another song completed in Vernilya.
On June 9, 1964, at Studio A, Columbia Recording Studios, New York, Dylan recorded 14 songs between 7:00 pm and 10:00 pm, 11 of which were chosen for his fourth studio album Another Side of Bob Dylan. Tom Wilson was the producer for all of the tracks. "To Ramona", the third of the songs in the session, was recorded in a single take. It was released as the sixth track and the last on side one, of Another Side of Bob Dylan on August 8, 1964. Musically, the song is similar to Rex Griffin's 1937 song "The Last Letter". The album version of "To Ramona" is Dylan's first song in a folk waltz style.
## Lyrical interpretation
The song's narrator advises Ramona, who is preparing to return to "the South", not to follow the advice of others. It ends with the narrator admitting the ineffectiveness of his advice, and acknowledging that his and Ramona's position may later be reversed: "someday maybe/ Who knows, baby/ I'll come and be cryin' to you".
In the liner notes to his compilation album Biograph (1985), Dylan remarked of the song: "Well, that's pretty literal. That was just somebody I knew." In her autobiography And a Voice to Sing With (1987), singer Joan Baez wrote that Dylan sometimes called her "Ramona". Note that "Ramona" is also a novel set in Southern California (near Temecula, San Diego County) by Helen Hunt Jackson. The Ramona in that novel was the daughter of Scottish/Native American parents. Joan Baez's mother was Scottish and her father Mexican. Authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon, whilst acknowledging that there are substantial differences between Baez and the Ramona described in the song, argue that Dylan may indeed refer to her, citing lines that can be interpreted as relevant to her activism, for example:
> > But it grieves my heart, love To see you tryin' to be a part of A world that just don't exist It's all just a dream, babe A vacuum, a scheme, babe That sucks you into feelin' like this
Commentators including Andy Gill, Oliver Trager, and Nigel Williamson have interpreted the song as inspired by Dylan's breakup with Suze Rotolo. Clinton Heylin speculates that Sara Lownds may have been the subject or target for the song. Scholar Timothy Hampton wrote that "To Ramona" "reverses the formulas of such songs as 'Don't Think Twice', with Dylan's persona now no longer the wanderer but a counselor". According to Dylan biographer Robert Shelton, the song is "A gentle lecture mixed with sexual longing that urges the woman to fight for her own identity." Trager, similarly, feels that the song contains both "advice to a wounded woman whose fate disturbs" the narrator, and "sexual longing". John Nogowski sees it as "a standard love song", and Spencer Leigh calls it a "beautiful love song". Jim Beviglia writes that the track could be "a dig at Baez" and her activism, and suggested that the narrator may not be fully sincere in their advice to Ramona, as they express a desire to kiss her "cracked country lips".
## Reception
Heylin describes the track as "a particularly fine portrait of a woman whose friends betray her with her words or advice". Tom Pinnock of Uncut praised the lyrics and Dylan's vocal performance, but added that Dylan's playing is somewhat clumsy in places, and "the higher strings of his acoustic are audibly out of tune". He awarded three stars out of a maximum five for the song. Nogowski gave the song a "B" rating. Trager praises the "vivid imagery" used by Dylan.
Williamson includes the song amongst Dylan's 51 best, and describes it as "one of the most tender songs Dylan has ever written". Beviglia rates the song at number 67 in his 2013 ranking of Dylan's 100 best songs. Rolling Stone placed the track 70th in their 2015 ranking of the 100 greatest Dylan songs. A 2021 article in The Guardian included it on a list of "80 Bob Dylan songs everyone should know".
Singer-songwriter Ralph McTell remarks of "To Ramona" and Dylan's "Love Minus Zero/No Limit" that they "are tangential. One thought doesn't unwrap the next. It's like each line is the first line of a new song. The lines are so great and yet he throws them away in a declamatory way." Another singer-songwriter, Loudon Wainwright III, named "To Ramona" as his favorite Dylan song.
## Live performances and later releases
According to his official website, Dylan has performed the song 381 times in concert since July 26, 1964; as of September 2022, the most recent performance was on June 14, 2017. The first concert performance was at the 1964 Newport Folk Festival. A 1965 live performance recorded at Sheffield City Hall was included on Live 1961–2000: Thirty-Nine Years of Great Concert Performances (2001), and a concert performance from Philharmonic Hall in 1964 was on The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall (2004). The Isle of Wight Festival 1969 version by Dylan and the Band was released as part of The Bootleg Series Vol. 10: Another Self Portrait (1969–1971) (2013). The 1964 Newport Folk Festival performance appeared on Live 1962–1966 – Rare Performances From The Copyright Collections in 2018. In 2021, a rehearsal version from 1980 was issued on The Bootleg Series Vol. 16: Springtime in New York 1980–1985.
Dylan is known for making significant changes from the album versions when performing songs live. In a positive review for The New York Observer of a 2017 Dylan concert, Tim Sommer remarked that "To Ramona" was one of several of his older songs "re-envisioned almost to the point of non-recognition".
After its initial release on Another Side of Bob Dylan, the track was released as the B-side to "If You Gotta Go, Go Now" in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg in 1967. It was also included on the compilation album Biograph in 1985. A mono version was included on The Original Mono Recordings (2010).
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the Bob Dylan All the Songs: The Story Behind Every Track book.
Musician
- Bob Dylan – vocals, rhythm guitar, harmonica
Technical personnel
- Tom Wilson – producer
- Roy Halee and Fred Catero – sound engineering
|
12,498,738 |
Artabanes
| 1,064,138,357 |
Byzantine general
|
[
"6th-century Armenian people",
"6th-century Byzantine people",
"6th-century births",
"Armenian nobility",
"Byzantine Sicily",
"Byzantine generals",
"Byzantine people of Armenian descent",
"Byzantine people of Iranian descent",
"Generals of Justinian I",
"Magistri militum",
"People of the Gothic War (535–554)",
"People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars",
"Year of death unknown"
] |
Artabanes (Greek: Ἀρταβάνης, Armenian: Արտաւան Artawan, from Parthian Artawân, fl. 538–554) was an East Roman (Byzantine) general of Armenian origin who served under Justinian I (r. 527–565). Initially a rebel against Byzantine authority, he fled to the Sassanid Persians but soon returned to Byzantine allegiance. He served in Africa, where he won great fame by killing the rebel general Guntharic and restoring the province to imperial allegiance. He became engaged to Justinian's niece Praejecta, but did not marry her due to the opposition of the Empress Theodora. Recalled to Constantinople, he became involved in a failed conspiracy against Justinian in 548/549, but wasn't punished severely after its revelation. He was soon pardoned and sent to Italy to fight in the Gothic War, where he participated in the decisive Byzantine victory at Casilinum.
## Early life
Artabanes was a descendant of the royal Armenian Arsacid line, a branch of which at the time was recognized as autonomous local princes in the eastern fringes of the Eastern Roman Empire. His father was named John, and he had a brother also named John.
### Revolt against Byzantium
In 538/539, Artabanes, at the time apparently still a young man, took part in the Armenian conspiracy against Acacius, the proconsul of First Armenia, whose heavy taxes and cruel behaviour was greatly resented. Artabanes himself killed Acacius. Shortly after, in a skirmish between the rebels and the Byzantine army at Oenochalacon, Artabanes may have killed the Byzantine general Sittas, sent by Justinian to quell the rebellion (Procopius supplies two accounts, one attributing Sittas's death to Artabanes and another to an otherwise unknown Armenian named Solomon). Artabanes's father tried to negotiate a settlement with Sittas' successor, Bouzes, but was murdered by the latter. This act forced Artabanes and his followers to seek the aid of the Sassanid Persian ruler, Khosrau I (r. 531–579). Crossing over to Persian territory, over the next few years Artabanes and those who followed him took part in Khosrau's campaigns against the Byzantines.
## Service in Africa
At some time around 544, perhaps as early as 542, Artabanes, his brother John and several other Armenians deserted back to the Byzantines.
Along with his brother, Artabanes was placed in command of a small Armenian contingent and sent to Africa in spring 545 under the senator Areobindus. There, the Byzantines were engaged in a protracted war with the rebellious Moorish tribes. Shortly after their arrival, John died in battle at Sicca Veneria with the rebel forces of the renegade Stotzas. Artabanes and his men remained loyal to Areobindus during the rebellion of the dux Numidiae Guntharic in late 545. Guntharic, allied with the Moorish chieftain Antalas, marched on Carthage and seized the city gates. At the urging of Artabanes and others, Areobindus decided to confront the rebel. The two armies appeared evenly matched, until Areobindus took fright and fled to a monastery seeking sanctuary. Thereupon the troops loyal to him also fled, and the city fell to Guntharic.
Areobindus was murdered by Guntharic, but Artabanes secured guarantees of his safety and pledged himself to Guntharic's service. In secret, however, he began planning to overthrow him. Soon after, Artabanes was entrusted, alongside John and Ulitheus, with an expedition against Antalas's Moors. He marched south, along with an allied Moorish contingent under Cutzinas. Antalas's men fled before him, but Artabanes did not pursue them and turned back. According to Procopius, he considered leading his men to join the loyalist imperial garrison that held out at Hadrumetum under Marcentius, but decided to return to Carthage and go on with his plan to assassinate Guntharic. Artabanes kept his plan in absolute secrecy for a long time, confiding only with his two closest Armenian friends: even his Armenian unit of hand-picked and completely loyal veteran soldiers was not aware of it until the very last moment. Such a perfect concealment was achieved, not least thanks to the fact that during both planning and implementation stages of this assassination the communication between the exclusively Armenian conspirators was in their mother tongue, an incomprehensible language for other ethnic elements of the imperial army in Africa.
Upon his return to Carthage, he justified his decision to turn back by insisting that the entire army was needed to quell the insurgents, and urged Guntharic to set forth himself. At the same time, he conspired with his nephew, Gregory, and a few other of his Armenian bodyguards to murder the usurper (although Corippus suggests that it was the praetorian prefect Athanasius who was the real mastermind of the plot). On the eve of the army's departure in early May, Guntharic hosted a great banquet, and invited Artabanes and Athanasius to share the same couch, a mark of honour. Suddenly, during the banquet, Artabanes' Armenians fell upon Guntharic's bodyguards, while Artabanes himself allegedly landed the killing blow on Guntharic.
This deed won him great honour and fame: Praejecta, the widow of Areobindus and niece of Justinian, whom Guntharic was planning to marry, gave him a rich reward, while the emperor confirmed him as magister militum of Africa. Despite being already married to a relative of his, Artabanes eventually became engaged with Praejecta. He sent her back to Constantinople and himself asked from Justinian to be recalled from Africa, so that they could marry.
## Artabanes at Constantinople and the conspiracy against Justinian
Soon afterwards, Artabanes was indeed recalled to Constantinople, replaced in Africa by John Troglita. He received numerous honours from Justinian, and was named magister militum praesentalis, comes foederatorum and honorary consul. Despite these and his great popularity however, he was unable to achieve his ambition of marrying Praejecta: his wife came to the imperial capital and presented her case to the Empress Theodora. The Empress compelled Artabanes to retain his wife, and not until after Theodora's death in 548 was the Armenian general able to divorce himself. By then, however, Praejecta had already been remarried.
Irritated over this affair, shortly after Theodora's death (late 548/early 549) he became involved in the so-called "Armenian Plot" or "Conspiracy of Artabanes". The real instigator, however, was a relative of his, named Arsaces, who proposed to assassinate Justinian, and elevate Justinian's cousin Germanus on the throne instead. The conspirators thought Germanus amenable to their plans, since he had been dissatisfied with Justinian's meddling in the settling of the will of his recently deceased brother Boraides, which had initially named Germanus as the major beneficiary as opposed to the former's sole daughter. The conspirators approached Germanus's son Justin first, and revealed to him the plot. Immediately, he informed his father, and he in turn informed the comes excubitorum Marcellus. In order to find out more of their intentions, Germanus met the conspirators in person, while a trusted aide of Marcellus was concealed nearby and listened in. Although Marcellus hesitated to inform Justinian without further proof, eventually he revealed the conspiracy to the emperor. Justinian ordered the conspirators imprisoned and questioned, but they were otherwise treated remarkably leniently. Artabanes was stripped of his offices and confined to the palace under guard, but was soon pardoned.
## Service in Italy
In 550, Artabanes was appointed magister militum per Thracias and sent to replace the aged senator Liberius in command of an expedition under way against Sicily, which had recently been overrun by the Ostrogoth king Totila. Artabanes failed to catch up with the expedition before it sailed for Sicily, and his own fleet was driven back and scattered by severe storms in the Ionian Sea. Eventually he arrived in Sicily and took command of the Byzantine forces there. He besieged the Gothic garrisons left behind by Totila after he left the island and soon forced them to surrender. Over the next two years, he remained in Sicily. According to Procopius, the inhabitants of the mainland city of Croton, which was being besieged by the Goths, repeatedly sent to him for help, but he did nothing.
In 553, he crossed over into mainland Italy, where he joined the army of Narses as one of its generals. Facing the Frankish invasion in the summer of 553, Narses ordered Artabanes and other generals to occupy the passes of the Apennines and harass the enemy advance; after a Byzantine contingent was defeated at Parma, however, the other Byzantine generals withdrew to Faventia, until an envoy from Narses persuaded them to move up to the area of Parma again. In 554, Artabanes was stationed at Pisaurum with Byzantine and Hunnic troops. At Fanum, he ambushed and defeated the advance guard of the Frankish army of Leutharis, which was returning from a plundering expedition into southern Italy and heading back to Gaul. Most of the Franks fell, and in the confusion, the many captives escaped, taking much of the Franks' booty with them. Artabanes did not engage the main body of Leutharis' army however, since it far outnumbered his own force. He then marched south and joined Narses's main force, accompanying him in his campaign against the remaining Frankish army under Butilinus. At the decisive Byzantine victory in the Battle of Casilinum, along with Valerian, he commanded the cavalry in the Byzantine left flank. They were concealed in the woods, as part of Narses's stratagem to attack the Franks in the rear and encircle them. Nothing further is known of him after that.
|
1,548,222 |
Pilot (Will & Grace)
| 1,117,540,340 | null |
[
"1998 American television episodes",
"American television series premieres",
"Television episodes directed by James Burrows",
"Will & Grace episodes"
] |
"Pilot" (also known as "Love and Marriage") is the first episode of Will & Grace's first season. It was written by David Kohan and Max Mutchnick, and directed by James Burrows. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 21, 1998. In the episode, Grace Adler receives an unexpected marriage proposal from her boyfriend. Her gay best friend Will Truman tries to support her, but finally tells her that she is making a big mistake, even though he risks losing their friendship. The situation gets complicated when Grace's socialite assistant, Karen Walker, and Will's flamboyantly gay friend, Jack McFarland, interfere.
Kohan and Mutchnick based the show on their own lives; for example, Mutchnick, who is openly gay, based the relationship between Will and Grace on his real-life relationship with a woman named Janet. When the pilot was pitched to NBC, the network was positive about the project. There was still some concern, however, that the homosexual subject matter would cause alarm, since the sitcom Ellen was canceled because ratings had plummeted after the show became "too gay". Since airing, the pilot episode of Will & Grace has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8.6, equivalent to approximately 8.4 million viewing households.
## Plot
The episode begins with gay lawyer Will Truman (Eric McCormack) talking on the phone with his best friend, heterosexual Jewish interior designer Grace Adler (Debra Messing), about their lives. The following day, Will hosts a poker game at his apartment with his friends, when Grace arrives and informs Will she just had an argument with her long-term boyfriend, Danny. After the game is over, Will insists that Grace spend the night—much to the displeasure of Will's flamboyantly gay friend, Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes), who was planning to move in with Will temporarily.
Later at her office, Grace Adler Designs, Grace tells her socialite assistant Karen Walker (Megan Mullally) about her argument with Danny. Karen tells Grace to make up with him, explaining to Grace that Danny is a "good catch". After staying another night with Will, Grace decides to end her relationship with Danny. However, when she tries to end things she receives an unexpected marriage proposal from him, which she accepts. After the proposal, Grace goes to Will's apartment and asks for his blessing. Will attempts to be supportive of her decision, but finally tells her that Danny is not right for her. Grace informs Will that she does not need his blessing, and that she is going to marry Danny regardless.
Will shows up at Grace Adler Designs the following day to apologize. Karen reveals to Will that Grace has gone to City Hall to get married. However, Grace shows up at her office and informs Will that she left Danny at the altar. Will takes Grace out for a drink and reassures her that she will find someone eventually.
## Production
### Conception
Will & Grace creators Max Mutchnick and David Kohan based the show on their own lives. Mutchnick, who is openly gay, based the relationship between Will and Grace on his real-life relationship with a woman named Janet. Originally, Mutchnick and Kohan first went to the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), who told them to create a television series about a new young love story, as Mad About You was going off the air. The character of Will was part of a sitcom Mutchnick and Kohan first pitched to NBC executives in 1997. The original concept was an ensemble comedy featuring three couples, one of which was a gay man living with a straight woman. Warren Littlefield, the executive vice president of NBC at the time, was not excited about the first two couples, but wanted to learn more about the gay and straight couple, so Mutchnick and Kohan was sent to create a pilot script centering on those two characters. NBC went to sitcom director James Burrows to see what he thought of the homosexual subject matter and if an audience would be interested in the show. Burrows liked the idea and when he first read the script in November 1997, he decided that he wanted to direct it. Burrows said, "I knew that the boys had captured a genre and a group of characters I have never read before." The filming of the pilot began in March 1998. The actors who played Will and Grace, Eric McCormack and Debra Messing, were positive about the series and they thought it had the potential to last on television. McCormack said, "When shooting was finished that night, Debra and I were sitting on the couch and looking at each other and I said, ‘We’re gonna be on this set for a while.’ And we sort of clasped hands, but we didn’t want to say anything beyond that and jinx it."
NBC were positive about the project, but there was still some concern that the homosexual subject matter would cause alarm. Ellen DeGeneres' sitcom Ellen that aired on ABC was canceled the year before Will & Grace premiered because ratings had plummeted after the show became "too gay". Despite the criticism ABC received for DeGeneres' coming out episode, "The Puppy Episode", "there's no question that show made it easier for Will & Grace to make it on the air," said Kohan. He added, "Will & Grace had a better shot at succeeding where Ellen failed, however, because Will has known about his homosexuality for twenty years. He's not exploring that awkward territory for the first time as Ellen did. The process of self-discovery and the pain most gay men go through is fascinating, but the average American is put off by it." Kohan also commented that rather than concentrating on Will's sexuality, Will & Grace is using it as a device: "It's like that When Harry Met Sally... line when Billy Crystal says, 'A man and woman can never be friends, because sex always gets in the way.' What we want to explore is what happens between a man and a woman when sex doesn't get in the way."
### Cast and characters
Mutchnick said Will was originally going to be named Will Herman ("her man") because the staff wanted to use names that "speak exactly to the essence" of the characters. However, they changed it to Truman ("true man") since they thought it was more accurate, as Will "really lives his life in an honest way". John Barrowman was one of the final candidates for the role of Will, but was rejected because he "wasn't gay enough". The part instead went to Eric McCormack, who revealed that taking the role was not difficult because he liked the concept of a gay show not being about the "issues" of being gay. Having played gay characters several times in his career, McCormack did not have a problem with it and thought his character could become a "poster boy for some gay movement", like DeGeneres became a spokesperson with her character. He explained that when he first read the script, "what hit me immediately was that this was me. I mean, sexual orientation aside, Will was so much like me. He's a great host, he's relatively funny and he has great friends and he's a good friend to them ... the gay issue just wasn't really a big thing." McCormack was also the first actor to be cast. In response to the relationship between Will and Grace, McCormak said that gay men and straight women have "more fun than anybody" in their relationships; "Straight guys like me are jealous because of how much fun they have. We can show the audience part of that."
Mutchnick, in regards of Debra Messing's character, said: "Grace doesn't fall into any of those categories that have stereotyped Jewish women. She's strong, she's pretty and she's a proud Jewish woman." Mutchnick revealed that Nicollette Sheridan was originally brought in to read the part of Grace, but even though she did a "great job", her performance was "too desperate". Mutchnick and Kohan decided to cast Messing in the role instead, who at the time was starring in ABC's drama Prey. After her first meeting with them, Messing was not convinced she wanted the role. Messing revealed that Mutchnick and Kohan showed up at her home with a bottle of vodka; "They poured me several shots, we spoke for several hours and they pitched me the show. I'm a lightweight. I didn't need much to be a little giddy. By the end of the evening, they said, 'Will you do it?' I said, 'Let's talk tomorrow.'" They called her the next day to inform her that they "loved her" and asked "if she'd made up her mind". Messing still did not make her mind up. However, the following day, she called Mutchnick and Kohan and accepted the role. In discussion of the character, Messing said: "I have a lot more confidence and I'm much more relaxed. I feel comfortable that Grace will be a character I'll enjoy doing for a long time." She later, however, admitted that director Burrows was the reason for doing Will & Grace. Messing was the last actor to be cast.
Sean Hayes was cast in the role of Jack. When an NBC casting executive saw Hayes's role in the indie gay romance film Billy's Hollywood Screen Kiss, he sent the script to Hayes, who was attending the 1997 Sundance Film Festival in Utah. Even though Hayes enjoyed the script when he read it, he threw it away as he did not want to spend money on a plane ticket to Los Angeles for the audition. However, a few weeks later when Hayes was in Los Angeles, he was sent the script again and decided to try out for the audition. If asked if he regrets accepting the role, Hayes said: "If you're truly an actor, in the long run ... I don't know that I would have done it either. I think of all the things that I still want to do, and I don't know if I'll get to do them." However, he admits that he "love[s]" the idea that people assume that he is either gay or straight. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Hayes admitted that people believe he is Jack "24 hours a day".
Before Megan Mullally was given the role of Karen, she had previously been cast as a series regular on sitcoms such as The Ellen Burstyn Show, My Life and Times, and Rachel Gunn. Mullally guest starred on many other shows, including Ned & Stacey, on which she first worked with Messing. Mullally informed her agent that she did not want to do any more sitcoms or auditions for sitcoms, during the time that Will & Grace came around. "Because my feeling was, like, Look, I've done it. It's not clicking. It's not for me. But he [her agent] was always arguing the point that the right thing hadn't come along yet." She initially auditioned for the role of Grace, but admitted that she did not want to audition for the part of Karen. When asked about Karen's voice, Mullally revealed that the voice was an "instinctive thing". She also said, "...I think it was just a feeling that I had that it would be better for the pace of the show and it would be funnier in some way, but I didn't know why. Karen has a lot of joy, even when she's in a bad mood. She's pretty much happy with who she is, and that is something I think is a great thing to play, because the character of Karen could have been very unlikeable, and I think she's likeable because she has joy and she can be very childlike."
## Reception
The episode was first broadcast in the United States on NBC on Monday, September 21, 1998, in the 9:30–10 p.m. (PST) timeslot. In its original American broadcast, the pilot tied with Working for forty-first place in ratings for the week of September 21–27, 1998. With a Nielsen rating of 8.6, equivalent to approximately 8.4 million viewing households, it was the fifteenth-highest-rated show on NBC the week it aired. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. Joyce Millman of Salon Entertainment said the episode has "glimmers of class" and the jokes are "relatively sophisticated". John Carman of the San Francisco Chronicle commented that Burrows's direction was "sharp as usual" and the writing was "above average". Brian Lambert of the St. Paul Pioneer Press said the pilot was "nicely staged by veteran director Jimmy Burrows, and coming from a couple producers, Max Mutchnick and David Cohan, who assisted Boston Common and Dream On, the show – which is to say the pilot episode (everything could go to hell next week) – has the best verbal interplay of any of the season's new sitcoms." William Horn from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) thought the episode was a "wonderful" representation of a gay man's life "regardless of whether he's in a relationship in that very moment. I think it's important that American audiences realize that lesbians and gay men are not simply all about sexual situations." Ellen Gray of the Chicago Tribune was also positive about the show: "For those who believe that Hollywood's engaging in a conspiracy to 'normalize' a sexual orientation that many Americans still find abhorrent, Will & Grace will look like a candy-coated poison pill. To those who think that Hollywood isn't moving fast enough in offering sexual parity for gays, it may just look like poison. But... there's a large audience out there that's somewhere in the mushy middle, an audience that might be ready to embrace Will & Grace."
The actors' performances were praised by several critics. Carman thought McCormack and Messing worked "nicely" together, and called the supporting cast "an asset". Kay Mcfadden of the Seattle Times also praised McCormack, Messing and the supporting cast as "very funny". Robert Laurence of The San Diego Union-Tribune wrote: "Messing and McCormack play wonderfully together, tossing lines back and forth as if they'd been at it for years, making their relationship quite believable. Sean Hayes, as the flamboyantly gay Jack, adds to the mix. Jack is flighty, temperamental, good-humored and highly likable." A reviewer for USA Today said he thought it would be nice to see Will have a "full life of his own", and not just serve as a "love-life adviser" to Grace and Jack. "I know it won't happen soon; NBC is so skittish about the so-called Ellen 'gay show' stigma, it's gone to Herculean lengths to avoid mentioning Will's sexuality. But a grace period can only last so long."
The episode received less positive reviews as well. Rahul Gairola of PopMatters wrote that while "the pilot lays the usual groundwork by showing how the characters' lives are intertwined, it also demonstrates immediately the sitcom's major drawback, that the stereotypical gay character is the stand-out comic figure." A reviewer for the Los Angeles Times said "there's something not quite right about this show's approach to homosexuality... It has everything to do with Will's attitude. It approaches asexual, his gayness appearing to exist solely as a device to give him the moral authority to repeatedly ridicule the mincing manner of his bandanna-wearing homosexual friend, Jack, without being labeled homophobic." Suite101.com's Hana Lewis thought it was "regrettable" that the pilot's jokes revolved "solely around gay stereotypes and sexual innuendo". Some reviewers were also skeptical about the future of the show. One such review said, "If Will & Grace can somehow survive a brutal time period opposite football and Ally McBeal, it could grow into a reasonably entertaining little anomaly — that is, a series about a man and a woman who have no sexual interest in one another. But don't bet on it. If it's a doomed relationships viewers want, they'll probably opt for Ally."
|
5,586,982 |
Bernard Schriever
| 1,173,558,786 |
United States Air Force general
|
[
"1910 births",
"2005 deaths",
"Burials at Arlington National Cemetery",
"Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States",
"Military personnel from Bremen (city)",
"Military personnel from Texas",
"National War College alumni",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"People from New Braunfels, Texas",
"Texas A&M University alumni",
"United States Air Force generals",
"United States Army Air Forces officers",
"United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II"
] |
Bernard Adolph Schriever (14 September 1910 – 20 June 2005), also known as Bennie Schriever, was a United States Air Force general who played a major role in the Air Force's space and ballistic missile programs.
Born in Bremen, Germany, Schriever immigrated to the United States as a boy and became a naturalized US citizen in 1923. He graduated from Texas A&M in 1931, and was commissioned as a reserve second lieutenant in the U.S. Army. He transferred to the United States Army Air Corps and was awarded his wings and a commission as a reservist second lieutenant in 1933. In 1937, he was released from active duty at his own request and became a pilot with Northwest Airlines, but he returned to the Air Corps with a regular commission in 1938.
During World War II, Schriever received a Master of Arts in aeronautical engineering from Stanford University in June 1942, and was sent to the Southwest Pacific Area, where he flew combat missions as a bomber pilot with the 19th Bombardment Group until it returned to the United States in 1943. He remained in Australia as chief of the maintenance and engineering division of the Fifth Air Force Service Command until the end of the war. After the war, Schriever joined the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters at the Pentagon as chief of the Scientific Liaison Branch in the office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Materiel.
In 1954, Schriever became head of the Western Development Division (WDD), a special agency created to manage the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) development effort. There he directed the development of the Atlas, Thor, Titan and Minuteman missiles. In 1959, he became commander of Air Research and Development Command (ARDC), and in 1961, of the Air Force Systems Command. He retired in 1966.
## Early life
Bernard Adolph Schriever was born in Bremen, Germany, on 14 September 1910, the son of Adolf Schriever, a mariner, and his wife Elizabeth née Milch. He had a younger brother, Gerhard. His father was an engineering officer on the SS George Washington, a German ocean liner which was interned in New York Harbor on the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. Germany was not yet at war with the United States, so Schriever's mother was able to obtain passage to New York for herself and her two sons aboard a Dutch liner, SS Noordam, so that the family could be reunited. She spoke English fluently, having lived in Lower Manhattan as a girl, but the two boys could only speak German. The family arrived on 1 February 1917, just two months before the United States declared war on Germany.
As a wave of anti-German sentiment swept across the United States, Schriever and his family moved to New Braunfels, Texas, a community with a large German-speaking population, where his father found work in a brewery. Schriever and his brother went to school there. Classes were taught in English, but their learning was facilitated by the ability of their teachers to translate for them. The family then moved to San Antonio, Texas, where his father worked in a factory making gasoline engines. His father died on 17 September 1918, as a result of an industrial accident, leaving Schriever and his brother in the care of his great uncle, Magnus Klattenhoff, a rancher in Slaton, Texas. At this time, Schriever acquired the nickname, Ben, while his brother Gerhard became known as Gerry. After a year, they returned to New Braunfels, where their mother placed them in an orphanage so she could work.
His mother found work as a housekeeper for a wealthy banker, Edward Chandler, supervising the half dozen or so staff that worked in his mansion. She managed to earn enough money working to take the boys back from the orphanage. Chandler built her a house near the twelfth hole of the Brackenridge Park Golf Course in San Antonio, and her mother immigrated from Germany to care for the boys while she worked. After Chandler died, Schriever's mother turned the refreshment stand that he had built for the children into a thriving business that sold sandwiches, cookies, lemonade, and soft drinks to golfers. The boys became proficient at the sport, and Schriever made the semifinals of the Texas junior championships in June 1927, winning a pair of golf shoes.
Schriever became a naturalized US citizen in 1923. He entered the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas (Texas A&M) in 1927. His mother paid his \$1,000 annual tuition from her sandwich stand profits. He was captain of the golf team in his senior year, and in 1931, the year he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in structural engineering, he won the Texas junior state championship and the San Antonio city championship. He was offered a position as a professional golf player in Bryan, Texas, at a salary of \$2,400 a year (), more than he could earn doing anything else during the Great Depression years, but professional golf did not have the social respectability or the prize money that it carries today, and he turned it down.
## Between the wars
At Texas A&M in those days, the entire all-male student body served in the college's Corps of Cadets and hence the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). Schriever served in an artillery battery in the Corps, so upon graduation he received a reservist commission as a second lieutenant in the Field Artillery Branch. He applied for flight training, and on 1 July 1932, he reported to Randolph Field in San Antonio. He completed this successfully and went on to advanced training at Kelly Field. He graduated on 29 June 1933, and was awarded his wings and a commission as a reservist second lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps. Soon after he was promoted to first lieutenant.
Schriever's first posting was to March Field in Riverside County, California, where Lieutenant Colonel Henry H. Arnold was the base commander. Schriever was joined there by his mother and brother. His mother had lost her savings when her bank closed and his brother quit Texas A&M in his sophomore year when she could no longer pay his tuition. At Riverside she became good friends with Arnold's wife Eleanor, known as Bee. Most Air Corps officers worked only half a day, leaving plenty of time for sports. Schriever won a couple of golf tournaments at the nearby Victoria Country Club in Riverside.
However, in the wake of the Air Mail scandal, President Franklin D. Roosevelt called on the Air Corps to deliver the mail, and Schriever flew mail deliveries in Douglas O-38 and Keystone B-4 aircraft. It was dangerous work in bad weather, as neither aircraft was equipped for instrument flying. The air mail delivery allowed Schriever to extend his active service by eight months, but he was still a reservist. He left active duty in March 1935 and returned to San Antonio. In June he volunteered to direct a Civilian Conservation Corps camp of about 200 teenage youths. He applied for a regular commission, but was unsuccessful.
Schriever was able to return to active duty in October 1936, but he had to revert to the rank of second lieutenant. This time he was posted to Albrook Field in the Panama Canal Zone. The base commander there was Brigadier General George H. Brett. Word of Schriever's prowess at golf had reached Panama, and Brett asked him to become one of his aides-de-camp in the hope of improving his own game. Schriever accepted; it was a good career opportunity, and it paid an extra \$10 a month. In 1937, he met and courted Brett's eldest daughter, Dora Devol Brett. He again applied for a regular commission, and once again was turned down.
In August 1937, Schriever was released from active duty at his own request, and became a pilot with Northwest Airlines, flying a Lockheed Model 10 Electra between Seattle and Billings, Montana. He married Dora in a ceremony at Arnold's house in Washington, DC, on 3 January 1938. They would later name their first child Brett Arnold. Brett was born in 1939. Two more children followed: Dodie Elizabeth in 1941 and Barbara Alice in 1949. Later that year Arnold, now a brigadier general, came out to Seattle to meet with Boeing executives, and he played a round of golf with Schriever and two others. Arnold urged Schriever to apply for a regular commission one more time, because war was approaching and skilled pilots were needed. Schriever did so, although it meant a cut in pay and reverting to the rank of second lieutenant. This time he was successful, and became a regular officer on 1 October 1938.
## World War II
Schriever was assigned to Hamilton Field, California, as a Douglas B-18 Bolo instrument flying instructor with the 7th Bombardment Group. The following year Brett, now the head of the Materiel Division had Schriever transferred to Wright Field, Ohio, where Brett had his headquarters, as an engineering officer and test pilot. Schriever had told his father in law of his ambition to attend the Air Corps Engineering School there, and Brett arranged for Schriever to enter in July 1940. He graduated from it in July 1941, and received a Master of Arts in aeronautical engineering from Stanford University in June 1942, also receiving a promotion to the rank of major.
Although Schriever had requested to be transferred to a combat zone after the bombing of Pearl Harbor launched the US into World War II, his request was not approved until after his studies were completed. In July 1942 he was assigned as a bomber pilot to the 19th Bombardment Group in the Southwest Pacific Area, where Brett, now a lieutenant general, was in command of the Allied Air Forces. He flew ten combat missions with the 19th Bombardment Group before it returned to the United States in 1943; around this time he received the Purple Heart. Schriever remained behind as chief of the maintenance and engineering division of the Fifth Air Force Service Command. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1943, and in August became chief of staff of the Fifth Air Force Service Command. He was promoted to colonel on 21 December 1943. For his services, he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal and the Legion of Merit.
## Post-war
### Aircraft
After the war ended, Schriever returned to the United States on 24 September 1945. In January 1946, he joined the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters at the Pentagon as chief of the Scientific Liaison Branch in the office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Materiel. He worked closely with the USAAF Scientific Advisory Board, which was headed by Theodore von Kármán. He was serving there when the United States Air Force (USAF) became independent from the Army in July 1947. In July 1949, Schriever entered the National War College. He became known for complaining that there was "too much polishing of doorknobs instead of putting new technology to work."
On graduating the following year, he expected to receive a field command, perhaps Vice Commander of the Air Proving Grounds at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida, but instead returned to the Pentagon as Deputy Assistant for Evaluation under the newly created Deputy Chief of Staff for Development. His office, which performed or contracted for analytical work, was renamed the Development Planning Office in January 1951. He became an advocate of increased research and development, and instituted a systems engineering approach to the introduction of new technology. He instituted a system of Development Planning Objectives (DPOs) that attempted to match promising new technologies with major Air Force missions rather than merely attempting to improve existing capabilities. To formulate his DPOs, Schriever turned to the Scientific Advisory Board, RAND Corporation and outside consultants from industry and academia for help.
Schriever clashed repeatedly with General Curtis LeMay of the Strategic Air Command (SAC). One disagreement was over the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion project. LeMay wanted a supersonic bomber, but the scientists and engineers kept telling Schriever that only a subsonic one was possible. At LeMay's insistence, the project continued until it was cancelled by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. When Schriever proposed extending the life of the USAF's Boeing B-47 Stratojets by strengthening the wings and cutting back on production of the new Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, thereby saving billions of dollars, LeMay flew into a rage. Schriever backed down, and later admitted that LeMay was right; over the years the B-52 proved to be the better investment.
When Schriever forecast that the Soviet Union might develop surface-to-air missiles that could shoot down high-flying bombers and that in the future bombers might have to attack at low level to fly under the radar, LeMay stormed out of Schriever's briefing in disgust. Another walkout occurred in a disagreement over modes of aerial refueling; LeMay supported the adoption of the flying boom method, which was best-suited to bombers, while Schriever supported the probe-and-drogue method, which was more suitable for fighters. LeMay got his way and the USAF standardized on the flying boom.
Inevitably, they disagreed over the specification of a successor to the B-52. LeMay wanted a larger bomber that could carry a heavier bomb load to a higher altitude with longer range and supersonic speed. Schriever thought that the increase in altitude and speed would not save it from surface-to-air missiles. A compromise resulted in the development of the Convair B-58 Hustler, a supersonic high-altitude medium bomber that satisfied neither.
Schriever was promoted to brigadier general on 23 June 1953. LeMay tried to have him sent to South Korea to command the logistics units of the Fifth Air Force. Lieutenant General Earle E. Partridge, the former head of the Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) and now the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, and Lieutenant General Donald L. Putt, Partridge's successor at ARDC, intervened, taking the matter up with the new Air Force Chief of Staff, General Nathan Twining, and his Vice Chief of Staff, General Thomas D. White, and the orders were cancelled.
### Missiles
In March 1953, Schriever attended a meeting of the Scientific Advisory Board at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama. The United States had only recently conducted Ivy Mike, its first hydrogen bomb test, on 1 November 1952. The Ivy Mike device had weighed 82 short tons (74 t), but at the meeting two of the board members, John von Neumann and Edward Teller, predicted that by 1960 a hydrogen bomb could be built that weighed just 1 short ton (0.91 t) but with the explosive power of 10 megatons of TNT (42 PJ). The strategic implications of this were obvious to Schriever: an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) could be built to deliver hydrogen bombs. The low weight meant that the missile would not have to be impractically large, and the reasonably high yield meant that it did not need to be impractically accurate.
The USAF had an ICBM project initially known as Project MX-1593 running since January 1951. It became Project Atlas in August 1951. Atlas was expected to weigh 440,000 pounds (200,000 kg), and deliver a 3,000-pound (1,400 kg) nuclear warhead within 1,500 feet (460 m) of the target. If the warhead weight could be cut to 1,500 pounds (680 kg), the weight of the launch vehicle could be halved. On his own initiative, Schriever went to see von Neumann at the Institute for Advanced Study on 8 May 1953. Von Neumann explained the process by which smaller and lighter hydrogen bombs of lesser yield would be developed in the future, and Schriever left the meeting convinced.
Schriever found an ally in the incoming Eisenhower administration in Trevor Gardner, the Secretary of the Air Force's special assistant for research and development. In October 1953 Gardner created the Teapot Committee to review the USAF's strategic missile projects. In its report, which it rendered on 10 February 1954, it recommended a crash program that would produce a deployable ICBM in six to eight years. On 14 May 1954, White gave Project Atlas the highest Air Force development priority, and directed the new ARDC commander, Lieutenant General Thomas S. Power, to accelerate the Project Atlas "to the maximum extent that technology would allow".
To steer the project, Gardner created a special Scientific Advisory Committee chaired by von Neumann in April 1954. Its nine members included seven who had served on the Teapot Committee. On 1 July 1954, Power created a special agency, the Western Development Division (WDD), to manage the ICBM development effort. It was initially located in the recently vacated buildings of the St. John Chrysostom School in Inglewood, California, in order to be close to Convair, the prime contractor for Project Atlas. Officers posted there were instructed to wear civilian clothes to disguise the nature of the organization. White initially intended for the WDD to be headed by his special assistant for research and development, Major General James McCormack, but McCormack suffered from health problems, so Schriever succeeded him as White's special assistant and assumed command of the WDD on 2 August 1954.
The normal model for management of Air Forces projects was for them to be managed by the airframe manufacturer, with USAF oversight. This was favored by high-ranking Air Force officers and was the model that Schriever initially proposed. It had worked well on aircraft development projects as recently as the B-47 and B-52, but not so well on recent missile projects like Navaho and Snark, which had suffered from long delays and high-cost overruns. The Scientific Advisory Committee did not agree; it felt that the Atlas project was of such a highly scientific and technical nature that a project more like the Manhattan Project was required and that the aircraft industry, with its inflexible work practices, could not attract the required expertise. After consulting with Leslie Groves and Robert Oppenheimer, Schriever came back to the Scientific Advisory Committee with a radical proposal: WDD would manage the project directly, with Ramo-Wooldridge responsible for systems integration; Convair's role would be restricted to manufacturing the fuel tank and body of the missile.
The Scientific Advisory Committee was happy with this proposal, except for Franklin R. Collbohm, the president of RAND. Not so Power, who felt that he was being made responsible for an expensive, high-profile and risky project that would be run by Schriever on the West Coast, where supervision would be difficult. But Power could see that the proposal had high-level support, and was more interested in what was done than how it was done. Schriever's aide, Major Bryce Poe II, was able to convince him to accept the organizational arrangements. Schriever made a point of keeping Power informed with weekly progress reports and frequently travelled to Baltimore to meet with him. When the opportunity arose, he played golf with him. Schriever eventually won Power over, and he recommended Schriever for promotion. Schriever also had to deal with opposition from the president of Convair, Joseph T. McNarney, and his vice president, Thomas George Lanphier Jr.
On 13 September 1955, President Dwight Eisenhower gave the ICBM program the highest national priority, and Schriever was promoted to major general in December. The number of scientists and engineers working on Atlas rose from 50 in 1955 to 800 in 1956 and 2,000 in 1957. Schriever instituted a system of monthly meetings known as "Black Saturdays". WDD and Ramo-Wooldridge staff would review the project progress, identify problems and assign responsibility for dealing with them. He initially resisted providing cost estimates, but was eventually obliged to do so in November 1956 as project costs rose above the allocated funding. The 1956 budget was \$326 million.
In addition to the work on Atlas, the Secretary of the Air Force Harold E. Talbott, authorized a second ICBM project, which became Titan. To avoid conflict with Atlas, all the principal contractors were different. There also arose a requirement for an intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), which became known as Thor. The British government was interested in this kind of missile, but there still were restrictions on exchanging restricted data with the UK. The Air Staff was concerned about potential competition from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. On 8 November 1955, Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson ordered both the Army and USAF to proceed with the development of an IRBM, with a priority equal to that of the ICBM but without interfering with it. Thus, Schriever became responsible for three different missile projects. A fourth was added in 1957: Minuteman, a solid-fuel rocket that promised to make the liquid-fueled Atlas and Titan obsolete.
On 25 September 1957, Major General John Medaris, the head of the ABMA, urged that Thor be cancelled, ostensibly because it did not have 2,000 miles (3,200 km) range. On the next Thor test flight on 24 October 1957, one flew for 3,043 miles (4,897 km). The first Thor arrived in Britain on 29 August 1958. The deployment of Thor missiles to the UK was codenamed Project Emily. On 25 April 1959, Schriever left WDD to succeed Power as commander of ARDC and was promoted to lieutenant general.
USAF research and development activities were split between ARDC and the Air Materiel Command (AMC) until 1 April 1961, when White reorganized them. ARDC became the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) and all research and development activities were consolidated under it. Schriever became commander of the new organization, one of the responsibilities of which was acquiring missiles. LeMay considered that missiles mainly had political value, and their prime function should be to clear the way for the bombers. After Schriever was promoted to general on 1 July 1961, LeMay looked at his four stars and pointed out that had it been up to him, Schriever "would not have been wearing those".
The first Atlas missile squadrons became operational on 2 September 1960, with 132 missiles operational by 20 December 1962. Titan deployment began on 18 April 1962, and by 28 September 1962, some 54 Titan missiles were operational, organized as six squadrons of nine missiles each. By 1963, AFSC was employing 27,000 military and 37,000 civilian personnel, and Schriever was responsible for 40 percent of the Air Force budget. Among the projects that he promoted was one for a high-capacity transport aircraft, which became the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. He hoped to succeed LeMay as Chief of Staff, but when LeMay retired in 1965, the Vietnam War was ramping up, and a combat commander was called for. LeMay was succeeded by General John P. McConnell, and Schriever retired on 31 August 1966, two weeks before his 56th birthday. For his services, he was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal and the Legion of Merit.
In 1965, Schriever received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 1966, Schriever was the 1966 recipient of the General William E. Mitchell Memorial Award for his “outstanding contributions to the aerospace science and military posture of the United States.”
## Later years
In retirement, Schriever became a consultant to various corporate and government clients. He served on company boards, and was a member of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board under President Ronald Reagan. His marriage deteriorated after 1968 when he began an affair with another woman, and he and his wife separated but did not divorce, as she was a devout Roman Catholic. In 1986, Schriever met the popular singer Joni James. He finally obtained a divorce and they married on 5 October 1997.
In honor of his service, Schriever was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1980. He was awarded the Delmer S. Fahrney Medal in 1982, and on 5 June 1998, Schriever Air Force Base was named for him. In 1997, he was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame. In 2004, the Space Foundation awarded General Schriever its highest honor, the General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award, which is presented annually to recognize outstanding individuals who have distinguished themselves through lifetime contributions to the welfare or betterment of humankind through the exploration, development and use of space, or the use of space technology. In May 2005, General Lance W. Lord, the commander of the Air Force Space Command, presented him with the first Space Operations Badge.
Schriever died at his home in Washington, D.C., on 20 June 2005 at the age of 94 from complications of pneumonia.
|
34,795,365 |
Fuiste Tú
| 1,173,194,311 | null |
[
"2011 songs",
"2012 singles",
"Male–female vocal duets",
"Record Report Top 100 number-one singles",
"Record Report Top Latino number-one singles",
"Ricardo Arjona songs",
"Songs written by Ricardo Arjona",
"Spanish-language songs"
] |
"Fuiste Tú" ("It was you") is a Latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona, released on 7 February 2012 as the second single from his thirteenth studio album, Independiente (2011). Featuring additional lead vocals by Guatemalan singer Gaby Moreno, the song was written by Arjona, who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos. Additional work on the recording was done by Puerto Rican singer-songwriter Tommy Torres.
Lyrically, "Fuiste Tú" rounds the concept of recreating "the battle on a couple when someone starts to say 'is the beginning of the end'". The song became the second consecutive single from Independiente to reach the top ten in the US Billboard Top Latin Songs, and the second single from the album to top both the Latin Pop Songs and Tropical Songs charts. "Fuiste Tú" performed well on several national charts from Latin America, including reaching No. 1 on Venezuela, and No. 6 on Mexico. The single was nominated for Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 13th Annual Latin Grammy Awards.
An accompanying music video was released in February 2012. It was directed by Joaquín Cambré and filmed in Guatemala, and features several tropical locations from the country, including Antigua Guatemala, Río Dulce, Lake Atitlán, Semuc Champey and the Tikal ruins. Arjona commented that he chose to film the video there because he wanted to "show the real situation of that department", which is one of the poorest in the country, although being visited yearly by thousands of tourists. As of January 2021, the video has received over 900 million views on YouTube.
## Background
Independiente is the first album Arjona released as an independent artist, and through his own record label, Metamorfosis, a company he created to refocus his career. Presided by Arjona and some friends, Metamorfosis is based in Miami and Mexico City, and also includes the photographer and director Ricardo Calderón, Universal Music México's executive Humberto Calderon and BMG's Miriam Sommerz. Although the album is marketed with the new label, distribution was handled by Warner Music. Arjona commented many times, that he considered the way he decided to go independent raised more compromise than freedom, saying that "Inside the word 'Independent', even when it sounds like extreme freedom, there's a big amount of compromise and the responsibility of being able to administrate, in the best way possible, such independence."
Independiente was composed and written within one year, and marks the fourth time Arjona had collaborated with Tommy Torres, who had helped writing, composing, producing and providing backing vocals. The other three albums in which the two artists had worked together are Quién Dijo Ayer, in which Torres helped producing the singles "Quién" and "Quiero", and offering additional work on the new versions of Arjona's hits; 5to Piso, and Adentro, respectively. Also, in the album, Arjona returned to his classic and trademark sound, which Torres has helped crafting it since six years now, after the drastic change he made in Poquita Ropa. On that album, the artist made use of the fewest instruments possible, simplifying his sound, and introducing what he called a "stripped-down acoustic effort" of his music.
Weeks before the release of Independiente, Arjona issued a letter in which he talked about his past relations with recording companies. In the letter, he revealed that he entered in his first record label as an exchange, commenting that "a producer, friend of mine, told them [the record label] that if they don't sign me they won't sign two artists he had [at that time]", and that he received the "minimum royalty percentage" out from his most successful albums. Billboard notes that although other groups have decided to launch independently their works after having a contract with major record labels, Arjona is by far the most important artist in the Latin pop to follow this trend.
## Composition
"Fuiste Tú" is a latin pop song written by Arjona and including additional lead vocals by Guatemalan singer-songwriter Gaby Moreno. The song was produced by Arjona, alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin, with additional recording work by Puerto Rican singer-songwriter Tommy Torres. The composition of the song is driven by the use of piano, violin, as well as guitars, drums and percussion.
Arjona commented that he was happy about collaborating with Moreno, stating that "we had the possibilities to record this song with very well known people, but the possibilities of doing it with her, for me, is a celebration." He further said that Moreno was an "incredibly talented woman", calling her a "countrywoman" and a "fantastic human being". He also named "Fuiste Tú" one of the most important songs on the album.
## Chart performance
In the United States, "Fuiste Tú" became Arjona's second consecutive top ten single on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs since "Como Duele" and "Sin Ti... Sin Mi" back in 2008, and is also the second top ten single from Independiente on that chart. The song reached its peak of number two on the week ending 28 April 2012, after jumping from number 13, and was kept away from the number one position by Michel Teló's "Ai se eu te pego". In the Latin Pop Songs chart, "Fuiste Tú" became his second chart-topper, reaching number one position on the week ending 10 March 2012. This achievement made Independiente the only album by Arjona to have more than one song reach number one on that list. "Fuiste Tú" also became Arjona's second consecutive number-one single in the Tropical Songs chart. In Mexico, the song managed to reach number six on the Billboard International Mexican chart, and number 15 on the Monitor Latino's Top 20 Pop chart. "Fuiste Tú" also reached number 15 in Colombia, and number one in Venezuela's Record Report Top 100 and Top Latino charts.
## Promotion
### Music video
Ricardo Arjona released on 9 February 2012 the music video for "Fuiste Tú". Filmed in December 2011, the clip was directed by Joaquín Cambré, was shot in Guatemala, and features several tropical locations from the country, including Antigua Guatemala, Río Dulce, the Atitlán lake, Semuc Champey and the Tikal ruins. Some of those locations belong to the Sololá, and the singer revealed that he chose to film the video there because he wanted to "show the real situation of that department", which is one of the poorest in the country, although being visited yearly by thousands of tourists. About the concept of the video, Arjona commented that "it recreates the battle on a couple when someone starts to say 'is the beginning of the end'. When there is something you don't like from your beloved one, there's two options: The first, hold on to the relationship. The second, go away. Sadly, there's a third one that is created by those who are unsure and that is when, on the conflictive moments, they use a recurrent phrase: It was you."
The clip starts showing Gaby Moreno playing a melody in a guitar while staying close to a window, watching the people walk on the street below. Meanwhile, scenes of all the places featured on the video are interpolated. Just as the song begins, Arjona is shown leaving the Tikal ruins on an orange Jeep, as well as images of Moreno singing in front of a piano. Then, as Arjona abandons the Jeep and goes as a passenger on another vehicle, Moreno is shown singing inside a house, close to another Jeep similar to that of Arjona's. Finally, Arjona reaches the town on which Moreno has been waiting for him, just to find that she is gone to where he has been before, on the Tikal ruins. As of June 2023, the video has received over 1.1 billion views on YouTube.
### Live performances
"Fuiste Tú" was in the set list for a televised program in 2011. The special included guest singers such as Gaby Moreno (with whom Arjona played the song), Ricky Muñoz (from Mexican band Intocable) and Paquita la del Barrio. Broadcast by Televisa, the program was made to showcast the new fourteen songs included on Independiente. Ricky Muñoz commented that he was "happy to do things for Ricardo [Arjona]" and elaborated that the met each other "some time ago" and that it was "a very special situation." The show was later bordcasted on 5 November 2011 by Canal de las Estrellas. The song is also present on his ongoing Metamorfosis World Tour. It is performed while on one of the ambiences the concert, alongside "Reconciliación", "Tarde (Sin Daños a Terceros)", "Te Conozco" and "Si El Norte Fuera El Sur".
## Track listing
- Digital download
1. "Fuiste Tú" (featuring Gaby Moreno) – 4:25
## Credits and personnel
Credits are taken from Independiente liner notes.
- Ricardo Arjona – lead vocals
- Gaby Moreno – lead vocals
- Tommy Torres – recording engineer
- Chris McDonald – conductor / chords arrangements
- Pamela Sixfin – violin
- Connie Elisor – violin
- David Angell – violin
- Mary Katherine VanOsdale – violin
- Karen Winkelmann – violin
- Carolyn Bayley – violin
- Erin Hall – violin
- Zeneba Bowers – violin
- Cornelia Heard – violin
- James Grosjean – viola
- Monisa Angell – viola
- Elizabeth Lamb – viola
- Anthony LaMarchina – cello
- Julia Tanner – cello
- Craig Nelson – bass
- Carlos Cabral "Junior" – recording engineer
- Isaías García – recording engineer
- Jerald Romero – recording engineer
- Dan Rudin – recording engineer
- Dan Warner – bass, guitar, recording engineer
- Lee Levin – drums, percussion, recording engineer
- Matt Rollings – piano, recording engineer
- Peter Wallace – Hammond B-3
- David Thoener – mixing engineer
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Release history
|
34,398,061 |
Romney Academy
| 1,157,481,390 | null |
[
"1752 establishments in Virginia",
"1814 establishments in Virginia",
"1846 disestablishments in Virginia",
"Buildings and structures completed in 1752",
"Buildings and structures completed in 1762",
"Buildings and structures in Romney, West Virginia",
"Defunct schools in Virginia",
"Defunct schools in West Virginia",
"Demolished buildings and structures in West Virginia",
"Educational institutions disestablished in 1846",
"Educational institutions established in 1752",
"Educational institutions established in 1814",
"Romney Literary Society",
"Schools in Hampshire County, West Virginia",
"Stone buildings in the United States",
"Stone school buildings"
] |
Romney Academy was an educational institution for higher learning in Romney, Virginia (now West Virginia). Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11, 1814, and was active until 1846 when it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute. In addition to the Romney Classical Institute, Romney Academy was also a forerunner institution to Potomac Seminary. Romney Academy was one of the earliest institutions for higher learning within the present boundaries of the state of West Virginia.
With the growth of settlement in Pearsall's Flats, which was later the location of Romney, the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches. A log structure, which served as both a school and a church, was built at Pearsall's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall. To provide for a teacher's payment, a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect. By the time Romney was surveyed by Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron laid out the town of Romney in 1762, the log school was still in existence. That year, a stone school building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy.
Local education, including Romney Academy, continued to depend exclusively upon subscriptions until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the "Literary Fund". The assembly first incorporated Romney Academy on January 11, 1814. In 1817, the assembly passed a bill for the incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy. The Virginia General Assembly reincorporated Romney Academy on February 11, 1818, and on March 25, 1820. In 1820, as a result of a movement and debate for higher education by the Romney Literary Society, Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum, thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region.
By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities, and the Romney Literary Society was given authorization to raise monies from a lottery to build a new school building. The society successfully raised the funds, and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building. On December 12, 1846, the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society to establish a seminary for learning at the academy. That same year, a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society; the building now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind.
Romney Academy was administered under the leadership of scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston, who was succeeded by Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote. Foote introduced courses in theology into the school's curriculum. As the school's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread, Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region. Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton, Silas C. Walker, Thomas Mulledy, and Samuel Mulledy. Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.
## Background
The land upon which Romney Academy was established was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a land grant that the exiled Charles II awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 during the English Interregnum. Following the Restoration in 1660, Charles II finally ascended to the English throne. Charles II renewed the Northern Neck Proprietary grant in 1662, revised it in 1669, and again renewed the original grant favoring original grantee Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper and Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington in 1672. In 1681, Bennet sold his share to Lord Colepeper, and Lord Colepeper received a new charter for the entire land grant from James II in 1688. Following the deaths of Lord Colepeper, his wife Margaret, and his daughter Katherine, the Northern Neck Proprietary passed to Katherine's son Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in 1719. The South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River. Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale in 1748, with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres (120 ha) to 400 acres (160 ha).
Romney and its environs within the South Branch Survey were originally settled in the 1730s by Job Pearsall, and by 1748 approximately 200 people had settled at what was then known as Pearsall's Flats. Prior to 1762, Lord Fairfax sent surveyors into Hampshire County, who were charged with the selection of a site for what would later become the town of Romney. Pearsall's Flats was selected as the site due to its already having Fort Pearsall, a courthouse, and natural topographical advantages. Lord Fairfax commissioned a survey of Romney, and the town was laid out into 25 2-acre blocks with eight streets in a grid pattern in 1762. On December 13, 1762, the Virginia General Assembly recognized the stability of the upper Potomac frontier when it passed a bill establishing the town of Romney, and the bill was signed by Governor Francis Fauquier on December 23, 1762.
In the early years in western Virginia, pioneer settlers were primarily concerned with providing defense from Native American attacks, so little emphasis was placed upon education. Education was viewed as a religious duty, to be provided for at home, where its quality was dependent upon the spare time and level of education of parents. With the growth of settlement in Pearsall's Flats, and later Romney, the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches.
A log structure, which served as both a school and a church, was built at Pearsall's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall. During his travels in western Virginia in 1753, George Washington made mention of this structure. The log building was constructed of roughly hewn logs with clay chinking and contained puncheon log floors, hewn side up, clapboard doors, and one small window covered by a paper greased with lard. Light in the log structure was provided by the small window and a fireplace measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) in height, which contained a tall pile of logs during the winter to provide for warmth in addition to lighting. The school's teachers were paid by subscriptions from the attending students. To provide for a teacher's payment, a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect, whether in the form of cash remuneration, produce, or boarding. These early teachers were usually "wandering pedagogues, settling wherever they could obtain enough signers to insure a living".
By the time the surveyors on behalf of Lord Fairfax had laid out the town of Romney in 1762, the log school was still in existence along with other public buildings. Later in 1762 following the establishment of Romney, the school was rebuilt in stone on the same site. The stone building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy. The stone building was a rugged square building that served as Romney's cultural center before the school was formally incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly, but the exact date of its construction is unknown. Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11, 1814.
Following the American Revolutionary War, education in Virginia was provided predominantly by private "district schools" whose curriculum was decided by the people who funded them. On February 8, 1817, the first comprehensive bill for public education in the southern United States was introduced to the Virginia House of Delegates by Federalist delegate Charles F. Mercer. Mercer's bill provided for a centralized system for public education that was to be administered by a board of education and financed by the state of Virginia. The bill stated that primary schools were to be established first for "all free white children ... free of any charge whatever" and provided for the establishment of a system of academies, 48 for males and three for females, and four colleges that were to be dispersed throughout Virginia, and a university to be founded in a centralized location. The bill faced substantial partisan opposition and eventually failed. Despite the bill's failure, the Virginia General Assembly continued incorporated academies or "classical schools" throughout the state to provide primary and secondary education. Despite being incorporated by the assembly, the academies were not public and were instead funded through tuition fees, which were generally low but prevented a larger number of students from attending them. By 1860, the Virginia General Assembly had incorporated 250 of these academies, including Romney Academy.
## Establishment and development
Local education, including Romney Academy, continued to depend upon subscriptions exclusively until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the "Literary Fund", which was to be apportioned among the Virginia counties for the education of the poor. In 1817, a bill "incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire" was presented to the Virginia House of Delegates by Mr. Scott, a delegate on the Committee of Schools and Colleges. The bill was read a second time in the Virginia House of Delegates following a motion by Hampshire County delegate William Naylor, after which it was ordered to be "re-committed to the Committee of Schools and Colleges". An amended version of the bill was again presented to the Virginia House of Delegates for a third time by Mr. Scott, and it was passed by the legislative body and renamed "an act incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire".
A further provision for local education in Virginia was included in an act passed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818 stating that: "It shall be the duty of the courts of the several counties, cities, and corporate towns—in the month of October or as soon thereafter as may be—to appoint not less than five or more than fifteen discreet persons to be called school commissioners." The commissioners who were appointed in Hampshire County were John McDowell, David Gibson, John Pierce, John Randalls, Elisha Thompson, Charles Keller, Frederick Sheets, James Abernathy, and Robert Sherard. Accounts rendered to the Hampshire County court for the expenditure of the Literary Fund illustrated that "the average price of tuition, exclusive of books, paper, etc. has been within a small fraction of four cents for every day of each attendance for each poor child." Because nearly 700 impoverished children in Hampshire County were entitled to the fund, each child was only able to receive only a few months' worth of schooling, and because of the limited facilities, only about half of the total number of eligible children were able to be taken care of at each of the two periods of enrollment.
Romney Academy was formally established on February 11, 1818, when the Virginia General Assembly finally passed an act entitled "an act incorporating the trustees of Romney academy, in the county of Hampshire" in which the assembly incorporated Romney Academy and constituted and appointed a board of trustees for the operation of the institution. With a system of formal education underway in Hampshire County, forces were underway for the higher education in the community.
On a winter evening in 1819, nine men in Romney conducting a meeting in the office of Dr. John Temple for the purpose "of taking into consideration the proprietary of financing a Society, having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science; the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors." The nine men consisted of Thomas Blair, David Gibson, James P. Jack, Virginia author and historian Samuel Kercheval, Nathaniel Kuykendall, Charles T. Magill, James M. Stephens, John Temple, and W. C. Wodrow. Shortly after the formation of the Romney Literary Society, the society recognized that the quality of the education provided by Romney Academy and other local subscription schools was not meeting the needs of the Romney community, and therefore, it launched a movement to establish an institution for "the higher education of the youth of the community". The society frequently debated upon theories of education advancement and popular education. In 1820, as a result of this movement and debate, Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum, thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region. The institution was again incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on March 25, 1820.
By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities, and the Romney Literary Society commenced its campaign to raise funds for a new academic building. On January 6, 1832, the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise \$20,000 by lottery for educational purposes. Following a ten-year lapse after this authorization, the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City, New Jersey, and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance the lottery, "for raising a sum of money not exceeding Twenty Thousand dollars, for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation, the purchase of a library and Philosophical apparatus". The lottery was to be conducted for a period lasting 10 years, and the sums of \$750, \$1,000, and \$1,500 were to be raised in semi-annual installments. The society successfully raised the funds, and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building. On December 12, 1846, the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society "to establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature; and the Society may appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire, as it may deem expedient". That same year, a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society, which now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind. Following the school's move to the building, it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute with Foote as its principal.
## Faculty and curriculum
The earliest faculty members of Romney Academy are unknown, but the institution's first principal and one of the institution's longest serving teachers from its era of infancy was scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston. Under Johnston's leadership, Romney Academy became known regionally for its courses in the "higher classics" and made Romney the seat of one of the Eastern Panhandle's most successful academies. Johnston believed in the "rule of the birch rod" and discipline was no light matter under his leadership. Some of Romney's prominent men in its early history were among Johnston's students. Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton, Silas C. Walker, a Mr. Brown, Thomas Mulledy, and Samuel Mulledy. Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.
Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote succeeded Johnston as principal of Romney Academy around 1826. Foote served in that capacity until his departure from Romney around 1837 or 1839. Foote also concurrently served as the pastor of the Romney Presbyterian Church. Foote introduced courses in theology into the school's curriculum, which broadened the make-up of the student body to include young men preparing for the ministry. As the school's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread, Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region. Following Foote's departure, Reverend Theodore Gallaudet served as Romney Academy's principal.
## Board of trustees
The inaugural board of trustees were constituted and appointed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818. Because there were several vacancies among the board of trustees, on March 25, 1839, the Virginia General Assembly passed an act, appointing a new board of trustees consisting of David Gibson, John Baker White, Angus William McDonald, Daniel Mytinger, and John Kern, Jr. In addition, the 1839 act authorized any of the five appointed trustees of Romney Academy to fill vacancies on the board "occasioned by death, resignation, removal, or legal disability", thereby preventing future prolonged vacant trustee seats.
Romney Academy trustee John Baker White was a clerk of both the circuit and county courts of Hampshire County and was the father of Robert White, Attorney General of West Virginia from 1877 until 1881. Robert White successfully lobbied the West Virginia Legislature to pass an act establishing the Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind of West Virginia (later named the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind), which utilized the former campus of the Romney Classical Institute, a successor educational institution to Romney Academy. Another trustee, Angus William McDonald, was the father of Marshall McDonald, who served as commissioner of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries from 1888 until 1895.
## Building
Romney Academy utilized a native stone structure located behind the Hampshire County Courthouse at a site presently occupied by the Courthouse Annex building (1934) at 66 North High Street in Romney. According to West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher in their History of Hampshire County, West Virginia (1897), the Romney Academy building was one of the earliest educational facilities in the county and regarding its architecture, Maxwell and Swisher noted: "the rough unhewn stones of which the academy was built gave it a very uncouth exterior." By 1831, Romney Academy had outgrown its quarters in the old stone school building and relocated to a new Classical Revival structure completed in 1846, after which the institution was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute.
After the academy's stone building ceased being used as an educational facility, it was subsequently utilized for various purposes including serving as the offices of the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser newspaper and as a meeting place for local fraternal organizations. Romney Academy's stone building remained dormant and unoccupied for a number of years and was demolished by the time Maxwell and Swisher researched and authored their History of Hampshire County, West Virginia in the late 1890s.
## Notable alumni
During its brief years of operation between 1814 and 1846, Romney Academy educated a number of notable alumni. According to Seldon Brannon's Historic Hampshire (1976), "among the pupils of this school were some of the most prominent men in the early history of the [Romney] community." The academy's students included William C. Clayton, a West Virginia state senator; John Jeremiah Jacob, 4th Governor of West Virginia; Angus William McDonald, Jr., a West Virginia lawyer, politician, and military officer; and Reverend Stuart Robinson, a Presbyterian minister, orator, writer, and editor.
## Legacy
According to West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell in his article entitled "West Virginia a Century Ago" published in The Transallegheny Historical Magazine (1901), Romney Academy was "one of the oldest and most renowned schools on the early soil of West Virginia". Of the institution, Maxwell stated that "from its halls went forth some of the teachers who became the disseminators of learning in the famous South Branch [valley]—whose people might appropriately be called the Phoenicians of the Alleghenies, the carriers of liberty, equality, and education."
|
17,788,260 |
Burnside Fountain
| 1,157,787,046 |
Drinking fountain with statue in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States
|
[
"1912 establishments in Massachusetts",
"1912 sculptures",
"Bronze sculptures in Massachusetts",
"Buildings and structures in Worcester, Massachusetts",
"Culture of Worcester, Massachusetts",
"Drinking fountains in the United States",
"Fountains in Massachusetts",
"Landmarks in Worcester, Massachusetts",
"Nude sculptures in the United States",
"Outdoor sculptures in Massachusetts",
"Relocated buildings and structures in Massachusetts",
"Sculptures of children in Massachusetts",
"Sculptures of turtles",
"Statues in Massachusetts",
"Stolen works of art",
"Zoophilia in culture"
] |
The Burnside Fountain is a non-functioning drinking fountain at the southeast corner of Worcester Common in Worcester, Massachusetts. It consists of two parts, a pink granite basin, and a bronze statue of a young boy riding a sea turtle. The basin was designed by architect Henry Bacon, who later designed the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., and the figure was created by sculptor Charles Y. Harvey. Harvey died by suicide before finishing the sculpture, and Sherry Fry completed the bronze. The Burnside Fountain was commissioned in 1905 by the city of Worcester after Harriet F. Burnside bequeathed US \$5,000 to create a fountain to provide fresh water for people, horses and dogs, in the memory of her father, a prominent lawyer. The fountain was installed in 1912 in Central Square, then moved in 1969 to its current location on Worcester Common. In 1970 the statue was stolen, and was re-installed two years later. An attempted theft occurred in 2004.
The bronze is officially named Boy with a Turtle but is known to locals as Turtle Boy. Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester, much in the same way the Manneken Pis is for Brussels. The Burnside Fountain's popularity is derived mostly from viewers' risqué misinterpretation of the statue. Over its 100-year existence, it has been referenced in stories and songs, as well as having a music contest and a microbrew named after it.
## Description
The Burnside Fountain is 12 feet (3.7 m) wide, 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, and consists of two parts, the basin and the sculpture. The pink granite basin is rectangular and has four large bowls, two on either end, carved into its top. These bowls were originally designed as water troughs for horses, and a smaller, lower, bowl located on the rear of the fountain was designed for dogs.
The bronze sculpture sits on a circular base in the middle of the basin. The sculpture is officially known as Boy with a Turtle, as its figure is of a young boy, in the nude, riding a sea turtle. In 1986 the Worcester municipal parks and recreation department described the statue with the sentence, "The boy holding the turtle, his hair flying, a sly smile on his face, is charming and disarming."
## Background
Samuel Burnside was a prominent lawyer in Worcester who studied law at Dartmouth College in the early 1800s. Burnside had three daughters, Sophia, Harriet, and Elizabeth, who went on to be called by Frederick Clifton Pierce "the most notable figures in the life of Worcester." The notability of the three daughters was due in part to the prestige and wealth Samuel Burnside had accrued as Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Both before and after Samuel Burnside's death on July 25, 1850, his three daughters were known for charitable works, having donated public gardens and a library to the city of Worcester. One daughter's most well-known donation to the city came in the form of a bequest in her will. In 1904, Harriet Burnside died and left \$5,000 in her will to the city of Worcester to build a fountain as a memorial to her father.
## History
When Burnside bequeathed the money for the fountain, she asked that it be designed for use as a drinking trough for horses and also for dogs. The commission was originally intended for Daniel Chester French, but, according to a paper by Zelotes W. Coombs, French turned down the commission due to "pressure of other engagements, however... he did supervise the work." French assigned the design of the basin to Henry Bacon, who would later work with French on the Lincoln Memorial. The sculpture was assigned to Charles Y. Harvey, a graduate of the American Academy in Rome, who had worked with Augustus Saint-Gaudens on the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston.
Charles Y. Harvey began work on Boy with Turtle at his studio in New York City, believing that this work was going to be his masterpiece. Almost immediately he began second guessing his design and feeling that it was inadequate. This negativity was a trait that he had shown many times in the past. Roughly a week after beginning the sculpture, Harvey began hearing voices commanding him to kill himself. A paper about restoring the sculpture written at Worcester Polytechnic Institute claims the voices he was hearing were coming from the partially carved sculpture itself. These voices set the date of Saturday January 27, 1912 for Harvey to kill himself. On that date he laid down his tools, headed to Bronx Park with two razors, and slit his own throat along the west bank of the Bronx River.
After Harvey's death, Sherry Fry, a fellow American Academy graduate, was invited to finish the work according to the original designs Harvey had laid out. Fry completed the sculpture, and it was delivered along with the basin to Worcester in 1912. There had been much discussion about where to install the fountain. Central Square, just off the Worcester Common was chosen with only slight opposition from "market gardeners who had been using the east end of the Common for their summer outdoor market." When it was installed in Central Square, There was no dedication ceremony or unveiling for the fountain. A news article on October 11, 1912, stated that Worcester Mayor Philip O’Connell, "believes it will be well to have the fountain placed in use without ceremony.” This lack of a ceremony is presumably due to Harvey's suicide and the desire to not celebrate such an act.
By 1912, the use of horse and buggy had fallen out of fashion, and the Burnside Fountain saw little use in its intended purpose. By 1939 citizens of Worcester were already calling for the fountain to be moved to a more suitable place where it could be of more use. It took until 1969 for the Burnside Fountain to be moved from Central Square. It was relocated to the Worcester Common and turned to face Salem Square. One year later, in May 1970, the statue was ripped from its pedestal and stolen. It was returned later that same year, but it took until 1972 for the boy and turtle to be placed back on top of the basin. Another apparent theft attempt happened in 2004 when the bronze sculpture was toppled off its pedestal and left dangling off the basin. The city was quick to fix the statue this time, with it being righted and reattached within days.
In 2010, the Burnside Fountain was named one of WAAF's "Hill-Man's 25 Greatest Places in Massachusetts." That same year, it was also nominated for "Worst Public Art in New England" by a regional Art blog. Around this same time a small group of volunteers began the "Turtle Boy Urban Gardeners," a group dedicated to keeping the plantings around the Burnside Fountain presentable.
For the last few decades the Burnside Fountain has been in disrepair. A 1986 inventory of public memorials in Worcester, compiled by the municipal parks and recreation department, listed the fountain's problems as "chipped stone, water system, bronze surface corrosion, rust staining, litter," and the Smithsonian Art Inventories Catalog surveyed the fountain in September 1994 and listed its condition as "treatment urgent." With the one-hundredth anniversary of the Burnside Fountain coming in 2012, there has been renewed interest in restoring the fountain. Restoration estimates run between USD \$40,000 to \$60,000, which is more than the city is willing to spend. Probably because of this, there are no official plans to restore the fountain, as of June 2012. The exterior of the fountain was treated for bronze corruption in June 2021 restoring the original coloring.
## "Turtle Boy"
The statue that sits atop the Burnside Fountain is now commonly referred to as Turtle Boy. In the tradition of the Manneken Pis in Brussels, Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester. Much of the local popularity of the statue is due to bawdy insinuations about how the boy and the turtle are portrayed. Anonymous members of the Worcester community sometimes dress the statue in festive clothes for holidays, local bands write crowd-pleasing songs about it, and the statue has even graced postcards of the city.
The popularity of Turtle Boy began around the time it was installed in Central Square. In 1916 the Burnside Fountain's boy and turtle appeared in The Cloud Bird, a children's book by Margaret C. Getchell in which each chapter was about a Worcester landmark. In the eighth chapter, "The Adventurer in Armor," a small girl finds a young, Peter Pan-like faun who had agreed to hold back the turtle. They later go on an adventure upon the turtle's back, but return at the end of the day. By the late 2000s "Turtle Boy" was a common term used to align events and objects with Worcester. A local music contest was named the "Turtle Boy Music Awards," and the Wormtown Brewing Company in Worcester began selling a "Turtle Boy Blueberry Ale."
Kristina Wilson, associate professor in the Department of Visual and Performing Arts at Worcester's Clark University, asked people on campus what they thought of Turtle Boy. One person replied "Oh, that's Worcester's monument to bestiality." Wilson said the sculpture is intended to portray "innocence, joy, and rebirth," and that historically Charles Y. Harvey came from an artistic tradition in which "the human figure is the apex of beauty, and how well you can capture that is the demonstration of your artistic talents." Regarding the artistic merit of the work, Wilson said: "It's unfortunate, because it really does look like something untoward is going on."
Mostly because of the ambiguity in what the Burnside Fountain is depicting, Turtle Boy pops up occasionally in social media. The sculpture also appeared on comedian Daniel Tosh's Tosh.0 blog.
## See also
- Drinking fountains in the United States
|
50,348,528 |
California (Blink-182 album)
| 1,170,579,913 | null |
[
"2016 albums",
"Albums produced by John Feldmann",
"BMG Rights Management albums",
"Blink-182 albums"
] |
California is the seventh studio album by American rock band Blink-182, released on July 1, 2016 through BMG as the band's only album on the label. Produced by John Feldmann, it is the first of two albums by the band to feature Alkaline Trio frontman Matt Skiba, who replaced former member Tom DeLonge. After touring and releasing the band's sixth album, Neighborhoods (2011), it became difficult for the trio to record new material due to DeLonge's other projects. After disagreements, the remaining members of the group—vocalist/bassist Mark Hoppus and drummer Travis Barker—sought separation from DeLonge and recruited Skiba in his place.
California was recorded at Foxy Studios between January and March 2016 with Feldmann. He was the group's first new lone producer since longtime collaborator Jerry Finn. Prior to his involvement, the trio began writing together in September 2015 and completed dozens of songs. They decided to shelve them upon working with Feldmann to start fresh, and they proceeded to record another 28 songs; in all, the group recorded upwards of 50. The band, as well as Feldmann, would regularly spend 18 hours in the studio a day, aiming to start and complete multiple songs in that timeframe. The album's title comes from the band's home state of California, and its artwork was illustrated by the street artist D\*Face.
The album debuted at number one in the US and several other countries, and was the group's first domestic chart-topper in 15 years, and first ever in the UK. It received a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Album; the band's first. Its first two singles, "Bored to Death" and "She's Out of Her Mind", charted well on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart. California received mixed reviews from music critics, with some praising the band's return to their classic sound and others criticizing the length of the album as well as Feldmann's input and production. The band supported the album with a large headlining tour in North America and Europe. A deluxe edition of the album, containing eleven new songs, was released in May 2017.
## Background
After reforming in early 2009, Blink-182 toured worldwide, and released its sixth studio album, Neighborhoods in 2011. The band members recorded the majority of the album on their own in different studios, an extension of their pre-break-up miscommunication. They parted ways with their record label, Interscope in 2012, later self-releasing an extended play, Dogs Eating Dogs, that holiday season. Plans for a seventh Blink-182 album were delayed numerous times, reportedly due to guitarist Tom DeLonge's involvement in his other group, Angels & Airwaves, as well as other projects. In the interim, the band mounted an anniversary tour for its self-titled fifth album, and headlined the Reading and Leeds festivals. By the time DeLonge spoke to Rock Sound in November 2014, there was still little work completed on the album: "We're just getting to that point of starting ... there's no timeline at the moment." By the time a record deal was finalized one month later, DeLonge backed out of recording and performing commitments by email—which led bassist Mark Hoppus and drummer Travis Barker to seek legal separation from him in what Hoppus described as a "friendly divorce".
Hoppus soon revealed that it was "a very, very difficult struggle" to corral DeLonge into working with the group, while Barker asserted that DeLonge's behavior was motivated by money. He also claimed that he quit the band more than once prior to the group's separation. DeLonge countered these accusations by arguing that he was being forced to drop his other projects, calling their actions "defensive and divisive." As he continued to pursue said projects—including a solo album composed of purported Blink-182 demos, To the Stars... Demos, Odds and Ends—he related to the press that he was "totally willing and interested in playing with those guys again." Meanwhile, Blink-182 performed two club shows and a slot at the Musink Tattoo Convention & Music Festival in March 2015 with Alkaline Trio vocalist/guitarist Matt Skiba filling in for DeLonge. Barker and Hoppus met with Skiba over a lunch to discuss filling in for DeLonge and began rehearsals with the group. After the shows, Skiba returned to Alkaline Trio for a string of dates and also released Kuts, an album from his other band, The Sekrets. After legal battles with DeLonge were worked out, Skiba rejoined Blink-182 as an official member, and the trio began preparations for new music in August 2015. The trio initially began writing together for the first time at Barker's studio, Opra Music in North Hollywood, in September 2015. The group wrote and recorded demos for upwards of 30–40 songs.
## Recording and production
California was produced by John Feldmann and recorded at his studio, Foxy Studios, in Woodland Hills, California between January and March 2016. Feldmann, initially the frontman of the band Goldfinger, became better known for his production work with artists such as 5 Seconds of Summer and All Time Low. Barker was the first to reach out to Feldmann about producing, as the two were good friends. He had known the members of Blink-182 for over two decades, as the group had previously performed shows with Goldfinger. He is the first new producer to work with Blink-182 since the death of the band's longtime producer, Jerry Finn, who last worked with the band in 2003. Feldmann "worshipped" Finn and his approach to producing. "I never thought there'd be anybody that could come even close to replacing Jerry, and John is really the closest that we've come to someone who could fill that capacity," said Hoppus.
The group initially invited Feldmann to hear its demos, and he suggested that the band regroup at his studio the next day to make a fresh start. The next day, the group wrote three songs, including the lead single "Bored to Death". As the band continued to write and record, the trio chose to shelve their earlier recordings and proceeded to write 28 songs in a period of 3–4 weeks. Half of these songs were chosen to be put on the finalized album, in addition to two joke songs. Barker fought for all 28 songs to be on the album, as he felt fans had waited long enough for more new music. The trio, as well as Feldmann, regularly stayed in the studio for up to 18 hours a day. The band members would arrive at the studio with no plan for what to work on for the day. They would then write several songs in only a few hours, aiming to complete them by the end of the night. Feldmann asked the members to consider what Blink-182, as a group, are all about, to inspire the songwriting. He would encourage the musicians to write with speed, which Hoppus admitted could be frustrating. "John was like, 'Okay: We've got the song structure. Write lyrics. Go in there and sing it. Go in there and sing it.' Sometimes, I was like, 'I'm not ready to sing!' (and Feldmann would reply) 'No. Go write something great right now!'" Barker was more supportive of this method based on his work with the Transplants, which had a similar speedy approach. "I always feel like your first instinct is your best," Barker remarked.
Feldmann felt it was a challenge to work with a new version of Blink-182 while both keeping its legacy and moving the group into a new territory. Feldmann's "agenda was to have an album that was palatable for a generation of ADD kids." The band members and Feldmann felt a breakthrough in direction with the song "Cynical", which they immediately chose as the opening song on the album. According to Hoppus, the band recorded a total of nearly 50 songs. By mid-February, the album was "70–80%" complete, according to Barker, and work was reportedly completed in early March 2016. By the end of March, the group were still narrowing down the songs that would be present on the album. The trio posted their progress via their respective social media accounts during the recording, in the form of Snapchat and Instagram clips. All parties seemed satisfied with the record. While recording, Barker told an interviewer that "It's honestly the best material we've written or put out in years. I haven't been excited about a Blink album like this in a long time." Feldmann commented, "I'm just so excited to have people hear it. I'd say it's one of the best records I've ever made in my life."
## Composition
Hoppus considered the music on the album wide-ranging, commenting, "We tried to capture the energy and not worry so much about all the knobs." This includes songs he felt sounded like the group circa 1999, "super-fast late-Nineties-punk-rock-sounding songs," as well as more progressive songs "that are like nothing we have ever done before." Overall, he considered the record "really rich with sing-along melodies and sing-along choruses," which was what he preferred most when listening to bands. Feldmann considered the music not a "huge departure" from the band's usual sound, as hoped to make a "classic Blink record." To familiarize himself, he listened to all of the band's catalogue prior to recording. Lisa Worden, music director at Los Angeles radio station KROQ, compared its sound to the second Blink-182 album, Dude Ranch, and commented, "It sounds like Blink but it's not anything that we've heard before. For fans of the band, they're going to be super happy with it." Critics described the album categorically as alternative rock, pop-punk, and punk rock.
Hoppus considered his lyrical content relatively similar to the group's prior releases: "The topics are universal. There is a lot of angst that could be teen angst or it could be angst of everyday life. I still have the same emotions I had 20 years ago – I get frustrated or I get excited. I still feel like I'm falling in love with my wife." Hoppus considered common topics he wrote about to be "miscommunication, loss of identity and questioning of identity which is a process we went through just by being in the studio, writing a new Blink record and having a new iteration of Blink." Though in the past he preferred to ruminate on his lyrics for days on end, Feldmann's speedy process gave Hoppus little time to process them. Despite this, he felt he wrote "some of the best lyrics I've written in a long time for this record, because I didn't have a chance to go and overthink things." Hoppus's self-doubt on his own creative process is referenced in the opening lyrics of "Cynical". "I start every song with this fear, thinking I'm never going to write another good song," he told Upset. Skiba said that at the time of writing the album, he and Hoppus were both reading books such as Dead Wake, Blood Meridian, and The Revenant, and he felt the prose impacted their lyrics: "there were a lot of rushing rivers and the whole idea of using metaphors to describe loneliness, just like settler, Native American and Southern Gothic influence of literature, that was kind of our rhyming dictionary."
## Songs
"Cynical" was proposed by Feldmann as a faster song, reminiscent of the band's past work. Hoppus wrote the song about "thinking the world is in a cynical place," but also as a mission statement as a new version of Blink-182. "Bored to Death" was the first song the band recorded with Feldmann on the group's first day of work with him. "She's Out of Her Mind" namedrops the post-punk band Bauhaus in the words. It was the result of multiple rewrites, with each draft attempting to perfect the chorus preceding it. Hoppus called it a "simple love song." "Los Angeles" was meant to show a heavier, more "experimental" version of the band. The song is centered on the band's adopted hometown; its lyrics reference the demolition of the Sixth Street Bridge in LA. Hoppus described "Sober" as "about rebuilding [and] finding yourself, and knowing that you're in a troubled place but striving to get to somewhere better." Its subject matter is based around two experiences: one when Skiba was a bicycle messenger in Chicago and was struck by a car, and another a fictional story of a "drunken night with a girlfriend". Patrick Stump of Fall Out Boy collaborated with the band, his initial idea being "what could Blink be on modern rock radio in 2016?" "Built This Pool" is a short joke song with homoerotic lyrics. The audible "is that really it?" heard at the end of the song was a genuine reaction from Barker.
"No Future" was nearly cut from the record. It was inspired by punk rock history, as many songs—for example, the Sex Pistols' "God Save the Queen"—contain a "no future" lyric. "Home Is Such a Lonely Place" is a ballad with "clean arpeggiated finger-picking guitars with strings underneath it." Its lyrics are themed around lost love; it emerged from an early-morning coffee meeting between Hoppus and Feldmann, who both imagined how lonely their homes would be when their children grow up and move away. "Kings of the Weekend" was also nearly moved off the final track listing, but kept because of its recognizable guitar riff. Feldmann described it as "the party song. We've all had day jobs and we all know what it's like to have that day off to do what we want." "Teenage Satellites" is based around "being a kid and not knowing who you are, not having enough courage to say what you mean." It was the last song recorded for the album, and it was at first written without a hook or melody in mind. "Left Alone" made the album cut because the band liked Skiba's vocal performance. "Rabbit Hole" was one of Hoppus' favorites, and revolves around "standing your ground and not falling for people's nonsense."
"San Diego" is centered on the band's original hometown and on a deeper level, relationships with the group's former bandmate, Tom DeLonge. According to Feldmann, it was a song Hoppus did not want to write. "There's clearly a lot of feelings involved with having a best friend who is not in your band anymore," Feldmann said. For him, the song "acts as a bittersweet homage, a goodbye to this city ... while acknowledging the interpersonal relationships within the band." Stump also collaborated in the writing process for "San Diego". "The Only Thing That Matters" originally began as a cowpunk-infused number until Hoppus re-wrote it. "California" is about "giving credit to how lucky we are to have lived here and grown up" in California. "Brohemian Rhapsody"—its title a pun on Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody"—is another joke song with the sole lyric "There's something about you I can't quite put my finger in." Hoppus and Feldmann wrote and recorded the song in nine minutes.
## Artwork and title
The album's artwork was created by English street artist D\*Face. Barker was a fan of his work, having bought many of his pieces at his galleries in the past. According to D\*Face, the trio "wanted the artwork to represent California, but with a subversive side to show that it's not always great and there's always something under the surface, in the underbelly." The artist was particularly busy, and employed pre-existing but unfinished illustration for the album cover. He also offered two alternate pieces that were rejected, but later posted on NME's website. Skiba and Barker were pleased, but Hoppus was not as immediately receptive, according to the artist. While he did not admit to being a fan of the group, D\*Face was happy with the commission, commenting, "To have a band with such a great legacy and talent like Blink ask to work with you is a great honour and privilege."
The title California is representative of the band's home state, and was picked after the band members realized that they had written multiple songs relating to its cities and culture. The title was also inspired by the season and Feldmann's studio: "It was a perfect California winter, and it was sunny and hot every single day. John's studio, it's basically indoor-outdoor with palm trees everywhere." Though he refrained from dubbing it a concept album, Skiba considered the songs linked thematically: "big and bright and huge and dark and twisted, everything that California is." "The title of this album was one of the most difficult things I've done in my entire life," said Hoppus. Alternate titles for the album included No Future, which was dropped because it seemed too negative, and the joke titles OB-GYN Kenobi, Nude Erection, and No Hard Feelings. D\*Face also reported that the titles Los Angeles and Riot were nearly used.
## Release
California was announced alongside the lead single, "Bored to Death", on Los Angeles radio station KROQ on April 27, 2016. A music video, directed by Rob Soucy, was released on June 20. The group released an additional three songs—"Built This Pool" on May 5, "Rabbit Hole" on June 8, and "No Future" on June 23—and also performed "Brohemian Rhapsody" in live concerts prior to the album's release. California was released on July 1. The date is typically the 182nd day of the year, but due to it being a leap year, it was the 183rd. "She's Out of Her Mind" was announced as the second official single on August 1, 2016 and sent to radio October 11. "Home Is Such a Lonely Place" was sent to alternative radio as the third official single April 18, 2017.
California was the band's first and only release through independent service BMG Rights Management, and was among BMG's first releases through its distribution deal with the Alternative Distribution Alliance. The album was initially slated to be self-released, but they decided to work with BMG when that label acquired Vagrant Records. Vagrant had a promotional team that, according to Blink's manager Lawrence Varra, understood the culture surrounding the band and genre. The deal allowed the band and its management to be in near-complete control of the release and promotion of California. "We didn't have to listen to a major label spend the money they wanted to spend, [and] we'd just spend it ourselves the way we wanted to," said Varra. Rather than "window" the album — an industry term for its release being exclusively physical for a period of time — the team chose to release California as wide as possible. "We wanted the music to be accessible to the younger kids who listen to it on YouTube and Spotify and different places," he said. In addition, they employed ticketing tiers for the California Tour, making it possible for hardcore fans to obtain the best seats, but also allowing it to be affordable for more casual fans.
In December 2016, the band revealed they were in the process of recording more material for a deluxe edition re-release of the album. "It's a double album at this point and it's more of an extension of what we did in the studio earlier. Some of the songs were songs that we did not put on the first album, but are great songs. And some are brand new that we just wrote last week," Hoppus said to Billboard. On February 28, 2017, Hoppus replied to a message on Twitter in regards of the deluxe edition, stating that it is set to release on May 19, 2017. On March 16, 2017, "Parking Lot" was released as the first song from the deluxe edition.
## Critical reception
California has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 63 out of 100, which indicates "generally favorable reviews" based on seventeen reviews. AllMusic's Neil Z. Yeung dubbed the record "their best in 15 years," considering it "a return to form and an admirable maturation of the band's classic pop-punk sound ... It's not a desperate grasp at youth and faded glory, but rather a reflective look back and an expert execution of what they do best." Gav Lloyd from Rock Sound wrote that "Blink-182 have delivered an album that recalls everything that makes this band great and gives it all a fresh twist, the end result is California being amongst the best albums they've ever produced." NME's Charlotte Gunn felt California "has the humour, pace, emotion and huge choruses of a classic Blink record." Evan Lucy at Alternative Press felt it "upbeat, hooky and, above anything else, a total blast." Exclaim!s Josiah Hughes was more critical, calling it "uneven and disjointed" and "hard to take in as one larger whole".
Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone considered it the band's catchiest music since their heyday, summarizing, "At its best, California shows Blink trying new ways to freshen up yesterday's racket." Jon Caramanica at The New York Times found it "pleasantly familiar if not especially imaginative ... the album [is] full of songs that have achieved their purpose by the halfway mark." Andrew Unterberger of Spin felt DeLonge's presence was missed, describing it as "fine, fun, and overall kinda meh." Aidan Reynolds from Drowned in Sound noted "California sounds like the work of a band filled with the joy of existence, giving in to every pop indulgence or production trick that could stuff in one more hook before the end. There are pick-scrapes and 'whoah-oh' backing vocals EVERYWHERE, and even the dumb, seconds-long throwaway tracks have their own charm."
A number of reviewers found the album overly long, while others felt Feldmann was too much of an influence. Mike Damante at the Houston Chronicle said "Feldmann's style is all over the record, as most tracks sound too formulaic, similar and run together. Other tracks are way too commercial, even for a band the size of blink. ... California is ultimately a step back, rather than a throwback." David Anthony from The A.V. Club gave the album a C−, commenting, "California is the sound of Blink-182 desperately trying to remain relevant by outsourcing its creativity. [It] is another homogenous addition to Feldmann's growing résumé. But this time he unintentionally removed the soul of pop-punk's clown princes in the process." Nina Corcoran from Consequence of Sound was similarly negative: "When not cranking the compression on the vocals, Feldmann ruins other songs with nonstop gimmicks: the piano interludes, the stiffened handclaps, the sappy title track." Gwilym Mumford of the Guardian, focusing on the album's turbulent history regarding the departure of DeLonge, deemed the album "a tired – and tiring – work."
### Accolades
At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards, Blink-182 were nominated for the award for Best Rock Album. California lost to Cage the Elephant's Tell Me I'm Pretty.
## Commercial performance
California debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, moving 186,000 equivalent album units; it sold 172,000 copies in its first week, with the remainder of its unit total reflecting the album's streaming activity and track sales. It marked the band's second number one album and first in over 15 years, when Take Off Your Pants and Jacket debuted at number one in 2001. It also knocked Drake's Views from the summit after having spent nine weeks at the top. The album became the band's first to top the charts in the United Kingdom, selling 24,000 copies in its debut week. The album also managed to reach higher chart positions worldwide than its predecessor Neighborhoods and outsold both its first-week and total sales in the US. As of December 2016, California has sold 408,000 units in the United States; making it the ninth best selling rock album of 2016. The album re-entered the Billboard 200 at number 17 in the week of the deluxe edition release.
## Touring
Following the band's first performances with Skiba in 2015, Barker alluded to a potential tour with rock group A Day to Remember. Performances promoting California began on May 14, 2016 with the group's surprise appearance at KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine, California. Prior to the main headlining tour, the group embarked on the We Are Pirates Tour, performing at several festivals and amphitheaters between May and July 2016. The festivals included X Games Austin 2016, Firefly Music Festival, Big Field Day, Amnesia Rockfest, and Kerfuffle 2016. Hoppus and Skiba also performed several acoustic sets in England in June 2016. The main tour behind California began on July 21 in San Diego and its North American leg concluded on October 7 in Irvine. The trek was supported by A Day to Remember, as well as the All-American Rejects, All Time Low, and DJ Spider. Afterwards, the group again performed acoustic sets in the U.K., and also performed at various festivals and events, including Not So Silent Night, Holiday Havoc, Wrex the Halls, and KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas. The band also played the AT&T Developer Summit and the Phoenix Open in early 2017.
A second U.S. leg began in March 2017, with support from the Naked and Famous and Wavves. The band embarked on a European tour between June and July 2017, including spots at the Nova Rock Festival, the I-Days Festival, Hurricane Festival and Southside Festival, Roskilde Festival, and the Download Festival. Frank Turner and the Sleeping Souls and the Front Bottoms opened for the group for much of the tour. The California Tour grossed more than \$28.9 million from its first U.S. leg, with a total attendance of 745,395. The tour concluded in late 2017 with spots at Lollapalooza, and the Life is Beautiful festival.
## Legacy
California marked a moment for the group, a reintroduction to generations of new fans while establishing their new lineup. Music critic Kelefa Sanneh characterized the album as "a big-budget reboot of a beloved franchise." The three were uncertain regarding fan response to Skiba replacing DeLonge; indeed, Skiba later described stepping into the role as something of an "identity crisis". A hit album for the trio was not guaranteed: "I was speculative leading up, and nervous. This record could have gone either way," said Jon Cohen, EVP of recorded music for BMG. The positive response to California was enveloping to the three: "As long as Blink has been around and with all the drama we [had] a number one album, we [had] the biggest tour of our career and we [had] a Grammy nomination," Hoppus said. In addition, the band's ascendance to the top of the charts signaled a larger cultural moment surrounding pop-punk music. During the release cycle for the LP, the band were name-dropped in the song "Closer" from EDM duo the Chainsmokers, which became a huge global hit. "All different kinds of musicians were talking about growing up listening to Blink, and we released California in the midst of all that," Barker remembered.
The band later made one more album with Skiba, Nine (2019), which built on their partnership with Feldmann and utilized additional outside songwriters. In the early 2020s, the band reunited with DeLonge for a new album and world tour, putting the interim Skiba era to an end. However, the band's success with California remained a vital part of the band's story: DeLonge not only performed "Bored to Death", but also album opener "Cynical" on the band's ensuing world tour.
## Track listing
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Blink-182
- Mark Hoppus – vocals, bass guitar
- Travis Barker – drums, percussion
- Matt Skiba – vocals, guitars
Additional musicians
- Alabama Barker – piano on "She's Out of Her Mind"
- Jack Hoppus – additional vocals
- Simon Wilcox – additional vocals on "Bottom of the Ocean", guitars
- DJ Spider – turntables
Design
- D\*Face – artwork
- Elyn Kazarian – layout
- Randall Leddy – layout
Production'
- John Feldmann – producer
- Zakk Cervini – additional production, recording engineer, mixing engineer
- Matt Pauling – additional production, recording engineer
- Neal Avron – mixing
- Dan Lancaster – mixing
- Ben Grosse – mixing
- Ted Jensen – mastering engineer
- Allie Snow – assistant
- Brian Burnham – assistant
- Cody Okonski – assistant
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
Sources: Amazon.com and Twitter
|
9,685,010 |
Attalea (plant)
| 1,156,504,390 |
Genus of palms
|
[
"Arecaceae genera",
"Attalea (plant)",
"Neotropical realm flora",
"Oil palm",
"Taxa named by Carl Sigismund Kunth"
] |
Attalea is a large genus of palms native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central and South America. This pinnately leaved, non-spiny genus includes both small palms lacking an aboveground stem and large trees. The genus has a complicated taxonomic history, and has often been split into four or five genera based on differences in the male flowers. Since the genera can only be distinguished on the basis of their male flowers, the existence of intermediate flower types and the existence of hybrids between different genera has been used as an argument for keeping them all in the same genus. This has been supported by recent molecular phylogenies.
Between 29 and 67 species are recognised in the genus, with estimates of as many as 100. Incomplete herbarium collections make it difficult to determine whether certain groups represent single species, or groups of similar species. Attalea species have a long history of human use, and include economically important sources of palm oil and fibre. Many species are fire tolerant and thrive in disturbed habitats. Their seeds are animal dispersed, including some which are thought to have been adapted for dispersal by now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna.
## Description
Attalea is a genus of non-spiny palms with pinnately compound leaves—rows of leaflets emerge on either side of the axis of the leaf in a feather-like or fern-like pattern. Species range from large trees with stout stems up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall to acaulescent palms (ones which lack an aboveground stem). The number of leaves per individual varies from about three to thirty-five; larger plants tend to have more and longer leaves.
Inflorescences are large, branched and borne among the leaves. The inflorescence consists of a main axis—the peduncle and the rachis—and a series of smaller branches, the rachillae. The rachillae, which bear the flowers, emerge from the rachis. The peduncle is the main stalk, connecting the rachis with the stem. Inflorescences either consist entirely of male flowers, or are predominantly female with a few male flowers. Fruit usually have two or three seeds, although fewer or more are present in some species, and are usually brown, yellow, orange-brown or purple when mature.
Four different types of male flowers exist. On the basis of these flower types, the genus has often been split into four genera—a more narrowly defined Attalea, Orbignya, Maximiliana, and Scheelea. The species sometimes referred to Orbignya have coiled anthers, while the other groups have straight ones. The petals of those placed in Maximiliana are much shorter than the stamens, while those placed in Scheelea and a more narrowly defined Attalea have petals that are longer than the stamens. Five species do not fit easily into any of these groups; this fact has been used as an argument in favour of considering this group a single genus.
## Taxonomy
Attalea has been placed in the subfamily Arecoideae, the tribe Cocoseae and the subtribe Attaleinae, together with the genera Allagoptera, Beccariophoenix, Butia, Cocos, Jubaea, Jubaeopsis, Parajubaea, Syagrus, and Voanioala. Within this subtribe, Attalea has been found to be a monophyletic group, and sister to the clade containing Allagoptera, Polyandrococos, Parajubaea, Butia, and Jubaea.
Disagreement exists as to whether Attalea should be considered a single genus, or a group of related genera. In their 1996 Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas, Andrew Henderson, Gloria Galeano, and Rodrigo Bernal combined all the species in the subtribe Attaleinae (as it was then defined) into a single genus, Attalea. In his 1999 Taxonomic Treatment of Palm Subtribe Attaleinae, American botanist Sidney F. Glassman divided the group into five genera—a more narrowly defined Attalea, Orbignya, Maximiliana, Scheelea and Ynesa, although he thought it likely that Ynesa colenda, the only member of that genus, was actually a hybrid. Rafäel Govaerts and John Dransfield recognised a single genus in their 2005 World Checklist of Palms, and Jean-Christophe Pintaud continued this usage in his 2008 review of the genus.
The multigenus approach is based solely on the structure of the male flowers; no other characters could be consistently associated with one genus or another. Four of the genera—Attalea (in a narrow sense), Orbignya, Maximiliana and Scheelea—correspond to four different types of male flowers found within the genus. However, a few species have flowers that are intermediate between these four types, including A. colenda (which Glassman placed in its own genus, Ynesa) and this has been used as an argument for the single-genus approach. The fact that there are several hybrids between species occur that would be considered different genera under Glassman's five-genus system was also used as an argument for placing them in a single genus. Molecular phylogenetic work by Alan Meerow and colleagues concluded that multi-genus approach did not produce monophyletic groups, but treating Attalea as a single genus did.
Cintia Freitas and colleagues identified three main clades within the genus based on the nuclear WRKY gene family. The first of these, a group of species from the coastal Atlantic Forest region in Brazil all of which had been placed in Attalea in the narrow sense, they termed the Attalea-like clade. This group was a sister to the other two clades. The second group, which they called the Scheelea-like clade, consisted of most of the species formerly placed in Scheelea, together with several that had been placed in Attalea (narrowly defined) and Orbigyna. The third group consisted mainly of species formerly placed in Orbigyna and Maximiliana; they called this the Orbigyna-like clade. Despite the existence of three well-supported clades, Freitas and colleagues concluded that the concept of Attalea as a single genus was best supported by their evidence.
### History
The genus Attalea was first described Carl Sigismund Kunth in 1816 based on specimens collected by Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, although older, pre-Linnaean descriptions exist, including Charles Plumier's 1703 description of A. crassispatha. The genus was named for Attalus III Philometor, king of Pergamon, known for his interest in medicinal plants. The type species is A. amygdalina, a Colombian endemic. The genera Maximiliana and Orbignya were described by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius in 1826 and 1837 respectively. Scheelea was described by Hermann Karsten in 1857, and Ynesa by Orator F. Cook in 1942.
### Species
Experts disagree about the number of species in the genus Attalea (broadly defined). In 1965, Dutch taxonomist Jan Gerard Wessels Boer estimated that as many as 100 species may be in the genus. In their 1996 Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas Andrew Henderson and coauthors recognised 29 species in the genus, while Sidney Glassman recognised 65 species in his 1999 treatment of the group. Largely following Glassman's lead, Rafaël Govaerts and John Dransfield recognised 67 species in their 2005 World Checklist of Palms. An important element of this disagreement is the decision by Glassman to define species more narrowly than Henderson. As a result, what Henderson interpreted as variation within species, Glassman took as differences between morphologically similar species. This problem is complicated by the fact that many of these species are poorly represented in herbarium collections. The large size of the leaves, inflorescences and fruit of many Attalea species makes them difficult to collect. In addition, many important collections, including type specimen, have been lost or destroyed. Sparse or incomplete collections make it difficult to differentiate variation within a single species from variation between different species. Taxonomic uncertainty is exacerbated by frequent hybridisation between species.
The three recent treatments (Henderson and coauthors, Glassman, and Govaerts and Dransfield) recognised a total of 73 species, but only 20 species are accepted by all of them. The remainder account for either nine species or more than 40. For example, what Andrew Henderson considered a single species, Attalea attaleoides, other authors have considered a species complex consisting of four or five species. Glassman doubted the validity of A. attaleoides as a species, and described four new species from material that had previously been attributed to A. attaleoides—A. camopiensis, A. degranvillei, A. guianensis and A. maripensis. Govaerts and Dransfield accepted both Glassman's four species and A. attaleoides. However, Jean-Christophe Pintaud was of the opinion that A. guianensis, A. maripensis and A. attaleoides were all very similar, and thought it likely that they all represented the same species.
Another species complex in Attalea includes A. speciosa and related species. Henderson (1995) recognised A. speciosa and A. spectabilis, considering the latter to either be an acaulescent form of A. speciosa or a hybrid between A. microcarpa and it. Govaerts and Dransfield accepted A. spectabilis, but Glassman considered it a dubious taxon. Attalea vitrivir was recognised as a distinct species by Michael Balick and coauthors; Glassman and Govaerts and Dransfield concurred, but Henderson considered it part of A. speciosa. Glassman also described a fourth member of this group, A. brejinhoensis, and it is accepted by Govaerts and Dransfield.
## Reproduction and growth
Attalea species are monoecious—male and female flowers are separate, but are borne by the same plant. Various species have been described as being insect-pollinated, including A. phalerata, while pollination in A. colenda and A. speciosa, has been attributed both to insects and wind. The fruit are animal-dispersed.
Seed germination is remote tubular—during germination, as the cotyledon expands it pushes the young shoot away from the seed. After germination, the stem initially grows downward before turning to grow upward and produce the aboveground stem. This produces a "saxophone shaped" belowground portion of the stem. The fact that the shoot tips of Attalea seedlings are underground it likely to contribute to their fire-tolerance.
## Distribution
Species range across the Neotropics from Mexico in the north to Bolivia, Paraguay, and southern Brazil in the south, from low elevations in coastal Brazil to up to 1,600 m (5,200 ft) above sea level in the Andes. According to Govaerts and coauthors, three species are found in Mexico, four in Central America, and 62 in South America. Three species are present in the Caribbean—two in Trinidad and Tobago, along the southern edge of the region, and one in Haiti.
## Habitat and ecology
Attalea includes both large trees and small, acaulescent palms, which occupy a number of different ecological niches. Dense stands of some of the larger species are conspicuous elements on the landscape, while smaller species are found in both in the forest understorey and in savannas.
Disturbance has been implicated in the formation of vegetation dominated by large Attalea species. In seasonally dry Amazonian forests, the density of large adult A. maripa palms was correlated with canopy openness; the species also dominates savannas formed by repeated forest fires in Trinidad and Tobago. A. speciosa forms pure stands in many parts of Brazil where natural forest vegetation has been cleared. Similarly, stands of A. funifera in Bahia, Brazil (which are cultivated for piassava fibre) are managed using fire—the seedlings survive cutting and burning, and are able to dominate burned forest patches.
The fruit are dispersed by animals; fruit which are not dispersed frequently suffer seed predation by bruchid beetles. Certain species of Attalea have been mentioned as examples of anachronistic species which are adapted for dispersal by now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna. On Maracá Island, Roraima, in the Brazilian Amazon, A. maripa fruit were consumed by tapirs, collared peccaries, deer, and primates. Rodents, including agoutis, fed upon the fruit, and as the fruit availability declined, they fed on the seeds. Other dispersers of Attalea fruit include crested caracaras, which consume the fruit and disperse the seeds of A. phalerata in the Brazilian Pantanal.
## Uses
Attalea species have a long history of human use. Carbonised Attalea maripa seeds have been found in archaeological sites in Colombia dating back to 9000 BP. Several species remain important sources of edible oil, thatch, edible seeds, and fibre. The leaves of Attalea butyracea and A. maripa are used extensively for thatching. Several species are oil palms, with A. speciosa among the most important economically. Products extracted from A. speciosa were reported to support over 300,000 households in the Brazilian state of Maranhão in 2005, and in 1985 it was estimated to support over 450,000 households throughout the Brazil. Piassava fibres, extracted from the leaf bases of A. funifera, are commercially important, and generated about US\$20 million in annual income to Brazilian farmers in 1996.
|
49,371,117 |
A Change of Heart (The 1975 song)
| 1,170,607,783 | null |
[
"2010s ballads",
"2016 singles",
"2016 songs",
"Black-and-white music videos",
"Dirty Hit singles",
"Electropop ballads",
"Polydor Records singles",
"Songs by Matty Healy",
"Synth-pop ballads",
"The 1975 songs"
] |
"A Change of Heart" is a song by English band the 1975 from their second studio album, I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It (2016). The song was written by Matty Healy, George Daniel, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald. Mike Crossey handled the production alongside Daniel and Healy. The song was released on 22 February 2016 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records as the fifth single from the album. A synth-pop and electropop power ballad, the song features 808 beats, a portamento keyboard riff, pulsing synthesisers and elements of ambient pop, electro, new wave, yacht rock, chillwave and indie rock. The song's melancholic lyrics describe falling out of love and detail the end of a romance, focusing on the theme of technology.
Upon release, "A Change of Heart" received positive reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised the lyrics and production. The song later appeared on several year-end lists. Commercially, it reached number 127 on the UK Singles Chart, number 47 on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs and number 36 on the Billboard Alternative Airplay charts. The song was later certified silver in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). An accompanying music video, written by Healy and directed by Tim Mattia, was released on 21 April 2016. The black and white tragicomic visual is based on Federico Fellini's film I clowns (1970), and follows Healy as a Pierrot-style clown engaging in a short-lived romance at an abandoned carnival.
## Background and release
During the song's premiere on Annie Mac's self-titled BBC Radio 1 show, Healy described it as a "simple song – three notes – and the truth" and a "very atypical '1975' song", saying the band wanted the track to convey serious conviction, self-awareness and beauty. On 22 February 2016, "A Change of Heart" was officially released as the album's fifth single.
## Music and lyrics
Musically, "A Change of Heart" is a low-tempo synth-pop and electropop power ballad. The song has a length of four minutes and 43 seconds (4:43). Containing a retro sound, the track's light and airy production consists of synthetically charged choirs, a percolating rhythm, simple three-note repetitions, a pop hook, 808 beats, a backing drum beat, jittering guitars, a portamento keyboard riff, quietly reverberating and meandering synthesiser pulses, a whirring synthesiser solo, lightly-tapped synth pads and a calming rock instrumentation. It also contains elements of ambient pop, electro, new wave, yacht rock, chillwave and indie rock. Ryan Reed of Rolling Stone described it as a "John Hughes-worthy synth-pop ballad", while James Grebey of Spin called it a "relaxing, floaty throwback to decades past" and Chris Ingalls of PopMatters said it "[sounds] like it was transported from 1987 and wouldn't sound at all out of place on some big-haired college radio DJ's late-night playlist".
Lyrically, "A Change of Heart" is a melancholic song that deals with falling out of love. Healy sings of a woman with whom he is romantically involved, before admitting that her appearance alone cannot sustain their relationship. The singer openly admits his superficial flaws, revealing his partner's appearance both initially attracted and later repulsed him. He points out her quirks while making derogatory remarks, singing: "And you were coming across as clever / Then you lit the wrong end of your cigarette". Healy also comments on his own behaviour in the couplet "I’ll quote On The Road like a twat". Conversely, the singer's partner says he looks terrible and is riddled with diseases. Returning to the theme of technology explored in "Love Me", the song analyses connection in the digital age, describing a partner more interested in being on their phone than with the relationship. As they become more connected on social media, they become disconnected from one another in reality, with Healy singing: "And then you took a picture of your salad/And put it on the internet". Ultimately, the singer breaks down into tears when the relationship has concluded.
## Reception
Upon release, "A Change of Heart" was met with positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Billboard deemed "A Change of Heart" the best rock and alternative song of 2016; describing it as an "incandescent synthpop tale of a relationship crumbling apart", editor Chris Payne praised the songwriting, narrative and alluring quality. Spin ranked the song at number 59 on their 2016 year-end list, with Anna Gaca commending the "exquisitely" gentle sound, haunting synth and "tragically" ironic depiction of modern love, calling it a "wooning, shimmering heartbreaker of a pop ballad". NPR included the track on their mid-year best of 2016 list; Daoud Tyler-Ameen declared it the most undeniable song from I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. He praised the slight, sweet and underpunctuated lyrics—comparing them to 2016 Twitter poetry—and the singer's accent, saying its "lushness swallows you whole". Paste ranked "A Change of Heart" at number 16 on their list of the 1975's essential songs, calling it the "calm before the relapse in 'Somebody Else'".
Neil O'Sullivan of Financial Times called "A Change of Heart" excellent, while Maledine Roth of MTV News said the song is a "soul-wrenching (but admittedly beautiful) heap of sadness". Michael Hann of The Guardian called the track bleak and beautiful, deeming the line "You said I’m full of diseases, your eyes were full of regret / And then you took a picture of your salad and you put it on the internet" as 2016's best couplet. Celia Cummiskey of Euphoria Magazine highlighted Healy's delicate vocals and ability to mask a complicated emotional dilemma within the song's "deceptively upbeat" sound, while comparing "A Change of Heart" to Peter Gabriel's work in the 1980s. Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club said Healy "upends the sensitive-poet stereotype with a knowing wink" and Rhian Daly of NME called the song the most self-referential track on the album. In the 1975's native United Kingdom, "A Change of Heart" peaked at number 127 on the UK Singles Chart and was later certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting sales of over 200,000 units in the UK. In the United States, the song peaked at number 47 on the US Billboard Hot Rock & Alternative Songs.
## Music video
An accompanying music video, directed by Tim Mattia, was released on 21 April 2016. The black and white visual is based on Federico Fellini's film I clowns (1970), while also taking inspiration from Michael Jackson's tribute to Charlie Chaplin, The Wiz (1978), Gene Kelly and Bob Fosse. The video features Healy—who wrote the visual—in the role of the protagonist; a Pierrot-style melancholy clown. Regarding the video's meaning, the singer said: "I want to convey the sense of resignation in being a clown. I am, have been and will always be a clown. I think it can tire people." The visual begins with Healy entering an abandoned, yet still operating carnival, and he begins to dance. The singer encounters a female clown and they dance together before running to the bumper cars. The pair adventure throughout the park, illustrating the strengthening of their relationship. Healy and the woman dance, play carnival games, do magic tricks and eat popcorn, while spirited dance sequences are interspersed. Once the weight of their romance becomes apparent, the female clown grows tired of the singer's silliness and leaves him in the video's denouement. The final shot shows Healy alone on a park bench underneath a raincloud, which leaves him soaking wet.
Grant Sharples of Alternative Press included "A Change of Heart" on his list of 10 music videos from the 1975 that should be made into feature-length films, saying: "The video is a clever reference to the 1975’s early black-and-white videos, but it adds an old-school cinema twist that’s unique to itself." Gaca commended the "bittersweet" video, calling it tragicomic. Reed also deemed the visual a tragicomedy, praising its vividness while noting it "[charts] the highs and lows of a tragicomic clown romance". Roth praised the "bittersweet" music video, while Tom Connick of DIY said it presents a darker side of clown life, writing: "It’s not all fun and games being a clown ... Sometimes, though, it’s actually a bloody nightmare." Payne praised Healy's acting and improvisation, noting the visual likely took a great deal of time to rehearse.
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It album liner notes.
- Matthew Healy – composer, producer, electric guitar, vocals, background vocals
- George Daniel – composer, producer, programming, synthesizer programming, drums, keyboards, synthesizer, percussion
- Adam Hann – composer, electric guitar
- Ross MacDonald – composer
- Mike Crossey – producer, programming, mixer
- Jonathan Gilmore – recording engineer
- Chris Gehringer – mastering engineer
## Charts
## Certifications
## See also
- The 1975 discography
- List of songs by Matty Healy
|
2,485,957 |
Vaan (Final Fantasy)
| 1,171,078,173 |
Fictional character in Final Fantasy
|
[
"Air pirates",
"Characters designed by Akihiko Yoshida",
"Fantasy video game characters",
"Fictional pirates in video games",
"Fictional professional thieves",
"Final Fantasy XII",
"Final Fantasy characters",
"Male characters in video games",
"Orphan characters in video games",
"Square Enix protagonists",
"Video game characters introduced in 2004"
] |
Vaan (Japanese: ヴァン, Hepburn: Van) is a character in the Final Fantasy series from Square Enix. Created by Yasumi Matsuno and designed by Akihiko Yoshida, he first appeared in Itadaki Street Special and then appeared in Final Fantasy XII as the protagonist. Final Fantasy XII establishes Vaan as an orphaned teenager from Rabanastre who dreams of becoming a sky pirate. He and his best friend Penelo join Dalmasca Princess Ashe in her fight against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire. Vaan also takes a more active role in the sequel Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings and has also been featured in few Final Fantasy crossover games.
Vaan was conceptualized as the main character for Final Fantasy XII in order to contrast the older hero from Square's previous title Vagrant Story as a result of negative feedback received by fans. Critical reception to Vaan's character has been mixed as a result of his lack of involvement with Final Fantasy XII's plot, although various video game publications still found him likable.
## Appearances
Vaan was first introduced in the 2004 crossover board game Itadaki Street Special for the PlayStation 2. He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable.
The protagonist of Final Fantasy XII, Vaan is a 17-year-old orphaned street urchin who lost his parents in a plague when he was 12 years old. His only brother, Reks, died two years prior to the start of the game, during the Archadian invasion of Dalmasca. He makes a living as Migelo's assistant, running various errands for him, while at the same time pickpocketing from Archadian soldiers while claiming to take back what is Dalmasca's. He is a cheerful and energetic boy. Vaan dreams of someday becoming a sky pirate in command of his own airship. He trains to meet this goal by killing dire rats in the sewers of Rabanastre on a daily basis, for which Dalan gave him the nickname "Vaan Ratsbane". Despite nominally being the protagonist, the majority of the game focuses on the events and conflicts of the world as a whole and of Ashe, rather than Vaan's individual problems, with his character instead used as a narrative device to allow the player to follow the events as an outside observer. During the course of the game, Vaan comes to understand that he has spent his time running from his problems and blaming the Archadian empire for them, rather than moving on with his life after his brother and parents' deaths. Vaan ends the game as a sky pirate, traveling the world along with Penelo. He also reprises his role from Final Fantasy XII in the manga adaptation by Gin Amou.
During the events of Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings, Vaan becomes captain of the Airship Galbana and uses it to travel to Lemurés, meeting old friends while making new ones. By Final Fantasy Tactics A2: Grimoire of the Rift Vaan's and Penelo's adventures take them to the Jylland region of Ivalice, where they get caught up in events surrounding Clan Gully and a boy from another world named Luso Clemens, eventually joining up with the clan for a time.
Vaan also appears in the PlayStation Portable fighting game, Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy, as one of Cosmos' warriors who seek to eliminate creatures known as Maninkins. He returns in the game's sequel, Dissidia NT, as one of Materia's champions. He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy and its sequels, Curtain Call and Final Bar Line, as the main character representing Final Fantasy XII.
## Concept and creation
Yasumi Matsuno added Vaan and Penelo to be male and female avatar characters for the player in Final Fantasy XII. They would see and learn about Ivalice in sync with the player over the course of the game but would not be deeply connected to the story. The development team explained that their previous game, Vagrant Story, which featured a "strong man in his prime" as the protagonist had been unsuccessful and unpopular; the change regarding Final Fantasy XII from a "big and tough" protagonist to a more effeminate one was thus decided after targeting demographics were considered. Although originally conceived as more "rugged", Vaan was changed during development of the game to be more effeminate after "taking into consideration the target demographic". He was designed by character designer Akihiko Yoshida to look Asian. In response to criticism from Western fans regarding Vaan's design executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu noted that while several members from the development team were not feeling Vaan was the right main character owing to his young age, it was common for Japanese RPG to start with an inexperienced characters who grow across the game.
Motomu Toriyama, the writer and director of Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings, picked Vaan as his favourite character in the game. In the making of the high-definition of XII, the staff reflected on how "weak" and unreliable he was in the original game. However, they jokingly discussed together that ten years later, he could become more appealing than Balthier, a character Square found appealing. Wanting characters who could appeal to long-term fans and new fans, the team incorporated Vaan and Penelo in Final Fantasy Tactics A2: Grimoire of the Rift. Vaan's appearance, which was supposed to mirror that of Balthier, was suggested by Hiroaki Kato. In Dissidia, he is featured in his Final Fantasy XII design, while alternative ones depict him as in Final Fantasy Tactics A2: Grimoire of the Rift, a new one by Yoshitaka Amano and another one featuring him as sea pirate by Akihiko Yoshida. Another Final Fantasy XII centered-title, only known as Fortress, was in plans by Square Enix but was cancelled; in this video game, Vaan would remain with Penelo and live quiet lives due to the plot being more focused on other characters from the previous games, most notably Ashe, Larsa and Basch.
Vaan was voiced in Final Fantasy XII by Bobby Edner in English and by Kouhei Takeda in Japanese. With the casting of Takeda for the voice acting and motion capture, Vaan became a little less feminine and more "active, upbeat bright and positive" than planned. In the making of the English version, some lines involving Vaan had to be changed for its release but without the loss of the real information. When asked how he compares to other Final Fantasy protagonists, Hideo Minaba said that due in part to being designed by a different character designer than before, he did not feel he could be compared to any other Final Fantasy character. Vaan's inclusion in Dissidia 012 met difficulties due to the fact Takeda was busy with other works to voice him. However, following a Japanese popularity survey, the staff in charge hired Kenshō Ono to replace Takeda as fans wanted him to appear in Dissidia 012.
## Reception
The similarities between Vaan's design and that of Tetsuya Nomura's characters have been criticized, which artist Akihiko Yoshida noted was likely due to the similar colours used. In the book Final Fantasy and Philosophy: The Ultimate Walkthrough, he is described by Greg Littmann as a pick pocket and, unlike many of Final Fantasy's protagonists, lacking in a "sense of honesty and justice". GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin described Vaan as the "token androgynous male lead", also describing him as an "Aladdin-type". G4 TV editor Greg Orlando described him as "eminently likable" due to the game's focus on "political intrigue" and Vaan trying to understand it all. Cyril Lachel of GamingNexus said that while he was not a fan of Vaan, he was surprised by how his story turned out. 1UP.com editor Andrew Pfister stated that while everyone was expecting to hate what he describes as an "angsty teen", this is "tempered by the presence of Balthier and Basch", two fellow characters. Kotaku's Jason Schreier considered Vaan and Penelo the game's weak points as they compared them with other characters such as Balthier and Asche whose actions were "interesting". Christian Nutt of GamesRadar made fun of the character in an article about the best Final Fantasy heroes stating that Vaan would definitely not be included. Meanwhile, USGamer simply described him as a stereotypical character often seen in anime series aimed at young people. Schreier went harsher, to the point of making a podcast titled "Vaan Really Sucks" as he and his partner interacted about video games. DualShockers thought that Vaan was one of the "most misunderstood Final Fantasy protagonist" and stated that it "was actually the most important character in his story."
His lessened involvement with the plot compared to protagonists from preceding Final Fantasy titles was met with mixed reception. Destructoid editor Aaron Linde described him as "arguably the most uninspiring character in the game". Play.tm editor Andrew Macarthy described Vaan as an "undescribing figure". Eurogamer editor Rob Fahey opined that while "players may initially be somewhat dismayed to find themselves largely following around the cheerful prettyboy Vaan", the game introduces new characters who "fill out the cast superbly". PSX Extreme editor Cavin Smith commented that due to the game not focusing on just one character, Vaan "spends the entire game as an observer of the events unfolding in front of him", adding that it is a "far different take on the protagonist compared to Nomura's egocentric tendencies". Daily Collegian was harsher to the point of listing him as one of the most useless characters in the franchise due to his lack of appeal most notably in comparison to the party members from his game. PALGN editor Phil Larsen called him a "rogue-ish bad boy with a heart of gold", adding that "while this may seem clichéd at first, Vaan is always presented as extremely young and never tries to control every situation", citing Tidus as an example of someone who does. Worthplaying editor Agustin described the set-up as being "Dragon Quest-like", and that while he acts as a vehicle for players to view the plot through, he compared him to critically acclaimed characters Crono and Link from the Chrono Trigger and The Legend of Zelda series respectively.
Bobby Edner's portrayal of Vaan has been met with mostly positive reception. Cavin Smith praised his acting, stating that he sounds like an actual teenager without sounding whiny. Agustin praised the developers for giving Vaan a voice actor, commenting that it prevents any awkward silences from a silent protagonist. He added however that Vaan is "decidedly quiet", owing to many of the conversations not requiring his input, which Agustin called a "brilliant interactive storytelling device". His design change from Final Fantasy XII to Revenant Wings was criticized by RPGFan editor Patrick Gann, for going from a teenage design to what appears to be the design of a 10-year-old Vaan. Rémi Lopez in the book La Légende Final Fantasy XII et Ivalice noted that Vaan is a character who has a chaotic creation that brought him chance to the throne as hero of the main protagonist wothout affecting hois attributes. He further said that despite the cheerful and naivety specific to the many of the main characters of the Japanese RPG, Vaan doesn't lack certain characteristics because even if Vaan is 15 years old that knows nothing of the outside world and a philosophy to boil down friendships, he will still be able ti gather around characters on different ages and seeing in him the makings of the leader born despite his youth.
|
3,233,433 |
Iago sparrow
| 1,168,628,250 |
Species of bird
|
[
"Birds described in 1837",
"Endemic birds of Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Boa Vista, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Brava, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Maio, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Sal, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Santiago, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of Santo Antão, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of São Nicolau, Cape Verde",
"Fauna of São Vicente, Cape Verde",
"Passer",
"Taxa named by John Gould"
] |
The Iago sparrow (Passer iagoensis), also known as the Cape Verde or rufous-backed sparrow, is a passerine bird of the sparrow family Passeridae. It is endemic to the Cape Verde archipelago, in the eastern Atlantic Ocean near western Africa. Females and young birds have brown plumage with black marks above, and a dull grey underside, and are distinguished from other species of sparrow by their large, distinct supercilium. Males have a brighter underside and bold black and chestnut stripes on their head. At 12.5–13 centimetres (4.9–5.1 in) long, it is a smaller sparrow. This bird's vocalisations are mostly variations on its chirp, which differ somewhat between males and females.
The Iago sparrow was once thought to be most closely related to the rufous sparrows, a group of species within the genus Passer which live in similar habitats on continental Africa. Though the Iago sparrow is closest to the rufous sparrows in appearance, it has a number of crucial differences in morphology and behavior, and is separated by thousands of kilometres. It may in fact be more closely related to the house sparrow and Spanish sparrow. In Cape Verde it occurs on all but one island, and on most of them it is quite common. The Iago sparrow occurs in most of the habitats that are available in its range, such as lava plains, rocky hills, and gorges; however, the house sparrow and Spanish sparrow are typically present instead in denser settlements and richer cultivated areas respectively. Because the Iago sparrow is not under any serious threats, it is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
## Description
The Iago sparrow is a small sparrow, 12.5–13 centimetres (4.9–5.1 in) long, with a wing length of 5.5–6.9 centimetres (2.2–2.7 in). Its plumage is similar to that of the house sparrow, and it similarly is sexually dimorphic. The male has a black or greyish-black crown and eyestripe, a grey nape and a small patch of white on the lower forehead. The sides of its head, especially above the eye, are a rich cinnamon colour. The scapulars are white and brown, while the rest of the upperparts are brown, streaked with black and beige. The cheeks and underparts are pale grey, and the throat and chin are marked with a small black bib. The female is grey-brown, with black-streaked wings and breast, and pale grey underparts. It is very similar to the female house sparrow but has a more apparent pale supercilium (stripe over the eye). The juvenile resembles the adult female, but young males are more chestnut from an early age, with a trace of a black bib on the chin. In 1898, ornithologist Boyd Alexander reported that adults begin moulting in early February, and some birds were still in moult by late May.
The Iago sparrow's vocalisations include calls, varying between the sexes, elaborations of these called 'songs', and an alarm call. Calls are chirps, somewhat similar to those of other sparrows, the usual version made by males described as a "twangy" cheesp or chew-weep, and that of females described as a "more sibilant" chisk. The song is a long, elaborated series of call notes, and is made by breeding males in their nests. An alarm call like that of other sparrows, transcribed chur-chur-chur, is also used.
## Taxonomy
The Iago sparrow was first collected by Charles Darwin during the first stop of the second voyage of HMS Beagle at the island of Santiago (St. Iago). It was described for him in 1837 by zoologist John Gould, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, and given the name of Pyrgita iagoensis. By the time Gould wrote The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle with Darwin and three other zoologists in 1841, he had placed the Iago sparrow in the genus Passer, where it remains. The genus, among the sparrows of the Old World in the family Passeridae, also contains at least 20 other species, among them the house sparrow and Eurasian tree sparrow.
Within its genus, the Iago sparrow has been considered one of the African 'rufous sparrows', a group which also includes species such as the great sparrow (Passer motitensis). These birds were usually treated as distinct species until Reginald Ernest Moreau, writing in the 1962 Check-list of the Birds of the World, lumped the Iago sparrow and the mainland rufous sparrows as the single species Passer motitensis. This taxonomy was followed frequently until J. Denis Summers-Smith, a world authority on sparrows, argued in the 1980s that the Iago sparrow's many differences in morphology and behaviour, and separation from the other rufous sparrows by about 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi), are sufficient grounds for species status. Studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA have since suggested it may be a close relative of the house sparrow and the Spanish sparrow and not the rufous sparrows.
French ornithologist Émile Oustalet described a specimen from Branco as a separate species Passer brancoensis in 1883, which was recognised as the subspecies Passer iagoensis brancoensis by W. R. P. Bourne, who claimed to observe differences between Iago sparrows from different islands. According to Bourne, birds of Passer iagoensis iagoensis on more wooded islands in the south are darker and larger, and also behave more like house or Spanish sparrows, competing with them better in human-altered habitats. He later wrote that the variations he saw comprised two clinal trends, of increasing darkness towards the south, and of smaller size further from the continental coast. Charles Vaurie, examining differences in plumage and measurements of specimens in major museums, did not find any significant variation, and neither Vaurie nor Summers-Smith recognised any subspecies.
## Distribution and habitat
The Iago sparrow is endemic to the archipelago of Cape Verde. It is common on most islands, excluding Fogo (from which it is absent) and Santa Luzia, Branco and Sal (on which it is scarce). The Iago sparrow is found commonly in a variety of habitats, including flat lava plains, coastal cliffs, gorges, and the edges of farmland, at altitudes of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). It also occurs in settled areas and gardens, where it may overlap somewhat with the house sparrow, but usually not with the Spanish sparrow. The Spanish sparrow occurs in richer cultivated land with larger trees and villages, restricting the Iago sparrow to more arid cultivated land with smaller trees. In settlements where both the house sparrow and Iago sparrow occur, house sparrows tend to occupy the denser areas, while Iago sparrows are found primarily around trees and open spaces. In agricultural areas the Iago sparrow may do some damage to crops, mostly by eating buds and shoots. The Iago sparrow is highly common within its limited range, though its exact population is not known. Though the size of its range means it may be at risk to unpredicted changes in its environment, it is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List.
In May 2013 four vagrant Iago sparrows were seen at Hansweert, in the Netherlands, having flown onto a ship as it passed by the island of Raso.
## Behaviour
The Iago sparrow is gregarious while foraging and breeding. Outside of the breeding season, Iago sparrows are always in flocks, which may be of considerable size. It flocks with other birds, even warblers such as the blackcap and the Cape Verde warbler. The Iago sparrow is not very shy toward humans, allowing them to approach, even while it is at its nest. Birds on the isolated and uninhabited island of Raso will even perch on human visitors with little fear. Because of the scarcity of water to drink in its habitat, it has a strong attraction to sources of water, and large flocks may congregate when humans provide water it can drink. It often is seen dust bathing in small groups, a behavior necessary to keep clean with a paucity of water.
The adult Iago sparrow feeds mainly on the seeds of grass and grain (the main cereal crop grown in Cape Verde is maize), but also on insects and plant shoots. They can do damage to crops by eating young leaves, and like house sparrows will eat the food scraps available near houses. Nestlings, by contrast to adults, are fed almost exclusively on insects, especially caterpillars, flies, and orthopterans. The Iago sparrow forages mostly on the ground, moving restlessly whilst clinging to the ground like a mouse.
### Breeding
The breeding season generally begins in August and September with the onset of the humid season, but the climate during a particular year may change the timing of breeding. On Cima, W. R. P. Bourne observed females remaining in flocks while males began to take up locations on rocky slopes from which they could sing. The breeding season is typically long enough that some pairs may be fledging young before others even start to build a nest; the greatest number of pairs breed when rains come, in October to November. Unmated males attract females by calling out beside a prospective nest site. When approached by a female, the displaying male will increase the intensity of his calls and hop around her while crouching with chestnut rump- and shoulder-feathers exposed. The male begins building the nest, but once a pair is formed both birds of the pair participate in the nest's construction and remain close together. Copulation occurs after the nest has been constructed, while the female is dominant in the pair for a time. The male invites the female to copulate by giving the crouching courtship display, and after ignoring and pecking at him initially, the female solicits copulation by crouching herself. When four vagrants were in the Netherlands in May 2013, a male was seen mounting a second male, apparently after the second crouched submissively to resolve a fight between them. This is the only recorded case of homosexual behaviour in sparrows.
Nests are usually built a few metres apart in loose colonies of at most about 10 pairs, although sometimes pairs nest alone. The nest may be built in a range of habitats, and usually is built as a cup in a hole or crevice in a cliff or a wall. They may use suitable human-built structures, such as house eaves and streetlights. The nest is an open structure made of grass, lined with feathers and hairs, packed densely for compactness. Some ornithologists have reported this bird building domed nests in acacia trees, but these records may reflect confusion with the Spanish sparrow. The average clutch contains three to five eggs. Both sexes incubate the eggs and bring food to their young, but females do more. Eggs are incubated for short spells, around 10 minutes, and males incubate for shorter periods and less often. Though the male accompanies the female when she finds food and brings it to their nestlings, he less often brings any himself; once the young fledge and leave the nest the male is more active feeding them.
|
24,189,541 |
Kurt Hummel
| 1,173,273,857 |
Fictional character from the Fox series Glee
|
[
"American male characters in television",
"Atheism in television",
"Fictional LGBT characters in television",
"Fictional atheists and agnostics",
"Fictional cheerleaders",
"Fictional dancers",
"Fictional gay men",
"Fictional pianists",
"Fictional singers",
"Fictional waiting staff",
"Glee (TV series) characters",
"Teenage characters in television",
"Television characters introduced in 2009"
] |
Kurt Elizabeth Hummel is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy-drama series Glee. Series creators Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan initially conceived of him as a fashionable gay countertenor who is routinely bullied at school. Kurt is portrayed by actor Chris Colfer, and has appeared as a character on the show since its pilot episode, first broadcast on May 19, 2009. Glee follows the trials of the New Directions glee club at the fictional William McKinley High School in the town of Lima, Ohio, of which Kurt is a member. His storylines in the first season focus on his struggle with his sexuality as he comes out to his father and friends, and deals with his romantic feelings for Finn Hudson, the straight co-captain of the glee club.
In the show's second season, Kurt is forced to transfer to a private school for his own safety after a closeted classmate bullies him relentlessly and then threatens to kill him. Kurt joins the Dalton Academy Warblers, the school's glee club, which is a competition rival of New Directions, and is befriended by their openly gay lead singer Blaine Anderson. Later on, the two become romantically involved. Their relationship has been well received by critics, and they have been named "one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium" by Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post. Kurt eventually transfers back to McKinley and rejoins New Directions, but continues his relationship with Blaine, who transfers to McKinley in the third season. In the fourth season, Kurt moves to New York City with his best friend Rachel Berry, where he pursues his musical education while interning for Vogue.com. For the remainder of the series, Glee charts Kurt's life in Lima and New York as he grapples with young adulthood and realizing his career ambitions.
Colfer describes Kurt as projecting a very confident "I'm better than you" personality, despite being a typically scared and anxious teenager. Kurt's solos for New Directions tend to be songs—usually show tunes—traditionally performed by women, which best suit his countertenor voice. His occasionally complex—but always loving—relationship with his father has been a focus for the show. Colfer's portrayal of Kurt has received much critical praise, and he has been the recipient of several awards, including Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 2011 Golden Globe Awards. He has also garnered many award nominations, which include the 2010 and 2011 Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series.
## Casting and creation
Prior to being cast in Glee, Colfer had no professional acting experience. He originally auditioned for the role of Artie Abrams, performing "Mr. Cellophane" from the musical Chicago. Murphy was so impressed by his performance that the role of Kurt was created for him. To keep the number of students in the glee club constant, a character named Rajish was cut from the show. Kurt's name is inspired by the character Kurt von Trapp from The Sound of Music, a role that Colfer once played as a child. The Hummel surname comes from the popular German Hummel figurines; Colfer explained in an interview that Murphy thought he had their rosy-cheeked complexion. Murphy praised Colfer's abilities despite his lack of formal training, saying, "I just thought he was so talented and gifted and unusual. I've never seen anyone who looks like him or acts like him or sounds like him. You'd think he’d been at Juilliard for six years but he hasn't." Murphy saw something of himself in the young actor, a fact that Colfer says is "completely mind-blowing". Colfer added, "For him to see me in him, I can't even describe it."
After being cast, Colfer said that he was happy "to be a part of something that is so new and different and so needed at this time", and added, "It's good to have something positive, especially for kids in small towns, like myself, who need a little pick-me-up." Kurt has twice been portrayed as a child: in the episode "Grilled Cheesus", a series of flashback scenes show Kurt at the age of eight, in which the character is played by Adam Kolkin. Although Kolkin was thirteen at the time of the audition, which called for an eight-year-old, he was chosen in part because his resemblance to Colfer was "so uncanny even the casting directors were taken aback". Kurt has also been shown even younger—in the episode "The Substitute", club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) comes down with the flu and has a hallucination of the students as preschoolers; all twelve glee club members, including Kurt, are played by very young children.
In December 2010, Murphy announced that the cast of Glee would be replaced at the end of the third season to coincide with their graduation. He said, "Every year we're going to populate a new group. There's nothing more depressing than a high schooler with a bald spot." He also revealed that some of the original cast would leave as early as 2012: "I think you have to be true to the fact that here is a group of people who come and go in these teachers' lives." Murphy stated in July 2011 that Colfer would be one of the actors leaving at the end of the third season, and Colfer commented on the report, saying, "We had kind of known since the beginning, since we started the show, that these characters were going to grow up and they were going to graduate eventually. I don't think I thought it was going to happen so soon, necessarily, but I think we knew something like this was coming." However, Falchuk later said that while Colfer, along with Lea Michele and Cory Monteith, would graduate at the end of the third season, their graduation did not mean that they would leave the show. Falchuk insisted that "it was never our plan or our intention to let them go.... They are not done with the show after this season."
## Storylines
### Season 1
In the show's pilot episode, Kurt auditions for the New Directions glee club by performing "Mr. Cellophane" from Chicago. Although he initially hides his homosexuality, many of the other members assume he is gay. He confides that he is gay to fellow glee club member Mercedes (Amber Riley) in "Acafellas", and the two develop a close friendship. In the following episode, "Preggers", Kurt joins the school football team as a kicker in order to impress his widowed father, Burt Hummel (Mike O'Malley), and helps the failing team win its first game by kicking the tie-breaking extra point. His heightened confidence leads him to disclose his sexuality to his father, who not only responds with love and acceptance, but also surprises Kurt by telling him that he has long been aware that Kurt was gay. Kurt quits the football team in "Mash-Up", when Coach Ken Tanaka (Patrick Gallagher) forces the glee club members of the team to choose between the club and the team.
Kurt competes against the glee club's star singer Rachel Berry (Lea Michele) for a solo on "Defying Gravity" from the musical Wicked. However, after Burt receives a phone call labeling his son "a fag", Kurt intentionally misses the song's high note in order to lose the competition and save his father from further harassment. In the episode "Ballad", Kurt is teamed with club member and quarterback Finn Hudson (Cory Monteith), for whom he harbors romantic feelings. He is aware that Rachel is also attracted to Finn, and attempts to sabotage her chances with him by giving her a bad makeover. In "The Power of Madonna", Kurt and Mercedes, dissatisfied with their limited solo opportunities within the glee club, become singers for the school's cheerleading squad, the Cheerios. Although Mercedes soon resigns from the squad, Kurt stays through the National cheerleading competition, and performs a major solo in the routine that wins the Cheerios their sixth consecutive national championship.
Kurt introduces his father to Finn's mother Carole (Romy Rosemont) in the hope that if the two began dating, it would bring Kurt closer to Finn. Finn is initially unhappy when he finds out his mother is in a serious relationship, but he soon bonds with Burt over sports and other traditionally masculine activities. Kurt, who becomes jealous over their growing relationship, briefly attempts to reclaim his father's attention by acting more masculine: he imitates Burt's style of dress, asks him for advice on performing songs by his favorite artist, John Mellencamp, and arranges to have Burt walk in on him kissing cheerleader and glee club member Brittany Pierce (Heather Morris). In the episode "Theatricality", Burt invites Carole and Finn to move in with him and Kurt. Aware of Kurt's attraction to him, Finn is uncomfortable with sharing a bedroom with Kurt. In the hopes of pleasing Finn, Kurt redecorates their bedroom, but Finn is appalled by its fancy appearance and lack of privacy. During the ensuing argument, when Kurt refuses to acknowledge his infatuation, Finn loses his temper and calls the new furnishings "faggy". Burt overhears Finn's words, angrily berates Finn, and throws him out. However, at the end of the episode, when two bullies are about to attack Kurt, Finn redeems himself by defending him.
### Season 2
Burt suffers a heart attack early in the second season. He is comatose for several days, and Kurt is terrified that he might lose him. When members of the glee club sing religious songs to comfort him, Kurt, who does not believe in God, feels alienated, and lashes out at them. Burt eventually regains consciousness, and Kurt takes charge of his recovery. In the episode "Duets", Kurt suspects new glee club member and transfer student Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet) is gay and recruits Sam to be his teammate in the club's duets competition. Finn attempts to dissuade Kurt from partnering with Sam by predicting that Sam will be bullied to the point of quitting the club if he sings a duet with another male student. After Burt points out that Kurt may be taking advantage of Sam, Kurt terminates the partnership, and performs a "duet" with himself, singing "Le Jazz Hot!" from Victor/Victoria. With unusual empathy, Rachel notices how lonely and unhappy Kurt seems, and realizes how hard it is for him to be the only publicly gay student at school. She reminds Kurt that the club members value him highly and that he is not alone, and asks him to sing the Judy Garland / Barbra Streisand duet of "Get Happy" and "Happy Days Are Here Again" with her.
In "Never Been Kissed", Kurt goes to spy on the Dalton Academy glee club, the Warblers—New Directions' primary competition for Sectionals—and meets openly gay student Blaine Anderson (Darren Criss), who then flirts with him while singing lead in a Warblers performance of "Teenage Dream". Kurt tells Blaine that he is being tormented by a homophobic bully at his high school, and Blaine convinces him to stand up for himself. When the bully, Dave Karofsky, throws Kurt against a locker, Kurt confronts him, and an increasingly agitated Karofsky abruptly grabs Kurt and kisses him. Before Karofsky can initiate a second kiss, Kurt shoves him away. Kurt and Blaine try to talk to Karofsky about being gay and closeted, but he denies the kiss. The bullying intensifies, and Karofsky threatens to kill Kurt if Kurt reveals their kiss to anyone. After Burt learns about Karofsky's threat to his son, Karofsky is expelled. Burt and Carole get married, but when Karofsky's expulsion is reversed by the school board, the newlyweds decide to spend the money they had saved for their honeymoon on tuition to transfer Kurt to Dalton Academy, which enforces a zero-tolerance policy against bullying.
At Dalton, Kurt joins the Warblers. When the Warblers and New Directions meet at the show choir Sectionals competition, they tie for first place, making both groups eligible for Regionals. Kurt and Blaine become good friends, and Kurt soon falls in love with Blaine, though Blaine is initially oblivious to Kurt's regard. However, in the episode "Original Song", Blaine realizes his true feelings for Kurt, and they share a kiss. To Kurt's disappointment, the Warblers lose to New Directions at the Regionals competition. He transfers back to McKinley in "Born This Way" after Karofsky starts an anti-bullying club with glee club member Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera), and personally assures Kurt that he regrets his earlier threats.
Kurt invites Blaine to the McKinley junior prom in "Prom Queen". The attendees greet Karofsky's election as Prom King with great enthusiasm, but a stunned silence falls when Kurt is declared Prom Queen due to having received an overwhelming number of unwanted write-in votes in the secret balloting. Humiliated, Kurt flees in tears, but is able to calm down and return for his coronation; his comment—"Eat your heart out, Kate Middleton"—garners applause that swells into an ovation. The traditional dance between King and Queen is next, and Karofsky is faced with having to partner with a boy in front of his classmates. He rejects Kurt's suggestion to come out at the prom, and abandons Kurt on the dance floor as the music begins; Blaine dances with Kurt instead. At the end of the season, the glee club travels to the Nationals competition in New York City. Kurt and Rachel sneak into the Gershwin Theatre where Wicked is playing, and from the stage they sing "For Good", a song from the musical. They both decide to come back to New York after graduation. New Directions finishes in twelfth place at Nationals, and upon Kurt's return to Ohio, he and Blaine declare their love for one another.
### Season 3
Blaine gives in to Kurt's urgings and wishes and transfers to McKinley High so they can spend more time together during Kurt's senior year. Kurt and Rachel decide they want to apply to a top school for the dramatic arts in New York City, NYADA, but are intimidated when they meet some of their competition and decide their applications need to include more accomplishments: Rachel proposes that McKinley do West Side Story as the school musical so she can star in it, and Kurt runs for class president. Brittany volunteers to be his campaign manager, and he accepts, but when he objects to her suggestions for posters and paraphernalia as overemphasizing his sexuality, she decides to run for the office herself. Kurt tries out for the musical, but the directors aren't convinced that he's masculine enough to portray Tony, the romantic male lead, and cast Blaine instead, even though he's only a junior; Kurt is given the minor role of Officer Krupke. When Rachel believes that she might not be cast as Maria, the female lead, she panics and decides to run for class president as well, infuriating Kurt. She eventually withdraws and throws her support behind Kurt, and secretly decides to help him further by stuffing the ballot box in his favor. He nevertheless loses to Brittany, and Rachel is suspended from school for cheating. The same day that Kurt loses, his father wins a special congressional election against Sue.
In "The First Time", Kurt and Blaine discuss whether or not to have sex. When Blaine goes to Dalton to invite the Warblers to see him in West Side Story, he is pursued by a new warbler Sebastian Smythe (Grant Gustin). Sebastian convinces Kurt and Blaine to go with him to a local gay bar—he supplies the fake IDs—and spends half the night dancing with Blaine. When they leave, a drunk and aroused Blaine urges Kurt to have sex with him in the back seat of the car. Kurt refuses, and Blaine walks home. He later tells Kurt that he was just nervous about the possibility of their first time, and that he cares nothing for Sebastian. They kiss onstage in the empty auditorium, and Kurt proposes that they go over to Blaine's house for the night, where they have sex together for the first time. In the episode "Michael", New Directions and the Warblers compete for the right to perform Michael Jackson's music at Regionals by singing his song "Bad". Sebastian, who has been unsuccessful in his attempts to steal Blaine from Kurt, throws a slushie laced with rock salt at Kurt, but Blaine jumps in front of Kurt and is badly injured by it; the cornea in his right eye is deeply scratched and requires surgery. Neither group ultimately uses Jackson's music at Regionals, and New Directions wins the competition. Later, Kurt succeeds in becoming a finalist for NYADA, as does Rachel.
In "Dance with Somebody", Kurt feels that Blaine has been distant, and confides in a boy named Chandler he meets at the local music store. The two hit it off instantly with their common interest of moving to New York after high school. Kurt begins texting Chandler quite often soon after that. Rachel thinks he's being in the wrong that Kurt is cheating on Blaine instead of talking to Blaine about the rut they are in. Blaine finds out about Chandler and is extremely hurt. Both Kurt and Blaine sing Whitney songs to express how they feel about their situation with Blaine singing "It's Not Right but It's Okay" and Kurt singing "I Have Nothing" as an apology. Eventually after having a talk in Emma's office, the two make up and are stronger than ever. In "Goodbye", Blaine is worried that he and Kurt will not make it as a couple after Kurt graduates and moves off to New York. Kurt reassures him that they will be okay as a couple. After graduation, Kurt, Rachel and Finn's letters from the New York schools they applied to come in. Kurt does not get accepted to NYADA.
### Season 4
In Season 4, Kurt joins Rachel in New York after she reveals that she is unhappy with her roommate and life at that point. After the encouragement of Blaine and his father, he decides to sell his car and fly to New York, where he finds a loft in Bushwick for him and Rachel to move into. Kurt applies for a job at Vogue.com and his editor, Isabelle Wright, who is also from Ohio, hires him partially based upon his portfolio of outfits and is impressed with his intuition and style. Early on, she leans on his support, and then quickly returns his support when he decides to give Rachel a makeover in the Vogue closet. Instead of being angry, she loves his idea to do a musical makeover for the website and joins in the makeover. Kurt becomes increasingly busy with his job at Vogue, and Blaine cheats on him in Lima. He comes to New York to tell Kurt what happened, and they break up.
Kurt continues working at Vogue throughout the season, and Isabelle encourages him to try to forgive Blaine, and at Thanksgiving, she brings her friends over to their loft and throws him a "kiki." When Kurt reauditions for NYADA, he is initially rejected, because Carmen Tibideaux sees his technical skill and tells him that he can sell a number, but doesn't believe that he is emotional enough to be an artist. Later, when Kurt is at the Winter Showcase to support Rachel, she sees him moved by Rachel's piece, and announces that he will be auditioning after the intermission. Though he initially panics, Rachel convinces him that he doesn't need his bells and whistles to perform, and he chooses to sing "Being Alive" from Company, which impresses the NYADA audience, and he later gets a letter telling him that he has gotten in.
At Christmas, Kurt elects not to go back home, and so his father comes up to New York to set up his Christmas tree and spend some time with him. At this point, he tells Kurt that he has prostate cancer. He also has brought Blaine with him, who tries to win back Kurt's trust, but the trip is uneasy. When Kurt begins at NYADA, he struggles initially to find his place, and meets a student named Adam Crawford, a senior who wants to recruit him for his own show choir, Adam's Apples, and also seems interested in Kurt himself; Kurt eventually asks him out for coffee. While at Will and Emma's wedding, Kurt and Blaine hook up, leaving their relationship in a question, since Kurt is dating Adam, but not exclusive. When Kurt returns to New York, there is a snowstorm, leaving Kurt, Rachel, Santana, and Adam stuck together in the loft watching movies together. Santana strongly hints about Kurt's hook up with Blaine, and after they are back at school, Adam asks Kurt about his feelings for Blaine. Kurt says that he is desperately trying to get over Blaine, and Adam invites him to find their own romantic movie.
When Santana moves in with him and Rachel, Kurt tries to keep Santana from telling Rachel about Brody prostituting himself. But Santana tells Rachel anyway, much to Kurt's dismay. Later, Kurt and Rachel confront Santana for working at a club dancing and try to encourage her to take a dance class from the extension school of NYADA to keep her skills honed. Still working at Vogue, Kurt is put in charge of a ballet gala, and invites Rachel and Santana to help. He and Rachel reveal that they both had experiences with ballet as children, and Kurt started ballet at the age of three years when his mother decided to take him. He bribes Santana to go with a designer dress, and once they are at the gala, she admits she was in ballet as a child too and loved it. When Kurt returns to Lima, it is to be there for his father's doctor's visit, and his anxiety is apparent throughout his interactions with his friends. However, in the doctor's office, Kurt, Burt, and Carole learn that Burt's cancer has gone into remission, and Kurt takes his father to the Glee club to sing "Sunshine of My Life" to him, which Kurt says Burt used to sing to him when he was little.
### Season 5
In the season premiere, "Love, Love, Love", Kurt, who is still in Lima, agrees to get back together with Blaine. Emboldened, Blaine decides to ask Kurt to marry him, which he does in an extravagant proposal at Dalton Academy, in the spot where the two met. Kurt accepts. He is back in New York in "Tina in the Sky with Diamonds", and gets a job at the diner where Rachel and Santana are working. He then returns to Lima in "The Quarterback" for his stepbrother Finn's funeral and subsequent memorial, and he grieves with his parents and friends.
### Season 6
At the start of the season, Kurt who has broken up with Blaine, returns to Lima because he still loves Blaine. When he returns, he meets up with Blaine and says that he wants them to get back together. Unfortunately, Blaine says that he is dating someone - Dave Karofsky. Kurt starts dating an older guy Walter who he met online. Sue Sylvester, who ships “Klaine”, locks them in an elevator and doesn't let them out until they kiss. After a few hours pass, they share a passionate kiss and agree that it doesn't mean anything.
At Rachel's party, they sing a duet and afterwards Blaine kisses him. Blaine still loves Kurt so he breaks up with Dave. Blaine went to confess his love for Kurt but because Kurt is dating Walter he scraps the idea. Before Brittany's and Santana's wedding Kurt tells Blaine that he still loves him and wants them to get back together. Blaine says the same thing and they kiss. They go to the wedding as a couple. At the wedding Santana and Brittany insist that they should get married. At first they think it's a crazy idea but at the two's insistence, Kurt and Blaine get married alongside them. In 2020, they are still married and are a celebrity couple. Rachel is pregnant with their child, who is assumed to be a girl.
## Characterization
According to Colfer, Glee's creators initially "were leaning on [Kurt] being overly flamboyant". However, the actor stated that he did not want to take that approach "because it's so overdone". Instead, he decided to portray the character as "more internal and superior." Colfer has explained that Kurt "puts on a very confident, 'I'm better than you' persona," but that "underneath it all he's the same anxious and scared teen everyone is/was at some point." Colfer also commented, "In later episodes, [Kurt] goes through an identity crisis, accepting and finding acceptance for who he is. He's a tough guy in designer clothes." In contrasting Kurt to his own personality, Colfer stated that Kurt is "very flamboyant and superior and uppity and into fashion", while Colfer had never heard of fashion designer Marc Jacobs before Kurt referenced him in the pilot episode. The second-season episode "Grilled Cheesus" addressed Kurt's atheism, with Murphy explaining that Kurt is "saying to the world, 'Prove [me] wrong: If God is kindness and love, make me believe in God.'"
Kurt reveals himself to be gay early in the show's first season. The scene in which he tells his father was taken verbatim from Murphy's own life. Murphy felt that the scene was "a great thing to put on television", because, while gay characters are often isolated and attacked, audiences have rarely seen an openly gay character who "wins and triumphs". He further explained, "The show is about making you feel good in the end. It's about happy endings and optimism and the power of your personal journey and making you feel that the weird thing about me is the great thing about me. I've done other shows with gay characters, and I will say that in many of those cases, the gay characters didn't have a happy ending. And I thought you know what? Enough." Colfer has commented that his biggest challenge was in ensuring the scene felt "honest" and not comical or "used as a punchline". He explained, "I think it's probably the first time a character's sexuality has been respected and almost dignified in a way, and I think that's really important, and there needs to be more of that on TV."
Kurt's acute sense of fashion is exhibited in his on-screen wardrobe. Glee's costume designer Lou Eyrich said in an interview with the Seattle Times that Kurt is one of her favorite characters to dress: "He never, ever repeats and you get to push yourself creatively. He's a perfect doll to dress because he'll try on anything." Eyrich set out to dress Kurt with tailored pieces that "exude his quietly flashy dapper dandyism", mindful that as the son of a car mechanic, "he doesn't have a lot of money".
### Relationships
Kurt has a close relationship with his father Burt, who openly accepts his son after Kurt tells him that he is gay in the show's fourth episode, "Preggers". As the series progresses their relationship continues to grow stronger. Colfer has credited his off-screen relationship with O'Malley with improving the quality of their scenes together. Kurt has twice fallen in love. The first occurrence is initially alluded to in the episode "Acafellas", in which Kurt tells his friend Mercedes that he does have feelings for someone. Mercedes mistakenly assumes that Rachel, the glee club's lead singer, is the object of Kurt's affections, and although he later tells Mercedes that he is gay, he does not reveal to her that he is actually in love with the club's male lead, Finn. After Kurt hints to Finn of his attraction, their friendship becomes strained as Finn resists Kurt's machinations to get them together. The episode in which Burt defends his son against Finn's name-calling prompted a response from Eric Goldman of IGN, who declared it "one of the heaviest scenes Glee has ever delved into".
Before production on the second season began, Murphy confirmed that Kurt would be paired with a new romantic interest. According to Chord Overstreet, his character Sam Evans was originally intended to become Kurt's love interest. However, Sam's storyline was later adjusted to pair him with glee club member Quinn Fabray (Dianna Agron) after producers observed the chemistry between Overstreet and Agron. Kurt was subsequently paired with another new character, Blaine Anderson, a member of the rival show choir group the Dalton Academy Warblers, who is initially a mentor for Kurt. Murphy was unsure at first whether their relationship would become a romantic one, and stated that he wished to gauge public response to their friendship before planning future developments. He commented, "Part of me thinks he should be the boyfriend, part of me thinks he should just be the mentor. I didn't want to decide that until we got into sort of the middle of the season." Kurt transfers from McKinley High to Dalton Academy and falls in love with Blaine, though Blaine only considers him a close friend. However, when Kurt sings the Beatles song "Blackbird" in "Original Song", Blaine finally realizes his true feelings and the two kiss, marking the start of the relationship. Criss noted, "We all want to see Kurt happy, and like all great love stories, if you have two people that can be together you've got to hold it up." When imagining Blaine and Kurt's potential future together, Murphy expected to treat them the same as all other Glee relationships by making their pairing "as flawed and as exposed as everyone else's." This plan was confirmed by Falchuk after the characters kissed for the first time, though he later clarified: "They're solid. They have problems—you have two stars dating each other, there's going to be some competition there." In the second-season finale, they each tell the other, "I love you", and early in the third season they decide to have sex for the first time. The Kurt–Blaine relationship has been well received by critics, and they were named "one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium" late in the second season by Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post.
In a July 2012 interview with E! News, Colfer elaborated in regard to the progression of the Kurt-Blaine relationship in the show's fourth season. Colfer said, "I would like to do something besides say 'I love you,' and I think Darren [Criss] and I agree on that. We're ready for the next step. They've been together for a while. Let's throw some spice and drama into that." In September 2012, Criss echoed Colfer's sentiment, "We're like an old married couple now. Let's shake it up!"
To begin the show's fourth season, Kurt moves to New York while Blaine continues to go to high school in Ohio, though he and Blaine remain a couple. However, after Blaine cheats on him, Kurt breaks up with Blaine. The two later agree to remain friends, though Kurt is unwilling to resume their relationship. That winter, Kurt begins to see Adam Crawford, a senior at his new school, NYADA. Despite this, Kurt has sex with Blaine when in Ohio to attend a wedding, putting into question whether Kurt still wants to be with Blaine.
Despite all this, Kurt and Blaine do get back together in a romantic relationship in the first episode of the fifth season, "Love Love Love", which is incidentally the same episode that Blaine proposes marriage. Kurt says yes immediately.
Kurt heads back to New York while Blaine finishes high school back in Lima. Eventually, midway through the fifth season, Blaine graduates and moves in with Kurt. They have difficulties and agree that it would be best for them to continue with their engagement but as Blaine lives somewhere else for now as they both need their space. They will cohabitate in the season five finale.
At the beginning for the sixth season, it seems as though Kurt and Blaine have broken off the engagement due to difficulties living together and Blaine has moved back to Lima. Kurt later regrets this and decides to continue his schooling in Lima, to try to win Blaine back.
When Kurt returns, he finds that Blaine is in a relationship with Karofsky. Despite everything that goes on in the beginning of the sixth season, Kurt and Blaine get back together in the beginning of the episode, "A Wedding". Later in the same episode, Brittany and Sue Sylvester persuade the couple to get married at Brittany and Santana's wedding to make a double gay wedding.
They continue through the rest of the sixth season as a wed couple and in the season six finale, "Dreams Come True", it is revealed that five years in the future, Rachel is carrying their child, a daughter.
## Musical performances
As Kurt, Colfer features in many songs that have been released as singles available for digital download and are also included in the show's soundtrack albums. In the episode "Wheels", Kurt performs "Defying Gravity" from the Broadway musical Wicked. Murphy selected "Defying Gravity" for the episode after Colfer related a story in which his own high school drama teacher had refused him the opportunity to perform the song because it was written to be sung by a female singer. Murphy explained, "I found a way to write it into the show because that's in a nutshell what this show is about: someone being told that they can't do something because of what the perception of them is as opposed to what their real ability is." Colfer stated that the opportunity to sing the song "meant the world" to him, and that "it's absolutely terrifying to watch yourself do something you've dreamed about for such a long time. I know I'm definitely not the best singer, but I think the message, the story behind the song about defying limits and borders placed by others, hopefully all that gets across with the performance. Although I do some very 'Kurtsy' things in the song, it's probably one of the most honest and close-to-heart scenes I've ever filmed or performed for that matter." Colfer's recording of the performance was released as a single, as well as two additional versions—one sung by co-star Michele, and another that was arranged as a duet for the two singers. The duet version charted at number thirty-one on the Billboard Hot 100, and was included on the show's first soundtrack album, Glee: The Music, Volume 1.
In "Grilled Cheesus", when members of the glee club are singing songs about religion and spirituality, Kurt sings The Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand", dedicating the song to his father, who is in a coma in the hospital. Murphy stated that it would have been easy to have Kurt, an atheist, sing an anti-religion song, but instead chose to have him sing about love. Critics disagreed over the appropriateness of this song choice. Anthony Benigno of the Daily News said he "found it particularly jarring to hear Kurt singing 'I wanna be your man' about his father", but Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News and MTV's Aly Semigran enjoyed that the performance of "I Want to Hold Your Hand" brought new meaning to the song, which Semigran named her favorite number of the episode. In "Special Education", when given his first opportunity to audition for a Warblers solo, Kurt asks Rachel for advice on selecting a song and she recommends "Don't Cry for Me Argentina" from Evita; the episode cuts between the two as they each sing the song. Both Colfer's and Michele's versions were released as singles, available for digital download, although neither appears on an album. Kurt and Blaine perform the duet "Baby, It's Cold Outside" during the Christmas-oriented episode "A Very Glee Christmas". The number was released on Glee: The Music, The Christmas Album, and although it was not also released as a single, it nevertheless reached number fifty-seven on the Billboard Hot 100. As a Dalton Academy Warbler, Kurt sings the harmony line to Blaine's lead in "Animal" by Neon Trees in the episode "Sexy", and in "Original Song" he sings "Blackbird" by The Beatles. He also sings primary lead in a duet version of "Candles" by Hey Monday, with Blaine as the other lead. All three songs were included on the soundtrack Glee: The Music Presents the Warblers, released on April 19, 2011.
Colfer's performances have been well received by critics, particularly "As If We Never Said Goodbye" in the episode "Born This Way". Meghan Brown of The Atlantic stated that the song was "absolutely stunning in every conceivable way". She thought that he had the emotional connection, the musicality, and the storytelling ability "down pat". Entertainment Weekly's Sandra Gonzalez also praised the rendition: "Kurt apparently picked up a few helpful notes ... from his Warbler brothers and emerged an even better solo singer than I recall. ... Most enjoyable, however, was a tenderness Kurt added to the song that I don't think could have been duplicated by any other member of this ensemble." In his review, Michael Slezak of TVLine commended Kurt's voice and gave the song an "A": "I feel like we haven’t had too many strong musical moments from Kurt this season, but this number, which pushed Chris Colfer’s countertenor to impressive heights, went a long way to erase the deficit." Rolling Stone's Erica Futterman wrote that it was "a sweeter moment than last season's 'Rose's Turn', but the high notes and big vocals are still there".
## Reception
### Critical response
Kurt has received mainly positive reviews from television critics, with many saying that Colfer's portrayal (along with Jane Lynch's performance as Sue Sylvester) stole the show from lead actress Lea Michele as Rachel Berry. James Poniewozik, writing for Time, deemed his coming out "beautifully handled" and praised the series for subverting expectations with Burt's acceptance. Rick Bentley of McClatchy Newspapers praised Colfer's performance in the episode "Home" and deemed him deserving of an Emmy nomination. IGN's Robert Canning noted that "Grilled Cheesus", which focuses on Kurt's atheism and his father's heart attack, showed again that the Hummels' relationship was "the most affecting" of the show. Poniewozik appreciated the focus on Kurt and Burt in the episode and also named their relationship one of Glee's "strongest and most nuanced relationships". The primary criticism by CNN's Lisa Respers France of that episode was that it appeared to be an Emmy submission showpiece for Colfer. She said that "Grilled Cheesus" felt forced and disliked Kurt's angry "overwrought" reaction to his friends' prayers. Christie Keith, writing for the lesbian and bisexual media website AfterEllen.com, praised Kurt's storylines and suggested that Colfer should win an Emmy Award for his portrayal of Kurt dealing with his identity.
Critics were polarized by Kurt's storyline in the episode "Never Been Kissed". NPR's Linda Holmes found it "absurd" that a teenager as deeply in denial as Karofsky would transition from bullying to kissing Kurt so quickly and described it as "emotionally and behaviorally unsound". Leah Anthony Libresco of the Huffington Post called the episode "extraordinarily counterproductive", and disapproved of Will treating Kurt's upset as the key problem, rather than the unchecked bullying provoking it. She found Blaine's advice to Kurt "misleading and dangerous", especially the suggestion that targeted children should be held responsible for confronting their attackers and putting themselves at risk of further injury, rather than for protecting themselves. Poniewozik noted that the storyline was inherently flawed, as the show had previously treated bullying in a light-hearted rather than serious manner, but said that its saving grace was the focus it placed on Colfer: "probably the strongest actor with the most interesting character among the Glee kids".
The love story involving Kurt and Blaine was met with critical acclaim, especially the events in the "Original Song" episode where the characters first kissed. Katie Morgan of Billboard stated, "It sure took them long enough, but we're so glad to finally see Kurt happy." The Boston Herald's Mark Perigard wrote, "It was utterly, sweetly romantic, and Criss sold the hell out of the moment. It’s long overdue and it will silence the growing legion of critics out there who were unhappy with the pace of this story and why Kurt always seemed to be stuck in pure misery." Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic thought the kiss was "sweet" and said that he was pleased that it attracted no controversy whatsoever. Semigran praised the interaction between Kurt and Blaine, and characterized the kiss scene as a "sweet, real and, shockingly, un-hyped moment". She went on to commend the acting in the scene, and wrote that both actors "handled it with dignity and honesty".
Critics were enthusiastic about Kurt and Blaine's decision to have sex for the first time in "The First Time" episode. Canning said that Kurt and Blaine's "attempts to get a little wild", and "trying to grow up faster than they should", were "the better parts of the episode as they felt the most realistic". Futterman praised their departure from the bar as a "very faithful and honest scene". Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV was impressed by the way the characters' relationship "inspires gay youth in a way that we haven't seen on network television yet" and called them "amazing role models for all teens", and The Atlantic writer Kevin Fallon said it was "remarkable" and a "milestone" that "the decision by gay teen characters to lose their virginities is given equal weight to that of a straight couple".
### Accolades
Colfer has won several awards for his portrayal of Kurt. He was named Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 68th Golden Globe Awards. His performance in the groundbreaking role earned him a spot on the 2011 Time 100, Time*'s 2011 list of the 100 most influential people in the world. He and the other series regulars won Favorite New Diverse Ensemble Cast at the 2009 Diversity Awards. In 2010, Colfer was awarded Favorite Breakout Actor, Favorite TV Actor and Gay/Bi Man of the Year by gay entertainment website AfterElton.com, who also rated Kurt as the seventh best gay character of all time. AfterElton.com said, "Colfer's portrayal of Kurt is that he's taken a character that's in many ways a gay stereotype ... and turned him into a well-rounded person who can both make us laugh and break our hearts." Colfer also won the 2010 Choice TV: Male Scene Stealer accolade at the Teen Choice Awards, and was part of the Glee cast ensemble given the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards. At the 2011 Dorian Awards, Colfer tied with co-star Jane Lynch for the TV Comedy Performance of the Year award. In addition to Colfer's own 2010 Golden Globe Award, the show won for Best Television Series — Musical or Comedy. Glee* also received the 2010 and 2011 GLAAD Media Awards for Outstanding Series Comedy.
The role has earned Colfer nominations for further awards. He was nominated in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for his performance in the episode "Laryngitis", and at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for his performance in "Grilled Cheesus". He received consecutive Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film nominations at the 2009 and 2010 Satellite Awards. At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards, he was nominated for the Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series, and was included in the cast ensemble nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series, and was again included in the cast ensemble nomination for the 18th Screen Actors Guild Awards.
|
48,708,159 |
Danganronpa 3: The End of Hope's Peak High School
| 1,170,846,028 |
Japanese anime television series
|
[
"2016 anime television series debuts",
"2016 manga",
"2017 anime OVAs",
"Anime and manga about death games",
"Anime television series based on video games",
"Crunchyroll anime",
"Danganronpa",
"Lerche (studio)",
"Manga series",
"NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan",
"Shōnen manga",
"Suicide in television",
"Television shows about death games",
"Television shows about murder"
] |
is a mystery horror anime television series produced by Lerche, directed by Daiki Fukuoka, and supervised by Seiji Kishi. The anime is the second animated series based on Spike Chunsoft's Danganronpa video game franchise, and serves as a conclusion to the arc established in the previously released games Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc and Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair. The series is divided into three parts. focuses on Makoto Naegi and his friends and their involvement in a killing game with the Future Foundation; and focuses on Hajime Hinata, a student, and his involvement in experiments on humans. The first two story arcs aired between July and September 2016. They were followed by , the conclusion to both previous arcs, which aired on September 29, 2016.
Writer Kazutaka Kodaka conceived of the project. He aimed to create an original storyline that would not work as another video game, unlike previous works from the franchise. Despite the dark narrative, Kodaka wanted to give the anime a proper conclusion through the one-episode finale, Hope Arc, despite being accused of pandering to the base because he intended to give it a happy ending. He and his team, working on a television series for the first time, found the project challenging. A spin-off manga, Danganronpa Gaiden: Killer Killer, was serialized in Kodansha's Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine between March 2016 and May 2017. Funimation, Madman Entertainment, and Animax Asia licensed the three parts for English regions.
Critics felt that The End of Hope's Peak High School was an attractive anime sequel to the video games, based on the casting. The returning cast from the games was regarded as likeable. Future Arc and Despair Arc were the subjects of mixed reviews because, rather than the original run of the series in Japan where they aired together, Funimation marketed them separately. Some critics felt that the narrative was far darker than the video games, to the point it was hard to become attached to the new cast or returning members who die in the story. The Hope Arc finale earned positive responses for closing Makoto's and Hajime's stories. The series is often listed as one of the best from 2016.
## Plot
The story is split into two chapters—Future Arc and Despair Arc—which are followed by a finale called Hope.
### Despair Arc
Despair, which takes place prior to the events of Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc, opens with homeroom teacher Housekeeper Chisa Yukizome, who begins her job teaching Hope's Peak Academy's 77th Class of Super High School Level students, who stand out as talented in different ways. She is teaching in order to help her childhood friends Student Council President Kyosuke Munakata and Boxer Juzo Sakakura improve the establishment. Meanwhile, Hajime Hinata, a student in the school's Reserve Course for those without talent, prepares to undergo an experiment to make him the Ultimate Hope. He has developed an inferiority complex over his lack of talents, despite bonding with Gamer Chiaki Nanami, a talented student.
After spending half a year teaching the Reserve Course, Chisa asks Juzo for a trustee's ID in order to investigate the Kamukura Project. The now amnesia-ridden Hinata, referred to as Izuru Kamukura, meets a despair terrorist named Junko Enoshima and her sister Soldier Mukuro Ikusaba, who grow attached to him. Junko blackmails Juzo, threatening to reveal his crush on Kyosuke. Juzo and the now-brainwashed Chisa tell Kyosuke that Junko is innocent, allowing Junko's plan to continue unhindered. Using Izuru as bait, Junko kills Chiaki while brainwashing Chisa's students, the 77th Class graduates. The brainwashing is accomplished by screening a film of Chiaki's death, which contains subliminal messages created by an Animator named Ryota Mitarai. Meanwhile, Hajime decides to have his memories of the 77th Class erased, as he is interested to see if hope can be more unpredictable than despair. To protect the remaining students in the 78th Class, Jin helps them convert the school's old building into a shelter, unaware of the two Despairs who lurk among them. As Junko moves on to the next phase of her plan, becoming curious about the wildly unpredictable luck exhibited by the young student Makoto Naegi, Chisa rejoins Kyosuke, who is unaware of Chisa's being brainwashed. Some time later, in a virtual world, Izuru finds himself, in his Hajime persona, interacting with Chiaki.
### Future Arc
Future Arc takes place after the events of the video game Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair. Lucky Student Makoto Naegi and his friends are placed under arrest by Vice-chairman and former Student Council President Kyosuke Munakata of the Future Foundation. Makoto is accused of treason for hiding Hajime and Housekeeper Chisa Yukizome's students in a virtual world after they continued fulfilling Junko's evil desires following her death, although Makoto aimed to eliminate their memories of their brainwashed forms. However, a bear-like creature named Monokuma appears on video monitors and starts a "Monokuma Hunter" killing game. Each of the participants carries a bangle, which after a time will put everyone to sleep for a short period. During this sleep period, a designated attacker will awaken among them and kill one of the other participants. Chisa is the first victim, resulting in Kyosuke distrusting most of his allies and attempting to kill Makoto.
In addition, if anyone performs a personalized forbidden action, they will be injected with a deadly poison. One by one, members of the Future Foundation began to die in mysterious circumstances: Confectioner Ruruka Ando, Blacksmith Sonosuke Izayoi, Wrestler Great Gozu, Farmer Daisaku Bandai, Pharmacist Seiko Kimura, Psychologist Miyai Gekkogahara, and Scout Koichi Kizakura. Makoto's group is shocked to discover that Detective Kyoko Kirigiri has been poisoned for her forbidden action. The poison will be activated if Makoto survives past the fourth time limit. Makoto sets off to confront Kyosuke, but the two make peace as Makoto gets his superior to remember Chisa's death. Understanding the attacker's modus operandi, with Boxer Juzo Sakakura's help Makoto learns that there are no culprits. The people committed suicide after being brainwashed by Junko's hallucinating videos that were originally used to brainwash Chisa's students. Juzo destroys all the monitors but dies of blood loss after being wounded by Kyosuke, who thought Juzo was the traitor. Makoto soon realizes that the late chairman of the Foundation, former Headmaster Kazuo Tengan, was manipulating Animator Mitarai Ryota to spread the videos. Ryota escapes and prepares to reveal his own brainwashing video to be released on mankind. In the final scene, the spirits of the late Junko and Chisa watch the events unfold in the afterlife (taking the form of a movie theater) as they wonder if the surviving characters can stop Ryota.
### Hope Arc
In the Hope Arc, Makoto races to stop Ryota from broadcasting his brainwashing video. He and the others are assisted by the arrival of the 77th Class, which Hajime, using his talents, managed to restore to normal. Feeling that he should not have to carry his burden alone, Hajime and the others ask Ryota to come with them, as they aim to atone for their sins. They convince Ryota to cancel his broadcast. Afterward, Hajime and the others claim responsibility for the killing game, shifting blame from the Future Foundation. Meanwhile, Kyosuke leaves Makoto on friendly terms. As they leave, Mikan Tsumiki, a young nurse tutored by Chisa, says that she has been able to heal a person thanks to a late member of the Future Foundation. The final scene moves to Hope's Peak Academy, where Kyoko is seen alive referring to Makoto as headmaster.
## Production
### Conception
The series was the final chapter of the "Hope's Peak Academy" arc within the Danganronpa franchise, as the third main video game, Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony, focuses on a new setting and group of characters, in contrast to the anime, which instead focuses on returning characters.
The Danganronpa development staff said that, while it was difficult to work on both titles simultaneously, they recognized that the opportunity to do something like it does not come along often. Initially, an anime adaptation of Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair had been planned; but in the end the development staff opted to make an anime that takes place after Danganronpa 2. Danganronpa head writer Kazutaka Kodaka felt that the Danganronpa 2 characters' story had ended within that game and that he could not easily write about what happened to them afterward. While a story of the class trials had originally been considered, the feeling was that it would have been too painful for the characters. This led to the decision to turn the conclusion into an anime. According to Kodaka, the series would feature content that can only be expressed in an animated medium. The production staff wanted to make the series suspenseful, even though it did not include any investigations.
Kodaka aimed to create a unique style of storytelling. Rather than making a fan service anime, he wanted to have a more distinctive narrative. He said that some fans called the idea of a happy ending pandering, but the writer said he wanted to give proper endings. That is how Kodaka had the idea of creating the third story arc, Hope Arc, to bring closure to the dark story but in a lighthearted way. A producer from Lerche inspired him to do the work. Kodaka wanted to reduce the amount of action from that in the previous works and, instead, to create a psychological struggle based on the trials presented by the new killing game. He believed that, while any newcomers would understand the Future Arc, the Despair Arc needed knowledge of Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair to be understood. As a result, the writer separated Makoto's group from Hajime's using two story arcs. Makoto's storytelling and themes are those of hope, in contrast to Hajime's theme of despair.
According to director Seiji Kishi, Rui Komatsuzaki redesigned Makoto and his friends to look more mature. To attract more fans, Kishi had the idea that Makoto's first image as an adult would show him handcuffed. While acknowledging that the cast had aged, the anime staff claimed that new characters with similar traits would be further explored in it. Kishi expressed shock at Kodaka's idea of his being put in charge of the series. He claimed the idea of ending the game's story as an anime was unique. Kodaka said he wanted the anime to appeal to fans of the previous games. In order to distance the anime from the other Danganronpa game that was also the third installment, the game was titled Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony. The original cast in the games returned with Nobuyo Oyama (Monokuma) looking forward to getting people's attention.
In contrast to his work on Danganronpa: The Animation, where he was the director, Kishi took on the role of chief director, leaving him with less work. Kishi contrasted his work with the anime adaptations of Persona, where he was involved, with those of Danganronpa. He felt that the Persona series used more substories that needed to be adapted, in contrast to the more linear narrative style employed by Kodaka. While Kodaka planned the original plot, former Nitroplus writer Norimitsu Kaihō was in charge of revising the scripts to adapt them into the anime series. Lerche chose Kaihō to write the anime, based on his knowledge of the franchise.
### Writing
The idea of dividing the series into two arcs allowed further exploitation of the concept of the mystery genre the games are known for. Kodaka suggested that, like the games, rewatching the anime would provide a different point of view of the series' nature. For example, the cast of Goodbye Despair is described as video game characters competing against each other in Monokuma's game, while the Future Arc would leave the impression, by the way the narrative is handled, that the cast are also anime characters. Compared to Goodbye Despair, Kodaka wanted the cast to differ from that in Despair. This resulted in Hajime being written as having a more hateful manner, because of his lack of talents, until he met Chiaki Nanami. Chiaki was written to emphasize that she is not the same heroine from Goodbye Despair. In it she is an artificial intelligence based on the real Chiaki who is killed by Junko. Nevertheless, Hajime's meeting with the real Chiaki was made an integral part of the narrative, based on how they bond when playing games. Meanwhile, Nagito Komaeda was written in a more lighthearted manner, which was easy for fans to spot.
In describing the cast, the writer said the anime helped to compare Hajime with his alter-ego Izuru Kamukura, whose characters saw little development in the game. Izuru was described as a god-like entity, while Hajime was deemed a superior entity because he expressed more human qualities. He expressed doubts about Junko Enoshima, whom he deems his strongest villain. Lerche's handling of the brief encounter between Izuru and Nagito earned recognition from the original creator, based on how both characters possess similar talents. While returning from Goodbye Despair, a character only known as "Ultimate Imposter" was revised, as in the original game he impersonated Byakuya Togami. As a result, Imposter became more developed as he showed his own identity and concern when looking after Ryota Mitarai, whom Kodaka referred to as a tragic character, due to how Junko manipulates him to steal his subliminal techniques. Junko and Mukuro's actress, Megumi Toyoguchi, claimed it was difficult to voice the Despair Sisters, not only for having to do two characters but also because of Junko's multiple changes of mood.
In regards to Makoto, his relationship with Kyoko Kirigiri was written to evoke a more intimate tone than in the original game. Kodaka carefully accomplished this through a scene where Kyoko takes off her gloves for the first time in the series, in order to comfort Makoto. This was also meant to be a parallel to the romantic relationship between two other characters from the same series, Kyosuke Munakata and Chisa Yukizome, who are also implicitly involved romantically. Although Chisa dies in the first episode of Future Arc, she was written to give an impression of her personality, in order to leave her intact in Despair Arc, where she was still alive. Mai Nakahara's performance gained a positive response from the staff. Similarly, Kyosuke briefly appears in the Despair Arc, but his calm demeanor was changed for Future Arc, showing the impact Chisa's death had on him. Juzo was created to be an object of viewers' hatred, for his violent actions towards both Makoto and Hajime, but the revelation of his one-sided feelings for Kyosuke was meant to show a more sensitive side. Based on his early sketches, Komatasuzaki wanted Juzo to be handsome.
Kodaka originally intended for Kyosuke to die protecting Makoto. With the writing staff originally seeing Munakata as content to die, this idea was scrapped in favor of Kyosuke seeking redemption. This was done to have Makoto move forward carrying the burden of hope, Hajime to move forward carrying the burden of despair, and Kyosuke to move forward carrying the burden of his dead friends. The original plan was to tell what happens to many characters after the Hope Arc as the credits roll, but that was cut for length. Animation producer Yuuji Higa said it was ultimately Naegi and Hajime, carrying their respective burdens of hope and despair, that he thought were really amazing. Kodaka was moved to tears watching the scene of Makoto confronting Kyosuke, especially because of Megumi Ogata and Toshiyuki Morikawa's acting. Higa believes it was thanks to Makoto's role in the anime that Kyosuke became a more appealing character, shown by their interactions. Morikawa regards Kyosuke as a charimastic leader, based on his actions within Future Foundation, but had trouble wondering how much emotion he should give the character during the recording of the series, based on Kishi's suggestions and the rehearsals. Due to Kyosuke's tragic story in the Future Arc, Morikawa said that his character became more corruputed with each story, based on his allies' death, to the point there might be hints of him suffering a mental breakdown; and, as Kodaka originally intended, he was meant to die in the narrative. Morikawa claimed that fans had to pay attention to Kyosuke, Chisa, and Juzo in both anime story arcs, in order to properly understand them.
Because of their lack of experience with anime, the game's staff found it difficult to handle the anime scenario meetings, which involved more people than attended a game meeting. Overseeing the scripts proved difficult for the staff, especially due to having eight-hours-long talks per week. Spike created the designs, as Hope's Peak Academy was drawn for the first time. In the Future Arc, the place was redesigned as ruins. Ogata said she found the anime too dark and gruesome; and even longtime fans would be bothered by the amount of violence in the narrative, such as the heroines dying. In turn, she wished for something more lighthearted, to create a contrast with the dark episodes. After getting their feedback, Ogata said "viewers were in despair". In retrospect, Kodaka was satisfied with the final product, finding it "top-notch". He said he felt obliged to do the anime to appeal to the franchise's fans. However, he claims he will not make another anime like this. As for characters, he aimed to contrast the anime with the games, so the narrative does not focus on culprits. Kodaka apologized to actor Junichi Suwabe, saying he received negative feedback from fans for his character, Juzo Sakakura, except for the elements showing he had a close connection with Kyosuke.
### Release
The series was announced at a Danganronpa press conference in December 2015. Divided into two parts, Future Arc, aired between July 11, 2016 and September 26, 2016, and Despair Arc, which aired between July 14, 2016, and September 22, 2016, on Tokyo MX and B 11. The final episode, Hope Arc, aired on September 29, 2016.
Both parts were simulcast in North America, the United Kingdom, and Ireland by Funimation, who began streaming English-dubbed versions starting on August 10, 2016. For unknown reasons, most of the English voice actors from the game were replaced, except for Bryce Papenbrook (Makoto Naegi and Nagito Komaeda) and Johnny Yong Bosch (Hajime Hinata). However, the cast from Danganronpa: the Animation returned to voice other characters they dubbed for the first game. Shortly after the dub was completed, Funimation apologized to the viewers for putting an outtake in the finished product and had to redo the cut. While early English-dubbed episodes aired as quickly as possible, Funimation had to delay some for unknown reasons, leading the audience to use the fandub channels. In the original Japanese series, there is a scene in the finale where Nagito talks joyfully while holding hands with Makoto, whom he declares to be his idol for their similar talents; but he is taken by his friends before he can complete their interaction. Papenbrook added a line for Nagito that would come across comically as homoerotic and claimed he had fun making his two characters have such a talk.
Future Arc's opening theme is "Dead or Lie" by Maon Kurosaki and Trustrick, while the ending theme is "Recall the End" by Trustrick. Despair Arc's opening theme is "Kami-iro Awase" (カミイロアワセ, lit."Matching the Color of God") by Binaria, while the ending theme is "Zettai Kibō Birthday" (絶対希望バースデー, lit. "Ultimate Hope Birthday") by Megumi Ogata. Ogata said she felt pressure performing the ending theme, because the stress from working on both arcs left her exhausted. She asked for help from the staff when it came to singing the theme. The ending theme for Hope Side is "Ever Free" by hide with Spread Beaver. An original video animation episode, titled Super Danganronpa 2.5: Komaeda Nagito to Sekai no Hakaisha, was released with special editions of Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony in Japan on January 12, 2017.
Between September 28, 2016, and February 22, 2017, both story arcs were released on a total of six DVDs and Blu-ray volumes by NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan. Four Blu-ray boxes, containing additional material, were also released. Another Blu-ray box containing the entire series was released on November 25, 2018, as well as one in celebration of the game series' 10th anniversary. The game Kirigiri Sou was released on Microsoft Windows and OS X on November 25, 2016, in Japan and China, and was made available bundled with the third Blu-ray box set of the anime series.
Funimation released the English series in two Blu-ray sets on October 3, 2017, and re-released them as part of their essentials line on August 26, 2019, also in two sets. The first Blu-ray volume of Future Arc sold 3,017 units. In Australia, Madman Entertainment licensed the series and released the series' home media release of the series on December 6, 2017. Animax Asia streamed the series in Southeast Asia.
## Other media
A manga spin-off illustrated by Mitomo Sasako, titled Killer Killer, began serialization in Kodansha's Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine from March 9, 2016. Initially released as Killer Killer, in its third chapter, published on May 9, 2016, the manga series was revealed to be a side-story of Danganronpa 3. The series focuses on Misaki Asano, a young woman assigned to the Future Foundation's sixth branch. She specializes in murder investigations, and is teamed up with fellow investigator Takumi Hijirihara, who, following "The Tragedy", has secretly become a serial killer, known as the "Killer Killer", obsessed with killing other serial killers the pair are tasked with apprehending. Two comic anthologies were released on September 9, 2016, and another was released on October 25, 2016, by Kadokawa Shoten.
A stage play was based on the anime, with InnocentSphere's Hideyuki Nishimori writing the script and directing. It premiered on July 20, 2018. Shun Nishime took the leading role of Makoto Naegi. He claimed that his character was an ideal hero based on his actions presented in the high school scenario. He also admitted being a fan of the Danganronpa games and felt joy when being cast as Makoto. Natsume Okamoto happily played the role of Kyoko Kirigiri. Riho Iida claimed she would give her best effort with Aoi Aasahina. Nishimori said that because of difficulties in casting other actors, they could not adapt the Despair Arc.
Themed food and drinks were sold, in a collaboration between Spike Chunsoft and the Cure Maid Cafe. The Despair Arc collaboration ran from August 26 to September 12, 2016, and the Future Arc collaboration ran from September 13 to October 2, 2016.
A Danganronpa 3 collaboration is also present in Hōkai Gakuen 2, a Chinese side-scrolling shooter mobile game developed by miHoYo for iOS and Android.
In promoting the anime, a collaboration between Danganronpa and Absolute took place in Tokyo during 2016, where fans could interact with the voice actors, with Takayama reprising her role of Hajime.
## Reception
The series was received positively by fans. Pollsters Charapedia ranked it as the ninth most anticipated anime of 2016. According to Polygon, Western fans voted it as the tenth best new anime series from 2016. Polygon noted that the character of Junko Enoshima became more popular thanks to the anime, especially her interaction with Ryota Mitarai about the importance of anime to Japanese culture. Although the English dub changed lines from the original series, the site said it still appealed to the audience. HobbyConsolas listed it as one of the best anime series released in 2016. In a Manga.Tokyo poll in 2016, Future Arc was the 21st most popular anime of the year, while Despair Arc was 33rd. In a Goo Ranking poll, the entire series was voted the 19th best anime of 2016. In a Biggest in Japan poll, Future Arc was voted the sixth best anime of 2016 while Despair Arc was eighth.
In reviewing the anime's three story arcs, GamesRadar's Kenneth Shepard praised the series, saying that despite the franchise changing media from games to television, the series' narrative was appropriate. He felt the story was easy to understand by newcomers, not just by returning players. USGamer regarded End of Hope's Peak Academy as a better Danganronpa anime than its predecessor. It was recommended the series to people who have played the first two games as it continues their narratives. HardCore Gaming recommended watching the two arcs together since both make reference to each other. The website praised Seiji Kishi's direction of both series, despite finding some of the arcs' elements frustrating. THEM Anime Reviews's Tim Jones gave it two stars out of five, panning the series because of the amount of exposition in the series and because it requires knowledge of both arcs to understand the plot. He criticized the short screen-time given the antagonist and felt that the series would require more episodes to recreate a more coherent work. Other issues involved the dark tone, such as Makoto's attempted suicide when learning the modus operandi from the culprit or the decision to revive a character in Hope. Like Jones, Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post felt that Future Arc can only be fully enjoyed alongside the Despair Arc because of their interconnectedness.
Some critics found the first episodes of Future Arc appealing but were bothered by the new characters who harshly antagonize Makoto. As noted by Beveridge and UK Anime Network's Dan Barnett, this in turn made the narrative too dark, the darkness emphasized by the drab atmospheric color palette, which resulted in mixed reactions. UK Anime Network scored it a 7 out of 10. Critics found the antagonism between allies, such as Juzo and Kyosuke and Izayoi and Ruruka confusing, particularly in how they wind up killing each other. They praised Makoto's rivalry with Kyosuke, the similarities in their ideals of hope—a theme commonly explored in the franchise—and how Makoto managed to stay true to himself in the end, to redeem his corrupted rival in an argument.
Critics felt that Makoto's love for Kyoko made his character grow more powerful, and his second confrontation with Kyosuke more impactful, especially because of the parallels between the two characters. James Becket of Anime News Network found the story unique but he, too, felt that, to enjoy it fully, the viewer needs to watch both interconnected arcs. He gave a "B" to Funimation's release, while panning the art and animation provided by Lerche. He praised the English cast—including Caitlin Glass, who played Kyoko—but felt that the entire cast had been overshadowed by the lead actor, Bryce Papenbrook, who provided "the goofy charm and charisma that has made Makoto such an endearing hero over the years".
Barnett felt the early episodes of Despair Arc were too comical and slow-paced. Nevertheless, he found it passable and worth watching despite its flaws. Hajime's interactions with Chiaki were praised. Many felt their relationship became tragic when Hajime nearly lost his humanity, to the point where he could not react to her death. Beckett was more positive. He found the new cast appealing, including the return of Junko Enoshima as an antagonist. Thanasis Karavasilis, of Manga Tokyo, was glad that Junko had returned, but felt the other characters were not as entertaining.
Beveridge found that most of the cast was not as engaging as the characters in Danganronpa: The Animation, because of the more serious tone of this series. He acknowledged he did not know Hajime or the rest of the cast members from Goodbye Despair because he had not played the original visual novel. He felt the number of deaths was too depressing, as he could not become attached to any of the more outstanding members of the cast. Nevertheless, he felt Funimation's release was well done, as was the English dub they provided. Manga.Tokyo's reviewer named Nagito as one of his favorite characters, believing his calm demeanor and distinctive design made an interesting parallel to Junko. The encounter between Nagito and Hajime's alter ego, Izuru, earned mixed responses; though it was appealing, it could only be fanservice to returning fans. Beckett found the English cast entertaining, mentioning actors such as Johnny Yong Bosch, who played Hajime, and Colleen Clinkenbeard, as Chisa. In conclusion, Beckett enjoyed the storyline, but felt the animation was inferior, and gave the compilation a "B+".
Hope Arc earned an average "B−" rating from Anime News Network's Jacob Chapman, who found the relationship between Makoto and Kyoko Kirigiri one of the most appealing and compared them to Romeo and Juliet as a romantic tragedy. But he felt a fake plot twist ruined the portrayal of the burden Makoto had been carrying. Nevertheless, he found it appealing, but not as deeply moving as it could have been. Because of the handling of the antagonist, he did not feel Makato was as likable as other characters introduced throughout Future Arc. He found the encounters of both protagonists interesting, despite claiming there were no major tragedies on Makoto's side because of Kyoko's survival. Thanasis Karavasilis felt that Hope Arc was more interesting than Chapman did. He believed the anime gave Makoto and Hajime a strong finale, especially with the revelation of Kyoko's survival, whom he deemed as too important for the former. He praised the encounter between Makoto and the villain Mitarai, as during their encounter neither was made out as the culprit. In addition, Karavasilis praised the execution of the finale based on the originality of the encounter and how original the result was, when comparing it to the trials from the video games, scoring it a 6 out of 6. GamesRadar also felt the anime similarly brought closure to Makoto's story arc.
|
50,569,164 |
Fascinated (Ivy song)
| 1,158,378,453 | null |
[
"2011 singles",
"2011 songs",
"Electronica songs",
"Ivy (band) songs",
"Nettwerk Records singles",
"Songs written by Adam Schlesinger",
"Songs written by Andy Chase"
] |
"Fascinated" is a song by American band Ivy. It was released as the second single from their sixth studio album, All Hours (2011), and made available for digital download on July 26, 2011 by Nettwerk in the United States. The song was written and produced by both Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase. An electronica song, "Fascinated" uses keyboards and a repetitive, simple chorus throughout its duration; Ivy's take on the production was called "European" by one critic.
"Fascinated" received mixed to positive responses from music critics. While being appreciated for its "catchiness", a reviewer was critical for the song containing a "boring" composition. An accompanying music video for the track was released on October 25, 2011, featuring various scenes of the band performing the track in a "colorful" world with robotic dancers playing several instruments.
## Background and composition
"Fascinated" was first announced on June 7, 2011, along with news concerning a song titled "Distant Lights". It was released on July 26, 2011, nearly one month after the former track had become available for digital consumption. While recording of the track was done exclusively by the members of Ivy in their respective homes, "Fascinated" was written and produced by Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase. The two also handled engineering of the song, with additional assistance being credited to Ruddy Cullers. Atsuo Matsumoto and Bruce Driscoll performed mixing and programming for the composition, respectively. Described as a flashback to "'80s synth pop" music, the track has been classified in the electronica genre, in contrast to the more "melodic guitar pop" vibe that was featured on their previous studio album, In the Clear (2005). Agreeing with the consensus, Nettwerk claimed that the single "sounds like a lost 80's synth-pop hit remixed for today". The recording incorporates keyboards in its instrumentation, while lead singer Dominique Durand repeats its title throughout the chorus. PopMatters's John Bergstrom described Ivy's approach on the track as "cold, European attitude".
## Critical reception
The release of "Fascinated" was met with mixed to positive responses from contemporary music critics. AllMusic's Matt Collar was appreciative of the single, which he described as a "catchy pop moment". A critic from BlackBook agreed, stating that "songs like 'Fascinated' [...] sparkle with a catchy confidence". A staff member from Filter Magazine claimed that "surely your 80's obsessed best friend will love it". Bergstrom from PopMatters criticized "Fascinated", which he called an "undistinguished, flat-out boring song". He continued by questioning the refrain's simpleness and the production, which he found "annoying".
## Music video
An accompanying music video for "Fascinated" was released on October 25, 2011 via Nettwerk's official YouTube channel. The visual was directed by Schlesinger's close friend Adam Neustadter, who helped in creating a "colorful" and "vaguely disorienting clip" for the band. The video begins with Durand peering below a camera as flashing stills of a faceless man playing the keyboards appear. Three dancers, including a mime, a woman with sunglasses, and a ballerina, perform various choreography as the visual gradually zooms in and out of focus, achieving a 3D effect. As the first verse continues, Chase and Schlesinger are shown playing their respective instruments behind Durand, who sings the song's lyrics into a microphone. A similar process is carried out for the rest of the clip, and concludes by displaying the faceless individual using the keyboard. Commenting on the project's final result, Schlesinger insisted that it successfully matches the song's "synth-pop vibe" through the use of "robot dancing, some vintage synths, and a guy with no face".
## Track listing
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of All Hours and Ivy's discography on AllMusic.
Personnel
- Andy Chase – engineering, executive producer, mixing
- Ruddy Cullers – engineering
- Bruce Driscoll – programming
- Dominique Durand – lead and background vocals
- Philippe Garcia – photography
- Josh Grier – legal advisor
- Brian Hill – art direction, design
- Ted Jensen – mastering
- Atsuo Matsumoto – assistant mixing
- Adam Schlesinger – engineering, executive producer, mixing
## Release history
|
396,093 |
Office of Strategic Influence (album)
| 1,141,935,086 | null |
[
"2003 debut albums",
"Inside Out Music albums",
"OSI (band) albums"
] |
Office of Strategic Influence is the first studio album by American progressive rock band OSI, released by Inside Out Music on February 18, 2003. The album was recorded in June 2002 and mixed in August 2002 at the Carriage House Studios in Stamford, Connecticut.
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally recruited Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on a progressive metal album. When keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore (founder of Chroma Key and former Dream Theater member) joined the project, the musical direction of the album changed to become more focused on soundscapes and composition than musicianship. Sean Malone (of Cynic and Gordian Knot) and Steven Wilson (of Porcupine Tree) also performed on the album.
The album is named after the Office of Strategic Influence, an organization set up after the September 11 attacks to spread misinformation and plant false news items in the media, among other functions. The Office was shut after The New York Times published a story on it; many of its operations were transferred to the Information Operations Task Force. The album's lyrics were written by Moore in reaction to the September 11 attacks.
Critical reception of the album was generally positive, praising the band's musicianship. Critics compared the band's sound to Porcupine Tree. Portnoy was ultimately dissatisfied with the experience of making the album. He performed on the second OSI album, Free, but was replaced by Gavin Harrison for Blood and Fire Make Thunder, the band's third and fourth albums respectively.
## Background
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally started work on Office of Strategic Influence as a side project while his bandmates took a break before starting work on their next album. Matheos decided to work with Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy because the two had wanted to work on a project together for some time. They originally planned to form a supergroup, envisaging the album as "straight prog metal".
Matheos spent seven months writing material for the album. He then sent Kevin Moore (who was living in Costa Rica) some MP3 files of the music he had written and asked him to write some keyboard parts. Moore (known as a founding member of Dream Theater and for his solo career as Chroma Key) had previously performed on three Fates Warning albums, and Matheos was expecting him to write keyboard parts as he had for the Fates Warning album. Instead, Moore "messed with [Matheos'] tracks and switched things around and put vocals to it and stuff like that." He said that he no longer considered the keyboard, bass and guitar parts separate from each other: "I don't write like that any more as much as I'm composing a whole song." The resulting track would become "Hello, Helicopter!"
Moore emailed his work back to Matheos, who was "pleasantly surprised" to be sent something completely different from what he expected. Matheos wanted to create a heavy album; before deciding to takes Moore's ideas further, Matheos and Moore wrote what would become "OSI". Moore said that after that, "[Matheos] was pretty much comfortable with whatever I wanted to do." This new song format was very different from what Portnoy and Matheos originally planned: the already-written long tracks were split into multiple short songs, closer to Moore's project Chroma Key than traditional progressive metal. "The Thing That Never Was", a track on the bonus disc, shows the direction Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to take the album in.
Matheos and Portnoy initially considered having a different vocalist perform on each track; this idea was scrapped as they decided the constant change in vocalist would disrupt the flow of the album. Vocalists considered included Steve Walsh, Steve Hogarth, Steven Wilson and John Arch. Portnoy particularly pushed for Daniel Gildenlöw to sing on the album. Early on in the album's production, Gildenlöw wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics for two songs and completely wrote another song. Matheos liked Gildenlöw's ideas, but did not want to take the music in the same direction Gildenlöw did. Moore ended up performing most of the vocals on the album. In order to keep the album from becoming too similar to Chroma Key, Matheos and Portnoy decided to feature a guest vocalist on one track. Steven Wilson (of Porcupine Tree) wrote lyrics and performed vocals on the track "ShutDOWN". He was chosen because his music in Porcupine Tree was similar in style to the music on the album. Portnoy also credited Wilson as "a pioneer of his genre".
Bassist Sean Malone (of Cynic and Gordian Knot) was only credited as a guest musician. Portnoy explained that this was because Malone's schedule did not allow him to join Matheos, Moore and Portnoy in the basic tracking sessions.
## Recording
Office of Strategic Influence was recorded at Carriage House Studios in Stamford, Connecticut from June 2 to 9, 2002. Matheos and Moore mixed the album with Phil Magnotti (who had previously mixed for Fates Warning) in August. Portnoy pushed to get as much of the band together as possible for the main tracking sessions because of his dislike of "side projects done through mail."
Matheos and Moore created the basic song ideas in Pro Tools. Songs in the progressive metal vein were almost entirely written by Matheos, while Moore had more influence on the more vocal-driven tracks. Portnoy noted that they were ultimately "Jim's songs", but that Moore was very involved with arrangements, post-production, melodies and lyrics. Portnoy considered himself as "just a drummer": he made minor arrangement suggestions but did not have a part in the actual writing. Malone and Wilson contributed their parts after the songs had been arranged. Matheos saved any unused ideas for the next Fates Warning album.
Sean Malone said that he enjoyed playing on the album, but that "it would have been nice to work out parts with Mike as they were being recorded rather than after the fact". He took a "session approach" to the album, "trying as much as possible to create parts that fit what Jim et al had created, versus trying to impose anything upon it". He was sent MIDI bass parts for each song which served as a guideline. For the particularly sparse and texture-heavy tracks, Malone did much doubletracking to create "a natural kind of chorusing" he prefers to any digital effects.
Before the recording of Office of Strategic Influence, the last time Moore and Portnoy worked together was on Dream Theater's Awake in 1994. Matheos was initially concerned about how Moore and Portnoy would feel about working together for the first time in eight years. Moore noted that he and Portnoy were not on bad terms, but "just weren't in touch." The two both described the experience as initially "awkward". When recording the album Portnoy had to take directions from others; he found this difficult as he was used to taking the creative lead. Moore noted that there was tension when recording the same drum part for a song more than once (in order to give Moore choice later on): "He's used to just playing the stroke once, the way he wants to," he said.
In a 2009 interview, Portnoy blamed his frustration with the project on Moore:
> I honestly went in there with an open mind and I was truly excited to work with Kevin again... But it ended up being more of the same old shit that it was when he left Dream Theater... making those records [Office of Strategic Influence and Free] with Kevin wasn't fun. He's not a fun person to work with. He's a very depressing and stubborn personality and there's no reason in my life or my career that I need to subject myself to that sort of personality.
Portnoy performed as a session musician on the second OSI album, Free, but was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison for the third album, Blood.
## Music
Moore described the music on Office of Strategic Influence as "a new approach to progressive rock", stating that he could use his musical roots in progressive music but "was far enough away from it to play with it." He said that "progressive rock has been around for so long and we have to stop taking it so seriously and really have fun with it." Portnoy described the album as "more soundscapish" than his work in Dream Theater, focusing more on composition and sounds than musicianship. He noted the style "would never work in Dream Theater."
Moore wrote lyrics for the album by "mumbling along to the song and then deciphering what I'm saying." The lyrics feature political themes ("Hello, Helicopter!" is about the US supplying military arsenals to other countries to protect its own national interests), although Matheos stated that the album was not political in nature. Moore said that he writes lyrics based on personal experiences, and that much of the album's lyrical content stems from how the September 11 attacks affected him. Moore's brother was a firefighter who worked at the World Trade Center after the attacks, "and I was totally apolitical before this, politically naïve and I still am," Moore stated. "I was like, 'Whoa, what the fuck is going on in the world?'"
Office of Strategic Influence features Moore's signature use of spoken word samples. He collected samples first and then tried to match them with the song's tempo. Moore said that the samples relate directly to the song's lyrics.
Matheos listed his influences as progressive rock bands such as Genesis, Jethro Tull and Emerson, Lake & Palmer and heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath, UFO and Uriah Heep. Moore described his influences as minimal techno, experimental electronic musicians and "bands that play live and then chop it up". He specifically named Pole, The Gordons and Acid Undertones as influences. Malone cited Mick Karn as an influence.
## Release and promotion
Moore chose the album's name from a list of band, album and song names he kept. The Office of Strategic Influence was a highly secret organization set up three weeks after the September 11 attacks. Part of its mission was to spread misinformation and plant false news items in the media in order to "influence the hearts and minds of the opposition." After The New York Times ran a story on the Office in February 2002, it was forced to shut, although many of its operations were later transferred to the Information Operations Task Force. "The funny thing about it was the government and administration was saying it's so embarrassing that they had to name it the 'Office of Strategic Influence,' we couldn't just put it in a room in the Pentagon and name it whatever the room number is," Moore said. "Someone decided to be really creative about it and name it what it really is."
The limited edition bonus CD features three bonus tracks on it. There are two cover songs: a cover of the Pink Floyd song "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" performed by Moore and Portnoy, chosen because they both "love Pink Floyd", according to Portnoy, and a cover of the Neil Young song "New Mama" performed by Moore. The third track, entitled "The Thing That Never Was", is a seventeen-minute instrumental performed by Matheos and Portnoy, showing the original direction they intended to take the album in. The CD contains a 19-minute multimedia section, including two documentary-style videos shot during the album's recording, and a music video for the track "Horseshoes and B-52s" directed by Moore.
Matheos suggested using an altered version of the United States passport for the album's cover art. The differences are that the arrows are double-headed, the olive branch is wilted, and the eagle's wings have been clipped. Matheos, Moore and Portnoy decided against sending out promotional copies of the album before its release date in order to prevent an early Internet leak of it. The album was released in Europe on February 17, 2003.
## Reception
Office of Strategic Influence was critically well received. Keith Gordon of AllMusic praised the album as "offering both power and pomp." Tommy Hash of Prog4you.com described the music as "catchy, complete with great melodies and musicianship that does not overdo it." He described the album as "almost in complete contrast to the parent bands' other related side projects," such as Liquid Tension Experiment and Transatlantic. John Bollenberg of ProgressiveWorld.net praised Matheos, Moore and Portnoy for "[starting] from scratch without copying their past in order to deliver something fresh, new and exciting."
Hash described the album as having "the atmosphere of some of the mid-90s to the latter era Fates Warning fused with industrial sounding elements and sound effects that create an ambient effect." Gordon described the music as similar to Pink Floyd, King Crimson and Max Vague. Bollenberg noted "the material on Office Of Strategic Influence gets closer to Moore's very own Chroma Key mixed with dashes of latterday Porcupine Tree... there are bits and bobs all over the album that could easily have fit on In Absentia."
Gordon described the performances on the album as "crackling with electricity and passion". He lauded Matheos' performance on the album: "In any other subgenre of rock, Matheos would be a guitar hero on the order of Steve Vai or Eddie Van Halen, the Fates Warning frontman capable of both classically styled acoustic craftsmanship and chaotic metallic riffing, often in the context of the same song." He praised Malone and Portnoy for "[holding] down the bottom line with rock-solid rhythms".
Gordon praised Moore for "providing an instrumental counterpoint to Matheos' raging guitar. Moore's imaginative style and natural skill coax a myriad of sounds from his instrument to challenge Matheos in the mix." Sander noted Moore's contribution, saying that "at times there's more technology and electronics than in the average house release". Bollenberg noted that Moore's keyboards added "textures flirting with semi-industrial patches and often being closer to Nine Inch Nails than 'vintage' melodic prog." Hash praised Moore's vocals, noting they "fit in well with all of the instrumental textures". In contrast, Sander criticized Moore's voice as "dull": "the many added distortion and echo effects cannot always make it more interesting. His voice is okay for one or two tracks... but it's too flat to keep you tied to the speakers for much longer". He cited Moore's vocals as the main weakness of some tracks.
Bollenberg listed his favorite track as "Hello, Helicopter!": "it once again gets so very close to authentic Porcupine Tree with Portnoy introducing some tribal rhythms that go ever so well with the rest of the material. I simply melt once that superb sound of the Fender Rhodes enters, taking turns with synthesizer tweaks." Gordon described the instrumental parts of the album as "powerful and purposeful: an integral part of each composition rather than an excuse to merely 'jam'".
## Track listing
### Limited edition bonus CD
## Personnel
- Jim Matheos – guitars, keyboards, programming, producer, engineering
- Kevin Moore – vocals, keyboards, programming, producer
- Sean Malone – bass guitar, Chapman stick
- Mike Portnoy – drums
- Steven Wilson – vocals on "ShutDOWN"
- Produced by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore
- Mixed by Phil Magnotti
- Engineered by Phil Magnotti, Steven Wilson, Sean Malone and Jim Matheos
## Chart positions
|
22,254,234 |
Silent Hill: Shattered Memories
| 1,161,158,500 |
2009 video game
|
[
"2000s horror video games",
"2009 video games",
"Alternate history video games",
"Climax Group games",
"Konami games",
"PlayStation 2 games",
"PlayStation Portable games",
"Psychological horror games",
"Psychotherapy in fiction",
"Silent Hill games",
"Single-player video games",
"Survival video games",
"Video game remakes",
"Video games developed in the United Kingdom",
"Video games featuring female protagonists",
"Video games featuring non-playable protagonists",
"Video games scored by Akira Yamaoka",
"Video games set in Maine",
"Video games set in amusement parks",
"Wii games"
] |
Silent Hill: Shattered Memories is a 2009 survival horror game developed by Climax Studios and published by Konami Digital Entertainment. It was released in December for the Wii and ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable platforms in January 2010. In April 2014, it appeared on the PlayStation Network in Europe.
Shattered Memories is a reimagination of the first game and retains the premise—Harry Mason's quest to find his missing daughter in the fictitious American town of Silent Hill—but is set in a different fictional universe and has a different plot, and altered characters, alongside new ones. Five endings are available. Gameplay takes place in two parts: a framing, first-person psychotherapy session, and an over-the-shoulder perspective of Harry's journey through Silent Hill, which is periodically interrupted by the occurrence of a shift to a more dangerous environment. Answers given to the psychological tests in the therapy session affect various gameplay elements in Harry's journey.
After designing the Silent Hill prequel (2007), which intentionally replicated elements of the first installment, Climax Studios wanted to try a different approach to creating a title in the series. Among the changes made was the removal of combat and the constant presence of monsters. Akira Yamaoka composed the soundtrack of the game, which was the first in the series to prominently feature dynamic music. The game received generally positive reviews for its graphics, plot, voice acting, soundtrack, and its use of the Wii Remote, and has been favorably compared to M. Night Shyamalan's visuals. However, some reviewers found the puzzle exploration, chase sequences and psychological elements frustrating, and felt the game was too short.
## Gameplay
Silent Hill: Shattered Memories is a reimagining of the first installment of the series, Silent Hill. It keeps the premise of writer Harry Mason looking for his daughter in Silent Hill after a car crash, although it leads into a different plot. The personalities and roles of characters from the first game have also been changed, and Shattered Memories introduces new characters as well.
Silent Hill: Shattered Memories divides its gameplay between two different settings. The first section is set in a psychotherapist's office and the second in a town called Silent Hill. In the first section, the player interacts with Dr. Michael Kaufmann, who is a therapist NPC, from a first-person perspective. The player responds to Kaufmann's questions and completes a psychological test, fills in a questionnaire or colors pictures. The player's responses to these tests alters aspects of gameplay in the second setting, including the available areas, the physical appearance and behavior of characters encountered, and the physical appearance of the monsters. Shattered Memories returns to Kaufmann's office periodically throughout the game.
In the second setting, the player guides Harry Mason in an over-the-shoulder view as he searches for his missing daughter Cheryl in the snowy town of Silent Hill. Harry is equipped with a smartphone and flashlight: he can use the phone to check his location on a GPS map, take photographs, and make telephone calls. Moving to certain spots with high interference, represented by a lot of radio noise, or by taking pictures of spots where shadowy figures can be seen, unlock various text and voicemail messages that expand the story and occasionally provide clues. To view the details of various documents, the player can zoom in on objects. The game also alters details of gameplay based on what the player views. Throughout his journey, Harry encounters puzzles such as mechanisms, which reward either a key required to progress or a bonus memento. In the Wii version, the Wii Remote is used for puzzle solving and to control the flashlight and cell phone.
The game occasionally shifts to an icy alternate dimension called "Nightmare", where hostile monsters exist. To escape from this dimension, Harry must find a predetermined exit while avoiding the wandering creatures which chase him upon detection. Unlike previous installments in the series, there is no combat element to the gameplay: Harry is weaponless for the entire duration of the game and can only run, hide, slow down the monsters by knocking down objects to block their path, throw off the creatures if they latch onto him, and temporarily ward them off by picking up and using flares found lying on the ground. His running speed and "health" (the amount of damage that he can endure before dying) decrease every time the monsters grab him. In contrast to the previous installments of the series, which featured various types of monsters, Shattered Memories features only one type of humanoid monster, whose physical appearance changes in response to the player's actions inside and outside the Nightmare realm, including their responses to Kaufmann's psychological tests.
## Plot
The game begins with a psychotherapy session conducted by Dr. Kaufmann, which acts as a frame story for Harry's quest. Suffering from issues with his memory, Harry travels home to search for his seven-year-old daughter Cheryl, hoping that she is already there. His consciousness moves between the in-game real world and Nightmare—a frozen version of the town in which monsters chase him—and finds that another family lives in his house. Police officer Cybil Bennett arrives and decides to take him to the police station, but they become caught in a blizzard, and Harry eventually leaves her car to continue his search. Eventually, Harry finds his way to the local high school, where he learns from a woman named Michelle Valdez that a Cheryl Mason attended school there previously, but then moved. She offers to drive Harry to Cheryl's new address, but after briefly stepping away, he returns to find Michelle has been replaced by Dahlia Mason, who claims to be Harry's lover and acts as if she has been with him the whole time. He accepts the ride, although during another shift to the Nightmare, the car falls into a river. Harry escapes but loses consciousness.
He awakens in a wheelchair pushed by Cybil in the town's hospital. Before Cybil can tell him about his file at the station, the town transitions to the Nightmare. Harry escapes and meets Lisa Garland, a nurse injured in a crash, and escorts her to her home. At her request, Harry gives Lisa pills for her headache, and returns to find her either dead or dying, depending on in-game actions taken by the player. Finding him next to Lisa's corpse, Cybil attempts to arrest him, but is frozen as the Nightmare emerges around them. Harry escapes to Cheryl's home, where he finds an older Dahlia who claims to be his wife and tells him that Cheryl is at the lighthouse. Harry enters the Nightmare, escapes it, and eventually gets a ride from Michelle. Harry finds a young-again Dahlia aboard a boat at a lakeside harbour, who sets the course for the lighthouse and seduces him. Harry wakes, finds an aged Dahlia and the environment covered in ice, and crosses the now-frozen lake but falls into the water and passes out. Harry is dragged ashore near the lighthouse by Cybil, who confronts him with the news that Harry Mason died eighteen years ago in a car accident. As Harry proceeds, he finds "the lighthouse" is the name of Dr. Kaufmann's counseling clinic: the patient in the therapy session is an adult Cheryl, who is in denial over her father's death. Harry enters the office and Cheryl either reconciles herself to his death or continues to cling to her fantasy father.
At the end of the game, an old video clip from Cheryl's camcorder is played. Four variations of this clip are available depending upon the player's actions as Harry. In "Love Lost", Harry packs his luggage in a car and tells Cheryl not to blame herself for her parents' separation. In "Drunk Dad", a drunken Harry yells at Cheryl, demands a beer and blames his drinking on his family. In "Sleaze and Sirens", Harry flirts on his bed with Lisa and Michelle. In "Wicked and Weak", Dahlia verbally abuses Harry and slaps him. In the "UFO" joke ending, Cheryl tells Dr. Kaufmann that she believes Harry was kidnapped by aliens and that Silent Hill is a spaceship. After James Sunderland interrupts, the therapy session continues, revealing Cheryl to be a dog and Dr. Kaufmann to be an alien. Regardless of the ending, the final scene shows Cheryl packing away mementos that the player can collect throughout the game. An additional scene the player can obtain shows her reconciling with Dahlia outside the clinic.
## Development
Plans for a Silent Hill remake, and speculation about a possible remake based on the Silent Hill film, were circulating as early as 2006. The idea of a remake was also considered early in the development of the prequel game Silent Hill: Origins (2007). Rumours persisted into 2009, and were seemingly confirmed in February when the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) re-rated the original game. The game was officially announced in the May 2009 issue of Nintendo Power.
Climax Studios, the developer of Silent Hill: Origins, developed Shattered Memories with a development team made up of more than 55 members and a supporting network of more than 90 artists. With the completion of Origins - for which they had attempted to closely replicate the atmosphere and gameplay elements of the first Silent Hill game (1999)— Climax Studios wanted to create another horror game. Because of the tenth anniversary of the first Silent Hill installment, Konami thought the time was ideal "to revisit" the game. Climax Studios saw the then-newly introduced Wii platform as a way to reach a wider range of gamers, especially as outside Japan, no Silent Hill title had been exclusively released on a Nintendo platform. Development costs for the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 and their gamers' "mindset" factored into the decision for the gaming platform. Additionally, the developers wanted to use the Wii Remote to incorporate the gameplay elements of the flashlight and radio static. Climax felt that the first game would be a good starting point, instead of continuing any existing storylines or adding onto the mythology of the town. To please fans of the series and bring in new ones, they decided to reimagine the setting and characters, such as Dahlia, who was changed from "a haggard old woman" who led the town's cult into a physically attractive young woman. Game designer Sam Barlow explained in November 2022 that he was not a fan of Silent Hill 3 as he disliked the continuation of Harry and Cheryl Mason's adventures as well as the bad endings in Silent Hill. He felt he could redeem the series by reimagining the first game through Shattered Memories.
Climax Studios began with the game's plot, which the development team considered the main appeal of the series. Early in the game's development, some team members visited a psychiatrist for research. The use of ice as a visual theme originated partly because the developers wanted to create an Otherworld for the game, as previous games in the series had featured the same theme as Silent Hill, and because snowfall is common in the northeastern or midwestern United States, where the fictional town is located. Falling snow was added to limit the player's visibility and build an atmosphere of dread. The developers included a system of psychological profiling that adjusted gameplay elements based on the player's interaction with the game. Writer Sam Barlow explained the system: "Ultimately every little thing you do in the game or piece of content you can interact with can be assigned a little personality score. This is all added into a very classical psychometric profile of your personality that can then be mapped onto research". The opening questionnaire has little significance in the player's profile. Capturing the multiple variations of gameplay elements for submission to the Entertainment Software Rating Board proved to be difficult, according to the game's producer, Tomm Hulett. Loading times were eliminated from the game to maintain a sense of immersion for the player.
The developers felt that creating another game in the series with the same style of gameplay had limited potential. In an attempt to imbue the game with the feel of a horror film where the protagonist is a regular person and the antagonist is powerful, they avoided the common survival horror gameplay feature of a player character who is skilled in the use of weapons. Instead they generated an unarmed player character; and examined the survival horror gameplay staple of difficult combat and sluggish opponents, inspired by zombie films and modelled after the video games Alone in the Dark (1992) and Resident Evil (1996). They also analyzed around 50 chase sequences from various films, including horror films, and the structure of slasher films, in which a powerful and intelligent antagonist pursues the protagonists. The developers drew inspiration from common childhood nightmares about running away from an unknown threat, and decided to incorporate an intelligent enemy capable of trailing and outrunning the protagonist. The chase sequences were designed to evoke a brief sense of tension and fright for the player, although the developers did not want to prolong the tension with the constant presence of monsters, and were concerned that this would become overwhelming and spoil the player's immersion in the game and interest in the story. The constant presence of monsters was also thought to be irrelevant to Shattered Memories; director Mark Simmons said, "this Harry Mason is not a guy who is constantly under attack from monsters. It's not a story of surviving a zombie apocalypse". Additionally, to make information-gathering in the game realistic and corresponding to modern life standards, the developers substituted text in scattered documents, a common element in survival horror games, for the player's interaction with the in-game environment and use of the cell phone.
### Music
Silent Hill series composer Akira Yamaoka scored the soundtrack of Shattered Memories. It was his final contribution to the Silent Hill series before he resigned from Konami after 16 years with the company. Voice actress Mary Elizabeth McGlynn provided vocals for four musical pieces included in the game and co-directed Shattered Memories' voice acting, and musician Joe Romersa wrote lyrics for three of the pieces. The game is the first in the series to make prominent use of dynamic music; a composition is introduced and subsequently retracted, based on the player's actions, in every major area of the game. Widely varying compositions, ranging from undertones to rock music, were produced for the game.
## Release
A playable demo of Shattered Memories was made available in June 2009 at the annual trade fair Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 (E3) and received favorable reviews from video game journalists. A group of editors of the IGN website gave the game three "Best of E3" awards in the Wii category for best overall game, best adventure game, and best video game graphics technology. The game was also given a "Best Wii Game" award by editors of the GameSpot website in an article on their preferred games featured at the E3 show.
Shattered Memories was published by Konami for the Wii in North America on 8 December 2009; in Europe on 26 February 2010; and in Japan on 25 March. The Australian release was delayed until 22 June, due to European supply problems caused by the economic effects of the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull. Major Australian retailers struggled to confirm available copies of the game for several months after the delayed release, potentially damaging initial sales of the game. The PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions were published in North America on 19 January 2010; in Europe on 26 February; in Japan on 25 March; and in Australia on 22 April 2010. It also became available on the PlayStation Network for Europe and the United Kingdom on 28 April 2014. A PlayStation Vita release for Shattered Memories was apparently planned, but was cancelled.
## Reception
According to producer Tomm Hulett, the number of pre-ordered copies of Silent Hill: Shattered Memories "looked very good". In March 2010, the game placed fifth on the list of the top forty bestselling PS2 videogames in the United Kingdom and eleventh on the corresponding list for Wii games. However, NintendoWorldReport stated that sales of the game were low. The game eventually broke even with the help of the PS2 port, selling an estimated 440,000 copies across all platforms.
Review aggregator website Metacritic displays an averaged score for Silent Hill: Shattered Memories of 79/100, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Wesley Yin-Poole of VideoGamer.com ranked Shattered Memories in seventh place on his list of "top ten nerve-shredding video games", and wrote: "Dark, dank and dangerous, Silent Hill grabs you by the scruff of the neck, shakes you till you throw up, then headbutts you right between the eyes". Gamasutra's Brandon Sheffield, ranked the game in fifth place on his top ten list of overlooked games of 2009, and wrote that despite the absence of horror elements, the game was a nice experience. Matt Wales of IGN also included the game in a list of overlooked Wii games, and wrote that the combination of various elements which he regarded as positive delivered "a meticulously-constructed, expertly-paced experience quite unlike anything the series has seen before".
Chris Schilling of The Daily Telegraph described it as "one of the most innovative and enjoyable survival horrors for many a year". Eurogamer's Kristan Reed wrote: "Packed with inventive ideas and one engaging sequence after another, it's a spirited, poignant and unsettling game that not only delivers a long-overdue return to form, but reinvigorates horror adventures in the process". According to Lark Anderson of GameSpot, "Shattered Memories is a fantastic return to the core concept of personal fear, and though its developers made some unorthodox decisions - such as removing combat entirely - those decisions have paid off handsomely". Nintendo Power called it audacious and compelling. In a retrospective feature, NintendoWorldReport's Jonathan Metts generally agreed with GameSpot, stating that the installment "is a noble and arguably successful attempt to revive and reform the survival horror genre. While perhaps not scary, it is genuinely disturbing, shocking, and always interesting". According to Leigh Alexander of The A.V. Club, the innovation and uniqueness of the installment made it capable of standing alone from the Silent Hill series, without having to use the series' reputation or name to attract players. Conversely, Game Informer's Tim Turi considered the frustrating controls and dull pacing to be major flaws, and wrote: "If you’re a Silent Hill fan interested in a fresh take on the stale formula, this Wii entry may be the Cheryl you’ve been searching for, but it comes at a cost".
The division of gameplay into puzzle-based exploration, weaponless chase sequences, and therapy scenes drew mixed comments from reviewers. About.com's Charles Herold wrote that the fast-paced action of the nightmare sequences and the therapy scenes undercut the "trapped in a nightmare" feeling of previous Silent Hill games. Matt Casamassina of IGN wrote that "the separation between safe exploration and puzzling and run-for-your-life monster scenarios is too transparent and as a result you will inevitably come to fear the ice and few things else". PALGN's Michael Kontoudis said that the chase sequences severely detracted from the rest of the game. Eurogamer wrote that they created a welcome mix with no gameplay element overemphasized. Reviewers were also divided on whether the chase sequences were potentially frustrating, or quickly grew repetitive. GamesRadar's Henry Gilbert expressed frustration over the similar enemies and repetitive use of a stock scream. Neon Kelly of VideoGamer.com was concerned by the absence of a possible death of the player character which would result in a "game over", because he esteemed the fear potentially caused to the player by player character death as a major element of the survival horror genre. The use of the Wii Remote was praised by reviewers as natural-seeming, and well-suited to the movement-based puzzles and scenes.
Shattered Memories' reimagined plot received praise from reviewers, some of whom found it easier to follow than the plot of the first game. Game Informer drew comparisons with film director M. Night Shyamalan's style. GamesRadar wrote that the storyline and characterizations were mature, its puzzles clear yet challenging and that the atmospheric scares contributed to the game's appeal. Justin Haywald of 1UP.com said that the text messages about minor characters not introduced in the game detracted from the overall narrative. The game's duration, considered relatively short by reviewers, was seen as a drawback, although some reviewers said that the psychological elements and multiple endings increased the replay value of the game. The psychological elements were also criticized. About.com wrote that they were far less subtle than those in Silent Hill 2, and GamePro's Will Herring said that while the player-profiling element was ambitious, he did not think it went far enough, as it changed only cosmetic details and character dialogue. Reviewers praised the graphics, and called them detailed and well-done. Chris McMahon of Play placed the game tenth on his list of the "ten best-looking PSP games". GameTrailers praised the variety of objects, many of which can be manipulated by the player, and the detailed textures which lent the game's environments authenticity. The soundtrack was favorably received, and reviewers described it as moody, atmospheric, and helping to create tension. The voice acting was similarly well-received as believable. Additionally, the soundtrack won an award for its audio design at the Milthon European Games Awards, an event held in Paris, France, at the Paris Game Festival; the awards were handed out by an eight-person jury and the French Minister of Culture and Communication.
Metacritic shows an averaged score of 77/100 for the PlayStation 2 port, indicating generally favorable reviews. Casamassina gave the PS2 port a score of 8.0/10, and wrote that while the graphics and control system in the Wii version were better, the port held up well. For the PlayStation Portable port, Metacritic displays an averaged score of 73/100, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Casamassina gave it a score of 7.0, and commented upon the "obvious visual downgrades", "sluggish controls", and "the inability to directly control and point his flashlight". In his review of both ports, Haywald said that the control systems of both ports worked well, and described them as "a technical triumph".
|
1,789,297 |
Samba rock
| 1,149,811,774 |
Genre of samba
|
[
"1970s in Latin music",
"Brazilian styles of music",
"Dance culture",
"Dance events",
"Dance in Brazil",
"Fusion music genres",
"Rock music genres",
"Samba music genres"
] |
Samba rock (also known as samba soul, samba funk, and sambalanço) is a Brazilian dance culture and music genre that fuses samba with rock, soul, and funk. It emerged from the dance parties of São Paulo's lower-class black communities after they had been exposed to rock and roll and African-American music in the late 1950s.
As a development of 1960s música popular brasileira, the genre was pioneered by recording acts such as Jorge Ben, Tim Maia, and Trio Mocotó. It gained a wider popularity in the following decades after breaking through into discotheques. By the 2000s, samba rock had grown into a broader cultural movement involving dancers, disc jockeys, scholars, and musicians, who reinvented the genre in a modernized form.
## Origins
Samba rock's origins lie in the predominantly black favelas of São Paulo during the late 1950s, when Brazilian radio and dance halls were reached by the global spread of American rock and roll and related African-American music such as blues and jazz. Its first incarnation was as a dance phenomenon at community block parties that began to play these styles alongside traditional samba and bolero music. These parties eventually moved to larger venues hosted by disc jockeys.
The first known samba-rock deejay Osvaldo Pereira—known by his stage name "Orquestra Invisível (Invisible Orchestra) Let’s Dance"—debuted in 1958 in downtown São Paulo. "The parties started to get crowded, and the rooms for the parties started to get larger", Pereira recounted. "Then, I thought of building my own equipment, which had to be powerful, and faithful to the sound of the live orchestras." His early equipment included a 100-watt sound system featuring a rudimentary version of a crossover, which allowed Pereira to control the frequencies of the music.
## Dance culture
In the earliest samba-rock parties, deejays played music from a number of genres, including Partido Alto sambas and Italian rock, while attendees joined in pairs and engaged in rock and roll (Lindy Hop, Rockabilly) and samba dances (Samba de Gafieira). In 1957, Brazilian pianist Waldir Calmon recorded a samba version of Bill Haley's "Rock Around the Clock", which was a turning point for the events; according to Brazilian journalist Beatriz Miranda, "gradually, partygoers turned all the rock and samba moves into one single dance style, later named samba rock."
The dances of samba rock honor an exchange between the original music and a variety of other styles, according to Mestre Ataliba, one of São Paulo's first samba-rock dance instructors. "Dance wise, samba rock is about relaxation and concentration, all at once", he said. "It blends the African 'ginga' (body flow from Capoeira), which is present at the feet and the hips, and the European reference of the ballroom etiquette. We can dance it to the sound of Rita Pavone, samba pagode, reggae, R&B. It really embraces every music culture".
## Musical development
The samba-rock genre developed during the 1960s with popular Brazilian recording musicians who fused samba with American rock, soul, and funk influences. This development occurred alongside the Tropicália artistic movement within mid-1960s música popular brasileira (MPB), which itself had modernized traditional bossa nova rhythms with influences from other Brazilian and international pop rock sounds. Originators of samba rock included Trio Mocotó, Tim Maia, and Jorge Ben, who has been considered the "father of samba rock".
Ben's early music contributed significantly to the genre's rhythmic identity. Departing from bossa nova's European musical influences, the singer drew on African-American styles—such as jazz, rhythm and blues, and eventually soul, funk, and rock music—to develop a unique rhythm, which he called "sacundim sacundem". Stylistically, Ben combined samba with instruments and features from rock and roll, including the electric guitar, drum kit, and reverberation. According to Impose magazine's Jacob McKean, "the horn-heavy big band sound" on the song "Take It Easy My Brother Charles" (from Ben's 1969 self-titled album) is a key element of the genre. His 1970 album Fôrça Bruta, recorded with Trio Mocotó, was also pioneering of samba rock in its fusion of the band's groove-based accompaniment and the more rockish rhythms of Ben's guitar. Their instrumental set-ups during the 1970s often featured guitar, the pandeiro, and the timbau, a traditional drum.
Many other musicians emulated and expanded on Ben's style. Their sound became known as samba rock; it has also been referred to as samba soul, samba funk, and sambalanço (a portmanteau of samba and balanço, meaning swing or beat in Portuguese). The genre became defined by the drum kit, bass guitar, keyboard, brass instruments, a strong groove, and "tumxicutumxicutum", an onomatopoeia referring to samba rock's distinctive rhythm. According to Clube do Balanço vocalist and guitarist Marco Mattoli, "the song must always be good to dance to, otherwise it does not make sense. It does limit the composing process, but creates a cultural identity to our band. Today, we cannot see it as rock, samba, soul or funk anymore. Samba rock turned into an original thing."
## Popularity and modernization
Samba rock reached mainstream audiences in the late 1960s. It became more popular during the 1970s and 1980s, especially in discotheques. This gave more exposure to Ben, Trio Mocotó, and other acts from São Paulo's black music scene, although none of them declared themselves samba-rock artists. Ben's songs in particular became enduring favorites at traditional samba-rock parties. In subsequent years, samba rock developed from a dance phenomenon and music style into a complex cultural movement, involving musicians, producers, DJs, dancers, visual artists, and scholars. The parties eventually came to include big bands and hip hop, alongside samba music.
In the early 2000s, the genre was refashioned in a more modernized form featuring electronic samples, departing from the traditional set-up of Ben and Trio Mocotó's 1970s music. This newer form was typified by the bands Sandália de Prata and Clube do Balanço, who first played middle-class areas of São Paulo. The new wave of artists deliberately created music that would suit samba-rock dances. In 2001, Universal Music Brasil capitalized on this resurgence of samba rock with the "Samba Soul" reissue series, re-releasing albums by Ben and other 1970s performers of the style. Ben, who still performed at this time, was recognized by Time Out as an "aging maestro" representative of the "favela samba rock" contingent in the contemporary MPB scene.
Samba rock's modernization has seen its incorporation into dance academy curriculum, gym classes, party productions, dance collectives, and other events. Samba-rock dance forms of the past were revisited in the 2000s by black Brazilian and dance-club culture, as well as Brazilian hip hop groups such as Soul Sisters. Samba-rock culture has also faced debates surrounding gender equality. An advocacy project, "Samba Rock Mulheres" (English: "Samba Rock Women"), was created in response to the marginalization of women as supporting dancers to the predominantly male stars at dance events.
In 2010, three figures associated with the samba-rock movement—dancer Jorge Yoshida, musician Marco Mattoli, and producer Nego Júnior—started a grassroots campaign to have samba rock registered as a cultural heritage of São Paulo. The campaign eventually attracted the participation of various artists, musical groups, producers, political leaders, and citizens of São Paulo. In November 2016, the Municipal Council of Historic, Cultural and Environmental Preservation of the City of Sao Paulo (CONPRESP) finally declared samba rock a cultural heritage of the municipality.
## See also
- Culture of Brazil
- Jovem Guarda
- Latin rock
|
19,042,721 |
King of Pop (album)
| 1,171,921,636 | null |
[
"2008 greatest hits albums",
"Albums produced by Michael Jackson",
"Epic Records compilation albums",
"Michael Jackson compilation albums"
] |
King of Pop is a compilation album by American singer and recording artist Michael Jackson, released in commemoration of his 50th birthday in 2008. The album title comes from the honorific title Jackson himself acquired approximately 20 years earlier.
The track listing of the album differs significantly across countries because fans in each country where Sony BMG operated national offices were allowed to vote on which songs would appear on that country's edition of the album. The initial pool of songs, which also differed across countries, were selected from Jackson's back catalogue and also included a new "megamix" of five songs from the Thriller album that was created by Jason Nevins. "Billie Jean" is the only song to appear on all versions of the album.
As of 2019, King of Pop has been released in a total of 28 versions; it has not been released in North America. The album's launch was made public on June 20, 2008, with the official announcement of the Australian version. The first version actually released was in Netherlands and in Germany/Switzerland on August 22, 2008. The final release was China's edition on December 18, 2009, following Jackson's death.
## Background
Prior to the release of King of Pop, Jackson issued the double-disc album Thriller 25, a 25th anniversary edition of Thriller. It was a commercial success, having done particularly well as a re-issue, peaking at number one in eight countries and Europe. It reached number two in the US, number three in the UK and top 10 on over 30 national charts. In the US, Thriller 25 was just 14,000 copies short of reaching the peak position, selling 166,000 copies. It was ineligible for the Billboard 200 chart as a re-release, but entered atop the Pop Catalog chart, where it stayed for 10 non-consecutive weeks and had the best sales on that chart since December 1996.
A few months afterward, Sony announced the release of regional editions of the King of Pop compilation, in celebration of Jackson's 50th birthday. The album's title is a reference to the same title Jackson acquired approximately 20 years ago and was also co produced by Jamaican born student and songwriter Dontae Matthews, from Spanish Town, Jamaica. The name "King of Pop" came when actress and friend Elizabeth Taylor presented Jackson with an "Artist of the Decade" award at the 1989 Soul Train Awards, proclaiming him "the true king of pop, rock and soul". MTV, VH1, FOX, and Jackson's record label began marketing Jackson as the "King of Pop" to coincide with the release of Dangerous and the music video for "Black or White", the album's first single.
## Versions
### Argentina
On November 11, the Argentine version of the compilation was released. It contains 2 bonus tracks: the song "Come Together" (which is featured in Moonwalker and also the HIStory album, released in 1995) and a radio edit of the Megamix of the Thriller album. Two tracks on the album, "Billie Jean" and "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough" were incorrectly named as "Billy Jean" and "Don't Stop Till You Get Enough".
### Australia
The Australian version was announced by Sony BMG Australia on June 20, 2008, and was released on Jackson's birthday. Starting on June 21, 2008, Australian fans had three weeks to vote for their 30 favourite tracks for the album; made up of Jackson's prior material. Each fan could choose five songs from the pool; made up of all the tracks from Off the Wall, Thriller (2001 special edition, including "Carousel"), Bad (2001 special edition), Dangerous, HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I, Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, Invincible and the track "For All Time" from Thriller 25. The pool of songs also included seven from Jackson's time in The Jackson 5/The Jacksons. These songs were "Blame It on the Boogie", "Can You Feel It", "ABC", "I Want You Back", "I'll Be There" and "Ben". King of Pop was released in two editions: The first was a limited edition digipak that featured the names of selected voters, messages left by the fans and a fold-out poster that follows Jackson through his musical career; The second edition was a standard release of the album without the poster. This is the only version of the album to contain "Sunset Driver", "In The Back" and the single You Can't Win. This Australia version contains the full nine-minute version of Thriller Megamix instead of the radio edit commonly found on other versions. The standard release contains the top 30 with a few bonus tracks, while the digipack release contains the top 20 with more archival tracks, subtitled "From The Closet".
### Austria
On July 20, the Austrian version of the double disc compilation was announced; it was released on Jackson's birthday. The pool list fans got to choose from contained 100 tracks. This is the only version of the album to contain the single "ABC", which is the earliest song on any version of the album.
### Belgium
Two versions of the album were released on August 25, the Het Nieuwsblad Edition and the "BEL RTL" Edition. The BEL RTL Edition is the only version of the album that doesn't contain the single "Black or White" at all. The Het Nieuwsblad Edition is the only version of the album to contain "Beautiful Girl". On July 26, it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 25. Fans could vote for their 5 favorite tracks from a pool of 124, on the web site of the Belgian newspaper Het Nieuwsblad.
### Brazil
The Brazilian edition was released on October 17. This is the only version of the album to contain the single "The Girl Is Mine 2008" while "Smooth Criminal" is not present at all.
### China
On December 18, 2009, China version named "Michael Jackson King Of Pop The China Collection" released by Sony Music China.
Different from the other versions, Fans in China were not given the opportunity to vote for songs included in China's version, and this version was not released in 2008 to celebrate Michael Jackson's birthday, but after his death in late 2009. The songs in China's version were a selection from the Hong Kong Version with the exclusion of Smooth Criminal, Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough, and Blood on the Dance Floor. Spine of slipcase incorrectly mentions the title as "King Of Pop - The Hong Kong Collection".
### Finland
The Finnish edition was released on October 1.
### France
"King of Pop - The French Fans' Selection" was released on December 12. This is the only version of the album to contain the single Cry. The Deluxe box set is the only version of the album to contain "The Way You Love Me" and "Rock With You" (Original LP Version).
### Germany & Switzerland
On July 14, 2008, it was announced that German fans had until July 28 to choose their top 30 Michael Jackson songs from an extensive pool of 121 tracks for their edition of the compilation. The German version of King of Pop was eventually released on August 22. The German pool list contained almost every song Jackson released in his solo career. Notable expansions on the pool choice included: A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 (2008) and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection (2004). There were also 8 tracks included from the singer's time in The Jackson 5/The Jacksons, slightly more than other versions of the compilation. The German edition was also released in Switzerland on the same day. In Germany, King of Pop is the fourth most downloaded album of all time.
### Greece
The 32-track double-CD Greek edition was released on November 17, 2008. Sony BMG Greece teamed up with music television channel Mad TV through which fans cast votes for their favourite songs.
### Hong Kong
On August 6, it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 28. Fans could vote for 10 of their favorite tracks on the web site of Sony BMG Hong Kong.
### Hungary
On July 9, it was announced that Hungarian fans had until July 27, to choose their songs from an extensive pool of 122 tracks, in a two-stage process. The pool list contained almost every song Jackson has released in his solo career. Notably expansions on the pool choice included: A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection (these are not available in the Australian or New Zealand version). In the first round (July 9 - July 15) the fans were able to vote for their top 50 tracks. In round two (July 16 - July 27) the 50 were cut down to the album track list.
### India
Sony BMG India partnered with ibibo.com to roll out the Indian version of 'Michael Jackson - King Of Pop'. The double CD collection was available in stores by January 2009 and is a special selection of Michael Jackson songs collectively voted by community members of ibibo.com. Additionally the best moon walkers were selected by the Ibibo community along with Sony BMG and could win laptops and iPods.
### Italy
"King of Pop - The Italian Fans' Selection" was released on October 3. It was the first collection to feature the full version of "Carousel" from the Special Edition of Thriller, and the only version of the album to contain "Tabloid Junkie" and "Morphine".
### Japan
On July 18, the Japanese edition "キング・オブ・ポップ-ジャパン・エディション" (King of Pop - Japan edition) was announced with fans picking from a selection pool of 120 tracks. The compilation was released on September 24 by Sony Music Japan.
### Mexico
### Netherlands
On July 22, it was announced that Dutch fans could vote for their favorite Jackson tracks, choosing 5 songs from a list of 100. The release date of the album was August 22. In Netherlands were two versions released, The Limited -bol.com- Collection and The Dutch Collection.
### New Zealand
On July 3, it was announced that fans in New Zealand would have until July 20, to vote for their version of King of Pop. In New Zealand, the compilation was released on August 25. Fans could vote for five songs in a pool that differed slightly from the Australian song pool. The songs available from Thriller 25 were different; "For All Time" had been replaced by "The Girl Is Mine 2008" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008". "Todo Mi Amor Eres Tu" from Bad (2001 special edition) was not available. While the Australian pool included seven songs from Jackson's group career, the New Zealand pool had only three: "Blame It on the Boogie", "Can You Feel It" and "State of Shock".
### Philippines
Sony BMG Philippines and MYX Music Channel announced the Philippine release of the King of Pop. Filipino fans were asked to send their Top 10 all-time favorite Michael Jackson tracks via e-mail. The album was released on August 28, 2008. This is the only version of the album to contain the single Gone Too Soon.
### Poland
On August 29, it was announced that the double disc album would be released in Poland on October 20. Fans could vote for 20 of their favourite tracks from a pool of 120 on the special web site of Sony BMG Poland. That site was launched on August 29 (on Michael Jackson's 50th birthday) and voting was closed on September 17.
### Portugal
The Portuguese edition was released on December 9, 2008.
### Russia
The King Of Pop (Россия Выбирает) was released on November 17, 2008.
### Singapore
In Singapore two versions were released. One in 2008 with exactly the same track listing as Korean Edition and the other in 2009, which is the French Deluxe Edition track for track.
### South Korea
"King of Pop - The Korean Limited Edition" was released on December 11, 2008. This is the only version of the album to contain the songs "Keep the Faith" and "You Are My Life".
### Spain
"King of Pop - Edición Exclusiva España" was released in Spain on January 13, 2009. This is the only version of the album to contain the song Unbreakable.
### Sweden
The Swedish edition was released on October 15.
### Taiwan
On July 31, 2009, double disc album called "King of Pop (The Taiwan Collection)" released by Sony Music Taiwan. This version released after Michael Jackson's death, and the track listing is exactly the same as Hong Kong Version.
### Thailand
### Turkey
"King of Pop - The Turkish Collection" was released on November 24.
### United Kingdom
On July 18, the United Kingdom version of the compilation was announced, with a release date of August 25. Sony BMG UK teamed up with GMTV and The Sun allowing fans, until August 10, to pick 18 tracks from the song pool. The pool list, at only 50 tracks, is the least diverse; there were no songs included from Jackson's group career.
Despite the pool conducting a possible 18 tracks, only 17 are included. Most notable is the fact that "Scream" is included on the album, as this song had not appeared on any compilation album in the United Kingdom prior due to legal rights with Janet Jackson's label Virgin Records.
#### Standard Edition
#### Deluxe box set
In the United Kingdom, a three disc version was released on September 29, 2008. The third disc was advertised as featuring "Rarities and Classic 12"s", although many of the mixes were already remastered and re-released on the 2006 boxset Visionary: The Video Singles. This is the only version of the album to contain "Can't Get Outta the Rain".
### Comparison
The songs included on each international version are summarised below, with their disc and track numbers. (The table can be sorted separately for each country, showing the order of the tracks in that country's compilation; when sorted in ascending order, the rows with contents will appear at the bottom of the table.)
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications
## Release history
|
73,256,316 |
Abgig obelisk
| 1,158,895,201 |
Ancient Egyptian monument near Faiyum
|
[
"Ancient Egyptian obelisks",
"Buildings and structures completed in the 20th century BC",
"Faiyum",
"Relocated Egyptian obelisks",
"Senusret I"
] |
The Abgig obelisk (also known as the Begig obelisk and the Faiyum obelisk) is an ancient stone monument erected by the Egyptian pharaoh Senusret I in the 20th century BC near what is now Faiyum. Made of red granite, it is likely that the obelisk once stood 12.9 metres (42.3 ft) high with a base of four limestone slabs. While the structure was still upright in the 17th century, by the early 19th, it had been toppled and split in two.
The obverse side of the obelisk features five detailed registers, each of which depicts two instances of Senusret I facing various Egyptian gods; the obverse side once also featured a now-lost hieroglyphic inscription. While the Egyptian government restored the obelisk in 1972 and placed it near the entrance of modern-day Faiyum, centuries of neglect and exposure have badly eroded the monument.
## History
The Abgig obelisk was erected in the 20th century BC by pharaoh Senusret I (second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt), roughly 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) southwest of present-day Faiyum. Archaeological reports from the early 20th century confirm that the toppled remnants of the monument were not located near any other major structures, and both Marco Zecchi and Roland Enmarch note that there is little if any evidence that the obelisk was originally erected elsewhere before being relocated to Faiyum. To account for its otherwise isolated location, scholars such as Enmarch, Sydney Hervé Aufrère, and Jean-Claude Golvin have suggested that the monument was likely once part of a larger religious complex that was lost at some point in antiquity.
The earliest post-antiquity mentions of the obelisk were made in 1672 by Johann Michael Vansleb, and by Richard Pococke in the mid-18th century; the latter, in his work Description of the East, described the structure as "a very particular obelisk of a red granite" that was "much decay'd all round for ten feet high, but mostly on the south side; the west side is almost entirely defaced, and at the south west and south east corners, it is much broken for about twenty feet high". Pococke's description suggests that the obelisk was still standing in the 17th century, but by the time the French engineer Philippe Joseph Marie Caristie [fr] visited the monument near the turn of the 19th century, it been "knocked down on the ground [and] broke[n] into two pieces".
In the following years, the obelisk was visited and described by Edward William Lane (1827), and John Gardner Wilkinson (1827), and Karl Richard Lepsius (c. 1842–1945). In 1925, Mohamed E. Chaaban excavated the area around the fallen obelisk and discovered its base. Chaaban also unsuccessfully searched for the figure that may have once rested on the top of the monument. In 1972, the obelisk was restored by Egyptian authorities and moved to Medinet el-Fayyum. However, due to centuries of neglect and exposure to the elements, hardly anything remains of the monument's inscriptions or its registers. For this reason, Lepsius's detailed drawings of the monument are considered "of permanent value for its study".
## Description
The obelisk of Abgig is made of red granite and when first erected, it likely stood 12.9 m (42.3 ft) high, with a base (composed of four limestone slabs) that measured 3.6 m (12 ft) by 3.6 metres. The obelisk tapers upwards and has a rounded top. There is a recess in the middle of the obelisk's crest, which may have once housed a sculpted figure. Gaston Maspero and Hourig Sourouzian have both argued that this figure was probably a falcon made of metal, although Marco Zecch argues that this suggestion is speculative at best.
### Obverse side
The obverse (north) side of the obelisk features five detailed registers, each of which depicts two instances of the pharaoh Senusret I (identified in several places as "Kheper-ka-ra" [ḫpr-kꜣ-rꜥ], which means the "Manifestation of the Ka of Ra") standing back-to-back; each instance of the pharaoh, in turn, is facing a unique pair of gods. As Lisa Saladino Haney notes, these deities are not identified on the obelisk with "Fayumic epithets", suggesting that the monument's purpose was to establish "dynastic presence in a provincial region" rather than syncretize local religious beliefs. A description of the registers (arranged from top to the bottom) is as follows:
Below the fifth register, there once existed fourteen columns of hieroglyphs. By the 19th century, this text had been badly eroded, and Lepsius was able to copy only parts of the inscription. Today, none of this inscription remains. Because the text copied by Lepsius is so fragmentary, determining what the inscription once said is likely impossible. That said, Zecch postulates that the columns may have recorded a speech that Senusret I delivered to his court concerning the construction of new monuments. Zecch bases his hypothesis on the fact that similar inscriptions have been identified on a variety of objects that were constructed during Senusret I's reign. Roland Enmarch has likewise suggested that the text is an example of a königsnovelle (i.e., "a specific literary form describing a unique event in the life of the king-a single, simple, great deed").
### Eastern and western sides
On the eastern side of the monument is a hieroglyphic inscription that reads: "Horus Ankh-mesut, Two Ladies Ankh-mesut, king of Upper and Lower Egypt Kheper-ka-ra, beloved of Montu, lord of Thebes [...]". On the western side, there is a similar inscription that reads: "Horus Ankh-mesut, Two Ladies Ankh-mesut, king of Upper Egypt Kheper-ka-ra, beloved of Ptah south of his wall [...]".
### Reverse side
Unlike the obverse side, the monument's reverse (south) side has not been as thoroughly documented. This face of the monument features a register in which two depictions of the king are shown standing back-to-back. While the figure on the left has been eroded considerably, the one on the right has largely been preserved. In the preserved portion, the king—explicitly identified as "the good god Senusret" (nṯr-nfr Snwsrt)—is shown wearing the white crown and offering vases to Atum and another unknown god.
## See also
- List of Egyptian obelisks
|
36,807,110 |
Typhoon Bolaven (2012)
| 1,172,172,540 |
Pacific typhoon in 2012
|
[
"2012 Pacific typhoon season",
"Tropical cyclones in 2012",
"Typhoons",
"Typhoons in China",
"Typhoons in Japan",
"Typhoons in North Korea",
"Typhoons in South Korea"
] |
Typhoon Bolaven, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Julian, was regarded as the most powerful storm to strike the Korean Peninsula in nearly a decade, with wind gusts measured up to 186 km/h (116 mph). Forming as a tropical depression on August 19, 2012, to the southwest of the Mariana Islands, Bolaven steadily intensified as it slowly moved west-northwestward in a region favoring tropical development. The system was soon upgraded to a tropical storm less than a day after formation and further to a typhoon by August 21. Strengthening became more gradual thereafter as Bolaven grew in size. On August 24, the system attained its peak intensity, with winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) and a barometric pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.87 inHg). Weakening only slightly, the storm passed directly over Okinawa on August 26 as it began accelerating toward the north. Steady weakening continued as Bolaven approached the Korean Peninsula and it eventually made landfall in North Korea late on August 28 before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone. The remnants rapidly tracked northeastward over the Russian Far East before turning eastward and were last noted on September 1 crossing the International Dateline.
Although Bolaven struck the Ryukyu Islands as a powerful typhoon, damage was less than expected. Relatively few buildings were damaged or destroyed across the region. The most significant effects stemmed from heavy rains, amounting to 551.5 mm (21.71 in), that caused flash flooding and landslides. One person drowned on Amami Ōshima after being swept away by a swollen river. In mainland Japan, two people drowned after being swept away by rough seas. In South Korea, 19 people were killed by the storm. Many buildings were damaged and approximately 1.9 million homes were left without power. Losses in the country reached ₩420 billion (US\$374.3 million), the majority of which was due to destroyed apple orchards. Significant damage also took place in North Korea, where at least 59 people were killed and 50 others were reported missing. Additionally, 6,700 homes were destroyed. Offshore, nine people drowned after two Chinese vessels sank.
## Meteorological history
On August 18, an area of showers and thunderstorms associated with a trough formed about 520 km (320 mi) west-southwest of Guam. Over the following day, a low-level circulation developed within the trough. Tracking slowly northeastward into a region of warm sea surface temperatures, low wind shear, and favorable divergence, continued development was anticipated. Later on August 19, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as the system was anticipated to develop further. Hours later, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified the low as a tropical depression. The JTWC followed suit early on August 20, designating the system as Tropical Depression 16W. Following the development of convective banding features along the southern side of the low, both the JMA and JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm, with the former assigning it the name Bolaven. By this time, the storm began turning northwestward in response to a subtropical ridge south of Japan. Later on August 20, microwave imagery from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite depicted a weak eye-like feature.
Early on August 21, the JMA upgraded Bolaven to a severe tropical storm, with maximum estimated winds at 95 km/h (60 mph). Throughout the day, a large central dense overcast developed around the low-level circulation and banding features became more prominent, especially over the southern half of the storm. However, the northwestern quadrant of Bolaven struggled to organize as quickly due to moderate wind shear produced by a nearby upper-level anticyclone. Due to the improved structure, both the JMA and JTWC upgraded Bolaven to a typhoon during the latter half of August 21. Gradual intensification ensued over the following days as the storm became increasingly organized. A second anticyclone developed over the center of Bolaven later that day and enhanced the cyclone's poleward outflow. Although subsidence and wind shear increased along the northern edge of the storm on August 23, the system's outflow allowed it to mitigate the negative effects ahead of it.
Due to the storm's large size, it began turning towards the north-northwest along the subtropical ridge on August 24, earlier than anticipated. During this brief turn, the center of Bolaven crossed 135°E, entering the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). As such, the administration assigned the typhoon with the local name Julian. Later that day, a well-defined, 18 km (11 mi) wide eye developed within the central dense overcast and several additional feeder bands formed along the south side of the circulation. Based on the improved structure, the JTWC estimated that the system attained one-minute sustained winds of 215 km/h (135 mph), equivalent to a Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. By the morning of August 25, Bolaven began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle. Despite the slightly degrading structure, the JTWC estimated the storm to have intensified slightly, attaining one-minute winds of 230 km/h (145 mph).
On August 25, Bolaven began to interact with Typhoon Tembin, which was located over the South China Sea, causing Tembin to execute a slow counter-clockwise loop. An outer eyewall became more apparent late on August 25, with a clear second ring of deep convection surrounding the original eye. Similar to the JTWC, the JMA continued to indicate that Bolaven was intensifying through early on August 26. At that time, the JMA estimated the typhoon to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) and a barometric pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.87 inHg). As the system approached Okinawa, radar imagery showed a 55 km (34 mi) wide eyewall surrounding a small, but well-organized 11 km (6.8 mi) wide inner eyewall. Shortly before 1500 UTC on August 26, the center of Bolaven passed directly over Okinawa. At the time, the JTWC assessed the system to have had one-minute sustained winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) while the JMA estimated the winds to be 175 km/h (110 mph). Early on August 27, the storm's inner eyewall collapsed as the eyewall replacement cycle finished, with the new eye estimated to be about 220 km (140 mi) in diameter. In addition to its unusually large eye, the storm itself was large, spanning approximately 890 to 1,020 km (550 to 630 mi). However, microwave satellite imagery indicated an overall weakening of the western side of the storm. Accelerating northward, Bolaven maintained a well-defined outflow due to a large tropical upper-tropospheric trough to its southeast and a mid-latitude trough to the northwest.
As the storm moved northward over the Yellow Sea, atmospheric conditions became increasingly hostile, with significantly lower sea surface temperatures and high wind shear. During the overnight of August 27–28, the typhoon brushed South Korea as a weakening cyclone. Convection on the west side of the storm diminished and its feeder bands began to collapse. Increasing shear started taking its toll early on August 28 as convection became displaced from the center of circulation, leaving part of the southwestern quadrant exposed. This also indicated that Bolaven had begun to undergo an extratropical transition as it approached the Korean Peninsula. Following structural weakening, the JMA and JTWC downgraded Bolaven to a severe tropical storm and tropical storm, respectively. Hours before moving onshore in North Korea, the majority of the convection had moved over land while the circulation and the center itself had only stratocumulus clouds covering it. Around 1500 UTC on August 28, Bolaven made landfall in North Korea with winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). Rapidly moving towards the northeast, the storm became fully embedded within a baroclinic zone near the China–North Korea border later that day. The JMA continued to monitor Bolaven as a tropical cyclone until early on August 29, at which time the system was situated over the southern region of the Russian Far East. The extratropical remnants later turned eastward and were last noted on September 1 crossing the International Dateline.
## Preparations
### Philippines
On August 24, fishing vessels and small craft off the northern and eastern coasts of Luzon, Philippines, were advised to not venture out due to large swells produced by Typhoons Bolaven and Tembin.
### Ryukyu Islands
On August 22, hours before the JTWC classified Bolaven as a typhoon, Okinawa was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness (TCCR) four. The following day, media reports began calling Typhoon Bolaven "the bad one." At this time, the then Category 4-equivalent typhoon was expected to pass directly over Okinawa and based on forecasts from the JTWC, it would be the most powerful storm to hit the island in 13 years. On August 24, the TCCR was raised to level three. During the afternoon of August 25, the TCCR was raised to the third-highest level, one. Residents were urged to have all their preparations complete as soon as possible before the storm arrived. This was further raised to TCCR 1-C (caution) as tropical storm force winds began impacting the island.
Across Ishigaki Island, all public activities were canceled by August 24 and flights to mainland Japan were suspended. Ferry service to Kagoshima Prefecture was also canceled. Throughout Okinawa, 850 people, including 300 in Naha, evacuated to public shelters due to the threat of flooding. Transportation across the island was paralyzed due to the storm as ferry terminals, airports, and bus and rail services were shut down. During the evening of August 25, All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines canceled all flights to and from the Ryukyu Islands, south of Amami Ōshima, for August 26 and the morning of August 27. The slow motion of the storm led meteorologists at the JMA to warn residents of a potential record rainfall event, stating that localized areas could receive between 400 and 600 mm (16 and 24 in) of rain. Rainfall rates were expected to reach nearly 150 mm (5.9 in) per hour during the height of the storm. Due to the significant threat of flash flooding and mudslides, residents living in flood-prone or mountainous areas were urged to evacuate.
### China
Although located more than 500 km (310 mi) away from Eastern China, officials in the country issued sea warnings on August 27 due to waves estimated between 9 and 12 m (30 and 39 ft) over the East China Sea and Yellow Sea. In Northeastern China, ferry service along the Yalu River in Dandong City was suspended the same day. Due to the threat of heavy rains, approximately 23,000 were evacuated in Jiangsu Province. In Weihai city, more than 2,000 vessels sought refuge at port and ferry services were canceled. In Shanghai, more than 100 flights were canceled on August 28 due to the storm.
### Korean Peninsula and Russia
Initially, forecasts from the JMA and Korea Meteorological Administration indicated that Bolaven would strike the country at an intensity greater than that of the nation's worst typhoon disaster in decades: Typhoon Rusa in 2002. On August 27, nearly all of South Korea was placed under a typhoon warning as the storm approached. The state disaster relief board went to its highest alert level prior to the storm's arrival. More than 400 flights were canceled across the country, including 109 international flights from Incheon International Airport. The majority of cancelations were domestic flights, mainly from Ningbo to Jeju Island. Local authorities conducted safety inspections of areas prone to landslides and closed off beaches and seawalls. Residents in flood-prone areas were encouraged to evacuate for their own safety, as well. Along the coast, hundreds of ships sought refuge from rough seas in various harbors and ports. Numerous ports banned sea travel and shut down activities by August 27, and 68 of the nation's 87 ferry routes were canceled. In Busan, all ships were not allowed access to the docks until the typhoon's passage.
Storm warnings were issued as far north as the Russian Far East as officials anticipated the remnants of the typhoon to cause significant disruption in the region. Residents were advised to avoid outdoor activities from August 28 to 29 as the storm moved through. In the Sea of Japan, more than 100 ships sought refuge in bays across the Primorsky Krai. Ferry service to all islands in the region was also suspended. All military personnel in the region were placed at an elevated state of readiness for the storm. On August 28, crisis centers were opened in 12 cities and 22 districts across Primorsky Krai. Although the storm was expected to cause significant disruptions in the region, Russian Emergencies Minister Vladimir Puchkov stated that the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit in Vladivostok would continue as planned.
## Impact
### Japan
Regarded as the most powerful typhoon to strike the region since 1956, strong winds in Japan's Kagoshima Prefecture left approximately 60,000 residences without power. Although a strong storm when it passed over Okinawa, damage was less than initially feared. Across Okinawa, sustained winds were measured up to 167 km/h (104 mph) with gusts to 222 km/h (138 mph). On Okinoerabujima, wind gusts were measured up to 153 km/h (95 mph). At Kadena Air Base, a barometric pressure of 952 mb (hPa; 28.11 inHg) was measured as the storm passed over. Numerous trees were snapped or uprooted and dozens of buildings were damaged by the winds. Throughout the Ryukyu Islands, rainfall peaked in Setouchi, Kagoshima, at 551.5 mm (21.71 in). In Kunigami, 535 mm (21.1 in) of rain fell during the storm. These rains triggered flash flooding across several islands. On Amami Ōshima, one person drowned after being swept away by a swollen river. Numerous landslides took place across the islands, damaging roads and buildings. During the height of the storm, the highest level of warning, TCCR 1-E (emergency), was issued for the island, indicating that all outdoor activities were banned. Numerous roads and bridges were either shut down or blocked by debris across many of the islands, making travel difficult. Damage to public facilities throughout Kagoshima reached JP¥6.3 billion (US\$80.1 million).
Due to the threat of landslides, 5,500 households were evacuated across the Amami Islands on August 27. One home was destroyed and 1,065 residences were evacuated in Tokunoshima. Eight people were injured across the island and 549 sought refuge in public shelters. In Yonabaru, the typhoon's storm surge and large swells flooded coastal highways and inundated nearby buildings. Large sections of roads were also washed away by the storm. Cellphone service was lost late on August 26 throughout much of Okinawa Prefecture.
Passing over Okinawa with a central pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.87 inHg), Bolaven became one of the most intense typhoons to ever strike the region. Off the coast of Wakayama Prefecture, swells from the typhoon battered fishing vessels and knocked the captain of one ship overboard. Although a rescue helicopter was quick to reach him, he was later pronounced dead at a local hospital. Just off the coast of Jogashima Misaki-cho in Miura, Kanagawa, two boys were swept away by large swells. A mother attempted to swim after them to save them but later drowned. The two boys were later rescued with minor injuries by the Coast Guard. Although the storm did not strike the Japanese mainland, its outer bands brought showers and thunderstorms to parts of Kyushu. Due to the rains, rail service in Saga Prefecture was temporarily suspended, affecting 4,200 passengers. In Isahaya, one person was injured after being struck by a billboard downed by high winds. Throughout Japan, losses to agriculture and fisheries amounted to JP¥423 million (US\$5.38 million).
### South Korea
The first area in South Korea impacted by Typhoon Bolaven was Jeju Island, a small island located off the southwestern coast of the nation. There, high winds from the storm downed power poles, broke street lamps, and damaged buildings. More than 70,000 households on the island lost power. On Jeollanam-do Wando, a wind gust of 186 km/h (116 mph) was recorded during the storm's passage. Across the country, approximately 1.9 million people lost power, though it was quickly restored to all but 34,000 within a day. In Seoul, strong winds damaged street lamps, church spires, and downed signs. Due to various storm-related incidents, hundreds of people had to be evacuated. Throughout the country, at least 19 people were killed by Typhoon Bolaven. Reports indicated that there was extensive property damage from the storm. Many buildings lost their roofs, several collapsed, and smaller structures were blown over. In Gwangju, a record 10,004 emergency calls were made in one day in relation to the storm, the majority of which were about fallen billboards.
In Naju, the country's largest producer of pears, approximately 1,400 hectares (3,460 acres) of pear trees, or 60% of the total crop, was destroyed. Agriculture as a whole suffered significantly from the storm, with a total of 9,000 hectares (22,000 acres) of apple and pear plantations being destroyed. As a result, the price of produce across the nation jumped substantially. In Yesan alone, a town where more than 1,500 families rely on their apple orchards for a living, losses to the orchards reached ₩300 billion (US\$264 million). The prices of spinach, cabbage, and lettuce rose by 124%, 72%, and 26%, respectively, in just one day. Total damage throughout the country, along with Typhoon Tembin, were calculated at ₩636.5 billion (US\$567.2 million). More than 500 people were left homeless as a result of Bolaven, mostly in South Jeolla Province. Additionally, economic losses to airlines related to the typhoon reached ₩17 billion (US\$15 million). Korean Air and Asiana Airlines suffered the greatest losses of the affected companies.
About 2 km (1.2 mi) off the coast of Jeju Island, two Chinese vessels with a total of 33 people aboard, sank during the storm on August 28. According to local media, 18 of the crewmen were rescued or swam back to shore while 9 drowned and 6 others remained missing. Off the coast of South Gyeongsang Province, a 77,458 ton cargo ship ran aground during the storm and broke in half. Eighteen people were on board the vessel, though no one was injured during the incident.
### North Korea
In North Korea, heavy rains from the storm triggered significant flooding and many landslides. The Korean Central News Agency reported wind speeds of more than 108 km/h (67 mph) in North Hwanghae, South Hwanghae, South Hamgyong, South Pyongan Provinces, and the city of Nampho, and waves as high as 1.11 m (3.6 ft) in the sea of Kimchaek. According to the North Korean Hydrometeorological Management Office, wind gusts reached 130 km/h (81 mph). Widespread damage took place throughout the country as a result of the storm. The hardest hit area was South Hamgyong Province, where 48 people were killed and another 45 were reported missing. Across the province, 2,405 homes were destroyed and another 1,500 were damaged. In South Phyongan Province, eight people were killed and 714 homes were destroyed. Two people were killed in North Hamgyong Province and another died in Ryanggang Province. At least 8,950 homes were destroyed and approximately 101,000 hectares (250,000 acres) of crop and rice fields were flooded. More than a dozen schools and medical buildings were destroyed. Additionally, 16,730 trees were downed and 880 public and industrial buildings were severely damaged. In all, 59 people were killed, 50 others were reported missing, and more than 21,800 others were left homeless.
### China and Russia
Northeastern China did not experience the full-force of Typhoon Bolaven, though heavy rains did impact the country. Changchun recorded the heaviest rains in China related to Bolaven, with 120.6 mm (4.75 in) falling. In the city alone, 25 roads were flooded and 20 power poles were downed. Thousands of people were evacuated due to flooding triggered by the storm. Gale-force winds in Jilin Province damaged approximately 690,000 hectares (1.7 million acres) of crops. Rainfall amounting to 139 mm (5.5 in) caused localized flooding, disrupting transportation in Heilongjiang Province. Throughout Northeastern China, an estimated 40 million people were affected by the typhoon. Total economic losses in China were counted to be CN¥19.82 billion (US\$3.12 billion).
On August 29, the remnants of Bolaven brought winds up to 90 km/h (56 mph) in the Primorsky Krai, leaving 9,800 people without power. Power was soon restored to all, except for 195 residents in the town of Vityaz. In Vladivostok, wind gusts reached 118 km/h (73 mph), downing numerous trees. Rains associated with the storm were light, with only 5 mm (0.20 in) recorded in Vladivostok. Gale-force winds prompted the temporary closure of the Bridge to Russky Island, which was built specifically for the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit. With ferries already canceled, residents were unable to leave the island until the storm passed. In the Khabarovsk Krai, heavy rains from the storm proved beneficial as they allowed firefighters to extinguish six wildfires and contain five others within a 24‐hour span. Along the coast, large waves caused some beach erosion and prompted evacuations in Manchzhurka. Additionally, five people had to be rescued after ignoring warnings and wading into the sea. In some areas, large numbers of crabs, fish, and oysters washed ashore during the storm.
## Aftermath
### South Korea
By September 6, farmers in the southern areas of the country requested aid from the government. In South Jeolla Province, ₩35 billion (US\$30.8 million) was allocated for post-storm recovery. Of this, about half went to repairing public facilities. Across the province, repairs were expected to be completed by October or November 2012. On September 11, the Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Minister announced that residents severely affected by the typhoon were eligible for up to ₩50 million (US\$44,000) in construction assistance. Economically, Typhoons Bolaven and Tembin contributed to a 6.6% decrease in construction investment, the largest drop since January 2003.
### North Korea
On September 4, Hwang Woo-yea, chairman of South Korea's Saenuri Party, urged the government to seek international aid, namely in the form of food, for North Korean residents affected by the typhoon. On September 6, the Red Cross Society of Democratic People's Republic of Korea announced that international aid may be requested for the effects of severe flooding in July and Typhoon Bolaven. Locally, the Red Cross distributed 2,515 emergency kits to more than 11,600 people in three of the hardest-hit provinces. During the first week of September, the government of North Korea requested aid from South Korea and later accepted their offer of 10,000 tons of flour, and 3 million packages of instant noodles, medical supplies, and other aid. Additionally, the United Nations World Food Program called for emergency assistance for the country. However, despite initially agreeing to terms with South Korea, North Korea rejected the aid offer, stating that "they don't need such aid."
## See also
- Typhoon Kompasu (2010)
- Typhoon Rusa
- Typhoon Muifa (2011)
- Typhoon Hinnamnor
- Typhoon Khanun (2023)
|
224,532 |
National Coalition Party
| 1,173,415,774 |
Centre-right political party in Finland
|
[
"National Coalition Party",
"Political parties established in 1918"
] |
The National Coalition Party (NCP; Finnish: Kansallinen Kokoomus ; Kok.; Swedish: Samlingspartiet; Saml.) is a liberal-conservative political party in Finland.
Ideologically, the National Coalition Party is positioned on the centre-right on the political spectrum, and it has been described as liberal, conservative, conservative-liberal, and liberal-conservative. Founded in 1918, the National Coalition Party is one of the "big three" parties that have dominated Finnish national politics for several decades, along with the Social Democratic Party and the Centre Party. The current party chair is Petteri Orpo, elected on 11 June 2016. The party self-statedly bases its politics on "freedom, responsibility and democracy, equal opportunities, education, supportiveness, tolerance and caring" and supports multiculturalism and gay rights. Their foreign stances are pro-NATO and pro-European oriented, and they are a member of the European People's Party (EPP).
The party's vote share was approximately 20% in parliamentary elections since 1990s and only out of coalition governments in eight years. It won 44 out of 200 seats in the parliamentary elections of 2011, becoming the largest party in the Finnish Parliament (Finnish: eduskunta; Swedish: riksdag) for the first time in its history. On the municipal level, it became the most popular party in 2008. In the 2015 election, the NCP lost its status as the country's largest party, finishing second in votes and third in seats, but again joined the governing coalition. After the 2019 election, it became the third-largest party in the Finnish Parliament, behind the Social Democrats and the Finns Party, and became the second-largest opposition party after being excluded from the Rinne Cabinet. After the 2023 election, it became the largest party with 48 seats. As a result, its leader Petteri Orpo has started forming a coalition government.
## History
### 1918–1939
The National Coalition Party was founded on 9 December 1918 after the Finnish Civil War by the majority of the Finnish Party and the minority of the Young Finnish Party, both supporting Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse as the King of Finland in the new monarchy. The previous day, the republicans of both parties had founded the National Progressive Party. With over 600 representatives, the foundational meeting of NCP declared the following:
> A national coalition is needed over old party lines that have lost meaning and have too long separated similarly thinking citizens. This coalition's grand task must be to work to strengthen in our nation the forces that maintain society. Lawful societal order must be strictly upheld and there must be no compromise with revolutionary aspirations. But simultaneously, determined constructive reform work must be pursued."
The party sought to accomplish their task by advocating for constitutional monarchy and, failing that, strong governmental powers within a republican framework. On the other hand, their goal was to implement a number of social and economic reforms, such as compulsory education, universal health care, and progressive income and property taxation. The monarchist aims failed and Finland became a parliamentary republic—in which NCP advocated for strong presidential powers. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the threat posed by Joseph Stalin's communist Soviet Union influenced Finnish politics. Communists, backed by Soviet leaders, accelerated their activities while the ideological position of the National Coalition Party shifted to strongly conservative. The new ideology was poorly received, particularly by the youth, attracted instead more to irredentist and fascist movements, such as the Academic Karelia Society or Patriotic People's Movement.
In the 1933 parliamentary election, the party formed an electoral coalition with the Patriotic People's Movement, founded by former supporters of the radical nationalist Lapua Movement—even though P.E. Svinhufvud, the party's first President of Finland, played a key role in halting the Lapua Movement and vanquishing their Mäntsälä rebellion. The result was a major defeat as the NCP lost 24 of its 42 seats in Parliament. The NCP broke ties with the Patriotic People's Movement in 1934 under the newly elected party chair J.K. Paasikivi, but was nevertheless shut out from the Finnish Government until the outbreak of the Winter War in 1939 and only slowly regained support.
### 1939–2000
During the Winter War and the Continuation War in 1939–1944, the party took part in the war-time national unity governments and generally had strong support for its government policies. After the wars, the National Coalition Party sought to portray itself as a defender of democracy against the resurgent Finnish communists. Chair Paasikivi, who had advocated making more concessions to Soviet Union before the Winter War and taken a cautious line regarding cooperation with Germany before the Continuation War, acted first as Prime Minister of Finland (1944–1946) and then as President (1946–1956) of Finland. Paasikivi is remembered as the formulator of Finnish foreign policy after World War II. The conflict between the NCP and the communist Finnish People's Democratic League culminated when President Paasikivi fired the communist Minister of the Interior Yrjö Leino, who had used the State Police to spy on the party's youth wing among other abuses.
In 1951, the party changed its official name from the original Kansallinen Kokoomuspuolue to the current Kansallinen Kokoomus. The 1950s were also a time of ideological shifts, as the emphasis on individual liberty and free market reforms increased at the expense of social conservatism and maintenance of a strong government. A minor division in 1958 led to the formation of the Christian Democrats party. From 1966 to 1987, the party was in the opposition. By criticizing Finnish communists and President Urho Kekkonen of the Centre Party, the party had lost the President's trust—and thus governments formed by the Centre Party and left-wing parties followed one another. A new guard emerged within the NCP in the 1970s that sought to improve relations with long-serving President Kekkonen. Their work was partially successful in the late 1970s. However, even though the NCP supported Kekkonen for president in 1978 and became the second largest party in the country in the 1979 parliamentary election, a spot in the government continued to elude the NCP until the end of Kekkonen's time in office.
During the long years in opposition, the party's support grew steadily and in 1987 it attained the best parliamentary election result in its history so far. Harri Holkeri became the party's first prime minister since Paasikivi. During Holkeri's time in office, the Finnish economy suffered a downturn, precipitated by a multitude of factors, and the 1991 parliamentary election resulted in a loss. The party continued in government as a minor partner until 2003.
### 2000–present
After losing six seats in the 2003 parliamentary election, the National Coalition Party spent the next electoral period in opposition. Jyrki Katainen was elected party chair in 2004 and in March 2006, vice-president of the European People's Party (EPP). Under the leadership of Katainen, chair until 2014, liberalism became the main attribute of the party. In the 2007 parliamentary election, the party increased its share to 50 seats in the largest gain of the election. The party held a close second place in Parliament, shy of the Centre Party and its 51 seats. After the election, the party entered into a coalition government together with the Centre Party, the Green League, and the Swedish People's Party. The NCP secured important ministerial portfolios, including finance and foreign affairs. In the 2011 parliamentary election, the party finished first place for the first time in its history with 44 seats, despite losing 6 seats, and party chair Jyrki Katainen formed his cabinet as a six-party coalition government from parties on the left and on the right after lengthy negotiations.
The National Coalition Party's candidate in the 2006 Finnish presidential election was former minister of finance and former party chair Sauli Niinistö. He qualified for the second round runoff as one of the top two candidates in the first round but was defeated by the incumbent Tarja Halonen with 51.8% of the vote against his 48.2%. The party nominated Sauli Niinistö again for the presidential election of 2012. Niinistö won the election, beating his Green League opponent Pekka Haavisto decisively on the second round with a 62.6% portion of the votes, and thus becoming the third president elected from the party and the first one since 1956. Niinistö's margin of victory was larger than that of any previous directly elected president in Finland. He won a majority in 14 of the country's 15 constituencies. Niinistö is described as a pragmatical fiscal conservative and a pro-European and supporting restraint of bailouts to partner countries. Upon taking office, Niinistö intended to strengthen interaction with the United States and China and maintain good relations with Russia as well as address the European debt crisis. Niinistö was re-elected in 2018 for a second six-year term. He ran as an independent but had the support of the National Coalition Party.
In 2014, Katainen stepped down as party chair and Prime Minister of Finland for a vice-president position in the European Commission. Katainen was replaced by Alexander Stubb as chair of the National Coalition Party in the June 2014 leadership election and thus became the prime minister. Katainen's cabinet was likewise succeeded by the cabinet of Alexander Stubb on 23 June 2014. Stubb went on to lead the party into the 2015 parliamentary election, in which the National Coalition Party placed second in votes and third in parliamentary seats. After the election, National Coalition joined a right-leaning majority coalition consisting of the three largest parties – the Centre Party, the Finns Party and the National Coalition Party. During his term, Stubb faced growing criticism for the NCP's poor poll results, the declining economy as well as compromises in the three-party government. After two years as party chair, Stubb was voted by 441 to 361 to be replaced by Petteri Orpo at the leadership election of June 2016.
## Ideology and political position
According to its 2006-adopted party platform, the National Coalition Party's policy is based on "freedom, responsibility and democracy, equality of opportunity, education, supportiveness, tolerance and caring". The party is described by literature as a liberal and conservative as well as a liberal-conservative party in the centre-right with catch-all party characteristics. The non-profit Democratic Society described it as "the heir to both liberal and conservative strains of right-of-centre thought" that is becoming increasingly liberal compared to its official stance of conservatism.
Specifically, it contains elements of cultural and economic liberalism and social reformism. For example, it supports multiculturalism, work-based immigration, gay rights and same-sex marriage. Although it was previously considered to have been critical of the Nordic welfare model and campaigned for strict doctrines of economic liberalism, the party in the 1970s shifted to supporting more social liberalism, such as increased social security and a welfare state, which was justified by increased individual liberty. In international relations, the party advocates for multilateralism. It is pro-European and supports continued European integration within the European Union (EU). The party also advocates for Finnish membership in NATO.
## Voter base
The magazine Suomen Kuvalehti created a profile of a typical National Coalition Party voter from over 18,000 interviews in 2011: a 36-year-old lawyer or management consultant living with a family in the Capital region who supports economic liberalism and conservative values and enjoys alpine skiing and golf. Unlike other conservative parties in Europe, the party's voters are predominantly urban while rural regions favor the Centre Party. In 2005, the NCP had the highest proportion of women members out of the major parties. Membership in the party was momentarily on the rise in 2008, but had declined from 41,000 to 34,000 by 2016. In contrast, the party had 81,000 members in 1970. According to 2008 polling data, the National Coalition Party was the most positively viewed party by Finns and was the most favored party among young generations in 2008 and 2014 polls.
## Organisation
The main structure of the National Coalition Party comprises municipal and local chapters organized into districts and as well as the women's, student and youth wings. The party conference (Finnish: puoluekokous), the main decision-making body convening every two years with representatives from the suborganisations as its members, elects the party chair and three deputy chairs as well as the 61-member party council (Finnish: puoluevaltuusto).
The party chair and the deputy chairs lead the party board (Finnish: puoluehallitus), which is in charge of the daily management and is composed of a representative from each district and from each of the three wings. The party council also elects the party secretary to head the main office, located in Helsinki, and to coordinate the National Coalition Party's activities according to the board's decisions. Additionally, the NCP has separate groups for coordinating ministers, members of Parliament, and members of the European Parliament.
Two foundations, Kansallissäätiö and Porvarillisen Työn Arkiston Säätiö, assist the party with a source of funding and as an archive, respectively. Reportedly, donations to Kansallissäätiö are kept secret, but according to the treasurer, donations are a limited asset compared to the foundation's 5 million euro investment capital. In 2008, the foundation supported NCP with €400,000. The NCP owns two companies, Kansalliskustannus Oy and Suomen Kansallismedia Oy, to publish the party newspapers Nykypäivä and Verkkouutiset as well as to handle media communications. Additionally, some thematic organizations report themselves as close to the party, such as the Swedish-language group Borgerlig samling i Finland and the LGBT network Kansallinen sateenkaariryhmä – Kasary.
## Election results
Election results are based on respective files of the Official Statistics of Finland (Finnish: Suomen virallinen tilasto) published by the national Statistics Finland institution.
### Parliament of Finland
### European Parliament
### Municipal
### Presidential
#### Indirect elections
#### Direct elections
## Prominent party leaders
The following NCP members have held high offices:
- Lauri Ingman – Prime Minister 1918–1919, 1924–1925
- Antti Tulenheimo – Prime Minister 1925
- Pehr Evind Svinhufvud – President 1931–1937
- Edwin Linkomies – Prime Minister 1943–1944
- Juho Kusti Paasikivi – President 1946–1956, Prime Minister 1944–1946
- Harri Holkeri – Prime Minister 1987–1991
- Riitta Uosukainen – Minister of Education 1991–1994, Speaker of the Parliament 1994–2003
- Sauli Niinistö – Minister of Finance 1995–2003, Speaker of the Parliament 2007–2011, President 2012–
- Jyrki Katainen – Minister of Finance 2007–2011, Prime Minister 2011–2014, vice president of the European Commission 2014–2019
- Alexander Stubb – Prime Minister, 2014–2015, Minister of Finance 2015–2016
- Petteri Orpo – Minister of Finance 2016–2019, Speaker of the Parliament 2023–2023, Prime Minister 2023–
## See also
- Constitution of Finland
- Foreign relations of Finland
- Moderate Party – similar party in Sweden
- Nordic model
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15,428,626 |
1963 San Diego Chargers season
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4th season in franchise history; first and only league championship win
|
[
"1963 American Football League season by team",
"1963 in sports in California",
"American Football League championship seasons",
"San Diego Chargers seasons"
] |
The 1963 San Diego Chargers season was the team's fourth in the American Football League. The team had gone 4–10 in 1962 but rebounded with an 11–3 record, winning the AFL West by one game over the Oakland Raiders, who were coached by former Chargers assistant Al Davis. San Diego scored the most points in the league and conceded the fewest. Their offense, led by veteran quarterback Tobin Rote, and featuring future Hall of Fame receiver Lance Alworth, gained more yards than any other team; Rote and Alworth were each named the league MVP, by the Associated Press and UPI, respectively.
On January 5, 1964, the team won their only AFL Championship with a 51–10 win over the Boston Patriots in Balboa Stadium. To date, this is the Chargers' only league championship season in the AFL or NFL. This is also the only world championship won by a major league sports team in the city and county of San Diego to date. In 2003, the team was inducted into the Chargers Ring of Honor. The emphatic title game victory led to some speculation on whether San Diego might be able to beat the NFL champion Chicago Bears.
The 1963 Chargers earned a degree of lasting notoriety due to their program of anabolic steroid usage, the first such in professional football. Head coach Sid Gillman and strength coach Alvin Roy made daily doses of Dianabol compulsory for a five-week period during training camp before players became aware of potential side effects, and the program was relaxed to a voluntary one.
## Offseason
### AFL draft
The 1963 AFL Draft took place on December 1, 1962, late in the previous season. The Chargers had 30 picks across 29 rounds.
With the second overall pick in the draft, San Diego selected Syracuse end Walt Sweeney. The Cleveland Browns also selected Sweeney in the rival NFL draft. Representatives of both teams approached the player with contracts in the moments after his final college game on December 8, looking to claim his signature. Sweeney chose the Chargers; he had actually met with head coach Sid Gillman and assistant Al Davis the previous day and signed a contract while still a college player. The team converted him to a guard, about which Sweeney was not initially enthusiastic, but he went on to excel at that position through an 11-year stay in San Diego, appearing in six AFL All-Star games and three NFL Pro Bowls, as well as being named to the AFL All-League Team twice.
The Chargers also signed their 2nd-round pick, seeing off competition from the Los Angeles Rams for All-American guard Rufus Guthrie. However, Guthrie was injured in the opening exhibition game of the season with torn knee ligaments. The injury persisted, and Guthrie never played a regular season game for the Chargers or any other pro team. 3rd-round selection Keith Kinderman, a defensive back who Gillman converted to running back, was also troubled by injuries. He played in 11 games over two seasons in San Diego, carrying the ball only 24 times. There was one future Hall of Fame player in the Chargers' draft class (linebacker Dave Robinson), but he signed for the Green Bay Packers, where he won two Super Bowls.
In the later rounds, San Diego picked up Bob Petrich, a defensive end who played in every game for the next four seasons, and Ernie Park, an occasional starter at guard. Only five of the draft class ever played a game for the Chargers (including Guthrie's exhibition appearance), while eleven went to NFL teams.
### Departures and arrivals
San Diego lost a key staff member on January 19 when Davis signed with the Raiders in the dual role of head coach and general manager. He had served as the Chargers' offensive ends coach, but had also earned a reputation as a good recruiter of new talent, an important role in the ongoing bidding war with the NFL. Oakland had finished the previous season at a league-worst 1–13 but emerged as serious rivals to the Chargers in the AFL West during Davis's first season there.
Davis soon brought defensive back Claude "Hoot" Gibson to join him in Oakland, as part of an equalization draft aimed at helping the league's weakest teams. Gibson had intercepted 13 passes during two seasons in San Diego. Other players to exit included tackle Sherman Plunkett and defensive tackle Bill Hudson. The pair, who had featured in every game the previous year, were traded away for future draft picks. Ron Nery, who had accumulated sacks during three seasons with the Chargers, was cut shortly before the regular season began.
After losing Jack Kemp to the Buffalo Bills the previous year, San Diego were looking for a veteran quarterback who could both lead the team and mentor second-year passer John Hadl. Running back Gerry McDougall, who joined the team from the CFL's Toronto Argonauts late in the 1962 season, informed Gillman that Tobin Rote, a 13-year veteran and former NFL champion (with the 1957 Lions) was contemplating retirement after three seasons with the Argonauts. The Bills had the territorial rights to sign Rote but had no need for another quarterback. Both the Chargers and the Denver Broncos expressed an interest in signing Rote; AFL Commissioner Joe Foss conducted a coin flip to decide which team would have the right to claim the player. San Diego won and gave Buffalo tackle Dick Hudson and two future draft picks in exchange for Rote's signing rights. The 35-year-old was soon signed, with Gillman describing him as "one of the finest quarterbacks in football." He started every game throughout the season.
San Diego also gained George Gross, a 16th-round pick in the 1962 draft who had stayed on at Auburn as a redshirt that year. In 1963, he started every game for the Chargers at defensive tackle. Another guard, Sam DeLuca, re-signed with the team after a one-year retirement; he played in every game while starting half of them. Dick Westmoreland, an undrafted defensive back from North Carolina A&T, was signed by Chargers scout Al LoCasale and made the team. He ended the 1963 season as the only rookie selected for the NEA All-AFL 1st team, and was a 2nd-team choice for the Associated Press, UPI and the New York Daily News.
## Personnel
### Staff
### Roster
## Training camp
### Rough Acres Ranch
For the previous two seasons, the Chargers had trained at the University of San Diego. Gillman, seeking both to instil both toughness and a sense of unity in his team, opted to switch to Rough Acres Ranch, located in Boulevard, an isolated town 66 miles (106 km) from San Diego. The ranch had only basic amenities and was overrun with insects and other wildlife, including bats, spiders and poisonous rattlesnakes. The players had to conduct two-a-days in temperatures close to 100 °F (38 °C), on sawdust that had been laid on the barren earth to approximate the consistency of grass. There was little to distract the players from their practice and little to do in the evenings but spend time together, either at the ranch itself or a small gas station 3 miles (4.8 km) down the road.
Opinion among the players was divided as to the efficacy of using the ranch. Team captain Ron Mix believed that the 1963 Chargers were successful in spite of, not because of, the experience. Others were more positive. Ernie Ladd described Rough Acres as a great training facility, noting the isolated location as a positive, while Lance Alworth stated the team had "one of the greatest years as a result of it. I still don't understand why more teams don't do that and why we didn't do it more often after that." The Chargers did not have the option to return to Rough Acres, as the owners brought a lawsuit worth over a million dollars against them, alleging both property damage and non-payment of rental fees.
### Steroid usage
Gillman hired a strength coach, Alvin Roy, to work with the team during training camp. Roy was a proponent of weightlifting, at a time when that form of exercise was not regarded as beneficial to a pro footballer. Roy also instructed the players to take pink pills each day at dinnertime, which would help their bodies assimilate protein. These pills were Dianabol, the commercial name of Metandienone, an anabolic steroid. The Chargers were the first professional football team to proscribe steroids to their players. The use of steroids was permitted in professional football at the time; they would eventually be banned in 1983 by then-NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle.
At first, taking the pills was compulsory. When Dick Harris openly refused to do so, he was fined his \$60 pay for the Chargers' opening exhibition game by Gillman. Others who were suspicious of the pills disposed of them subtly, hiding them under the table at meal times, or keeping them in their mouths until they had exited the dining room. Many players did accept the Dianabol without question, however. Rookie defensive back Westmoreland took the pills and soon noticed that he, in his words, "got bigger and stronger but didn't lose speed."
After five weeks of the compulsory program, tight end Dave Kocourek began to feel ill and went to his personal physician. When the physician learned that his patient was taking Dianabol, he showed him a list of side effects, including "liver damage, muscle damage, bone damage and testicle shrinkage". Kocourek took the list to Mix, who raised the issue with Gillman. The pills became voluntary after that, and the majority of the team completely stopped taking them, while others reduced their intake.
## Preseason
San Diego entered their 1963 preseason schedule having accumulated a perfect 12–0 record in exhibition games over the past three years. They suffered a setback in the opening minutes of their first match when their newly-acquired starting quarterback Rote was knocked out of the game with a chest injury. Backup Hadl played well in relief, throwing touchdowns to Jacque MacKinnon and Alworth. Earlier, Paul Lowe had scored the Chargers' first two touchdowns with runs of 3 and 65 yards; the running back was playing for the first time since the broken arm he had sustained during the 1962 preseason. The Chargers followed this with their 14th consecutive preseason win, beating the Patriots for the first of four times that season. Hadl started the game, completing 14 of 26 passes for 269 yards, with touchdowns to Alworth and Don Norton, while running for a score himself. Lowe again ran for two touchdowns, Charlie McNeil scored on a 44-yard interception return, and San Diego found the end zone seven times in total in a 50–17 win.
The Chargers' string of preseason victories came to an end a week later when they lost in Denver. The Broncos jumped out to a 28–3 lead in the 3rd quarter before the Chargers closed the gap with three touchdown passes: Hadl threw two, either side of one from halfback Keith Lincoln. Hadl also threw a two-point conversion pass to Kocourek; that pulled the Chargers back within six points in the final quarter, but they got no closer.
Two strong defensive performances followed. Against the Oilers, they had five interceptions, recovered a fumble and made a successful goal line stand as Houston mustered only three points despite gaining 27 first downs to the Chargers' 9. Hadl threw two touchdowns, and Lowe scored for the fifth time in the preseason. Rote returned for the preseason finale but struggled and threw four interceptions. Raider quarterbacks were also intercepted four times, and Bob Jackson scored the game's only touchdown as the Chargers beat Oakland for the tenth time in ten meetings (exhibition and regular season combined).
## Regular season
### Summary
Rote excelled at quarterback, winning the Associated Press AFL MVP award. His completion percentage of 59.4 was comfortably better than his nearest rival (Len Dawson with 54.0), while his passer rating of 86.7 was also an AFL best. He was also one of only three starting quarterbacks in the league to throw more touchdowns than interceptions (20 against 17). Gillman praised Rote's ability to call his own plays in the huddle, and Alworth later stated, "Tobin Rote's the reason why we won." Hadl also saw frequent action, as Gillman would frequently insert him into the game if Rote was struggling; Hadl threw at least one pass in 12 regular season games, complementing Rote's 2,510 yards with 502 of his own.
Alworth was the primary target for the two quarterbacks. The second-year flanker set new club receiving records for catches (61), yards (1,205) and touchdowns (11), ranking second in the league for the latter two categories; he also posted a pair of 200-yard games, the first in Charger history. Alworth was voted the league MVP by UPI. Of the other receivers, tight end Kocourek added 359 yards and five touchdowns. Norton, the club's leading receiver in 1962, was injured while lifting weights and missed the first seven games; he finished with 281 yards from limited action. Paul Lowe returned to the backfield after missing the entire 1962 season through injury. He formed a successful partnership with Lincoln, running behind a line anchored by unanimous 1st team All-AFL tackle Mix. Lowe rushed for 1,010 yards (2nd in the league), while Lincoln, who missed most of one game and all of another, finished with 826 yards (4th in the league). The pair combined for 18 touchdowns, contributing to San Diego's league-high tally of 399 points scored. The Chargers comfortably led the league in yards per pass and yards per rush (6.7 and 5.6 respectively - the Raiders were second in both categories with 5.3 and 4.5 respectively).
On defense, cornerback Harris led the team with eight interceptions (third most in the league), while linebacker Chuck Allen added five more. With All-Pro defensive end Earl Faison unofficially credited with a team-leading five sacks, the Charger defense was a balanced unit: they were the best in the league for touchdowns conceded against the pass (17) and joint-best against the run (10) while conceding the fewest points overall (255). George Blair did not repeat his excellent kicking performance from the previous season, but his stat line of 17 successes from 28 attempts still gave him the best percentage in the league. Paul Maguire averaged 38.6 yards per punt, the lowest of the league's eight punters.
### Schedule
### Game summaries
#### Week 1: vs. Buffalo Bills
San Diego opened the 1963 season with a victory, intercepting their former quarterback Jack Kemp three times. After an early Buffalo punt, Lincoln took a swing pass from Rote 32 yards down the right sideline, but Blair missed a short field goal soon afterwards. Bud Whitehead and Bob Mitinger intercepted Kemp on the next two Bills drives. After the second of these, Rote hit Kocourek for 31 yards over the middle, moving the ball to the Buffalo 1. Bobby Jackson scored the first Charger touchdown of the season on the next play, fighting through tacklers and narrowly crossing the goal line. Charger indiscipline aided Buffalo on their response, with three flags resulting from a single play: Ladd made a late hit on Kemp, Henry Schmidt was ejected for fighting, and Gillman was penalized for his protestations. These infractions moved the ball from San Diego's 44 to their 12, but the defense stiffened and restricted Buffalo to a field goal. Alworth's 27-yard reception opened the next drive, but Blair missed another field goal; after the Bills also missed a kick, it was 7–3 at halftime.
The Chargers were forced to punt at the start of the 3rd quarter, and Buffalo progressed to a 4th and 1 at the San Diego 40. The Bills went for the first down, but Ladd forced a fumble that McNeil recovered. Jerry Robinson wrestled a 41-yard pass from the grasp of a defender on the next play, but Jackson was eventually stuffed for no gain on 4th and 1 from the 2. Faison sacked Kemp to force a punt; six plays later, Paul Lowe cut upfield and wove through tacklers on his way to a 48-yard touchdown run. Paul Maguire's interception and 38-yard return gave the Chargers a chance to put the game away, starting only eight yards from the Buffalo end zone, but Rote was sacked and intercepted on consecutive plays. Buffalo then drove 90 yards in 11 plays, scoring with 6:33 left on the clock. The Bills declined a two-point conversion attempt, instead kicking an extra point to trail by four. Buffalo had two more possessions: the first ended in a punt after Petrich sacked Kemp; the second saw them reach their own 47 yard line before time expired.
Rote had a solid debut, going 18 of 29 for 260 yards, with one interception. Lowe, on his first game back after missing the entire 1962 season through injury, rushed 10 times for 96 yards and a touchdown.
#### Week 2: vs. Boston Patriots
This was the first night game played in San Diego. After a Patriots field goal opened the scoring, San Diego struck twice in the 2nd quarter. Lincoln's 47-yard punt return was immediately followed by Alworth's 43-yard touchdown reception; the Chargers then blocked a field goal, and fooled the Patriots defense when Lowe threw a 71-yard touchdown to Robinson. Boston pulled back seven points after a 13-play, 75-yard drive, and it was 14–10 at halftime.
Interceptions by McNeil and Maguire ended Patriot drives in the second half, and Alworth's 61-yard punt return gave the Chargers a chance to extend their lead, only for Blair to miss from 30 yards out early in the final quarter. Both kickers then had successful kicks, leaving the Chargers still up by four points entering the final minutes. Boston reached a 4th and 1 on the San Diego 40, but turned the ball over on downs after a botched handoff. Following a Charger punt, the Patriots had one final chance, but an incompletion on 4th and 4 from their own 48 let San Diego run the clock out.
The Chargers gained what would prove a season-low 240 yards on offense, nearly half the total coming on the two touchdown plays.
#### Week 4: vs. Kansas City Chiefs
Three early touchdown passes by Rote set the Chargers on their way to a comfortable win over the team who, while known as the Dallas Texans, had won the previous season's AFL Championship game. Faison's fumble recovery on the Kansas City 25 set up the first Rote touchdown, a 20-yard connection with Kocourek. In the 2nd quarter, McNeil intercepted Len Dawson, and the Chargers again capitalized, Kocourek jumping to gather in a Rote pass at the 10, and completing a 35-yard touchdown without breaking stride. The third touchdown drive was longer, covering 91 yards in 11 plays. Lowe broke off a 25-yard run, and Lincoln took a pass in the left flat before cutting inside to elude a tackler and complete a 15-yard touchdown. The Chiefs pulled three points back before the break, but Blair made one of two field goal attempts in the second half, and Kansas City didn't reach the end zone until the final two minutes of the match.
Rote finished 10 of 16 for 127 yards, three touchdowns and an interception. Lowe and Lincoln split the carries in the backfield, with Lowe rushing 17 times for 91 yards and Lincoln 14 times for 59 yards.
#### Week 5: at Denver Broncos
San Diego conceded 50 points in a game for the first time, as Denver scored three times in barely a minute in the final quarter. Lincoln's fumble set up Denver for the game's first points, a 37-yard field goal from Gene Mingo. Lincoln made amends only three plays later, taking a screen pass in for a 39-yard touchdown. McNeil's interception soon gave San Diego the ball back, and it was Lowe's turn to score, taking a Rote pass 31 yards on the next play. The Broncos responded with a 79-yard drive to a John McCormick touchdown pass, before Mingo missed kicks from 37 and 44 yards. Two plays after the second of these, Rote dropped back from his own 15 and found Alworth at midfield, the receiver completing an 85-yard touchdown. McCormick came back with another scoring throw, and Rote was intercepted shortly before halftime.
Denver's momentum continued into the 3rd quarter. After tying the scores at 20–20 with a Mingo field goal, they executed a surprise onside kick, and another Mingo success put them in front. Rote was intercepted and lost a fumble, with the latter turnover leading to a further field goal. Hadl came on for Rote in the 4th quarter, and threw a touchdown on his very first pass attempt, a 19-yarder to Lincoln. That put San Diego back on top, 27–26, but McCormick soon responded with his third touchdown pass of the game. Lincoln's eventful day was complete when he fumbled the ensuing kickoff, and Denver scored again. When Hadl threw an interception a few plays later, Goose Gonsoulin ran the ball back for another touchdown, and Denver had scored 21 points in the space of 63 seconds. Hadl threw a deflected 54-yard touchdown pass to MacKinnon, but Denver recovered Blair's onside kick attempt, and Mingo added his fifth field goal with 20 seconds to play.
Rote and Hadl threw for 317 yards and a new club-record five touchdowns between them. Alworth caught 4 passes for 114 yards and a touchdown, while Lincoln had 62 yards on the ground and 73 through the air, including two scores.
#### Week 6: vs. New York Jets
San Diego bounced back with a hard-fought win over the Jets. After Lowe lost a fumble, former Chargers QB Dick Wood produced a touchdown pass on the Jets' first play from scrimmage, covering 51 yards. Lowe was then intercepted on a halfback pass, but New York missed a field goal on the resulting drive. Lowe bounced back with a 40-yard gain on a sweep, and Blair was successful from 28 yards out. Rote was later picked off, leading to a Jets field goal and a 10–3 scoreline at halftime.
Hadl entered the game in the third quarter for his most substantial playing time of the season. He made an immediate impact with run of 9 and 33 yards, before rounding out an 87-yard drive with an 8-yard touchdown to Kocourek, who leaped to make the catch with defenders on either side of him. The Chargers were in trouble at the start of their next drive, facing 3rd and 13 at their own 18 yard line, but Lincoln took a short pass and broke two tackles en route to a 37-yard gain. Five plays later, it was 2nd and 7 at the Jet 11, and San Diego again called a pass from an unexpected source. This time the trick play worked, fullback Gerry MacDougall lofting the ball to the back of the end zone where Alworth jumped to pull it in. Dick Christy returned the ensuing kickoff 71 yards to the Charger 18 before Westmoreland made a touchdown-saving tackle. That ultimately caused the Jets to settle for a field goal, as Hank Schmidt sacked Wood on third down. San Diego converted a 4th and 1 on the next drive, MacDougall's 26-yard catch moving the ball into field goal range, but the drive ended with a miss by Blair. New York then used a 54-yard pass interference penalty as the springboard for an 80-yard touchdown drive and a 20–17 lead as the 3rd quarter ended. Maguire pinned the Jets at their own 1 with a punt, and the defense forced a three-and-out, though an excellent punt in return set San Diego back on their own 39. Lowe accounted for most of the yardage on the next drive, with runs of 6 and 30 yards to start it off and a 7-yard touchdown up the middle to finish it with 9:06 to play. Wood led the Jets to the Charger 13, but his pass was deflected and incomplete on 4th and 8. New York's final chance ended on their own 40, when Frank Buncom knocked away another 4th down pass.
Rote was 10 of 13 for 78 yards and an interception, while Hadl was 8 of 12 for 134 yards and a touchdown. Lowe carried 16 times for 161 yards and one touchdown. San Diego's defense had zero takeaways. It was the first time in a regular season game that they failed to make at least one interception (they also had none in the 1960 AFL title game), ending a 46-game streak that remains an AFL/NFL record.
#### Week 7: at Kansas City Chiefs
Alworth had the most receiving yardage of any game in his Hall of Fame career, and the Chargers won on their first-ever trip to Kansas City. The first four San Diego possessions resulted in punts, before Allen intercepted Len Dawson, setting up Blair's field goal to open the scoring. However, Dawson found Abner Haynes with a deep pass over the middle only two plays after the kickoff; Haynes slipped McNeil's diving tackle and completed a 73-yard touchdown, and Kansas City led 7–3 at halftime.
Hadl had been in at quarterback on the final two Charger drives of the first half, but Rote returned after the break, and led his team to touchdowns on five of their first six second half possessions. Rote was 5 for 5 on the first drive, finishing with a 44-yard pass to Alworth, who had got open behind the safeties. Following a Chiefs field goal, Alworth's 28-yard catch was the biggest gain on an 11-play, 86-yard drive, which Lowe finished by cutting up the middle for a 7-yard touchdown on 3rd and 5. Blair then recovered a fumble, but missed a 40-yard field goal five plays later. After that, Dawson led his team from their own 20 to a 4th and 5 at the Charger 13. With only eight minutes remaining, Kansas City opted to go for it, but Dawson's pass was incomplete. Lincoln's 15-yard run on the next play was immediately followed by another Alworth touchdown. The flanker got a step behind cornerback Duane Wood, giving him position to outwrestle Wood for the ball at the Chief 35 and complete a 72-yard touchdown. Dawson threw a touchdown on 4th and goal from the 7 on the next drive, and Kansas City were back within 24–17 with 5:24 still on the clock. Lincoln put the game away on the next play from scrimmage. Taking a pitchout to the left, he cut upfield and worked his way back towards the right sideline to avoid tacklers, ultimately outracing the defense and going in untouched for a 76-yard touchdown. Blair then made a juggling interception of Dawson, and Lowe shrugged off a tackler at the line of scrimmage before completing the scoring with a 21-yard run.
Rote was 16 of 22 for 266 yards, two touchdowns and no interceptions. Lincoln rushed 10 times for 127 yards and a touchdown. Alworth caught 9 passes for 232 yards and two touchdowns; he had 183 receiving yards in the second half alone.
#### Week 8: vs. Oakland Raiders
Oakland pulled within one and a half games of San Diego, after an eventful game in which four quarterbacks combined for seven touchdowns and eight interceptions. Rote was intercepted on the game's first possession, and Tom Flores found Art Powell for the opening points. San Diego responded with a Blair field goal, before Alworth maintained his good form with a 32-yard touchdown catch. Rote threw interceptions to Fred Williamson on the next two Charger drives; after the first of these, Harris picked off Flores to win the ball straight back, but Flores took his second chance with a 30-yard drive and another touchdown pass. Hadl entered the game and hit MacKinnon for a 69-yard touchdown on only his second throw. Flores was then intercepted by McNeil, but Hadl was intercepted himself before the half ended with San Diego 17–14 up.
Rote returned for the 3rd quarter, while the Raiders went with backup Cotton Davidson, Flores having sustained a head injury. The latter switch seemed to have backfired when Davidson's first pass was intercepted and run back for a touchdown by Harris, but he came back with a touchdown pass two plays after Lincoln had fumbled while attempting a lateral. A 29-yard catch by MacKinnon got San Diego moving, and Blair put the Chargers ahead 26–21 after three quarters with a 36-yard kick. Davidson's second touchdown pass was also Powell's second touchdown catch - the 46-yard connection put Oakland ahead one play into the final quarter. San Diego responded through Lincoln, the running back going off tackle and breaking through for a 51-yard score. After a punt each, the Raiders went 63 yards for the winning score, another pass by Davidson. The Chargers managed to sack Davidson on the ensuing two-point attempt, leaving them needing only a field goal to win with 1:52 still remaining. Their final drive started from their own 27 and quickly went wrong. Rote threw incomplete before being sacked for an 18-yard loss; he then threw his fourth interception of the game, and Oakland ran out the clock.
Oakland's quarterbacks completed only eight passes between them, but five of those went for touchdowns. For the Chargers, Lincoln rushed 15 times for 130 yards and a touchdown, while MacKinnon caught 3 passes for 111 yards and a score.
#### Week 9: at New York Jets
The Chargers kicked off a three-game trip to the east coast by thrashing the Jets. On their second play from scrimmage, Alworth hauled in a deep pass and gained 62 yards, though a Lincoln fumble prevented San Diego from capitalising with any points. They made no mistake on their next possession, Lowe easily scoring on an 11-yard screen pass. Gross caused Dick Wood to fumble shortly afterwards, with Emil Karas recovering - five plays later, Kocourek scored from 14 yards out. Another turnover soon followed, Harris intercepting an underthrow by Wood. Alworth made a leaping grab on the next play, covering 49 yards; three plays later, Lowe swept right from the 11 behind strong blocking and went in untouched for a 21–0 lead, and Blair added a short field goal before halftime.
More points followed in the second half. Alworth again outjumped his marker on a 28-yard touchdown reception, Rote and MacDougall scored on short runs up the middle, and, after the Jets averted a shutout, Hadl threw an 8-yard touchdown to Robinson with no time on the clock. The Chargers faked a conversion kick after this final score, and Hadl hit Kocourek for two more points.
Rote completed 21 of 29 passes for a club-record 369 yards, with three touchdowns and no interceptions. His passer rating of 149.0 would be the best any Charger achieved in the AFL while making at least 20 attempts in a game. Alworth caught 5 passes for 180 yards and a touchdown. Harris had two interceptions and a fumble recovery, while Karas had two fumble recoveries. San Diego set club records for most points (this would be broken six games later), and margin of victory (still to be surpassed). The game featured three ejections, including two for the Chargers; Ladd and Joe Schmidt were both thrown out for their role in a fist fight.
#### Week 10: at Boston Patriots
Alworth and the defense lifted San Diego to a narrow victory in the rain and mud of Fenway Park. Alworth had catches of 6, 37 and 17 yards on three consecutive plays in the game's opening drive, but Blair missed a 12-yard chip shot field goal, and the Chargers came up empty-handed. Westmoreland's fumble recovery then stopped a dangerous Patriot drive, and San Diego worked their way to the Boston 18, from where Alworth caught Rote's pass in the end zone and appeared to have opened the scoring. A penalty wiped those points off the board, but Rote went straight back to Alworth with a screen, good for 23 yards and a touchdown. Boston looked the more threatening team throughout the 2nd quarter, but Gino Cappelletti missed a 38-yard kick and lost a fumble that Gary Glick recovered. Allen outwrestled the intended receiver for an interception of Babe Parilli, and it was still 7–0 at the break.
Cappelletti made a 36-yard field goal early in the second half. Rote converted a 4th and 1 with a quarterback sneak on the next possession, but the drive ended when Blair missed from 48 yards. Boston drove into field goal range once more, and when Cappelletti was good from 25 yards, the lead was cut to a single point. Following a Rote interception, Cappelletti had a chance to put his team ahead, but was short from 37 yards out. Allen continued to make significant plays as the final quarter wore on, stopping Patriot drives with an interception and a fumble recovery. Boston's last chance came after Lowe lost a fumble at his own 42. The Charger defense knocked the Patriots back six yards on three running plays, and Cappelletti's final kick fell well short from 55 yards. Alworth's 50-yard reception helped San Diego run the clock out.
Alworth had 13 of his team's 18 pass receptions and gained 210 of their 271 total yards on offense while scoring the game's only touchdown. His 13 receptions were a new club record and would remain his career high. San Diego's total of 7 points is still the fewest they have scored in a victory.
#### Week 11: at Buffalo Bills
San Diego completed a three-game east coast sweep with a hard-fought win in Buffalo. The Bills took the opening kickoff and drove 75 yards for Cookie Gilchrist to score from a yard out. The Chargers responded quickly, Lowe's 23-yard gain on a draw being immediately followed by Lincoln's 54-yard scoring trap run through the middle. The next time San Diego had the ball, Lincoln opened the drive with a 24-yard reception, and Blair finished it with a 39-yard field goal. Jack Kemp led his offense inside the Charger 10 late in the first half, but Maguire's third down sack had the Bills settling for a field goal and a 10–10 tie at the intermission.
In the 3rd quarter, Sweeney blocked a punt by Daryle Lamonica, and San Diego took over at the Buffalo 20. Lincoln appeared to have scored on a 9-yard run a few plays later, but Mix was penalized for a push. The Chargers scored anyway, Alworth gathering Rote's pass under the posts. Buffalo almost tied the game on their next drive, but last defender Westmoreland pulled Elbert Dubenion down at the Charger 5 yard line after a gain of 34, and the defense held Buffalo to a field goal. Lowe's 27-yard run had the Chargers threatening on their next drive, but they were thwarted when Rote was intercepted. Harris intercepted Kemp on the next two Buffalo drives; after the second of these, Rote's 54-yard completion to Alworth set up a short Blair field goal. After forcing a punt, the Chargers drove from their own 20 to Buffalo's 34, and Blair hit the clinching kick from 41 yards out with 1:37 to play.
Harris added a third interception on the game's final play, his seventh in a four-game span. Lincoln rushed 10 times for 101 yards and a touchdown, while adding 31 yards on 3 receptions. With Oakland idle, the Chargers stretched their lead in the AFL West to two full games. The attendance figure set a new AFL record.
#### Week 12: vs. Houston Oilers
In a matchup of division leaders, San Diego shut out the Oilers. Houston had the game's first scoring chance, but Maguire blocked George Blanda's 48-yard field goal attempt. Lincoln opened the scoring only five plays later, taking a draw up the middle from 15 yards out. Houston fumbled away a red zone chance on their next drive, and the Chargers soon pulled away. A Lincoln run set up Blair's 42-yard field goal, and Maguire recovered a fumble on the ensuing kickoff. After three straight incompletions, San Diego faked a field goal, Rote passing to Kocourek in the left flat, from where the tight end fought his way for 14 yards and a first down. Four plays later, Kocourek drew pass interference on a 3rd and 13 play, and Lowe went in from the 2. A Karas interception and 30-yard return was then wasted as Rote, too, was intercepted. Late in the half, Houston failed on a fourth down conversion attempt, and San Diego had three big runs in a row (Lowe 14 yards, Lincoln 16 yards, Lincoln 13 yards), setting up Blair's second field goal.
Mitinger's interception two plays into the second half maintained the Chargers' dominance. They later put together an 11-play, 80 yard drive that bridged the 3rd and 4th quarters and ended with Alworth's 22-yard catch from Rote. Houston's threatened to avoid the shutout on their last two possessions, but backup quarterback Jacky Lee was sacked on 4th down, and later intercepted by Glick.
Westmoreland was credited with 15 solo tackles and 1 assist, plus 6 passes defensed. Lincoln (13 carries for 102 yards and a touchdown, 1 reception for 5 yards) and Lowe (21 carries for 80 yards and a touchdown, 3 receptions for 25 yards) provided two strong performances in the backfield.
#### Week 13: at Oakland Raiders
Up by two games over the Raiders with only three to play, the Chargers could end the AFL West race with a win, but a collapse in the 4th quarter cost them the chance to clinch their division. They began the game with a successful opening drive. Lincoln had a 36-yard reception and, after the Chargers lost six yards on the next two plays, Rote threw a deep pass to Norton for a 32-yard touchdown. For Norton, who had missed seven games through a back injury, it was his only touchdown of the regular season.
After a Raider field goal, San Diego suffered a setback when Lincoln was knocked out of the game through injury, with Bobby Jackson taking his place in the backfield. The switch appeared not to have disrupted the offense during a 6-play, 89-yard drive that opened with Alworth's 54-yard reception and ended with Jackson going 14 yards off-tackle to the end zone. Oakland responded with a 44-yard touchdown pass from Tom Flores to Art Powell on 4th and 2, but failed to convert on 4th and 10 from the Charger 39 on their next drive. Norton then had 22- and 36-yard receptions, and MacKinnon's short catch made it 20–10 at halftime.
Cotton Davidson, who had played a major role in the Raiders' victory in San Diego earlier in the season, was brought on for the second half. The switch had no immediate impact, with the only score of the 3rd quarter going to the Chargers - Kocourek's 40-yard reception paving the way for Alworth's 15-yard touchdown. When the Raiders went three-and-out in response, San Diego took over on their own 20 early in the final quarter, 17 points ahead. Lowe appeared to have gained 38 yards on first down, but the run was nullified by penalty. Jackson took a screen pass to the Chargers 39 on the next play, but fumbled and Oakland recovered. Davidson's touchdown to Powell began the comeback four plays later. Next, Lowe lost a fumble and Oakland capitalized with a field goal. Following a Charger punt, Davidson led his team 57 yards and scored the game-tying touchdown himself with 7:54 to play.
San Diego were unable to respond, failing to pick up a first down and punting again. Three plays later, Powell was in the end zone once more, with a 41-yard touchdown. Lowe returned the ensuing kickoff 41 yards, and Hadl came out to try and spark the offense. He found Norton for an 18-yard gain to the Oakland 38, but followed that with three incompletions and an interception. The Raiders added a further touchdown in the final minutes, and pulled to within a game at the top of the division.
Rote was 17 of 25 for 284 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions, while Norton caught six passes for 119 yards and a touchdown. Art Powell scored 5 touchdowns from only 9 catches over the two games with San Diego. It was only the third time in AFL/NFL history that a team was outscored by 30+ points in the 4th quarter.
#### Week 14: at Houston Oilers
The stakes were high for both teams - San Diego were looking to maintain their one-game lead over Oakland, while Houston would be eliminated from the AFL East race with a loss. San Diego had the first drive that crossed into opposition territory, but Lowe lost a fumble - Houston then drove into field goal range, but George Blanda was wide right. In the 2nd quarter, three interceptions by Charger linebackers led to points. Firstly, Karas intercepted a Jacky Lee pass; Lowe immediately broke off a 59-yard run, and Rote sneaked into the end zone two plays later. Next, Allen picked off a Blanda pass at the Houston 30, and Jackson scored from close range six plays later. Blanda came straight back with a touchdown pass to Willard Dewveall, and Rote's deep pass was intercepted on the next play. Maguire then took back the momentum with an interception of his own, at the Houston 24-yard line. Blair capitalized with a 22-yard field goal, and it was 17–7 at halftime.
Blair missed wide left from 43 yards in the 3rd quarter, but Allen's fumble recovery at the Oiler 30 soon gave him another chance, and he converted a chip shot 10-yarder. The Oilers' next drive saw them reach 4th and goal at the 9. They elected to go for the touchdown, but Allen and Glick combined to stop Dewveall one yard short. San Diego gained one first down before being forced to punt, and Blanda converted a 3rd and 28 with a 68-yard completion. The Oilers made no mistake this time, finding the end zone with 6:30 to play in the game. The next three drives were three-and-outs. Houston's final drive started on their own 21-yard line with under two minutes to play. Blanda managed to converted a 4th and 1, but found progress to be slow going. The game's final snap was from the Charger 44 - Houston gained only 9 yards, and time expired.
Houston had four turnovers on the day, each of which San Diego converted into points. With Lincoln missing due to injury, Gerry MacDougall rushed 15 times for 56 yards, a complement to Lowe's 19 carries for 96 yards. These gains, plus the four crucial turnovers, were enough to compensate for a weak pass attack that managed only 85 yards total. Oakland also won, leaving the Raiders still one game back and able to force a playoff for the division crown if San Diego lost in Week 15.
#### Week 15: vs. Denver Broncos
San Diego clinched their third AFL West title in four seasons while setting a club record for points that still stands. Gross gave his team an excellent start, recovering a Broncos fumble forced by Karas. Lowe ran in the opening touchdown two plays later. After Denver answered with a touchdown on the ensuing drive, Alworth drew a 39-yard pass interference penalty and Blair kicked a field goal to put San Diego back in front. On the next drive, Mitinger made a one-handed interception after twice bobbling the ball. Norton's 29-yard reception on the following play set up Jackson's 2-yard touchdown dive. Denver again responded to a Charger touchdown with one of their own, a Don Breaux pass reducing their deficit to 17–14. Lincoln was back in the starting line-up for San Diego - his tackle-breaking 11-yard run got the Chargers moving on their next possession. Rote finished the drive by hitting Kocourek for a 26-yard touchdown; the tight end caught the ball in stride at the nine, and outran his marker to the corner of the end zone. A Rote interception let Denver pull three points closer with 1:04 remaining in the 2nd quarter, but back-to-back runs of 22 yards by Lowe and 14 yards by Lincoln set up Blair to respond in kind before the half ended.
After both sides punted to start the 3rd quarter, Lowe swept to the right and went 66 yards untouched to make it 33–17. Denver responded with a field goal. With Oakland having achieved victory in their final game at about this time, San Diego still had work to do to reach the AFL title game. They responded with 25 unanswered points. Harris had an interception the next time Denver had the ball, and Blair knocked through his third field goal late in the 3rd quarter. On the first play of the final quarter, Ladd sacked Breaux, forcing a fumble that Faison recovered. Lincoln swept to the right on the next play, and scored without difficulty from 29 yards out. The defense registered the next score themselves, a fumble bouncing up for Allen to field and return 42 yards for a touchdown. Hadl came into the game and eventually threw the final touchdown to MacKinnon in the back of the end zone. San Diego added a two-point conversion on a trick play, with Faison's catch giving them their final points of the regular season.
Paul Lowe ran for 183 yards on 17 carries, with two touchdowns. As a team, San Diego had 270 rushing yards and outgained Denver 451–231 in total offense.
## Standings
## Playoffs
### Game summary
#### AFL championship game: vs. Boston Patriots
Favored by six points heading into the game, San Diego thrashed the Patriots 51–10 to gain their only league title to date.
On the game's second play, Lincoln broke through a large hole in the middle of the line and gained 56 yards before being tackled at the Boston 4; two plays later, Rote ran the ball up the middle himself and scored a 2-yard touchdown. The Patriots went three-and-out, and Lincoln broke free again two plays later, this time taking a pitch to the left and racing along the sideline for an easy 67-yard touchdown. Boston was able to get on the scoreboard with a touchdown drive of their own, but San Diego scored again four plays into their response, with Lowe taking a pitch to the right, threading through would-be tacklers near the sideline and cutting back inside to complete a 58-yard touchdown run. Having run only ten offensive plays, San Diego had three rushes of 50-plus yards and a 21–7 lead. In the 2nd quarter, back-to-back sacks by Ladd and Faison forced a Patriots punt, Lincoln broke off a 44-yard run, and Blair extended the lead with a field goal. Boston managed a field goal of their own, but San Diego came back with another touchdown drive, Lincoln's receptions of 11 and 24 yards helping to set up Norton's 14-yard touchdown from a pass in the left flat. Mitinger intercepted Parilli a play later, and San Diego led 31–10 at halftime.
Lowe fumbled on the first Charger play of the second half, but the San Diego defense forced a punt. Lincoln had a 32-yard gain on a swing pass on the following drive, setting up an Alworth touchdown; the flanker leaped and outfought a defensive back to pull in a long pass from Rote before completing a 48-yard touchdown. Hadl replaced Rote later in the game and was involved in the final two Charger touchdowns, finding Lincoln wide open over the middle on a 25-yard pass on 4th and 2, then scoring himself on a 1-yard run.
Lincoln gained 329 yards from scrimmage, setting an AFL/NFL playoff record that still stands. He won the game's MVP award after receiving 38 of the 39 available votes. In total, San Diego gained 610 yards and scored seven touchdown against a defense that had been highly respected coming into the game. Gillman had drawn up an offensive game plan he dubbed 'Feast or Famine', using motion to confuse Boston's blitzers and spring his running backs for several large gains. Post-match, he described his team as having the greatest balance of any team he had coached.
## Potential match with NFL champions
On December 29, 1963, Chicago were crowned NFL champions for the eighth time, their top-ranked defense pressuring Y. A. Tittle into five interceptions as they beat the New York Giants 14–10. San Diego's one-sided victory in the AFL title game a week later led to some speculation as to whether they might be a match for the Bears. Gillman declared that his team wouldn't disgrace themselves in such an encounter, though the Los Angeles Times noted that Chicago would represent a substantial step up in difficulty from the Patriots.
AFL commissioner Joe Foss had proposed a title game between the two leagues in a letter to his opposite number Pete Rozelle, published by Sports Illustrated in December 1963, while Gillman wrote to Bears head coach George Halas with a similar offer after the two title games had been played. Both proposals were politely declined. The first game between the two leagues, Super Bowl I, occurred three years later.
## Team awards
On December 12, the Chargers held their annual awards banquet. The Most Inspirational Player award was conferred by teammates, while the others were decided by a fan vote.
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Architecture of Winchester College
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History of the school's buildings
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"Architecture in England",
"Winchester College"
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Winchester College is an English independent boarding school for pupils aged 13 to 18. Its original medieval buildings from the 1382 foundation remain largely intact, but they have been supplemented by multiple episodes of construction. Additions were made in the medieval and early modern periods. There was a major expansion of boarding accommodation in the Victorian era; further teaching areas were constructed at the turn of the 20th century and more recently.
Among the styles in the architecture of the college are Perpendicular Gothic, Christopher Wren, Brunelleschi, Queen Anne revival, and High Victorian Baronial. Among the architects whose work is represented in the ensemble are William Wynford, William Butterfield, G. S. Repton, G. E. Street, William White, Basil Champneys, E. S. Prior, Herbert Baker, Henry L. G. Hill, and Peter Shepheard. The school has numerous listed buildings, historic structures protected by law, including the medieval buildings and the 1924 War Cloister.
## Overview
Winchester College was founded by William of Wykeham in 1382. He was a wealthy and powerful figure, as he was both Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of England. The foundation was for a school to enable 70 boys, sons of poor clergymen, to have a free education; they might go on to have a university education the school's sister foundation, New College, Oxford. The first 70 poor scholars entered the school in 1394. The school still has 70 scholars, and they are still housed in the medieval buildings. The scholars have been joined by a larger number of other pupils, known as commoners, housed in Victorian era boarding houses.
The foundation buildings are situated just south of Winchester's Cathedral Close and bordering a branch of the River Itchen. These have been supplemented by several later buildings. There are teaching buildings near the foundation, including the 17th-century School and the 19th-century Flint Court. Further to the south are the 19th century Museum, intended as a teaching space for arts and sciences, and the 20th century Science School. To the west of Kingsgate Street is a cluster of ten mainly 19th-century boarding houses for the commoners. Other buildings including the War Cloister, the Sanatorium, and the Southern Campus for sports, lie to the southwest of the foundation buildings. The school is set in extensive grounds to the south, including the Meads playing fields, water meadows by the river, and St Catherine's Hill to the southeast. Several are listed buildings; there are 18 Grade I, 6 Grade II\* and over 70 Grade II listings, including many of the houses on both sides of Kingsgate Street, and some further south on Kingsgate Road. The medieval core buildings have been described as "all ... of rare significance". The joint foundation with New College represents a religious, educational, and architectural endowment with "no obvious European precedent"; in 1441, King Henry VI followed the example to create the matching pair of Eton College and King's College, Cambridge.
## The medieval foundation
The medieval buildings, representing most of the original foundation from the school's opening in 1394, include Outer Gate and Outer Court, Chamber Court, the Chapel, and the Cloisters. Most are built using flint with limestone facings and slate roofs; the Chapel is mostly in "green Ventnor stone". The buildings were designed in the Perpendicular Gothic style of the English late medieval period by William Wynford, the master mason who designed New College, Oxford. The two teaching institutions were the first in England to have layouts planned on a large scale. Outer Gate has a handsome star-shaped lierne vault, described by the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as "out-of-the-ordinary", such decoration usually being confined to churches. Outer Court is mainly medieval, but the east side is formed by the architect G. S. Repton's 1832–1833 reworking of the Warden's Lodgings in knapped flint laid in regular courses. The west side was once extended, but is now closed by a screen with a 1663 archway. Doors lead to the former stables, brewhouse and slaughterhouse; the architect Herbert Baker transformed the brewhouse into the Moberly Library in 1932–1934. The Cloisters have Italianate wagon roofs and bare external walls; the inside walls have gothic arched openings, each divided into three lights. The structure is at an angle to the rest of the medieval buildings to fit the shape of the site.
The south side of Chamber Court is formed by the chapel of St. Mary, known simply as "Chapel". It retains its original wooden fan-vaulted ceiling, designed by Hugh Herland, carpenter to Richard II. The college's dining hall, known as "Hall", is housed in the same range of buildings in ashlar stonework, on the first floor to the west of Chapel. Hall has wooden panelling, installed in 1540. The four-stage tower, visible from all around the college, was demolished and rebuilt in 1862–1863.
The chapel is known for its stained glass. The East window depicts the Tree of Jesse. Down the chapel's north and south sides is a collection of saints. Little of the original medieval glass, designed by Thomas Glazier, survives. A firm of glaziers in Shrewsbury, Betton and Evans, was tasked with cleaning the glass in the 1820s. At that time there was no known process for cleaning the badly deteriorated glass and so it was copied, while most of the original glass was scattered or destroyed. Some pieces have been recovered. The art historian and Old Wykehamist, Kenneth Clark, bought back the Tree of Jesse section of the east window, now housed in Thurburn's Chantry (1473–1485), at the back of the chapel. Further figures have been returned; they form the east window of Fromond's Chantry, inside the Cloisters. The pews, choir stalls, and panelling inside the chapel were designed by the ecclesiastical architect W. D. Caröe and made between 1913 and 1921, while the stall ends and misericords are from the medieval foundation.
## Medieval to early modern
Later buildings include Fromond's Chantry, built inside the Cloisters after 1420, and "School", constructed in 1683–1687 in the English baroque Wren style. Above the door is a 1692 statue of the college's founder William of Wykeham, by the Danish sculptor C. G. Cibber. The building is of red brick with stone facings, carved modillions, and a hipped roof. The front has seven bays, of which the central three are under a large triangular pediment. Pevsner notes the "very fine" stone garlands above the arched windows.
The College Sick House was built by the school's warden (chairman of governors) John Harris in 1656–1657. Harris named it Bethesda after the biblical Pool of Bethesda, a place of healing, and had the name "בתסדה" ("Bethesda, house of mercy") inscribed in Hebrew above the door. It now serves as a staff common room. It is constructed mainly of brick with mullioned windows; the front has two large gables, flanking a smaller central gable that projects forward, housing the door.
The Warden's Lodgings is constructed largely of red brick; the oldest parts were built in 1597. The face North on to College Street has its lower part in flint with stone buttresses, the upper part with lightly-arched windows dated to 1730, while the East face on to the Warden's gardens and the River Itchen is from Warden Nicholas's reworking of the building in 1692. A chimneypiece in the house is dated 1615.
## Victorian
The school was greatly extended in the 19th century during Queen Victoria's reign, with the addition of boarding houses for "commoners", paying pupils, as opposed to the scholars who continued to live in the medieval College. The first two were Chernocke House and Moberly's, which began as private houses owned by teachers. The third, Du Boulay's, was built speculatively by the Reverend James Du Boulay, borrowing money against the hope of future paying boarders. In 1869, six more boarding houses were added, four of them built speculatively under the headmaster George Ridding. The original and surviving sports field was the walled area of Meads, just behind School; other fields were added in the 19th century on both sides of the River Itchen.
The "forbidding" neo-Gothic Headmaster's House (no longer used for that purpose), its front in knapped and squared flint, the back in Georgian-style red brick, was built by the English architect G. S. Repton in 1839–1842. Just to the south of the Headmaster's House are Flint Court and Moberly Court, designed by the Gothic Revival architect William Butterfield, and built between 1867 and 1870. Flint Court, providing many of the school's classrooms and the teachers' common room, is open at the front; the wings to left and right are of 3 storeys, in red brick, described by Pevsner as "partly chequer, partly diaper"; the centre has a single-storey Perpendicular-style cloister in front of the full-height range.
In the 1880s, a large Sanatorium, designed by the English architect William White, was built in High Victorian Baronial style in 1884–1893; it has been described as "an all too prominent feature" of the school's landscape. It is now used as the college's art school.
For the school's 500th anniversary, the handsome but impractical Brunelleschi-style building called "Museum" (formally named "Memorial Buildings") by Basil Champneys, intended to support all the arts and sciences, was opened in 1897. Nikolaus Pevsner described it as "curiously Baroque", but "personal, bold, and successful [visually]". The building is in brick and Bath stone, arranged in nine bays with columns; the windows are flanked by prominent stone blocks projecting from and alternating with brickwork. The first and last bays are solid, with statues of William of Wykeham and of Queen Victoria. The building has a loggia with two rows of Tuscan-style columns, forming part of the ground floor.
## Modern
The Music School, designed by the arts and crafts architect E. S. Prior, was added in 1903–1904. The octagonal building is in flint and greenstone, with large round-topped gables fronting a pyramidal roof, and a large round hood over the doorway. Pevsner comments that it is a "composition of strange elements indeed." It was extended in the 21st century with a mixture of yellow brick, limestone dressings, glass, and zinc cladding.
The Science School was designed by the English architect Henry L. G. Hill, who served as the college archivist. It is in what the college calls Queen Anne revival style, and was completed in 1904; it remains in use for its original purpose. The building is of thirteen bays in red brick, dressed with white Portland stone. Historic England calls the style "richly decorated ... [Edwardian] Wrenaissance". Pevsner describes the building as "badly organized and detailed." The hipped roofs are covered with slate, above a cornice with modillion eaves. An extension was designed by the architect T. D. Atkinson around 1930. The separate Biology Block behind the Science School was added by the architect and college bursar Ruthven O. Hall in 1958; Pevsner calls it "dull and utilitarian".
To the west of Meads, the college's War Cloister serves as a memorial to the Wykehamist dead of the two World Wars. It was designed by Herbert Baker, architect of many colonial buildings in South Africa and New Delhi, and dedicated in 1924. It is a listed building. A bronze bust of Old Boy Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding sits on the west side of the cloister. The College's South Africa Gate on Kingsgate Street commemorates the Wykehamist dead of the 1899–1902 Boer War. It leads to the War Cloister. Another older war memorial in the school is the entry chamber to Chapel. Known as "Crimea" after the Crimean War of 1853–1856, it bears the names of Wykehamists who died at the siege of Sebastopol.
A hall big enough for the enlarged school, New Hall, was opened in 1961, just east of the Mill Leat, a branch of the River Itchen. Its design was constrained by the need to accommodate the oak panelling which had been taken out of Chapel in that building's "disastrous" internal redesign of 1874. The interior of New Hall with Warden Nicholas's 1680–1683 panelling has been called "a triumph". Pevsner comments that the architect, Peter Shepheard, "lost his nerve" and chose to be "above all tactful" rather than making the hall modern; he calls the resulting exterior in "blue" brick with stone facings "not self-effacing ... [but] very noticeable, only in a pleadingly inoffensive way."
The development of a "Southern Campus" comprising a PE centre, swimming pool, rifle range, and squash courts by the architects Design Engine began in 2017 on the site between the Kingsgate Park sports field and the Norman Road tennis courts. The "complex geometry of the roof forms" is intended to reference the silhouette of the college's historic buildings, while the sports centre's grey brick and the other buildings' red brick is meant to reflect the tones of the medieval flint and brick. The "substantial" buildings are designed to be "largely hidden" from outside the college.
|
28,996,012 |
Born This Way (album)
| 1,171,409,406 |
2011 studio album by Lady Gaga
|
[
"2011 albums",
"Albums produced by Fernando Garibay",
"Albums produced by Lady Gaga",
"Albums produced by RedOne",
"Albums produced by Robert John \"Mutt\" Lange",
"Interscope Geffen A&M Records albums",
"Interscope Records albums",
"LGBT-related albums",
"Lady Gaga albums",
"Music controversies"
] |
Born This Way is the second studio album by American singer Lady Gaga, released by Interscope Records on May 23, 2011. It was co-written and co-produced by Gaga with other producers, including Fernando Garibay and RedOne, who had previously worked with her. She also worked with artists such as E Street Band saxophonist Clarence Clemons and Queen guitarist Brian May. Gaga and Garibay are the album's musical directors.
The music of Born This Way stems from the synth-pop and dance-pop styles of her previous material while incorporating different forms of instrumentation from that on her previous releases, such as electronic rock and techno. It features a broader range of genres, such as heavy metal, disco, house, and rock and roll, while its lyrical topics include sexuality, religion, freedom, feminism, and individualism. Despite divided opinions among religious and conservative commentators, the album was well received by music critics, who praised the varying musical styles and Gaga's vocals. Several music publications included the album in their year-end best-of lists. Born This Way received three Grammy Award nominations, including Gaga's third consecutive nomination for Album of the Year. In 2020, Rolling Stone included it in their updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.
Born This Way debuted atop in various major music chart worldwide, including the US Billboard 200, where the record sold 1.108 million copies in its first week—the highest first-week album sales in five years; an estimated 440,000 copies were sold on Amazon in two days of its first week at a price of 99 cents. It has since been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Four of the album's singles—the title track, "Judas", "The Edge of Glory", and "You and I"—charted in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, where "Born This Way" stayed atop for six weeks. At the time of its release, the title track was the fastest-selling single in iTunes history. The fifth single, "Marry the Night", charted within the top 30 in the United States. After going viral on the video sharing service TikTok, "Bloody Mary" was released as the album's sixth single in 2022, eleven years after its release. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Born This Way was the third global best-selling album of 2011. As of 2021, it had more than 5.8 billion global streams, 5.2 million physical copies sold, and 31 million digital tracks sold.
Gaga performed songs from the album on different occasions, such as the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards and the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, as well as on worldwide television and in other events, including her third headlining concert tour, the Born This Way Ball (2012–2013). In November 2011, Born This Way, and its remix album, Born This Way: The Remix, were packaged as a compilation album titled Born This Way: The Collection. On June 25, 2021, Gaga released Born This Way The Tenth Anniversary, a special anniversary version of the album featuring six renditions of Gaga's songs by artists who are members or allies of the LGBT community.
## Background and recording
Lady Gaga released her first studio album, The Fame, in August 2008. It received generally favorable reviews from critics and topped the charts in several countries. After its worldwide success, a reissue of the album, titled The Fame Monster, was released in November 2009, which was also met with critical acclaim. Gaga described them as yin and yang because of their contrasting styles and concepts.
In March 2010, Gaga disclosed that she was working on a new album, saying that she had written most of the songs for this project. Meanwhile, producer RedOne described it as Gaga's "freedom album" as her then-manager, Troy Carter, felt her public image would begin to change after its release. A few months after, Gaga exclaimed that she had finished writing songs for the album: "It came so quickly. I've been working on it for months, and I feel very strongly that it's finished right now. Some artists take years. I don't. I write music every day." She first alluded to Born This Way during a SHOWstudio interview in the same year, answering what she would call the movie of her life. In another interview, she declared the album "the anthem of [this] generation," as she continued, "It includes the greatest music I've ever written. I've already written the first single for the new album and I promise you, that this album is the greatest of my career."
Born This Way was written and recorded while in the midst of The Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011). Besides sessions on tour buses, recording sessions and mixing for the album took place at a variety of studios: Abbey Road Studios in London, England; Germano Studios in New York City, The Mix Room in Burbank, California, Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas, Henson Studios in Los Angeles, Larrabee in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, Setai Recording in Miami Beach, Warehouse Productions in Omaha, all in the United States; Gang Studios in Paris, France; Studios 301 and Paradise in Sydney, Sing Sing Studios in Melbourne, all in Australia; Officine Meccaniche in Milan, Italy; and Livingroom Studios in Oslo, Norway. All mastering happened at Oasis Mastering in Burbank. Brian May, a guitarist of Queen, and Clarence Clemons, a former member of the E Street Band, worked with Gaga on the album.
## Writing and composition
### Influences and themes
In terms of musical composition, Born This Way is considered to be a notable departure from Gaga's previous works. It incorporates a broader range of musical genres such as opera, heavy metal, rock and roll, Europop, electro-industrial, disco, and house in addition to featuring a wider variety of instrumentation and musical styles. For example, an organ can be heard as Gaga closes "Born This Way", a Gregorian chant-inspired male vocal choir is a prominent feature in "Bloody Mary", guitars and violins in "Americano", and electric guitars in "Bad Kids". The songs "Hair" and "The Edge of Glory" are distinguishable from the rest of the album, as a saxophone – performed by Clemons, a prominent member of the E Street Band – can be heard throughout.
In several interviews, Gaga expressed that she was mostly inspired by Madonna, Whitney Houston, and Bruce Springsteen; other musical influences for the album include Prince, Iron Maiden, Kiss, Queen, TLC, Pat Benatar, and En Vogue. At the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards, while accepting the award for Best Pop Vocal Album for The Fame Monster (2009), Gaga thanked Houston, "I wanted to thank Whitney because when I wrote 'Born This Way', I imagined she was singing it because I wasn't secure enough in myself to imagine I was a superstar. So Whitney I imagined you were singing 'Born This Way' when I wrote it. Thank you." In May 2021, during the 10th anniversary of the album, she revealed that it was inspired by Carl Bean and his song "I Was Born This Way", released in 1977. On her social media, Gaga wrote, "Born This Way, my song and album, were inspired by Carl Bean, a gay black religious activist who preached, sung and wrote about being Born This Way."
The album contains mainly moderate-tempo dance songs, described by MTV's James Dinh as "anthemic style melodies with really sledge-hammering dance beats." In the months prior to the release of Born This Way, Gaga characterized her new music as "something so much deeper than a wig or lipstick or a fucking meat dress" and upon hearing it, Akon remarked that she would take music to the "next level." The album includes references to several religious figures of Christianity, notably Judas Iscariot, Mary Magdalene, and Jesus of Nazareth. Several songs on the album give reference to sexuality and feminism. Other themes referenced in the album include individualism, equality, and freedom.
### Music and lyrical content
The standard edition of Born This Way includes 14 tracks; the deluxe edition includes eight additional tracks—three original songs, a different version of the title track, and four remixes. Fernando Garibay, one of the producers, revealed that each song on the album was revised "about 50 times", as Gaga wanted to try different genres and sounds. Born This Way opens with "Marry the Night", a song written as a homage to New York City. It is a dance-pop record which contains church bells, a thumping four on the floor house beat, a funk rock-influenced breakdown, and has been noted to contain elements of disco, techno, funk and Hi-NRG music. Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone compared the song's sound to that of 1980s pop and glam metal artists, including Bon Jovi, Pat Benatar and Bonnie Tyler. The title track, "Born This Way", is about how everybody is equal, regardless of skin color, sexuality, or creed, and that every person can fulfill his or her dream. Compared to Madonna's "Express Yourself" by some critics, the song features Euro disco beats. "Government Hooker" contains elements of opera music, and a dance melody resembling genres such as techno, trance, industrial and post-disco, as well as a hip hop-influenced beat. The song has been compared by Los Angeles Times's Randall Roberts to the work of German electronic band Kraftwerk. It is followed by "Judas", which Gaga confirmed to be influenced by the Biblical Judas Iscariot. The song's lyrics are about being betrayed as well as "honoring your darkness in order to bring yourself into the light," according to Gaga. It is a dance-pop and house track, with influences of techno, industrial and disco, a 1980s-inspired pop chorus, as well as a breakdown containing elements of dubstep and techno music.
The album's fifth track is "Americano", a mariachi song with techno, house and disco influences. Written in Spanish and English, Gaga composed "Americano" in response to the Arizona immigration law Arizona SB 1070. Critics have noted vaudevillian elements within the song, and it has been compared to the work of Judy Garland by Billboard, with Gaga claiming that she sees influence from French chanson singer Édith Piaf. "Hair" is a song about expressing freedom through one's hair. The song has a dance-pop melody, yet it has influences from rock/heavy metal music artists like Springsteen, Iron Maiden and Kiss. It has also been noted to incorporate disco and Europop. "Scheiße", contains faux-German lyrics and has a message of feminism, accompanied by a heavy synths, techno beats, as well as Euro disco influences. Dan Martin from NME stated that the song's melody has drawn comparisons to Madonna and electroclash artist Miss Kittin. After "Scheiße" is "Bloody Mary", which is a relatively slow-tempo and dark electropop song containing "plucked strings" and "filthy beats", as well as numerous religious references, a trance-influenced melody, and lyrics infused in French and Spanish. "Bad Kids" contains 1980s synthpop influences and electric guitars. Martin also compared its disco beat to the music of Donna Summer, and noticed that influences of heavy metal music have been found within its composition.
"Highway Unicorn (Road to Love)" is Born This Way's tenth track. A dance-pop song, it has been noted to have Springsteen influences by Rolling Stone's Rosen, as well as powerful drums and synths. The next is "Heavy Metal Lover", a song of electropop and techno tendencies, which has been noted to contain elements of house music, electro-industrial beats, and has been compared to the power pop of the 1990s. Synthesizers are used as a focal point for the song. Following "Heavy Metal Lover" is "Electric Chapel", a heavy metal-influenced pop song noted to contain elements of Europop that has been compared to the work of Madonna by some reviewers. "You and I", is a rock and roll ballad which contains elements of country rock music. The song contains a moderato tempo, and Queen guitarist May is also featured on it. The song, furthermore, samples Queen's 1977 single "We Will Rock You".
The fourteenth track is "The Edge of Glory", which refers to the death of Gaga's grandfather. It is an upbeat song of dance-pop, electronic rock and synthpop tendencies; it also contains a saxophone solo by Clemons which has drawn comparisons to blues music. One of the bonus tracks is "Black Jesus + Amen Fashion", a pop song which draws influences from 1980s and 1990s electronic and club music, including Broadway. "Fashion of His Love" is a 1980s-influenced dance-pop song that contains references to the late fashion designer Alexander McQueen. The last bonus track is "The Queen", a synth-rock song that talks about self-confidence and bravery.
## Release and promotion
On September 12, 2010, Gaga made an appearance at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. During the acceptance speech for her Video of the Year award, she announced the title of the album and sang the chorus of its title track. Described by the singer as "a Christmas gift for my fans", Gaga announced the release dates of the album and its lead single at the stroke of midnight on January 1, 2011, via Twitter, supplementing it with a black-and-white photograph in which MTV detailed that Gaga is "nude from the waist down, with her hair blowing about, and sporting a jacket with the name of the album emblazoned in what looks like bedazzled jewels."
At a November 2010 show of The Monster Ball Tour in Gdańsk, Poland, Gaga announced that the album could have up to twenty tracks, adding that production for the album was coming to a close. In an interview with Vogue in February 2011, she confirmed that there would be a total of seventeen tracks on the album, of which fourteen would make the final cut to the standard edition. The other three songs were initially to be released on an exclusive deluxe edition of the album at Target; however, Gaga later ended her partnership with Target in response to the company's donation of US\$150,000 to the conservative political group Minnesota Forward.
Prior to the release of Born This Way, the contents of the album were leaked online on May 18, 2011, due to an exclusively stream session for subscribers of the British newspaper Metro. Several non-singles songs were previewed as part of promoting Born This Way. Remixes of "Scheiße" and "Government Hooker" were previewed at fashion shows presented by Thierry Mugler in January and March 2011, respectively. Several songs were released on the social network game FarmVille during the next few days prior to the album's release, including "Marry the Night", "Americano", and "Electric Chapel".
On April 17, 2011, Gaga tweeted her selection for the cover art of Born This Way, which featured the singer fused into a motorcycle. Gaga's name does not appear on the album cover – the only text is the chrome writing across the top reading the album's name. She explained, "The cover with me half-female, half-motorcycle is meant to be or symbolic of the fact that I'm endlessly always changing in so transformative, many ways." It was shot and had the artistic direction by photographer Nick Night. The cover received a negative response from critics and fans. Sean Michaels of The Guardian expressed that the cover "[looked] more like a cheap Photoshop job than the most anticipated album of the year." He then commented, "Gone are the futurist sunglasses, the asymmetrical haircuts, even Gaga's newly touted magic horns; instead, a mutant motorbike with Gaga's arms and head, plus a cheesy chrome typeface." He also referenced several messages from fans on Gaga's official forum expressing their dislike for the cover. The special edition cover was released on the same day: it features just Gaga's head from the standard edition cover but the words "Lady Gaga" and "Born This Way" appear in the top left corner of the cover. They are typed in Impact font with "Born This Way" being highlighted in white with black letters. Neither of the words special nor deluxe appear anywhere on the album, as Gaga revealed she disliked them.
Born This Way was formally released worldwide on May 23, 2011, by Interscope, KonLive, and Streamline, in two separate editions. On June 7, 2011, it was released a fan package, including the deluxe version of the CD, LP, and digital download. By August, a collector's edition box set became available with 9 piece 12-inch vinyl picture discs containing all the tracks and a special message from Gaga etched into the vinyl. A mosaic poster was also included. Ultimately, it was released a limited edition box out of three hundred, featuring the same products but with black box on the outside and lined with velvet on the inside and the vinyls wrapped in a red plastic. Interscope also released an USB drive version on October 3, 2011, comprising the album's deluxe set, music videos, a photo gallery, and more contents.
A follow-up remix album, titled Born This Way: The Remix, was released on November 18, 2011. Musically, it is an electronic and dance record; there are also influences of Europop, techno and dubstep within the composition. It had a mixed reception, with the general complaint of critics being that the release was unnecessary. The remix album was also issued as part of box set Born This Way: The Collection, released in the same month, which further included a 17-track version of Born This Way, and the DVD Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden.
### Singles
"Born This Way", the lead single, was released on February 11, 2011. Acknowledged as a "magical message" by Billboard's Jem Aswad, the Gaga and Jeppe Laursen-written song was produced by herself, Laursen, Garibay and DJ White Shadow. It was met with mostly positive reception from critics, who noted the similarities with the Madonna song "Express Yourself". "Born This Way" experienced widespread commercial success, topping the charts in over nineteen countries in addition to selling over a million copies worldwide, becoming the fastest selling song in iTunes history. In her native United States, the song became Gaga's third number one hit, where it spent six weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100. It also became the 1,000th song to reach the number one spot since the inauguration of the chart in 1958. The accompanying music video, directed by Nick Knight, was released on February 28, 2011. In it, Gaga appears with shoulder and facial protrusions and talks about giving birth to an extraterrestrial race that "bears no prejudice, no judgment, but boundless freedom." It was met with generally positive reception among music critics, and was noted by MTV for its references to the work of Madonna, Michael Jackson, Björk, and the late fashion designer Alexander McQueen, as well as to Greek mythology and surrealism.
"Judas" was the album's second single, having been released on April 15, 2011. Critics reacted positively to "Judas", complimenting the song's breakdown, yet noted similarities with "Bad Romance" in its composition. It debuted at number four on the Hot Digital Songs chart with the sale of 162,000 copies while peaking at number ten in the United States, reaching the top ten of twenty countries and peaked at number one on the South Korean charts. The music video for "Judas" was co-directed by Gaga and choreographer Laurieann Gibson, and premiered on May 5, 2011. It includes a motorcycle gang representing the Twelve Apostles, and tells a modernized version of the Biblical story about Judas (portrayed by Norman Reedus) betraying Jesus, in which ends with Gaga as Mary Magdalene getting stoned to death. The video was generally praised by critics, and received two nominations at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards.
The release of the album was preceded by two promotional singles – "The Edge of Glory" on May 9, and "Hair" on May 16, 2011. "The Edge of Glory" became a success in digital stores, prompting Gaga to make it the third single from Born This Way on May 11, 2011. It was praised by many critics, who deemed it as an album highlight. The song's points of positive reception include the saxophone solo provided by Clemons, the underlying message and Gaga's "throaty" and "soulful" vocals. It charted in the top ten of nineteen countries and became Gaga's tenth consecutive top-ten single in the United States, debuting at number three on the Billboard Hot 100. A music video for the song premiered on June 16, 2011, co-directed by the singer and her production team, Haus of Gaga. It portrays Gaga dancing on a fire-escape and walking on a lonely street, with scenes featuring Clemons. This was his final appearance before he died. Critics highlighted the video for its simplicity in contrast to much of Gaga's past work.
"You and I", the album's fourth single, was also met with positive critical reaction that complimented the musical composition of the song. The song became Gaga's eleventh consecutive top ten single in the United States, peaking at number six on the Billboard Hot 100. The single has received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance. The accompanying music video was also positively received. It was shot by Laurieann Gibson in Springfield, Nebraska, and was released on August 16, 2011. It features Yüyi, Gaga's mermaid alter ego, Jo Calderone, Gaga's male alter ego, and Gaga playing on a piano in the middle of a corn field.
"Marry the Night" served as the fifth (and at the time final) single from Born This Way. Critical reception towards the song was positive, with reviewers calling it a strong dance-pop number. It charted in fifteen different countries including the United States, where it peaked at number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100. The accompanying music video received critical acclaim as well, being noted by some critics as a "pure spectacle" and as one of Gaga's "biggest epics". It features scenes in a clinic, a dance studio, Gaga's own New York apartment and on a car's rooftop at a parking lot. "Stuck on Fuckin' You", an outtake from the album, was released as a free YouTube stream on Christmas Day 2011 and thereafter as a free download.
In 2022, "Bloody Mary" went viral after being used in videos on TikTok, depicting Wednesday Addams' dance from the Netflix comedy horror series Wednesday and its fan recreations. This resulted in a large increase in plays on Spotify. In December 2022, it was sent to French and Italian radio as a single, while in January 2023 to US pop radio. The sped-up version of "Bloody Mary" is featured in the teaser trailer for the second season of Wednesday.
### Live performances
The first song from Born This Way performed by Gaga live was "You and I", at the 2010 White Tie & Tiara Ball at Elton John's house, on Today at Rockefeller Center in New York, and during The Monster Ball Tour. In 2011, she embarked on promotional tours and live performances for Born This Way in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. It began with a live performance of the album's lead single at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. On April 28, Gaga performed "Judas" for the first time on Ellen. "Born This Way" and "You and I" was also sung on Oprah on May 6. After her Grammy performance, on February 2011, Gaga added "Born This Way" to the setlist of The Monster Ball Tour, where she performed it as a second encore, in a very similar outfit and choreography as on the awards show. In May, she finished The Monster Ball Tour with concerts in Mexico, where she premiered "Americano" by performing the song on the piano, and closed it with a performance of "Judas".
After finishing the tour, Gaga performed on the Robin Hood Gala 2011 in New York on May 9. In Europe, she sang "Judas" at the French show Le Grand Journal (May 12), "Born This Way" and "Judas" on The Graham Norton Show (May 13), and "Born This Way" and "You and I" during the private concert at Annabel's for Belvedere Vodka (May 12). On May 15, she headlined BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend festival, where she sang "The Edge of Glory" for the first time. After returning to the United States, Gaga sang the first three singles from Born This Way on the season 36 finale of Saturday Night Live (May 21) and "The Edge of Glory" on the final show of the tenth season of American Idol (May 25), where she was joined by Clemons in person. On May 27, she held a concert for Good Morning America at Central Park, where she performed the first three singles from Born This Way and, for the first time, "Hair". Another journey to Europe in June included performances on the season 6 finale of Germany's Next Topmodel, British TV show Paul O'Grady Live, the EuroPride 2011 in Rome, as well as some French shows such as Taratata, X Factor, and Le Grand Journal again. More performances of "The Edge of Glory" and "Born This Way" were held during the 2011 MuchMusic Video Awards in Toronto on June 19 and the 2011 MTV Video Music Aid Japan on June 25. Afterwards, Gaga performed on Japanese shows SMAP×SMAP and Music Lovers, before playing concerts in Taichung (July 3), Singapore (July 7), and at the Sydney Town Hall in Sydney (July 13). In the latter, she also performed on TV show A Current Affair on July 11.
Gaga came back to the United States and performed on The Howard Stern Show (July 18), as well as So You Think You Can Dance (July 27), Jimmy Kimmel Live! (July 28), and The View (August 1). On August 28, she sang "You and I" at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards where she was joined onstage by May, while on September 24, she headlined the 2011 iHeartRadio Music Festival at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas. Another performance came in October on British TV show Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, during the Clinton Foundation concert at the Hollywood Bowl, and on the F1 Rocks after party in India, where "Marry the Night" was sung for the first time. Gaga's next performances were at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards held in Belfast, British TV shows The X Factor and Alan Carr: Chatty Man, Children in Need Rocks Manchester telethon in Manchester, and the 2012 Grammy Awards nomination concert in Los Angeles. Songs from the album were also performed on a Thanksgiving television special A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, aired on November 24. Gaga also headlined KIIS-FM Jingle Ball at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles on December 3, as well as Z100's Jingle Ball at Madison Square Garden in New York City on December 9. She also sang on Ellen once again and the Japanese show Music Station. The promotions for Born This Way continued with the performance of "Heavy Metal Lover", "Marry the Night" and the title track on the Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve in Times Square.
### Tour
In April 2012, Gaga embarked on the Born This Way Ball, her worldwide tour promoting the album, which had 98 dates overall. She visited parts of the world she had not been on tour before, including Southeast Asia, Latin America, and South Africa. The singer described the tour as an "electro-metal pop-opera". The stage was modeled after a medieval Gothic castle, featuring viewing towers, intricate carvings and a large catwalk to interact with the audience. During the tour, all of the songs from the album were performed.
The Born This Way Ball was well received by critics who praised the stage design, the costumes, Gaga's vocal abilities, and different expressive messages. It was also a commercial success, grossing \$183.9 million overall, although, because of a hip injury, Gaga had to cancel the last North American leg of the tour.
## Critical reception
Born This Way received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 71, based on 34 reviews. Dan Martin of NME said that "it's a damn good thing" that Gaga "doesn't know when to hold back" and complimented her for pushing musical boundaries to its "ultimate degree." Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine opined, "There's nothing small about this album, and Gaga sings the shit out of every single track." Cinquemani compared the album to The Killers' album Sam's Town (2006), calling it "bloated, self-important, proudly American, an exercise in extraordinary excess." Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield felt that "the more excessive Gaga gets, the more honest she sounds." Caryn Ganz of Spin felt that "excess is Gaga's riskiest musical gamble, but it's also her greatest weapon, and Born This Way relentlessly bludgeons listeners' pleasure centres". Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly said it is "rewarding but wildly uneven", although "the album's sprawl still shows off the breadth of her talent." Despite criticizing her for "letting her skills as a songwriter slide ever so slightly," AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine complimented Gaga's composing "sensibility" and "considerable dexterity at delivering the basics." In MSN Music, Robert Christgau viewed the album to not be on-par with The Fame (2008) or The Fame Monster (2009), but added that "both of those keep growing, and with its mad momentum and nutty thematics, this one could too."
In a mixed review, Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt it was rushed and sounded like "a major artist sprinting to please everyone all the time." Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called it "her weakest album to date" and wrote that it combines "some daring songwriting with some remarkably repetitive themes and beats." Writing for The Washington Post, Chris Richards found the album "boring" and said that, "at its worst, it sounds like reheated leftovers from some '80s movie soundtrack." Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times opined that Gaga lacks musical adventurousness and that "She's unsubtle in her message, unsubtle in her dress, and, most important, unsubtle aesthetically ... If Gaga had only spent as much time on pushing musical boundaries as she has social ones, Born This Way would have been a lot more successful." Andy Gill of The Independent critiqued that "the broader [Gaga] spreads her net musically, the less distinctive her art becomes." The Boston Globe said that the songwriting "feels thin" and called the album "the most deflated moment in pop music this year". The Village Voice's Rich Juzwiak commented that Gaga's "we-shall-overcome sentiment" is expressed more effectively through the album's "egalitarian use of house beats" than through her "sloganeering", which he found "trite" and "[un]insightful."
## Commercial performance
Born This Way debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 after having sold 1,108,000 copies during the first week, making it the seventeenth album to sell over a million copies in one week. Born This Way was Gaga's first number-one album and the highest first-week total since 50 Cent's The Massacre (2005) sold 1,141,000 in its first week. Gaga was the fifth woman to sell one million copies in a week, after Whitney Houston (The Bodyguard Soundtrack, 1992), Britney Spears (Oops!...I Did It Again, 2000), Norah Jones (Feels Like Home, 2004), and Taylor Swift (Speak Now, 2010). Amazon sold an estimated 440,000 copies in its first two days at a price of 99 cents (at a loss of over \$3 million) which contributed to its 662,000 digital sales, the largest in Nielsen SoundScan history. Digital downloads accounted for 60 percent of Born This Way's first week total. The album had been cited as the reason Billboard instituted a policy of only including sales priced over \$3.49 during an album's first four weeks. The album also became the eighth best-selling digital album in United States history after its first week of sales. Born This Way also reached number one on the Dance/Electronic Albums chart, displacing The Fame (2008). In its second week, the album sold 174,000 copies to remain at the top spot on the Billboard 200, but with a sales decrease of 84.27%, set the record for the largest second-week percentage sales drop for a number-one debuting album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991. Digitally, the album had a 94% drop, selling 38,000 copies. In its third week the album fell to number two being displaced by Adele's 21 (2011) with 42% sales decrease after having sold 100,000 copies. Born This Way became the third-best-selling album of the year in the United States, with sales of 2,101,000 copies. It is also the fifth best-selling digital album of all time in the United States, with 877,000 copies sold, as of January 2012. The album received quadruple platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and has sold 2.43 million copies in total in the US as of March 2019. Following Gaga's Super Bowl LI halftime show performance, Born This Way re-entered the Billboard 200 at number 25, selling 17,000 total album-equivalent units. In September 2021, due to the release of the CD and cassette editions of the album's special tenth anniversary reissue, it re-entered the Billboard 200 and Top Album Sales charts at numbers 162 and 10, respectively, selling 5,000 copies—all versions of Born This Way were combined and nearly all of the sum was provided by CD sales.
The album debuted at the top spot in Australia, becoming her second number-one album there after The Fame Monster (2009). Born This Way was certified platinum in Australia in its first week by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and has since been certified double platinum for a shipment of 140,000 copies. Born This Way also debuted at the top spot on the New Zealand Albums Chart, becoming her second album to chart there, after The Fame Monster. The album was certified platinum in its first week of sales. Born This Way sold 184,000 copies in its first week in Japan, and debuted atop the Oricon chart. It had been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipment of 750,000 copies. Born This Way was the fourth best-selling album of the year in Japan, with sales of 658,554 copies.
In the United Kingdom, Born This Way debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart dated May 29, 2011, selling 215,639 units, which was the highest first-week sales of the year. That week, the album outsold the rest of the top 10 combined and had the best first-week tally of any album by an American female solo artist since Madonna's Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted with sales of 217,610 copies in 2005. As of May 2021, Born This Way had been certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), selling a total of 1.05 million copies in the UK. The album debuted at number one in Ireland, and Sweden, while debuting at number two in Finland where it was the fifth-best-selling album of 2011. In France, Born This Way debuted at number one on the French Albums Chart and held that spot for two weeks. As of June 2023, the album has sold 237,000 copies and has been certified double-platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP).
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Born This Way was the third global best-selling album of 2011. As of 2021, Born This Way had more than 5.8 billion global streams, 5.2 million physical copies sold, and 31 million digital tracks sold.
## Accolades
Born This Way was included in several year-end lists by music critics and publications. Rolling Stone, in their list of the 50 Best Albums of 2011, ranked it at sixth place, writing "none of Gaga's previous exercises in musical plussizing prepared us for this kind of anything-goes extravagance". The Guardian, in their list of the best albums of 2011, listed Born This Way at 31st. Slant Magazine ranked the album as the third best of 2011 in their list of The 25 Best Albums of 2011, calling it a "magnum opus", and describing it as a "sincere ode to the bedazzled hearts of outsiders past and present". Furthermore, MTV ranked it as the tenth best album of 2011, claiming it is the "first multi-national, multi-hyphenate, multi-sexual pop album of our time", and called it "her grandest mission statement to date". Claiming that through the album, Gaga "thinks pop can still move policy, and she might be right", and describing the record as the "biggest pop album" of 2011, Spin listed Born This Way as the 29th best album of the year, as well as the best pop album of the year. Digital Spy included Born This Way in their 25 Best Albums of 2011 list, at fifth place, while the Daily Record ranked it at seventeenth out of twenty, commenting on Gaga having gone "full-scale European underground electro disco".
Aside from critic polls, the album received Grammy Award nominations for the 54th Annual Grammy Awards in 2012, including Album of the Year, Best Pop Album and Best Pop Solo Performance ("You and I"). Being her third consecutive Grammy nomination for Album of the Year, Gaga is the first artist since British rock band The Beatles to receive three consecutive nominations in the category. Additionally, the album was nominated in the category of Favorite Pop/Rock Album at the American Music Awards of 2011, losing to Adele's 21. However, Born This Way beat out 21 at the 38th People's Choice Awards, taking home Favorite Album. At the 2012 Japan Gold Disc Awards, Born This Way won Western Album of the Year and Best 3 Western Albums. In 2012, Rolling Stones called Born This Way the 11th greatest album of all time by a female artist. The same publication later included it in their 2020 update of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, on the 484th spot. The album was ranked number 1 on NME's list of The 10 Most Pretentious Albums Ever.
## Impact
Born This Way's themes of acceptance, sexual orientation, gender identity and intersectional feminism have been of discussion for the past decade (2010s). Nicole Froio from Harper's Bazaar stated that "Born This Way marked a new era of queer music and performance." She argued that the album is "a pop record, but also a manifestation [...] of queer self-discovery," where Gaga explores her life events "through queer lens", opting for a "transcendent rather than static version of the truth". She also marked the album's "musical transgressions" —pop, opera, heavy metal, disco, house, and rock and roll— as "attractive to a queer audience," further explaining that "this kind of pop music is an artistic expression of certain aspects of queerness, a kind of expression that says, 'We can go beyond these tired boundaries we were taught are right'." James Rettig from Stereogum said that Gaga "wanted [her legacy] to be one of acceptance, specifically for the LGBTQ community" and described the album as "a beacon of hope for so many". R.S. from Vulture opined that "with Born This Way, Gaga chose to recast pop as a safe space for vulnerable, misfit, queer kids to find their individuality and reinvent the world in their image."
In an interview with Billboard, Gaga said "I want to write my this-is-who-the-fuck-I-am anthem, but I don't want it to be hidden in poetic wizardry and metaphors," in regards to the literal, straightforward style of the album's lyricism. "I want it to be an attack, an assault on the issue, because I think, especially in today's music, everything gets kind of washy sometimes and the message gets hidden in the lyrical play." Spencer Kornhaber from The Atlantic agreed with Gaga's claims and argued that "queerness became more visible than ever". He described "Barack Obama's first years in office" as a "renewed period of forthright political engagement," while linking the release of Born This Way with the creation of the MTV Video Music Award for Best Video with a Message in 2011, of which "Born This Way" was its first winner. Christopher Rosa from Glamour compared the title track to gay anthems such as Christina Aguilera's "Beautiful" and Katy Perry's "Firework", arguing that "they weren't lyrically explicit" and that anyone could relate to them regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity, unlike "Born This Way", "a song specifically for LGBTQ people [...] that came at a time when discussions about gay teen suicide were reaching all-time highs." Writing a retrospective of events after the album's release after five years, Jake Hall form Dazed called Born This Way a "misunderstood masterpiece", complimenting its "deliberately literal lyrics" in songs such as "Heavy Metal Lover", "Hair" and "Scheiße". Noticing that it "represents the point in Gaga's career when she deliberately stopped studying her own fame and tried to use it to further her own message", he claimed Born This Way as her "most ambitious musical project to date." Marni Zipper from Audacy stated that the album "cemented the singer as a cultural, musical and fashion icon," while also claiming that its campaign, specifically the music video for "Judas", "[distorted] how Popstars ultimately used fashion to express 'eras' in music." Born This Way has also been noted for bringing electronic dance music into the mainstream.
In May 2021, the City of West Hollywood declared May 23 as the Born This Way Day in recognition of the album's cultural impact. A street painting of the album's title and Daniel Quasar's re-designed version of the gay flag (which includes trans and queer people of color) has been made on Robertson Boulevard, while the key of the city was awarded to Gaga. Mayor Lindsey P. Horvath said Gaga "has become a cultural icon for our generation [...] through her music and activism," and also thanked her for "encouraging us to love ourselves and be proud." Gaga attended the ceremony wearing a Born This Way t-shirt from her own collection and thanked the LGBT community for "[being] the motherfucking key to my heart for a long time [...] I'll honor this and I'll cherish this, and I promise that I'll always be here for this day to celebrate with you." In September 2021, during a marketing campaign, Spotify sponsored nine highways across the United States and named them after iconic songs with billboards, in which they included "Highway Unicorn (Road To Love)" in New York City. On December 13, 2022, after Joe Biden, the president of the United States, signed the Respect for Marriage Act into law at the White House, "Born This Way" started playing immediately as planned.
### Religious criticism controversy
Several religious groups have condemned the album for its incorporation of several religious icons of Christianity and its stance on sexuality. In Lebanon, Born This Way was temporarily banned by the General Secretary Department, who deemed the album to be in bad taste and mocking of Christianity. Abdo Abu Kassm, director of the Catholic Information Center of Lebanon, highly criticized the themes of the album, expressing that "if they are going to offend us we are going to cancel the album." He continued, "We will not accept that anyone insult the Virgin Mary or Jesus or Christianity [...]. Call us traditional, call us backward, call us whatever you want. We will not accept it." This ban lasted up until June 9.
The music video of "Judas" was criticized by William Anthony Donohue, the president of the Catholic League, notably for Gaga's portrayal of Mary Magdalene. In an interview with HollywoodLife.com, Donohue expressed discontent towards Gaga's focus on Judas and Mary Magdalene, calling her "increasingly irrelevant" compared to people with "real talent", and attacked her for seemingly purposefully debuting the song and video close to Holy Week and Easter. Shortly after its release, "Judas" was banned in Lebanon. In Malaysia, where homosexuality is considered a criminal offense, the government criticized the album for its stance on sexuality and feminism. Shortly after the release of the title track, radio stations across the country edited out several lyrics of the song as ordered by the Malaysian government. Rosnah Ismail, the vice-chancellor of Universiti Malaysia Sabah, condemned the song, opining, "Islam forbids this. We have to abide by the country's laws."
## Track listing
Notes
- signifies a co-producer
- "You and I" contains elements from "We Will Rock You" recorded by Queen and written by Brian May.
## Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Born This Way.
Musicians
- Lady Gaga – lead vocals (all tracks), background vocals (1, 3–5 8, 10–13, 16, 17); keyboards (2, 9, 10, 15, 17); instrumentation, arranger (2)
- Fernando Garibay – background vocals, guitar (5); keyboards (1–3, 5, 8, 10–13, 15, 17); instrumentation, arranger (2, 5);
- Paul Blair aka DJ White Shadow – keyboards (3, 8–10, 14); guitar (3)
- RedOne – background vocals (4, 6); instrumentation (4, 6, 7)
- DJ Snake – keyboards, drums, bass (3)
- Robert John "Mutt" Lange – background vocals (1, 6)
- Clarence Clemons – saxophone (5, 17)
- Brian May – guitar (16)
- Kareem "Jesus" Devlin – guitar (3, 14, 15, 17)
- Brian Lee – background vocals (3)
- Peter Van Der Veen – background vocals (3)
- Cheche Alara – instrumentation, arranger (5)
- Mario Hernandez – guitarron, vihuela (5)
- Andy Abad – requinto (5)
- Suemy Gonzales – violin (5)
- Julio Hernandez – violin (5)
- Harry Kim – trumpet (5)
- Jorge Alavrez – background vocals (5)
- David Gomez – background vocals (5)
- Carlos Murguía – background vocals (5)
- Trevor Muzzy – guitar (6)
- Clinton Sparks – keyboards (8)
- Brian Gaynor – bass, keyboards (9, 14); drums, guitar, percussion (9)
Production
- Lady Gaga – songwriting, production, musical direction (all tracks)
- Fernando Garibay – songwriting (1, 3, 5, 8, 10–13, 15, 17); production (1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 11–13, 15, 17); co-production (3, 8); programming (1–3, 5, 8, 10–13, 15, 17); engineer (3, 12); musical direction (all tracks)
- Paul Balir aka DJ White Shadow – songwriting (3, 5, 8–10, 12, 14, 17); production, programming (2, 3, 5, 8–10, 12, 14); drum programming (1, 17)
- RedOne – songwriting, production (4, 6, 7, 12); programming, engineer, vocal editing, vocal arrangement (4, 6, 7)
- Jeppe Laursen – songwriting, production (2, 10)
- Robert John "Mutt" Lange – production (16)
- DJ Snake – co-production (3)
- Cheche Alara – songwriting (5)
- Dave Russell – engineer (1, 2, 4, 5, 8–15, 17); mixing (1–3, 5, 8–15, 17)
- Eric Morris – assistant (1, 12)
- Paul Pavao – assistant (1, 3, 5, 8–13, 15)
- Gene Grimaldi – mastering (all tracks)
- Peter Hutchings – assistant (2)
- Kenta Yonesaka – assistant (2, 17)
- Bill Malina – engineer (3)
- Trevor Muzzy – engineer, mixing, vocal editing (4, 6, 7)
- Christina Abaroa – copyist, librarian, music preparation (5)
- Rafa Sardina – engineer, mixing (5)
- Clinton Sparks – co-production (8)
- Kamau Georges – programming (8)
- Jordan Power – assistant (8)
- Brian Gaynor – programming (9)
- Anna Webster – assistant (10, 11)
- Phillip Knight – assistant (14)
- George Tandero – assistant (15, 17)
- Ken Knapstad – assistant (15, 17)
- Kevin Porter – assistant (17)
- Al Carlson – assistant (17)
- Olle Romo – engineer, programming (16)
- Horace Ward – engineer (16)
- Tom Ware – engineer (16)
- Justin Shirley-Smith – guitar engineer (16)
Managerial
- Vincent Herbert – A&R, executive producer
- Troy Carter – management
- Wendi Morris – management
- Bobby Campbell – marketing
- Dyana Kass – marketing
- Jurgen Grebner – International promotion
- Tomoko Itoki – International promotion
- Brett Bracy – International promotion
- Amanda Silverman – publicity
- Erika Savage – business affair
- Kenneth R. Meiselas – legal
- Jennifer Paola – A&R
Visuals and design
- Nicola Formichetti – creation, fashion direction
- Nick Knight – creation, photography
- Laurieann Gibson – creation
- Todd Tourso – creation
- Gretchen Anderson – art production
- Lisa Einhorn-Gilder – production coordination
- Anna Trevelyan – stylist
- Brandon Maxwell – stylist
- Sam McKnight – hair stylist
- Val Garland – make-up
- Marian Newman – nails
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Decade-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Born This Way The Tenth Anniversary
Born This Way The Tenth Anniversary, also referred to as Born This Way Reimagined, is the re-issue of American singer Lady Gaga's second studio album Born This Way (2011). Released on June 25, 2021, by Interscope, it features "six reimaginings of the album's songs by artists representing and advocating for the LGBTQIA+ community."
### Background and release
On May 28, 2021, five days after the album's tenth anniversary, Gaga announced Born This Way The Tenth Anniversary. She originally announced that the reissue would be released on June 18, however, it was delayed by a week due to unknown reasons. The album was officially released on June 25, 2021 through streaming and digital download, while on CD and cassette on September 3, 2021. Its LP version became available on December 10, 2021.
The Tenth Anniversary version includes the album's original 14 tracks and an additional disc with six covers by artists representative of the LGBT community. A rendition of "Judas" by American rapper Big Freedia was released as the first single on May 28, 2021. Exclusive merchandise celebrating the album's tenth anniversary was also announced. Three more singles were released prior the album's debut, "Born This Way" (The Country Road Version) by Orville Peck on June 4, "Marry the Night" by Kylie Minogue on June 11, and "The Edge of Glory" by Years & Years on June 22. On June 8, Gaga's beauty brand, Haus Labs, launched the Bad Kid Vault, a limited-edition makeup box set including 16 products.
### Critical reception
Writing for Pitchfork, Owen Myers praised the album with a rating of 7.9 out of 10. He called it "an enormous, bravura flex of electronic pop", while stating that "on her best front-to-back album, Gaga belts each crushing hook with every fiber of her chest, with personal pain turned into placard-ready manifestos. She sings like she's making a blood pact." Mike Wass of Variety thought The Tenth Anniversary's bonus disc "sounds a little scattershot", and opined that it was a missed opportunity to include new versions of album tracks "Bad Kids" and "Government Hooker". He added that "where the reissue really succeeds is in reminding us that great pop music challenges the status quo and shines a light on broader issues."
### Track listing
CD and digital versions contain the 14-track version of the album, whereas LP versions contain the 17 track version.
|
8,231,466 |
Blind Date (30 Rock)
| 1,053,515,298 | null |
[
"2006 American television episodes",
"30 Rock (season 1) episodes"
] |
"Blind Date" is the third episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock. It was written by co-executive producer John Riggi and directed by Adam Bernstein. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 25, 2006. Guest stars in this episode include Brett Baer, Katrina Bowden, Kevin Brown, Grizz Chapman, John Lutz, Stephanie March, Maulik Pancholy, Keith Powell, and Lonny Ross.
The episode focuses on Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) setting up Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) on a blind date with a friend of his (March). At the same time, Jack infiltrates the TGS with Tracy Jordan writers'—Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit), Josh Girard (Ross), Frank Rossitano (Judah Friedlander), James "Toofer" Spurlock (Powell), and J. D. Lutz (Lutz)—weekly poker game and starts winning hands until NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) joins in and proves to be a surprisingly adept player.
"Blind Date" has received generally positive reviews from television critics. According to the Nielsen ratings system, the episode was watched by 6.01 million viewers during its original broadcast, and received a 2.2 rating/6 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic. "Blind Date" was nominated for Outstanding Individual Episode (in a series without a regular gay character) at the 18th GLAAD Media Awards.
## Plot
Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) is concerned that Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) is stressed and underperforming as the head writer of TGS with Tracy Jordan because of a lack of human contact. He suggests that she go on a date with his friend "Thomas", which she initially refuses. When she almost chokes to death alone in her apartment that night, an action that Jack had foreshadowed as "a single woman's biggest worry," she changes her mind. She meets her date in a restaurant and finds that Jack has set her up with Gretchen Thomas (Stephanie March), a lesbian. Although Liz and Gretchen have great chemistry, Gretchen is not interested in chasing after a "straight girl". The next day, Liz chastises Jack for thinking she was a lesbian. At night, Liz gets lonely and calls Gretchen. After sharing their fears as single women, they go to dinner. There, Gretchen expresses that she feels she is starting to chase the "straight girl" and says they should stop seeing each other. Liz attempts to make a pact that they get back together after 25 years and start a relationship then if they are both still single, but Gretchen walks away.
At the same time, poker night is a Thursday night tradition among Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit), Josh Girard (Lonny Ross), Frank Rossitano (Judah Friedlander), James "Toofer" Spurlock (Keith Powell), and J. D. Lutz (John Lutz), the TGS staff. Jack and Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) join them for the first time. Jack is able to read and defeat all of the other players, except for NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer), who wins the final hand. The next day, Jack sets up another poker night. Eventually, Jack and Kenneth come down to the final hand. Jack has more chips and goes all-in. He offers to make the hand winner-take-all if Kenneth bets his page jacket. Kenneth agrees, and Jack's pair of twos beats Kenneth's king high. Liz asks why Kenneth would bet on a hand like that, and he responds that he enjoys living on the edge and was also confused about the rules. Jack stops Kenneth from leaving, explains that he only made Kenneth bet his job to prove his power over him, and returns the jacket to Kenneth with the expectation that he come in early on Monday.
## Production
"Blind Date" was written by co-executive producer John Riggi and was directed by supervising producer Adam Bernstein. This episode originally aired on October 25, 2006, on NBC as the third episode of the show's first season. This episode featured a guest appearance from actress Stephanie March, who played Gretchen Thomas. That season's co-executive producer Brett Baer had a brief appearance in "Blind Date" as a man who hits on Liz after Gretchen leaves.
One filmed scene from "Blind Date" was cut out from the airing. Instead, the scene was featured on 30 Rock's season 1 DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature. In the scene, Pete comes to Liz's office and tells her about how Jack set-up the TGS stage in which they can play poker. Liz asks him if it would be all right if she brings Gretchen to the poker game.
Towards the end of the episode Jack declares about Kenneth; "in five years we'll all either be working for him, or dead by his hand". This inadvertently foreshadows the events of Season 7 when Jack personally chooses Kenneth to be his replacement as the head of NBC.
## Reception
According to the Nielsen ratings system, "Blind Date" was viewed by 6.01 million viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States. It earned a 2.2 rating/6 share in the 18–49 demographic. This means that it was seen by 2.2 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 6 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This was an increase from the previous episode, "The Aftermath", as it was watched by 5.7 million American viewers. This episode was the 72nd most watched episode of the week. "Blind Date" was nominated at the 18th GLAAD Media Awards for Outstanding Individual Episode (in a series without a regular gay character), but lost to the Grey's Anatomy episode "Where the Boys Are".
Since airing, the episode has received generally positive reviews. It is often considered to be a turning point in the series, where the show found its footing and could start living up its potential. Robert Canning of IGN praised the episode for "playing to its strengths", and focusing on the series "most fully realized characters", Liz and Jack. He pointed out that Tracy had "leveled off significantly from his constant high", making him "funnier in the process". Canning also enjoyed Kenneth's increased screen time and the lack of the Jenna Maroney character, played by Jane Krakowski. A television reviewer for the Chicago Tribune noted that the scenes between Jack and Liz are always "a treat" and enjoyed the scene in this episode in which Liz chastises Jack for thinking she was a lesbian. The reviewer also added that Judah Friedlander, Keith Powell, and Scott Adsit, who play Frank, Toofer, and Pete, respectively, "haven't been given enough to do", and hoped that the show would produce funny moments from the writers' room. Sarah Warn of AfterEllen.com felt that for a single-episode lesbian sitcom character, Gretchen was "one of the best we've seen". Warn also enjoyed the episode itself, calling it "one of the funniest sitcom episodes I've seen so far this season". Kevin D. Thompson of The Palm Beach Post noted that "Blind Date" was one of the "show's funniest episodes". A reviewer from the Richmond Times-Dispatch also praised the episode, citing that it was "one of the show's best."
|
759,257 |
M-103 (Michigan highway)
| 1,167,281,743 |
State highway in St. Joseph County, Michigan, United States
|
[
"State highways in Michigan",
"Transportation in St. Joseph County, Michigan"
] |
M-103 is a state trunkline highway entirely within St. Joseph County in the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Michigan. The trunkline runs between U.S. Highway 12 (US 12) in Mottville and the Indiana state line along undivided highway near the St. Joseph River. With the connection to State Road 15 (SR 15), it provides access to the Indiana Toll Road. The current highway is the second to carry the number; the first version of M-103 has been incorporated into the routing of US 131.
## Route description
M-103 is the continuation of SR 15 in Michigan. It starts at State Line Road which runs along the state line east from M-103. From here north to the terminus in Mottville, M-103 parallels the St. Joseph River running through farmlands. South of town, it runs past the Mottville Township Cemetery. Between John and Water streets, M-103 intersects and ends at US 12. The highway has not been listed on the National Highway System, a system of roads important to the country's economy, defense and mobility.
The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) tracks traffic volumes along the roads it maintains. These volumes are expressed as the average annual daily traffic (AADT), which is a measurement of the number of vehicles on a stretch of roadway for any average day of the year. For the 2008 survey, traffic volume was 3,604 vehicles per day, with 437 commercial vehicles in the tally. In 2009, the numbers increased to 8,252 vehicles total and 1287 commercial vehicles.
## History
M-103 was first designated as a state trunkline in 1932. The first version ran from SR 13 at the state line northerly to the junction with US 112 and US 131 in White Pigeon. At the time, US 131 turned westerly along US 112 before turning south to connect with SR 15. This first version of M-103 was completed paved by 1934. The routings of US 131 and M-103 were swapped south of US 12 (successor to US 112) by 1960. Since that time, M-103 has been routed between US 12 and SR 15 in western Mottville Township and US 131 has run due south of White Pigeon to SR 13.
## Major intersections
## See also
|
61,048,438 |
On Her Shoulders
| 1,154,325,438 |
2018 documentary film, directed by Alexandria Bombach
|
[
"2010s American films",
"2010s Arabic-language films",
"2010s English-language films",
"2018 documentary films",
"2018 multilingual films",
"American documentary films",
"American multilingual films",
"Documentary films about women",
"Films scored by Patrick Jonsson"
] |
On Her Shoulders is a 2018 American documentary film. It was directed by Alexandria Bombach and produced by Hayley Pappas, Brock Williams and Elizabeth Schaeffer Brown under the banner of RYOT Films. The film follows Iraqi Yazidi human rights activist Nadia Murad on her three-month tour of Berlin, New York, and Canada, as she met with politicians and journalists to alert the world to the massacres and kidnapping happening in her native land. In 2014, at the age of 19, Murad had been kidnapped with hundreds of other women and girls by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) and held as a sex slave; she managed to escape. Also appearing in the film are Barack Obama, Ban Ki-moon, Murad Ismael, Simone Monasebian, Michelle Rempel, Borys Wrzesnewskyj, Ahmed Khudida Burjus, Amal Clooney, and Luis Moreno Ocampo.
The film was released on 20 January 2018 at the Sundance Film Festival, where it won the Documentary Directing Award and the Grand Jury Prize. It received positive critical reviews.
## Background
In August 2014, Nadia Murad, aged 19, was captured by ISIS in Iraq along with hundreds of other Yazidi men and women. She and other young women were taken to Mosul, where they were held as sex slaves. Murad later told Time: "I did not want to kill myself – but I wanted them to kill me". In November 2014, she was able to escape after her captors left a door open, and ran away to safety. After the escape, she was transported to a refugee camp.
## Cast
- Nadia Murad
- Murad Ismael
- Simone Monasebian
- Michelle Rempel
- Borys Wrzesnewskyj
- Ahmed Khudida Burjus
- Amal Clooney
- Luis Moreno Ocampo
- Barack Obama
- Ki-moon Ban
## Production
### Development
RYOT FILMS was introduced to Nadia Murad by the Former ICC Prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo and Entrepreneur Elizabeth Schaeffer Brown, who initiated a campaign to bring ISIS to the ICC. In 2015, film director Alexandria Bombach first heard about Murad, after seeing her UN Security Council speech. In July 2016, RYOT Films reached out to Bombach to direct a short film about Murad. Bombach met Murad two weeks later and, after meeting her, she wanted to put her in a feature film "to not only do justice to her story", but also because "[they] were the only ones with the access [to Murad] and so it felt like a huge responsibility to bring justice to it and bring nuance to the issue and to her story". Bombach had to be careful about what she said to the financial staff at RYOT Films, however, as the film company wanted her to produce a short profile, not a feature film.
### Filming
Bombach began filming Murad in 2016. Principal photography took place in Berlin, New York, and Canada over a period of three months, as the crew followed Murad around on her meetings with politicians and journalists in an effort to alert the world to the massacres and kidnapping going on in her native land, in addition the director had no idea what was going to happen day to day.
Bombach said this was the hardest film she had ever made. She added: "It was like losing some humanity myself by not putting the camera down and being able to hug this person". Whilst filming, Bombach recalls, "I had a mic on Nadia for a lot of the time and I was on a long lens, so I was hearing what people were saying to her. Sometimes I wanted to push those people away from her. She never reacted in a way where she seemed frustrated or angry or upset with anyone. She was just so consistently gracious and patient with everyone".
### Editing
Before beginning editing, Bombach received a Skype call from RYOT to confirm that she would be producing a short profile of Murad, and Bombach said she lied to them. She spent the next six weeks editing the film in her parents' garage in Santa Fe, New Mexico. She hired translators to join the editing crew who were familiar with Murad's native language of Kurdish Kurmanji, and worked together with her assistant editor, Michael Bucuzzo; a transcriber, Frank Quatrone; and two translators.
After finishing the editing of the 95-minute film, Bombach called Bryn Mooser, CEO of RYOT Films; she recalls being terrified to confess that she had made a feature film. The phone call lasted about an hour, and in the end, Mooser said yes to a feature film. After receiving the CEO's approval, the editing group did not send the film to the spring film festivals so they could spend more time polishing the editing.
## Release
### Critical reception
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "On Her Shoulders traces one woman's incredible journey to offer an inside look at modern political advocacy – and a challenge to viewers yearning to [sic] effect their own change." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 84 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "Universal acclaim".
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian said that On Her Shoulders raises significant questions, asking: "has our compassion on international human rights become Malala-ised?" Nell Minow of RogerEbert.com wrote that the director understands that with Murad there are two stories to handle; the first an inspiring story of a young woman who had no goals of becoming a world figure, and the second of the same young woman who is forced to relive her painful experience regularly. David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a 'B+' grade and said that the film is successful in truly informing the audience about the Yazidi genocide. Comparatively, Nigel Andrews of Financial Times wrote that On Her Shoulders is close to awful, and Pat Mullen of P.O.V. said that while the film deserves some attention it feels like "dismissal of her story".
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described the film as an "intimate, empathetic, made with discretion and power"; Ed Gibbs of Little White Lies and Jay Weissberg for Variety agreed, saying that it is heartbreaking and powerful. Roger Moore of Movie Nation wrote that Murad's speeches in the film will bring the audience to tears. John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter, described the film as "a grueling one, full of murder and rape and pleas for the world's attention", but suggests that it "is most likely to find viewers on small screens". Owen Richards of The Arts Desk praised the film's direction, writing that it is an accomplished introduction. Tim Grierson of Screen International also praised the film's direction, he wrote, that "Bombach brings a hopeful but clear-eyed perspective to the material".
### Accolades
|
786,064 |
Prevailing winds
| 1,158,871,868 |
Strongest direction of wind on a region of Earth's surface
|
[
"Articles containing video clips",
"Wind"
] |
In meteorology, prevailing wind in a region of the Earth's surface is a surface wind that blows predominantly from a particular direction. The dominant winds are the trends in direction of wind with the highest speed over a particular point on the Earth's surface at any given time. A region's prevailing and dominant winds are the result of global patterns of movement in the Earth's atmosphere. In general, winds are predominantly easterly at low latitudes globally. In the mid-latitudes, westerly winds are dominant, and their strength is largely determined by the polar cyclone. In areas where winds tend to be light, the sea breeze/land breeze cycle is the most important cause of the prevailing wind; in areas which have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes dominate the wind pattern. Highly elevated surfaces can induce a thermal low, which then augments the environmental wind flow.
Wind roses are tools used to display the direction of the prevailing wind. Knowledge of the prevailing wind allows the development of prevention strategies for wind erosion of agricultural land, such as across the Great Plains. Sand dunes can orient themselves perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction in coastal and desert locations. Insects drift along with the prevailing wind, but the flight of birds is less dependent on it. Prevailing winds in mountain locations can lead to significant rainfall gradients, ranging from wet across windward-facing slopes to desert-like conditions along their lee slopes. Prevailing winds can vary due to the uneven heating of the Earth.
## Wind rose
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. Presented in a polar coordinate grid, the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular directions. The length of each spoke around the circle is related to the proportion of the time that the wind blows from each direction. Each concentric circle represents a different proportion, increasing outwards from zero at the center. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. Wind roses typically show 8 or 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.
## Climatology
### Trades and their impact
The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near the Earth's equator, equatorward of the subtropical ridge. These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world's oceans, guiding their path westward. Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean sea, as well as portions of southeast North America.
### Westerlies and their impact
The westerlies or the prevailing westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes (i.e. between 35 and 65 degrees latitude), which blow in areas poleward of the high pressure area known as the subtropical ridge in the horse latitudes. These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east, and steer extra-tropical cyclones in this general direction. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles, such as when the polar cyclone is strongest, and weakest during the summer when the polar cyclone is weakest and when pressures are higher over the poles.
Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents in both hemispheres. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are called the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees south latitude, within the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.
The westerlies explain why coastal Western North America tends to be wet, especially from Northern Washington to Alaska, during the winter. Differential heating from the Sun between the land which is quite cool and the ocean which is relatively warm causes areas of low pressure to develop over land. This results in moisture-rich air flowing east from the Pacific Ocean, causing frequent rainstorms and wind on the coast. This moisture continues to flow eastward until orographic lift caused by the Coast Ranges, and the Cascade, Sierra Nevada, Columbia, and Rocky Mountains causes a rain shadow effect which limits further penetration of these systems and associated rainfall eastward. This trend reverses in the summer when strong heating of the land causes high pressure and tends to block moisture-rich air from the Pacific from reaching land. This explains why most of coastal Western North America in the highest latitude experiences dry summers, despite vast rainfall in the winter.
### Polar easterlies
The polar easterlies (also known as Polar Hadley cells) are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards the low-pressure areas within the westerlies at high latitudes. Like trade winds and unlike the westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular. Due to the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an outflow of air toward the equator; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect.
## Local considerations
### Sea and land breezes
In areas where the wind flow is light, sea breezes and land breezes are important factors in a location's prevailing winds. The sea is warmed by the sun to a greater depth than the land due to its greater specific heat. The sea therefore has a greater capacity for absorbing heat than the land, so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land's surface. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it. The warm air is less dense and so it rises. This rising air over the land lowers the sea level pressure by about 0.2%. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows towards the land into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast.
The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea. If an off-shore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop. At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean due to differences in their specific heat values, which forces the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. If the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.
### Circulation in elevated regions
Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level, creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any lows which would have otherwise existed, and changing the wind circulation of the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind can change direction and accelerate parallel to the wind obstruction. This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45%. In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow is more severe. Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys. Wind direction changes due to the contour of the land. If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed due to the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.
Daytime heating and nighttime cooling of the hilly slopes lead to day to night variations in the airflow, similar to the relationship between sea breeze and land breeze. At night, the sides of the hills cool through radiation of the heat. The air along the hills becomes cooler and denser, blowing down into the valley, drawn by gravity. This is known a mountain breeze. If the slopes are covered with ice and snow, the mountain breeze will blow during the day, carrying the cold dense air into the warmer, barren valleys. The slopes of hills not covered by snow will be warmed during the day. The air that comes in contact with the warmed slopes becomes warmer and less dense and flows uphill. This is known as an anabatic wind or valley breeze.
## Effect on precipitation
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see foehn wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina. The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.
## Effect on nature
Insects are swept along by the prevailing winds, while birds follow their own course. As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns. In the Great Plains, wind erosion of agricultural land is a significant problem, and is mainly driven by the prevailing wind. Because of this, wind barrier strips have been developed to minimize this type of erosion. The strips can be in the form of soil ridges, crop strips, crops rows, or trees which act as wind breaks. They are oriented perpendicular to the wind in order to be most effective. In regions with minimal vegetation, such as coastal and desert areas, transverse sand dunes orient themselves perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction, while longitudinal dunes orient themselves parallel to the prevailing winds.
## See also
- Trade winds
- Wind speed
- Atmospheric circulation
- Winds in the age of sail
|
186,300 |
John D. Rockefeller
| 1,173,026,855 |
American business magnate and philanthropist (1839–1937)
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John Davison Rockefeller Sr. (July 8, 1839 – May 23, 1937) was an American business magnate and philanthropist. He has been widely considered the wealthiest American of all time and the richest person in modern history. Rockefeller was born into a large family in Upstate New York who moved several times before eventually settling in Cleveland. He became an assistant bookkeeper at age 16 and went into several business partnerships beginning at age 20, concentrating his business on oil refining. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870. He ran it until 1897 and remained its largest shareholder.
Rockefeller's wealth soared as kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, and he became the richest person in the country, controlling 90% of all oil in the United States at his peak. Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity, and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the railroad industry which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States. Through use of the company's monopoly power, Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry and, through corporate and technological innovations, was instrumental in both widely disseminating and drastically reducing the production cost of oil.
Rockefeller's company and business practices came under criticism, particularly in the writings of author Ida Tarbell. The Supreme Court ruled in 1911 that Standard Oil must be dismantled for violation of federal antitrust laws. It was broken up into 34 separate entities, which included companies that became ExxonMobil, Chevron Corporation, and others—some of which still have the highest level of revenue in the world. Consequently, Rockefeller became the country's first billionaire, with a fortune worth nearly 2% of the national economy. His personal wealth was estimated in 1913 at \$900 million, which was almost 3% of the US gross domestic product (GDP) of \$39.1 billion that year. That was his peak net worth, and amounts to US\$ (in dollars; inflation-adjusted).
Rockefeller spent much of the last 40 years of his life in retirement at Kykuit, his estate in Westchester County, New York, defining the structure of modern philanthropy, along with other key industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie. His fortune was used chiefly to create the modern systematic approach of targeted philanthropy through the creation of foundations that supported medicine, education, and scientific research. His foundations pioneered developments in medical research and were instrumental in the near-eradication of hookworm and yellow fever in the United States. He and Carnegie gave form and impetus through their charities to the work of Abraham Flexner, who in his essay "Medical Education in America" emphatically endowed empiricism as the basis for the US medical system of the 20th century.
Rockefeller was the founder of the University of Chicago and Rockefeller University, and funded the establishment of Central Philippine University in the Philippines. He was a devout Northern Baptist and supported many church-based institutions. He adhered to total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco throughout his life. For advice, he relied closely on his wife Laura Spelman Rockefeller: they had four daughters and a son together. He was a faithful congregant of the Erie Street Baptist Mission Church, taught Sunday school, and served as a trustee, clerk, and occasional janitor. Religion was a guiding force throughout his life, and he believed it to be the source of his success. Rockefeller was also considered a supporter of capitalism based on a perspective of social Darwinism, and he was quoted often as saying, "The growth of a large business is merely a survival of the fittest".
## Early life
Rockefeller was the second of six children born in Richford, New York, to con artist William A. Rockefeller Sr. and Eliza Davison. Rockefeller had an elder sister named Lucy and four younger siblings: William Jr., Mary, and fraternal twins Franklin (Frank) and Frances. His father was of English and German descent, while his mother was of Ulster Scot descent. One source says that some ancestors were Huguenots, the Roquefeuille family, who fled to Germany from France during the reign of Louis XIV and a period of religious persecution. By the time their descendants immigrated to North America, their name had taken German form. William Sr. worked first as a lumberman and then a traveling salesman. He claimed to be a "botanic physician" who sold elixirs, and was described by locals as "Big Bill" and "Devil Bill." Unshackled by conventional morality, he led a vagabond existence and returned to his family infrequently. Throughout his life, Bill was notorious for conducting schemes. In between the births of Lucy and John, Bill and his mistress and housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda, who died young. Between John and William Jr.'s births, Bill and Nancy had another daughter, named Cornelia.
Eliza was a homemaker and a devout Baptist who struggled to maintain a semblance of stability at home, as Bill was frequently gone for extended periods. She also put up with his philandering and his double life, which included bigamy. At the height of Rockefeller's fame, Joseph Pulitzer offered a reward of \$8,000 for information about his father. However, journalists could not find Bill before he died, and details of his bigamous marriage became public only after his death. Abandoning his family around 1855, but remaining married to Eliza up to her death, Bill Rockefeller adopted the name William Levingston and contracted a bigamous marriage with Margaret L. Allen (1834–1910) in Norwich, Ontario, Canada. He died in 1906 and his tomb was paid from the property of his second wife.
Eliza was thrifty by nature and by necessity, and she taught her son that "willful waste makes woeful want". John did his share of the regular household chores and earned extra money raising turkeys, selling potatoes and candy, and eventually lending small sums of money to neighbors. He followed his father's advice to "trade dishes for platters" and always get the better part of any deal. Bill once bragged, "I cheat my boys every chance I get. I want to make 'em sharp." However, his mother was more influential in John's upbringing and beyond, while he distanced himself further and further from his father as his life progressed. He later stated, "From the beginning, I was trained to work, to save, and to give."
When he was a boy, his family moved to Moravia, New York, and to Owego, New York, in 1851, where he attended Owego Academy. In 1853, his family moved to Strongsville, Ohio, and he attended Cleveland's Central High School, the first high school in Cleveland and the first free public high school west of the Alleghenies. Then he took a ten-week business course at Folsom's Commercial College, where he studied bookkeeping. Rockefeller was a well-behaved, serious, and studious boy despite his father's absences and frequent family moves. His contemporaries described him as reserved, earnest, religious, methodical, and discreet. He was an excellent debater and expressed himself precisely. He also had a deep love of music and dreamed of it as a possible career.
## Pre-Standard Oil career
### As a bookkeeper
In September 1855, when Rockefeller was sixteen, he got his first job as an assistant bookkeeper working for a small produce commission firm in Cleveland called Hewitt & Tuttle. He worked long hours and delighted, as he later recalled, in "all the methods and systems of the office." He was particularly adept at calculating transportation costs, which served him well later in his career. Much of Rockefeller's duties involved negotiating with barge canal owners, ship captains, and freight agents. In these negotiations, he learned that posted transportation rates that were believed to be fixed could be altered depending on conditions and timing of freight and through the use of rebates to preferred shippers. Rockefeller was also given the duties of collecting debts when Hewitt instructed him to do so. Instead of using his father's method of presence to collect debts, Rockefeller relied on a persistent pestering approach. Rockefeller received \$16 a month for his three-month apprenticeship. During his first year, he received \$31 a month, which was increased to \$50 a month. His final year provided him \$58 a month.
As a youth, Rockefeller reportedly said that his two great ambitions were to make \$100,000 (equivalent to \$ in dollars) and to live 100 years.
### Business partnership and Civil War service
In 1859, Rockefeller went into the produce commission business with a partner, Maurice B. Clark, and they raised \$4,000 (\$ in dollars) in capital. Clark initiated the idea of the partnership and offered \$2,000 towards the goal. Rockefeller had only \$800 saved up at the time and so borrowed \$1,000 from his father, "Big Bill" Rockefeller, at 10 percent interest. Rockefeller went steadily ahead in business from there, making money each year of his career. In their first and second years of business, Clark & Rockefeller netted \$4,400 (on nearly half a million dollars in business) and \$17,000 worth of profit, respectively, and their profits soared with the outbreak of the American Civil War when the Union Army called for massive amounts of food and supplies. When the Civil War was nearing a close and with the prospect of those war-time profits ending, Clark & Rockefeller looked toward the refining of crude oil. While his brother Frank fought in the Civil War, Rockefeller tended his business and hired substitute soldiers. He gave money to the Union cause, as did many rich Northerners who avoided combat. "I wanted to go in the army and do my part," Rockefeller said. "But it was simply out of the question. There was no one to take my place. We were in a new business, and if I had not stayed it must have stopped—and with so many dependent on it."
Rockefeller was an abolitionist who voted for President Abraham Lincoln and supported the then-new Republican Party. As he said, "God gave me money", and he did not apologize for it. He felt at ease and righteous following Methodist preacher John Wesley's dictum, "gain all you can, save all you can, and give all you can." At that time, the Federal government was subsidizing oil prices, driving the price up from \$.35 a barrel in 1862 to as high as \$13.75. This created an oil-drilling glut, with thousands of speculators attempting to make their fortunes. Most failed, but those who struck oil did not even need to be efficient. They would blow holes in the ground and gather up the oil as they could, often leading to creeks and rivers flowing with wasted oil in the place of water.
A market existed for the refined oil in the form of kerosene. Coal had previously been used to extract kerosene, but its tedious extraction process and high price prevented broad use. Even with the high costs of freight transportation and a government levy during the Civil War (the government levied a tax of twenty cents a gallon on refined oil), profits on the refined product were large. The price of the refined oil in 1863 was around \$13 a barrel, with a profit margin of around \$5 to \$8 a barrel. The capital expenditures for a refinery at that time were small – around \$1,000 to \$1,500 and requiring only a few men to operate. In this environment of a wasteful boom, the partners switched from foodstuffs to oil, building an oil refinery in 1863 in "The Flats", then Cleveland's burgeoning industrial area. The refinery was directly owned by Andrews, Clark & Company, which was composed of Clark & Rockefeller, chemist Samuel Andrews, and M. B. Clark's two brothers. The commercial oil business was then in its infancy. Whale oil had become too expensive for the masses, and a cheaper, general-purpose lighting fuel was needed.
While other refineries would keep the 60% of oil product that became kerosene, but dump the other 40% in rivers and massive sludge piles, Rockefeller used the gasoline to fuel the refinery, and sold the rest as lubricating oil, petroleum jelly and paraffin wax, and other by-products. Tar was used for paving, naphtha shipped to gas plants. Likewise, Rockefeller's refineries hired their own plumbers, cutting the cost of pipe-laying in half. Barrels that cost \$2.50 each ended up only \$0.96 when Rockefeller bought the wood and had them built for himself. In February 1865, in what was later described by oil industry historian Daniel Yergin as a "critical" action, Rockefeller bought out the Clark brothers for \$72,500 (equivalent to \$ in dollars) at auction and established the firm of Rockefeller & Andrews. Rockefeller said, "It was the day that determined my career." He was well-positioned to take advantage of postwar prosperity and the great expansion westward fostered by the growth of railroads and an oil-fueled economy. He borrowed heavily, reinvested profits, adapted rapidly to changing markets, and fielded observers to track the quickly expanding industry.
### Beginning in the oil business
In 1866, William Rockefeller Jr., John's brother, built another refinery in Cleveland and brought John into the partnership. In 1867, Henry Morrison Flagler became a partner, and the firm of Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler was established. By 1868, with Rockefeller continuing practices of borrowing and reinvesting profits, controlling costs, and using refineries' waste, the company owned two Cleveland refineries and a marketing subsidiary in New York; it was the largest oil refinery in the world. Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler was the predecessor of the Standard Oil Company.
## Standard Oil
### Founding and early growth
By the end of the American Civil War, Cleveland was one of the five main refining centers in the U.S. (besides Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, New York, and the region in northwestern Pennsylvania where most of the oil originated). By 1869 there was triple the kerosene refining capacity than needed to supply the market, and the capacity remained in excess for many years.
On January 10, 1870, Rockefeller abolished the partnership of Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler, forming Standard Oil of Ohio. Continuing to apply his work ethic and efficiency, Rockefeller quickly expanded the company to be the most profitable refiner in Ohio. Likewise, it became one of the largest shippers of oil and kerosene in the country. The railroads competed fiercely for traffic and, in an attempt to create a cartel to control freight rates, formed the South Improvement Company offering special deals to bulk customers like Standard Oil, outside the main oil centers. The cartel offered preferential treatment as a high-volume shipper, which included not just steep discounts/rebates of up to 50% for their product but rebates for the shipment of competing products.
Part of this scheme was the announcement of sharply increased freight charges. This touched off a firestorm of protest from independent oil well owners, including boycotts and vandalism, which led to the discovery of Standard Oil's part in the deal. A major New York refiner, Charles Pratt and Company, headed by Charles Pratt and Henry H. Rogers, led the opposition to this plan, and railroads soon backed off. Pennsylvania revoked the cartel's charter, and non-preferential rates were restored for the time being. While competitors may have been unhappy, Rockefeller's efforts did bring American consumers cheaper kerosene and other oil by-products. Before 1870, oil light was only for the wealthy, provided by expensive whale oil. During the next decade, kerosene became commonly available to the working and middle classes.
Undeterred, though vilified for the first time by the press, Rockefeller continued with his self-reinforcing cycle of buying the least efficient competing refiners, improving the efficiency of his operations, pressing for discounts on oil shipments, undercutting his competition, making secret deals, raising investment pools, and buying rivals out. In less than four months in 1872, in what was later known as "The Cleveland Conquest" or "The Cleveland Massacre", Standard Oil absorbed 22 of its 26 Cleveland competitors. Eventually, even his former antagonists, Pratt and Rogers, saw the futility of continuing to compete against Standard Oil; in 1874, they made a secret agreement with Rockefeller to be acquired.
Pratt and Rogers became Rockefeller's partners. Rogers, in particular, became one of Rockefeller's key men in the formation of the Standard Oil Trust. Pratt's son, Charles Millard Pratt, became secretary of Standard Oil. For many of his competitors, Rockefeller had merely to show them his books so they could see what they were up against and then make them a decent offer. If they refused his offer, he told them he would run them into bankruptcy and then cheaply buy up their assets at auction. However, he did not intend to eliminate competition entirely. In fact, his partner Pratt said of that accusation "Competitors we must have ... If we absorb them, it surely will bring up another."
Instead of wanting to eliminate them, Rockefeller saw himself as the industry's savior, "an angel of mercy" absorbing the weak and making the industry as a whole stronger, more efficient, and more competitive. Standard was growing horizontally and vertically. It added its own pipelines, tank cars, and home delivery network. It kept oil prices low to stave off competitors, made its products affordable to the average household, and, to increase market penetration, sometimes sold below cost. It developed over 300 oil-based products from tar to paint to petroleum jelly to chewing gum. By the end of the 1870s, Standard was refining over 90% of the oil in the U.S. Rockefeller had already become a millionaire (\$1 million is equivalent to \$ in dollars).
> He instinctively realized that orderliness would only proceed from centralized control of large aggregations of plant and capital, with the one aim of an orderly flow of products from the producer to the consumer. That orderly, economic, efficient flow is what we now, many years later, call 'vertical integration' I do not know whether Mr. Rockefeller ever used the word 'integration'. I only know he conceived the idea.
In 1877, Standard clashed with Thomas A. Scott, the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Standard's chief hauler. Rockefeller envisioned pipelines as an alternative transport system for oil and began a campaign to build and acquire them. The railroad, seeing Standard's incursion into the transportation and pipeline fields, struck back and formed a subsidiary to buy and build oil refineries and pipelines.
Standard countered, held back its shipments, and, with the help of other railroads, started a price war that dramatically reduced freight payments and caused labor unrest. Rockefeller prevailed and the railroad sold its oil interests to Standard. In the aftermath of that battle, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania indicted Rockefeller in 1879 on charges of monopolizing the oil trade, starting an avalanche of similar court proceedings in other states and making a national issue of Standard Oil's business practices. Rockefeller was under great strain during the 1870s and 1880s when he was carrying out his plan of consolidation and integration and being attacked by the press. He complained that he could not stay asleep most nights. Rockefeller later commented:
> All the fortune that I have made has not served to compensate me for the anxiety of that period.
### Monopoly
Although it always had hundreds of competitors, Standard Oil gradually gained dominance of oil refining and sales as market share in the United States through horizontal integration, ending up with about 90% of the US market. In the kerosene industry, the company replaced the old distribution system with its own vertical system. It supplied kerosene by tank cars that brought the fuel to local markets, and tank wagons then delivered to retail customers, thus bypassing the existing network of wholesale jobbers. Despite improving the quality and availability of kerosene products while greatly reducing their cost to the public (the price of kerosene dropped by nearly 80% over the life of the company), Standard Oil's business practices created intense controversy. Standard's most potent weapons against competitors were underselling, differential pricing, and secret transportation rebates.
The firm was attacked by journalists and politicians throughout its existence, in part for these monopolistic methods, giving momentum to the antitrust movement. In 1879, the New York State Legislature's Hepburn Committee investigations into "alleged abuses" committed by the railroads uncovered the fact that Standard Oil was receiving substantial freight rebates on all of the oil it was transporting by railroad – and was crushing Standard's competitors thereby. By 1880, according to the New York World, Standard Oil was "the most cruel, impudent, pitiless, and grasping monopoly that ever fastened upon a country". To critics, Rockefeller replied, "In a business so large as ours ... some things are likely to be done which we cannot approve. We correct them as soon as they come to our knowledge."
At that time, many legislatures had made it difficult to incorporate in one state and operate in another. As a result, Rockefeller and his associates owned dozens of separate corporations, each of which operated in just one state; the management of the whole enterprise was rather unwieldy. In 1882, Rockefeller's lawyers created an innovative form of corporation to centralize their holdings, giving birth to the Standard Oil Trust. The "trust" was a corporation of corporations, and the entity's size and wealth drew much attention. Nine trustees, including Rockefeller, ran the 41 companies in the trust. The public and the press were immediately suspicious of this new legal entity, and other businesses seized upon the idea and emulated it, further inflaming public sentiment. Standard Oil had gained an aura of invincibility, always prevailing against competitors, critics, and political enemies. It had become the richest, biggest, most feared business in the world, seemingly immune to the boom and bust of the business cycle, consistently making profits year after year.
The company's vast American empire included 20,000 domestic wells, 4,000 miles of pipeline, 5,000 tank cars, and over 100,000 employees. Its share of world oil refining topped out above 90% but slowly dropped to about 80% for the rest of the century. Despite the formation of the trust and its perceived immunity from all competition, by the 1880s Standard Oil had passed its peak of power over the world oil market. Rockefeller finally gave up his dream of controlling all the world's oil refining; he admitted later, "We realized that public sentiment would be against us if we actually refined all the oil." Over time, foreign competition and new finds abroad eroded his dominance. In the early 1880s, Rockefeller created one of his most important innovations. Rather than try to influence the price of crude oil directly, Standard Oil had been exercising indirect control by altering oil storage charges to suit market conditions. Rockefeller then ordered the issuance of certificates against oil stored in its pipelines. These certificates became traded by speculators, thus creating the first oil-futures market which effectively set spot market prices from then on. The National Petroleum Exchange opened in Manhattan in late 1882 to facilitate the trading of oil futures.
Although 85% of world crude production was still coming from Pennsylvania in the 1880s, oil from wells drilled in Russia and Asia began to reach the world market. Robert Nobel had established his own refining enterprise in the abundant and cheaper Russian oil fields, including the region's first pipeline and the world's first oil tanker. The Paris Rothschilds jumped into the fray providing financing. Additional fields were discovered in Burma and Java. Even more critical, the invention of the light bulb gradually began to erode the dominance of kerosene for illumination. Standard Oil adapted by developing a European presence, expanding into natural gas production in the U.S., and then producing gasoline for automobiles, which until then had been considered a waste product.
Standard Oil moved its headquarters to New York City at 26 Broadway, and Rockefeller became a central figure in the city's business community. He bought a residence in 1884 on 54th Street near the mansions of other magnates such as William Henry Vanderbilt. Despite personal threats and constant pleas for charity, Rockefeller took the new elevated train to his downtown office daily. In 1887, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission which was tasked with enforcing equal rates for all railroad freight, but by then Standard depended more on pipeline transport. More threatening to Standard's power was the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, originally used to control unions, but later central to the breakup of the Standard Oil trust. Ohio was especially vigorous in applying its state antitrust laws, and finally forced a separation of Standard Oil of Ohio from the rest of the company in 1892, the first step in the dissolution of the trust.
In the 1890s, Rockefeller expanded into iron ore and ore transportation, forcing a collision with steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, and their competition became a major subject of the newspapers and cartoonists. He went on a massive buying spree acquiring leases for crude oil production in Ohio, Indiana, and West Virginia, as the original Pennsylvania oil fields began to play out. Amid the frenetic expansion, Rockefeller began to think of retirement. The daily management of the trust was turned over to John Dustin Archbold and Rockefeller bought a new estate, Pocantico Hills, north of New York City, turning more time to leisure activities including the new sports of bicycling and golf.
Upon his ascent to the presidency, Theodore Roosevelt initiated dozens of suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act and coaxed reforms out of Congress. In 1901, U.S. Steel, then controlled by J. Pierpont Morgan, having bought Andrew Carnegie's steel assets, offered to buy Standard's iron interests as well. A deal brokered by Henry Clay Frick exchanged Standard's iron interests for U.S. Steel stock and gave Rockefeller and his son membership on the company's board of directors. In full retirement at age 63, Rockefeller earned over \$58 million in investments in 1902. One of the most effective attacks on Rockefeller and his firm was the 1904 publication of The History of the Standard Oil Company, by Ida Tarbell, a leading muckraker. She documented the company's espionage, price wars, heavy-handed marketing tactics, and courtroom evasions. Although her work prompted a huge backlash against the company, Tarbell stated she was surprised at its magnitude. "I never had an animus against their size and wealth, never objected to their corporate form. I was willing that they should combine and grow as big and wealthy as they could, but only by legitimate means. But they had never played fair, and that ruined their greatness for me." Tarbell's father had been driven out of the oil business during the "South Improvement Company" affair. Rockefeller called her "Miss Tarbarrel" in private but held back in public saying only, "not a word about that misguided woman." He began a publicity campaign to put his company and himself in a better light. Though he had long maintained a policy of active silence with the press, he decided to make himself more accessible and responded with conciliatory comments such as "capital and labor are both wild forces which require intelligent legislation to hold them in restriction." He wrote and published his memoirs beginning in 1908. Critics found his writing to be sanitized and disingenuous and thought that statements such as "the underlying, essential element of success in business are to follow the established laws of high-class dealing" seemed to be at odds with his true business methods.
Rockefeller and his son continued to consolidate their oil interests as best they could until New Jersey, in 1909, changed its incorporation laws to effectively allow a re-creation of the trust in the form of a single holding company. Rockefeller retained his nominal title as president until 1911 and he kept his stock. At last in 1911, the Supreme Court of the United States found Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. By then the trust still had a 70% market share of the refined oil market but only 14% of the U.S. crude oil supply. The court ruled that the trust originated in illegal monopoly practices and ordered it to be broken up into 34 new companies. These included, among many others, Continental Oil, which became Conoco, now part of ConocoPhillips; Standard of Indiana, which became Amoco, now part of BP; Standard of California, which became Chevron; Standard of New Jersey, which became Esso (and later, Exxon), now part of ExxonMobil; Standard of New York, which became Mobil, now part of ExxonMobil; and Standard of Ohio, which became Sohio, now part of BP. Pennzoil and Chevron have remained separate companies.
Rockefeller, who had rarely sold shares, held over 25% of Standard's stock at the time of the breakup. He and all of the other stockholders received proportionate shares in each of the 34 companies. In the aftermath, Rockefeller's control over the oil industry was somewhat reduced, but over the next 10 years the breakup proved immensely profitable for him. The companies' combined net worth rose fivefold and Rockefeller's personal wealth jumped to \$900 million.
## Colorado Fuel and Iron
In 1902, facing cash flow problems, John Cleveland Osgood turned to George Jay Gould, a principal stockholder of the Denver and Rio Grande, for a loan. Gould, via Frederick Taylor Gates, Rockefeller's financial adviser, brought John D. Rockefeller in to help finance the loan. Analysis of the company's operations by John D. Rockefeller Jr. showed a need for substantially more funds which were provided in exchange for acquisition of CF&I's subsidiaries such as the Colorado and Wyoming Railway Company, the Crystal River Railroad Company, and possibly the Rocky Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Control was passed from the Iowa Group to Gould and Rockefeller interests in 1903 with Gould in control and Rockefeller and Gates representing a minority interests. Osgood left the company in 1904 and devoted his efforts to operating competing coal and coke operations.
### Strike of 1913–14 and the Ludlow Massacre
The strike, called in September 1913 by the United Mine Workers over the issue of union representation, was against coal mine operators in Huerfano and Las Animas counties of southern Colorado, where the majority of CF&I's coal and coke production was located. The strike was fought vigorously by the coal mine operators association and its steering committee, which included Welborn, president of CF&I, a spokesman for the coal operators. Rockefeller's operative, Lamont Montgomery Bowers, remained in the background. Few miners belonged to the union or participated in the strike call, but the majority honored it. Strikebreakers (called "scabs") were threatened and sometimes attacked. Both sides purchased substantial arms and ammunition. Striking miners were forced to abandon their homes in company towns and lived in tent cities erected by the union, such as the tent city at Ludlow, a railway stop north of Trinidad.
Under the protection of the National Guard, some miners returned to work and some strikebreakers, imported from the eastern coalfields, joined them as Guard troops protected their movements. In February 1914, a substantial portion of the troops were withdrawn, but a large contingent remained at Ludlow. On April 20, 1914, a general fire-fight occurred between strikers and troops, which was antagonized by the troops and mine guards. The camp was burned, resulting in 15 women and children, who hid in tents at the camp, being burned to death. Costs to both mine operators and the union were high. This incident brought unwanted national attention to Colorado.
Due to reduced demand for coal, resulting from an economic downturn, many of CF&I's coal mines never reopened and many men were thrown out of work. The union was forced to discontinue strike benefits in February 1915. There was destitution in the coalfields. With the help of funds from the Rockefeller Foundation, relief programs were organized by the Colorado Committee on Unemployment and Relief. A state agency created by Governor Carlson, offered work to unemployed miners building roads and doing other useful projects.
The casualties suffered at Ludlow mobilized public opinion against the Rockefellers and the coal industry. The United States Commission on Industrial Relations conducted extensive hearings, singling out John D. Rockefeller Jr. and the Rockefellers' relationship with Bowers for special attention. Bowers was relieved of duty and Wellborn restored to control in 1915, then industrial relations improved.
Rockefeller denied any responsibility and minimized the seriousness of the event. When testifying on the Ludlow Massacre, and asked what action he would have taken as Director, John D. Rockefeller Jr. stated, "I would have taken no action. I would have deplored the necessity which compelled the officers of the company to resort to such measures to supplement the State forces to maintain law and order." He admitted that he had made no attempt to bring the militiamen to justice.
## Personal life
### Family
Against long-circulating speculations that his family has French roots, genealogists proved the German origin of Rockefeller and traced them to the early 17th century. Johann Peter Rockenfeller (baptized September 27, 1682, in the Protestant church of Rengsdorf) immigrated in 1723 from Altwied (today a district of Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate) with three children to North America. He settled in Germantown, Pennsylvania.
The name Rockenfeller refers to the now-abandoned village of Rockenfeld in the district of Neuwied.
### Marriage
In 1864, Rockefeller married Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman (1839–1915), daughter of Harvey Buell Spelman and Lucy Henry. They had four daughters and one son together. He said later, "Her judgment was always better than mine. Without her keen advice, I would be a poor man."
- Elizabeth "Bessie" Rockefeller (August 23, 1866 – November 14, 1906)
- Alice Rockefeller (July 14, 1869 – August 20, 1870)
- Alta Rockefeller (April 12, 1871 – June 21, 1962)
- Edith Rockefeller (August 31, 1872 – August 25, 1932)
- John Davison Rockefeller Jr. (January 29, 1874 – May 11, 1960)
The Rockefeller wealth, distributed as it was through a system of foundations and trusts, continued to fund family philanthropic, commercial, and, eventually, political aspirations throughout the 20th century. John Jr.'s youngest son David Rockefeller was a leading New York banker, serving for over 20 years as CEO of Chase Manhattan (now part of JPMorgan Chase). Second son Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was Republican governor of New York and the 41st Vice President of the United States. Fourth son Winthrop Aldrich Rockefeller served as Republican Governor of Arkansas. Grandchildren Abigail Aldrich "Abby" Rockefeller and John Davison Rockefeller III became philanthropists. Grandson Laurance Spelman Rockefeller became a conservationist. Great-grandson John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV served from 1985 until 2015 as a Democratic Senator from West Virginia after serving as governor of West Virginia, and another Winthrop served as lieutenant governor of Arkansas for a decade.
### Religious views
John D. Rockefeller was born in Richford, New York, then part of the Burned-over district, a New York state region that became the site of an evangelical revival known as the Second Great Awakening. It drew masses to various Protestant churches—especially Baptist ones—and urged believers to follow such ideals as hard work, prayer, and good deeds to build "the Kingdom of God on Earth." Early in his life, he regularly went with his siblings and mother Eliza to the local Baptist church—the Erie Street Baptist Church (later the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church)—an independent Baptist church that eventually associated with the Northern Baptist Convention (1907–1950; now part of the modern American Baptist Churches USA).
His mother was deeply religious and disciplined, and had a major influence on him in religious matters. During church service, his mother would urge him to contribute his few pennies to the congregation. Rockefeller associated the church with charity. A Baptist preacher once encouraged him to "make as much money as he could, and then give away as much as he could". Later in his life, Rockefeller recalled: "It was at this moment, that the financial plan of my life was formed". Money making was considered by him a "God-given gift".
A devout Northern Baptist, Rockefeller would read the Bible daily, attend prayer meetings twice a week and led his own Bible study with his wife. Burton Folsom Jr. has noted:
> [H]e sometimes gave tens of thousands of dollars to Christian groups, while, at the same time, he was trying to borrow over a million dollars to expand his business. His philosophy of giving was founded upon biblical principles. He truly believed in the biblical principle found in Luke 6:38, "Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure, pressed down, shaken together and running over, will be poured into your lap. For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you."
Rockefeller would support Baptist missionary activity, fund universities, and deeply engage in religious activities at his Cleveland, Ohio, church. While traveling the South, he would donate large sums of money to churches belonging to the Southern Baptist Convention, various Black churches, and other Christian denominations. He paid toward the freedom of two slaves and donated to a Roman Catholic orphanage. As he grew rich, his donations became more generous, especially to his church in Cleveland. Believed to be obsolescent, the church was demolished in 1925, and replaced with a new building.
## Philanthropy
Rockefeller's charitable giving began with his first job as a clerk at age 16, when he gave six percent of his earnings to charity, as recorded in his personal ledger. By the time he was twenty, his charity exceeded ten percent of his income. Much of his giving was church-related. His church was later affiliated with the Northern Baptist Convention, which formed from American Baptists in the North with ties to their historic missions to establish schools and colleges for freedmen in the South after the American Civil War. Rockefeller attended Baptist churches every Sunday; when traveling he would often attend services at African-American Baptist congregations, leaving a substantial donation. As Rockefeller's wealth grew, so did his giving, primarily to educational and public health causes, but also for basic science and the arts. He was advised primarily by Frederick Taylor Gates after 1891, and, after 1897, also by his son.
Rockefeller believed in the Efficiency Movement, arguing that: "To help an inefficient, ill-located, unnecessary school is a waste ... it is highly probable that enough money has been squandered on unwise educational projects to have built up a national system of higher education adequate to our needs, if the money had been properly directed to that end."
Rockefeller and his advisers invented the conditional grant, which required the recipient to "root the institution in the affections of as many people as possible who, as contributors, become personally concerned, and thereafter may be counted on to give to the institution their watchful interest and cooperation".
In 1884, Rockefeller provided major funding for Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary in Atlanta for African-American women, which became Spelman College. His wife Laura Spelman Rockefeller, was dedicated to civil rights and equality for women. John and Laura donated money and supported the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary whose mission was in line with their faith based beliefs. Today known as Spelman College, the school is an all women Historically Black College or University in Atlanta, Georgia, named after Laura's family. The Spelman Family, Rockefeller's in-laws, along with John Rockefeller were ardent abolitionists before the Civil War and were dedicated to supporting the Underground Railroad. John Rockefeller was impressed by the vision of the school and removed the debt from the school. The oldest existing building on Spelman's campus, Rockefeller Hall, is named after him. Rockefeller also gave considerable donations to Denison University and other Baptist colleges.
Rockefeller gave \$80 million to the University of Chicago under William Rainey Harper, turning a small Baptist college into a world-class institution by 1900. He would describe the University of Chicago as "the best investment I ever made." He also gave a grant to the American Baptist Missionaries foreign mission board, the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society in establishing Central Philippine University, the first Baptist and second American university in Asia, in 1905 in the heavily Catholic Philippines.
Rockefeller's General Education Board, founded in 1903, was established to promote education at all levels everywhere in the country. In keeping with the historic missions of the Baptists, it was especially active in supporting black schools in the South. Rockefeller also provided financial support to such established eastern institutions as Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Brown, Bryn Mawr, Wellesley and Vassar. On Gates' advice, Rockefeller became one of the first great benefactors of medical science. In 1901, he founded the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York City. It changed its name to Rockefeller University in 1965, after expanding its mission to include graduate education. It claims a connection to 23 Nobel laureates. He founded the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission in 1909, an organization that eventually eradicated the hookworm disease, which had long plagued rural areas of the American South. His General Education Board made a dramatic impact by funding the recommendations of the Flexner Report of 1910. The study, an excerpt of which was published in The Atlantic, had been undertaken by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Rockefeller created the Rockefeller Foundation in 1913 to continue and expand the scope of the work of the Sanitary Commission, which was closed in 1915. He gave \$182 million to the foundation, which focused on public health, medical training, and the arts. It endowed Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, the first of its kind. It also built the Peking Union Medical College in China into a notable institution. The foundation helped in World War I war relief, and it employed William Lyon Mackenzie King of Canada to study industrial relations.
In the 1920s, the Rockefeller Foundation funded a hookworm eradication campaign through the International Health Division. This campaign used a combination of politics and science, along with collaboration between healthcare workers and government officials to accomplish its goals.
Rockefeller's fourth main philanthropy, the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, was created in 1918. Through this, he supported work in the social studies; this was later absorbed into the Rockefeller Foundation. In total Rockefeller donated about \$530 million.
Rockefeller became well known in his later life for the practice of giving dimes to adults and nickels to children wherever he went. He even gave dimes as a playful gesture to wealthy men, such as tire mogul Harvey Firestone.
Rockefeller supported the passage of the 18th Amendment, which banned alcohol in the United States. He wrote in a letter to Nicholas Murray Butler on June 6, 1932, that his neither Rockefeller nor his parents or his father's father and mother's mother drank alcohol. In the same letter, Rockefeller writes that he has "always stood for whatever measure seemed at the time to give promise of promoting temperance." He believed that measure to be prohibition, as he and his father donated 350,000 to "all branches of the Anti-Saloon League, Federal and State." But by 1932, Rockefeller felt disillusioned by prohibition because of its failure to discourage drinking and alcoholism. He supported the incorporation of repealing the 18th amendment into the Republican party platform.
## Florida home
Henry Morrison Flagler, one of the co-founders of Standard Oil along with Rockefeller, bought the Ormond Hotel in 1890, located in Ormond Beach, Florida, two years after it opened. Flagler expanded it to accommodate 600 guests and the hotel soon became one in a series of Gilded Age hotels catering to passengers aboard Flagler's Florida East Coast Railway. One of Flagler's guests at the Ormond Hotel was his former business partner John D. Rockefeller, who first stayed at the hotel in 1914. Rockefeller liked the Ormond Beach area so much that after four seasons at the hotel, he bought an estate in Ormond Beach called The Casements. It would be Rockefeller's winter home during the latter part of his life. Sold by his heirs in 1939, it was purchased by the city in 1974 and now serves as a cultural center and is the community's best-known historical structure.
## Illnesses and death
In his 50s Rockefeller suffered from moderate depression and digestive troubles; during a stressful period in the 1890s he developed alopecia, the loss of some or all body hair. By 1901 he began wearing toupées and by 1902, his mustache disappeared. His hair never grew back, but other health complaints subsided as he lightened his workload.
Rockefeller died of arteriosclerosis on May 23, 1937, less than two months shy of his 98th birthday, at "The Casements", his home in Ormond Beach, Florida. He was buried in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland.
## Legacy
Rockefeller had a long and controversial career in the oil industry followed by a long career in philanthropy. His image is an amalgam of all of these experiences and the many ways he was viewed by his contemporaries. These contemporaries include his former competitors, many of whom were driven to ruin, but many others of whom sold out at a profit (or a profitable stake in Standard Oil, as Rockefeller often offered his shares as payment for a business), and quite a few of whom became very wealthy as managers as well as owners in Standard Oil. They include politicians and writers, some of whom served Rockefeller's interests, and some of whom built their careers by fighting Rockefeller and the "robber barons".
Biographer Allan Nevins, answering Rockefeller's enemies, concluded:
> The rise of the Standard Oil men to great wealth was not from poverty. It was not meteor-like, but accomplished over a quarter of a century by courageous venturing in a field so risky that most large capitalists avoided it, by arduous labors, and by more sagacious and farsighted planning than had been applied to any other American industry. The oil fortunes of 1894 were not larger than steel fortunes, banking fortunes, and railroad fortunes made in similar periods. But it is the assertion that the Standard magnates gained their wealth by appropriating "the property of others" that most challenges our attention. We have abundant evidence that Rockefeller's consistent policy was to offer fair terms to competitors and to buy them out, for cash, stock, or both, at fair appraisals; we have the statement of one impartial historian that Rockefeller was decidedly "more humane toward competitors" than Carnegie; we have the conclusion of another that his wealth was "the least tainted of all the great fortunes of his day."
Hostile critics often portrayed Rockefeller as a villain with a suite of bad traits—ruthless, unscrupulous and greedy—and as a bully who connived his cruel path to dominance. Economic historian Robert Whaples warns against ignoring the secrets of his business success:
> [R]elentless cost cutting and efficiency improvements, boldness in betting on the long-term prospects of the industry while others were willing to take quick profits, and impressive abilities to spot and reward talent, delegate tasks, and manage a growing empire.
Biographer Ron Chernow wrote of Rockefeller:
> What makes him problematic—and why he continues to inspire ambivalent reactions—is that his good side was every bit as good as his bad side was bad. Seldom has history produced such a contradictory figure.
### Wealth
Rockefeller is largely remembered simply for the raw size of his wealth. In 1902, an audit showed Rockefeller was worth about \$200 million—compared to the total national GDP of \$24 billion then.
His wealth continued to grow significantly (in line with U.S. economic growth) as the demand for gasoline soared, eventually reaching about \$900 million on the eve of the First World War, including significant interests in banking, shipping, mining, railroads, and other industries. His personal wealth was 900 million in 1913 worth 23.5 billion dollars adjusted for inflation in 2020. According to his New York Times obituary, "it was estimated after Mr. Rockefeller retired from business that he had accumulated close to \$1,500,000,000 out of the earnings of the Standard Oil trust and out of his other investments. This was probably the greatest amount of wealth that any private citizen had ever been able to accumulate by his own efforts." By the time of his death in 1937, Rockefeller's remaining fortune, largely tied up in permanent family trusts, was estimated at \$1.4 billion, while the total national GDP was \$92 billion. According to some methods of wealth calculation, Rockefeller's net worth over the last decades of his life would easily place him as the wealthiest known person in recent history. As a percentage of the United States' GDP, no other American fortune—including those of Bill Gates or Sam Walton—would even come close.
Rockefeller, aged 86, wrote the following words to sum up his life:
> > I was early taught to work as well as play, My life has been one long, happy holiday; Full of work and full of play— I dropped the worry on the way— And God was good to me everyday.
## See also
- Allegheny Transportation Company
- Duluth, Missabe and Northern Railway
- Ivy Lee
- List of German Americans
- Rockefeller's Mesabi Range Interests
## Explanatory notes
## General bibliography
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24,372,681 |
Brandon Minor
| 1,143,827,015 |
American football player (born 1988)
|
[
"1988 births",
"20th-century African-American people",
"21st-century African-American sportspeople",
"African-American players of American football",
"American football running backs",
"Chicago Bears players",
"Indianapolis Colts players",
"Living people",
"Michigan Wolverines football players",
"New Orleans Saints players",
"Players of American football from Richmond, Virginia",
"Sportspeople from Richmond, Virginia"
] |
Brandon Ricardo Minor (born July 24, 1988) is a former American football running back. He played college football at Michigan from 2006 to 2009. He was signed by the Chicago Bears as an undrafted free agent in 2010, but was released during the final cuts and played on practice squads in 2010 for the New Orleans Saints and Indianapolis Colts.
At Michigan, Minor finished second on the team in rushing both as a freshman and sophomore and led the team in rushing both as a junior and senior. As a junior, he was an honorable mention All-Big Ten Conference selection by the coaches. He had previously been ranked as the number one high school football fullback in the nation, according to Rivals.com.
He spent his first two years at Michigan serving as one of the primary backups to Mike Hart. In his third year, he emerged from a field of five running backs who were vying to replace Hart as the leading rusher and scorer. He has shared starting responsibilities in his junior and senior seasons. He entered his senior season on the watch lists for the Doak Walker and Maxwell Awards. ESPN.com ranked him as the 22nd best player and third best running back in the Big Ten Conference before the season started.
## Youth career
Minor grew up as a Michigan Wolverines fan. His mother, Julie Gilliam, has pictures of him at age six wearing a Michigan uniform. At age nine, Minor wrote the university to inquire about becoming a Michigan football player. Every year he and his mother watched the Michigan - Ohio State game and rooted for Michigan.
### High school
Minor inherited the Varina High School starting varsity team role as a sophomore in 2003, and he gained 209 rushing yards in his first start. That season, he helped his team reach the Virginia Central Region, Division 6 championship (the qualifying game for the Virginia High School League state semifinals). He concluded the regular season as an All-District first-team selection and after the playoffs was selected as a second-team all-region choice. During the season, he rushed for 1,750 yards and 22 touchdowns for the 10–2 (7–0) Varina Blue Devils. Minor also played varsity basketball as a sophomore. During the season, he once made seven three-point field goals in a game.
As a junior, when Varina's former Capital District offensive player of the year Army Spc. Clarence Adams III died serving the 91st Engineer Battalion, 1st Cavalry Division in Baghdad, Iraq, Minor gave up his number 3 to wear Adams' \#33 as a tribute. In the District championship game, he rushed for 239 yards on 27 carries, including four touchdown runs. In the subsequent Central Region, Division 6 semifinals, he set a Central Region playoff record by rushing for 296 yards, but his undefeated top-ranked team was upset. He concluded the season as both a first-team all-district and all-Metro Region selection after compiling 2,091 yards rushing and scoring 32 rushing touchdowns (plus 2 receiving touchdowns). He was also selected to the Group AAA Virginia High School Football Coaches Association all-state second-team by the coaches.
Entering his senior season, he was ranked as the sixth best senior football player in Virginia by TechSideline.com. The Roanoke Times described him as "one of the top five recruits in the state" at the time of his August 2005 visit to see the first day of Virginia Tech Hokies football practice. At the time, he was considering Miami, Michigan, Florida, Virginia Tech, Tennessee, LSU and Ohio State. However, he started the season on crutches, due to a torn hip flexor. He returned to the lineup for the team's final regular season game and rushed for 174 yards on 28 carries. Davon Morgan, his cousin, who now plays strong safety for Virginia Tech, was the team's quarterback. Despite missing most of the season, he was still honored as an all-district and all-region selection. His three-year career totals were 4,259 yards and 64 touchdowns. As a graduating senior he was the number one ranked high school football fullback in the nation, according to rivals.com. Following his senior season, he scored the only touchdown in the East-West Virginia High School Coaches Association All-star game.
## College career
### Lloyd Carr era
In January 2006, Minor selected the University of Michigan. Although he did not enroll in the 2006 Summer semester, he reported to Michigan on June 16 for strength and conditioning training. Minor and fellow freshman Carlos Brown were behind three returning running backs (Mike Hart, Kevin Grady and senior Jerome Jackson) on the depth chart entering the season. Minor was considered the less heralded than Brown, who was regarded as the fastest player on the team. On opening day, only Hart and Grady had more carries than Minor, in part because Jackson, who entered his senior season with 505 career rushing yards, did not dress. In his first carry as a Wolverine, he rushed for 24 yards against the Vanderbilt Commodores during the September 2 season opening game. Nonetheless, the depth chart was not very clear behind Hart. By late September, Minor was clearly third on the depth chart and it seemed that Brown might be redshirted. When Hart left the game due to injury against Michigan State on October 7, Minor scored his first touchdown on a 40-yard run. He had his first 100-yard game on November 4, when he rushed for 108 yards on 12 carries, including a 40-yard touchdown run in a 34–26 win against Ball State. As a true freshman member of the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team, Minor rushed for a total of 238 yards on 42 carries, which was second on the team to Hart.
During April 2007, Grady tore his anterior cruciate ligament and was lost for the season. In August, Brown broke his hand. It appeared Minor was seriously injured on October 13 when he was carted off the field and left the stadium wearing a protective boot on crutches. However, he recovered and for the next two weeks he and Brown combined to replace the injured Hart. He had his second 100-yard game and first 150-yard game on October 27 of that season during the 34–10 Little Brown Jug game victory against the Minnesota Golden Gophers when he rushed for 157 yards on 21 carries, including a 46-yard run and one touchdown. Although Hart returned to play in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on November 3, he left the game early and Minor started the second half. Hart missed the next game on November 10, but Brown and Minor had poor performances. In all three of Hart's full game absences, Brown was the starter. As a sophomore on the 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team, Minor improved his rushing totals to 385 yards on 90 carries, which was again second on the team to Hart.
### Rich Rodriguez era
In 2008 Rich Rodriguez replaced Lloyd Carr as head coach. In the spring, Brown broke his finger weightlifting and Grady was still trying to get healthy. In early August, it appeared that juniors Brown and Minor would vie for the starting job because fourth-year junior Grady was under suspension related to driving while intoxicated charges. However, in camp it became apparent very quickly that true freshmen Sam McGuffie and Michael Shaw, would have a significant role in the newly installed spread option offense. With both Brown and Minor nursing injuries, McGuffie was tentatively penciled into the starting position on the depth chart.
As a junior member of the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team, Minor became the team leader in rushing. However, he only started four games, while McGuffie started 6, Brown started 1 and Shaw started 1. McGuffie was the starter until he lost the job to Minor. Minor gave way to Shaw (November 8) and Brown (November 15) as the starter due to his injuries. Minor totalled 533 yards on 103 carries. He had nine rushing touchdowns and added two as a receiver. Of these eleven touchdowns, seven came in a three-week span that included a 117-yard two-touchdown rushing effort against Penn State on October 18 and a 155-yard three-touchdown rushing effort against Purdue on November 1. Sandwiched between these efforts, Minor scored on a 19-yard reception to complement his 55 yards and a rushing touchdown in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on October 25. The Penn State game was Minor's first career start. During Minor's junior year, he played with a wrist injury that impaired his ability to hold the football with his right arm and his ability to stiffarm opponents. He was impaired by a variety of injuries throughout the season. At the conclusion of the 2008 Big Ten Conference football season, Minor was chosen as an honorable mention all-conference selection by the coaches.
McGuffie transferred to the Rice Owls after the season. As a senior member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team, Minor was named to a pair of watch lists: (Doak Walker Award and Maxwell Award). He was also selected by ESPN as the 22nd best player and 3rd best running back (behind Evan Royster and John Clay) in the Big Ten Conference before the season started. Minor missed the first game of the season due to a high ankle sprain. In the second game, which was the 2009 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game, he rushed for 106 yards and a touchdown on 16 carries during the 38–34 victory over Notre Dame. The ankle sprain hampered him much of the season and caused him to miss the October 17 game against Delaware State. He had a season-high 154-yard, 3-touchdown effort against Purdue on November 7. A shoulder injury kept him out of the last game of the season against Ohio State. Over the course of his collegiate career, he accumulated 20 rushing touchdowns and 1,658 yards. The torn rotator cuff also kept him from participating in the January 23, 2010 East–West Shrine Game.
## Professional career
### 2010
Minor signed with the Chicago Bears on April 24, 2010, after going undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft. He was released on September 1. He then signed with the New Orleans Saints to their practice squad. However, Minor was back with the Bears before being released at the beginning of October and signed by the Indianapolis Colts. Minor was released by the Colts in October. In November, Minor tried out for the Green Bay Packers before ending the season as a member of the Denver Broncos' practice squad.
### 2011
On September 4, 2011, the Broncos placed Minor on injured reserve. They waived him on October 10. In November 2011, he was "charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute" by the Virginia Commonwealth University police department following a traffic stop. He is scheduled for a traffic court appearance on January 18.
|
57,687,434 |
Joker (2019 film)
| 1,173,776,146 |
Film by Todd Phillips
|
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Joker is a 2019 American psychological thriller film directed by Todd Phillips, who also co-wrote the screenplay with Scott Silver. The film, based on DC Comics characters, stars Joaquin Phoenix as Joker. Set in 1981, it follows Arthur Fleck, a failed clown and aspiring stand-up comic whose descent into mental illness and nihilism inspires a violent countercultural revolution against the wealthy in a decaying Gotham City. Robert De Niro, Zazie Beetz and Frances Conroy appear in supporting roles. Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, Joker was produced by Warner Bros. Pictures and DC Films in association with Village Roadshow Pictures, Bron Creative and Joint Effort.
Phillips conceived Joker in 2016 and wrote the script with Silver throughout 2017. The two were inspired by 1970s character studies and the films of Martin Scorsese, particularly Taxi Driver (1976) and The King of Comedy (1982), who was initially attached to the project as a producer. The film loosely adapts plot elements from Batman: The Killing Joke (1988), but Phillips and Silver otherwise did not look to specific comics for inspiration. Phoenix became attached in February 2018 and was cast that July, while the majority of the cast signed on by August. Principal photography took place in New York City, Jersey City and Newark, from September to December 2018. Joker is the first live-action theatrical Batman film to receive an R rating from the Motion Picture Association.
Joker premiered at the 76th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2019, where it won the Golden Lion, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 4. The film received polarizing reviews from critics, with praise directed toward Phoenix's performance, Phillips's direction, the visual style, editing, musical score, and cinematography, while the tone, portrayal of mental illness, lack of originality and handling of violence were criticized. The film was a box office success and set records for an October release. It grossed over \$1 billion, the first R-rated film to do so and became the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2019 during its theatrical run. The film also received numerous accolades. A sequel, Joker: Folie à Deux, is set for release on October 4, 2024.
## Plot
A clown and aspiring stand-up comedian named Arthur Fleck lives with his mother, Penny, in crime-ridden Gotham City during the early 1980s recession. Arthur suffers from a neurological disorder that causes him to have random, uncontrollable laughing fits, requiring medication for which he depends on social services. After Arthur is attacked by juvenile delinquents, his co-worker Randall gives him a revolver for self-defense. Arthur pursues a relationship with his neighbor, single mother Sophie, and invites her to see his routine at a comedy club.
Arthur is fired from his job at a children's hospital when he accidentally exposes the gun despite his explanation that it was given to him by Randall, who denies this. While riding home on the subway still wearing his clown makeup, Arthur is mocked and beaten by drunk businessmen from Wayne Investments; he fatally shoots two of them in self-defense and murders the third as he attempts to flee. The killings are condemned by their employer, billionaire mayoral candidate Thomas Wayne, but protesters begin donning clown masks in Arthur's image. Budget cuts shut down the social service program, leaving Arthur without his medication.
Sophie attends Arthur's stand-up routine, which goes poorly; he laughs uncontrollably, and his jokes fall flat. Arthur intercepts a letter from Penny to Thomas, alleging that he is Thomas's illegitimate son, and berates his mother for hiding the truth. He goes to Wayne Manor, where he meets Thomas's young son Bruce, but flees after a scuffle with family butler Alfred Pennyworth. Penny suffers a stroke and is hospitalized. Arthur's idol, popular late-night talk show host Murray Franklin, presents clips of Arthur's failed performance on his show and mockingly calls him a "joker".
Arthur confronts Thomas at a film theatre. Thomas tells him that he is not his father, and Penny is not his biological mother. In denial, Arthur visits Arkham State Hospital and steals Penny's file, which states she was a narcissist who adopted Arthur while working as a housekeeper for the Waynes in the 1950s. Penny then raised Arthur with her abusive boyfriend, who later died in jail. Penny was sent to Arkham for allowing the abuse. Distraught, Arthur enters Sophie's apartment unannounced. Frightened, Sophie asks him to leave, revealing their relationship to be a figment of Arthur's imagination. The following day, Arthur smothers Penny to death at the hospital.
After his stand-up clips go viral, Arthur is invited to appear on Murray's show. He subsequently plans suicide during the broadcast. While crafting a clown-inspired persona, he is visited by Randall and another ex-colleague, Gary. Arthur kills Randall, but spares Gary for his kindness to him in the past. Two detectives investigating Arthur's involvement in the murders of the businessmen pursue him onto a subway filled with clown protesters. One detective accidentally shoots and kills a protester, thus inciting a riot, while Arthur escapes.
Before the show goes live, Arthur asks Murray to introduce him as "Joker", a reference to his earlier mockery. Arthur begins telling morbid jokes, confesses to the subway murders, rants about how society abandons the downtrodden and mentally ill, and berates Murray for ridiculing him. After one more morbid joke, Arthur fatally shoots him on air. He is arrested, but his action of killing Murray changes Gotham forever, with riots erupting across the city. One of the rioters corners the Wayne family in an alley and murders Thomas and his wife, sparing Bruce. Rioters in an ambulance crash into the police car carrying Arthur, freeing him; he stands atop the car, starts to dance to the cheers of the crowd, and smears blood on his face into the shape of a smile.
At Arkham, Arthur laughs to himself about a joke while with a therapist, but declines to tell it, claiming she would not get it. He leaves behind a trail of bloodied shoeprints as he is chased down a corridor by an orderly.
## Cast
- Joaquin Phoenix as Arthur Fleck / Joker: A mentally ill, impoverished party clown and stand-up comedian disregarded by society, whose history of abuse causes him to become a nihilistic criminal with a clown-themed persona. Phoenix had been interested in a low-budget "character study" of a comic book character and said the film "feels unique, it is its own world in some ways and maybe [...] It might as well be the thing that scares you the most". Phoenix lost 52 pounds (23 kg) for his role in the film.
- Robert De Niro as Murray Franklin: A talk show host who plays a role in Arthur's downfall. De Niro said his role in Joker pays homage to his character from The King of Comedy (1982), Rupert Pupkin, who is a comedian obsessed with a talk-show host.
- Zazie Beetz as Sophie Dumond: A cynical single mother and Arthur's "love interest". Beetz, a "huge fan" of Phoenix, said that it was "an honor" to costar with him and that she learned a lot working with him on set.
- Frances Conroy as Penny Fleck: Arthur's mentally and physically ill mother, who formerly worked for Thomas Wayne.
- Hannah Gross as young Penny.
Additionally, Brett Cullen portrays Thomas Wayne, a billionaire running for mayor of Gotham. Alec Baldwin was initially cast in the role, but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts. Carrie Louise Putrello portrays Thomas's wife Martha, although the character has no lines and is never referred to by name. Douglas Hodge plays Alfred Pennyworth, the butler and caretaker of the Wayne family, and Dante Pereira-Olson plays Bruce Wayne, Thomas' son, who becomes the Joker's archenemy Batman as an adult.
Additional cast members include Glenn Fleshler and Leigh Gill as Randall and Gary, Arthur's clown co-workers; Bill Camp and Shea Whigham as detectives Garrity and Burke in the Gotham City Police Department; Marc Maron as Gene Ufland, a producer on Franklin's show; Sharon Washington as Arthur's social worker; Josh Pais as Hoyt Vaughn, Arthur's agent; Brian Tyree Henry as Clark, a clerk at Arkham State Hospital; Ben Warheit, Michael Benz and Carl Lundstedt as bankers who harass Arthur; Gary Gulman and Sam Morril as comedians at an open mic where Arthur performs; and Bryan Callen as Javier, a co-worker of Arthur. Justin Theroux has an uncredited cameo as Ethan Chase, a celebrity guest on Franklin's show.
## Production
### Development
Between 2014 and 2015, Joaquin Phoenix expressed interest to his agent in acting in a low-budget "character study" type of film about a comic book villain, like DC Comics character the Joker. Phoenix had thought of the idea 1 to 2 years before Phillips conceived Joker in 2016. Phoenix had previously declined to act in the Marvel Cinematic Universe because he would have been required to reprise a role, such as the Hulk (initially portrayed by Edward Norton before he was recast by Mark Ruffalo) or Doctor Strange (ultimately portrayed by Benedict Cumberbatch), in multiple films. Phoenix ruled out the Joker for his "character study" idea and tried to think of a different one. "I thought, 'You can't do the Joker, because, you know, it's just you can't do that character, it's just been done'". Phoenix's agent suggested setting up an exploratory meeting with Warner Bros., but he declined and let go of the idea. Similarly, Todd Phillips had been offered to direct comic-based films a number of times, but declined because he thought they were "loud" and did not interest him. According to Phillips, Joker was created from his idea to create a different, more grounded comic book film. He was attracted to the Joker because he did not think there was a definitive portrayal of the character, which he knew would provide considerable creative freedom.
Phillips pitched the idea for Joker to Warner Bros. after his film War Dogs premiered in August 2016. Prior to War Dogs, Phillips was mostly known for his comedy films, such as Road Trip (2000), Old School (2003) and The Hangover (2009); War Dogs marked a venture into more unsettling territory. During the premiere, Phillips realized "War Dogs wasn't going to set the world on fire and I was thinking, 'What do people really want to see?'" In addition, he found that it was difficult to make comedy films in the "woke culture", throughout opposition of "30 million people on Twitter". He finally thought that "How do I do something irreverent, but fuck comedy? Oh I know, let's take the comic book movie universe and turn it on its head with this". He proposed that DC Films differentiate its slate from the competing Marvel Studios' by producing low-budget, standalone films. After the successful release of Wonder Woman (2017), DC Films decided to deemphasize the shared nature of its DC-based film franchise, the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). In August 2017, Warner Bros. and DC Films revealed plans for the film, with Phillips directing and co-writing with Scott Silver and Martin Scorsese set to co-produce with Phillips. According to Tatiana Siegel of The Hollywood Reporter, Scorsese considered directing Joker before Phillips was chosen, though a Warner Bros. source said he only became involved because the film needed a New York City-based producer.
According to Kim Masters and Borys Kit of The Hollywood Reporter, Jared Leto, who portrayed the Joker in the DCEU, was displeased by the existence of a project separate from his interpretation. In October 2019, Masters reported that Leto "felt 'alienated and upset'" when he learned that Warner Bros.—which had promised him a standalone DCEU Joker film—let Phillips proceed with Joker, going as far as to ask his music manager Irving Azoff to get the project canceled. Masters added that Leto's irritation was what caused him to end his association with Creative Artists Agency (CAA), as he believed "his agents should have told him about the Phillips project earlier and fought harder for his version of Joker". However, sources associated with Leto deny that he attempted to get Joker canceled and left CAA because of it.
Warner Bros. pushed for Phillips to cast Leonardo DiCaprio as the Joker, hoping to use his frequent collaborator Scorsese's involvement to attract him. However, Phillips said that Phoenix was the only actor he considered, and that he and Silver wrote the script with Phoenix in mind, "The goal was never to introduce Joaquin Phoenix into the comic book movie universe. The goal was to introduce comic book movies into the Joaquin Phoenix universe". Phoenix said when he learned of the film, he became excited because it was the kind he was looking to make, describing it as unique and stating it did not feel like a typical "studio movie". It took him some time to commit to the role, as it intimidated him and he said "oftentimes, in these movies, we have these simplified, reductive archetypes and that allows for the audience to be distant from the character, just like we would do in real life, where it's easy to label somebody as evil and therefore say, 'Well, I'm not that.'"
### Writing
Phillips and Silver wrote Joker throughout 2017 and the writing process took about a year. According to producer Emma Tillinger Koskoff, it took some time to get approval for the script from Warner Bros., partly because of concerns over the content. Similarly, Phillips commented that there were "a zillion hurdles" during the year-long writing process due to the visibility of the character. Phillips said that while the script's themes may reflect modern society, the film was not intended to be political. He also noted that Joker is a story about child trauma and mental illness. In their script, Phillips talked about how difficult it is for patients to reveal their diagnoses, referring to a line from the film: "The worst part of having a mental illness is that people expect you to behave as if you don't".
The script draws inspiration from Scorsese films such as Taxi Driver (1976), Raging Bull (1980) and The King of Comedy (1983), as well as Phillips' Hangover Trilogy. Other films Phillips has cited as inspiration include character studies released in the 1970s—such as Serpico (1973) and One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)—the silent film The Man Who Laughs (1928) and several musicals. Phillips said that aside from the tone, he did not consider Joker that different from his previous work, such as his Hangover films. The film's premise was inspired by Alan Moore and Brian Bolland's graphic novel Batman: The Killing Joke (1988), which depicts the Joker as a failed stand-up comedian, while the climactic talk show scene was inspired by a similar scene in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns (1986). However, Phillips said the film does not "follow anything from the comic books... That's what was interesting to me. We're not even doing Joker, but the story of becoming Joker". Phillips later clarified that he meant they did not look to a specific comic for inspiration, but rather "picked and chose what we liked" from the character's history. Having grown up in New York, Phillips also drew inspiration from life in New York City during the early 1980s. The Subway shooting scene and its aftermath were inspired by the 1984 New York City Subway shooting, while Arthur Fleck is partially based on the shooting's perpetrator, Bernhard Goetz.
Phillips and Silver found the most common Joker origin story, in which the character is disfigured after falling into a vat of acid, too unrealistic. Instead, they used certain elements of the Joker lore to produce an original story, which Phillips wanted to feel as authentic as possible. Because the Joker does not have a definitive origin story in the comics, Phillips and Silver were given considerable creative freedom and "pushed each other every day to come up with something totally insane". While the Joker had appeared in several films before, Phillips thought it was possible to produce a new story featuring the character. "It's just another interpretation, like people do interpretations of Macbeth", he told The New York Times. However, they did try to retain the ambiguous "multiple choice" nature of the Joker's past by positioning the character as an unreliable narrator—with entire storylines simply being his delusions—and left what mental illnesses he suffers from unclear. As such, Phillips said the entire film is open to interpretation.
When a draft of the film's script, written in April 2018, was leaked and spread on the internet, Phillips stated that it was an old version from six months before filming began. Phillips also declined to take legal action against the spread of the script, stating that he liked having an old version circulate.
### Pre-production
Following the disappointing critical and financial performance of Justice League (2017), in January 2018 Walter Hamada replaced Jon Berg as the head of DC-based film production at Warner Bros. Hamada sorted through the various DC films in development, canceling some while advancing work on others; the film was set to begin filming in late 2018 with a small budget of \$55 million. Kim Masters of The Hollywood Reporter said Warner Bros. was reluctant to let Joker move forward and gave it a small budget in an effort to dissuade Phillips. Phillips said that Hamada did not understand what he was trying to do. By June, Robert De Niro was under consideration for a supporting role in the film. The deal with Phoenix was finalized in July 2018, after four months of persuasion from Phillips. Immediately afterwards, Warner Bros. officially green-lit the film, titled it Joker and gave it an October 4, 2019, release date. Warner Bros. described the film as "an exploration of a man disregarded by society [that] is not only a gritty character study, but also a broader cautionary tale".
Scorsese's longtime associate Koskoff joined to produce, although Scorsese left his producing duties due to other obligations. Scorsese considered serving as an executive producer, but was preoccupied with his film The Irishman. It was also confirmed that the film would have no effect on Leto's Joker and would be the first in a new series of DC films unrelated to the DCEU. In July, Zazie Beetz was cast in a supporting role and De Niro entered negotiations in August. Frances McDormand declined an offer to portray the mother of the Joker and Frances Conroy was cast. At the end of July, Marc Maron, and Bryan Callen joined the cast. Alec Baldwin was cast as Thomas Wayne on August 27, but dropped out two days later due to scheduling conflicts. Baldwin also noted the character's description as a reason for his departure, which called Thomas Wayne "a cheesy and tanned businessman who is more in the mold of a 1980s Donald Trump".
### Filming
Principal photography commenced in September 2018 in New York City, under the working title Romeo. Shortly after filming began, De Niro, Brett Cullen, Shea Whigham, Glenn Fleshler, Bill Camp, Josh Pais and Douglas Hodge were announced to have joined the film, with Cullen replacing Baldwin. Bradley Cooper joined the film as a producer, and the director of photography was Lawrence Sher, both of whom Phillips had previously collaborated with. On September 22, a scene depicting a violent protest was filmed at the Church Avenue station in Kensington, Brooklyn, although the station was modified to look like the Bedford Park Boulevard station in the Bronx. Filming of violent scenes also took place at the abandoned lower platform of the Ninth Avenue station in Sunset Park, Brooklyn.
According to Beetz, Phillips rewrote the entire script during production; because Phoenix lost so much weight for the film, there would not be an opportunity for reshoots. She recalled, "we would go into Todd's trailer and write the scene for the night and then do it. During hair and makeup we'd memorize those lines and then do them and then we'd reshoot that three weeks later". Phillips recalled Phoenix sometimes walked off-set during filming because he lost self-control and needed to compose himself—to the confusion of other actors, who felt they had done something wrong. De Niro was one of the few Phoenix never walked out on and De Niro said he was "very intense in what he was doing, as it should be, as he should be".
Filming in Jersey City started on September 30 and shut down Newark Avenue, while filming in November, starting on November 9, shut down Kennedy Boulevard. Filming in Newark began on October 13 and lasted until October 16. Shortly before the Newark filming, SAG-AFTRA received a complaint that extras were locked in subway cars for more than three hours during filming in Brooklyn, a break violation. The issue was quickly resolved after a representative visited the set. That month, Dante Pereira-Olson joined the cast as a young Bruce Wayne. Whigham said towards the end of October the film was in "the middle" of production, adding that it was an "intense" and "incredible" experience. By mid-November, filming had moved back to New York. Filming wrapped on December 3, 2018, with Phillips posting a picture on his Instagram feed later in the month to commemorate the occasion.
In The Hollywood Reporter interview, Emma Tillinger Koskoff said that most stressful filming was the "Stair Dance" scene; because there were no laws on paparazzi in New York City, filming was disrupted by them. The South Bronx stairs used for the biographical crime film American Gangster (2007) were originally to be used for these scenes, according to The New York Times, but were deemed too repaved and beautified to be aesthetically acceptable for the film's tone. Initially, Lawrence Sher and Phillips had wanted to film on 65mm film for the 70mm format, but Warner Bros. rejected this due to cost, and the film was subsequently shot in using Arri Alexa 65 digital cameras. Warner Bros. did however end up giving Joker a limited theatrical release in converted 70mm and 35mm presentations.
### Post-production
Phillips confirmed he was in the process of editing Joker in March 2019. At CinemaCon the following month, he stated the film was "still taking shape" and was difficult to discuss, as he hoped to maintain secrecy. Phillips also denied most reports surrounding the film, which he felt was because it is "an origin story about a character that doesn't have a definitive origin". Brian Tyree Henry was also confirmed to have a role in the film. The visual effects were provided by Scanline VFX and Shade VFX and supervised by Matthew Giampa and Bryan Godwin, with Erwin Rivera serving as the overall supervisor. Joker used less VFX work than other comics films, except few scenes including that Arthur smeared smile by his blood in crowd.
One scene that was cut from the film depicted Sophie watching Arthur's appearance on Franklin's show. The scene was intended to show the audience that she is still alive (as the film otherwise implies that Arthur kills her), but Phillips decided it would disrupt the narrative, which is portrayed from Arthur's point of view. In another deleted scene, Arthur reveals his crimes to a co-worker; the scene was ultimately removed because it provided "too much information" in the form of exposition.
The film's final budget was \$55–70 million, considered by The Hollywood Reporter "a fraction" of the cost of a typical comic book-based film. In comparison, the previous villain-centered DC film, Suicide Squad (2016), cost \$175 million. \$25 million of Joker's budget was covered by the Toronto-based financing company Creative Wealth Media, while Village Roadshow Pictures and Bron Studios each contributed 25%. Joker was also the first live-action theatrical film in the Batman film franchise to receive an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, officially for "strong bloody violence, disturbing behavior, language and brief sexual images". In the United Kingdom, the BBFC gave the film a 15 certificate for "strong bloody violence [and] language".
## Design
### Set
Gotham City in Joker was set in 1980s New York City, according to Todd Phillips, "to separate it, quite frankly, from the DC universe". Mark Friedberg, the production designer of this film, said he established the filming location of Gotham Square in Newark as a film set because there was still poverty. He wanted Gotham to look like a gritty city, as described in Taxi Driver (1976), therefore named all structures and lines in this film and drew a specific map of Gotham city. He displayed 1970s brightly colored muscle cars on the set, "conveying dissonance and being awful and beautiful at the same time". He also tried to describe Gotham as a decaying city through graffiti, garbage on the road and cracked sidewalks. The VFX team added fictional buildings, changing the skyline of the city to give the sense that the city was pressing down on Arthur. Lawrence Sher said sodium-vapor lights were used in this film, representing Arthur's isolation and his more hopeful side.
Arkham State Hospital is based on Arkham Asylum. Warner Bros. Korea explained that it is a more realistic name in the real world. The exterior of Arkham State hospital was filmed at Brooklyn Army Terminal, while the interior was pictured in Metropolitan Hospital Center of Harlem. Throughout the film, two walls are shown inside Arkham State Hospital; one is clearly white in the first and last scenes, the other is dirty yellow in the scene in which Arthur runs with a medical report. This difference was intended to make the audience confused and to question the possibility that Arthur had been in hospital the entire time.
### Character design
One of the most important inspiration for Arthur's affected behavior came from the Little Tramp in Modern Times (1936), while his "ridiculous" movement was inspired by Charlie Chaplin. Arthur's dance had been inspired by that of Ray Bolger, while the gesture making smile by two fingers was from the Scarecrow in The Wizard of Oz (1939). In preparation, Phoenix lost 52 pounds (24 kg) to look "wolf-like and malnourished and hungry", and based his laugh on videos of people suffering from pathological laughter. He also sought to portray a character who audiences could not identify with and did not look to previous Joker actors for inspiration; instead, he read a book about political assassinations so he could understand killers and their motivations.
Phillips had identified Arthur's normal face as being his "real mask", while the character of Joker served as his true personality. He had also identified the genuine laugh occurring only in the last scene. Director Todd Phillips said that he intentionally left it ambiguous as to whether Arthur becomes the Joker of traditional Batman stories or inspires a separate character, although Phoenix believes that Arthur is the former.
### Make-up and costumes
Nicki Ledermann and Kay Georgiou, the makeup designer and hairstylist tried to show Arthur Fleck to "be handmade and realistic". Georgiou designated Arthur as a man with unwashed hair. Arthur's costumes, designed by Mark Bridges, were matched to look "aged, overdyed and distressed" through wearing him with cheap polyester pants and acrylic sweater. His color palette was set in '80s; blue, maroon, brown, mauve and gray. In Deadline Hollywood interview, Bridges explained Arthur's costume color started to juvenile mode, going darker with the tone of the story. In the first scene, Arthur's "too small" hooded jacket and white socks emphasize the childish concept. It was a reflection of him living with his mother Penny, with her calling him "my little boy", and the influence of Charlie Chaplin. However, he wore a charcoal sweater in the interview with the social worker and finally was in a "scab-colored knit top" in Arkham State Hospital. A line depicting his old suit for many years was interpreted a mustard-toned vest and a patterned bottle-green shirt. Meanwhile, Arthur in doctor costume is the homage of Joker in The Dark Knight (2008), wearing nurse uniform to meet Harvey Dent in Gotham Hospital.
After turning Arthur into Joker, his design was also changed. His hair was dyed "broccoli" green and he wore a suit similar to the one in the original Batman series. However, the Joker suit in this film had different colors compared to previous films (purple suit with a green or yellow shirt). Mark Bridges noted that it was result of Phillips' intention to not want to be "connected to anything else". Initially, the color of the suit in the script was set to terracotta, but Bridges changed this to red to give "more expressive" emotion. Additionally, his suit colors (green, yellow, purple and red) were compared with those of his antagonists, including Thomas Wayne, giving them to gray and blue like Batman. Clown makeup was drawn with a classic, antique feel, with darker colors and tones and menacing eyebrows. Due to copyright laws stating that no two clowns can look alike, Ledermann faced a challenge.
## Music
In August 2018, Hildur Guðnadóttir was hired to compose the film's score. Hildur began writing music after reading the script and meeting with Phillips, who "had a lot of strong ideas" about how he thought the score should sound. She worked on the Joker score alongside the score for the drama miniseries Chernobyl; Hildur told The Hindu's Divya-Kala Bhavani switching between the two was challenging because the scores were so different.
Additionally, the film features the songs "That's Life", "Send In the Clowns", "White Room" and "Rock and Roll Part 2". The use of "Rock and Roll Part 2" generated controversy when it was reported that its singer, convicted child sex offender Gary Glitter, would receive royalties, but it was later confirmed he would not. The score was released on October 2, 2019, by WaterTower Music. Hildur's music won numerous awards including an Academy Award, a Satellite Award, a Saturn Award, the Hollywood Music in Media Awards (HMMA) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, with the latter making her the first woman to win as a solo composer in that category.
## Marketing
Phillips promoted Joker by posting on set photos on his Instagram account. On September 21, 2018, he released test footage of Phoenix in-costume as the Joker, with "Laughing" by The Guess Who accompanying the footage. At CinemaCon on April 2, 2019, Phillips unveiled the first trailer for the film, which was released online the following day. The trailer, prominently featuring the song "Smile" performed by Jimmy Durante, generated positive responses, with some commentators comparing it to Taxi Driver and Requiem for a Dream (2000) and praising Phoenix's performance. Writers described the trailer as dark and gritty, with ComicBook.com's Jenna Anderson feeling it appeared more like a psychological thriller than a comic book film. Actor Mark Hamill, who has voiced the Joker since the cartoon Batman: The Animated Series (1992-1995), expressed enthusiasm on Twitter. Conversely, io9's Germain Lussier said the trailer revealed too little and that it was too similar to photos Phillips had posted on Instagram. While he still believed it exhibited potential, Lussier overall thought the trailer was not "a home run". The trailer received over eight million views in the first few hours of release.
On August 25, 2019, Phillips released six brief teasers that contained flashes of writing, revealing the second trailer would be released on August 28. Filmmaker Kevin Smith commended the trailer, stating he thought the film "would still work even if [DC Comics] didn't exist" and praising its uniqueness. Overall, Deadline Hollywood estimated that Warner Bros. spent \$120 million on promotion and advertisements.
After release in theaters, Warner Bros. used negative critics on this film for promotion.
## Release
### Theatrical
Joker had its world premiere at the 76th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2019, where it received an eight-minute standing ovation and won the Golden Lion award. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2019. The film was released theatrically by Warner Bros. Pictures on October 4, 2019, in the United States and a day earlier in Australia and several other international markets. On November 16, 2019, it was screened at the White House for President Donald Trump, who reportedly enjoyed the film. Some theaters released this movie on 70mm film, by original intention of the movie's director. Following its nominations at various awards shows, the film was scheduled to be rereleased in theaters across North America, beginning on January 17, 2020.
#### Security concerns
On September 18, 2019, the United States Army distributed an email warning service members of potential violence at theaters screening the film and noting the Joker character's popularity among the incel community. A separate memo revealed the Army received "credible" information from Texas law enforcement "regarding the targeting of an unknown movie theater during the release". The film, forbidden to minors under 17 in the USA, has unleashed the now usual problem of the possible imitations of the criminal behaviors represented in the film in ordinary life. However, according to Deadline Hollywood, the FBI and the United States Department of Homeland Security found no credible threats surrounding the release of the film.
In an interview with TheWrap, Phillips expressed surprise at criticism of the film's dark tone, stating "it's because outrage is a commodity" and calling critics of the film "far left". Phoenix walked out of an interview by The Telegraph when asked if the film could inspire mass shooters. He later returned to finish the interview, but did not answer the question. Following this, journalists were disinvited from the premiere at TCL Chinese Theatre, with only photographers being allowed to interact with the filmmakers and cast on the carpet. In a statement to Variety, Warner Bros. said that "A lot has been said about Joker and we just feel it's time for people to see the film".
The film did not play at the Aurora, Colorado movie theater where the 2012 mass shooting occurred during a screening of The Dark Knight Rises (2012). Three families of victims, as well as the mother of a witness, signed a letter to Warner Bros. with the request. Additionally, Landmark Theaters prohibited moviegoers from wearing Joker costumes during its run, while the Los Angeles and New York City Police Departments increased police visibility at area theaters, though they did not receive "any specific threat".
Ultimately, despite the aforementioned concerns, screenings of the film proceeded and concluded with no reports of violent incidents.
### Home media
Joker was released on Digital HD on December 17, 2019, and on DVD, Blu-ray and Ultra HD Blu-ray on January 7, 2020. It debuted on HBO on May 16, 2020, and on HBO Max when it launched on May 27, 2020.
## Reception
### Box office
Joker grossed \$335.5 million in the United States and Canada and \$738.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of \$1.074 billion. It is the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2019 and the highest-grossing R-rated film of all time, as well as the first R-rated film to pass the billion-dollar mark. In terms of budget-to-gross ratio, Joker is also the most profitable film based on a comic book, due to its small budget and little decline in week-to-week grosses during its theatrical run, surpassing the record previously held by Deadpool (2016). Deadline Hollywood estimated the film made a net profit of \$437 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.
In August 2019, BoxOffice magazine analyst Shawn Robbins wrote that he expected Joker to gross \$60–90 million during its opening weekend in North America. Following the film's premiere, BoxOffice predicted Joker could open to \$70–95 million domestically. Later updating to \$85–105 million, Robbins suggested it could become the first October release to open to over \$100 million and surpass the record set by Venom (2018). However, Comscore's senior media analyst Paul Dergarabedian thought the film would open closer to \$50 million because it is not a "typical comic-book movie". Three weeks prior to its release, official industry tracking projected the film would debut to \$65–80 million, with some estimates going as high as \$90 million. The week of its release, Atom Tickets announced pre-sale totals for the film were outpacing those of Venom and It Chapter Two (\$91.1 million debut) and that Joker was its second-bestselling R-rated film of 2019 behind John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum.
Joker opened in 4,374 theaters in North America and made \$39.9 million on its first day of release, including \$13.3 million from Thursday night previews, besting Venom's respective October records. The film also had the biggest October opening day of any film, beating out Halloween (2018). It went on to break Venom's record for having the biggest October opening weekend, finishing with a domestic total of \$96.2 million. The film set career records for Phoenix, Phillips and De Niro and was the fourth-largest debut for an R-rated film of all time. The latter record would cross over The Matrix Reloaded (2003), staying behind Deadpool, Deadpool 2 (2018) and It (2017). It was also Warner Bros.' biggest domestic opening in two years. In its second weekend the film fell just 41.8% to \$55.9 million, remaining in first and marking the best second-weekend October total (besting Gravity (2013)'s \$43.1 million in 2013). It made \$29.2 million in its third weekend and \$19.2 million in its fourth, finishing second behind Maleficent: Mistress of Evil both times. After 155 days, Joker's American theatrical run wrapped up on March 5, 2020, with a final gross of \$355.5 million, making it the fourth-highest domestic gross for an R-rated film, behind The Passion of the Christ (2004), Deadpool and American Sniper (2014).
Worldwide, the film was projected to debut to around \$155 million, including \$75 million from 73 overseas territories. It made \$5.4 million from four countries on its first day and \$18.7 million from 47 in its second, for a two-day total of \$24.6 million. It went on to greatly exceed expectations, making \$140.5 million from overseas territories and a total \$234 million worldwide. Its largest markets were South Korea (a Warner Bros. record \$16.3 million), the United Kingdom (\$14.8 million), Mexico (\$13.1 million) and Japan (\$7 million). With this, it became the biggest worldwide opening for an October film. During its second weekend, the film made an additional \$125.7 million worldwide, and \$77.9 million in its third. By this point, industry analysts expected Joker to become the highest-grossing R-rated film of all time, with some suggesting that it could finish its run with over \$1 billion. The film became the highest-grossing R-rated film in its fourth weekend, during which it grossed \$47.8 million internationally, and passed the billion-dollar mark about a month into its theatrical release.
### Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Joker holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Joker gives its infamous central character a chillingly plausible origin story that serves as a brilliant showcase for its star – and a dark evolution for comics-inspired cinema". Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 59 out of 100 based on 60 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an overall positive score of 84% (with an average 4 out of 5 stars) and a 60% "definite recommend".
Mark Kermode of The Observer rated the film 4 out of 5 stars, stating "Joker has an ace card in the form of Joaquin Phoenix's mesmerisingly physical portrayal of a man who would be king". Writing for IGN, Jim Vejvoda gave Joker a perfect score, saying that the film "would work just as well as an engrossing character study without any of its DC Comics trappings; that it just so happens to be a brilliant Batman-universe movie is icing on the Batfan cake". He found it a powerful and unsettling allegory of contemporary neglect and violence and described Phoenix's performance as the Joker as engrossing and "Oscar-worthy". Similarly, Xan Brooks of The Observer—who also gave the film a perfect score—called it "gloriously daring and explosive" and appreciated how Phillips used elements from Scorsese films to create an original story. Variety's Owen Gleiberman wrote, "Phoenix is astonishing as a mentally ill geek who becomes the killer-clown Joker in Todd Phillips' neo-Taxi Driver knockout: the rare comic-book movie that expresses what's happening in the real world".
ComicBook.com's Brandon Davis acclaimed Joker as a groundbreaking comic book adaptation that he found scarier than most 2019 horror films. Davis compared it favorably to the 2008 Batman film The Dark Knight, praised the cinematography and performances and called it a film that needed to be seen to be believed. Deadline Hollywood's Pete Hammond believes the film redefines the Joker and is "impossible to shake off". Hammond also praised the story and performances and summarized the film as "a bravura piece of filmmaking that speaks to the world we are actually living in today in ways that few movies do". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said he was lost for words in describing Phoenix's performance, calling the film "gut-wrenching" and "simply stupendous".
David Ehrlich of IndieWire was more mixed and gave the film a "C+". He felt that while "Joker is the boldest and most exciting superhero movie since The Dark Knight", it was "also incendiary, confused and potentially toxic". Ehrlich thought that the film would make DC fans happy and praised Phoenix's performance, but criticized Phillips' direction and the lack of originality. A critical review came from Glenn Kenny of RogerEbert.com, who gave the film two stars out of four. Though he praised the performances and thought the story worked, Kenny criticized the social commentary and Phillips' direction, finding the film too derivative and believing its focus was "less in entertainment than in generating self-importance". In an analysis of the character Joker, Onmanorama's Sajesh Mohan wrote that the movie was cliché-ridden, the only original part being Joaquin Phoenix's acting. "The movie, with great pain and in detail, explains how Arthur Fleck turns into Joker dejected by the way the world treats him. Thanks to Phillips and Silver, Phoenix was able to bring out the king among the Jokers," the analysis read.
Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine, in a negative review, labeled Phoenix's performance over-the-top and felt that while Phillips tried to "[give] us a movie all about the emptiness of our culture... he's just offering a prime example of it". She argued the plot was nonexistent, "dark only in a stupidly adolescent way" and "stuffed with phony philosophy". Meanwhile, NPR's Glen Weldon thought the film lacked innovation and said its sympathetic take on the Joker was "wildly unconvincing and mundanely uninteresting". Weldon also described Joker as trying too hard to deviate from the comics and, as a result, coming off as an imitation of films like Taxi Driver. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it "the most disappointing film of the year". While praising Phoenix's performance and the first act, he criticized the film's political plot developments and overall found it too derivative of various Scorsese films.
### Industry response
Joker generated positive responses from industry figures. DC Comics chief creative officer Jim Lee praised it as "intense, raw and soulful" and stated that it had remained true to the character despite deviating from the source material. Actor Mark Hamill, who has voiced the Joker in animation and video games since Batman: The Animated Series, thought the film had "brilliantly" reinvented the character and gave it "[two] thumbs up". Superman (1978) director Richard Donner called the film "brilliant", "fascinating", "really well-written" and stated that Phoenix's performance was "genius". Documentary filmmaker Michael Moore called Joker a "cinematic masterpiece" and stated it was a "danger to society" if people did not see it. Actor Josh Brolin found the film powerful: "To appreciate Joker I believe you have to have either gone through something traumatic in your lifetime (and I believe most of us have) or understand somewhere in your psyche what true compassion is". Actor Vincent D'Onofrio vocally commended Phoenix's performance in the film on Twitter, stating that he "deserve[d] recognition for this performance", while actress Jessica Chastain agreed, replying: "It's one of the greatest pieces of acting I've ever seen". Actress and screenwriter Phoebe Waller-Bridge also praised the film, stating: "I think the reason people got so uncomfortable [with the film] is because it feels too true, too raw. I was watching it and thinking to myself, God, if this came out a year into Obama's time in office, I don't think we'd be feeling as worried about it". Filmmaker David Fincher said of the film's unexpected success, "Nobody would have thought they had a shot at a giant hit with Joker had The Dark Knight not been as massive as it was. I don't think anyone would have looked at that material and thought, 'Yeah, let's take [Taxi Driver's] Travis Bickle and [The King of Comedy's] Rupert Pupkin and conflate them, then trap him in a betrayal of the mentally ill and trot it out for a billion dollars'". Actor Brendan Gleeson felt that Phoenix's performance as the Joker was absolutely "indelible" and one of the most magnificent achievements in cinema he has ever seen, incidentally being that the reason he opted to join the film's sequel Joker: Folie à Deux (2024).
### Accolades
Joaquin Phoenix's performance in the film won him multiple awards, including an Academy Award for Best Actor, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, a Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor, a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role.
Joker won the Best Actor (Phoenix) and Best Original Score awards at the 92nd Academy Awards. It received overall eleven nominations (including Best Picture) from the ceremony, breaking the record of eight held by The Dark Knight for the most nominations received by a film based on a comic book, comic strip or graphic novel. Hildur Guðnadóttir also became the first woman to win an original score Oscar since The Full Monty (1997) in 1998. At the 73rd British Academy Film Awards, the film won Best Actor in a Leading Role (Phoenix), Best Casting and Best Original Music out of a leading eleven nominations including Best Film. The film was nominated for four Golden Globe Awards for the 77th ceremony, winning the awards for Best Original Score and Best Actor (Phoenix). The film was nominated for seven awards at the 25th Critics' Choice Awards, winning Best Actor (Phoenix) and Best Score and was included in the American Film Institute and Cahiers du Cinéma's top 10 films of 2019.
Having won an award at the 26th Screen Actors Guild Awards for Phoenix's performance, Joker also received nominations from other guilds including the Writers Guild of America Awards and the Producers Guild of America. It won a Best Period and/or Character Make-Up in a Feature-Length Motion Picture award from the Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild. An American production, the film won the Golden Lion at the 76th Venice International Film Festival.
## Themes and analysis
Joker deals with the themes of mental illness and its effects. While its depiction of the Joker has been described as reminiscent of those who commit mass shootings in the United States as well as members of the incel community, Christina Newland of The Guardian concludes that Fleck is not an incel, but wrote that incels are likely to relate to him. Vejvoda, Hammond and Newland interpreted the film as a cautionary tale—society's disregard of those who are less fortunate will create a person like the Joker. Stephen Kent, writing for the Washington Examiner, described Arthur Fleck as blending shared aspects of mass shooters and interpreted its message as a reminder that society is riddled with men like the Joker. Writing in People's World, Chauncey K. Robinson said the film "walks a fine line between exploration and validation" of Joker's character and is "ultimately an in-your-face examination of a broken system that creates its own monsters."
Some writers have expressed concern that Joker's sympathetic portrayal of a homicidal maniac could inspire real-world violence. Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair found the film was too sympathetic towards "white men who commit heinous crimes" and that the sociopolitical ideologies represented in the film are "evils that are far more easily identifiable" to people "who shoot up schools and concerts and churches, who gun down the women and men they covet and envy, who let loose some spirit of anarchic animus upon the world—there's almost a woebegone mythos placed on them in the search for answers." Jim Geraghty of National Review wrote he was "worried that a certain segment of America's angry, paranoid, emotionally unstable young men will watch Joaquin Phoenix descending into madness and a desire to get back at society by hurting as many people as possible and exclaim, 'finally, somebody understands me!'" Contrarily, Michael Shindler, reviewing the film in Mere Orthodoxy, while agreeing that Joker depicts a sympathetic wish fulfillment fantasy, contends (drawing on insights from Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan) that it is for precisely that reason that the film will, if anything, preemptively quell real-world violence by rendering "the Flecks of the world into meek somnambulists".
British neurocriminologist Adrian Raine was impressed by how accurate the film's depiction of the psychology of a murderer was. In an interview with Vanity Fair, he described it as "a great educational tool" and stated that he planned to present film clips during his classes. Psychiatrist Kamran Ahmed highlighted the factors in Arthur's childhood such as parental abuse and loss and family history of mental illness in the genesis of his condition. American psychiatrist Imani Walker, who is known for her Bravo television series Married to Medicine Los Angeles and working with violent criminals with mental disorders, analyzed the Joker's apparent mental disorders and circumstances and noted that Arthur tries to find help before his downfall, only to be abandoned. She says of Arthur and others in poverty who have mental illness: "We as a society don't even pretend that they're real people and that's what this movie is about. He never had a chance." Forensic psychiatrist Ziv Cohen criticized the film as misrepresenting the mentally ill as violent. He argued the film conflates psychopathy (a lack of conscience) with mental illness, thereby creating a false impression of the mentally ill as dangerous.
Micah Uetricht, managing director of Jacobin, opined in a review published by The Guardian that he was shocked that the media did not understand the movie's message: "we got a fairly straightforward condemnation of American austerity: how it leaves the vulnerable to suffer without the resources they need and the horrific consequences for the rest of society that can result"; Uetricht thus declares that Joker presents a world that has devolved into "barbarism". Uetricht states that these themes are unsubtle to the extent that it was surprising that most media outlets had not identified them. Ahmed also highlights the lack of funding for already-stretched mental health services worldwide being alluded to.
The film's director and co-screenwriter, Todd Phillips, has stated that Joker is "certainly not a political film". Phillips has also commented on discourse surrounding the film, pushing back on several criticisms surrounding its themes. He responded to critics who have expressed concerns over the film's violence, saying "Isn't it good to have these discussions about these movies, about violence? Why is that a bad thing if the movie does lead to a discourse about it?" Phillips also commented on political backlash to the film, saying "What's outstanding to me in this discourse in this movie is how easily the far left can sound like the far right when it suits their agenda. It's really been eye-opening for me."
## Cultural impact
During a Five Star Movement event in October 2019, Italian comedian and politician Beppe Grillo gave a speech wearing the Joker's makeup. Yusuke Kawai, the governor of Chiba Prefecture, appeared on NHK with a Joker costume in 2021. References to the character were also found in anti-government protests worldwide. During the 17 October Revolution, a group of graffiti artists called Ashekm painted a mural of the Joker holding a Molotov cocktail and it was also reported that there was a Joker facepaint station at the protests in Beirut. In Los Ángeles, Chile, during the 2019–2022 Chilean protests, the phrase "We are all clowns", which is adopted by Gotham City protesters in the movie, was written at the foot of a statue. In Hong Kong, protesters challenged an emergency decree prohibiting the wearing of masks by wearing those of fictional characters such as the Joker. In France, during the Yellow Vest Protests, firefighters donned Joker makeup holding placards. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, Argentine president Alberto Fernández compared the pictures of the protests to those seen in the film.
One of the locations seen in the film, a set of stairs in the Bronx, New York City, has been dubbed the Joker Stairs. The stairs have become a tourist destination and the subject of internet memes, with visitors often reenacting the scene from the film in which Fleck dances down the stairs in his Joker attire. Ukrainian boxing champion Oleksandr Usyk wore a suit resembling that of Joker in a pre-fight press conference leading up to his fight with Anthony Joshua.
In 2020, Deadline listed it as one of the "21 Most Influential Films Of The 21st Century, So Far," with Pete Hammond describing it as a film "that emerged from a comic book to become a frightening comment on our own dark times, proving the genre from which it came is capable of being taken very seriously indeed." It also ranked 39 on Empire's list of the "100 Greatest Movies of the 21st Century," saying that "it represented another mature evolution for the comic book movie – and proved that DC adaptations could thrive outside the Marvel-style universe structure."
## Sequel
Joker was intended to be a standalone film with no sequels but Warner Bros. led to the development on a follow-up. Joker: Folie à Deux is set to be released on October 4, 2024.
## See also
- The People's Joker: A 2022 parody film inspired by Joker and other DC characters, self-described as "an illegal queer coming of age comic book movie".
|
19,152,430 |
The Accounting Review
| 1,155,948,281 | null |
[
"Academic journals established in 1926",
"Academic journals published by learned and professional societies",
"Accounting journals",
"Bimonthly journals",
"English-language journals"
] |
The Accounting Review is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal published by the American Accounting Association (AAA) that covers accounting with a scope encompassing any accounting-related subject and any research methodology. The Accounting Review is one of the oldest accounting journals, and recent studies considered it to be one of the leading academic journals in accounting.
The Accounting Review was established in 1926. In its early decades, the journal tended to publish articles that would be of interest to accounting practitioners, but over time it shifted towards a preference for quantitative model building and mathematical rigor. In the 1980s the AAA began to publish two other journals, Issues in Accounting Education and Accounting Horizons, that were more relevant to accounting educators and accounting practitioners respectively, to allow The Accounting Review to focus more heavily on quantitative articles.
## Overview and history
The Accounting Review is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering accounting, and is the flagship journal of the American Accounting Association. Its current Senior Editor is Mary E. Barth (Stanford University). The journal's scope encompasses any accounting-related subject and any research methodology: as of 2010 the proportions of papers accepted for publication across subject areas and research methods was very similar to the proportion of papers received for review.
Submissions to The Accounting Review are reviewed by editorial board members and ad hoc reviewers. In 2009, the journal received over 500 new submissions a year, and about 9% of the decision letters sent to authors were acceptances or conditional acceptances.
### Establishment to 1960s
The Accounting Review, launched in 1926 by William Andrew Paton, is one of the oldest academic journals in accounting. The American Association of University Instructors of Accounting, which later became the American Accounting Association, originally proposed that the association publish a Quarterly Journal of Accountics, but the proposal did not see fruition, and The Accounting Review was subsequently born. Paton served as editor and production manager in the journal's first three years.
In the first few decades following the journal's establishment, leading authors in The Accounting Review tended to write articles that would be of interest to accounting practitioners. The journal published articles that focused on accounting education and issues related to particular industries and trade groups, with many articles using anecdotal evidence and hypothetical illustrations. The longest-serving editor during this period was Eric Kohler, an accounting practitioner; Kohler served as editor from 1928 to 1942.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, The Accounting Review published articles of greater diversity, and leading authors during this period tended to have less practical accounting experience and more formal education. During this period, the three individuals that accounted for most of the editorial duties of the journal were A. C. Littleton (1944–1947), Frank Smith (1950–1959) and Robert Mautz (1960–1962), all of whom either had practical accounting experience, or were leading authors prior to 1945, when the journal was oriented towards the accounting practice.
### 1960s to present
In the 1960s, the journal shifted towards a preference for quantitative model building including econometric models and time series models, and accepted more articles by non-accountants who contributed ideas from other disciplines in solving accounting-related problems. Since the late 1970s, accounting professors have opined that the journal was sacrificing relevance for mathematical rigor, and by 1982, accounting researchers realized that mathematical analysis and empirical research were a necessary condition for articles to be accepted.
In the 1980s, the AAA began to publish two other journals, Issues in Accounting Education and Accounting Horizons. Issues in Accounting Education, first published in 1983, was created to better serve accounting educators, while Accounting Horizons, first published in 1987, focused more on issues facing accounting practitioners. This permitted the journal "to focus more heavily on quantitative papers that became increasingly difficult for practitioners and many teachers of accounting to comprehend".
Between the 1980s and the 2000s, with the rise of databases such as Compustat and EDGAR and software such as SAS, articles became mathematically more rigorous with increasingly sophisticated statistical analyses, and accounting practitioners comprised a decreasing proportion of authors in the journal.
## Impact
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2020 impact factor of 3.993. Recent studies on accounting research and on doctoral programs in accounting considered The Accounting Review to be one of six leading accounting journals, and it is also one of the journals used by the Financial Times to compile its business school research rank.
## Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Social Sciences Citation Index, Current Contents/Social & Behavioral Sciences, and Scopus.
## Editors-in-chief
The following persons have been editors-in-chief:
|
38,118,169 |
John Hemmingham
| 1,157,228,842 |
English football supporter (born 1963)
|
[
"1963 births",
"21st-century British male musicians",
"21st-century trumpeters",
"Association football supporters",
"English chief executives",
"English trumpeters",
"Living people",
"Male trumpeters",
"Musicians from Sheffield",
"Sports musicians",
"Wikipedia Did you know articles that are good articles"
] |
John Hemmingham (born 26 February 1963) is an association football supporter and football administrator from Sheffield, England. He is best known as the leader and trumpet player of the England Band. Hemmingham first started playing music at football in 1993 with Sheffield Wednesday fans. In 1996, he was invited to play at England national football team matches. He has since played at other sporting events including the Olympics and boxing matches.
Hemmingham also works in football administration. He started in 2001 as the chief executive of The Owls Trust until a dispute with the Sheffield Wednesday chairman caused him to resign in 2004. Hemmingham then went on to work at other football clubs, including Leeds United and Mansfield Town before taking a position at Sheffield Wednesday after his relations improved with them. He also married in 2007.
## Band
### Sheffield Wednesday
Hemmingham started playing music at football matches in 1993 when he took a bugle to a Sheffield Wednesday match away at Everton's Goodison Park and played the fanfare to Aida. The action was noticed by local newspapers and after a phone call to Hemmingham from Sheffield Wednesday manager, Trevor Francis, Sheffield Wednesday then hired Hemmingham and group of Sheffield Wednesday supporters to form an official club band which became known as the "Kop Band". Although the band became popular, Hemmingham and the Kop Band have been banned from Steel City derby rivals Sheffield United's stadium, Bramall Lane a number of times. In 2002, they were banned from Bramall Lane because Sheffield United were concerned that playing music might lead to "unsafe crowd movement" and "unacceptable structural movement" by Sheffield United's safety officer.
### England
In 1996, Hemmingham, along with the Kop Band, were invited by the head of The Football Association, David Davies to form a supporters band for the England national team in time for UEFA Euro 96. Hemmingham accepted and the Kop Band became known as the England Supporters Band. Since then, Hemmingham claims he has not missed an England game. As well as being viewed as the leader of the band, Hemmingham is also the managing director of them.
After being offered a recording deal by Virgin Group chairman, Richard Branson, Hemmingham and the band released The Great Escape theme tune as singles for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2000. The England Supporters band then started received backing from commercial sponsors. In 2006, the band were sponsored by Leicester-based company Pukka Pies, becoming known as the Pukka Pies England Band until 2014.
In 2010 publishers, Peakpublish announced they had signed a deal with Hemmingham for him to write two books about the formation of the England Supporters Band and his experiences with them. The books were called The Story of the England Supporters' Band and Playing for England.
### Other sports
Hemmingham has also led the England Band to other sporting events. In 2008, Hemmingham took the band to Beijing, China during the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics to support Team GB however they were not permitted to enter the Beijing National Stadium with their instruments and instead played on the streets of Beijing. In 2012, during the London 2012 Summer Olympics it was announced that the England Band would be supporting both the Great Britain men's national field hockey team and the Great Britain women's national field hockey team during their matches at the Olympics. Hemmingham has also taken the band to Las Vegas, United States as well as the City of Manchester Stadium to support Manchester boxer, Ricky Hatton. They have also attended Rugby sevens matches to support the England national team.
## Football administration
Hemmingham first started in football administration as the chief executive of an independent supporters group called The Owls Trust, which he helped establish, in 2001. The Owls Trust was disliked by many Sheffield Wednesday fans and by Sheffield Wednesday chairman Dave Allen as it was perceived that it was a vehicle leading towards a takeover by Ken Bates, then chairman of Sheffield Wednesday's rivals Leeds United, as The Owls Trust controlled a large amount of shares and Hemmingham had publicly stated support for Bates.
After an attempted boardroom coup by The Owls Trust to remove Allen from the chairmanship in an extraordinary general meeting in October 2004, in 2005, The Owls Trust were evicted from their offices at Hillsborough Stadium, Hemmingham was banned from executive areas of the stadium and The Kop Band was asked to reduce its numbers by Allen. Hemmingham's ban was then later extended to a full stadium ban from Hillsborough. As a result of this, after securing an area for matchday parking, Hemmingham resigned to take a full-time position at Bates' Leeds United as head of customer services and membership. This led to Hemmingham receiving death threats from Sheffield Wednesday fans.
In January 2008, Hemmingham left Leeds United and in August, he was appointed as the chief executive of non-league side, Mansfield Town where he oversaw the expansion of the capacity of their Field Mill stadium. However, in January 2009, he left his position after three months. Also in January, his relations with Sheffield Wednesday improved after Allen was no longer chairman and the new directors at the club, Lee Strafford and Nick Parker elected to remove Hemmingham's ban from Hillsborough. In 2011, Hemmingham rejoined Sheffield Wednesday as the Commercial Manager of Sheffield Wednesday Ladies.
## Personal life
Hemmingham has been married since 2007.
|
42,484,142 |
2014 Coppa Italia final
| 1,163,225,912 | null |
[
"2010s in Rome",
"2013–14 in Italian football cups",
"ACF Fiorentina matches",
"Coppa Italia finals",
"May 2014 sports events in Europe",
"SSC Napoli matches"
] |
The 2014 Coppa Italia final decided the winner of the 2013–14 Coppa Italia, the 67th season of Italy's main football cup. It was played on 3 May 2014 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, between Fiorentina and Napoli. Napoli won the game 3–1, with two early goals from Lorenzo Insigne and a late third by substitute Dries Mertens, although they had Gökhan Inler sent off in the second half. Juan Manuel Vargas scored Fiorentina's goal.
As Napoli qualified for the UEFA Champions League by their league position, Fiorentina as runners-up qualified for the Group Stage of the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League. This was the last season in which cup runners-up could qualify for the Europa League if the winner had already qualified for the Champions League. Napoli went on to play in the 2014 Supercoppa Italiana against the 2013–14 Serie A champions Juventus, and won.
The final was marred by pre-match violence, which delayed the scheduled kick-off time. Three Napoli fans were shot, one of whom died following a two-month coma. Club President Aurelio De Laurentiis dedicated Napoli's victory to the wounded fans.
## Background
Fiorentina played their 10th Coppa Italia final, having won six, including their last in 2001. It was Napoli's ninth, and they had previously won four, including their last final in 2012.
During the league season, Fiorentina and Napoli had already played each other twice. The first fixture, on 30 October 2013 at the Stadio Artemio Franchi, resulted in a 2–1 away win for Napoli which ended Fiorentina's unbeaten home record. All of the goals came in the first half—José Callejón opened the scoring, Giuseppe Rossi equalised with a penalty and Dries Mertens scored the winner in the 36th minute. In the closing stages of the game, Christian Maggio was sent off for the visitors, and Juan Cuadrado for the hosts. In the reverse fixture, at Napoli's Stadio San Paolo on 23 March 2014, Fiorentina were victorious as Joaquín scored the only goal of the game with three minutes remaining; Faouzi Ghoulam had been sent off for the hosts in the first half for fouling Marko Bakić when the Fiorentina midfielder had an opportunity to score.
Prior to the cup final, Napoli were in third place in Serie A and therefore in the last position to qualify for the Champions League, eight points ahead of Fiorentina with nine points left to play for. Fiorentina manager Vincenzo Montella said before the game that his priority was to finish fourth and win the Coppa Italia. His Napoli counterpart, Rafael Benítez, warned his players not to expect to win solely based on their league position.
Players and staff of both clubs were invited to Vatican City the day before the final, where they listened to a speech by Pope Francis. Managers Montella and Benítez presented souvenirs of their clubs to the Pope.
## Road to the final
### Fiorentina
Fiorentina, of Serie A, entered the tournament in the Last 16 at home to Chievo, also of their league. They won 2–0 with first-half goals from Joaquín and Ante Rebić, despite the dismissal of Massimo Ambrosini. In the quarter-final on 23 January, again at home, they beat Serie B Siena 2–1 with Josip Iličić opening the scoring and Marvin Compper scoring the winner. Fiorentina's semi-final against Udinese began with a 2–1 away defeat on 4 February, but the second leg on 12 February was a 2–0 home victory with goals from Manuel Pasqual and Cuadrado.
### Napoli
Napoli, also of Serie A, entered in the Last 16 on 15 January with a 3–1 home win over Atalanta, in which Callejón scored twice and Lorenzo Insigne the other goal. Their quarter-final on 29 January was a 1–0 victory at home over cup holders Lazio, with a late goal from Gonzalo Higuaín. Like Fiorentina, Napoli began their semi-final with an away defeat (3–2 against Roma), but secured their place in the final with a 3–0 victory at home on 12 February, with goals from Callejón, Higuaín and Jorginho.
## Match
### Team selection
Fiorentina were without record signing Mario Gómez, the German striker having suffered with injury all season. Their top scorer of the season, Giuseppe Rossi, had been injured since January but was included as a substitute. Montella opined that Rossi would be ready to represent Italy at the World Cup in June. Goalkeeper Neto and midfielder Borja Valero had been doubts due to recent finger and knee injuries respectively, but made the starting line-up. Midfielder Cuadrado was suspended, having been given a yellow card towards the end of their semi-final victory over Udinese.
Napoli's top scorer of the season, Higuaín, started despite a bruise to his shin from his last match. Benítez said "Not everyone in the team is 100 per cent, but we are in good shape".
### Pre-match violence
Three Napoli fans were shot outside the stadium before the match, two with arm injuries. Ciro Esposito, who was in a critical state after being shot in the chest, died in hospital on 25 June. Police, who found the gun, have stated that they do not believe that the shootings were related to other clashes by the two sets of fans: prior to the game, there were reports of firecrackers and other projectiles being thrown between them in the Tor di Quinto area of Rome. Kick-off was subsequently delayed as Napoli fans did not want the match to start without knowing the condition of the shot fans. When match organisers attempted to speak to the Napoli fans, accompanied by their midfielder Marek Hamšík, they were "pelted with flares and smoke bombs". Daniele De Santis, a Roma ultra was convicted of shooting Esposito and was sentenced to 26 years in prison on 24 May 2016; his sentenced was later reduced on appeals to 16 years on 26 September 2018.
### Summary
Napoli winger Insigne opened the scoring in the 11th minute by cutting in from the left and curling a shot past Fiorentina goalkeeper Neto. He doubled the lead six minutes later by connecting to Higuaín's cross and forcing a deflection off Nenad Tomović. With two goals in the final, he equalled the number of goals that he had scored in the entire Serie A season. Fiorentina responded in the 28th minute, when Josip Iličić chipped the defence and Juan Vargas volleyed the ball into the goal.
Fiorentina had chances to equalise in the second half, with a long shot from substitute Matías Fernández tipped over the crossbar by Napoli goalkeeper Pepe Reina, and Iličić missing a one-on-one. Despite being reduced to ten men for the last ten minutes after a second booking for Gökhan Inler after he fouled Iličić, Napoli extended their lead in injury time when substitute Mertens scored a third after being set up by Callejón.
### Details
## Post-match
Napoli supporters invaded the pitch to celebrate following their team's victory. However, they were brought under control in order to allow the trophy ceremony to take place.
Aurelio De Laurentiis, club president of Napoli, dedicated the cup win to the then unidentified fan who had been shot before the match and operated on. On the pre-match violence, Demetrio Albertini, vice president of the Italian Football Federation, said, "It certainly wasn't a great scene, what we displayed today alongside football, for a football lover like me, it was an ugly display."
As cup winners, Napoli qualified for the 2014 Supercoppa Italiana in which they would face Serie A champions Juventus. The match had traditionally taken place in August, but Napoli requested it be moved due to their Champions League play-off that month. The fixture was eventually played on 22 December during the league's winter break, at the Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium in Doha, Qatar. It finished 1–1 after 90 minutes, 2–2 after extra time, and Napoli won 6–5 in the penalty shootout.
|
37,035,513 |
Early life of David Lynch
| 1,134,874,188 |
American filmmaker
|
[
"David Lynch",
"Early lives by individual"
] |
David Keith Lynch (born January 20, 1946) is an American filmmaker, painter, television director, visual artist, musician and occasional actor. Known for his surrealist films, he has developed his own unique cinematic style, most often noted for its dreamlike imagery and meticulous sound design. The surreal and, in many cases, violent elements in his films have earned them a reputation as works that "disturb, offend or mystify" general audiences.
Although born in Missoula, Montana, Lynch spent his youth traveling across the United States due to his father Donald's job for the Department of Agriculture; as a result, Lynch attended school across several states. Raised in a contented, happy family, the young Lynch was a member of the Boy Scouts of America, reaching the highest rank of Eagle Scout. However, Lynch took to building fireworks and playing the bongos in a Beat Generation nightclub as acts of rebellion, before discovering that he could translate his childhood fascination with drawing and painting into a career in fine art. Lynch and his close friend Jack Fisk travelled to Austria hoping to study under Oskar Kokoschka, but the artist was not present at the time.
Returning to the United States, Lynch enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia. Although initially focusing on oil painting and sculpture, Lynch found himself beginning to experiment with short films. After completing several short animated and partly animated works, Lynch was prompted by his mentor Bushnell Keeler to apply for one of four annual grants from the American Film Institute to fund another film project. The resulting film, The Grandmother, paved the way for Lynch's scholarship at the AFI Conservatory; while studying there, Lynch wrote and directed a film which would take several years to gestate—his feature-length début and the beginning of his commercial film career, Eraserhead.
## Birth and childhood
Lynch was born on January 20, 1946, in Missoula, Montana to Donald and Edwina "Sunny" (née Sundholm) Lynch, who met as students at Duke University. David was the eldest of three siblings. For the most part a housewife, Sunny also tutored English lessons, having earned her degree at Duke. Donald Lynch worked for the United States Department of Agriculture, which necessitated moving the family around the country—they relocated to Sandpoint, Idaho, when David was two months old. Before his fourteenth birthday the family had lived in Spokane, Washington; Durham, North Carolina; Boise, Idaho; and Alexandria, Virginia. The young Lynch easily coped with this transitory lifestyle, and was popular throughout his school years, having found it easy for an "outsider" such as himself to make friends after moving to a new school. Lynch's elementary and junior high school educations were taken in Boise; he attended high school in Alexandria.
Lynch recalls having a happy childhood, although he suffered from bouts of agoraphobia in his youth, especially after having been scared by a screening of Henry King's 1952 film Wait till the Sun Shines, Nellie, when he was six years old. He would develop a brief habit of wearing three neckties at a time, which he understands to have been a manifestation of his personal insecurity. He also points to a particular image from his childhood that shaped his understanding of the world—"[my youth] was a dream world, those droning airplanes, blue skies, picket fences, green grass, cherry trees. Middle America as it was supposed to be. But then on the cherry tree would be this pitch oozing out, some of it black, some of it yellow, and there were millions and millions of red ants racing all over the sticky pitch, all over the tree. So you see, there's this beautiful world and you just look a little bit closer and it's all red ants".
Finding the calm and contented nature of his home life frustrating, the young Lynch sought ways to secretly rebel against his parents. He and a friend took to building bottle rockets; after a particularly powerful rocket severely damaged his friend's foot they switched their focus to making and detonating pipe bombs for fun instead. A large pipe bomb which they detonated in a school swimming pool was heard by several neighbors, and resulted in Lynch and his friend being arrested. Lynch was also a member of the high school fraternity Alpha Omega Upsilon, and learned to play the bongos while frequenting a nightclub popular with the Beat Generation, earning the nickname "Bongo Dave".
Lynch was a member of the Boy Scouts of America, attaining the rank of Eagle Scout. His childhood friend Toby Keeler posited that this experience and the "be prepared" Scout motto formed the basis of Lynch's "do it yourself" approach to filmmaking and art, and shaped his ability to "make things out of nothing". Lynch had initially joined the Scouts in order to "put it behind" him, but continued at the urging of his father; he eventually summed up his biography as "Eagle Scout. Missoula, Montana" in a 1990 press release for Wild at Heart. As a Boy Scout, Lynch was present at John F. Kennedy's presidential inauguration, which took place on Lynch's 15th birthday. When Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, Lynch was the first in his school to hear of it, as he was working on a display case rather than attending class.
## Art student
Lynch's interest in art began at an early age; he recalled his father bringing home large amounts of paper from his government job, and because his mother would not let him use coloring books, he would draw and paint on this spare paper. Lynch's early artwork mostly depicted war-related imagery—weaponry and fighter planes—based on his collection of toy military equipment. He frequently depicted the M1917 Browning machine gun, calling it a favorite of his. Later in life, however, Lynch was summoned for conscription for the Vietnam War, and declared 4-F, "unfit for military service", for undisclosed health reasons.
At the age of 14, Lynch's family visited Hungry Horse, Montana, staying with his aunt and uncle near Hungry Horse Dam. Their next-door neighbor was an artist named Ace Powell, whose style was similar to that of Charlie Russell and Frederic Remington. Powell and his wife were both painters, and would let Lynch work with their materials while he was staying in town; however, Lynch found it difficult to believe that art was something in which he could forge a career, believing it to be a hobby peculiar to the Western United States. Returning home to Virginia, Lynch met Keeler's father Bushnell, who was also an artist. Lynch rented space in the elder Keeler's studio and, alongside his friend Jack Fisk, worked on his art until he had finished school. From there, he enrolled in the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, but soon dropped out.
Bushnell Keeler has commented that Lynch's dropping out of the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston "worked to his detriment then, but may now be one of his greatest assets". Keeler recounts that Lynch left the school after allowing one of his tutors to use his dormitory room; the tutor, who was in the process of divorcing his wife, spent several nights in Lynch's room with his mistress, while Lynch obligingly slept on the floor. Rather than confronting the tutor about this situation, Lynch felt it would be easier to leave school instead. Keeler and film critic Greg Olson posit that this desire to avoid confrontation has shaped the characters he has written, who often seek an "escape route" in the face of adversity rather than face it directly. Olson has further added that several of Lynch's later works—Dune and Twin Peaks—would have "been less compromised" had Lynch been of a more adversarial personality; as they were, both projects featured interference from film and television studios respectively.
After this, Lynch and Fisk planned a three-year trip to Austria, planning to study under the expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka, who was one of Lynch's "least favorite painters". However, when Lynch arrived in Salzburg, he found that the artist had left, prompting him to return to America. Before leaving Europe, the pair travelled to Athens by train, to visit Lynch's girlfriend at the time, who was holidaying there. However, when they arrived in Greece they discovered that she had already left for home; Lynch and Fisk departed for America shortly thereafter. Upon his return, Lynch enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, devoting himself to painting and sculpture. Lynch's paintings, which were influenced by the works of Francis Bacon, were executed in oils, and following an incident in which a moth landed in a still-drying piece, he began embedding insects in his work.
Life in Philadelphia was disturbing for Lynch, who had by this point married his pregnant girlfriend Peggy Reavey. The two had met in 1964, and wed in 1967, shortly before the birth of their daughter Jennifer.
Lynch and his family spent five years living in an atmosphere of "violence, hate and filth". The area was rife with crime, which would later inform the tone of his work. Describing this period of his life, Lynch said "I saw so many things in Philadelphia I couldn't believe ... I saw a grown woman grab her breasts and speak like a baby, complaining her nipples hurt. This kind of thing will set you back". In Olson's David Lynch: Beautiful Dark, the author posits that this time contrasted starkly with the director's childhood in the Pacific Northwest, giving the director a "bipolar, Heaven-and-Hell vision of America" which has subsequently shaped his films.
## Short films
Lynch's experiments with moving sculptures led to his interest in the medium of motion picture film. In 1966, with the help of Fisk, Lynch animated a one-minute short feature called Six Figures Getting Sick; the project cost \$200 and was filmed with a sixteen millimeter camera. The sculpture-motion picture was a simple animated loop of several figures growing increasingly nauseous before vomiting down the screen. This loop was repeated several times and accompanied by the sound of an air-raid siren; however, it was projected onto a cast of Lynch's head in order to distort the footage further.
After Six Figures Getting Sick was completed, one of Lynch's classmates, H. Barton Wasserman, offered to pay \$1000 for a similar motion picture to be made for an art installation in his home. Lynch purchased a clockwork Bolex movie camera, and began to teach himself cinematography. Lynch worked on the commissioned motion picture over the next two months, crafting a mix of live action and animation in a split-screen format. However, when the film was developed, an error along the way had rendered it indistinguishable and unusable. Wasserman allowed Lynch to keep the remainder of the budget, which he used to fund the production of a new motion picture project, The Alphabet.
Similarly to Wasserman's unfinished commission, 1968's The Alphabet was composed of both live action and animation. The abstract 16mm movie was inspired by an experience related by Lynch's wife Peggy, who had once seen her niece reciting the alphabet in her sleep while suffering from a nightmare. Peggy was the sole live action actor in the film, which depicted in animation the nightmares of a young girl. The film displays several elements that would continue throughout Lynch's oeuvre, including the use of meticulous sound design to convey unease. The sound of his infant daughter crying was recorded on a faulty cassette recorder and included in the film's soundtrack; the malfunctioning of the recorder not only lent the sound a desirably distorted quality but allowed Lynch to return it to where he had purchased it from upon finishing the film.
Although Lynch was enthusiastic about the medium of film, he realized that the wages from his job as a printer would not stretch to cover future budgetary needs. Bushnell Keeler recommended that Lynch apply for a grant from the newly formed American Film Institute (AFI). Together with a copy of The Alphabet, Lynch's application included an eight-page treatment for a project titled The Grandmother. The submission was successful, and Lynch was awarded one of four annual grants from the AFI, totalling \$5,000. The Grandmother was filmed in Lynch's home in Philadelphia and starred his friends and colleagues. Lynch's initial grant of \$5,000 was later supplemented by a further \$2,200 also supplied by the AFI. Completed in 1970, it relates the story of a family grown from the ground like plants; the neglected and abused son seeks to create stability in his life by growing a grandmother from a seed. Once again, the film mixes animation with live action footage, and features the use of both pallid stage make-up reminiscent of the silent film era, and a similarly washed-out use of colour to The Alphabet. Running for thirty minutes, the film has been described by critics Colin Odell and Michelle Le Blanc as "fall[ing] into that twilight category of film that is too short to be a feature and too long to be a short film".
## AFI Conservatory
Having completed The Grandmother, Lynch realized that filmmaking was the career he wanted to pursue. He accepted a scholarship at the AFI Conservatory, Lynch moved to Los Angeles, California, with his family, and recalls having felt "the evaporation of fear" after leaving the crime and poverty of Philadelphia. Lynch was dissatisfied with the Conservatory and considered dropping out, but he changed his mind after being offered the chance to produce a script of his own devising. He was given permission to use the school's full campus for film sets; he converted the school's disused stables into a series of sets and lived there. He began work on a script titled Gardenback, based on his painting of a hunched figure with vegetation growing from its back. Gardenback was a surrealist script about adultery, featuring a continually growing insect that represented one man's lust for his neighbor. The script would have resulted in a roughly 45-minute-long film, which the AFI felt was too long for such a figurative, nonlinear script.
In its place, Lynch presented Eraserhead, which he had developed based on a daydream of a man's head being taken to a pencil factory by a small boy. Several board members at the AFI were still opposed to producing such a surrealist work, but they were persuaded when dean Frank Daniel threatened to resign if it was vetoed. Eraserhead's script is thought to have been inspired by Lynch's fear of fatherhood; Jennifer had been born with "severely clubbed feet", requiring extensive corrective surgery as a child. Jennifer has claimed that her own unexpected conception and birth defects were the basis for the film's themes.
Pre-production work for Eraserhead began in 1971. However, the staff at the AFI had underestimated the project's scale—they had initially green-lit Eraserhead after viewing a twenty-one page screenplay, assuming that the film industry's usual ratio of one minute of film per scripted page would reduce the film to approximately twenty minutes. This misunderstanding, coupled with Lynch's own meticulous direction, caused the film to remain in production for a number of years. In an extreme example of this labored schedule, one scene in the film begins with Jack Nance's character opening a door—a full year would pass before he was filmed entering the room. Buoyed with regular donations from Fisk and his wife Sissy Spacek, production continued for several years. Additional funds were provided by Nance and his wife, actress Catherine Coulson, who worked as a waitress and donated her income, and by Lynch himself, who delivered newspapers throughout the film's principal photography.
During one of the many lulls in filming, Lynch was able to produce the short film The Amputee, taking advantage of the AFI's wish to test new film stock before committing to bulk purchases. The short piece starred Coulson, who continued working with Lynch as a technician on Eraserhead. Eraserhead's production crew was very small, composed of Lynch; sound designer Alan Splet; cinematographer Herb Cardwell, who left during production and was replaced with Frederick Elmes; production manager and prop technician Doreen Small; and Coulson, who worked in a variety of roles. Lynch began his interest in Transcendental Meditation during the film's production, adopting a vegetarian diet and giving up smoking and alcohol consumption.
## After Eraserhead
Eraserhead premièred at the Filmex film festival in Los Angeles, on March 19, 1977. On its opening night, the film was attended by 25 people. The second evening had 24 viewers. Ben Barenholtz, head of distributor Libra Films International, persuaded local theater Cinema Village to run the film as a midnight feature, where it continued for a year. After this, it ran for ninety-nine weeks at New York's Waverly Cinema, had a year-long midnight run at San Francisco's Roxie Theater from 1978 to 1979, and achieved a three-year tenure at Los Angeles' Nuart Theatre between 1978 and 1981. The film has grossed \$7,000,000 in the United States as of 2012. Following the release of Eraserhead, Lynch tried to find funding for his next project, Ronnie Rocket, a film "about electricity and a three-foot guy with red hair".
Lynch met film producer Stuart Cornfeld during this time. Cornfeld had enjoyed Eraserhead and was interested in producing Ronnie Rocket; he worked for Mel Brooks and Brooksfilms at the time, and when the two realized that Ronnie Rocket was unlikely to find sufficient financing, Lynch asked to see some already-written scripts to work from for his next film. Cornfeld found four scripts he felt might interest Lynch, but on hearing the name of the first, Lynch decided his next project would be The Elephant Man.
|
5,700,353 |
Jill Abbott
| 1,167,796,556 |
Fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless
|
[
"Abbott family (The Young and the Restless)",
"Adoptee characters in television",
"American female characters in television",
"Fictional beauticians",
"Fictional business executives",
"Fictional female businesspeople",
"Television characters introduced in 1973",
"The Young and the Restless characters"
] |
Jill Abbott is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. The longest-running and only remaining original character, Jill was created and introduced by William J. Bell. Originally portrayed by Brenda Dickson, when Dickson departed in 1980, the role was first recast with Deborah Adair. Dickson returned in 1983 and, although she stated that she would never leave the role again, she was replaced by Jess Walton in 1987, who continues in the role to present time.
When she debuted, Jill was an 18-year-old manicurist working to support her struggling family. The character is known for her rivalry with Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), which is the longest feud in the history of American soap operas. Their rivalry began when she fell in love and slept with Katherine's husband Phillip Chancellor II (Donnelly Rhodes) and became pregnant. Following Phillip's accidental death, the women fought over custody of Jill's son, Phillip Chancellor III (Thom Bierdz), as well as numerous of Katherine's other husbands. A 2003 plot twist shockingly revealed Jill to be Katherine's long lost biological daughter, although in 2009, former head writer Maria Arena Bell rewrote their history, reversing that decision. In 2010, Jill discovered she is the daughter of Neil Fenmore (Jim Storm).
The character is considered an icon on the soap opera, and has been described as an integral part of the series. Both Dickson and Walton have characterized her as "manipulative". Walton, who classes her as a "savvy businesswoman", has opined she is similar to Gone with the Wind character Scarlett O'Hara. Critics have described her as both vindictive and a vixen. John Goudas of The Miami News said that the show "flourishes when her character takes center stage," while Nekeeta Borden of Zap2it noted that Jill has always craved a sense of belonging despite her personality. Walton's portrayal has been met with acclaim, having garnered her two Daytime Emmy Award wins.
## Casting
Dickson debuted as the character on the second episode of the series. Footage of Dickson as Jill appears in the film Taxi Driver. On January 9, 1980, Dickson left the role. In May 1980, Bond Gideon briefly took over before Adair portrayed the character for an additional three years, from 1980 to 1983. Dickson returned to the role on September 8, 1983. Melinda Fee served a temporary recast also in 1984, and Adair briefly reprised the role in 1986 as a fill-in for Dickson. In 1987, when asked if she would ever leave the character of Jill again, Dickson stated: "I'm planning to branch out, maybe even a miniseries. But [that] only means shooting here at night to fill in. I can't give up Jill. I'm having too much fun with her. Besides, it's all so easy." Despite this, Dickson was later replaced by Walton: first serving as a temporary replacement on June 19, 1987; then as a permanent recast airing on June 25, 1987. Dickson briefly vacated the role on June 18, 1987, due to illness. Dickson returned on June 22, 1987 and ultimately made her final appearance as Jill on June 24, 1987.
In March 2009, speculation arose that Walton had taken a medical leave; however, Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada reported that she had been asked to accept a salary cut and had decided to leave. The soap opera issued a casting call for Jill, describing her as "late '50s, Caucasian, female. This woman is a smart and confident CEO of a successful company. She is a mother and grandmother who wants what is best for her family." However, soon after, Walton was able to sign a new contract to continue her portrayal of Jill. She later clarified her departure as having to do with "family and this economy". She stated: "I felt so bad that so many people have lost their jobs, that, all of a sudden, I thought: 'This is really silly. I have a wonderful job and I really think I owe it to myself and my family to continue on.'" In February 2012, Walton signed a new contract with the soap opera, which would continue her portrayal of the role for an unspecified amount of time. The actress was then announced to be taking a leave of absence beginning that April, slated to last six months. She made her return on November 2, 2012. After her return, Walton announced in an interview with Soap Opera Digest that she had voluntarily dropped to recurring status to allow for more time with her family.
## Development
### Characterization
Global BC describes Jill as "driven and ambitious". Lilana Novakovich of the Toronto Star stated she was "one mean lady", and later noted her to be manipulative. Dickson was "delighted" when viewers compared Jill to Alexis Colby (Joan Collins) on the television series Dynasty, and believed that Jill could give "lessons in rottenness" to Alexis. While Jill, still portrayed by Dickson, was in a middle of a custody battle for her son, John Goudas of The Miami News said: "Jill is hot again this winter. In a court battling for her son she never gave a darn about, quixotic Jill Foster Abbott gives The Young and the Restless a few heady jolts." Additionally, he described Jill as a "two-timing, self-absorbed, vindictive little witch" who fans always sympathize with. In 1992, Donna Gable of USA Today described Jill as volatile.
In 1994, Walton described her character as, "Very much like a latter-day Scarlett O'Hara. She is very manipulative and feels she is strongly justified in her actions. Jill is an individual who has a lot of difficulty in seeing what she truly is." Additionally, she said that once Jill "she gets a plan in her head, nothing will divert her." In 1998, Walton's co-star Jeanne Cooper described Jill as "Wile E. Coyote". Walton conceded that the analogy is true, saying that Jill is in "constant turmoil". She stated: "She gets the anvil dropped on her head and falls off the cliff. She cries and then tells everyone her new plan and how she's going to rule the world. Then it's off the cliff again." Walton has said that Jill "can be such a shrew" and "gets her happiness where she can, and she certainly is not going to contain her anger. She lets it out, so it does not fester in there. She is on a roller coaster though, I will say that much." In 2009, Walton stated that she had "really missed Jill being bad", but upon the character crashing Katherine's wedding to Patrick Murphy (Michael Fairman), she said that "this is pretty bad". Walton stated in an interview in 2003 that she does like portraying the "dark side" of Jill, but rather her comedic side. She also described Jill as being "so strong" and "such a survivor".
Jill is known as a businesswoman, after working as a manicurist during her youth. Walton has said that she wants to see Jill's business side incorporate into the storyline more, stating: "That's what Jill has always done, and she does it well. She was a really successful businesswoman. Jill did a lot of foolish things, but she was a savvy businesswoman." Additionally, Walton described Jill's business as the "core of the whole character", stating: "Jill is really a part of me – this is a unique job in that part of me does live as Jill, and I know Jill is a very savvy businesswoman."
### Relationships
Walton said that "Jill is attracted to powerful men" but is a "bossy little lady" who isn't going to "buckle under" to them. She romanced many of Katherine's husbands, including Rex Sterling (Quinn Redeker). Walton said that their romance was "great" but "he only fell in love with her because the real Katherine had been spirited away and a fake Katherine was in her place". Walton described Jill's romance Sean Bridges (David Lee Russek), who was a young web designer, as a "boy toy". Jill is known for infidelity, Nekeeta Borden of Zap2it noted that she has slept with Katherine's husbands and had an affair with Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman) while she was married to his own father, John Abbott (Jerry Doulgas). Former head writer Kay Alden called her affair with Jack "massive" and it was "devastating to both of them" when it broke up her marriage to John. Lydna Hirsch of Sun Sentinel noted that after the affair, John threw Jack out of the house and divorced Jill; he forgave them years later but it took "Jack being paralyzed and Jill dealing with the death of her son Philip to get him to come around". Several years later, Walton said that John was one of the character's "best matches" because "Jill had a real love and respect for him – I just don't think she had the physical passion for him so she got restless." Of her relationship with ex-con Larry Warton (Shark Fralick), Walton said: "Larry Warton was hilarious; he was really, really fun. I loved doing that, because that was almost all comedy, all the time."
After years of not having a relationship, Jill has a brief romance with district attorney William Bardwell (Ted Shackelford) in 2007, which ends when Gloria Abbott (Judith Chapman) schemes to have him for herself. She later has a relationship with businessman Ji Min Kim (Eric Steinberg), who became her fiancé, however, he was murdered before they were able to marry. Jill's most recent relationship was with Cane Ashby's (Daniel Goddard) father, Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers). He had a criminal past, angering Katherine, who was protective of Jill. Allison Waldman of AOL TV wrote: "Is he sincere, or is Colin just using Jill to get to Cane?" Jill accepted his "insane marriage offer" and considered eloping. Walton said that Colin was a "good match" for Jill and she hoped that she could "reform" him. Amid everyone telling Jill that she should stay away from Colin, Walton said: "She's only seeing the good in him. I really believe there's a real love between those two, and we're playing it like there is." Their marriage was later declared invalid after Genevieve Atkinson (Genie Francis) revealed that she and Colin were still married.
### Feud with Katherine
Jill is known for her feud with Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), which took place over four decades. BuddyTV wrote that, "Nothing spells rivalry like the on-going feud between Jill Foster Abbott and Katherine Chancellor." In 1993, Katherine was diagnosed with breast cancer and shared several tender scenes with Jill. Nancy Reichardt of the Los Angeles Times noted that the characters were acting out of character; she wrote: "Katherine's breast cancer scare was touching and seeing Katherine and Jill come together added an intriguing new dimension to their relationship. To confuse us, the show has thrown out this budding friendship as if it never happened. How much more moving it would have been if these two women faced Katherine's request for Jill to name her child Phillip as former adversaries trying to put the past behind them instead of as bitter enemies of days gone by." Of working with Cooper, Walton has stated: "I thank God every day for that woman. She feeds me. She is like a shot in the arm when you see her in the morning. She is funny and sharp and I love her."
In 2003, Katherine and Jill were believed to be mother and daughter after Katherine's friend, Charlotte Ramsey, provided factual proof. Of the storyline, Walton stated: "She's [Abbott] going down a bad road. In looking back over the past 16 years, she's gone down a lot of bad roads, for a lot of different reasons. She'll survive this one and, hopefully, maybe this time she'll learn something from it." She also described Jill as being in a "soul-searching period" during the storyline, saying: "Now she's numbing herself with the alcohol because all those feelings of love are coming up for her mother, and she doesn't know how to deal with them." Walton said she felt Jill had been "shaken to the very foundation" upon the revelation that Katherine is her mother, stating: "A big part of who she has been all these years has to do with her anger towards Katherine. She always shoved any feeling of love down. Now, she's questioning everything about herself. That's why she is in such pain and why she is drinking. That hate thing is baseless now." While admitting to having been surprised with the maternity revelation, Walton thought it was "fabulous and rich, and it's opened up a whole new facet to the story". However, in 2009, the characters' history was rewritten by Maria Arena Bell; Charlotte had made up this information for revenge against Katherine, and they were not mother and daughter.
A writer from the Jamaica Gleaner noted that viewers had been getting restless with Jill's newfound closeness to Katherine, noting that, "Katherine and Jill are at their best when they are at each other's throats." Of the storyline where she returned to Jabot Cosmetics, Cooper stated: "Since I went back into the business of business, I've been taking away some of Jill's power. You wanna go broke? Leave your company in the hands of Jill! The other day, we were filming some confrontational scenes, and Jess [Walton] says, 'Doesn't it feel good?' And the crew is like: 'Good! The girls are at it again!'" Lilana Novakovich of The Record noted that the rivalry between the two women has "outlived most marriages". Cooper stated: "The audience – both young and old – relate to the Kay/Jill relationship". Walton describes their relationship as "incredible" and said: "The love and the hate is so mixed, and there is never any telling when it will bubble out now. It used to be, “This month I like her... this month I hate her.” Now, it's more from moment to moment."
### Paternal discovery
In June 2010, when Jill's adoptive mother, Liz Foster (Julianna McCarthy), died, it was then learned that her biological father was Neil Fenmore. Walton stated: "Liz was the dream mother for Jill. She always could handle Jill." During an interview with On-Air On-Soaps speaking about how her character has been thrown in different directions, Walton said: "It used to bother me. I would try and keep a steady course with it, and now I can't. Now I just roll with the punches. It's impossible." Walton noted that Jill was finally happy to have a blood relative through Neil's other daughter, Lauren Fenmore (Tracey E. Bregman). She said: "Liz dies within a week and all of a sudden it's, 'I am a Fenmore'. And we really didn't have a chance to explore it much, but in real life that happens. My first thought as Jill is, 'I actually know who my blood is, and I have a sister.' And, Jill was very moved and touched and shocked from the death of Liz, but full of love for her sister." On her relationship with Lauren, Walton stated that, "Most people don't like Jill, and she hasn't particularly loved Lauren. I have never had that much to do with Lauren, really." Nekeeta Borden of Zap2it noted: "The redhead told Jill in no uncertain terms that she intended to keep her father's memory, and only child status, firmly intact and had no interest in a close relationship." Borden also noted that Jill always wanted a sense of belonging, which prompted her to legally change her name to Jill Fenmore. The sisters were initially bitter towards each other having to share half of the Fenmore Boutique, but have since gotten closer. Walton said that, "From my point of view, I think that Lauren has a really big heart; she's a naturally lovely person. Lauren was really awful a few times, and that just came out of her pain. So, it looks like Lauren and Jill are kind of getting along okay, but there's nothing else coming up in the scripts for them yet."
### Heart disease
In February 2017, after learning that her husband Colin stole her life savings (millions of dollars), Jill suffers from a near-fatal heart attack. In the weeks leading up to this, she had been experiencing feelings of warmth and jaw aching. Nancy Brown of The Huffington Post noted: "In typical fashion, she blamed the warmth on others keeping the heat turned up and dismissed the jaw pain to likely grinding her teeth at night." She is subsequently diagnosed with heart disease and blocked arteries, something she struggles to accept.
The storyline idea was developed by head writer and co-executive producer Sally Sussman Morina. For this storyline, the soap opera partnered with the American Heart Association in order to highlight the issue of women's heart health. Executive producer Mal Young felt that the character of Jill was the "perfect choice to show how a woman's life can dramatically change as a result of heart disease." He further mentioned that "Along with providing us with some very emotional and dramatic episodes, the subject also gives us the opportunity to educate and highlight a very pertinent issue using characters our viewers know well. As well as seeing how it affects Jill as she comes to terms with her condition, the story will also illustrate how it impacts her family and those closest to her." The producers considered Jill to be the right character to tackle this issue due to her being the show's longest-running character, as well as other factors: her unhealthy lifestyle, age and "bullish personality that would deny anything was wrong". Following the episode where Jill is diagnosed, Walton appeared in a public service announcement urging viewers to visit the American Heart Association website. Young knew that the soap opera had to be "very responsible", stating: "We did not want to sensationalize this. We wanted to get the facts in while at the same time telling a good, dramatic story."
## Storylines
### Backstory
Jill Foster was born in Genoa City, Wisconsin. She is raised by her mother, Liz Foster, and her two older brothers, Snapper (William Gray Espy) and Greg (James Houghton). The family struggles to make ends meet and things aren't easy when their father, Bill abandons them. Liz Foster worked at Mr Chancellor's factory, and Jill worked at a beauty shop, to help support their family, and put her brothers through college. Jill had aspirations of being a model. In 2003, Jill's birth certificate confirmed the year of her birth as September 29, 1957.
### 1973–
Jill was working at a beauty shop to help support her family, until a regular at the shop, the wealthy Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), hires her as a hairdresser and paid companion. "Jill tolerated Kay's habits of regularly drinking herself into oblivion and smoking to such an extent that her husband Phillip Chancellor, couldn't stand to be near her. Jill pitied Kay, and desperately, wanted to do everything in her power to help her." "All of Jill's many acts of kindness and great patience toward Katherine did not escape Phillip's notice and he became inexorably drawn to the innocent and beautiful young lady." Since Phillip wanted nothing to do with his wife, Kay shamefully carried on with Jeff the stable boy, meanwhile Jill & Phillip Chancellor II were falling deeply in love, even though they were fighting their feelings for each other at every turn. But eventually Phillip and Jill (who was a virgin) gave into their feelings and made love. It was the only time they had ever sex, but Jill became pregnant. Phillip divorced Kay so he could marry Jill. But "Upon Phillip's return from the Dominican Republic, a stone sober Katherine met him at the airport and offered to drive him home." Kay begged him for a second chance when Phillip refused, Kay purposely drove them off a cliff. As Phillip "lay dying in his hospital bed, he had one last request to make of his beloved Jill:marry him to give their unborn child his name and his fortune!" But after Phillip's death Kay waged an endless round of legal maneuvers, which invalidated Phillip's divorce from her, and his marriage to Jill. So "Jill and her family were evicted from the Chancellor Estate, where they had been living since Phillip's death."
Jill gave birth to Phillip Chancellor II's baby, Phillip Chancellor III (eventually portrayed by Thom Bierdz in 1986), which sets off a rivalry between the ladies that would last for decades. Kay's son, Brock, would try numerous ways to broker a peace between the two of them, but the plans never worked out. Since Katherine had invalidated Jill's marriage, she was left penniless with a newborn infant. Kay offered Jill \$1 million for her baby, which she declined. Jill later romances David Mallory, who was the recipient of her late father Bill's eye cornea. However, she never loved him. He proposed, but she declines after Liz warned her of a loveless marriage. She had an affair with Derek Thurston (Joe Ladue) and later romanced Stuart Brooks (Robert Colbert), whose wife Jennifer had just died. He was really in love with her mother Liz, but Jill tricked him into marriage following a one-night stand. He left her after she faked a pregnancy and miscarriage. Jill wanted to reunite with Derek, who marries Katherine after she promised him a salon and a \$100,000 trust for Jill's son. Derek's ex-wife Suzanne Lynch (Ellen Weston) arrives in town and wanted him back. Kay was briefly presumed dead and finding himself free of Suzanne and Kay, Derek planned to marry Jill. Kay showed up alive at the wedding and reclaimed her life with Derek.
Jill begins to work for cosmetics company Jabot and its owner, John Abbott (Jerry Douglas), promotes her to head of merchandising, impressed by her work. They become involved, but she cheated on him with his son, Jack Abbott (Terry Lester). John dumped her and she filed a sexual harassment suit worth \$10,000 against Jack when he will not be with her. She reunites with John and they married in 1982. However, Abbott family housekeeper, Mamie Johnson (Veronica Redd), seemed to be a thorn in Jill's new marriage. Mamie, who wants to protect John, kept an eye on Jill, who had another affair with Jack. Katherine gets a hold of pictures of Jack and Jill and showed them to John, who has a stroke. Jill divorced John in 1986 and gets 20% of Jabot in their settlement, and a seat on the board of directors after threatening to sell her story turning it into a novel or film. Jill strives at her business, but is later found in her shower having been shot, just as her son Phillip returned to town after years away at boarding school. The three main suspects in the shooting are John, Jack, and Katherine. Jack confesses so that his affair with her won't become public. The real culprit is Sven, a masseur at the Genoa City Hotel. He had been rejected by Jill earlier in the night and shot her after getting drunk. Sven kidnapped Jill and locked her in a meat freezer. Jack rescued her and Sven escaped. Jill and Katherine fight over custody of her son Phillip, who is now a teenager and had a past of acting out. Kay was awarded temporary custody, but she was denied the right to adopt him. So much to Jill's dismay, Phillip III lives his high school years at the Chancellor mansion with Kay. After graduation Kay bought Phillip a shiny red sports car, and has Phillip begin his training as an executive at Chancellor Industries, in hopes he will take over his father's company someday. Phillip turned to alcoholism, but quit with help from Jill and Katherine. Phillip has sex with Nina Webster (Tricia Cast) and she ends up pregnant. He later died after driving under the influence, devastating both women. Jill hired a former con man Rex Sterling (Quinn Redeker) to seduce Katherine. Rex's real name was Brian Romalotti, father of Danny Romalotti (Michael Damian) and Gina Roma (Patty Weaver). He married Katherine, but Jill then wanted Rex for herself and convinced him to divorce Katherine. In reality, Katherine had been replaced by a look alike Marge Cotrooke who pushed Rex away. He divorced her, and married Jill, but the real Katherine finally returned and reunited with Rex. Rex eventually was shot and killed while Jill began romancing John again.
Jill begins an affair with wealthy Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) and was convinced he would ask her to marry him, but he told her it was just a fling. Mortified, she quickly remarried John, much to the dismay of his children. Jill wanted another child, but John felt he was too old. She quickly got pregnant before he had a secret vasectomy. He wanted her to have an abortion but she didn't, and gave birth to Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). John and Jill continuously had arguments and she had an affair with Jed Sanders. Mamie found out and told John, ending the marriage. They had a bitter custody battle, but John suffered another stroke. Mamie confessed her love to John; Jill then paid her millions to leave town. John gained custody of Billy and left for New York. Later, Jill found a letter from Phillip Chancellor II which named her the sole owner of the Chancellor Estate; she evicted Katherine. Katherine found a legal loophole, allowing her to stay on the estate. Billy Abbott and Brock Reynold's teenage daughter MacKenzie Browning began a romance. Jill had a brief romance with a young web designer, Sean Bridges (David Lee Russek). Katherine allowed ex-con Larry Warton (Shark Fralick) to move in for housework, and Jill had an affair with him but kept it secret because of his social class. Katherine found out and confronted Jill, who denied it. Jill even insulted Larry, causing him to show up at a Jabot board meeting and expose the affair.
In 2003, Liz was diagnosed with a brain tumor and admitted to Jill that she was adopted and that Charlotte Ramsey provided proof that she was Katherine's daughter. Everyone was shocked that she is the daughter of her sworn enemy, and Katherine suffered a heart attack. They were forced to break up Billy and Mackenzie from marrying, because them being mother and daughter meant that Mac and Billy are cousins. Jill helped Katherine recover from paralysis and they begin to work out their issues. Four years later, Katherine uncovers repressed memories of kidnapping Phillip III years ago just after he was born and switching him with another baby. Jill refused to believe this at first, DNA testing of the corpse in Phillip III's grave confirms that he was not Jill's biological son. They are led to believe that her true biological son is Ethan "Cane" Ashby (Daniel Goddard), an Australian national whose visa has expired and is fighting deportation. As the true Phillip III, he would be a native-born American citizen and is thus permitted to remain in Genoa City. Cane bonded with Katherine and Jill. She began a romantic relationship with District Attorney William Bardwell (Ted Shackelford), the District Attorney, who has just inherited a fortune from his late uncle. John Abbott's widow Gloria Abbott (Judith Chapman) also wanted Will, and drugged Ji Min Kim (Eric Steinberg) and Jill with libido pills and arranged for William to walk in on them. William married Gloria. Jill developed real feelings for Ji Min develop genuine feelings, they plan to marry. He is murdered in September by David Chow, devastating Jill.
In 2008, Katherine retires as CEO of Chancellor Industries and made Jill her successor. She stepped down and made Cane CEO, angering Billy. In November, Katherine "dies" in a car accident. However, the true victim is her lookalike, Marge Cotrooke. Katherine returned months later alive and is proved to be her by DNA testing. However, the test also uncovers the truth – Jill is not Katherine's biological daughter, and Charlotte Ramsey made this up to get back at Kay. She rejected Katherine's affection despite this, and their feud is reignited. Jill briefly goes broke after a bank in Cayman Islands where she has stored all her money collapsed. It is eventually learned the Cane is not Jill's son, and that Phillip is really alive and had faked his death and told Cane to come to Genoa City and pretend to be Jill's son. It is learned that Phillip is gay. Initially angry, Jill forgives Cane, who she has a bond with. She split her estate three ways between Phillip, Billy, and Cane—despite the fact that Cane is not her son. In June 2010, Liz fell ill again and was dying. Jill reunited with her adoptive brothers Greg and Snapper who returned to town. Liz died in hospital with her children by her side. Snapper ended up telling Jill the truth, Neil Fenmore was her biological father. Jill changed her name to Fenmore and now had access to half of everything Fenmore, including Lauren's boutique. Lauren rejected her and they form a bitter feud; they eventually calmed down and became closer.
Jill became engaged to Australian businessman Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers). Unbeknownst to her, he is Cane's biological father and the head of an organized crime syndicate in Australia. Cane was shot and "killed" on the day of her wedding to Colin, however it was actually Caleb (Cane's twin) that died. Jill found out that Colin was married to a woman named Genevieve Atkinson (Genie Francis), Cane's mother. Jill ended things with Colin and he was sent to jail for his crimes. In 2012, Jill leaves town for several months to help Phillip in Australia. Upon her return, she agrees to help Katherine come out of retirement to take control of Chancellor Industries, but Katherine ends up with a brain tumor. She has the tumor successfully removed and leaves town indefinitely with Murphy. Murphy later returns to Genoa City alone, revealing Katherine died while they were away. She leaves Nikki and Jill in charge of her funeral arrangements, and during this time Jill begins trying to figure out cryptic messages left by Katherine in a personal letter to her. Jill expected Katherine to have left everything to her in her will, but she only ends up with the Chancellor Estate, for which she can't afford the upkeep, and a mysterious music box. Jill tries for months to figure out the meaning of the music box and finally decides to sell it online, only to have Esther (Kate Linder) buy it back for her as she believes it truly means something.
Jill is later kidnapped by Colin, who is revealed to have been released from jail. He blackmails her into remarrying him as he alludes that he has information on the music box that Katherine once told him. However, his information ends up being a dead end. After Colin's lies are exposed, Jill locks him in the attic and refuses to let him out until he owns up to his lies, which he eventually does and they patch things up. Almost a year after Katherine's death, Jill finds her most expensive jewelry to have been hidden in a chandelier at the Chancellor Estate. Enclosed with a note, Katherine left them there for Jill to find before her death as they are worth a significant amount. However, the meaning of the music box remains unknown to everyone. Afterward, all of Katherine's loved ones receive letters from her that were to be delivered on the one-year anniversary of her death. She also asks them to throw a party and celebrate, which they do. Once the party in the park is finished, Jill leaves the music box there, only for it to be stolen by an unidentified person. Jill and Colin return soon after to find the box missing, but Colin convinces her to finally let go of it.
Years later, the box was found. This time, a key was found hidden in a secret compartment. It led to Collin finding a safe deposit box with a letter from Katherine and a ring from Phillip for Jill.
## Reception
John Goudas of The Miami News noted that following Dickson's return in 1984 following a four-year absence, the soap opera's ratings gained. Goudas praised Dickson, noting that, "Y&R flourishes when her character takes center stage." Jillian Bowe of Zap2it was critical of Dickson's portrayal, stating: "When contemplating the four decades of feuding between Genoa City's grande dame Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper) and hellcat [Jill] on The Young and the Restless, cartoon characters don't necessarily spring to mind — okay, maybe during the Brenda Dickson years." Jamey Giddens, also of Zap2it, described her portrayal as "cheesetastic". Head writer Josh Griffith stated that he "adores" Walton, saying that he's "always thought Jill was an integral character to the show". Of Jill's long-standing feud with Katherine, Global TV wrote: "Katherine vs. Jill The ongoing feud between Katherine Chancellor and Jill Foster Abbott sets a record as daytime's longest rivalry. For nearly 27 years, these two women have been constantly getting in the way of the each other's happiness. Whether it's over men, money, or the custody of a child, Katherine and Jill are always in direct competition."
In 2008, Tommy Garrett of Canyon News awarded Walton a "Daytime Gold Standard" for her portrayal. He stated: "Walton played each scene in this “Bette Davis-like” emotional marathon of a week. How did Walton do it? With aplomb and greatness." The following year, when Jill opened her own nail salon, Mike Jubinville, also of Zap2it, noted that the character had "stepped into a time warp". Prior to being paired with Colin, Nekeeta Borden wrote that, "Jill Foster Abbott (cough, cough) Fenmore's (Jess Walton) Jimmy Choos must have crossed paths with a black cat, because she can't find a good man to bless her somewhat shriveled heart." Of the character's possible pairing with Colin, she added: "I, for one, hope that Maria Arena Bell and Co. keep Colin in Genoa City and surprise us all by making him a dream lover for Jill. She is a multidimensional character with a lot of fire, and a great capacity to be soft and vulnerable. Goodness knows she's been through the ringer [sic]. Can Jill find love with Colin, or will her newest dalliance lead to heartbreak?" In 2013, Giddens wrote of Walton's portrayal throughout her run, stating: "Unlike most soap opera recasts, where success or failure depends on chemistry with an opposite sex romantic lead, newcomer Jess Walton would sink or swim, based on her ability to connect with fellow female powerhouse Jeanne Cooper, who played Jill's bitter rival Katherine "Kay" Chancellor." He also commended Walton and Cooper's portrayal of their characters' rivalry, "To say Walton swam alongside Cooper would be an understatement. The two women did a backstroke even Ryan Lochte and Michael Phelps would have to admire, during their 26 years as acting partners," he wrote.
Walton won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1997 for Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal of Jill, and was nominated in 1996, 2000, and 2017. She also won the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress in 1991, after a nomination in 1990. Dickson won a Soap Opera Digest Award in 1988 for Outstanding Villainess for the role, and Walton won one for Outstanding Lead Actress in 1994.
Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed the initial two recasts of Jill on his list of the worst soap opera recasts of all time, commenting that "Nowadays we think of Jess Walton and only Jess Walton as Billy's Mommie Dearest. But in the 1970s and '80s, Brenda Dickson owned the role of the man-eating manicurist. When she exited stage right in 1980, first Bond Gideon, then Deborah Adair (later Kate, Days of our Lives) tried to fill in...but fell so flat that Dickson was lured back three years later." In 2022, Mason also placed Jill 8th on his list of the best 25 characters from The Young and the Restless, commenting "How ironic — and perfect — that the onetime manicurist would become infamous for her talons! The mercurial mantrap (played first by Brenda Dickson and longest by Jess Walton) sank her insatiable claws into one unsuspecting fella after another, in the process earning herself a reputation — since mellowed — as Genoa City's resident queen of mean."
|
53,414,044 |
Master Wato
| 1,162,117,391 |
Japanese professional wrestler
|
[
"1997 births",
"21st-century professional wrestlers",
"CMLL World Lightweight Champions",
"IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions",
"Japanese male professional wrestlers",
"Living people",
"People from Ikeda, Osaka"
] |
Hirai Kawato (川人 拓来, Kawato Hirai, born March 13, 1997) is a Japanese professional wrestler, signed to New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) under the ring name Master Wato (マスター・ワト Masutā Wato). He was previously on an international learning excursion, working for NJPW's Mexican partner Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) under the ring name Kawato-San (or Kawato San). He is a former CMLL World Lightweight Champion and competed in the main event of CMLL's 2020 Sin Piedad supercard show.
He was trained in the NJPW Noge Dojo in the Tokyo Prefecture. From 2016 until 2019 he worked as a Young Lion in NJPW, gaining in ring experience while still training. As a Young Lion he mainly faced other trainees early on, moving on to participate in various tournaments such as the 2017 Super Junior Tag Tournament (with Kushida) and finishing second in the 2017 Young Lion Cup.
## Professional wrestling career
### New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2016–2018)
Kawato started working for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) in 2016, training in their dojo for his in-ring career. He started by training as a Young Lion in NJPW's dojo, wearing simple black trunks and boots as he worked with other of NJPW Young Lions and experienced veterans as part of his training. On January 3, 2016, Kawato made his in-ring debut, losing to fellow Young Lion Yohei Komatsu. Throughout 2016, Kawato spent most of the year working opening and undercard matches, and primarily fought against fellow Young Lion Teruaki Kanemitsu. On February 9, 2016, Kawato teamed with Jyushin Thunder Liger and Yuji Nagata to defeat the team of Henare, Tomoyuki Oka and Yoshitatsu in a six-man tag team match. David Finlay, Kawato, Manabu Nakanishi, and Ryusuke Taguchi defeated TenCozy (Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Satoshi Kojima), Liger, and Oka in the opening match of the NJPW 45th Anniversary show in Korakuen Hall.
On April 22, 2016, Kawato won his first singles match when he defeated Shota Umino. Kawato and Yoshitatsu defeated Katsuya Kitamura and Oka in the dark match of the 2017 Wrestling Dontaku major show, but still did not work on the televised portion of the show. On June 20, Kawato was involved in his first higher card match when he teamed with Hiroshi Tanahashi, losing to Los Ingobernables de Japón ("The Ungovernables from Japan"; Tetsuya Naito and Hiromu Takahashi). In October, Kawato teamed with Kushida to take part in the 2017 Super Junior Tag Tournament where they were defeated in the first round by Roppongi 3K (Sho and Yoh). On November 5, 2017, Kawato, alongside Juice Robinson, Liger, Kushida and Tiger Mask defeated Suzuki-gun (El Desperado, Taichi, Taka Michinoku, Yoshinobu Kanemaru and Zack Sabre Jr.) at Power Struggle.
From October 12 to December 21, Kawato took part in the 2017 Young Lion Cup, where he finished second with a record of four wins (defeating Oka, Shota Umino, Ren Narita, and Tetsuhiro Yagi) and one loss, to tournament winner Katsuya Kitamura, to end up in second place overall. Kawato competed on all eight days of the 2018 Fantastica Mania tour, where NJPW and Mexican-based Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) co-promoted a number of shows in Japan. Each night, Kawato and various tag team partners faced, and lost to, members of Los Ingobernables de Japón. His final match of the tour, and for NJPW at the time, saw him team with Mexican wrestler Atlantis as they lost to Gedo and Bárbaro Cavernario.
### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2018–2020)
On January 9, 2018, CMLL announced on Twitter that Kawato would begin his excursion with them at the end of the month, and would actively compete in the promotion after taking part in New Japan's Fantastica Mania events. While in CMLL he would be billed as "Kawato San" (sometimes written as "Kawato-San"). For his first CMLL match, Kawato teamed up Misterioso Jr. and Virus, losing to Audaz, Pegasso, and Rey Cometa in a six-man tag team match. While he was working for CMLL, they also allowed Kawato San to wrestle on the Mexican independent circuit between CMLL shows. His first independent circuit match was on March 11, where he lost to Ricky Marvin as part of a Lucha Memes show.
In CMLL, he was teamed up with Okumura, CMLL's Japanese liaison, to form a team called Eje del Mal ("Axis of Evil"), presenting them as a group of "evil foreigners". Their first match as a team saw the two, and Johnny Idol, lose to Guerrero Maya Jr., Rey Cometa, and Stuka Jr. Kawato San was one of twelve wrestlers competing in a torneo cibernetico elimination match to determine the challenger for CMLL's Rey del Inframundo ("King of the Underworld") championship, but was eliminated early on. He was also invited to participate in the 2018 Leyenda de Plata ("Silver Legend"), one of CMLL's most prestigious tournaments. Kawato was the first man eliminated, pinned by Audaz about eight minutes into the match.
He also participated in the 2019 Reyes del Aire ("King of the Air") tournament which took place on January 6 in Mexico City. He was the tenth man eliminated, as Audza pinned him after just over 20 minutes of wrestling. Just over a year after his CMLL debut, Kawato San appeared on his first major CMLL show as he teamed up with Disturbio and Misterioso Jr. to lose to Blue Panther Jr., Black Panther and Rey Cometa on the undercard of the 2019 Juicio Final. In June 2019, Kawato San and Audaz outlasted Eléctrico, El Hijo del Villano III, Flyer, Príncipe Diamante, Star Jr., Super Astro Jr., and Halcón Suriano Jr. to earn a match for the vacant CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship. The following week, on June 30, 2019, Kawato San defeated Audaz to become the new champion. Kawato did not wrestle any matches after July 28, 2019, due to what was later revealed to be a knee injury. It was announced on November 6, 2019, that Kawato-San had returned to Mexico after recovering from his knee injury. Kawato was stripped of the CMLL World Lightweight Championship due to the injury. Kawato returned to the ring on November 9, teaming with El Felino and Rey Bucanero as they lost to Atlantis Jr., Ángel de Oro, and Niebla Roja.
Starting in late October, Kawato San and Dulce Gardenia became involved in a storyline feud, with the two facing off in six-man tag team matches throughout November and December. Kawato and Gardenia both agreed to "bet" their hair. The lucha de apuestas match was the main event of the 2020 Sin Piedad ("No Mercy") show held on January 1, 2020. Gardenia won the match two-falls-to-one, followed by Kawato San being forced to shave all his hair off. Kawato San was one of 12 wrestlers competing in the 2020 Reyes del Aire ("Kings of the air") tournament, but was the sixth wrestler eliminated when Rey Cometa pinned him.
### Return to NJPW (2020–present)
On July 3, 2020, Kawato returned to NJPW after a two-year excursion under the name Master Wato. As he was exiting, he was attacked by Suzuki-gun member Douki. It was later announced that at the New Japan Cup Finals in Osaka-Jo Hall, Wato would face Douki in a singles match where he was victorious. He then embarked on a feud with another member of Suzuki-gun, Yoshinobu Kanemaru. The feud ended when Kanemaru pinned Wato at Summer Struggle in Jingu Stadium in August. In November 2020, he entered the Best of the Super Juniors tournament where he was scheduled for a rematch against Kanemaru, but Kanemaru pulled out injured. Wato finished the tournament with 4 wins and 5 losses, failing to advance to the finals. At Wrestle Kingdom 15, he and Ryusuke Taguchi unsuccessfully challenged Suzuki-gun tag team El Desperado & Yoshinobu Kanemaru for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship. After being pinned by Bushi in a ten-man tag team match at New Year Dash!!, the two men feuded on the Road To The New Beginning 2021 tour. At The New Beginning in Hiroshima, Bushi defeated Wato in a singles match. Wato went on to compete in the 2021 Best of The Super Juniors finishing with a 4–7 record failing to advance.
On the preshow of the second night of Wrestle Kingdom 16, Wato would defeat El Desperado in a six man tag match and earn himself a title shot at the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship. At NJPW New Years Golden Series on February 11 he would be unsuccessful in his attempt. Eight days later, on February 19, he and Taguchi having formed the team called Six or Nine, would win The IWGP Junior Tag Team Championships in a four-way tag, making that his first championship victory in New Japan Pro Wrestling. Despite being a Junior Heavyweight, Wato competed in the New Japan Cup, a heavyweight tournament, where he received a Bye to the second round, although here he was defeated by Kazuchika Okada. Six or Nine made their first successful tag team title defense at Hyper Battle, defeating Bullet Club's Cutest Tag Team (El Phantasmo and Taiji Ishimori). In May, they made a second successful defense against Suzuki-Gun's Yoshinobu Kanemaru and Douki. Later in the month, Wato competed in the annual Best of the Super Juniors tournament. In the B Block, Wato finished with 8 points, failing to advance to the finals. On the day of the tournament finals, Wato and Taguchi were defeated by United Empire's Francesco Akira and T.J. Perkins in a non-title match. Due to this loss, Six or Nine defended the titles in a rematch, where they lost the championships to Akira and TJP, ending their reign at 121 days. Six or Nine, failed to win the titles back in a rematch at Burning Spirit. Following this, Wato focused on singles competition leading to Wato successfully defeated reigning IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion, Taiji Ishimori, in a non-title match on October 10 at Declaration of Power. After the match, Ishimori was confronted by Hiromu Takahashi and El Desperado, who both wanted Junior Heavyweight title shots. This led to Ishimori, declaring that he would defend his championship against Desperado, Takahashi, and Wato in a four-way match at Wrestle Kingdom 17. On January 4, 2023, Wato was unsuccessful in capturing the junior heavyweight championship, which was won by Takahashi.
In february at The New Beginning in Osaka, Wato lost to Taiji Ishimori. In May, Wato would take part in The 2023 Best of the Super Juniors, where he would compete in the B Block. Wato finished joint top of the block with 14 points, thus advancing to the semi-finals. On May 26th, he would defeat Mike Bailey in a semi-final match. Two days later on the 28th, he defeated Titán to win the tournament. Wato challenged for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship at Dominion 6.4 in Osaka-jo Hall, however he was defeated by the champion Takahashi
## Championships and accomplishments
- Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
- CMLL World Lightweight Championship (1 time)
- New Japan Pro-Wrestling
- IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ryusuke Taguchi
- Best of the Super Juniors (2023)
- Pro Wrestling Illustrated
- Ranked No. 436 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2022
## Luchas de Apuestas record
|
2,674,506 |
Nordhordland Bridge
| 1,104,412,746 |
Bridge in Vestland county, Norway
|
[
"1994 establishments in Norway",
"Alver (municipality)",
"Bridges completed in 1994",
"Cable-stayed bridges in Norway",
"European route E39 in Norway",
"Former toll bridges in Norway",
"Pontoon bridges",
"Road bridges in Bergen",
"Road bridges in Vestland"
] |
The Nordhordland Bridge (Norwegian: Nordhordlandsbrua) is a combined cable-stayed and pontoon bridge which crosses Salhusfjorden between Klauvaneset (in Bergen Municipality) and the island of Flatøy (in Alver Municipality) in Vestland county, Norway. It is 1,614 meters (5,295 ft) long, of which the pontoon section is 1,246 meters (4,088 ft) long. The cable-stayed section consists of a single 99-meter (325 ft) tall H-pylon which has a length of 368 meters (1,207 ft) and a main span of 172 meters (564 ft). This allows for a clearance of 32 meters (105 ft).
The floating section is a steel box girder bridge with ten pontoons, which because of the fjord's depth are not laterally anchored. The roadway sits on an orthotropic deck. The pontoons and the cable-stayed bridge are built in concrete, with the main span being supported with 48 cables. The fjord end of the main span is supported by a 30-meter (98 ft) deep foundation, where the two bridges meet. From there and for 414 meters (1,358 ft), the roadwall has a 5.7 percent gradient on a viaduct anchored to the pontoon bridge.
The bridge carries two lanes of European Route E39, also called the Coastal Highway, and one pedestrian and bicycle path, and connects the district of Nordhordland to Bergen. Plans for a bridge had existed since the 1960s, and after the decision to construct the bridge was passed by the Parliament of Norway in 1989, construction started in 1991. Total costs, including auxiliary roads, was NOK 910 million. Part of the contract payment was subject to a court case which the contractors lost. The bridge opened on 22 September 1994, and remained a toll road until 31 December 2005. In 2014, it had an average daily traffic of 16,580 vehicles. Tolls were reinstated on the bridge in 2019 to finance other road projects in the area. The bridge is the second-longest in Norway, and the second pontoon bridge in Norway.
## Specifications
The bridge consists of three sections, a cable-stayed bridge, a pontoon bridge and a viaduct which connects the two. The cable-stayed bridge consists of a 99.3-meter (326 ft) tall H-pylon with a foundation at Klauvaneset on the mainland of Bergen. It supports a 172-meter (564 ft) main span, with the other end being fixed in a foundation 30-meter (98 ft) below mean sea level, which is anchored in the ridge Klauvaskallen. The whole cable-stayed bridge is 369 meters (1,211 ft) long, with a 190-meter (620 ft) long viaduct, supported by six pairs of pillars. The cable-stayed bridge allows for a sailing channel which is 32 meters (105 ft) tall and 50 meters (160 ft) wide. The main span is built in lightweight LC55 concrete, while the viaduct and pylon is built with conventional C45 concrete. Inside the pylons is a 1.6-by-2.0-meter (5 ft 3 in by 6 ft 7 in) hollow area.
The bridge has 48 cables, 12 on each side of the pylon on each side of the roadway. The distance between the cables is 12.00 meters (39.37 ft) on the main span, and 9.33 meters (30.6 ft) on the viaduct. Combined, the cables are 4,432 meters (14,541 ft) long; each cable consists of 67 to 230 twined cables, each with a 7-millimeter (0.28 in) diameter. The cables have a weight of between 1.5 and 14.5 tonnes (1.5 and 14.3 long tons; 1.7 and 16.0 short tons) each, and they have a capacity of between 1,960 and 7,910 kilonewtons (440,000 and 1,780,000 lb<sub>f</sub>). They can be tightened at the connection with the roadwall.
The floating section consists of a steel box girder placed on top of ten floating pontoons. The pontoon section is anchored only at both ends, on the underwater foundation at Kauvaskallen and on Flatøy. It is fastened using flexible plate connections fastened by bolts and cables under tension. These are flexible around the horizontal axis at right angles towards the axis of the bridge, allowing for deformation caused by the tide. The fastening on Flatøy consists of a massive concrete block 22 by 20 meters (72 by 66 ft) long and 14.5 meters (48 ft) tall which was poured into a blast-out foundation pit in bedrock. Vertical pretension rock anchors have also been installed, with 12 at Klauvaskallen and 14 at Flatøy, giving 42 and 44 meganewtons (9,400,000 and 9,900,000 lb<sub>f</sub>) of support, although they were only built to increase the safety factor.
There are ten lightweight concrete pontoons, with 113.25-meter (371.6 ft) spans between them. The pontoons are between 7.0 and 8.6 meters (23.0 and 28.2 ft) in height. The draught varies between 4.3 to 5.6 meters (14 to 18 ft). Each pontoon consists of nine watertight cells which are partially filled with ballast for trim. The cells are dimensioned so two adjacent cells can fill with water without endangering the bridge.
The roadway lies on top of an orthotropic deck on a steel box girder, which is 15.9 meters (52 ft) wide, 5.50 meters (18.0 ft) tall and 1,246 meters (4,088 ft) long. The steel box girder weighs 14,150 tonnes (13,930 long tons; 15,600 short tons), of which 3,000 tonnes (3,000 long tons; 3,300 short tons) is high-strength low-alloy steel. The girder has an octagonal shape and is made with 14-to-20-millimeter (0.55 to 0.79 in) thick steel plates. They are longitudinally stiffened by trapezoidal stiffeners supported by cross frames at most every 4.5 meters (15 ft). Two full bulkheads have been used for every pontoon pilaster, made from welded steel plates 8 to 50 millimeters (0.31 to 1.97 in) thick. External brackets built into the bulkheads transfer the support forces to the pontoons. The girder was built in sections of 21, 36, and 42 meters (69, 118, and 138 ft), which were subsequently welded together into 11 modules with a skew angle of 1.2 to 1.3 degrees. The girder has a constant cross-section throughout the length, except at the anchoring points to the pontoons. The section from the land anchoring to the first pontoon is subject to the most stress, and is made with steel with a higher yield point. The inside of the girder has two dehumidifiers which ensure that it does not rust. The clearance under the girder is 5.5 meters (18 ft).
The two bridges are connected with a 414.5-meter (1,360 ft) long steel viaduct, which runs on top of the floating bridge, bringing the road from 11.0 to 34.4 meters (36.1 to 112.9 ft) above mean sea level. The viaduct weighs 1,600 tonnes (1,600 long tons; 1,800 short tons) and has a gradient of 5.7 degrees. It consists of spans between 18 and 33 meters (59 and 108 ft), with the roadway also built as an orthotropic deck with 12-millimeter (0.47 in) thick plates. Overall, the construction of the bridge used 24,000 tonnes (24,000 long tons; 26,000 short tons) of concrete, of which 10,000 tonnes (9,800 long tons; 11,000 short tons) in the pontoons. The bridge was coated with 40,000 litres (8,800 imp gal; 11,000 US gal) of paint.
The bridge is monitored by 132 sensors, including sensors on hatches to the pontoons, on doors to the steel box girder, for corrosion, strain gauges on the girder and on flexible elements, and weather information. On the cable-stayed section, the bridge is marked with navigation lights, as well as the center of the sailing area having a racon. The bridge is the second-longest bridge in Norway, behind the Drammen Bridge.
## History
### Planning
Ship services in Nordhordland started in 1866, and in 1923 the first car was purchased. A car ferry service between Isdalstø in Lindås and Steinestø in Åsane on the mainland was established on 7 July 1936. A plan was launched whereby all traffic from Nordhordland would be collected in one place and transported across Salhusfjorden to Åsane. By moving the ferry quay from Isdalstø to Knarvik, the length of the ferry service could be reduced. However, the fares would be kept the same and the extra revenue used to finance a bridge from Flatøy to Lindås. This allowed the Alversund Bridge to open in 1958, and the ferry service from Flatøy and Meland to move to Knarvik. The proposal to cross Salhusfjorden was launched during the planning of the Alversund Bridge. Cost estimates were made based on the Golden Gate Bridge in the United States, but it proved too expensive for a suspension bridge crossing between Frekhaug and Salhus.
In 1962, the issue was brought up again, this time as a pontoon bridge. The depth and steepness of the fjord would make it impossible to fasten the bridge to the sea bottom. However, a method without lateral anchorage had been developed for the Hobart Bridge in Australia. Another alternative was launched in 1963, involving a submerged floating tunnel through the fjord. It was estimated to cost between NOK 19.5 and 26 million. Norwegian expatriate Leif J. Sverdrup, co-founder of Sverdrup & Parcel of the United States, inspected the fjord in 1965 and was later hired to plan the bridge in cooperation with Oslo-based civil engineering consultants Prosjektering. Municipal engineers started measuring currents in 1966. Prosjektering and Sverdrup & Parcel recommended a pontoon bridge with a movable section to allow passage of ship traffic. In 1967, a new proposal was launched, in which a seaway tunnel would be blasted out in the rock on the Bergen side.
The Alversund Bridge was a toll bridge which was paying for the debt accumulated in its construction. By 1968, the debt would be paid off, but the Norwegian Public Roads Administration launched a plan whereby the tolls would continue to be collected and used to finance a bridge across Salhusfjorden. This was opposed by a group of locals, who brought the issue to the courts, claiming it to be illegal, as a bridge would never be built. Both Oslo District Court and Eidsivating Court of Appeal concluded that the tolls were legal, and the issue was rejected by the Supreme Court. Protests were also raised against the use of a pontoon bridge, as it would limit the vessel size and thus the commercial development in the inner parts of the fjord.
In the 1970s, National Road 1 (today part of E39) was established through Knarvik towards Sognefjorden, resulting in upgrades to the roads in Nordhordland, and making the crossing one of the main routes from the north. At the same time, it was decided to establish a refinery at Mongstad in Lindås. In 1971, details about the suspension bridge were again discussed, with three different proposals with the main span of between 1,090 and 1,210 meters (3,580 and 3,970 ft) with 160-meter (520 ft) tall pylons. There were protests from the Salhus area, as the suspension bridge would have resulted in the demolishing of part of the residential area.
In 1972, discussion started with the plans to connect Meland, Flatøy and Lindøy with bridges. This was passed by the Parliament of Norway in May 1975, and consisted of the Krossnessundet Bridge between Flatøy and Meland, which opened in November 1978. The Hagelsund Bridge opened on 1 April 1982 and connected Flatøy to Lindås and Knarvik, thus also connecting Meland and Lindås. Both bridges were partially financed with tolls. The plans for a pontoon bridge were presented to the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications on 31 March 1981. They supported the choice of a pontoon bridge. The decision to construct the bridge was taken by parliament on 9 December 1987, but they demanded that a larger ship channel be constructed.
Detailed planning started in March 1990, and at first two technical methods for constructing the pontoon bridge were considered: a continuous concrete floating caisson between the abutments, and a steel version incorporating a truss bridge carrying concrete pontoons. However, they were both rejected in favor of a concrete or steel box section borne on concrete pontoons.
### Construction
Design of the bridge was awarded to Aas-Jakobsen and Det Norske Veritas, the former who also performed dynamic analysis and structural engineering. Architects were Hindhammer–Sundt–Thomassen, Lund & Løvseth, and Lund & Slaatto. An H pylon was chosen instead of an A pylon both because it was more functional, and would be more aesthetic in conjunction with the other bridges in the area, particularly three suspension bridges.
The technology for the bridge was based on recent technology for pontoon bridges combined with Norwegian offshore technology. Among the technologies initially considered, but later ruled out, was that used in the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge and the Hood Canal Bridge in the United States. Instead, an orthotropic deck was chosen, such as the Bergsøysund Bridge had used. The choice of a box girder bridge and the orthotropic deck were chosen because it gave the lower material use. Conventional pontoon bridges have lateral anchorage systems which fasten the bridge to the seabed. The technique had previously been used down to 140 meters (460 ft), but Salhusfjorden is 500 meters (1,600 ft) deep, making the method prohibitively expensive. The choice of a cable-stayed section allowed reduced traffic hazards in storms, a reduction in corrosion on the bridge deck, and improved passage of water beneath the bridge in support of wildlife.
The contract for construction of the pontoon bridge was awarded in August 1991 to a consortium, Arbeidsfellesskapet Salhus Bru, which consisted of Norwegian Contractors, Aker Entreprenør, Veidekke and Kværner Eureka. The components were built in Moss and Fredrikstad and then shipped to Lonevågen, a branch of Osterfjorden which was suitable to connect the parts. There were problems welding the high-strength low-alloy steel, which resulted in the work being halted for several days before an agreement was reached between the contractor and the Public Roads Administration. On 26 January 1994, the steel frame which would be used to fasten the pontoon bridge to the cable-stayed bridge, came adrift during transport in Skagerrak, and was severely damaged, causing a delay in the project. As the bridge had the longest laterally unsupported span in the world, the construction was watched by many international delegations.
The construction of the tunnel also involved other investments in road infrastructure. This included 5.7 kilometers (3.5 mi) of new highways, 4.2 kilometers (2.6 mi) of local roads, and the 785-meter (2,575 ft) long Hordvik Tunnel just south of the bridge. A grade-separated crossing was built on both sides of the bridge. The intersection on Flatøy was also built as a bus interchange, and became the terminus of many bus routes in Nordhordland. Express buses would from there run directly to the city center of Bergen.
The bridge project cost NOK 910 million, of which NOK 513 was for the pontoon bridge, NOK 81 million was for the cable-stayed bridge, NOK 25 million was used for the waterway, NOK 115 million was used on planning, and NOK 176 million was used on auxiliary roads and the tunnel. The bridge was financed with NOK 41 million in state grants, NOK 139 million from tolls paid in advance, and NOK 730 million in debt which would be repaid by the tolls. Interest during construction cost NOK 138 million. The construction involved 1,150,000 man-hours.
### Aftermath
The use of high-strength steel caused problems as it was necessary to heat the steel to 150 °C (302 °F) before and after welding, and Kværner had problems finding an adequate process during late 1992. In January 1993, an appropriate process had been found, although experimentation with various methods continued for another six months. Kværner felt that the Public Roads Administration should bear the extra costs, demanding NOK 108 million in compensation, but the administration denied this, resulting in a lawsuit. On 26 January 1996, Nordhordland District Court supported the administration, but gave the plaintiff partial support, claiming the administration should take part of the costs through improper choice of material. The Public Roads Administration was sentenced to pay NOK 34 million to Kværner. Both sides appealed to Gulating Court of Appeal, which on 18 February 1998 refuted all of Kværner's claim regarding the steel boxes, and sentenced the administration to pay NOK 7.5 million. In addition, Kværner had to pay the administration NOK 19.5 million in penalties for overrunning the contract date. However, the court's decision was not unanimous. The plaintiff appealed to case to the Supreme Court, who unanimously confirmed the ruling of Gulating Court of Appeal. In addition, the plaintiff was sentenced to pay the defendants legal costs of NOK 910,000.
The bridge was officially opened by King Harald V on 22 September 1994. It was the second pontoon bridge in Norway, after the Bergsøysund Bridge which opened in 1992. The last tolls were collected on 31 December 2005. In 2008, there were 19,700 travelers on the bridge each day, 14 percent of which used public transport. In 2009, the bridge had an average daily traffic (ADT) of 14,698 vehicles, up from 7975 in 2000. Following the removal of the tolls, the ADT increased from 9912 in 2005 to 12,249 in 2006. In 2010, the bridge was one of twelve finalists in Teknisk Ukeblad's competition for the most beautiful bridge in Norway. In December 2010, Bergen City Council approved the Nordhordland Package, which would result in NOK 3.8 billion being used on road investments in Åsane and Nordhordland. Two-thirds of the financing is to come from tolls, which will involve reinstalling a toll plaza on the bridge. The tolls will first be set to NOK 20 for five years, and then after the completion of the first stage, the toll will be NOK 40 for fifteen years. The toll plaza is scheduled to reopen in 2013. Among the projects is a new four-lane Nyborg Tunnel which will shorten the distance of E39 from the bridge with the motorway at Nyborg in Bergen.
|
14,887,017 |
Ragnall ua Ímair
| 1,171,340,145 |
Norse emperor of Northern Britain
|
[
"10th-century English monarchs",
"10th-century Irish monarchs",
"10th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles",
"921 deaths",
"Monarchs of Jorvik",
"Norse-Gaels",
"Northumbrian monarchs",
"Uí Ímair",
"Year of birth unknown"
] |
Ragnall mac Bárid ua Ímair (Old Norse: Rǫgnvaldr , died 921) or Rægnald was a Viking leader who ruled Northumbria and the Isle of Man in the early 10th century. He was a grandson of Ímar and a member of the Uí Ímair. Ragnall was most probably among those Vikings expelled from Dublin in 902, whereafter he may have ruled territory in southern Scotland or the Isle of Man. In 917, he and his kinsman Sitric Cáech sailed separate fleets to Ireland where they won several battles against local kings. Sitric successfully recaptured Dublin and established himself as king, while Ragnall returned to England. He fought against Constantín mac Áeda, King of Scotland, in the Battle of Corbridge in 918, and although the battle was not decisive it did allow Ragnall to establish himself as king at York.
Ragnall's rule was immediately challenged by a group of Christian Vikings opposed to his paganism. This group tried to organise an alliance with Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians but this attempt was cut short by her death in 918. His reign saw three issues of coinage, although this was perhaps done on the orders of Hrotheweard, Archbishop of York. In 920 Ragnall and his neighbouring northern kings came to an agreement with Edward the Elder, King of the Anglo-Saxons, though it is a matter of dispute whether Ragnall recognised Edward as his overlord. Ragnall died the following year, whereupon the Annals of Ulster describe him as "king of the fair foreigners and the dark foreigners". He was succeeded as king by Sitric Cáech.
## Background
The ruling Vikings of Dublin were expelled from the city in 902 by a joint force led by Máel Finnia mac Flannacán, overking of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin, overking of Leinster. Those Vikings that survived the capture of the city split into different groups; some went to France, some to England, and some to Wales. Archaeological evidence suggests Dublin remained occupied in the years immediately following this expulsion, perhaps indicating only the ruling elite were forced to leave. However, Viking raids on Irish settlements continued, and in 914, a large Viking fleet travelled to Waterford. The arrival of this fleet marked the re-establishment of Viking rule over parts of Ireland, and was followed by more Vikings settling in Limerick the following year.
The main historical sources for this period are the Norse sagas and the Irish annals. Some of the annals, such as the Annals of Ulster, are believed to be contemporary accounts, whereas the sagas were written down at dates much later than the events they describe and are considered far less reliable. A few of the annals such as the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland and the Annals of the Four Masters were also complied at later dates, in part from more contemporary material and in part from fragments of sagas. According to Downham: "apart from these additions [of saga fragments], Irish chronicles are considered by scholars to be largely accurate records, albeit partisan in their presentation of events".
## Biography
Ragnall is presumed to have left Dublin with the rest of the ruling Vikings in 902. It appears he settled in southern Scotland or the Isle of Man, and is described by some scholars as a King of Mann. He may or may not have ruled territory in western and northern Scotland including the Hebrides and Northern Isles, but contemporary sources are silent on this matter. The earliest mention of him in the Irish Annals is in 914 when he is described as defeating Bárid mac Oitir in a naval battle off the Isle of Man. Bárid may have been a son of Otir mac Iercne, the man who killed a son of Auisle in 883, or a son of Jarl Otir, who later accompanied Ragnall and fought alongside him in England. Ragnall is mentioned in the annals again in 917 when he and Sitric, another grandson of Ímar, are described as leading their fleets to Ireland. Sitric sailed his fleet to Cenn Fuait in Leinster, and Ragnall sailed his fleet to Waterford. Niall Glúndub, overking of the Northern Uí Néill saw these Vikings as a threat, and he marched an army south to repel them. The Vikings fought against the men of the Uí Néill at Mag Femen in County Tipperary and claimed victory, though only through timely reinforcement by Ragnall and his army. This was followed by another at the Battle of Confey (also known as the Battle of Cenn Fuait), against Augaire mac Ailella, overking of Leinster, who died in the battle. Augaire's death marked the end of effective opposition to the Vikings' return to Ireland, and Sitric led his men on a triumphant return to Dublin, where he established himself as king.
The Annals of Ulster record Ragnall, with his kinsman Gofraid and two earls, Ottir Iarla and Gragabai, leaving Ireland in 918 to fight against Constantín son of Áed, the king of Scotland. According to the northern English historical tract Historia de Sancto Cuthberto (completed in the 11th century but probably with access to earlier material) Constantín was assisting Ealdred son of Eadwulf, ruler of all or some part of Northumbria. The battle, known as the Battle of Corbridge, was indecisive, but this appears to have been enough to allow Ragnall to establish himself as king at York. Ragnall moved quickly and soon imposed his authority on the Vikings there. His position as king of Northumbria was immediately challenged by a group of Christian Vikings (York was mostly Christian by this time) who opposed Ragnall's paganism. This faction approached Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, an Anglo-Saxon and a Christian, with an offer of submission, but negotiations were ended by her premature death in June 918.
Ragnall had three separate issues of coins produced while he ruled York, showing that the machinery of government in Northumbria continued to function, though it is possible that the day-to-day working of mints and collection of taxes rested with the Archbishop of York, Hrotheweard, rather than with Ragnall. The southern Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Elder, made some manner of agreement with Ragnall and the other northern kings in about 920, the exact nature of which is unclear. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that they "chose him [Edward] as father and lord", perhaps indicating that Ragnall acknowledged Edward's overlordship, although many scholars have contested this as unlikely. Ragnall died in 921, and is described as "king of the fair foreigners and the dark foreigners" by the Annals of Ulster. It may be that he was already dying in 920 when the Irish annals note the departure of Sitric from Dublin, replaced there by Gofraid. Sitric succeeded Ragnall as king of the Northumbrians at York.
## Family
In the annals Ragnall is identified by the use of "ua Ímair", meaning "grandson of Ímar", but never with a patronymic. As such, it is not possible to identify which of the three known sons of Ímar (Bárid, Sichfrith or Sitriuc) – if any – was the father of Ragnall. One possible reason for the lack of a patronym might be that Ragnall was the child of a son of Ímar who never ruled Dublin, or who spent most of his time outside Ireland, thus making Ragnall's legitimacy to rule Dublin dependent on the identity of his grandfather, not his father. Another possibility is that Ragnall was a grandson of Ímar through a daughter, again with his right to rule dependent on his grandfather. Sitric's kinsmen Ímar, Sitric, Amlaíb and Gofraid are the other known grandsons of Ímar identified by the use of "ua Ímair". All except for Amlaíb ruled as either King of Dublin or King of Northumbria at one time or another.
An individual identified as Mac Ragnaill (son of Ragnall) by the annals may have been Ragnall's son, though no name is given. In 942 Mac Ragnaill led a raid on Downpatrick, but within a week he was killed by Matudán, Overking of Ulster. The Annals of the Four Masters call Mac Ragnaill a jarl, but the Annals of Ulster call him a king. The Annals of the Four Masters also suggests he and his fellow plunderers came from an island.
### Family tree
|
4,682,195 |
Rose and Bernard Nadler
| 1,170,813,215 |
Characters from the TV series "Lost"
|
[
"Female characters in television",
"Fictional African-American people",
"Fictional characters from New York City",
"Fictional characters with cancer",
"Fictional dentists",
"Fictional married couples",
"Fictional sole survivors",
"Lost (2004 TV series) characters",
"Male characters in television",
"Television characters introduced in 2004",
"Television duos"
] |
Rose and Bernard Nadler are fictional characters on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) television series Lost, played by L. Scott Caldwell and Sam Anderson respectively. Rose and Bernard visit a faith healer on their honeymoon in Australia, in the hope of healing Rose's cancer. When Bernard visits the restroom during the return flight, the plane splits in half, with each half crashing on different parts of an island in the South Pacific. The couple reunite midway through season two, and Rose reveals the Island has healed her. After time traveling in season five, they separate from the remaining survivors and build a cabin near the ocean to live in.
The story of a woman separated from her husband when the plane crashes was going to be used for Kate but, when Kate's role in the series changed, the producers kept that story for Rose. Much of the couple's story prior to the plane crash was based on the events of Caldwell's life; he married his wife even though she was dying. Due to Caldwell and Anderson having other acting commitments, the writers found it difficult finding time when both actors could appear together in the show, resulting in neither character featuring in most of season three. Critics reacted positively to the couple, often hoping they would appear more frequently, and both actors were praised for their work.
## Arc
Most of the couple's backstory is told in flashbacks during "S.O.S.". Rose Henderson, an office manager, meets dentist Bernard Nadler when her car becomes stuck in a snowbank one night. After dating for five months, Bernard proposes to her, which prompts Rose to reveal she has cancer that had gone into remission, but has now returned; she only has a year left to live. The two marry regardless, and on their honeymoon in Australia, Bernard takes Rose to a faith healer named Isaac (Wayne Pygram). Despite her initial protests, she agrees to see him. Isaac is unable to heal her, but Rose tells Bernard that he was able to, in order to stop him from wasting any more of the time that they have left together. During a flashback in "Pilot: Part 1", Rose is seated alone across from Jack Shepherd on Oceanic Flight 815, after Bernard leaves to use one of the restrooms, when the plane suddenly hits turbulence. It splits apart in midair, with the fuselage and tail-section landing at opposite ends of an island.
Upon impact, Rose lies unconscious on the beach with the fuselage survivors, but is eventually revived by Jack (Matthew Fox). During the first few days on the Island, Rose is in shock, and keeps herself away from the other survivors, attracting the attention of Jack. While Jack believes that Bernard is dead, Rose is adamant that he is still alive. After Claire (Emilie de Ravin) is kidnapped by the Island's inhabitants (known to the survivors as the Others), Rose comforts Charlie (Dominic Monaghan), who believes it is not his fault and encourages him not to lose hope and prays for him.
During season two, it is shown that Bernard landed with the tail-section survivors on the other side of the Island. After the Others invade their camp, Bernard finds himself as one of the few remaining survivors. They move inland, and discover an abandoned research station, where they find an assortment of items, including a radio. Bernard uses the radio, and makes contact with Boone (Ian Somerhalder), one of the fuselage survivors, but Ana Lucia (Michelle Rodriguez) switches it off, dismissing it as a trick by the Others. After three of the fuselage survivors, Michael (Harold Perrineau), Jin (Daniel Dae Kim) and Sawyer (Josh Holloway) meet the tail-section survivors, they reassure Bernard that Rose is alive and well. They all set off to migrate with the fuselage survivors. Near the fuselage survivors' beach camp, Ana Lucia accidentally kills one of the fuselage survivors, Shannon (Maggie Grace), she refuses to allow anyone to go any further, but they eventually press on without her; Bernard is then reunited with Rose. In "S.O.S.", Bernard concocts a plan to create a giant S.O.S. sign on the beach, but Rose discourages him from spreading false hope among the survivors, and refuses to take part. She confesses that she was not healed in Australia, but has now been healed by the Island, so fears that her illness will return should she leave the Island.
In the twenty-first episode of season three, "Greatest Hits", Jack announces his plan to rig their tents with dynamite to prevent the Others from kidnapping anyone else, so Rose and Bernard assist by tying lengths of wire together. Rose grows concerned when Bernard volunteers to stay behind and detonate the dynamite. She reluctantly allows him to take part, but grows angry at Jack when the plan backfires later that night, and Bernard is captured by the Others. He is soon rescued by Sawyer, Hurley (Jorge Garcia) and Juliet (Elizabeth Mitchell), who kill the Others holding him hostage. Rose watches on as Jack contacts a nearby freighter that he believes has come to rescue them. In the season four premiere "The Beginning of the End", the survivors reunite in the jungle, where Locke (Terry O'Quinn) proposes they hide from the freighter crew, as he believes them to be dangerous. Bernard allows Rose to decide whether to follow Jack or Locke, and she chooses Jack. When the people who arrived from the freighter use morse code to contact the boat, Bernard, who also knows morse code, reveals that they are lying about the message and that there is in fact no one coming to rescue them. Jack falls ill and needs his appendix removed, so Rose and Bernard help with the operation: Rose prepares the table and Bernard helps to knock him out, but Rose is confused to why Jack fell ill when the island normally heals sickness.
After Ben (Michael Emerson), the leader of the Others, causes the Island to move, Rose and Bernard are amongst the survivors who begin to jump to different periods of time, but they eventually lose the others. After three years, Sawyer, Juliet and Kate (Evangeline Lilly) encounter Rose and Bernard, and the couple explains they have built a cabin and retired, purposely avoiding contact with the remaining survivors because they wish to live their remaining days in peace. Later, they rescue Desmond (Henry Ian Cusick) from a well, and are threatened by the Man in Black (Terry O'Quinn). Desmond and the Man in Black reach an agreement and leave Rose and Bernard alone. In season six, the afterlife experienced by the characters is shown, in which Rose is the supervisor at a temp agency while Bernard is once again working as a dentist. In the series finale, Rose and Bernard reunite with the other survivors from the plane in a church, where they prepare to "move on" together.
## Development
In the initial plans for the series, Jack was going to die midway through the first episode, and then Kate would emerge as the leader of the survivors. Kate's original backstory was that her husband went to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid-air, and on the Island she would remain adamant that he was alive. However the Lost producers changed their minds about Jack's death; they decided he would become the leader and created a new backstory for Kate. They still liked Kate's original backstory, so they used it for Rose. As Rose is black, the producers thought the audience would expect Rose's husband to also be black, and decided to make Bernard a white character to surprise the audience. They expected the audience to assume Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje), the only black man in the tail-section survivors, was Bernard. L. Scott Caldwell, Rose's portrayer, was unaware of their plans and had been picturing her own husband, a tall black man, when playing the scenes. When she found out Bernard was white she was surprised, but not shocked. Sam Anderson was unaware of which character he would be playing when he was cast in Lost. During his audition he performed a scene where a man from the plane crash was informed his daughter was still alive, which he noted covered a similar emotion to the scene in which Bernard is told Rose is still alive. Anderson and Caldwell were given a rough idea of how much they would appear at the start of the seasons.
Caldwell and Anderson deliberately did not meet before their reunion scene in "Collision" as they wanted it to be as authentic as possible. In the following episode, Hurley comments that he did not expect Rose's husband to be white, before Jack quickly changes the subject. The producers felt it was important to address that they are an interracial couple, and that Hurley was saying what the audience would be thinking. Caldwell agreed with them and thought it would be odd if the issue was not addressed. Anderson also was glad that Hurley brought up the issue, and liked that Jack did not pay any attention.
The couple's backstory was originally planned to be told during season three; however during season two, the Lost writers wanted to tell the story of one of the background characters of the show. As Rose and Bernard are the most prominent of these characters, and fans were keen to learn their backstory, they decided to do an episode focusing on the couple. Caldwell's husband was going through health problems during the shooting of the first season, which was the inspiration for Rose's flashbacks in "S.O.S.". Following this episode, Caldwell did not think Rose's healing had anything to do with the Island and stated "If she is cured, it's because she's willed it herself".
Other than reused footage from "Pilot: Part 1" in "Exposé", Rose and Bernard do not feature in season three until the twenty-first episode "Greatest Hits". The writers cited Caldwell and Anderson's other projects as a reason for their absence. Additionally, it was feared that fans would complain if the couple appeared when many actors with star billing had received limited screentime in the early third season. The writers did not want to have the couple on the show to just stand in the background; they wanted to have Rose and Bernard in the show with interesting storylines. Anderson found that although he normally had more fun portraying villains, playing Bernard was "one of the greatest rides of [his] life".
## Reception
Throughout the series Rose and Bernard have been well received. Chris Carabott from IGN found the conversation where Rose insists Bernard is alive "touching". TV Guide's Matt Roush called Caldwell "terrific", and hoped the producers would use her again in the future. Entertainment Weekly's Michael Slezak was surprised when he discovered Bernard is white, although he was unsure why. Mac Slocum, senior editor of Filmfodder.com, thought it was "super-emotional" when Bernard asked the survivors if Rose was still alive. C. K. Sample III, of AOL's TV Squad, liked "S.O.S." because it showed "two characters' back stories which we've all been longing to see", and noted the couple represent the theme of dichotomy within the show. Lost producer Leonard Dick called Rose and Bernard "much-beloved characters", and thought they did an "excellent job" in "S.O.S.". Jen Chaney from The Washington Post thought it was "touching" and "poignant" that the couple's backstory was based on Caldwell's real life. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club conceded that whilst learning Rose and Bernard's backstory was entertaining, it wasted time and slowed down the pace of the storytelling.
Rick Porter from Zap2it was pleased when Rose and Bernard returned in "Greatest Hits". After this reappearance, Patrick Day from the Los Angeles Times hoped they would be featured more often, saying "If they brought these two back ... just to kill them, it will be anti-climactic". Entertainment Weekly's Jeff Jensen called their return a "sight-for-sore-eyes". Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune thought Rose was speaking for the fans when she said "If you say 'live together, die alone' to me, Jack, I'm going to punch you in your face", and hoped Rose and Bernard would feature more often in future episodes. The couple were ranked twelfth in IGN's list of the top fifteen characters from the first three seasons. The critics from IGN also liked Rose's "live together, die alone" line, which they called "both surprising comic relief and the stuff of solid character development; characters like Rose remember and evolve, even if they spend most of their time on the sidelines". The couple were called "the unofficial heart of the show" by the critics, who noted every appearance made by them was a welcome one. Erin Martell from TV Squad thought Rose's role in "Something Nice Back Home" was "awesome", because she asked all the questions fans have been asking.
Variety's Cynthia Littleton "loved seeing Bernard in Grizzly Adams mode" in the season five finale, while Ryan McGee from Zap2it compared Bernard's appearance to both Moses and the Gorton's Fisherman. McGee said "It's a gorgeous, gorgeous scene, even if it stands as a meta-criticism of the angst and turmoil of the show's major characters". Alan Sepinwall from The Star-Ledger called it "one of the best, most moving scenes of the finale". Noel Murray from The A.V. Club thought the scene was useful as it allowed the characters to leave the show, but also it caused him to question whether opting out was the right or wrong thing to do. The Huffington Post's Jay Glatfelter thought their decision not to participate "all but solidified them as the 'Adam and Eve' [skeletons] from the caves", although this was shown not to be the case in season six. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune listed the pair amongst her favourite characters of the series, commenting "Few things made [her] happier than seeing them comfortably ensconced in their retirement cabin with Walt's dog, Vincent. They had the good sense to give up the whole island rat race, and their optimistic, straightforward attitudes and down-to-earth humor grounded Lost and gave us a window into normalcy, which, goodness knows, we needed sometimes".
|
1,789,976 |
Lady Bouvier's Lover
| 1,166,961,736 | null |
[
"1994 American television episodes",
"The Simpsons (season 5) episodes"
] |
"Lady Bouvier's Lover" is the twenty-first and penultimate episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 12, 1994. In the episode, Abe Simpson falls in love with Marge's mother, Jacqueline Bouvier, and they start dating. However, on a night out in town, she is charmed by Mr. Burns. Abe is brokenhearted when he learns that Jacqueline is going to marry Mr. Burns.
The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, and directed by Wes Archer. It was recorded in October 1993 at the Darryl F. Zanuck Building on the 20th Century Fox lot in West Los Angeles. The episode features cultural references to films such as The Gold Rush and The Graduate, and songs such as "Moonlight Serenade" and "Sing, Sing, Sing".
Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10.0, and was the third highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired.
It is the last episode to feature the rumpus room until Season 28.
## Plot
The Simpson family gathers to celebrate Maggie's birthday. After the party, Grampa feels depressed, so Marge sets him up for a date with her mother, Jacqueline. Eventually, the couple falls in love, which enrages Homer, who believes that old people should not date each other — especially in-laws — and fears that his children will become "freaks" if the two decide to marry.
To impress Jacqueline, Grampa takes her out dancing, but when he does, Mr. Burns steals her from him and breaks his heart. They soon fall in love, and Jacqueline later agrees to marry Burns, to Marge's chagrin. Meanwhile, Bart buys a \$350 Itchy & Scratchy animation cel with one of Homer's credit cards, which turns out to be poor quality with only part of Scratchy's arm drawn. Bart tries to trade it to Comic Book Guy for money but is offered a telephone in the shape of Mary Worth instead. In order to pay Homer back, Bart blackmails Burns by threatening to ruin his suit before his date.
On the day of the wedding, Grampa crashes Burns' and Jacqueline's wedding ceremony and asks that Jacqueline marry him instead. Partly due to Burns' behavior, especially when he threatens Bart after he accidentally drops the wedding rings, she decides not to marry either man. Grampa accepts Jacqueline's decision.
## Production
"Lady Bouvier's Lover" was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, and directed by Wes Archer. The episode was inspired by the fact that The Simpsons has many elderly characters, which the writers felt was unique for network television, so they sought to highlight those characters. Originally, the episode was supposed to be about Misery. One of the ideas was that Grampa would get injured on Mr. Burns's property and get stuck there, leading Grampa to think that Mr. Burns would kill him when he was discovered there. However, this idea was cut out in production because the script was over 85 pages long.
The episode was recorded at the Darryl F. Zanuck Building on the 20th Century Fox lot in West Los Angeles, where the cast and crew of The Simpsons gathered on a Monday morning in October 1993. Before the recording session took part, the main voice actors of the show (Dan Castellaneta, Harry Shearer, Julie Kavner, Yeardley Smith, Nancy Cartwright, and Hank Azaria) sat down with executive producer David Mirkin and a crew of writers at a table reading to determine what shape the script was in. There was "genuine hearty laughter at various points" during the script run-through, said Ray Richmond, a reporter for the Los Angeles Daily News. Immediately after the reading, the crew of writers hurried to make script changes based on what got laughs and what did not, while the actors waited impatiently. Mirkin told Richmond that the script would require the equivalent of ten rewrites: "At every step, there are amendments and additions and refinements." Richmond commented that as the recording session started, the "astounding versatility" of the actors became clear; "Castellaneta bounces from being Homer to Grampa to Barney without taking a breath and minus any evident vocal similarities." Mirkin said the episode was also a tour de force for Kavner, who in one scene voices Marge, Marge's two sisters, and Marge's mother. He added that even though she enjoyed the process, it was tough on Kavner's voice because those characters talk with "gravelly voices".
## Cultural references
The episode's title is a play on the 1928 D. H. Lawrence novel Lady Chatterley's Lover. Grampa is hassled twice by lawyers representing the estates of deceased entertainers: the first representing Charlie Chaplin, for his "unauthorized imitation" of the bread roll dancing scene from the 1925 silent film The Gold Rush, and the second for imitating Jimmy Durante. Grampa banging on the church window while shouting "Mrs. Bouvier!", and the subsequent getaway on the bus, are references to the film The Graduate, as is the closing song, a parody of "The Sound of Silence" by Simon and Garfunkel. Mrs. Bouvier says her friends, Zelda Fitzgerald, Frances Farmer and Sylvia Plath, were jealous of her good looks and it drove them crazy. All three women were known for having been institutionalized, Fitzgerald and Farmer for schizophrenia and Plath for a breakdown that resulted in suicide. Mrs. Bouvier's favorite tune—played during the dance at the Springfield Community Center and later by Grampa at the wedding—is Glenn Miller's song "Moonlight Serenade". The swing tune played during Mrs. Bouvier and Mr. Burns's dance is the 1936 song "Sing, Sing, Sing", written by Louis Prima and performed by Benny Goodman. Bart and Lisa sing the 1960s advertising jingle used for Armour and Company's brand of hot dogs. Everyone, except Lisa, then sings the advertising jingle for Chicken Tonight, complete with chicken dance moves. Bart receives a Mary Worth telephone after unsuccessfully trying to get his money back for the Itchy and Scratchy cel he purchased. When Troy McClure introduces himself on Impulse Buying Network, he cites "The Boatjacking of Supership 79" and "Hydro: The Man with the Hydraulic Arms" as two films he stars in. Likely, these are parodies of the films "The Concorde... Airport '79" and "X: The Man with the X-ray Eyes" respectively.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics.
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson called the episode a "generally good program, though not one of the year’s best". Jacobson said he dislikes Marge's mother; "she’s one of the series’ less interesting characters, which is probably why she appears so rarely." However, he thinks Grampa is "always fun", and "it’s nice to see him in an ebullient mood, at least for a while."
Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B− grade and said he is "never terribly interested in episodes that revolve around [Grampa] Simpson". He believes Grampa is "great as a background character, but less so when he takes center stage". He added: "I'm also especially uninterested in episodes revolving around Marge's mother. Having said that, this episode does have a number of inspired moments—notably the subplot involving Bart's pursuit of an Itchy & Scratchy cel, as well as one of the series' many homages to The Graduate."
Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 4 out of 5.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote: "Homer's nightmare vision of Bart, Lisa and Maggie as ordinary kids is a highlight of this especially crazy—surreal jokes, flashbacks and dream sequences whizz by at an alarming rate—installment."
### Ratings
In its original American broadcast, "Lady Bouvier's Lover" finished 50th in the ratings for the week of May 9 to May 15, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 10.0. The episode was the third highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following Beverly Hills, 90210 and Melrose Place.
|
1,104,969 |
Black September
| 1,173,635,066 |
1970–1971 conflict in Jordan
|
[
"1970 in Jordan",
"1970 in international relations",
"1971 in Jordan",
"1971 in international relations",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Black September",
"Civil wars of the 20th century",
"Cold War conflicts",
"Conflicts in 1970",
"Conflicts in 1971",
"Conflicts involving the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran",
"Dawson's Field hijackings",
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"Jordan–Syria relations",
"Military operations involving the PLO",
"Pakistan military presence in other countries",
"Palestine Liberation Organization",
"Wars involving Jordan",
"Wars involving Palestinians",
"Wars involving Syria"
] |
Black September (Arabic: أيلول الأسود Aylūl al-ʾAswad), also known as the Jordanian Civil War, was an armed conflict between Jordan, led by erstwhile king Hussein bin Talal, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by erstwhile chairman Yasser Arafat. The main phase of the fighting took place between 16 and 27 September 1970, though certain aspects of the conflict continued until 17 July 1971. Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, Syria directly intervened in the conflict to support the PLO militants by sending in over 10,000 Syrian troops, who invaded Jordan while bearing the markings of the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) rather than those of their own military.
In 1967, Israel defeated Jordan in the Six-Day War and began militarily occupying what had been the Jordanian-annexed West Bank. Following this development, the Palestinian fedayeen relocated to Jordan and stepped up their attacks on Israel and the newly Israeli-occupied territories. Tensions began when an Israeli reprisal operation took place in Jordan in 1968, developing into the full-scale Battle of Karameh. Within the Arab world, the perceived joint victory of Jordan and the Palestinians against Israeli troops led to a surge in support for the fedayeen in Jordan. Drawing in both new recruits and financial aid, the PLO's strength in Jordan grew rapidly, and by the beginning of 1970, groups within the PLO had begun calling for the overthrow of Jordan's Hashemite monarchy.
Acting as a state within a state, the fedayeen openly disregarded Jordanian laws and regulations. On two occasions, they attempted to assassinate Hussein, leading to violent confrontations with the Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) by June 1970. Hussein wanted to oust them from the country by force, but had been hesitant to strike; he feared that his enemies would leverage such an offensive by equating the Palestinian fighters with civilians. Continued PLO activities in Jordan culminated in the Dawson's Field hijackings of 6 September 1970, when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) seized three civilian passenger flights and forced their landing in the Jordanian city of Zarqa, where they took foreign nationals as hostages and later blew up the planes in front of journalists from around the world. Hussein saw this as the last straw, and ordered the JAF to take action.
On 17 September 1970, the JAF surrounded all cities with a significant PLO presence, including Amman and Irbid, and began shelling Palestinian refugee camps, where the fedayeen were operating out of. The next day, Syrian troops bearing PLA markings began an invasion of Jordan by advancing towards Irbid, which the fedayeen had occupied and declared to be a "liberated" city. On 22 September, the Syrians withdrew from Irbid after suffering heavy losses to a coordinated aerial–ground offensive by the Jordanians. Fighting escalated as Jordan began receiving advisory support from Pakistan, while the PLO was further bolstered by communist militants from Fadaiyan-e-Khalq and Mojahedin-e-Khalq, both of which were based in Iran. Mounting pressure from other Arab countries, such as Iraq, led Hussein to halt his offensive. On 13 October, he signed an agreement with Arafat to regulate the fedayeen's presence in Jordan. However, the Jordanian military attacked again in January 1971, and the Palestinians were driven out of the cities, one by one, until 2,000 fedayeen surrendered after they were encircled during the Ajlun offensive on 17 July, formally marking the end of the conflict.
Jordan allowed the fedayeen to relocate to Lebanon via Syria. Four years later, the fedayeen became involved in the Lebanese Civil War, which would continue until 1990. The Palestinian Black September Organization (BSO) was founded after the conflict to carry out attacks against Jordanian authorities in response to the fedayeen's expulsion; their first notable attack was the assassination of Jordanian prime minister Wasfi Tal in 1971, as he had commanded parts of the military operations against the fedayeen. The BSO then shifted their focus to attacking Israeli targets and later carried out the Munich massacre, in which they murdered 12 Israeli athletes in a high-profile attack at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Though the events of Black September did not immediately reflect a Jordanian–Palestinian divide, as there were Jordanians and Palestinians on both sides of the conflict, it did pave the way for such a divide to emerge subsequently.
## Background
### Palestinians in Jordan
After Jordan annexed the West Bank in 1950, it conferred its citizenship on the West Bank Palestinians. The combined population of the West Bank and Jordan consisted of two-thirds Palestinians (one-third in the West Bank and one-third in the East Bank) and one-third Jordanians. Jordan provided Palestinians with seats amounting to half the parliament and Palestinians enjoyed equal opportunities in all sectors of the state. This demographic change influenced Jordanian politics.
King Hussein considered that the Palestinian problem would remain the country's overriding national security issue; he feared an independent West Bank under PLO administration would threaten the autonomy of his Hashemite kingdom. The Palestinian factions were supported variously by many Arab governments, most notably Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, who gave them political support.
The Palestinian nationalist organization Fatah started organizing cross-border attacks against Israel in January 1965, often drawing severe Israeli reprisals upon Jordan. The Samu incident launched by Israel on 13 November 1966 was one such reprisal, after three Israeli soldiers were killed by a Fatah landmine. The Israeli assault on the Jordanian-controlled West Bank town of As-Samu inflicted heavy casualties on Jordan. Israeli writer Avi Shlaim argued that Israel's disproportionate retaliation exacted revenge on the wrong party, as Israeli leaders knew from their interaction with Hussein that he was doing everything he could to prevent such attacks. Hussein, who felt he had been betrayed by the Israelis, drew fierce local criticism because of this incident. It is thought that this contributed to his decision to join Egypt and Syria's war against Israel in 1967. In June 1967 Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan during the Six-Day War.
### PLO's growing strength after the Battle of Karameh
After Jordan lost the West Bank, Fatah under the PLO stepped up their guerrilla attacks against Israel from Jordanian soil, making the border town of Karameh their headquarters. On 18 March 1968, an Israeli school bus was blown up by a mine near Be'er Ora in the Arava, killing two adults and wounding ten children—the 38th Fatah operation in little more than three months. On 21 March, Israel Defense Forces (IDF) units entered Jordan and launched a reprisal attack on Karameh that developed into a full-scale battle that lasted a day. The PLO suffered some 200 casualties and another 150 taken prisoner; 40–84 Jordanian soldiers were also killed. Israeli losses stood at around 30 killed and 69–161 wounded, and they also left behind several vehicles.
Both sides declared victory: Israel had fulfilled its objective of destroying the Karameh camp, but failed to capture Arafat, while Jordan and the PLO had exacted relatively heavy Israeli casualties. Although the Palestinians had limited success in inflicting Israeli casualties, King Hussein let them take the credit. The fedayeen used the battle's wide acclaim and recognition in the Arab world to establish their national claims. The Karameh operation also highlighted the vulnerability of bases close to the Jordan River, so the PLO moved them farther into the mountains. Further Israeli attacks targeted Palestinian militants residing among the Jordanian civilian population, giving rise to friction between Jordanians and guerrillas.
Palestinians and Arabs generally considered the battle a psychological victory over the IDF, which had been seen as "invincible" until then, and recruitment into guerilla units soared. Fatah reported that 5,000 volunteers had applied to join within 48 hours of the events at Karameh. By late March, there were nearly 20,000 fedayeen in Jordan. Iraq and Syria offered training programs for several thousand guerrillas. The Persian Gulf states, led by Kuwait, raised money for them through a 5% tax on the salaries of their tens of thousands of resident Palestinian workers, and a fund drive in Lebanon raised \$500,000 from Beirut alone. The Palestinian organizations also began to guarantee a lifetime support for the families of all guerrillas killed in action. Within a year after the battle, Fatah had branches in about eighty countries. After the battle, Fatah gained control of the PLO in Egypt.
Palestinian fedayeen from Syria and Lebanon started to converge on Jordan, mostly in Amman. In Palestinian enclaves and refugee camps in Jordan, the police and army were losing their authority. The Wehdat and Al-Hussein refugee camps came to be referred to as "independent republics" and the fedayeen established administrative autonomy by establishing local government under the control of uniformed PLO militants—setting up checkpoints and attempting to extort "taxes" from civilians.
### Seven-point agreement
In early November 1968, the Jordanian army attacked a fedayeen group named "Al-Nasr" (meaning victory) after the group had attacked Jordanian police. Not all Palestinians were supportive of Al-Nasr's actions, but the Jordanian response was meant to send a message that there would be consequences for challenging the government's authority. Immediately after the incident, a seven-point agreement was reached between King Hussein and Palestinian organizations, that restrained unlawful and illegal fedayeen behavior against the Jordanian government.
The PLO would not live up to the agreement, and came to be seen more and more as a state within a state in Jordan. Fatah's Yasser Arafat replaced Ahmad Shukeiri as the PLO's leader in February 1969. Discipline in the different Palestinian groups was poor, and the PLO had no central power to control the different groups. A situation developed of fedayeen groups rapidly spawning, merging, and splintering, sometimes trying to behave radically in order to attract recruits. Hussein went to the United States in March 1969 for talks with Richard Nixon, the new American president. He argued for Israel's adherence to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, in which it was required to return territories it had occupied in 1967 in return for peace. Palestinian factions were suspicious of Hussein, as this meant the withdrawal of his policy of forceful resistance towards Israel, and these suspicions were further heightened by Washington's claim that Hussein would be able to liquidate the fedayeen movement in his country upon resolution of the conflict.
Fatah favored not intervening in the internal affairs of other Arab countries. However, although it assumed the leadership of the PLO, more radical left-wing Palestinian movements refused to abide by that policy. By 1970, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) led by George Habash and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) led by Nayef Hawatmeh, began to openly question the legitimacy of the Hashemite monarchy, and called for its overthrow and replacement with a revolutionary regime. Other radical groups included the Syrian Ba'ath's As-Sa'iqa, and the Iraqi Ba'ath's Arab Liberation Front: these saw Hussein as "a puppet of Western imperialism", " a reactionary", and "a Zionist tool". They claimed that the road to Tel Aviv passed through Amman, which they sought to transform into the Hanoi of Arabia. They also stirred up conservative and religious feelings with provocative anti-religious statements and actions, such as putting up Marxist and Leninist slogans on mosque walls.
According to Shlaim, their growing power was accompanied by growing arrogance and insolence. He quotes an observer describing the PLO in Jordan,
> They drove noisily around Amman in jeeps with loaded weapons, like an army of occupation; they extorted financial contributions from individuals, sometimes foreigners, in their homes and in public places; they disregarded routine traffic regulations, failed to register and license their vehicles, and refused to stop at army checkpoints; they boasted about their role of destiny against Israel and belittled the worth of the army. Their very presence in Amman, far from the battlefield, seemed like a challenge to the regime.
Palestinians claimed there were numerous agents provocateurs from Jordanian or other security services present among the fedayeen, deliberately trying to upset political relations and provide justification for a crackdown. There were frequent kidnappings and acts of violence against civilians: Chief of the Jordanian Royal Court (and subsequently Prime Minister) Zaid al-Rifai claimed that in one extreme instance "the fedayeen killed a soldier, beheaded him, and played football with his head in the area where he used to live".
### Ten-point edict and June confrontations
The situation placed Hussein in a severe dilemma: if he used force to oust the fedayeen, he would alienate himself from the Palestinians in the country and the Arab World. However, if he refused to act to strike back at the fedayeen, he would lose the respect of Jordanians, and more seriously, that of the army, the backbone of the regime, which already started to pressure Hussein to act against them. In February 1970, King Hussein visited Egyptian President Nasser in Cairo, and won his support for taking a tougher stance against the fedayeen. Nasser also agreed to influence the fedayeen to desist from undermining Hussein's regime. Upon his return, he published a ten-point edict restricting activities of the Palestinian organizations, which included prohibition of the following: carrying arms publicly, storing ammunitions in villages, and holding demonstrations and meetings without prior governmental consent. The fedayeen reacted violently to these efforts aimed at curbing their power, which led Hussein to freeze the new regulation; he also acquiesced to fedayeen demands of dismissing the perceived anti-Palestinian interior minister Muhammad Al-Kailani. Hussein's policy of giving concessions to the fedayeen was to gain time, but Western newspapers started floating sensationalized stories that Hussein was losing control over Jordan and that he might abdicate soon.
Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, who were openly supporting the fedayeen, sent Jordan financial subsidies, placing Hussein in a difficult position. Hussein saw no external forces to support him other than the United States and Israel, but that would act as fuel for fedayeen propaganda against him. On 17 February 1970, the American embassy in Tel Aviv relayed three questions from Hussein to Israel asking about Israel's stance if Jordan chose to confront the fedayeen. Israel replied positively to Hussein, and committed that they would not take advantage if Jordan withdrew its troops from the borders for a potential confrontation.
Israeli artillery and airforce attacked Irbid on 3 June as reprisal for a fedayeen attack on Beit Shean, killing one soldier, as well as killing seven and injuring twenty-six civilians. The Jordanian army retaliated and shelled Tiberias for the first time in 22 years; Hussein ordered the shelling but realized it was the start of a dangerous cycle of violence. Consequently, he requested, through the American embassy in Amman, a ceasefire with the Israelis to buy time so that he could take strong measures against the fedayeen. The message to Israel stated that "the Jordanian government was doing everything it could to prevent fedayeen rocket attacks on Israel. King deeply regrets the rocket attacks. Jordan Army under orders to shoot to kill any fedayeen attempting to fire rockets and fedayeen leaders had been told again evening of 3 June that violators would be shot on sight". Israel accepted Hussein's request following pressure from the Americans.
In the summer of 1970, the Jordanian army was on the verge of losing its patience with the fedayeen. After a provocation from the fedayeen, a tank battalion moved from the Jordan Valley without orders from Amman, intending to retaliate against them. It took the personal intervention of the King and that of the 3rd Armored Division commander Sharif Shaker, who blocked the road with their cars, to stop its onslaught.
Fighting broke out again between the fedayeen and the army in Zarqa on 7 June. Two days later, the fedayeen opened fire on the General Intelligence Directorate's (mukhabarat) headquarters. Hussein went to visit the mukhabarat headquarters after the incident, but his motorcade came under heavy fedayeen fire, killing one of his guards. Bedouin units of the army retaliated for the assassination attempt against their king by shelling Al-Wehdat and Al-Hussein camps, which escalated into a conflict that lasted three days. An Israeli army meeting deliberated on events in Jordan; according to the director of Israel's Military Intelligence, there were around 2,000 fedayeen in Amman armed with mortars and Katyusha rockets. Hussein's advisors were divided: some were urging him to finish the job, while others were calling for restraint as victory could only be accomplished at the cost of thousands of lives, which to them was unacceptable. Hussein halted the fighting, and the three-day conflict's toll was around 300 dead and 700 wounded, including civilians.
A ceasefire was announced by Hussein and Arafat, but the PFLP did not abide by it. It immediately held around 68 foreign nationals hostage in two Amman hotels, threatening to blow them up with the buildings if Sharif Shaker and Sharif Nasser were not dismissed and the Special Forces unit disbanded. Arafat did not agree with the PFLP, but had to play along as he feared public opinion. Hussein compromised and reduced tensions by appointing Mashour Haditha Al-Jazy, who was considered a moderate general, as army chief of staff, and Abdelmunim Al-Rifai as prime minister, who in turn included six Palestinians as ministers in his government. Henry Kissinger, President Nixon's security advisor, gave the following assessment of the events in Jordan:
> The authority and prestige of the Hashemite regime will continue to decline. The international credibility of Jordan will be further compromised... Greater fedayeen freedom of action will inevitably result in more serious breaches of the ceasefire in the Jordan Valley... Hussein faces an uncertain political future.
June 1970 became one of the most uncertain periods for the Hashemite monarchy in Jordan, as most foreign diplomats believed that events favored the fedayeen, and that the downfall of the monarchy was just a matter of time. Although Hussein was confident, members of his family started to wonder for how long the situation would last. 72-year-old Prince Zeid bin Hussein – the only son of Hussein bin Ali (Sharif of Mecca) that did not become a king – was visiting Amman in June and stayed with Hussein in the royal palace. He saw Hussein's management of the affair, and before he left, told his son that he thought Hussein to be the "most genuine, able and courageous Hashemite he had ever met", as well as "the greatest leader among all the Hashemite kings".
Another ceasefire agreement was signed between Hussein and Arafat on 10 July. It recognized and legitimized fedayeen presence in Jordan, and established a committee to monitor fedayeen conduct. The American-sponsored Rogers Plan for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict was publicized in July—based on Security Council Resolution 242. Nasser and Hussein accepted the plan, but Arafat rejected it on 26 July, claiming that it was a device to liquidate his movement. The PFLP and DFLP were more uncompromising, vehemently rejecting the plan and denouncing Nasser and Hussein. Meanwhile, a ceasefire was reached between Egypt and Israel on 7 August, formally ending the War of Attrition. On 15 August, Arafat was alleged to have said that "we have decided to convert Jordan into a cemetery for all conspirators—Amman shall be the Hanoi of the revolution." Paradoxically, Arafat had cautioned Habash and Hawatmeh, the respective leaders of the PFLP and the DFLP, from provoking the regime, as it enjoyed military superiority and could terminate their existence in Jordan at any time. But his calls went unheeded, and they started to call more openly for the overthrow of the Hashemites as a "prelude to the launching of a popular war for the liberation of Palestine". Another engagement between the army and the fedayeen occurred at the end of August, after the fedayeen ambushed army vehicles and staged an armed attack on the capital's post office.
## Black September
### Aircraft hijackings
Hussein's motorcade came under fire on 1 September for the second time in three months, triggering clashes between the army and the fedayeen in Amman up until 6 September. On 6 September, three planes were hijacked by the PFLP: SwissAir and TWA jets that landed at Azraq, Jordan, and a Pan Am jet that was flown to Cairo and immediately blown up after passengers were deplaned. The two jets that landed in Jordan had 310 passengers; the PFLP threatened to blow them up if fedayeen from European and Israeli prisons were not released. On 9 September, a third plane was hijacked to Jordan: a BOAC flight from Bahrain with 115 passengers was diverted to Zarqa. The PFLP announced that the hijackings were intended "to bring special attention to the Palestinian problem". After 371 hostages were removed, the planes were dramatically blown up in front of international press on 12 September. However, 54 hostages were kept by the organization for around two weeks. Arab regimes and Arafat were not pleased with the hijackings; the latter considered them to have caused more harm to the Palestinian issue. But Arafat could not dissociate himself from the hijackings, again because of Arab public opinion.
Al-Jazy, the perceived pro-Palestinian newly appointed army chief of staff, resigned on 9 September in the midst of the hijacking crisis, and was replaced by Habis Majali, who was brought in from retirement. Natheer Rasheed, the intelligence director who had been appointed a month earlier, claimed that Al-Jazy was paid 200,000 Jordanian dinars, and that his resignation letter was written by the PLO. Shlaim claims that the prelude consisted of three stages: "conciliation, containment and confrontation". He argues that Hussein was patient so that he could demonstrate that he had done everything he could to avoid bloodshed, and that confrontation only came after all other options had been exhausted, and after public opinion (both international and local) had tipped against the fedayeen.
### Jordanian army attacks
On the evening of 15 September, Hussein called in his advisors for an emergency meeting at his Al-Hummar residence on the western outskirts of Amman. Amer Khammash, Habis Majali, Sharif Shaker, Wasfi Tal, and Zaid al-Rifai were among those who were present; for some time they had been urging Hussein to sort out the fedayeen. The army generals estimated that it would take two or three days for the army to push the fedayeen out of major cities. Hussein dismissed the civilian government the following day and appointed Muhammad Daoud, a Palestinian loyalist to head a military government, thereby declaring martial law. Other Palestinians in the military government included figures like Adnan Abu Oudeh, an officer in the mukhabarat. Abu Oudeh later asked Hussein what the most difficult decision was that he had to make, to which the king replied: "The decision to recapture my capital."
On 17 September, the 60th Armoured Brigade entered the capital Amman from different directions and shelled the Wehdat and Hussein refugee camps where the fedayeen were based with tanks, artillery and mortars. The fedayeen put up a stiff resistance as they were well prepared, and the fighting lasted the next ten days without break. Simultaneously, the army surrounded and attacked other fedayeen-controlled cities including: Irbid, Jerash, Al-Salt and Zarqa. The three days estimated by Hussein's generals could not be achieved, and the ensuing stalemate led Arab countries to step up pressure on Hussein to halt the fighting.
### Foreign intervention
Jordan feared foreign intervention in the events in support of the fedayeen; this soon materialized on 18 September after a force from Syria with Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) markings marched towards Irbid, which the fedayeen had declared a "liberated" city. The 40th Armoured Brigade managed to block the Syrian forces' advance after heavy fighting. A second, much larger, Syrian incursion occurred on the same day: it consisted of two armored and one mechanized infantry brigades of the 5th Infantry Division, and around 300 tanks. Although the Syrian tanks had PLA markings, the troops were Syrian Army regulars. Syria issued no statement regarding the situation, but it is believed that the purpose of its intervention was to help the fedayeen overthrow the monarchy. Another tentative explanation is that the Syrians wanted to create a haven for the fedayeen in northern Jordan, from where they could negotiate with Hussein.
There were also concerns of Iraqi interference. A 17,000-man 3rd Armoured Division of the Iraqi Army had remained in eastern Jordan since after the 1967 Six-Day War. The Iraqi government sympathized with the Palestinians, but it was unclear whether the division would get involved in the conflict in favor of the fedayeen. Thus, the Jordanian 99th Brigade had to be detailed to monitor the Iraqis.
David Raab, one of the plane hijacking hostages, described the initial military actions of Black September:
> We were in the middle of the shelling since Ashrafiyeh was among the Jordanian Army's primary targets. Electricity was cut off, and again we had little food or water. Friday afternoon, we heard the metal tracks of a tank clanking on the pavement. We were quickly herded into one room, and the guerrillas threw open the doors to make the building appear abandoned so it wouldn't attract fire. Suddenly, the shelling stopped.
Hussein arranged a cabinet meeting on the evening of the Syrian incursion, leaving them to decide if Jordan should seek foreign intervention. Two sides emerged from the meeting; one group of ministers favored military intervention from the United Kingdom or the United States, while the other group argued that it was an Arab affair that ought to be dealt with internally. The former group prevailed as Jordan was facing an existential threat. Britain refused to interfere militarily for fear of getting involved in a region-wide conflict; arguments such as "Jordan as it is is not a viable country" emerged. The British cabinet then decided to relay the Hussein's request to the Americans. Nixon and Kissinger were receptive to Hussein's request. Nixon ordered the U.S. Navy's 6th Fleet to be positioned off the coast of Israel, near Jordan. By 19–20 September, the U.S. Navy had concentrated a powerful force in the Eastern Mediterranean. Its official mission was to protect American interests in the region and to respond to the capture of about 54 British, German, and U.S. citizens in Jordan by PLO forces. Later, declassified documents showed that Hussein called an American official at 3 a.m. to request American intervention. "Situation deteriorating dangerously following Syrian massive invasion", Hussein was quoted. "I request immediate physical intervention both land and air... to safeguard sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of Jordan. Immediate air strikes on invading forces from any quarter plus air cover are imperative."
On 22 September, Hussein ordered the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF) to attack the Syrian forces. A joint air-ground offensive proved successful, contributing to the success was the Syrian Air Force's abstention from joining. This has been attributed to power struggles within the Syrian Ba'athist government between Syrian Assistant Regional Secretary Salah Jadid and Syrian Air Force commander Hafez Al-Assad. Al-Assad claimed power after a coup on 13 November. Iraqi impartiality was attributed to Iraqi general Hardan Al-Tikriti's commitment to Hussein not to interfere—he was assassinated a year later for this. It is thought that the rivalry between the Iraqi and Syrian Ba'ath Party was the real reason for Iraqi non-involvement.
The airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on the Syrians, and on the late afternoon of 22 September, the Syrian 5th Division began to retreat. A meeting of the Israeli Cabinet on that day was divided on whether or not to intervene in Jordan. King Hussein requested Israeli air support against Syrian forces via the British Embassy in Amman. Israel reluctantly intervened by sending fighter jets to overfly the already retreating Syrian units in a show of support to King Hussein but without engaging. Israeli military commanders had prepared a contingency plan to occupy Jordanian territory–including the Gilead Heights, Karak and Aqaba–in case the country disintegrated and there was a land-grab by its Iraqi, Syrian and Saudi Arabian neighbors.
### Egyptian-brokered agreement
After successes against the Syrian forces, the Jordanian Army steadily shelled the fedayeen's headquarters in Amman, and threatened to also attack them in other regions of the country. The Palestinians suffered heavy losses, and some of their commanders were captured. On the other hand, in the Jordanian army there were around 300 defections, including ranking officers such as Mahmoud Da'as. Hussein agreed to a cease-fire after Arab media started accusing him of massacring the Palestinians. Jordanian Prime Minister Muhammad Daoud defected to Libya after being pressured by President Muammar Al-Gaddafi, while the former was in Egypt representing Jordan at an emergency Arab League summit. Hussein himself decided to fly to Cairo on 26 September, where he was met with hostility from Arab leaders. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September. Arafat's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders. Other heads of state took sides against Hussein, among them Muammar Gaddafi, who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal. On 27 September, Hussein and Arafat signed an agreement brokered by Egyptian President Nasser. Nasser died the following day, of a heart attack.
The Jordanian army regained control of key cities and intersections in the country before accepting the ceasefire agreement brokered by Egypt's Nasser. Hussein appointed a Palestinian, Ahmad Toukan, as prime minister, instructing him to "bandage the wounds". In the period following the ceasefire, Hussein publicly revealed that the Jordanian army had uncovered around 360 underground PLO bases in Amman, and that Jordan held 20,000 detainees, among whom were "Chinese advisors".
### Role of Pakistani Zia-ul-Haq and Iranian leftist guerillas
The head of a Pakistani training mission to Jordan, Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (later Chief of Army Staff and President of Pakistan), was involved on the Jordanian side. Zia had been stationed in Amman for three years prior to Black September. During the events, according to CIA official Jack O'Connell, Zia was dispatched by Hussein north to assess Syria's military capabilities. The Pakistani commander reported back to Hussein, recommending the deployment of a RJAF squadron to the region. O'Connell also said that Zia personally led Jordanian troops during the battles.
Two Iranian leftist guerilla organizations, the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (OIPFG) and the People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI), were involved in the conflict against Jordan. Their "collaboration with the PLO was particularly close, and members of both movements even fought side by side in Jordan during the events of Black September and trained together in Fatah camps in Lebanon". On 3 August 1972, PMOI operatives bombed the Jordanian embassy in Tehran during King Hussein's state visit as an act of "revenge" for the events of Black September.
### Casualties
Arafat claimed that the Jordanian army killed 25,000 Palestinians—other estimates put the number at between 2,000 and 3,400. The Syrian invasion attempt ended with 120 tanks lost, and around 600 Syrian casualties. Jordanian soldiers suffered around 537 dead.
### Post-September 1970
Another agreement, called the Amman agreement, was signed between Hussein and Arafat on 13 October. It mandated that the fedayeen respect Jordanian sovereignty and desist from wearing uniforms or bearing arms in public. However it contained a clause requiring that Jordan recognize the PLO as the sole representative of the Palestinians; Wasfi Tal rejected this clause. Habash and Hawatmeh continued their attacks on the monarchy in spite of the Amman agreement. Hussein appointed Tal to form a government. Tal was seen as anti-Palestinian; however, he had made pro-Palestinian gestures during his previous two tenures as prime minister. Tal viewed Arafat with suspicion as he considered that the PLO concentrated its efforts against the Jordanian state rather than against Israel. On one occasion, Tal lost his temper and shouted at Arafat "You are a liar; you don't want to fight Israel!". Shlaim describes Tal as a more uncompromising figure than Hussein, and very popular with the army.
Clashes between the army, and the PFLP and DFLP, ensued after Tal was instated. Tal launched an offensive against fedayeen bases along the Amman-Jerash road in January 1971, and the army drove them out of Irbid in March. In April, Tal ordered the PLO to relocate all its bases from Amman to the forests between Ajloun and Jerash. The fedayeen initially resisted, but they were hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned. In July, the army surrounded the last remaining 2,000 fedayeen from the Ajloun-Jerash area. The fedayeen finally surrendered and were allowed to leave to Syria, some 200 fighters preferred to cross the Jordan River to surrender to Israeli forces rather than to the Jordanians. At a 17 July press conference, Hussein declared that Jordanian sovereignty had been completely restored, and that there "was no problem now".
## Aftermath
### Jordan
In the wake of the conflict, the new civilian government of Tal began a wide-scale purge of the government's bureaucracy and military, freeing them from any supporters of the guerrillas. This effectively meant that large numbers of Palestinian officers, bureaucrats and even some Jordanians were expelled from their jobs. This was accompanied by a war by Tal on the newspapers and massive arrests of the government against the "saboteurs". Many newspapers were closed, their permits withdrawn and their editors rejected. Even though the conflict was not a result of a Jordanian-Palestinian divide as there were Palestinians and Jordanians on both sides of the conflict, but rather paved the way for the divide. Ali Kassay further elaborated:
> The composition of these two groups right up to September 1970 did not reflect a Jordanian-Palestinian divide. For instance, Nayef Hawatmeh, the head of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), one of the most radical Palestinian organizations, comes from Salt in the East Bank. On the other hand, General Mohammad Rasoul Al-Keilani, who headed Jordan's General Intelligence Directorate, came from a family that originates in Nablus in the West Bank. The point here is that the fighting of 1970 and the events that followed was the cause of a Jordanian-Palestinian divide, and not the result of one.
Hussein's resilience in the face of the joint Palestinian-Syrian challenge impressed both the West and Israel. Nixon ordered \$10 million in aid to be delivered to Jordan, and another \$30 million requested from Congress.
### Fedayeen
The Black September Organization was established by Fatah members in 1971 for reprisal operations and international strikes after the September events. On 28 November 1971, four of the group's members assassinated Prime Minister Wasfi Tal in the lobby of the Sheraton Cairo Hotel in Egypt while he was attending an Arab League summit. The group would go on to perform other strikes against Jordan, and against Israeli and Western citizens and property outside of the Middle East, such as the Munich massacre against Israeli athletes in 1972. The Black September Organization was later disbanded in 1973–1974 as the PLO sought to exploit the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and pursue a diplomatic strategy. Fatah has always publicly denied its responsibility for Black September operations, but by the 2000s, some high-ranking Fatah and Black September officials acknowledged the relationship.
### Lebanon
In the September fighting, the PLO lost its main base of operations. Fighters were driven to Southern Lebanon where they regrouped. The enlarged PLO presence in Lebanon and the intensification of fighting on the Israeli–Lebanese border stirred up internal unrest in Lebanon, where the PLO fighters added dramatically to the weight of the Lebanese National Movement, a coalition of Muslims, Arab nationalists and leftists who opposed the rightist, Maronite-dominated government. These developments helped precipitate the Lebanese Civil War, in which the PLO would ultimately be expelled to Tunisia.
## See also
- Battle of Karameh
- King Hussein's federation plan
- Palestinian political violence
## Explanatory notes
## General sources
|
2,708,396 |
Back-to-back house
| 1,162,247,834 |
Form of terraced houses in the United Kingdom
|
[
"Courtyards",
"House types in the United Kingdom",
"Industrial Revolution in England",
"Public health in the United Kingdom",
"Public housing in England",
"Slums in Europe",
"Urban studies and planning terminology",
"Working-class culture in the United Kingdom"
] |
Back-to-backs are a form of terraced houses in the United Kingdom, built from the late 18th century through to the early 20th century in various forms. Many thousands of these dwellings were built during the Industrial Revolution for the rapidly increasing population of expanding factory towns. Back-to-backs share party walls on two or three of their four sides, with the front wall having the only door and windows.
As back-to-backs were built as the cheapest possible housing for the impoverished working class, their construction was usually sub-standard. Their configuration did not allow for sufficient ventilation or sanitation. Toilets and water supplies were shared with multiple households in enclosed courtyards. Back-to-backs gained an unfavourable reputation for poor levels of health and hygiene.
Around the mid-19th century, this form of housing was deemed unsatisfactory and a hazard to health. The passage of the Public Health Act 1875 permitted municipal corporations to ban new back-to-backs, replaced in the next phase of building by byelaw terraced houses. Leeds City Council opted not to enforce the ban, however; the popularity of back-to-back houses with builders and residents led to their continued construction in Leeds until the 1930s.
Most back-to-backs were demolished in waves of slum clearances, although many remain in Leeds and Bradford. The cities of Birmingham and Liverpool, where thousands of back-to-backs were built, both chose to retain a single example as a tourist attraction. The Birmingham Back to Backs are now operated as a historic house museum by the National Trust; other museum examples of back-to-back houses are managed by the Museum of Liverpool and Bradford Industrial Museum.
## Description
Low quality houses were constructed for working class people at a high density, with scant regard for space, comfort or quality of life. Most back-to-backs were small: early examples had just a single room on each floor, while later houses were two-up two-down. Every house shared a rear wall, whether with a house directly behind or with an industrial building. Given that the house usually shared three of its four walls with neighbouring buildings, back-to-back houses were notoriously ill-lit and poorly ventilated. Such was the initial lack of consideration for hygiene, that some houses were found to have been built over open drains covered only by boards.
The term "back-to-back" should not be confused with "through" terraced houses, the backs of which face each other across an alleyway, and are thus not contiguous like a true back-to-back. Back-to-back houses can also be known as blind-backs, particularly when built up against factory walls, or occasionally as a terrace of houses standing on its own.
## History
### Early houses
Population in the city of Leeds was around 30,000 by 1800, which later doubled and then tripled, creating a problem of insufficient housing. The first back-to-back houses were built by 1790 in Briggate, Leeds, by opportunists who realised the structural setup allowed for a cost saving by not requiring roads or drainage, with population density housing up to 300 people in 60–75 properties per acre. There was no universally accepted blueprint for how the houses should be constructed; the worst (and often earliest) had a single room on each floor and no damp proofing. Sanitation comprised earth toilets in whatever available space existed, which may have been underneath bedrooms, and a public water supply from intermittent standpipes. Initially, houses were built around a communal courtyard, but later they were built onto streets. Houses of this type had become common in inner city areas of Victorian England, especially in Birmingham, Bradford, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Salford and in Nottingham, where about 7,500 of their 11,000 houses (roughly 68 per cent) were built back-to-back. Town authorities were well aware that back-to-backs were undesirable, but seemed unable to prevent their construction. The Building and Improvement Committee reported to Bradford Council that more than three-quarters of new dwellings were "laid out upon that objectionable principle". The passage of the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875 gave councils permission to compulsory purchase slum housing, but few took advantage of the opportunity.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, owners of mills and mines built significant numbers of back-to-backs to maximize the number of workers that could live in the least amount of space, while keeping costs low. Advocates of the design suggested that they were easier to keep warm owing to their single outside wall, but the absence of rear yards meant there was no space for exterior toilets, only communal ones that spread diseases rapidly. In the oldest parts of Birmingham, early back-to-back houses were associated with filth, poor ventilation and pools of stagnant water, despite being home to the greatest number of working-class people within the city.
### 19th century
Rapid urbanisation led to fields and allotments disappearing in favour of cheaply built houses, often packed tight into minimal space. Houses were built on inadequate foundations with substandard materials to reduce costs. Each house was separated by a single brick depth with a small room on each floor; ground-floor rooms served multiple purposes, while the remaining space was used for bedrooms. By the 1830s, back-to-back houses had a reputation nationwide for spreading disease, and major cities including Manchester and Liverpool prohibited their construction during the mid-19th century.
The Leeds Improvement Act of 1866 imposed regulations on new houses, to include gated yards, wider streets and improved interior design. The Medical Officer for Health unsuccessfully sought to abolish back-to-back construction in about 1880, by which time population density had improved to 200 people living in 50–60 houses per acre. In the late 19th century, the introduction of the byelaw terraced house to comply with the Public Health Act 1875 marked a significant change in housing design. In 1890, further improvements were introduced, including a basement or ground-floor kitchen, a small garden, and a private toilet for each household, as imposed by the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1885 and the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890.
However, Leeds was an exception, with figures from 1899 showing 72 percent of all houses constructed annually in the city being back-to-back, similar to 15 years prior, which didn't decrease until 1914. Small families with children in the city had little choice but to live in back-to-back houses as they were more affordable. Although the byelaw terraced house regulation was expected to prevent the construction of back-to-back houses, Leeds Council initially chose not to enforce it, allowing contractors to prioritize their interests ahead of build quality. This adversely affected the density and construction of housing in some areas, resulting in lower sale and rental prices compared to other towns that offered houses with greater space and improved sanitation. For instance, a new property built in Sunderland would have been provided with its own water closet, while a new property in Leeds may have had one shared, up until 1912.
### 20th century
#### Before the First World War
By the turn of the 20th century, back-to-back houses had become unpopular with residents and the government, who sought to ban their construction and eradicate existing properties nationwide due to concerns about health and ventilation. Residents of back-to-back houses had poor health, with increased mortality rates, infectious diseases, and diarrhoea. In Manchester, Dr James Niven noted that mortality rates among those living in back-to-back houses exceeded those from through-houses by 40%. In 1909, a change in the law forbade the erection of this style of house.
#### Between the wars
The advent of council housing after the First World War resulted in councils organising programmes of statutory slum clearances as part of post-war housing redevelopment programmes. Such initiatives gathered pace in the 1920s, with the beginning of mass demolition of back-to-back houses and the construction of "homes fit for heroes".
In Leeds during the early 20th century, the local council had spent about £1 million (equivalent to £ in ) in acquiring older, inadequate back-to-back houses for demolition, while continuing to build improved ones of a similar style until 1937, despite being outlawed in 1909 when it was decided that houses should be of an overall higher quality. By 1926, Leeds had 72,000 of these houses, of which 32,000 were described by Dr Christoper Addison as being "abominations", having been condemned as unfit for many years by that time, despite still being lived in; only 12,000 (less than 17 per cent) were given a moderate health pass by Neville Chamberlain's Unhealthy Areas Committee. Other cities had smaller numbers, such as Bradford (33,000) and Nottingham (5,000) respectively. MP Sir John Birchall described Leeds in 1930 as having "an unenviable notoriety for its back-to-back houses", although popularity among residents had increased. He unsuccessfully proposed in 1930 to permit the construction of back-to-back houses in blocks of four, given that back-to-backs were generally cheaper to build than standard through houses and that having two external walls per property would alleviate the ventilation concerns that plagued earlier residences.
#### After the Second World War
Following the Second World War and the Blitz aerial bombing of industrial cities, Britain was ready for a new wave of slum demolition and construction of more suitable housing. For example, Birmingham had about 40,000 back-to-backs in 1931 but only 29,182 by September 1946.
In Leeds around 1953, there were 30,000 people waiting for council housing, of which 16,000 comprised back-to-back housing built before 1844 that were pending clearance as slum housing. Prior to 1844, the quality was sub-standard and 16,000 of these were inhabited during 1951, compared to a further 28,000 slightly better houses, which had been constructed between 1844 and 1874. The pre-1844 houses were by that time in a state of disrepair and overcrowding was a concern, particularly when families were occupying what was originally intended for single or dual occupancy.
By 1959, Leeds and Birmingham each had 60,000 back-to-back houses, and Members of Parliament were calling for the demolition to be accelerated. William Wheeldon, a Labour and Co-operative MP, pointed out that "the most distressing thing" was that little had changed in generations:
> Its chief defect, in addition to its lack of size, its dampness and its dilapidation, is that it is not self-contained. There is no water supply inside the house, no adequate provision for discharging slop water, and the only sanitary convenience is often some distance from the house and usually common to two or more houses. This convenience is frequently in a revolting condition because of its common user. There is no bath or means of taking a bath in many of the houses. The whole outlook from these houses is sullied by soot besmirched in a soot-laden atmosphere.
>
> Many of those houses, I am sorry to say, are in my constituency [i.e. Birmingham Small Heath]. They are houses from which men went out more than forty years ago to fight in the 1914–1918 war. They were told that they were to have homes for heroes, yet the sons of those men went out from the same houses in 1939 to fight for their country, and many of those houses are still standing today.
Nationwide demolition continued through the 1960s and 1970s. Towards the end of the 1970s, Leeds was the second largest city outside London that still had around 30,000 back-to-back houses. By the 1980s, most towns had few or no back-to-backs remaining.
## Contemporary use
Leeds and its surrounding region is the only area where back-to-back houses still exist in large numbers, having been refurbished to include "mod cons" such as indoor bathrooms and central heating. These modernised back-to-backs are popular with residents because they are easier to maintain than typical houses. The houses have proved to be popular with buy to let investors, who helped to increase prices significantly during the early-mid 2000s. The house style is also popular among student populations, as little exterior maintenance is required and they are often close to universities and colleges, particularly in the areas of Headingley, Burley and Kirkstall.
Although banned by existing building regulations for new builds, architects are keen for the regulations to be relaxed, particularly as many of the historical health concerns associated with back to-back-housing, such as open sewers and communal toilets, are no longer relevant.
A study was conducted in 2008 to canvas the views of the communities living in these properties, to help ensure that they could continue in use into the 21st century. Seventy-five per cent of those questioned suggested that the heritage value of the houses was important to the identity of Leeds. Overall, 51 per cent of respondents were positive, and 45 per cent felt negatively towards them. Residents of these back-to-backs generally felt strongly about their heritage value, but their opinions were not valued as highly as non-residents or professionals. Despite the feedback, there was insufficient recognition that the properties should be protected because of their perceived heritage value.
## Preservation as museums
The Birmingham Back to Backs are a historic house museum created by The National Trust for the city's last remaining back-to-back houses. The dwellings are furnished as they would have been in the 19th century and are now Grade II listed buildings. According to the BBC, this is the last example of such housing grouped around a court.
In Liverpool, back-to-back court housing was once home to more than 40 per cent of its population, before demolition during the 1960s and 1970s as part of slum house clearance programmes. A set of nine pairs of these houses survived and were restored as part of a museum attraction. A proposal to preserve and restore the city's last surviving court housing block was made in 2016, with structural work taking place to secure the building, as well as a new roof to prevent further water damage. The project would complement the existing court dwellings at the Museum of Liverpool which opened in 2011 and recreates a former street from 1870 in the area around Scotland Road.
The Bradford Industrial Museum has a block of back-to-backs decorated as dwellings of 1875, the Second World War, and the 1970s.
## See also
- Nagaya (architecture), a Japanese version
|
61,052,450 |
Sheila Atim
| 1,169,038,720 |
Ugandan-British actress and singer
|
[
"1991 births",
"21st-century British dramatists and playwrights",
"21st-century English actresses",
"Alumni of King's College London",
"Black British actresses",
"British musical theatre actresses",
"Chopard Trophy for Female Revelation winners",
"Clarence Derwent Award winners",
"Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners",
"English stage actresses",
"English women dramatists and playwrights",
"Laurence Olivier Award winners",
"Living people",
"Members of the Order of the British Empire",
"People from Rainham, London"
] |
Sheila Atim MBE (/əˈtɪm/; born c. 1991) is a Ugandan-British actress, singer, composer, and playwright. She made her professional acting debut in 2013 at Shakespeare's Globe in The Lightning Child, a musical written by her acting teacher Ché Walker.
Following critically acclaimed stage roles in the Donmar Warehouse's all-female Shakespeare Trilogy in 2016 among others, Atim won the 2018 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Musical for her role as Marianne Laine in an original production of Girl from the North Country. She has composed songs for several productions and premiered her play Anguis at the 2019 Edinburgh Festival Fringe. She has also been cast in several television series, including the cancelled Game of Thrones successor series Bloodmoon, the BBC's The Pale Horse and Amazon's The Underground Railroad, directed by Barry Jenkins. In 2021, she starred in Netflix's successful sports drama Bruised, directed and produced by Halle Berry. In 2022, she won another Laurence Olivier Award, this time for Best Lead Actress, for her performance in the play Constellations.
## Early life
Sheila Atim was born c. 1991 in Uganda and moved to the United Kingdom with her mother at the age of five months. She grew up in Rainham, London, and attended the Coopers' Company and Coborn School. She did some occasional modelling as a teenager after being recruited when she shaved the side of her head for a school prom. She appeared in a 2009 London Fashion Week event, All Walks beyond the Catwalk, organized by the British Fashion Council to showcase clothes for "real women". She later said that "modelling was never a big earner for me. I was unusual looking, so I couldn't go for commercial castings."
## Career
### Theatre
Atim graduated with a degree in biomedical science from King's College London and trained as an actor at the Weekend Arts Centre in Belsize Park, London. She became involved in a workshop for a new play, The Lightning Child, which led to her being cast by her acting teacher Ché Walker for her professional acting debut at Shakespeare's Globe in 2013. In 2020, she told the King's College alumni magazine that "I look back and feel a strong connection between my scientific and artistic sides. Science often comes up in my work – even the way I approach things in the rehearsal room is affected by having taken BioMed. Sometimes it’s little private parallels and analogies I make for myself."
The Lightning Child, written by Walker and Arthur Darvill, ran for several weeks from mid-September 2013 and was the first musical staged at Shakespeare's Globe. It received mixed reviews, with the Financial Times describing it as "a bold experiment, but sadly not a successful one" and The Guardian review calling it "oddly conventional and pointlessly excessive". The Independent said that despite the production being overlong and having problems with the structure, it was "hard not to like" the show.
Atim played Keira, the physical embodiment of obsessive–compulsive disorder, in Ghost Town at the York Theatre Royal in early 2014. What's On Stage praised her "mesmeric physical presence" and The Yorkshire Times review said that Atim "dominated the stage". Following this, Atim appeared with Ako Mitchell in Walker's two-hander Klook's Last Stand, being praised by The Guardian for an energetic performance and "tremendous stage presence" by The Daily Telegraph. In the autumn of 2014 she appeared in Rachel at the Finborough Theatre and followed this by joining the touring production of Kae Tempest's Hopelessly Devoted. In addition to this, Atim played three roles in Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) productions: the Attendant in The Jew of Malta, Julia in Love's Sacrifice, and Assistant to Lady Politic Would-Be in Volpone. Walker's The Etienne Sisters, which included songs composed by Atim, opened two days before the end of her run in Volpone.
#### Leading roles
Atim's first major stage role was the non-speaking part of The Woman in Les Blancs at the National Theatre in 2016. The Stage said of her performance that "at the centre of the narrative is its most potent character: a gaunt, stooped and silent woman." The New York Times described a "spine-tingling production" and suggested that Atim's character may be an emblem of Africa. The Times later referred to her performance as "mesmerising".
Atim received acclaim for her 2016 performances in the Donmar Warehouse's all-female Shakespeare Trilogy set in a women's prison, when she played Ferdinand in The Tempest, Gadshill and Lady Percy in Henry IV, and Lucius in Julius Caesar. The Guardian said Atim was "a glorious, giddy Ferdinand and a moving Lady Percy – [and] frequently seems to be physically stabbing the text as much as speaking it" and The Independent wrote "Sheila Atim (Ferdinand) and Leah Harvey (Miranda) are adorably funny and charming as they capture the giddy gaucheries of first love." Atim won a 2018 Clarence Derwent Award, presented to best supporting actors in London productions, for her roles in The Tempest and Les Blancs.
Her leading role in Babette received a more mixed assessment, with The Times saying she was "the best thing about [the] production" while The Daily Telegraph review said "It's a pity ... that Babette, whose story this is, should remain, in Atim's somewhat remote performance, so distant a figure."
She played Marianne Laine in the original run of the musical Girl from the North Country at The Old Vic in London from 26 July to 7 October 2017. Following the success of The Old Vic production, it transferred into London's West End at the Noël Coward Theatre from 29 December for a limited 12-week run until 24 March 2018. The play is set during the Great Depression and Atim's character Marianne Laine is a black woman, who was adopted by a white couple that run a struggling guesthouse. The character is pregnant and appears to have been forsaken by the father of her unborn child. The music for the show consists of songs by Bob Dylan and amongst the numbers that Atim performs are his "Tight Connection to My Heart (Has Anybody Seen My Love)" and "Idiot Wind". The Guardian described Atim as "outstanding" in the role, with delivery of "Tight Connection to My Heart (Has Anybody Seen My Love)" being "direct, unaffected and perfectly poised" and her performance of "Idiot Wind" a "beautiful reading". The Times stated that "Atim, in a strong cast, is standout," in an article that was headlined "She sings Dylan better than Bob." For her Girl from the North Country role, she received a nomination for Best Supporting Actress in a Play at the 18th WhatsOnStage awards and won the 2018 Laurence Olivier award for Best Supporting Actress in a Musical.
In 2018, she played Emilia opposite Mark Rylance's Iago in Othello at Shakespeare's Globe, where according to The Independent, "she unleashed a fury that blew the greatest actor of his generation off the stage."
Atim presented her first play as an author, Anguis, at the 2019 Edinburgh Festival Fringe. It features Cleopatra being interviewed by a scientist and singing, Atim also having composed the songs. The Times considered it to be an "intriguing look at female power ... that marks [Atim] as a playwright to watch", whereas The Scotsman, while praising the songs and some performances, lamented that "the stories of the hugely privileged queen and the stressed-out modern black Londoner never quite come together as strongly as the situation promises."
### Television, film, and music
Atim played Viola and Sebastian in a film version of Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, and won the Screen Nation 2019 Best Female Performance film award. In 2018 she portrayed Limehouse Nell in ITV's Harlots.
Atim plays piano, violin, bass, and drums. She composed the score for the play Time Is Love at London's Finborough Theatre in 2019, the year that she was named one of the cast of the Game of Thrones prequel series Bloodmoon. The planned series was cancelled following the pilot episode. She appeared as an alleged witch in the 2020 BBC adaptation of Agatha Christie's The Pale Horse and in 2021 she appeared in the television series The Underground Railroad and The Irregulars and the film Bruised.
In June 2019, Atim was named an MBE for her services to drama. She is also on the Board of Trustees of The Old Vic Theatre Trust.
## Credits
### Theatre
### Television
### Film
### Radio
## Awards and nominations
|
69,201,611 |
Kumeko Urabe
| 1,172,798,776 |
Japanese actress (1902–1989)
|
[
"1902 births",
"1989 deaths",
"Actors from Shizuoka Prefecture",
"Deaths from fire in Japan",
"Japanese film actresses",
"Japanese silent film actresses",
"Japanese television actresses"
] |
Kumeko Urabe (Japanese: 浦辺粂子) (October 5, 1902 – October 26, 1989) was a Japanese movie actress, and one of the first in the country. Born Kimura Kume, she also adopted the stage names Kumeko Ichijo, Toyama Midori, Chidori Shizuura and Chidori Toyama. She worked on stage and in film and television. Urabe was born in a rural part of the Shizuoka Prefecture. She lived in several homes while growing up, as she relocated with her father, a Buddhist priest, among the temples to which he was assigned. Urabe completed her education in Numazu, and left school in 1919 to join a theatre company, touring under various stage names as an actor and dancer.
In 1923, Urabe auditioned at the film studio Nikkatsu, and adopted the name Kumeko Urabe, by which she was known for the rest of her life. She appeared in her first film the following year, and continued to act until 1987. She worked with such directors as Kenji Mizoguchi and Mikio Naruse, and performed in over 320 films, including Ikiru, Older Brother, Younger Sister, Portrait of Madame Yuki, She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum, and Street of Shame. She also starred in television dramas, including thirteen episodes of Toshiba Sunday Theatre between 1958 and 1980. In the following decade, she carved a niche as a Grandma idol, until her death in 1989.
## Biography
### Early life
Kimura Kume (木村 くめ) was born on October 5, 1902, the daughter of Keichu Kume, a Rinzai priest at Kenchō-ji, and Hana Kume. She grew up in the rural district of Kamo as an only child, her one sibling, an older brother, having died when he was young. In 1909, the family moved to Kawazu, also in Shizuoka Prefecture, where Kume attended the primary school. In 1915, the family moved again, this time to Numazu, where her father served at the Myōshin-ji temple. Kume finished her formal schooling two years later, attending Numazu Girls' School. During this time, her interest in acting had been formed by seeing Rensageki, a form that mixed silent film and stage play. In 1919, she left school and joined Yasuyoshi Suzuki's troupe, adopting the stage name Kumeko Ichijo.
Over the next four years, Kume joined travelling theatres and opera companies, perfecting her singing and dance routines, as well as learning to act in many roles. She also adopted a number of stage names, including Toyama Midori, Chidori Shizuura, and Chidori Toyama. It was also during this time that she met Chieko Saga: the pair became known as "Sagachi" and "Tochi".
### Movie career
In August 1923, Yasumasa Hatano recommended that she audition at the film studio Nikkatsu. Urabe was successful, and adopted the stage name Kumeko Urabe, which she retained for the rest of her career with pride. In fact, decades later, she objected to her birth name on the Medal of Honour with Purple Ribbon, saying that the award was for the work of Kumeko Urabe. She appeared in her first film in 1924, playing the heroine in the film Seisaku's wife (清作の妻). She was one of the first female actors in Japanese cinema. Her skills attracted the attention of the director Kenji Mizoguchi, who cast her alongside Denmei Suzuki in the film The Dusty World (塵境), released in the same year.
After this, Urabe became one of the most popular members of the studio, after Yoneko Sakai and Haruko Sawamura. She worked with Mizoguchi on many of his films which were released in the next four years, including The Ax That Cuts Love (恋を断つ斧), Queen of the Circus (曲馬団の女王) and No Money, No Fight (無銭不戦). She developed a close relationship with the director, even being by his side when he was attacked by Yuriko Ichiro, the scar from which became what Tokuzo Tanaka calls Mizoguchi's badge of honour. After a brief break from acting between 1928 and 1930, she appeared in Mizoguchi's next film Tojin Okichi (唐唐人お吉). He also cast her in other films over the next decade, including Gion Festival (祇園祭) and The Water Magician (瀧の白糸) in 1933. Up to this point she had almost exclusively starred in silent films. In July 1933, she left the studio to join Shinkō Kinema, which in 1942 became Daiei Film. It was during this time that she first appeared in talking pictures.
Urabe continued to appear in films after the Second World War. The 1947 film Koisuru Tsuma (恋する妻) was her first with director Ryo Hagiwara. In 1952, she played the role of Watanabe Kanji's wife Tatsu in Akira Kurosawa's film Ikiru (生きる). In the same year, she appeared in Mikio Naruse's Lightning (稲妻). She subsequently worked with Naruse in Older Brother, Younger Sister (あにいもうと) released the following year and became one of his stable group of actors. She also rejoined Mizoguchi for his final film, Street of Shame (赤線地帯, Akasen Chitai), released in 1956. Her movies also reached an increasingly international audience. For example, in 1955, she appeared in Hiromichi Horikawa's Hiba Arborvitae Story (あすなろ物語), which was released with English subtitles as Tomorrow I'll be a Fire Tree.
During the 1960s, Urabe continued to be cast in films, often in the role of a grandma, as in Keisuke Kinoshita's Lovely Flute and Drum (なつかしき笛や太鼓, Natsukashiki fue ya taiko), which was released in English in 1967 as Eyes, the Sea and a Ball. She later appeared in Kōkotsu no hito (恍惚の人), which explored the issue of dementia and was released with English subtitles in 1994 as Twilight Years.
By the end of her career, Urabe had appeared in over 320 films and worked with some of the most well-known directors in Japanese cinema. During her life, she received a number of accolades, including the Medal of Honour with Purple Ribbon in 1966 and the individual merit award at the inaugural Fumiko Yamaji Film Awards in 1977.
### Other work
In addition to her movie career, Urabe expanded her repertoire by appearing in television drama, firstly in episodes of There Are People Here which were aired in 1957 and 1959. She subsequently went on to play many roles, increasingly of grandmothers, in other shows, including Sharp Tuesday Theatre and Toshiba Sunday Theatre. In the latter case, she appeared in a total of thirteen episodes in the period between 1958 and 1980, her last in the 1228th episode, titled Song of Thoughts (想思樹の歌). After 1980, Urabe increasingly found work as a Grandma Idol. She released two singles in November 1984, titled I Became a Singer (わたし歌手になりましたよ) and Octopus Song (タコの唄). She was at the time the oldest debut singer in history.
### Private life
On October 23, 1928, Urabe married Koichi Ueno, the son of a wealthy man from Kyoto. The couple gambled heavily, and the marriage ended in divorce in April 1930. Urabe never remarried. In her free time, she enjoyed mahjong and gambled on bicycle and boat races. On October 25, 1989, the stove in her Tokyo apartment set alight her clothing and she was severely burned. Taken to Tokyo Medical University Hospital in Nishi-Shinjuku, she died of her injuries the next day.
## Filmography
### Film
Urabe appeared in over 320 films including:
- 1924, Seisaku's wife (清作の妻), Come.
- 1924, The Dusty World (塵境), Omatsu.
- 1924, The Ax that Cuts of Love (恋を断つ斧), Pearlko, Senami Chinami.
- 1924, Queen of the Circus (曲馬団の女王), Supein no hato.
- 1925, A Women who Longs for the Law (法を慕ふ女), Yuriko.
- 1925, Special Mission Ship Kanto (噫特務艦関東), Village daughter.
- 1925, No Money, No Fight (無銭不戦), Tsubame Musume.
- 1925, Human Front and Back (人間 前後篇), Yukie.
- 1925, General Nogi and Mr. Kuma (乃木将軍と熊さん), Kuma's wife, Yu
- 1927, Dolls House (人形の家), Miyako Hayashida.
- 1930, Tojin Okichi (唐唐人お吉), Omatsu.
- 1931, And They Go (しかも彼等は行く), Atsuko's mother.
- 1933, The Water Magician (瀧の白糸), Ogin.
- 1934, Messenger from the Moon (月よりの使者), Jailer.
- 1936, The Lieutenant's daughter (大尉の娘), Yutaka.
- 1937, Straits of Love (愛怨峡), Midwife Murai Ume.
- 1938, Ah, My Home (あゝ故郷), Shinkichi's second wife.
- 1942, Kindness (新雪), Kinbe's wife.
- 1943, Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), Weruenke.
- 1948, Women of the Night, Aunt of pimp.
- 1949, Hills of a Foreign Country (異国の丘), Iku.
- 1949, Ginza Kankan Musume (銀座カンカン娘), Odai.
- 1950, Mrs Pearl (真珠夫人) Aunt Karasawa and Otami.
- 1950, A Mother's Love
- 1950, Portrait of Madame Yuki (雪夫人絵図) San.
- 1951, Marriage March (結婚行進曲), Auntie.
- 1951, Ikiru (生きる), Watanabe wife, Tatsu.
- 1951, Repast (めし), Shige Taniguchi.
- 1952, Lightning (稲妻), Osamu.
- 1953, Where Chimneys Are Seen (煙突の見える場所), Kayo Nojima.
- 1953, Older Brother, Younger Sister (あにいもうと), Riki.
- 1953, Wild Geese (雁, Gan), Otsune.
- 1954, Twenty-Four Eyes (二十四の瞳), Teacher's wife.
- 1954, Somewhere Beneath the Wide Sky (この広い空のどこかに), Shige.
- 1955, Hiba Arborvitae Story (あすなろ物語), Minko's grandmother.
- 1955, She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum (野菊の如き君なりき), Minko's grandmother.
- 1955, The Magistrate (次男坊判官), Shige.
- 1956, Street of Shame (赤線地帯), Otane.
- 1956, Typhoon Over Nagasaki (忘れえぬ慕情), Fujita.
- 1958, I Knew the Cat (猫は知っていた), Chie Kuwata.
- 1958, The Eternal Rainbow (この天の虹), Osamu's mother.
- 1960, Irohanihoheto (いろはにほへと), Mine Matsumoto.
- 1962, Japanese Grandma: A Comedy (喜劇 にっぽんのお婆あちゃん), Zamameba Asan Waka.
- 1962, Being Two Isn't Easy (私は二歳), Ino.
- 1962, Crazy Movie: Irresponsible Japanese Guy (クレージー映画 ニッポン無責任野郎), Ume Nakagome.
- 1964, Yearning (乱れる), Bar madam at Ginzang hot-spring.
- 1964, Jakoman and Tetsu (ジャコ萬と鉄), Taka.
- 1966, Hit and Run (ひき逃げ), Hisako Kanematsu.
- 1967, Happiness to you, Sentimental boy (君に幸福を センチメンタル・ボーイ), Kura Ninotani.
- 1967, Scattered Clouds (乱れ雲). Mishima Nui.
- 1968, A Woman and Miso Soup (おんなとみそしる), Old guest.
- 1968, Sun on a Solitary Island (孤島の太陽), Oume.
- 1968, Crazy Movie: Mexican Free for All (クレージー映画 クレージーメキシコ大作戦), Ume Suzuki.
- 1973, Man of Ecstasy (恍惚の人), Grandma Kadoya.
- 1973, Shinano River (しなの川), Mother.
- 1977, The Life of Chikuzan (竹山ひとり旅), Daikoku of the Temple.
- 1980, Before Spring (海潮音), Ushima Zuyo.
- 1985, Lonely Heart (さびしんぼう), Fuki Inoue.
- 1987, Hachiko Monogatari (ハチ公物語), Mrs Uchigi.
### TV
Urabe has appeared in over 100 TV episodes, including:
- NHK – There Are People Here (ここに人あり)
\* 1957, Episodes 26 & 27 House of Others (他人の家)
\* 1959, Episode 77 Interrupting the Wall (壁さえぎるとも).
- KRT/TBS – Toshiba Sunday Theatre (東芝日曜劇場). 13 episodes including:
\* 1958, 91 Oki Letter (置手紙)
\* 1964, 416 Father and Son (父と子たち)
\* 1973 890 Spring Wife (妻の春)
\* 1980 1228 Song of Thoughts (想思樹の歌).
- 1961, CX – Sharp Tuesday Theatre (シャープ火曜劇場) "Like Nogiku" (野菊の如く).
- 1966, TBS – Keisuke Kinoshita Hour (木下恵介アワー) "Memorial Tree" (記念樹).
- 1971, NTV – Anxious Wife (気になる嫁さん).
- 1981–1982, TBS – When Hamanasu flowers bloom (はまなすの花が咲いたら).
- 1988, NTV – Female Lawyer Ayuko Takabayashi: 4 Shinshu Iida Line Tenryukyo Gorge (女弁護士・高林鮎子4 信州飯田線殺意の天竜峡).
## Writing
Urabe authored a number of books including:
- Urabe, Kumeko Half-life of a movie actress (映画女優の半生, Eiga joyū no hansei) Tokyo: Tokyo Engei Tsūshinsha, 1925
- Urabe, Kumeko I am the actress Kumeko Urabe (浦辺粂子のあたしゃ女優ですよ, Urabe kumeko no atasha joyū desuyo) Tokyo: Shikai Shobō, 1985
- Urabe, Kumeko Crazy about the Movie: The Autobiography of Actress Kumeko Urabe (映画道中無我夢中 : 浦辺粂子の女優一代記, Eiga dōchū muga muchū : Urabe Kumeko no joyū ichidaiki) Tokyo: Kawade Shobō Shinsha, 1985
- Urabe, Kumeko; Sugai, Ichiro and Kawazu, Seizaburo Movie Troublemakers (映画わずらい, Eiga wazurai) Tokyo: Rikugei Shobo, 1966
|
62,188,597 |
KUCB-FM (Iowa)
| 1,167,011,661 |
Former radio station in Des Moines, Iowa
|
[
"1981 establishments in Iowa",
"1998 disestablishments in Iowa",
"African-American history in Des Moines, Iowa",
"Defunct community radio stations in the United States",
"Defunct mass media in Iowa",
"Defunct radio stations in the United States",
"Radio stations disestablished in 1998",
"Radio stations established in 1981",
"Radio stations in Des Moines, Iowa"
] |
KUCB-FM was a radio station broadcasting on 89.3 FM in Des Moines, Iowa. The station aired programming aimed at the African American community in central Iowa. The station was on air from 1981 until 1998; its license renewal was successfully challenged in a seven-year legal battle that dragged on for most of the 1990s over an unauthorized two-year silence period and the illegal presence of a convicted felon as an officer of the station's licensee. A new minority station, KJMC, went on the air in 1999 as a result of a competing application to the license renewal.
## History
### Early years and tower site fight
In 1976, a Human Rights Commission task force determined that Des Moines media was not adequately meeting the needs of the city's minority residents; according to one study, its existing radio stations presented fewer than 10 hours a week of minority-oriented programming. The effort to build a minority radio station was spearheaded by Charles Knox, a former head of the local Black Panther Party, and Joeanna Cheatom, who would be described as the founder of KUCB. Also involved in founding the station was Edna Griffin, who in 1948 had protested the refusal of the Katz Drug Store lunch counter downtown to serve Black customers.
On December 30, 1977, the Center for the Study of Black Theology applied to build a new noncommercial educational radio station at 89.3 in Des Moines. The center's application was approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on February 26, 1979. However, that same year, the station's first efforts to get on air were frustrated by internal strife, which prompted the group to return much of a grant it had received for staff. The center, also known as Urban Community Broadcasting, received a \$25,000 grant from the city of Des Moines in 1980 to help put the station on the air. At the time, the only Black media in Des Moines was a tabloid newspaper known as the Iowa Bystander.
Before even going on air with a permanent facility, KUCB-FM attracted controversy in Des Moines. It had proposed initially to place its tower atop the Financial Center downtown. However, the station eventually filed to build a 100-foot (30 m) tower in a residential area at the Gateway Center, a community center located at 801 Forest Avenue. (It went on the air August 1, 1981, from a temporary facility attached to a chimney.) This prompted local residents to oppose the project because it took away an outdoor basketball court and they feared electrical interference. The case reached the Des Moines Zoning Board of Adjustment on August 18; after the board denied Urban Community Broadcasting's request for a variance to build KUCB-FM by a 3–2 vote, station advisory board chair Kalonji Saadiq hurled a wastebasket toward the chairman of the board, narrowly missing him; Saadiq, angry at what he perceived as the denial of 20,000 Black citizens, called the board "trash". (Saadiq, another former Black Panther who later hosted a talk show on KUCB and rose to the post of station manager, was no stranger to Des Moines city politics; he ran for Congress with the Socialist Party in 1980 and mounted a campaign for mayor of Des Moines in 1983.)
The editorial board of the Des Moines Tribune wrote that the zoning board had made an improper decision in denying the tower application. The Center for the Study and Application of Black Economic Development—as KUCB-FM's licensee became known—appealed the city decision to the Polk County District Court, which issued a default judgment in favor of the radio station, though the city vowed to appeal. The same judge reaffirmed the judgment two weeks later.
The tower site was not the only source of turmoil in KUCB-FM's first months on air—the station went through three managers in 1981 alone—but KUCB-FM was able to begin regular broadcasting. The station broadcast 20 hours a day on weekdays (21 on weekends); its output included gospel, jazz and reggae music, church services and talk shows. KUCB quickly became a pillar of the local community; its job ads helped the city implement its affirmative action program, while the station worked to defuse racial tension stemming from a series of police incidents in 1982. In 1983, it relocated from the Gateway Center—part of which was boarded up—to newer and larger space at 1430 University Avenue. The station received a \$20,000 grant from the Des Moines city council in January 1984 over the objections of an atheist activist who opposed the subsidy of a gospel music outlet.
### KUCB in the mid-1980s
Joeanna Cheatom, KUCB-FM's founder, died on April 27, 1984; the station suspended its regular programming the next day and played gospel music in tribute. At this time, the first signs of potential financial trouble appeared. That August, Charles Knox had to deny rumors that the federal government was seeking to force KUCB-FM off the air, though he did admit that the station was being audited over the original 1970s grant from the Central Iowa Regional Association of Local Governments (CIRALG). However, the station was making other progress; at the same time, Knox announced the receipt of a \$72,000 Department of Commerce grant to add new equipment and begin stereo operations. A 1984 Iowa Public Television documentary, Black Frequencies, profiled the state's three African American radio stations: KUCB-FM, KOJC in Cedar Rapids, and KBBG in Waterloo. The station continued its community service efforts, including non-alcoholic, drug-free parties that were the brainchild of three DJs.
The winter of 1985–1986 brought with it new technical troubles. The cold weather caused a malfunction in KUCB-FM's transmitter that caused it to broadcast as much as 600 kHz off its assigned frequency, interfering with classical music outlet WOI-FM 90.1 and high school station KWDM 88.9. The situation was so bad some listeners of KUCB thought it was off the air, while interference complaints piled up from WOI-FM's listeners. WOI offered engineering support to fix the problem, but it could not get KUCB to reply to its overtures.
### Plunge into silence
Internal turmoil dominated KUCB-FM in 1986. That July, station manager Al Saladin was dismissed for broadcasting speeches of Louis Farrakhan on the station and not bringing in enough fundraising revenue. First vice president Iris "Sissy" Ward, Cheatom's daughter, said of Saladin, "He was supposed to be writing grant proposals, but he didn't want to take money from white folks." The station raised \$3,000 from an emergency radiothon, enough to stay afloat for another month, but its broadcasts had become intermittent. In November, Jamal Akil (aka Jamal Long), who had been on the KUCB-FM board since the station signed on, resigned, claiming that under Ward, white people had too much influence on the operation of the radio station in such actions as the removal of Farrakhan's preaching, the reduction of gospel music in the station's broadcast day, and the discontinuation of its prayer hotline. Akil claimed that founder Joeanna Cheatom would have disapproved of these changes. Ward defended the changes as recommended and necessary to keep the station operational, said that Saladin's "blacks only" separatist line had hurt it, and stated that she wanted to evolve KUCB along the lines of a public radio station.
Adding to the station's troubles was the discovery in December 1986 that KUCB-FM still did not have the license to cover its construction permit; it had, however, filed for the license in October 1984. The next month, Ward and board chairman William Talbert were removed by the KUCB board, while Akil had returned as a show host and many of Ward's changes were reverted.
Behind the new course of action for the station was Charles Knox, whose legal problems were becoming relevant to KUCB-FM's future; by January 1987, he was awaiting trial in a Chicago federal court on charges of selling arms to Libya. Two months later, he was convicted as posing as one of his co-defendant's attorneys to visit him in prison, while testimony in the arms case revealed that Knox and two other conspirators associated with the El Rukn street gang traveled to Libya and made an offer to Muammar Gaddafi to commit terrorist acts in the United States in exchange for \$2 million. In April, new general manager Ako Abdul-Samad said that despite being the chairman of the board of directors of Urban Community Broadcasting, the Knox conviction would not impact KUCB, as he had no hand in the day-to-day decision making at the station. The station also sought money to pay operational expenses and had repaired remote control and Emergency Broadcast System equipment (which it had at one point lacked) to help keep it within FCC regulations; it also added a talk show for Hispanics and a legal advice program.
However, by May 1987, KUCB-FM had gone off the air, mired in financial troubles and having suffered damage to its transmitter. The revolving door of leadership spun once again: a new administrative assistant-general manager, Lorenzo Creighton, was appointed in July by Charles Knox—who still bore the role of station president—to restore order to the station's distressed finances. Creighton replaced Samad and was the radio station's third general manager in seven months.
One group appeared late in the year in the effort to return KUCB-FM to operational status: Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now (ACORN), which desired to provide assistance but could not get in touch with Urban Community Broadcasting officials to make the offer, or indeed, find someone who could speak for the embattled and silent station, as Iris Ward was still the president in state records. The group estimated that it would take \$35,000 to restore KUCB to the air, including \$20,000 to replace the transmitter and the payment of \$6,700 in FCC fines.
After more than two and a half years off the air, KUCB-FM returned in December 1989 with a limited schedule of programming, operating just seven hours on weekdays (and from 6 a.m. to midnight on weekends) with an all-volunteer staff.
### License renewal fight
While KUCB had survived to broadcast into the 1990s, it had done so without notifying the Federal Communications Commission of its lengthy silence. The first word the FCC had of the station being silent was a September 1987 letter from Commonwealth Electric Company, which was trying to locate the person responsible for the silent station. On January 8, 1990, the FCC ordered KUCB-FM to show cause why its license should not be revoked for leaving the air without the requisite authorization. In fact, KUCB-FM had been off air the entire time since finally receiving a license in June 1988. When FCC representatives visited the studio site in March and April 1989, they found it abandoned, and the second time they did so, the power had been disconnected. The FCC also proposed a fine of up to \$20,000. The station did manage a major technical improvement in 1990 when its transmitter was relocated to the KCCI TV weather beacon tower in downtown Des Moines. By this time, KUCB-FM had settled in at the offices of nonprofit organization Urban Dreams; its executive director, future Iowa state representative Wayne Ford, also was the radio station's president. Ford, who had previously been a talk show host on the station until he endorsed Walter Mondale on air in 1984, rejoined the station on one condition: that Charles Knox be removed. Its programming remained much the same, though it had a Tuesday night block of Hispanic programs.
In 1991, the KUCB-FM revocation proceeding was converted into a serious renewal battle when the FCC designated the license for hearing opposite rival bids—one led by ACORN and another headed by KDMI radio personality Larry Nevilles—both promising minority-oriented programming. In designating the applications for comparative hearing, the FCC pointed not only to the silence and technical issues but also to Knox's criminal record and the station's failure to disclose it in the renewal application. That record, in addition to the Libya case, also included facts directly related to KUCB: Knox had embezzled \$31,000 of the \$72,000 Department of Commerce grant issued in 1984, diverting it in 1985 and 1986 to an automotive company in Chicago. ACORN called a press conference in November 1991 in an attempt to say that it was not a hostile challenger for KUCB-FM's frequency, but the event turned confrontational when ACORN officials called police to have station manager Kalonji Saadiq and others barred from the room. Station officials claimed that the other competing applicant—Minority Communications, headed by Nevilles—would in actuality run a Christian radio station, citing Nevilles's position as a DJ at KDMI, which broadcast religious programming. They also said that the real reason for the competing challenges was the Muslim influence at KUCB-FM; the station had returned to broadcasting Louis Farrakhan's speeches, something that ACORN president Pauline Green wanted to bring to an end. One bright spot for the station took place in 1992, when Dorothy Gladden, host of the Gospel Train program, married Byron Moore, who hosted The Blues Train on KUCB-FM, after Moore proposed to Gladden on the air.
KUCB-FM's license defense got off to an inauspicious start in early 1992 when it missed a hearing and its lawyer, Alfredo Parrish, called the FCC meeting a "waste of time"; the station said it was not aware he needed to appear in person in Washington instead of telephonically. In testimony that August, Abdul-Samad and Long claimed that KUCB-FM had been sabotaged throughout its time off air and after a falling out with Nevilles, who criticized the station within the Des Moines Black community. Their memories were not as clear as to when they learned of Knox's felon status and whether documents sent to the FCC about the station's ownership were accurate. Lawyers for the FCC argued that KUCB-FM had broadcast appeals for Knox's legal defense fund and had discussed his conviction on a station call-in show.
On March 26, 1993, FCC administrative law judge Richard Sippel ruled that KUCB-FM's license renewal should be denied and that Minority Communications should be awarded the frequency. He found that the Center for the Study and Application of Black Economic Development should be disqualified for willfully intending to deceive the FCC about its knowledge of Knox's felony and for the unapproved silence of KUCB-FM, and that ACORN was financially unqualified to be the licensee. KUCB's principals claimed Sippel's findings were "totally incorrect" and constituted "political persecution" by groups such as the government and local police who were opponents of the station.
KUCB's presence in the community continued to be somewhat polarized. A representative for city police officers, who had complained of "anti-police" comments on the station's air, said that they were "glad" to hear of the ruling. Another group that had found negative comments on KUCB's air was the local Jewish community: the president of the Jewish Community Relations Committee had declined several invitations to appear on the station over a radio show it aired that claimed that Jews had conspired to bomb the World Trade Center and blame Muslims. However, its supporters pointed to stories the station had broken—such as Pizza Hut's refusal to deliver to some inner-city areas—and the station's charitable efforts and sponsorship of rap concerts. Looking back, a 2004 Des Moines Register story credited KUCB for introducing many central Iowans to hip-hop music.
KUCB-FM lost its first appeal, to the FCC Review Board, in February 1995; the board affirmed the ALJ's finding and the grant to Minority Communications. KUCB, and its lawyer Parrish, announced their intention to appeal to the full commission. The FCC rejected the appeal in February 1996. With the station's options at the commission exhausted, KUCB lawyer Alfredo Parrish appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, alleging that administrative law judge Sippel was "prejudiced" and the FCC was ignoring its own policies to promote minority radio ownership. After losing at the D.C. Circuit and in its bid to be heard at the Supreme Court, the 89.3 frequency finally fell silent in the summer of 1998. The new Minority Communications station took the call letters KJMC and began test broadcasts in March 1999.
### Post-license pirate operations
Even though KUCB-FM ceased operations at 89.3, it still maintained control of all of its studio and broadcasting equipment. Several ex-KUCB personnel started a pirate radio station at 90.5 MHz, calling itself "The Voice of Liberation Radio", in the fall of 1998. In June 1999, the FCC raided the home of Sekou Mtayari, who had been responsible for the pirate operation, and seized its transmitter, shutting it down.
|
19,329,085 |
Womanizer (song)
| 1,171,441,843 |
2008 single by Britney Spears
|
[
"2008 singles",
"2008 songs",
"Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Britney Spears songs",
"Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles",
"Dance-pop songs",
"European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles",
"Jive Records singles",
"Music videos directed by Joseph Kahn",
"Number-one singles in Denmark",
"Number-one singles in Finland",
"Number-one singles in Israel",
"Number-one singles in Norway",
"Number-one singles in Sweden",
"SNEP Top Singles number-one singles",
"Songs about infidelity",
"Songs with feminist themes",
"Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles"
] |
"Womanizer" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her sixth studio album, Circus (2008). It was released on September 26, 2008, by Jive Records as the lead single of the album. Produced and written by The Outsyders, the song was re-recorded after a snippet was leaked onto the internet. "Womanizer" is an up-tempo electropop and dance-pop song. Described by Spears as a girl anthem, the song's lyrics recall a womanizing man, while the protagonist of the song makes clear she knows who he really is.
"Womanizer" received critical acclaim with critics mostly praising its hook, melody and empowering lyrics. Critics also observed it as a stand-out track from the album, while some deemed it a comeback single for Spears. It became a major global success, topping the charts in twelve countries including the United States and reached the top five in every country it charted in also receiving several certifications from several countries. In the United States, "Womanizer" was her first single to reach number-one since "...Baby One More Time" in 1999. The song broke the record for the highest jump to number one at a time which was later broken by Kelly Clarkson's "My Life Would Suck Without You" in 2009. It is also her best-selling digital song in the country, having sold over 3.5 million copies. The song received a nomination for Best Dance Recording at the 52nd Grammy Awards, becoming her second nomination in the category.
The music video, directed by Joseph Kahn, was created by Spears as a sequel to the music video of "Toxic". It portrays Spears as a woman who disguises herself in different costumes and follows her boyfriend through his daily activities to expose him in the end. The video also contains interspersed scenes of Spears naked in a steam room, as a response to the attacks she had received over the years about her weight. The video was also nominated for two categories at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, and won for the Best Pop Video.
The song has been covered by a numerous artists from different genres, including Lily Allen, Franz Ferdinand and Girls Aloud. Spears performed "Womanizer" on several television shows including The X Factor and Good Morning America, as well as award shows such as the 2008 Bambi Awards. She has also performed the song at The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), the Femme Fatale Tour (2011) and Britney: Piece of Me (2013).
## Background
The song was written and co-produced by Nikesha Briscoe and Rafael Akinyemi of the production team, The Outsyders. Spears recorded main vocals with Brendan Dakora at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California and Bojan "Genius" Dugic at Legacy Studios in New York City. Pro Tools engineering was done by John Hanes, assisted by Tim Roberts. On September 19, 2008, a low quality 37 second snippet of the song was posted on the official website of 107.5 The River, a radio station in Lebanon, Tennessee. According to Jive Records, a representative of the label played a rough mix of the song for people at the station, who recorded it and leaked it on the Internet. The snippet was later removed from the website. The song was scheduled to premiere on September 23, 2008, but the release was delayed when Spears went into the studio to re-record some vocals. The new recordings were done with Jim Beanz and Marcella "Ms. Lago" Araica. The song was finally mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia.
## Music and lyrics
"Womanizer" is an uptempo electropop and dance-pop song with dark synths that runs through a dance oriented beat. It has been compared to previous Spears' songs such as "Toxic" (2004) and "Ooh Ooh Baby" (2007). It is written in the verse–pre-chorus–chorus form. The track opens with its characteristical sirens.
According to Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times, Spears' "quick-witted" vocals are similar to the style of The Andrews Sisters. It was also noted by Daily News writer Jim Farber that Spears' delivery has a "tone of petulance". After the bridge, Spears sings the chorus one more time and the song ends while the beat drops and Spears sings the "you're a womanizer, baby" hook.
The song is set in a 12/8 time signature and composed in the key of C minor with 139 beats per minute. The chord progression in the song is C#m-F#m-C#m/E-D#7-Dmaj7.
Lyrically, the song refers to a womanizing man. It has been suggested that the lyrics address Spears' ex-husband Kevin Federline.
## Critical reception
Upon release, "Womanizer" received critical acclaim. Peter Robinson of The Observer gave the song the maximum five stars referring to it as a "comeback single" and as having a "genius hook". He added that the song "[has] been called lazy, largely by misinformed people who also think that Kylie's 'la la la's would have been better with proper words". Popjustice compared it to "Some Girls" by Rachel Stevens and added "[The] track lays a really strong foundation for the fully-realised comeback that didn't quite happen last time and it's hard not to think of it as a late contender for single of the year. [...] It's literally quite good". Myrddin Gwynedd of The New Zealand Herald said "it's got hit written all over it". On the week of November 24, 2008, the Derby Telegraph chose it as single of the week. In the album review, Nekesa Mumbi Moody of The Providence Journal said that along with "Shattered Glass", they were "[two] fun disco tracks".
USA Today writer Steve Jones named it one of the standout tracks of the album and commented that "she seems most at ease when she's playing the teasing tart". Talia Kraines of the BBC commented that Spears needed more songs like "Womanizer", saying "Britney 2.0 needs to be full of wild dancefloor driven moves". Simon Price of The Independent commented the song borrows its electronic sound from Goldfrapp. Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times complimented Spears' delivery and the lyrics, saying the song is "about the kind of girl power that's focused on besting one obnoxious man, is also vintage and contemporary at the same time – more feminism as individualism". Mike Newmark of PopMatters called the song " a meaty, high-voltage shuffler helmed by the Outsyders, who do an admirable job of recreating the chemistry of Spears and Danja on last year's single 'Gimme More'".
Jim Farber of the Daily News said the pre-chorus was the most repetitive in a pop song since The Shaggs's "Gimmie Dat Ding". Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel called it "basically an adult update of her teen-pop tease act". Ian Watson of Dotmusic wrote that Spears sounded "trapped on this single. Not trapped, as in desperate and distraught, but trapped as in literally frozen – like she's been placed into a robot on a production line and she has to sing these words, dance these steps, work it like this, until the spotlight snaps off and the factory's powered down for the night". The song has been nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of Best Dance Recording on December 2, 2009. Spears had previously won the category in the 2005 ceremony for her single "Toxic". However, it lost to Lady Gaga's "Poker Face".
## Commercial performance
In the United States, the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number ninety-six on the issue dated October 18, 2008. The following week, the song jumped to number one breaking the records for largest jump to number one and largest jump to any position in the history of the chart, previously held by T.I.'s "Live Your Life" (feat. Rihanna) and Beyoncé and Shakira's "Beautiful Liar", respectively. The record was later broken by Kelly Clarkson's "My Life Would Suck Without You". It also garnered first-week download sales of 286,000, the biggest opening-week tally by a female artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking digital downloads in 2003, surpassing the record previously held by Mariah Carey's "Touch My Body". The record was broken on January 27, 2010, by Taylor Swift's "Today Was a Fairytale". "Womanizer" was Spears' first number one single since her debut "...Baby One More Time" in 1999. On the week of January 3, 2009, the song reached number one on the Billboard Pop Songs and number six on Radio Songs. As of July 2009, "Womanizer" was listed at number thirty-nine in the best selling digital songs of all time, with sales over 2,777,600. As of March 2015, "Womanizer" has sold 3.5 million digital downloads in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan. It is Spears' best-selling digital single in the country.
In Canada, the single topped the Canadian Hot 100 on October 18, 2008, and stayed in the position for five consecutive weeks. "Womanizer" entered the Australian charts on October 13, 2008, at number sixteen. Three weeks later, it peaked at number five. It shipped over 70,000 copies, earning a platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In New Zealand, the song peaked at number nine on October 27, 2008. The song was certified gold according to the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), selling over 7,500 copies. The track debuted at number four in the United Kingdom on November 9, 2008, and reached its peak position of number three four weeks later. On January 16, 2009, it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), with sales over 200,000 copies. According to The Official Charts Company, the song has sold 447,000 copies there. "Womanizer" reached the peak in a number of European countries, including Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, Finland, France, Norway and Sweden. It also reached the top ten in Austria, Belgium (Wallonia), Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands. In addition, the track became Spears' sixth European number-one single. As of May 2020, "Womanizer" has generated over 202 million streams in the US.
## Music video
### Development
The music video was filmed on September 24 and 25, 2008 in Los Angeles, directed by Joseph Kahn, who previously worked with Spears for the music videos of "Stronger" and "Toxic".
According to Kahn, Spears pitched him her original concept, which included all the main elements used in the final version. Spears thought of the video as a sequel to "Toxic", as seen in her documentary Britney: For the Record, whereas Kahn approached it as "a 2008 answer" to the previous clip. He added that, "'Toxic' was a crystallization of her career at that time, [...] There are elements and moments of that I felt could [have been] improved. ['Womanizer'] is a bit more fashion-forward". About how the concept of the video related to their previous work, Kahn commented that "It's just a great girl fantasy. There are things she's really good at, like having a really natural knack for knowing what girls want. [...] It's a much more mature sound and much more mature lyrics, and she always has the greatest ideas. She's hyper-aware of pop culture".
The costumes and looks for each of the different women were chosen by Spears and Kahn. The scenes in the sauna were suggested by Kahn, as a response to the attacks Spears received over the years about her weight. He stated, "I knew that the whole world would be watching, so I wanted something in there that stated, 'This is Britney, this is why you should respect her'". The set was cleared for two hours, leaving her and Kahn alone shooting the sequence. Kahn also decided to end the video with an image of Spears smiling, because "We just needed to tell everybody she's OK".
A censored version of the music video premiered on October 10, 2008, on ABC's 20/20 at the end of their show. The uncensored version premiered on MTV the same night.
### Synopsis
The video begins with an opening caption that reads "Womanizer". During the introduction, Spears is naked and smiling in a sauna, while covering herself with her hands. These scenes are seen throughout the video. When the first verse begins, the official version of Spears wearing a slip nightgown is making breakfast for her boyfriend (Brandon Stoughton) as he gets ready for work. When he is at the office, he sees a new secretary, which is actually Spears in disguise wearing horn-rimmed glasses and a pencil skirt. She starts dancing in front of him and sings the chorus. She makes him follow her into the photocopier, where she photocopies her buttocks. On the back, a man who appears in the plane scene on "Toxic" can be seen. Then, Spears is disguised as a red-haired, tattooed waitress in a restaurant. She dances around him with her dancers and plays with him over the kitchen counter. After this, her boyfriend is seen getting driven home by Spears, disguised as a chauffeur. She starts to kiss him, driving the car with her heel until both get home. Once they get into the bedroom, Spears reveals that she was the three women he was "womanizing" all along. She then begins attacking her boyfriend. This is shown through Spears as her three alter egos, and then as the real version of herself. Spears throws a blanket over her boyfriend and makes the bed. The video ends with Spears smiling, and a repeat of the opening caption.
### Reception
Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly said the video "looks promising. [...] The dancing is stiff and minimal, a disappointment since her moves are her strong suit. But this is a welcome return to the Britney we love – gorgeous, gyrating, greased up, and gamely playing the vamp". OK! commented that "in addition to seeing Brit in three different sexy getups, the video [...] features an oiled-up Britney writhing around in nothing but a smile". Rolling Stone said the video was "a cross between 'Toxic' and The Office" and added, "she's dancing [and] looking like the old Britney". Courtney Hazlett of MSNBC claimed "When Spears isn't shown naked and writhing in a steam room, she's fired up". TV Guide writer Adam Bryant said that "the music video features some of the most strategically placed hands in music-video history [...] [The] video is quite a return to form for the troubled pop star". The music video for "Womanizer" became a worldwide success right after it premiered on the Internet, gaining seven million viewers in less than 48 hours. The music video was listed as the best video of 2008 in polls by MTV and Fuse TV. It won Music Video of the Year at the 2009 NRJ Music Awards. The video was also nominated for Best Pop Video and Video of the Year at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, winning the former category. "Womanizer" was Vevo certified after it reached 100 million views on YouTube.
## Live performances
The song was performed for the first time at the Bambi Awards in Germany, on November 27, 2008. For the performance, Spears wore hot pants, fishnet stockings and a black top hat. The ensemble was compared to the costume Madonna wore during the first act of her Sticky & Sweet Tour (2008–2009). Spears was also presented with an award for Best International Popstar by Karl Lagerfeld, who said, "I admire you ... not just for your art, but for your energy. [You are] coming back not only as a phoenix but as a bird of paradise". The following night, Spears performed the song at Star Academy, with similar choreography and dance moves but wearing a red strapless dress. On November 30, 2008, Spears performed at The X Factor. The performance was watched by over thirteen million British viewers, making it the most viewed episode in the show's history. On December 2, 2008, she performed the song at Good Morning America along with a performance of "Circus". On December 15, 2008, she performed at the Japanese music show Hey! Hey! Hey! Music Champ. The following day, she performed at NTV Best Artist 2008 in a black and gold bra, hot pants and a white top hat. She also sported a fake tattooed heart in her cheek.
The song was a major part in The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), as the encore of the show. After a video interlude of Spears's music videos set to "Break the Ice" ended, Spears appeared wearing a police officer uniform designed by Dean and Dan Caten, with black sunglasses, a hat with her trademark logo and sequined handcuffs. Her female dancers were also dressed as policewomen, while her male dancers were dressed as criminals. During the performance, she danced and flirted with the male dancers. At the end of the song, she returned to the main stage while her dancers surrounded her and a shower of sparks fell over them. She thanked the audience and bowed to each side of the arena. She left the stage with an instrumental version of "Circus" playing in the background. Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun praised the performance for being a standout number in the show.
"Womanizer" was also performed at the Femme Fatale Tour (2011) as the last song of the fourth act. Following "I Wanna Go", which featured her dancing with members of the audience onstage, Spears performed "Womanizer" while surrounded by her dancers dressed as police officers. Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter stated that "[the] mid-tempo numbers [...] seemed to stall out quickly, where faster offerings like 'Womanizer,' 'I Wanna Go' and 'Toxic' had the sold out crowd jumping in place and pumping their number twos in the air." Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic called the back-to-back performances of "I Wanna Go" and "Womanizer" "a triumphant double shot of dance-pop greatness." Keith Caufireld of Billboard said the performance "seemed a bit flat after the crowd-wowing 'I Wanna Go.'" Spears is currently performing "Womanizer" as the second song for her Las Vegas residency, Britney: Piece of Me at The AXIS theater. She is accompanied by dancers clad in spandex outfits and masks, and walks on their backs.
The song was later performed in a greatest hits medley, at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards. The song was also included in Spears's setlist for the iHeartRadio Music Festival on September 24, 2016. Spears included the song on the set list for the Britney: Live in Concert (2017) and Piece of Me Tour (2018).
## Cover versions
"Womanizer" has been covered by many artists from a variety of music genres, as well as a great number of amateurs. Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly explained that "the song has been covered by other artists with an enthusiasm only matched in recent times by musicians' desire to remake Radiohead's 'Creep' in their own image". On December 8, 2008, New Zealand singer Ladyhawke performed a cover at BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge. The song was covered by American band The All-American Rejects on the Yahoo! Music Pepsi Smash show in December 2008. It was performed in an acoustic version, in which the band members played percussions with beer bottles. The cover also included an excerpt from The Turtles's "Happy Together". British singer Lily Allen also covered the song, because "simple really, I love Britney and I love the song". Her cover was a stripped-down version, that according to Nick Levine of Digital Spy, "might provoke those who reckon it doesn't have much of a chorus to revise their opinion". Allen also performed the song as the encore during her 2009 tour. French singer Sliimy cover was deemed as an "indie makeover". He would later be the opening act of the second Paris date at The Circus Starring Britney Spears.
On January 13, 2009, English singer Ana Silvera covered the song during one of her London concerts. On April 6, 2009, Scottish band Franz Ferdinand also covered the song at Radio 1's Live Lounge. Lead singer Alex Kapranos claimed "It's been the best song out in the last few months". It was also covered regularly by them during their 2009 American spring tour. The song was performed live by British girl group Girls Aloud during their Out of Control Tour, starting April 24, 2009, and released on their 2009 live album Out of Control: Live from the O2. "Womanizer" was also covered by Fall Out Boy, among others. "Weird Al" Yankovic also covered this song for part of the polka medley off his 2011 album Alpocalypse. In the 2012 Glee episode "Britney 2.0", actors Melissa Benoist, Alex Newell and Jenna Ushkowitz performed a cover of the song.
A cover by The Gym-All Stars appears on the 2009 dance-party video game Just Dance.
The Italian rock band Måneskin covered "Womanizer" at Coachella 2022, but have gone on to incorporate into their setlist
## Track listings
- CD single
1. "Womanizer" (Main Version) – 3:43
2. "Womanizer" (Instrumental) – 3:42
- CD maxi single
1. "Womanizer" – 3:43
2. "Womanizer" (Kaskade Remix) – 5:31
3. "Womanizer" (Junior's Tribal Electro Remix) – 8:47
4. "Womanizer" (Instrumental) – 3:42
5. "Womanizer" (Video Enhancement) – 3:49
- Digital download
1. "Womanizer" – 3:43
- Digital download – EP
1. "Womanizer" – 3:43
2. "Womanizer" (Kaskade Remix) – 5:32
3. "Womanizer" (Junior's Tribal Electro Remix) – 8:47
4. "Womanizer" (Instrumental) – 3:42
- Digital download – Remix EP
1. "Womanizer" (Kaskade Remix) – 5:31
2. "Womanizer" (Benny Benassi Extended Mix) – 6:16
3. "Womanizer" (Junior's Tribal Electro Remix) – 8:47
4. "Womanizer" (Jason Nevins Club Mix) – 7:31
5. "Womanizer" (Tonal Extended Mix) – 5:29
- Digital download – Digital 45
1. "Womanizer" – 3:43
2. "Womanizer" (Kaskade Remix) – 5:31
## Credits and personnel
- Backing vocals, lead vocals: Britney Spears
- Writers: Nikesha Briscoe, Rafael Akinyemi
- Producers: K. Briscoe/The Outsyders
- Mixing: Serban Ghenea
- Pro Tools editing: John Hanes
- Mastering: Tom Coyne
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Monthly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
## Release history
|
30,237,532 |
High Virgo
| 1,092,227,047 | null |
[
"Air-launched ballistic missiles",
"Air-to-surface missiles of the United States",
"Anti-satellite missiles",
"Ballistic missiles of the United States",
"Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United States"
] |
The High Virgo, also known as Weapons System 199C (WS-199C), was a prototype air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM) jointly developed by Lockheed and the Convair division of General Dynamics during the late 1950s. The missile proved moderately successful and aided in the development of the later GAM-87 Skybolt ALBM. It was also used in early tests of anti-satellite weapons.
## Design and development
As part of the WS-199 project to develop new strategic weapons for the United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command, the Lockheed Corporation and the Convair division of General Dynamics proposed the development of an air-launched ballistic missile, to be carried by the Convair B-58 Hustler supersonic medium bomber. In early 1958 the two companies were awarded a contract for development of the weapon, designated WS-199C and given the code-name "High Virgo". While the project was intended to be strictly a research-and-development exercise, it was planned that the weapon would be quickly capable of being developed into an operational system if required.
The High Virgo missile was a single-stage weapon, powered by a solid-fueled Thiokol TX-20 rocket, and was equipped with an advanced inertial guidance system derived from that of the AGM-28 Hound Dog cruise missile. Four tailfins in a cruciform arrangement provided directional control. The missile was developed by Lockheed, utilising components developed for several existing missiles to reduce the cost of the project, and also to reduce the development time required. Convair was responsible for development of a pylon for carriage and launching of the missile from the prototype B-58, the pylon replacing the aircraft's normal weapons pod.
## Operational history
Four test flights of the High Virgo missile were conducted. Due to development problems, the first two did not include the inertial guidance system, instead they were fitted with a simple autopilot guiding the weapon on a pre-programmed course. Launched from its B-58 carrier aircraft at high altitude and supersonic speed, the initial flight, conducted on September 5, 1958, was a failure when the missile's controls malfunctioned. The second test, three months later, proved more successful, with the missile flying over a range of nearly 200 miles (320 km). The third flight test, the following June, utilized the inertial guidance system for the first time. It was a successful flight.
### Anti-satellite test
The fourth High Virgo missile was utilized in a test mission intended to demonstrate the capability of the missile for use as a "satellite interceptor", or anti-satellite missile (ASAT). The missile, modified with cameras to record the results of the test, was initially targeted at the Explorer 4 satellite. Due to errors in calculating the satellite's orbit Explorer 5 was targeted instead.
The ASAT test mission, the final flight of the High Virgo missile, was conducted on September 22, 1959. Less than a minute after the launch of the missile from its B-58 carrier aircraft at Mach 2, the telemetry signal was lost. No data was recovered from the test, and the camera data, intended to be recovered afterward, was not located. Hence the test was inconclusive.
No further test firings of High Virgo were conducted, the research project having been concluded. The Air Force had begun work on what would become the GAM-87 Skybolt missile, which incorporated lessons learned from the WS-199 project.
## Launch history
AMR DZ means Atlantic Missile Range Drop Zone.
## See also
|
15,267,932 |
Unforgiven (2004)
| 1,160,500,938 |
World Wrestling Entertainment pay-per-view event
|
[
"2004 WWE pay-per-view events",
"2004 in Oregon",
"Events in Portland, Oregon",
"Professional wrestling in Oregon",
"September 2004 events in the United States",
"WWE Raw",
"WWE Unforgiven"
] |
The 2004 Unforgiven was the seventh annual Unforgiven professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw brand division. The event took place on September 12, 2004, at the Rose Garden in Portland, Oregon. It is one of only two WWE pay-per-view events to ever be held in the state of Oregon, the other being No Mercy in 2008.
The main event was Randy Orton versus Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship, which Triple H won by pinfall after executing a Pedigree onto a steel chair. One of the predominant matches on the card was Shawn Michaels versus Kane in a No Disqualification match, which Michaels won after performing Sweet Chin Music. Another primary match on the undercard was Chris Jericho versus Christian in a Ladder match for the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship, which Jericho won by retrieving the suspended belt.
## Production
### Background
Unforgiven was first held by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) as the 21st In Your House pay-per-view (PPV) in April 1998. Following the discontinuation of the In Your House series in February 1999, Unforgiven branched off as its own PPV in September that year, becoming WWE's annual September PPV. The 2004 event was the seventh event in the Unforgiven chronology and took place on September 12 at the Rose Garden in Portland, Oregon. Like the previous year's event, it featured wrestlers exclusively from the Raw brand.
### Storylines
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event's card beforehand, which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE's script writers. The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before, during and after the event were also planned by the script writers. The event featured wrestlers and other talent from the Raw brand – a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees. Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick, as they followed a series of events which generally built tension, leading to a wrestling match.
The main feud heading into the event was between Randy Orton and Triple H over the World Heavyweight Championship. At SummerSlam, Orton defeated Chris Benoit to win the World Heavyweight Championship, thus making Orton the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history. On the August 16 episode of Raw, Orton successfully retained the title in a rematch with Benoit. After the match, Evolution (Batista, Ric Flair, and Triple H), Orton's fellow stablemates, threw him a fake celebration, only to reveal that they were not pleased with his new victory. While Batista had Orton propped on his shoulders in elation, Triple H gave him a pleased thumbs up; Triple H, however, abruptly changed the thumbs up to a thumbs-down and told Batista to drop Orton to the mat. Flair and Batista then began to beat Orton in the ring as Triple H claimed that Orton was nothing without Evolution. Orton's break-up with Evolution began a new storyline for him as a face when he began to feud with his former group members. On the August 23 episode of Raw, after Orton refused to give Triple H the World Heavyweight Championship, Orton spat in Triple H's face and hit him with the title belt. Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff then scheduled a match between the two for the World Heavyweight Championship at Unforgiven. On the August 30 episode of Raw, Eugene defeated Triple H in a singles match after Orton interfered and performed an RKO on Triple H. On the September 6 episode of Raw, Orton defeated Kane in a Steel Cage match by escaping the cage. Shortly after the match ended, Ric Flair and Batista came out and, along with Triple H, began attacking Orton. In an interview with the Daily Star in 2006, Orton revealed that WWE chairman, Vince McMahon, came up with the idea of having Orton turn face the day of SummerSlam. According to Orton, transforming into a face was "tough" because "no one bought it".
The second main feud heading into the event was between Kane and Shawn Michaels. This feud began after Bad Blood, when Michaels lost a Hell in a Cell match to Triple H. On the June 14 episode of Raw, Raw commentator Jim Ross tried making amends between Michaels and Triple H by making them to shake hands. Michaels and Triple H extended their hands to shake, however, Kane came out and attacked Michaels, which resulted in Kane, in storyline, crushing Michaels' throat with a wedged chair. Michaels was then taken out in an ambulance for medical attention. On the June 28 episode of Raw, Ross interviewed Kane and asked him to explain his actions towards Michaels; Kane explained that he was robbed of the World Heavyweight Championship at Bad Blood against Chris Benoit, as Michaels got in his way, which angered him. On the August 30 episode of Raw, Kane revealed that Eric Bischoff's wedding gift to him and Lita, who married on the August 23 episode of Raw, was to name any match he wanted at Unforgiven. Lita then informed Kane that Bischoff's present was for both of them, where they were able to pick Kane's opponent for Unforgiven, which resulted in Michaels being picked. Prior to the match, Kane revealed that it had become a no disqualification match.
The third main feud heading into the event was between Chris Jericho and Christian over the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship. On the September 6 episode of Raw, Eric Bischoff stripped Edge of the Intercontinental Championship, after Edge suffered a legitimate groin injury. Christian interrupted Bischoff and stated that all his peeps would riot the streets if Bischoff did not award him the vacant championship. Jericho suggested that he and Christian wrestle in a match later that night over the vacant championship. Bischoff, however, scheduled a Ladder match at Unforgiven between Christian and Jericho.
## Event
Before the event aired live on pay-per-view, Maven defeated Rodney Mack in a match during Sunday Night Heat.
### Preliminary matches
The first match of the event was the tag team encounter of Chris Benoit and William Regal against the team of Evolution (Ric Flair and Batista). The match started off with Batista and Chris Benoit, who brawled back and forth until Flair was tagged in. Flair and Benoit exchanged knife edge chops. Batista and Regal then sparred, but Batista was able to gain control over Regal, until Benoit and Flair tagged in to the match. Benoit and Flair spar back and forth, until Flair applied the Figure four lock only for Benoit to reverse it into the Crippler Crossface, in which Flair submitted to, giving the win to Benoit and Regal.
The next match was the encounter of Victoria and Trish Stratus (with Tyson Tomko) for the WWE Women's Championship. Victoria gained control over Stratus early into the match, however, Stratus gained control after Tomko interfered on her behalf. After Stratus gained the advantage, she performed a Stratusfaction on Victoria and got a successful pinfall, thus Stratus retained the Women's Championship. After the match, Tomko tried to attack Victoria, until she was saved by an unknown man in a dress. Tomko then challenged the mystery superstar into a match.
The third match was between Tyson Tomko and Stevie Richards, the man dressed in women's clothing. Tomko quickly gained the advantage after stripping off all of the clothes on Richards, leaving Richards left wearing a pair of woman's underwear. Tomko continued his attack on Richards by delivering a swinging neckbreaker and winning the match via pinfall.
The fourth match was for the vacant WWE Intercontinental Championship between Christian and Chris Jericho in a Ladder match. The two superstars brawled early into the match, but they then retrieved ladders and used them to their advantage. Christian was then able to gain control over the match after he performed a running enziguri onto Jericho. The two superstars then continued in a back and forth match, until Jericho applied the Walls of Jericho on Christian, on the top of the ladder, which caused Christian to fall down. Jericho failed to retrieve the title on the first attempt, but was able to set up another ladder and successfully retrieved the title on the second attempt, thus Jericho winning the match and the WWE Intercontinental Championship for a record seventh reign at the time.
### Main event matches
The next match was a No Disqualification match between Kane, who was accompanied by Lita, and Shawn Michaels. Kane would gain the early advantage as he performed a toss suplex on Michaels through the announce table. Kane would continue to brawl with Michaels at ringside where he hit Michaels with the ringside steel steps, which resulted in Michaels bleeding. As Kane attempted to hit Michaels with a steel chair, Lita would interfere and grab the chair away from Kane. Kane then attempted a chokeslam, but Michaels would counter it with Sweet Chin Music, which gained a successful pinfall.
The following match was for the World Tag Team Championship, in which champions La Résistance (Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway) defended the title against Tajiri and Rhyno. There was back and forth action between the two teams, as all the superstars were able to participate in the match. Grenier hit Rhyno with a Quebec flag and managed to pin him, thus allowing La Resistance to win the match and retain the World Tag Team title.
The main event was between Randy Orton and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship. Both Orton and Triple H managed to get the upper hand in the match. During the match, Ric Flair and Batista interfered on behalf of Triple H, as they attacked Orton while the referee was knocked out. Jonathan Coachman also took part in the match as he ran down with a referee shirt and tried to act as a guest referee. Orton managed to get the upper hand over Flair, Batista and Coachman as he delivered an RKO on all of them. Triple H, however, managed to hit Orton with a steel chair, which proceeded with a Pedigree onto the same chair. Batista then rolled the referee into the ring, as Triple H covered Orton for the win via pinfall and score his 9th world championship.
## Aftermath
Following Unforgiven, Triple H had a celebration thrown in his honor, complete with six women, confetti, streamers and a giant cake. Randy Orton, however, sought revenge, as he attacked all three Evolution members, as he came out of the giant cake, which was placed in the center of the ring, and humiliated the group. Orton was however ineligible to face Triple H at Taboo Tuesday for the World Heavyweight Championship, as he was unable to win a match against Batista, which would have given Orton a championship match. On the October 4, 2004 edition of Raw, three candidates were named as potential contenders for Triple H's World Heavyweight Championship at Taboo Tuesday; Chris Benoit and Edge were revealed as two of the candidates. Shawn Michaels, however, competed in a qualifying match, which it saw him defeat Christian, to become the third candidate. On the October 18 edition of Raw, a Triple Threat match was scheduled between Michaels, Benoit and Edge, which Edge won after he pinned Benoit by using the ropes for leverage. During the match, Michaels injured his knee, and it was later revealed that he tore his meniscus. At Taboo Tuesday, Michaels won the fans vote and faced Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship, however, Michaels was unable to win the match after Edge interfered and speared Michaels, allowing Triple H to pin him.
Randy Orton began a feud with Ric Flair, after Flair was the one responsible for making Orton lose the match against Batista. Orton commented on every accomplishment that Flair had made and criticized him for calling Triple H the greatest wrestler of all. Flair retaliated to Orton's comments, stating that individuals like Shawn Michaels and Mick Foley, who Orton had previously feuded with, were not legends, therefore Orton was not a Legend Killer. Flair also stated that he and Orton would have a match at Taboo Tuesday and the fans would have the opportunity to choose what type of match they face in. At Taboo Tuesday, Orton and Flair met in a Steel Cage match, which was the fans selection. Orton won the match after delivering an RKO to Flair. After the match, Flair shook Orton's hand.
At Taboo Tuesday, Chris Jericho lost the Intercontinental Championship to Shelton Benjamin via pinfall. Benjamin won the vote to face Jericho; he also was voted over Batista, Jonathan Coachman, Christian, Rhyno, Maven, William Regal, The Hurricane, Tyson Tomko, Tajiri, Steven Richards, Val Venis, Rosey, Chuck Palumbo, and Rodney Mack.
On the October 11, 2004 edition of Raw, La Résistance had to defend the World Tag Team Championship in a match with Eugene and William Regal. Regal hit Sylvain Grenier with a pair of brass knuckles and pinned him to win the World Tag Team title. Eric Bischoff, however, restarted the match. The match resulted in La Résistance retaining the title, after Robért Conway jabbed Regal in the side with a flagpole. Bischoff informed La Résistance that at Taboo Tuesday they were scheduled to defend the World Tag Team title against the two individuals who were not chosen to face Triple H for the World title. Shawn Michaels won the fans choice, which gave Edge and Chris Benoit a World Tag Team title match. Edge, however, abandoned Benoit during the match, which forced Benoit to wrestle both members of La Résistance by himself. Despite this, Benoit managed to force Conway to submit to the Crippler Crossface to win the World Tag Team Championship.
## Results
|
2,852,685 |
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney
| 1,166,547,739 |
2007 video game
|
[
"2007 video games",
"Ace Attorney video games",
"Adventure games",
"Android (operating system) games",
"IOS games",
"Nintendo 3DS eShop games",
"Nintendo 3DS games",
"Nintendo DS games",
"Single-player video games",
"Video game sequels",
"Video games developed in Japan",
"Video games set in the 2020s",
"Visual novels"
] |
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney is a visual novel adventure video game developed and published by Capcom. It is the fourth title in the Ace Attorney series, and was released for the Nintendo DS handheld game console in Japan in 2007 and in the West in 2008, for iOS and Android in 2016, and for the Nintendo 3DS in 2017. It is also set to be released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows and Xbox One in 2024, as part of the Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney Trilogy compilation.
The game takes place seven years after the previous game, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations. Phoenix Wright, the main character of previous titles in the series, has been stripped of his attorney's badge, and Apollo Justice, an up-and-coming attorney, becomes his apprentice, working with Phoenix's adopted daughter Trucy on four cases. The player's goal is to get their clients declared not guilty; to do this, they investigate the cases and cross-examine witnesses. When finding inconsistencies in witness testimonies, the player is able to present pieces of evidence that contradict the witnesses' statements. They can also use the "perceive" system, in which they are able to see nervous motions or actions during witness testimonies, similar to a tell in poker.
The game was developed by a team of 28 staff members, including producer Minae Matsukawa, director Mitsuru Endo, and character designer Kazuya Nuri. Series creator Shu Takumi, who wrote the game's scenario and took on a supervisory role for the production, had wanted the series to end with Trials and Tribulations, as he felt that Phoenix's character had been explored fully; when it was decided that the game would get made, he wanted it to have a new main character with a new story, and wanted Phoenix to not make an appearance. Despite this, it was decided that Phoenix would serve as a mentor to Apollo. Apollo Justice sold around 250,000 copies during the first retail week and 515,417 by the end of 2007, and has been mostly positively received by critics.
## Gameplay
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney is, like the rest of the Ace Attorney series, a cross between the adventure game and visual novel genres. The player's goal is to defend their clients in four cases, and prove their innocence. The gameplay is separated into two types of situations: Investigations and trials.
During the investigation phase of each case, the player explores the game world by either using the stylus or the D-pad to select the actions they wish to engage in: Examine, Move, Talk, or Present. The player converses with non-player characters by selecting dialogue and can move around the game world by selecting the locations they wish to travel to. Information gained during Investigation Mode can be used during the Trial phase of the game and items picked up can be used as evidence. The player cannot progress without completing certain actions. Ema Skye, a character from the DS remake of the original Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney game, often provides the player with opportunities to use DS features such as the microphone to perform actions such as dusting for fingerprints.
The trial portions consist of listening to and cross-examining witness testimonies. The player is given the option to either Press or Present evidence in response to statements made by witnesses. The player can either select their choice or yell into the microphone. By choosing Press, the player questions the witness's statement, which sometimes causes the witness to change their testimony. When finding inconsistencies in the testimony, the player may choose Present in order to show a piece of evidence that they think contradicts the testimony. The player has a health bar, representing the judge's patience. If the player presents incorrect pieces of evidence or choose incorrect answers to questions in court, health is lost. If the health bar reaches zero, the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty. A new system, known as the "Perceive System," can be used to look for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness, similar to a tell in poker. The game also includes a "Crime Recreation Mode" that models evidence or the crime scene in a 3-D rendition and allow the player to explore the recreation to look for clues. Additionally, the game often recreates the crime in cutscene sequences, allowing the player to observe the action and find contradictions.
## Synopsis
### Setting and characters
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney takes place seven years after the events of Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations. Like previous Ace Attorney games, it consists of several cases, or "Turnabouts". In each, the protagonist, Apollo Justice, must prove the innocence of a client accused of murder using evidence and testimony. Once the opening level is concluded, he is hired to work in the offices of disbarred attorney Phoenix Wright, who has been forced to turn to professional gambling to support his adopted daughter Trucy Wright, a young magician who becomes Apollo's trusted assistant and fellow investigator.
### Story
Apollo and his mentor Kristoph Gavin, an old friend of Phoenix's, are called to represent him against charges of murdering one of his customers in a rigged game of poker. In the middle of his testimony, Phoenix inadvertently names Kristoph as a witness, and with the help of a falsified piece of evidence provided by Trucy, exposes him as the real murderer. Impressed by Apollo's performance, he invites him to start his own practice out of Trucy's talent agency.
A few weeks after accepting the offer, Apollo is assigned to investigate three separate incidents: a hit-and-run involving Phoenix, the theft of a noodle vendor's cart, and the disappearance of Trucy's favorite pair of panties. At the same time, the Kitaki crime family hires him to defend one of their own, Wocky Kitaki, in a murder trial concerning the death of Dr. Pal Meraktis. By connecting the incidents to evidence recovered with the help of Detective Ema Skye, Apollo discredits the case against Wocky by proving that his fiancée, Alita Tiala, was the only one who could have committed the crime.
As a token of respect, prosecutor Klavier Gavin, Kristoph's brother and Apollo's rival, invites him and Trucy to attend a concert for his band, the Gavinners. During a guest performance by the diva Lamiroir, her manager Romein LeTouse is shot and killed in her dressing room. When Machi Tobaye, Lamiroir's pianist, is accused for the killing, Apollo, through an extensive investigation, discovers that Machi and one of the Gavinners, Detective Daryan Crescend, conspired to smuggle contraband into the country, and that Letouse, in reality an undercover Interpol agent, was murdered to cover it up. The case nearly falls apart due to a lack of decisive evidence, but Apollo is able to squeeze a confession out of Daryan by threatening to have Machi testify.
In the final case, Apollo is selected to serve as the defense in an experimental jury-style trial system organized by Phoenix, called the "Jurist System". His client, professional forger Vera Misham, is accused of poisoning her father Drew. After Vera succumbs to poison while testifying, the jurists are instructed by Phoenix, who is the chair of the Jurist Simulated Court Committee, to play a "game" using the "MASON System", which simulates Phoenix's personal investigations. Seven years earlier, while representing magician Zak Gramarye in court, Phoenix was tricked into using false evidence created by Vera, costing him his reputation and job. Zak subsequently disappeared, leaving his daughter Trucy in Phoenix's custody. Over the years, Phoenix uses his experience and connections to gradually uncover the truth: Trucy and Apollo are half-siblings gifted with a unique power of perception by their mother, Thalassa Gramarye. Furthermore, Zak was forced to abandon Trucy, his daughter, in order to honor the wishes of her grandfather, who passed the legal rights to his magic to her side of the family. It also transpires that Zak was Shadi Smith, the victim in the first case, who had come to give the rights to Magnifi's magic to Trucy before being killed by Kristoph when the latter recognized him.
The whole matter takes a surprise turn when Kristoph is summoned to testify and it transpires that he was Zak's original attorney before being fired after losing a game of cards with the defendant. In truth, he was the one who had requested the creation of the false evidence from the Mishams in order to win the high-profile case and become famous. Apollo accuses Kristoph of setting up Phoenix with the false evidence out of both revenge and jealousy before attempting to kill everyone related to the case out of fear of being found out. Following the final arguments, the player takes control of Lamiroir, who is one of the jurists for the case, and must decide whether or not Vera is guilty. If "Guilty" is chosen, it triggers an alternate ending in which a hung jury forces the court with no choice but to delay the verdict. Vera's condition worsens and she dies soon after, resulting in the case receiving no conclusion and an uncertain future for the Wright Anything Agency. If "Not Guilty" is chosen, then Vera is declared innocent by unanimous vote and ultimately recovers from the poison. With his name cleared, Phoenix considers applying for readmission to the bar and assures Lamiroir, who is really Thalassa in disguise, that he will watch over Apollo and Trucy.
## Development
Apollo Justice was developed by a team of 28 staff members. It was produced by Minae Matsukawa and directed by Mitsuru Endo, with character design and art by Kazuya Nuri, while series creator Shu Takumi wrote the game's scenario and took on a supervisory role. Takumi had wanted the series to end with the previous game, as he felt its main character, Phoenix Wright, had been fully explored and that his story had been told; he said that it is important to know when to end a story, that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self, and that he did not see any reason to continue it. When it was still decided that a fourth game would be made, Takumi wanted it to have a new main character and a new story; he did not plan to have Phoenix appear in the game, but his colleagues wanted him in the game in some form, which led to him being the accused in the first case in the game.
Early in development, it was proposed that the game would use 3D graphics, as a way to make a big impact worthy of the start of a new Ace Attorney series; eventually they settled for a 2D style, with a few 3D elements. Apollo Justice was the first game in the series to feature videos created using motion-capture data. A male staff member of the Research & Development team was chosen to be the motion-capture actor for a female character; the producer described him as being "a natural" at it. Voice acting was also provided by Capcom staff members. During development, staff members visited real courts to watch and study the trials. Most of the game's music was composed by Toshihiko Horiyama, with Hideki Okugawa composing three songs and Akemi Kimura and Shu Takumi composing two songs each. A soundtrack album, Gyakuten Saiban 4 Original Soundtrack, was released on June 27, 2007. A concert, based on the music from Ace Attorney and entitled Gyakuten Meets Orchestra, took place in Tokyo in April 2008. A CD of the concert was published on July 16, 2008.
Alexander O. Smith, who worked as a writer on the localization of the first Ace Attorney game, also worked on the localization of Apollo Justice. Localization of the game was already in progress by August 2007. The name "Apollo Justice" was decided in collaboration between the Japanese and American divisions of Capcom; it took them twenty-two meetings to decide on it. During the localization, there was some debate about the use of the word "panties" to describe Trucy Wright's magical bloomers, a prop she uses in her magic shows; some on the localization team felt that it was inappropriate to joke about an underage girl's panties, and wanted them to be localized as "magic pants", while some felt that the joke would be lost if the player already knew that they were massive bloomers. Janet Hsu, one of the staff members working on the localization, made an argument for "emotional accuracy", saying that the Japanese version of the game was trying to make the player feel at unease over looking for what they might imagine to be "sexy lingerie", and then let the player feel relief at finding out that it is a prop for a magic show. In the end, they were referred to as "panties".
### Release and compilation
The game was announced in 2005, and was originally planned to be released in 2006 in Japan. A demo version of the game was first made available at Tokyo Game Show in 2006, and an English trailer was presented at the following year's Tokyo Game Show. The game was eventually released in Japan on April 12, 2007, with North American, European, and Australian releases following on February 19, 2008, May 9, 2008, and May 22, 2008, respectively; the Australian release was handled by Nintendo Australia. In Japan, a limited edition of the game was made available. It includes branded headphones, an Ace Attorney dictionary on a DS card, and a series highlights DVD. A keychain depicting Apollo was included with preorders purchased at GameStop and the online Capcom store.
A new version with high-resolution graphics was released in English and Japanese for iOS on December 1, 2016 and for Android on December 8. A Nintendo 3DS version was released digitally on November 21, 2017 in North America and on November 23 in Europe, and was released both digitally and physically in Japan on November 22, 2017. It is also planned for release in early 2024 on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows and Xbox One, as part of the Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney Trilogy compilation, alongside its sequels Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice.
## Reception
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney was well received by critics. 1UP.com commented that, "the Phoenix Wright games are by far the best-written titles you'll find on the DS, and Justice is no different." 1UP.com also commented that the added features made especially for the DS were "super engaging even though the actual actions aren't that difficult to do." On 21 November 2013, RPGFan placed the game 5th on their top 20 Nintendo DS games list. The Nintendo 3DS version was the tenth highest rated game of 2017 for the platform on the review aggregator Metacritic.
IGN largely agreed with 1UP but commented that "the first Apollo Justice title plays identically to the Phoenix Wright trilogy". IGN Australia noted out that complaints about the previous games, such as that "finding the right path through the game feels like a process of trial and error" and that players could beat the game by "routinely pressing at every available opportunity and then using a minimum of logic," were not fixed in Apollo Justice. Additionally, "the game's rather obtuse, long-way-around approach to problem solving" caused what IGN viewed to be unnecessary delays to the game. IGN also felt that new features were "a little gimmicky" but did not "detract from the experience in the slightest." However, IGN Australia thought the game was "great" overall. The game was nominated for "Best Story" in IGN's 2008 Video Game Awards, though it did not win.
These views were echoed by many reviews. GameSpot felt that the story, while strong, "moves along at a snail's pace" and that "many of the series' flaws are still present." A "lack of innovation and change" was the main sticking point for GamePro, who thought of Apollo Justice as "a solid distillation of the franchise formula." The Nintendo World Report felt that the game "builds upon the Phoenix Wright trilogy" even though "gameplay remains mostly unchanged." GameSpy pointed out that the game's use of the DS's touch features, "vastly improves the experience" though the crime scene reenactment is "all too brief."
Apollo Justice sold around 250,000 copies during the first retail week, and had more than 500,000 copies shipped by the end of its second week in Japan. By the end of 2007, it had sold 515,417 units. The game performed well commercially in North America, charting as the fifth best selling Nintendo DS game in the region during its release week. The Nintendo 3DS version was the fourteenth best selling game in Japan during its debut week, selling 4,832 copies.
|
34,999,597 |
Luminosity – Ignite the Night!
| 1,163,030,315 |
Nighttime show performed by Cedar Point
|
[
"Cedar Fair attractions",
"Fireworks in the United States"
] |
Luminosity – Ignite the Night!, often shortened to Luminosity, (previously named Luminosity - Powered by Pepsi), was a nighttime show performed nightly at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio. It replaced American Portrait and the WildCat roller coaster. The show opened for previews on June 1, 2012 and held its grand-opening one week later. It ran nightly at 9:15 pm until August 19. From 2013 to 2017, the show ran every night at 9:30 pm except Tuesdays from May 31 – August 18.
The show was free with admission to the park. During the day, the stage was used for the Peanuts' Celebration at the Point show. It is also used during HalloWeekends for a show called Skeleton Crew.
## History
Thoughts of a new way to improve the nighttime environment began in summer 2011 when the new previous Cedar Fair CEO, Matt Ouimet was in the park one night and thought they should add more lights and excitement. The goal was to create a new show that would energize the main midway with bright lights and music. Matt Ouimet first mentioned the show at a conference in January 2012. Details of Luminosity were first announced at the PointBuzz winter tour of Cedar Point on February 25, 2012. The 3,600 square foot screen used for American Portrait and Hot Summer Lights was taken down on February 28 because it was not needed for the new show. On April 13, Cedar Point officially announced Luminosity. The show debuted on June 1 for previews and its grand opening was held on June 8.
Cedar Point worked mainly with the Emmy Award-Winning RWS and Associates and Chauvet Professional to build the production. They wanted RWS to bring in "the biggest, grandest and most expensive night show in Cedar Point's history". Award-winning choreographer EJ Ferencak and Alicia Pociask were responsible for the choreography of the show. Installation took four months and rehearsal occupied three weeks. The park also worked with Chauvet to set up and program the lights, as well as the lights used on Millennium Force and Power Tower. In 2013, Cedar Point built the show "in-house", meaning RWS would not coordinate the show. In addition, the show was performed every night except Tuesday. It has been confirmed by Cedar Point that Luminosity will be replaced by Vertical Impact, an acrobatic and stunt show that will run many times during the day on the same stage, near Iron Dragon.
On August 20, 2017, Luminosity issued their final show.
## Overview
As part of Luminosity, several enhancements to the midway and rides were made. A new LED lighting package, similar to the park's WindSeeker, was installed on Millennium Force, Power Tower and the Giant Wheel. Towers with LED graphics and a new sound and light system were installed along the main midway from the front gate to Corkscrew. Gobo patterns were projected from the towers onto the midway and buildings. More than one million lights, including the lights on the stage, rides and buildings were added. Chauvet Professional supplied 700 lights for Luminosity. They also added 36 wash lights to the base of Millennium Force and 16 lights to the base and top of Power Tower.
The three-story stage ran parallel to the midway. The back of the stage is 25 feet (7.6 m) high and the length is 75 feet (23 m) long. Several screens were located on behind the main stage with two that showed close-ups of the performers on the sides of the stage. The stage had video walls made of one-hundred twelve MVP 18 and thirty-seven MVP 37.5 modular video panels. Two screens are next to the control booths and bleachers.
### Celebration Plaza
The new show transformed Iron Dragon midway into a new area called Celebration Plaza. The area featured curved edges. A new entrance and queueing area was built for Iron Dragon because the new stage occupied the old queue and entrance area. The control booths used for American Portrait were relocated to the side of the midway. On May 2, 2012 it was announced that WildCat would be removed before opening day to expand Celebration Plaza and bleachers were added in its spot. A new concession area with patio seating was built on the left side of the control booth. During the show, a portion of the patio was blocked off as a V.I.P. seating area known as the Pepsi Fan Zone. In addition, a beer garden was added behind the control booth, to the left of the bleachers.
During the day, Luminosity performers did flash mobs, that gave visitors a glimpse of the show. The stage for Luminosity is also used for a Peanuts show called Peanuts' Celebration at the Point. Carly Rae Jepsen held a concert on the Luminosity stage on July 7, 2012. It was free with admission and was the first concert on the stage. The stage was also used during HalloWeekends for a show called Skeleton Crew.
## The show
Luminosity started at 9:00 pm every night and ran for about 25 minutes in 2013, cut from 40 minutes previously. It featured 25 dancers, 2 male and 2 female singers, 3 drummers, 2 cirque dancers and 2 DJs. In the middle of the midway, dancers were raised above the crowd. Iron Dragon was closed during the show. The show was included free with admission.
### Music
Several types of recent and past hit music were used in the show. Older songs were given a modern remix with a pop/rock arrangement. Guests were able to send text messages after the show requesting songs from the DJ's playlist. About 20 songs were used in the show, including On the Floor by Jennifer Lopez, Moves like Jagger by Maroon 5, The Edge of Glory by Lady Gaga, Sexy and I Know It by LMFAO, and Livin' on a Prayer by Bon Jovi. The music related to each segment. For example, Shut Up and Drive by Rihanna, Sweet Dreams by Beyoncé, and Empire State of Mind by Jay-Z were played during "Land Travel". Come Sail Away by Styx was played during "Sea Travel" and E.T. by Katy Perry was played during "Space Travel". Top Thrill Dragster's theme song, Ready to Go by Republica, was also played during "Space Travel".
### Opening
Just prior to the start of the show, a clock counted down from 1 minute to the kick-off. Music, similar to that in the show, waspiped in. The stage was covered in fog. An announcement was followed by dancers moving to On the Floor by Jennifer Lopez.
### Segments
The show was divided into three segments, each with lasers, flames and fireworks. Different props are used in each segment. The video content was designed by Bob Bonniol from Chauvet.
Land Travel: The first segment focused on land and cityscapes. Motorcycles and cars appeared on the screens on the stage. Video of Cedar Point's roller coasters, including Millennium Force were played. The performers used umbrellas during a song in this segment.
Sea Travel: The second segment focused on the Seas. Sounds of crashing waves could be heard. Waves and different fish and animals in the ocean could be seen on the screens. Cirque performers dressed as Sea Sirens were on the sides of the stage. Performers used sails at the beginning of this segment.
Space Travel: The third segment focused on outer space. The segment started with a countdown to a Space Shuttle launching. The point of view of astronauts landing on the Moon was shown with the sound of mission control being heard. Aliens dancing were also shown on the screens.
### Finale
Before the show ended, the DJ started to rise from the front-middle of the stage. Before quietly exiting, the performers used water drums. The show concluded with fireworks and pyrotechnics over the stage while "Firework" by Katy Perry, "Raise Your Glass" by P!nk and "Party Rock Anthem" by LMFAO were played. The DJ then started playing dance music and people could text shout-outs that appeared on the screens. Another DJ works from the balcony of the Ballroom in the Coliseum along the main midway.
## Reception
Luminosity — Ignite the Night! had mostly received positive reviews from the general public and enthusiasts. James Koehl from Theme Park Insider described it as "The kind of show that you can watch over and over from different vantage points and see a different show every time." Jeff Putz, co-creator of PointBuzz and creator of CoasterBuzz said "Luminosity succeeds in keeping the energy of the park's guests very high until the moment they leave." Putz along with others criticized the show as too long and having inconsistent singers.
Amusement Today award RWS the Golden Ticket Award for Supplier of the Year for its role in Luminosity. They were awarded the award for their "high-octane energy and drive that made the vision of Luminosity at Cedar Point a huge show success". Other parks such as Six Flags Great America and Darien Lake added a similar show in 2013 as a result of the popularity of Cedar Point's Luminosity. Cedar Fair's Former CEO, Matt Ouimet, had said that if the show was successful, the chain would look into expanding it to more of their parks. In an interview with Putz in January 2013, Ouimet labeled the show as an "A" but would give it an "A+" with a few changes in the 2013 season.
## See also
- 2012 in amusement parks
- ElecTRONica
- IgNight – Grand Finale
|
289,978 |
Tomb of Tutankhamun
| 1,164,302,439 |
Ancient Egyptian tomb
|
[
"1922 archaeological discoveries",
"Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century BC",
"Tutankhamun",
"Valley of the Kings"
] |
The tomb of Tutankhamun, also known by its tomb number, KV62, is the burial place of Tutankhamun (reigned c. 1334–1325 BC), a pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, in the Valley of the Kings. The tomb consists of four chambers and an entrance staircase and corridor. It is smaller and less extensively decorated than other Egyptian royal tombs of its time, and it probably originated as a tomb for a non-royal individual that was adapted for Tutankhamun's use after his premature death. Like other pharaohs, Tutankhamun was buried with a wide variety of funerary objects and personal possessions, such as coffins, furniture, clothing and jewelry, though in the unusually limited space these goods had to be densely packed. Robbers entered the tomb twice in the years immediately following the burial, but Tutankhamun's mummy and most of the burial goods remained intact. The tomb's low position, dug into the floor of the valley, allowed its entrance to be hidden by debris deposited by flooding and tomb construction. Thus, unlike other tombs in the valley, it was not stripped of its valuables during the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC).
Tutankhamun's tomb was discovered in 1922 by excavators led by Howard Carter. As a result of the quantity and spectacular appearance of the burial goods, the tomb attracted a media frenzy and became the most famous find in the history of Egyptology. The death of Carter's patron, the Earl of Carnarvon, in the midst of the excavation process inspired speculation that the tomb was cursed. The discovery produced only limited evidence about the history of Tutankhamun's reign and the Amarna Period that preceded it, but it provided insight into the material culture of wealthy ancient Egyptians as well as patterns of ancient tomb robbery. Tutankhamun became one of the best-known pharaohs, and some artifacts from his tomb, such as his golden funerary mask, are among the best-known artworks from ancient Egypt.
Most of the tomb's goods were sent to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and are now in the Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza, although Tutankhamun's mummy and sarcophagus are still on display in the tomb. Flooding and heavy tourist traffic have inflicted damage on the tomb since its discovery, and a replica of the burial chamber has been constructed nearby to reduce tourist pressure on the original tomb.
## History
### Burial and robberies
Tutankhamun reigned as pharaoh between c. 1334 and 1325 BC, towards the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom. He took the throne as a child after the death of Akhenaten (who was probably his father) and the subsequent brief reigns of Neferneferuaten and Smenkhkare. Akhenaten had radically reshaped ancient Egyptian religion by worshipping a single deity, Aten, and rejecting other deities, a shift that began the Amarna Period. One of Tutankhamun's major acts was the restoration of traditional religious practice. His name was changed from Tutankhaten, referring to Akhenaten's deity, to Tutankhamun, honouring Amun, one of the foremost deities of the traditional pantheon. Similarly, his queen's name was changed from Ankhesenpaaten to Ankhesenamun.Shortly after he took power, he commissioned a full-size royal tomb, which was probably one of two tombs from the same era, WV23 or KV57. KV62 is thought to have originally been a non-royal tomb, possibly intended for Ay, Tutankhamun's advisor. After he died prematurely, KV62 was enlarged to accommodate his burial. Ay became pharaoh on Tutankhamun's death and was buried in WV23. Ay was elderly when he came to the throne, and it is possible that he buried Tutankhamun in KV62 in order to usurp WV23 for himself and ensure that he would have a tomb of suitably royal proportions ready when he himself died. Pharaohs in Tutankhamun's time also built mortuary temples where they would receive offerings to sustain their spirits in the afterlife. The Temple of Ay and Horemheb at Medinet Habu contained statues that were originally carved for Tutankhamun, suggesting either that Tutankhamun's temple stood nearby or that Ay usurped Tutankhamun's temple as his own.
Ay was succeeded by Tutankhamun's general Horemheb, although the transfer of power may have been contested and created a brief period of political instability. As part of the continued reaction against Atenism, Horemheb tried to erase Akhenaten and his successors from the record, dismantling Akhenaten's monuments and usurping those erected by Tutankhamun. Future king-lists skipped straight from Akhenaten's father, Amenhotep III, to Horemheb.
Within a few years of Tutankhamun's burial, his tomb was robbed twice. After the first robbery, officials responsible for its security repaired and repacked some of the damaged goods before filling the outer corridor with chips of limestone, along with objects dropped by the thieves, to deter future thefts. Nevertheless, a second set of robbers burrowed through the corridor fill. This robbery too was detected, and after a second hasty restoration the tomb was once again sealed.
The Valley of the Kings is subject to periodic flash floods that deposit alluvium. Much of the valley, including the entrance to Tutankhamun's tomb, was covered by a layer of alluvium over which huts were later built for the tomb workers who cut KV57, in which Horemheb was buried. The geologist Stephen Cross has argued that a major flood deposited this layer after KV62 was last sealed and before the huts were built, which would mean Tutankhamun's tomb had been rendered inaccessible by the time Ay's reign ended. However, the Egyptologist Andreas Dorn suggests that this layer already existed during Tutankhamun's reign, and workers dug through it to reach the bedrock into which they cut his tomb.
More than 150 years after Tutankhamun's burial, KV9, the tomb of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI, was cut into the rock to the west of his tomb. The entrance of his tomb was further buried by mounds of debris from KV9's excavation and by huts built by the tomb workers atop that debris. In subsequent years the tombs in the valley suffered major waves of robbery: first during the late Twentieth Dynasty by local gangs of thieves, then during the Twenty-first Dynasty by officials working for the High Priests of Amun, who stripped the tombs of their valuables and removed the royal mummies. Tutankhamun's tomb, buried and forgotten, remained undisturbed.
### Discovery and clearance
Several tombs in the Valley of the Kings lay open continuously from ancient times onward, but the entrances to many others remained hidden until after the emergence of Egyptology in the early nineteenth century. Many of the remaining tombs were found by a series of excavators working for Theodore M. Davis from 1902 to 1914. Under Davis most of the valley was explored, although he never found Tutankhamun's tomb because he thought no tomb would have been cut into the valley floor. Among his discoveries was KV54, a pit containing objects bearing Tutankhamun's name; these objects are now thought to have been either burial goods that were originally stored in the corridor of Tutankhamun's tomb, which were removed and reburied in KV54 when the restorers filled the corridor, or objects related to Tutankhamun's funeral. Davis's excavators also discovered a small tomb called KV58 that contained pieces of a chariot harness bearing the names of Tutankhamun and Ay. Davis was convinced that KV58 was Tutankhamun's tomb.
After Davis gave up work on the valley, the archaeologist Howard Carter and his patron George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, made an effort to clear the valley of debris down to the bedrock. Davis's finds of artefacts bearing Tutankhamun's name gave them reason to hope they might find his tomb. The discovery began on 4 November 1922 with a single step at the top of the entrance staircase. When the excavators reached the antechamber, on 26 November, it exceeded all expectations, providing unprecedented insight into what a New Kingdom royal burial was like.
The condition of the burial goods varied greatly; many had been profoundly affected by moisture, which probably derived from both the damp state of the plaster when the tomb was first sealed and from water seepage over the millennia until it was excavated. Recording the tomb's contents and conserving them so they could survive to be transported to Cairo proved to be an unprecedented task, lasting for ten digging seasons. Although many others participated, the only members of the excavation team who worked throughout the process were Carter, Alfred Lucas (a chemist who was instrumental in the conservation effort), Harry Burton (who photographed the tomb and its artefacts) and four foremen: Ahmed Gerigar, Gad Hassan, Hussein Abu Awad and Hussein Ahmed Said.
The spectacular nature of the tomb goods inspired a media frenzy, dubbed "Tutmania", that made Tutankhamun into one of the most famous pharaohs, often known by the nickname "King Tut". In the Western world the publicity inspired a fad for ancient Egyptian-inspired design motifs. In Egypt it reinforced the ideology of pharaonism, which emphasized modern Egypt's connection to its ancient past and had risen to prominence during Egypt's struggle for independence from British rule from 1919 to 1922. The publicity increased when Carnarvon died of an infection in April 1923, inspiring rumours that he had been killed by a curse on the tomb. Other deaths or strange events connected with the tomb came to be attributed to the curse as well.
After Carnarvon's death, the tomb clearance continued under Carter's leadership. In the second season of the process, in late 1923 and early 1924, the antechamber was emptied of artefacts and work began on the burial chamber. The Egyptian government, which had become partially independent in 1922, fought with Carter over the question of access to the tomb; the government felt that Egyptians, and especially the Egyptian press, were given too little access. In protest of the government's increasing restrictions, Carter and his associates stopped work in February 1924, beginning a legal dispute that lasted until January 1925. Under the agreement that resolved the dispute, the artefacts from the tomb would not be divided between the government and the dig's sponsors, as had been standard practice on previous Egyptological digs. Instead most of the tomb's contents went to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
The excavators opened and removed Tutankhamun's coffins and mummy in 1925, then spent the next few seasons working on the treasury and annexe. The clearance of the tomb itself was completed in November 1930, though Carter and Lucas continued to work on conserving the remaining burial goods until February 1932, when the last shipment was sent to Cairo.
### Tourism and preservation
The tomb has been a popular tourist destination ever since the clearance process began. Sometime after the mummy was reinterred in 1926, someone broke into the sarcophagus, stealing objects Carter had left in place. A likely time for the event is the Second World War, when a shortage of security workers led to widespread looting of Egyptian antiquities. The body was subsequently rewrapped, suggesting local officials may have done so after discovering the theft, but did not report it. The theft was not exposed until 1968, after the anatomist Ronald Harrison re-examined Tutankhamun's remains.
Most tombs in the Valley of the Kings tombs are vulnerable to flash flooding. When analysing Tutankhamun's tomb in 1927, Lucas concluded that despite the moisture seepage, no significant liquid water had entered before its discovery. In contrast, since the discovery water has periodically trickled in through the entrance, and on New Year's Day in 1991 a rainstorm flooded the tomb through a fault in the burial chamber ceiling. The flood stained the painted chamber wall and left about 7 centimetres (2.8 in) of standing water on the floor. Tombs are also threatened by the tourists who visit them, who may damage the wall decoration with their touch and with the moisture introduced by their breath. The mummy is also vulnerable to this kind of damage, so in 2007 it was moved to a climate-controlled glass display case that was placed in the antechamber, allowing it to be displayed to the public while protecting it from humidity and mould.
The Society of Friends of the Royal Tombs of Egypt suggested the idea of creating a replica of Tutankhamun's tomb in 1988, so that tourists could see it without further damaging the original. In 2009, Factum Arte, a workshop that specialises in replicas of large-scale artworks, took detailed scans of the burial chamber on which to base a replica, while the Egyptian government and the Getty Conservation Institute launched a long-term project to assess the condition of the tomb and renovate it as needed. The replica was completed in 2012 and opened to the public in 2014; the renovation was completed in 2019.
In 2015, the Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves argued, based on Factum Arte's scans, that the west and north walls of the burial chamber included previously unnoticed plaster partitions. That would suggest the tomb contained two previously unknown chambers, one behind each partition, which Reeves suggested were the burial place of Neferneferuaten. The Ministry of Antiquities commissioned a ground-penetrating radar examination later that year, which seemed to show voids behind the chamber walls, but follow-up radar examinations in 2016 and 2018 determined that there are no such voids and therefore no hidden chambers.
Tutankhamun's tomb is in higher demand from tourists than any other in the Valley of the Kings. Up to 1,000 people pass through it on its busiest days.
## Architecture
Tutankhamun's tomb lies in the eastern branch of the Valley of the Kings, where most tombs in the valley are located. It is cut into the limestone bedrock in the valley floor, on the west side of the main path, and runs beneath a low foothill. Its design is similar to those of non-royal tombs from its time, but elaborated so as to resemble the conventional plan of a royal tomb. It consists of a westward-descending stairway (labeled A in the conventional Egyptological system for designating parts of royal tombs in the valley); an east–west descending corridor (B); an antechamber at the west end of the passage (I); an annexe adjoining the southwest corner of the antechamber (Ia); a burial chamber north of the antechamber (J); and a room east of the burial chamber (Ja), known as the treasury. The burial chamber and treasury may have been added to the original tomb when it was adapted for Tutankhamun's burial. Most Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs used a layout with a bent axis, so that a person moving from the entrance to the burial chamber would take a sharp turn to the left along the way. By placing Tutankhamun's burial chamber north of the antechamber, the builders of KV62 gave it a layout with an axis bent to the right rather than the left.
The entrance stair descends steeply beneath an overhang. It originally consisted of sixteen steps. The lowest six were cut away during the burial to make room to maneuver the largest pieces of funerary furniture through the doorway, then rebuilt, then removed again 3,400 years later when the excavators removed that same furniture. The corridor is 8 metres (26 ft) long and 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) wide; the antechamber is 7.9 metres (26 ft) north–south by 3.6 metres (12 ft) east–west; the annexe is 4.4 metres (14 ft) north–south by 2.6 metres (8 ft 6 in) east–west; the burial chamber is 4 metres (13 ft) north–south by 6.4 metres (21 ft) east–west; and the treasury is 4.8 metres (16 ft) north–south by 3.8 metres (12 ft) east–west. The chambers range from 2.3 metres (7 ft 7 in) to 3.6 metres (12 ft) high, and the floors of the annexe, burial chamber and treasury are about 0.9 metres (2 ft 11 in) below the floor of the antechamber. In the west wall of the antechamber is a small niche for a beam that was used for manoeuvring the sarcophagus through the room. The burial chamber contains four niches, one in each wall, in which were placed "magic bricks" inscribed with protective spells.
Partitions constructed of limestone and plaster originally sealed the doorways between the stairway and the corridor; between the corridor and the antechamber; between the antechamber and the annexe; and between the antechamber and the burial chamber. All were breached by robbers. Most were resealed by the restorers, but the robbers' hole in the annexe doorway was left open.
There are several faults in the rock into which the tomb is cut, including a large one that runs south-southeast to north-northwest across the antechamber and burial chamber. Although the workmen who cut the tomb sealed the fault in the burial chamber with plaster, the faults are responsible for the water seepage that affects the tomb.
## Decoration
The plaster partitions were marked with impressions from seals borne by various officials who oversaw Tutankhamun's burial and the restoration efforts. These seals consist of hieroglyphic text that celebrates Tutankhamun's services to the gods during his reign.
Aside from these seal impressions, the only wall decoration in the tomb is in the burial chamber. This limited decorative programme contrasts with other royal tombs of the late Eighteenth Dynasty, in which two chambers in addition to the burial chamber often received decoration, and with the practice in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties, in which all parts of the tomb were decorated. None of the decoration is executed in relief, a technique that was not used in the Valley of the Kings until the reign of Horemheb.
KV62's burial chamber is painted with figures on a yellow background. The east wall portrays Tutankhamun's funeral procession, a type of image that is common in private New Kingdom tombs but not found in any other royal tomb. The north wall shows Ay performing the Opening of the Mouth ritual upon Tutankhamun's mummy, thus legitimising him as the king's heir, and then Tutankhamun greeting the goddess Nut and the god Osiris in the afterlife. The south wall portrayed the king with the deities Hathor, Anubis and Isis. Part of the decoration of this wall was painted on the partition dividing the burial chamber from the antechamber, and thus the figure of Isis had to be destroyed when the partition was demolished during the tomb clearance. The west wall bears an image of twelve baboons, which is an extract from the first section of the Amduat, a funerary text that describes the journey of the sun god Ra through the netherworld. On three walls the figures are given the unusual proportions found in the art style of the Amarna Period, although the south wall reverts to the conventional proportions found in art before and after Amarna.
## Burial goods
The contents of the tomb are by far the most complete example of a royal set of burial goods in the Valley of the Kings, numbered at 5,398 objects. Some classes of object number in the hundreds: there are 413 shabtis (figurines intended to do work for the king in the afterlife) and more than 200 pieces of jewellery. Objects were present in all four chambers in the tomb as well as the corridor.
The efforts of the robbers, followed by the hasty restoration effort, left much of the tomb in disarray when it was last sealed. By the time of the discovery, many of the objects had been damaged by alternating periods of humidity and dryness. Nearly all leather in the tomb had dissolved into a pitch-like mass, and while the state of preservation of textiles was highly inconsistent, the worst-preserved had turned into a black powder. Wooden objects were warped and their glues dissolved, leaving them in a very fragile state. Every exposed surface was covered with an unidentified pink film; Lucas suggested it was some kind of dissolved iron compound that came from the rock or the plaster. In the process of cleaning, restoring and removing the damaged artefacts, the excavators labeled each object or group of objects with a number, from 1 to 620, appending letters to distinguish individual objects within a group.
### Outer chambers
The corridor may have contained miscellaneous materials, such as bags of natron, jars and flower garlands, that were moved to KV54 when the corridor was filled after the first robbery. Other objects and fragments were incorporated into the corridor fill. One well-known artefact, a wooden bust of Tutankhamun, was apparently found in the corridor when it was excavated, but it was not recorded in Carter's initial excavation notes.
The antechamber contained 600 to 700 objects. Its west side was taken up by a tangled pile of furniture among which miscellaneous small objects, such as baskets of fruit and boxes of meat, were placed. Several dismantled chariots took up the southeast corner, while the northeast contained a collection of funerary bouquets and the north end of the chamber was dominated by two life-size statues of Tutankhamun that flanked the entrance to the burial chamber. These statues are thought to have either served as guardians of the burial chamber or as figures representing the king's ka, an aspect of his soul. Among the significant objects in the antechamber were several funerary beds with animal heads, which dominated the cluster of furniture against the west wall; an alabaster lotus chalice; and a painted box depicting Tutankhamun in battle, which Carter regarded as one of the finest works of art in the tomb. Carter thought even more highly of a gilded and inlaid throne depicting Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun in the art style of the Amarna Period; he called it "the most beautiful thing that has yet been found in Egypt". Boxes in the antechamber contained most of the clothing in the tomb, including tunics, shirts, kilts, gloves and sandals, as well as cosmetics such as unguents and kohl. Scattered in various places in the antechamber were pieces of gold and semiprecious stones from a corselet, a ceremonial version of the armor that Egyptian kings wore into battle. Reconstructing the corselet was one of the most complex tasks the excavators faced. This room also contained a wooden dummy of Tutankhamun's head and torso. Its purpose is uncertain, although it bears marks that may indicate it once wore a corselet, and Carter suggested it was a mannequin for the king's clothes.
The annexe contained more than 2,000 individual artefacts. Its original contents were jumbled together with objects that had been haphazardly replaced during the restoration after the robberies, including beds, stools, and stone and pottery vessels containing wine and oils. The room housed most of the tomb's foodstuffs, most of the shabtis and many of its wooden funerary models, such as models of boats. Much of the weaponry in the tomb, such as bows, throwing sticks and khopesh-swords, as well as ceremonial shields, were found here. Other objects in the annexe were personal possessions that Tutankhamun seemingly used as a child, such as toys, a box of paints and a fire-lighting kit.
### Burial chamber
Most of the space in the burial chamber was taken up by the gilded wooden outer shrine enclosing three nested inner shrines and, within them, a stone sarcophagus containing three nested coffins. Also a wooden frame stood between the outermost and second shrines which was covered with a blue linen pall spangled with bronze rosettes. Yet even this chamber contained burial goods, including jars, religious objects such as imiut fetishes, oars, fans and walking sticks, some of which were inserted in the narrow gaps between shrines. Each wall of the chamber bore a niche containing a brick, of a type that Egyptologists call "magic bricks", because they are inscribed with passages from Spell 151 from the funerary text known as the Book of the Dead, and are intended to ward off threats to the dead.
The decoration of the shrines, executed in relief, includes portions of several funerary texts. All four shrines bear extracts from the Book of the Dead, and further extracts from the Amduat are on the third shrine. The outermost shrine is inscribed with the earliest known copy of the Book of the Heavenly Cow, which describes how Ra reshaped the world into its current form. The second shrine bears a funerary text that is found nowhere else, although texts with similar themes are known from the tombs of Ramesses VI (KV9) and Ramesses IX (KV6). Like them, it describes the sun god and the netherworld using a cryptic form of hieroglyphic writing that uses non-standard meanings for each hieroglyphic sign. These three texts are sometimes labeled "enigmatic books" or "books of the solar-Osirian unity".
The sarcophagus is made of quartzite but with a red granite lid, painted yellow to match the quartzite. It is carved with the images of four protective goddesses (Isis, Nephthys, Neith and Serqet), and contained a golden lion-headed bier on which rested three nested coffins in human shape.
The outer two coffins were made of gilded wood inlaid with glass and semiprecious stones, while the innermost coffin, though similarly inlaid, was primarily composed of 110.4 kilograms (243 lb) of solid gold. Within it lay Tutankhamun's mummified body. On the body, and contained within the layers of mummy wrappings, were 143 items, including articles of clothing such as sandals, a plethora of amulets and other jewellery and two daggers. Tutankhamun's head bore a beaded skullcap and a gold diadem, all of which was encased in the golden mask of Tutankhamun, which has become one of the most iconic ancient Egyptian artefacts in the world.
### Treasury
In the doorway of the treasury stood a shrine on carrying poles topped by a statue of the jackal god Anubis, in front of which lay a fifth magic brick. Against the east wall of the treasury was a tall gilded shrine containing the canopic chest, in which Tutankhamun's internal organs were placed after mummification. Whereas most canopic chests contain separate jars, Tutankhamun's consists of a single block of alabaster carved into four compartments, each covered by a human-headed stopper and containing an inlaid gold coffinette that housed one of the king's organs. Between the Anubis shrine and the canopic shrine stood a wooden sculpture of a cow's head, representing the goddess Hathor. The treasury was the location of most of the tomb's wooden models, including more boats and a model granary, as well as many of the shabtis. Boxes in the treasury contained miscellaneous items, including much of the tomb's jewellery. A nested set of small coffins in the treasury contained a lock of hair belonging to Tiye, the wife of Amenhotep III, who is thought to have been Tutankhamun's grandmother. One box contained two miniature coffins in which mummies of Tutankhamun's stillborn daughters were interred.
### Significance
The volume of goods in Tutankhamun's tomb is often taken as a sign that longer-lived kings who had full-size tombs were buried with an even larger array of objects. Yet Tutankhamun's burial goods barely fit into his tomb, so the Egyptologist Joyce Tyldesley argues that larger tombs in the valley may have contained assemblages of similar size that were arranged in a more orderly and spacious manner.
The fragmentary remains of burial goods in other tombs in the Valley of the Kings include many of the same objects found in Tutankhamun's, implying that there was a somewhat standard set of object types for royal burials in this era. The life-size statues of Tutankhamun and the statuettes of deities have parallels in several other tombs in the valley, while the statuettes of Tutankhamun himself are closely paralleled by wall paintings in KV15, the tomb of Seti II. Funerary models, such as Tutankhamun's model boats, were mainly a feature of burials in the Old and Middle Kingdoms and fell out of favour in non-royal burials in the New, but several royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings contained them. Conversely, Tutankhamun's tomb contained no funerary texts on papyri, unlike private tombs from its era, but the existence of an excerpt of the Book of the Dead on a papyrus from KV35, the tomb of Amenhotep II, suggests that their absence in Tutankhamun's tomb may have been unusual.
No papyrus texts at all were among the burial goods—a disappointment to Egyptologists, who hoped to find documents that would clarify the history of the Amarna Period. Instead much of the value of the discovery was in the insight it provided into the material culture of ancient Egypt. Among the furniture was a foldable bed, the only intact example known from ancient Egypt. Some of the boxes could be latched with the turn of a knob, and Carter called them the oldest known examples of such a mechanism. Other everyday items include musical instruments, such as a pair of trumpets; a variety of weapons, including a dagger made of iron, a rare commodity in Tutankhamun's time; and about 130 staffs, including one bearing the label "a reed staff which His Majesty cut with his own hand."
Tutankhamun's clothes—loose tunics, robes and sashes, often elaborately decorated with dye, embroidery or beadwork—exhibit more variety than the clothes depicted in art from his time, which consist largely of plain white kilts and tight sheaths. No crowns were found in the tomb, although crooks and flails, which also served as emblems of kingship, were stored there. Tyldesley suggests that crowns may have not been considered personal property of the king and were instead passed down from reign to reign.
Some of the objects in the tomb shed limited light on the end of the Amarna Period. A piece of a box found in the corridor bears the names of Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and Akhenaten's daughter Meryetaten, while a calcite jar from the tomb bore two erased royal names that have been reconstructed as those of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. These are key pieces of evidence in attempts to reconstruct the relationships between members of the royal family and the sequence in which they reigned, although scholars' interpretations have varied greatly. The faces of Tutankhamun's second coffin and his canopic coffinettes differ from the faces of most portrayals of him, so these items may originally have been made for another ruler, such as Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten, and reused for Tutankhamun's burial.
Some objects bear evidence of the shift in religious policy in Tutankhamun's reign. The golden throne portrays Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun beneath the rays of the Aten, in the Amarna art style. The king and queen are labeled with the later forms of their names, referring to Amun rather than the Aten, but there are signs that these labels were altered after the throne was made, and the open-work arms and back of the throne bear the king's original name, Tutankhaten. A sceptre from the annexe bears an inscription mentioning both the Aten and Amun, implying an attempt to integrate the two religious systems.
Other information about the reign is provided by the labels on wine jars, which are labeled by the year in which they were produced. Jars that are explicitly labeled as coming from Tutankhamun's reign range from Year 5 to Year 9, while one jar from an unidentified reign is labeled Year 10 and another Year 31. The Year 31 wine probably comes from the reign of Amenhotep III, so the remaining jars suggest that Tutankhamun reigned for nine or ten years. The flowers and fruits in the funerary garlands would have been available from mid-March to mid-April, indicating that Tutankhamun's funeral took place then. The royal annals of the Hittite Empire record a letter from an unnamed Egyptian queen, referred to as "Dakhamunzu", recently widowed by the death of a pharaoh and offering to marry a Hittite prince. The dead king is most commonly thought to be Tutankhamun, and Ankhesenamun the sender of the letter, but the letter indicates the king in question died in August or September, meaning either that Tutankhamun was not the king in the Hittite annals or that he remained unburied far longer than the traditional 70-day period of mummification and mourning.
The thefts make Tutankhamun's tomb one of the most important sources for understanding tomb robbery and restoration in the New Kingdom, particularly for the early part of that period, when robberies were more opportunistic than the large-scale plundering that took place in the late Twentieth Dynasty. Many of the boxes in the tomb bear dockets in hieratic writing that list their original contents, making it possible to partially reconstruct what the tomb originally held and which items were lost. The dockets of the jewellery boxes in the treasury, for instance, indicate that about 60 percent of their contents is missing. Thieves would have prized what was valuable, portable and either untraceable or possible to disguise through dismantling or melting. Most of the metal vessels originally buried with Tutankhamun were stolen, as were those of glass, indicating that glass was a valuable commodity at the time. The robbers also took bedding and cosmetics; the theft of the latter shows that the robberies took place soon after burial, as the Egyptians' fat-based unguents would have turned rancid within a few years. One of the boxes in the antechamber contained a set of gold rings wrapped in a scarf, which Carter believed had been dropped by the thieves and placed in the box by the restorers. The unlikelihood that robbers would forget something so valuable led him to suggest they had been caught in the act. The broken objects found in the fill of the corridor all came from the antechamber, implying that the first group of thieves only had access to that chamber and that it was the second group who reached as far as the treasury.
A man named Djehutymose, apparently the official who carried out the restoration of the tomb, wrote his name on a jar stand in the annexe. The same man left a note in KV43, the tomb of Thutmose IV, recording the restoration of that tomb in Year 8 of the reign of Horemheb. These two tombs were among several in the Valley of the Kings that were robbed at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, suggesting that political uncertainty following Tutankhamun's death caused a weakening of security there.
### Disposition
After the completion of the clearance in 1932, the tomb was emptied of nearly all its contents. The main exceptions were the sarcophagus, with its original lid replaced by a glass plate, and the outermost of the three coffins, in which Tutankhamun's mummy was placed. Carter also took a handful of small artefacts from the tomb, without permission; upon his death, his heir, Phyllis Walker, discovered them and had them returned to the Egyptian government. A few items are suspected of having illicitly made their way into other collections of Egyptian antiquities, but their provenance is uncertain.
For several decades after his tomb was cleared, the overwhelming majority of Tutankhamun's burial goods were stored at either the Egyptian Museum in Cairo or Luxor Museum. Only the most major pieces have been on display, while the rest have been in storage at one of the two sites. Selected pieces have also gone on museum exhibition tours, raising money for the Egyptian government and serving to improve its relations with the host countries. There have been several exhibitions, visiting Europe, North America, Japan and Australia, in three major phases, one from 1961 to 1967, another from 1972 to 1981, and a third from 2004 to 2013. Many exhibitions of replicas have also taken place, beginning with a set made for the British Empire Exhibition in 1924.
Beginning in 2011, the objects from the tomb were gradually transferred to the Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza. Upon its opening, the museum is planned to display all the tomb's artefacts.
## Mummies
When it was uncovered in November 1925, Tutankhamun's mummy was in poor condition. The unguents that were poured over the wrappings before burial had undergone a chemical reaction that Lucas called "some kind of slow spontaneous combustion", possibly caused by fungi in the tomb. As a result most of the wrappings, and even much of the tissues in the mummy, had been carbonised. Tutankhamun's condition contrasted with the much better-preserved mummies of other New Kingdom rulers. These mummies had been removed from their plundered tombs, placed in simpler coffins and buried in two caches during the Twenty-first Dynasty, a few centuries after they were originally entombed. It is not known whether they suffered less deterioration because they were less liberally treated with unguents, or because their removal from their original coffins prevented the unguents from soaking through the wrappings.
The solidified unguents glued together Tutankhamun's remains, his mummy wrappings and the objects on his body, forming a single mass stuck to the bottom of the coffin encasing it. The excavators concluded that to remove the mummy and extricate the burial goods they would have to cut it into sections, chiseling each piece out of its setting. Two anatomists, Douglas Derry and Saleh Bey Hamdi, examined the pieces as they came free before coating the fragile flesh in paraffin wax to prevent further deterioration. They determined that Tutankhamun had been close to the age of 18 when he died, and that his skull shape, closely resembling that of an unidentified royal mummy from KV55, showed he was of royal blood rather than having married into the royal family, as Egyptologists had previously believed. When the examination concluded, Carter placed the dismembered mummy on a sand tray, which he returned to the sarcophagus in the burial chamber the following year.
The mummified fetuses found in the treasury are at different stages of development, one at five months' gestation and the other at seven to nine. Their coffins do not specify names, so they are designated based on the object number of the box that contained them (317); the smaller fetus is known as 317a(2) and the larger as 317b(2). They were examined by Derry in 1932 and subsequently stored at the medical school where he worked, now part of Cairo University.
Tutankhamun's mummy has often been analysed to see what health conditions he had, and particularly to determine his cause of death. Such efforts are often contentious, as it is difficult to distinguish damage inflicted on the body in recent times from damage Tutankhamun suffered while alive. For instance, in 1996, the Egyptologist Bob Brier suggested that fragments of bone in the skull cavity, seen in the X-rays that Harrison had taken in 1968, were a sign that Tutankhamun had died of a blow to the head and might have been murdered. The bone fragments were later found to be fragments of vertebrae that were pushed into the skull cavity during Derry's examination. The fetuses have faced similar problems; Harrison, in 1977, said 317b(2) had Sprengel's deformity, but a study in 2011 by the radiologist Sahar Saleem argued that the signs of deformity were actually postmortem damage.
Both Tutankhamun's mummy and the fetuses have undergone genetic testing. A 2010 study of the DNA of many of the mummies from the Valley of the Kings announced that the fetuses were Tutankhamun's children by a woman whose mummy was found in KV21, who was presumed to be Ankhesenamun. However, the results of genetic studies of Egyptian mummies have been questioned by several geneticists, such as Svante Pääbo, who argue that DNA breaks down so rapidly in Egypt's heat that remains more than a few centuries old cannot produce an analysable DNA sample.
## Replica
The replica of the burial chamber includes copies of the wall decoration and of the sarcophagus. Both were reproduced based on highly detailed scans. The replica was presented to the Egyptian government in 2012 and installed next to Carter House, where Carter lived while working on the tomb, near the entrance to the Valley of the Kings.
|
26,804,130 |
François Antoine Louis Bourcier
| 1,153,268,422 |
French general and politician
|
[
"1760 births",
"1828 deaths",
"French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars",
"Generals of the First French Empire",
"Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour",
"Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe",
"Order of Saint Louis recipients",
"People from Bas-Rhin"
] |
François Antoine Louis Bourcier (23 February 1760 – 8 May 1828) was a French cavalry officer and divisional general of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars.
Bourcier was a cavalry lieutenant when the French Revolution fighting with the Army of the Rhine in the War of the First Coalition. By the War of the Second Coalition, he had been promoted to brigadier general, and served in the Army of the Danube as inspector general of cavalry. In the Napoleonic Wars, he fought at major campaigns on the Danube against Austria and Russia, including the battles of Elchingen, Austerlitz and the Battle of Wagram. He also participated in the campaign against Prussia, which culminated in the Battle of Jena-Auerstadt and the battles of Heilsberg and Friedland. Following the campaign in Prussia, he served briefly in the Peninsular War after he which he was transferred back to northern Europe and participated in the French Invasion of Russia in 1812. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, he retained his titles and honours.
## Career
Bourcier was born in La Petite-Pierre near Phalsbourg, Alsace, a small town, in the Bas-Rhin district, 24 kilometers (15 mi) north of Saverne and 56 kilometers (35 mi) northwest of Strasbourg. The son of a former sergeant of the guard of King Stanislas Leszczynski, he proved himself a bright student in school, and was placed in a cavalry regiment. At the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, he was lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of Cavalry. From this time, his prospects rose quickly. Appointed aide-de-campe to the Duke of Aiguillon (9 June 1792), he later he transferred to the staff of General Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine. A general of brigade in 1793, he became Chief of Staff of the Army of the Rhine, and was raised the following year to the rank of major general.
Bourcier commanded a division of cavalry under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, who had taken an interest in his career, and he was appointed Inspector of Cavalry on 3 August 1797. When Jean Baptiste Jourdan formed the Army of the Danube, he appointed Bourcier as inspector of cavalry for both his force and the Army of Switzerland, under command of André Masséna. With command of a brigade, and as inspector of cavalry, Bourcier participated in the campaigns of the War of the Second Coalition in southwestern Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. In Italy, he also commanded a column of cavalry that routed a group of rebels near Andrea.
In the 1805 War of the Third Coalition, as commander of a division of dragoons, he participated in the Battle of Elchingen and later the Battle of Ulm. Six weeks later, at the Battle of Austerlitz, he made several brilliant and timely charges, including one observed by several parishioners of the town of Mönitz, who had climbed the church tower to watch the action. The French infantry had been surrounded by Austrian cavalry, which pursued them down the road. Bourcier approached from the other direction with three regiments of dragoons, having left the rest of his division behind to preserve his communication lines in Raigern. Seeing the infantry beleaguered by cavalry, he led his men in a charge, giving the infantry time to escape. His own dragoons were fired upon with cannon and grapeshot, killing or wounding several men and horses, but, as he wrote later, "[the Russian cannon fire] would have done more harm had they been directed better, being within half range."
After the French victory at the Battle of Jena-Auerstadt, Bourcier was placed in charge of the several thousands of horses confiscated from the Prussians. This influx of horses improved the capacity of the French cavalry, as Joachim Murat's 11,000-strong cavalry reserve demonstrated later at the Battle of Eylau in February 1807.
After the defeat of Prussia in 1807, Bourcier was sent to Spain to support the French efforts there, but he returned to the northern European theater in time for the Battle of Wagram in July 1809. He was also part of Napoleon's Russian campaign, but escaped the rigors of the retreat from Moscow, having been previously sent back to Berlin to reorganize the French cavalry.
The First Restoration awarded him the Cross of St. Louis. He retired in 1816, but the following year he was recalled to the State Council and served as commissioner for the management of military supply depots.
## Family and post-military life
In 1809, he acquired the Chateau de Ville-au-Val at Meurthe-et-Moselle. In 1816, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by the Department of the Meurthe. He married Marie Isabelle Van Oldencel (died in Nancy, 13 June 1855). They had a daughter, Adelaide Ernestine Josephine, born 11 October 1805, who married to Louis Henry Gau, the son of Charles Louis Joseph Gau of Frégeville.
Bourcier died in 1828 in Ville-au-Val in Meurthe-et-Moselle and was buried, as were his descendants after him, in the family vault near the chateau chapel. His name is engraved on the Arc d'Triumph.
|
1,745,457 |
Patty Loveless
| 1,173,796,341 |
American country music singer (born 1957)
|
[
"1957 births",
"20th-century American women",
"21st-century American women",
"Amateur radio women",
"American country singer-songwriters",
"American women country singers",
"Country musicians from Kentucky",
"Epic Records artists",
"Grammy Award winners",
"Grand Ole Opry members",
"Kentucky women musicians",
"Living people",
"MCA Records artists",
"Musicians from Appalachia",
"Musicians from Louisville, Kentucky",
"People from Pikeville, Kentucky",
"Singer-songwriters from Kentucky",
"Singers from Kentucky"
] |
Patty Loveless (born Patricia Lee Ramey, January 4, 1957) is an American country music singer. She began performing in her teenaged years before signing her first recording contract with MCA Records' Nashville division in 1985. While her first few releases were unsuccessful, she broke through by decade's end with a cover of George Jones's "If My Heart Had Windows". Loveless issued five albums on MCA before moving to Epic Records in 1993, where she released nine more albums. Four of her albums—Honky Tonk Angel, Only What I Feel, When Fallen Angels Fly, and The Trouble with the Truth—are certified platinum in the United States. Loveless has charted 44 singles on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts, including five which reached number one: "Timber, I'm Falling in Love", "Chains", "Blame It on Your Heart", "You Can Feel Bad", and "Lonely Too Long".
Loveless's music is defined by a mix of sounds, including neotraditional country, country pop, and bluegrass music, with her singing voice garnering favorable comparisons to Loretta Lynn and Emmylou Harris. Recurring songwriters whose work she has recorded include Matraca Berg, Kostas, Jim Lauderdale, and Steve Earle. She has collaborated with Vince Gill, George Jones, and Dwight Yoakam, among others. Nearly all of her albums were produced by her husband, Emory Gordy Jr. Although she largely retired from performing in 2009, Loveless has sporadically contributed to other artists' works in subsequent years. She has won five awards from the Country Music Association, two from the Academy of Country Music, and two Grammy Awards. Loveless was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2023.
## Early life
Patty Loveless was born Patricia Lee Ramey on January 4, 1957, in Pikeville, Kentucky to Naomi (née Bowling; 1921–2006) and John Ramey (1921–1979). She is the sixth of seven children. Through her patriline, Loveless is a distant cousin of country singers Loretta Lynn and Crystal Gayle. She was raised in nearby Elkhorn City, Kentucky, where her father worked in a coal mine. He contracted black lung disease as a result of the job, forcing the family to move to Louisville, Kentucky, to facilitate his medical treatments. John Ramey died of the disease in 1979.
By the time she was 11, she began playing guitar and writing songs with her brother Roger, which led to the two of them performing together at local events. The two were discovered at one such show by the Wilburn Brothers. The duo did not consider her mature enough for a musical career at the time and encouraged her to keep performing. After she graduated high school, she began touring with the Wilburn Brothers as a vocalist in their touring band. In 1973 she married the band's drummer, Terry Lovelace, the same year and moved with him to Charlotte, North Carolina. At this point, she altered the spelling of her name to Patty Loveless, a variant of her married name.
Loveless spent much of the late 1970s playing rock cover songs at various venues in the Midwestern United States. By the mid-1980s, she moved back to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue a career as a country artist. At the time, Loveless said she was inspired by the rise of neotraditional country in the mid-1980s through such acts as Dwight Yoakam, The Judds, and Randy Travis. In Nashville, she sang demo recordings for other artists and signed a songwriting contract with Acuff-Rose Music in 1985. Loveless recorded five of her own songs on a demo tape, which her brother Roger sent to MCA Records' Nashville division. Tony Brown (a record producer who was also serving as that label's president of artists and repertoire) helped sign Loveless to the label in July 1985.
## Career
### 1985–1990: early years
Loveless began recording music for MCA with production assistance from both Brown and Emory Gordy Jr., a producer whom Roger had befriended. Prior to working with Loveless, Gordy was a member of Emmylou Harris's backing band, the Hot Band. MCA Nashville released Loveless's debut single in late 1985 titled "Lonely Days, Lonely Nights". This was followed by three more singles that reached charting positions outside the top 40 on the American Billboard Hot Country Songs chart: "Wicked Ways", "I Did", and "After All". Because of their poor performance, MCA executives initially did not want to release an album. However, Loveless noted that "I Did" was highly popular among fans and concertgoers despite its low chart showing. She successfully convinced label executives to allow the release of a full album.
That album, the self-titled Patty Loveless, was released in 1986. Gordy and Brown produced the project and were among the contributing musicians, as were guitarists Reggie Young and Richard Bennett. Contributing songwriters included Guy Clark, Jo-El Sonnier, and Karen Staley. Loveless had written "I Did" at age 17 after undergoing a breakup, and it is the only single in her career that she wrote. She had originally recorded "After All" as a demo for songwriters Jimbeau Hinson and Harry Stinson, who had intended for the song to be recorded by Reba McEntire. When McEntire chose not to record the song, the two songwriters allowed Loveless to keep it. Loveless supported her debut album by touring with George Jones, which led to the two singing "Roll in My Sweet Baby's Arms" together in concerts. An uncredited review in Cashbox of "Lonely Days, Lonely Nights" called it "a boot-tapper that shows off her strong voice and rhythmic phrasing." The same publication published a favorable review of "I Did", which stated that the song "really does seem to come from the heart" and had a "classic sound". During the same period, she also divorced first husband, Terry Lovelace.
Loveless's second MCA album was 1988's If My Heart Had Windows. The lead single was the Curtis Wright composition "You Saved Me" (which fell outside the country top 40). It was followed by her first top-10 hit, a cover of George Jones's 1967 single "If My Heart Had Windows". The third and final single was a cover of Steve Earle's "A Little Bit in Love". By mid-1988, Loveless's rendition had peaked at number two on the Billboard country charts. A review written by Thom Jurek of AllMusic praised these two covers in particular, also stating that her "integrity, down-home sincerity, and utterly stunning voice have helped to create a streak of fine recordings and chart success". Jack Hurst of the Chicago Tribune was mixed toward the album, praising Loveless's voice, but criticizing the production as being more country pop in nature. Coinciding with the album's release, Loveless was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1988. Throughout 1988, Loveless also gained exposure in the United Kingdom by performing at an annual country music festival held at Wembley Arena.
In late 1988, Loveless's third album was released called Honky Tonk Angel. Shortly after the album's release, she and Gordy married. The lead single was "Blue Side of Town", which was co-written by Hank DeVito (another member of Emmylou Harris's Hot Band). This song achieved a top-five peak, as did a cover of Lone Justice's "Don't Toss Us Away". After these came her first number-one single, "Timber, I'm Falling in Love". Brown discovered the song when seeking material for the album. It was written by Greek-American songwriter Kostas, who at the time was not considering a career in country. Due to the success of "Timber, I'm Falling in Love", Kostas went on to write more songs for Loveless and for other country artists. "The Lonely Side of Love" (another song written by Kostas) peaked in the country top ten by late 1989. In early 1990, the album's final single "Chains" became her second to top the country chart. MCA promoted the album through CMT, which included a prize drawing where fans could win a trip to see Loveless perform at Billy Bob's Texas, a nightclub in Fort Worth, Texas. In addition, the label gave away autographed posters and signed Loveless to an endorsement deal with Justin Boots. Honky Tonk Angel was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of one million copies. Brian Mansfield described the album as "the album that established Loveless as a major presence". Wendy Dudley of the Calgary Herald praised Loveless's "robust vocals", comparing them favorably to those of Patsy Cline.
### 1990–1991: final years with MCA
In 1990 Loveless released her fourth studio album, On Down the Line. She charted within the top five with the album's title track, another composition by Kostas. Next came a cover of Lucinda Williams's "The Night's Too Long", which reached number 20. The disc also spawned "I'm That Kind of Girl" and "Blue Memories", respectively co-written by Matraca Berg and Karen Brooks. Both made their chart appearances in early 1991. On Down the Line achieved a gold certification honoring shipments of 500,000 copies. Alex Henderson wrote of the album on AllMusic, "Unpredictable and consistently inspired, On Down the Line remains one of Loveless's finest albums." Hurst wrote that "Loveless's world-class vocal power has seemed for three albums to be searching for material that could engage her soul, and she appears to have found it in this collection".
Loveless ended her tenure on MCA with Up Against My Heart in 1991. Its lead single was the top-five song, "Hurt Me Bad (In a Real Good Way)", co-written by (and featuring backing vocals from) Deborah Allen. Dolly Parton, Mac McAnally, and Vince Gill also sang on several album tracks. The closing track was a cover of Lyle Lovett's "God Will". Follow-up singles, "Jealous Bone" and "Can't Stop Myself from Loving You", were less successful on Billboard. Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly rated the album "A+", comparing the music favorably to Loretta Lynn and Emmylou Harris. The editors of Country Music: The Encyclopedia attributed the commercial failure of Up Against My Heart to the increased success of other women on the MCA label such as Wynonna Judd and Trisha Yearwood. In 1992, Loveless ended her contract with MCA and fired her brother Roger from his position as her manager. Her last MCA release was a Greatest Hits package in 1993. After its release, this compilation was certified gold.
### 1992–1997: move to Epic Records and peak success
Loveless signed with Epic Records in late 1992 following her departure from MCA. While between labels she was featured on Dwight Yoakam's 1992 single "Send a Message to My Heart" (from his 1990 album If There Was a Way). Before she could begin recording, she was diagnosed with an aneurysm on one of her vocal cords. This had developed from a vocal strain endured from multiple years of touring. Although the aneurysm was surgically removed in October 1992, she required a month of vocal rest and therapy before singing again. After recovery, she rebounded with what was considered a milestone record with her Epic Records debut, Only What I Feel (1993). The album again featured Gordy as both producer and bass guitarist. Vince Gill and Joe Diffie provided backing vocals, while musical contributions included keyboardist Barry Beckett, steel guitarist Paul Franklin, and strings by members of the Nashville String Machine. Her first single for Epic was "Blame It on Your Heart", co-written by Kostas and Harlan Howard. In mid-1993, this song became Loveless's third number-one single on Billboard. Also in 1993, she was one of many featured vocalists on George Jones's "I Don't Need Your Rockin' Chair", which won the Country Music Association's Vocal Event of the Year for everyone involved.
Only What I Feel accounted for three more singles between then and 1994: "Nothin' but the Wheel", "You Will", and "How Can I Help You Say Goodbye". The latter songs both reached the Billboard country top ten. "You Will" was co-written by Pam Rose and Mary Ann Kennedy (then of the country duo Kennedy Rose), and was originally recorded by Anne Murray in 1991. Actor Burton Collins came up with the concept of "How Can I Help You Say Goodbye" after his grandmother's death in 1988, but did not finish the song until much later when he met co-writer Karen Taylor-Good. Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly thought that Loveless's vocals had become stronger after the surgery and that the songs had themes of "understanding between the sexes". Michael McCall of AllMusic also found Loveless's voice stronger than on her MCA work, highlighting her delivery on "Nothin' but the Wheel" in particular. At the 37th Grammy Awards in 1995, "How Can I Help You Say Goodbye" was nominated for Best Female Country Vocal Performance, her first nomination from that organization.
Her second Epic album was 1994's When Fallen Angels Fly. The lead single, "I Try to Think About Elvis", peaked at number three on the country charts the same year. Also spawned as singles were the top ten songs "Here I Am", "You Don't Even Know Who I Am", and "Halfway Down". When Fallen Angels Fly later won Album of the Year from the Country Music Association. The album had not originally been considered for nomination in this category, but the Country Music Association added it after disqualifying Alison Krauss's Now That I've Found You: A Collection. She won Top Female Vocalist from the Academy of Country Music in both 1995 and 1996. "You Don't Even Know Who I Am" was nominated as Song of the Year by the Academy of Country Music and the Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. When Fallen Angels Fly was certified platinum in 1996. Bob Cannon of Entertainment Weekly thought that Loveless displayed a wider emotional range on the album than other contemporary female country artists, contrasting her vocal delivery on "Halfway Down" and "You Don't Even Know Who I Am". Richard McVey wrote of "Here I Am" in Cashbox magazine that "She pours out emotions through her vocals like few can".
### 1996–1999: continued commercial success at Epic
In 1996, Epic released her eighth studio album called The Trouble with the Truth. The album's lead single was the Matraca Berg co-write "You Can Feel Bad". It became Loveless's fourth number-one single on Billboard'''s country chart. The follow-up was "A Thousand Times a Day" (originally recorded by George Jones in 1993), which stopped at number 13 on the charts. It was succeeded by her fifth and final number-one single, "Lonely Too Long". After these came the top-10 hit "She Drew a Broken Heart" and then the top 20 title track. Loveless described the project as having a theme of "see[ing] things as they are, not how you wish they'd be." The Trouble with the Truth received Album of the Year nominations from both the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association. The project accounted for two Grammy nominations – the album itself for Best Country Album in 1997, and the title track for Best Female Country Vocal Performance a year later. By 1998, the album was certified platinum. The project also contained a cover of Richard Thompson's "Tear Stained Letter". A review in Billboard criticized this cover for not fitting thematically with the album, but stated of the other tracks that she "manages to sound simultaneously contemporary and traditional". The same magazine published a review of "Lonely Too Long", stating that her voice "exudes a variety of emotion on this well-written tune". Writing for Country Standard Time, Jeffrey B. Remz praised "Loveless's overwhelming ability to tackle the emotional core of each and every song."
In late 1997, Loveless reached the top 20 of the country charts with the George Jones duet "You Don't Seem to Miss Me". This was the lead single to her ninth album, Long Stretch of Lonesome. "To Have You Back Again" and "High on Love" (another song co-written by Kostas) also charted in the top 20 from this album, while "Like Water into Wine" became her first solo single since 1987 to miss the country top 40. "You Don't Seem to Miss Me" won Vocal Event of the Year from the Country Music Association in 1998, and was nominated for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards. Co-writers on the album included Kostas, Kim Richey, Jim Lauderdale, and Nitty Gritty Dirt Band member Jeff Hanna. Carole L. Phillips of The Cincinnati Post rated the album "A", noting influences of both bluegrass and rock music on "High on Love", while comparing her delivery to Loretta Lynn and Roy Orbison on other tracks. Remz praised her vocal delivery on "To Have You Back Again", "You Don't Seem to Miss Me", and the title track in particular. Long Stretch of Lonesome was certified gold in 1998. Also in 1998, she joined another multiple-artist collaboration. This was "Same Old Train", included on the 1998 tribute album A Tribute to Tradition. This song charted on Hot Country Songs that year and won Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals, thus giving Loveless her first Grammy.
Her next Epic release was a compilation titled Classics, issued in 1999. The album included nine singles from her previous Epic albums along with three new tracks. Two of these"Can't Get Enough" and the Vince Gill duet "My Kind of Woman/My Kind of Man" were issued as singles. Loveless and Gill had worked together on a number of occasions prior to this song; notably, she sang backing vocals on his singles "When I Call Your Name", "Pocket Full of Gold", and "Go Rest High on That Mountain". "My Kind of Woman/My Kind of Man" won both artists the Country Music Association award for Vocal Event of the Year. Remz praised the consistency of the previously released singles, but considered "Can't Get Enough" inferior by comparison. Classics was certified gold in 2002. Loveless took a brief recording hiatus at the end of the decade due to her contracting pneumonia and Gordy requiring emergency surgery for pancreatitis. One exception to this hiatus came in late 1999, when she provided backing vocals on Tim McGraw's number-one single "Please Remember Me".
### 2000–2005: transition to bluegrass and final years with Epic
Loveless returned in 2000 with the studio project Strong Heart. On recording the album, she said she wanted to find songs that appealed to young adults. Steve Earle contributed a harmonica part on the track "You're So Cool". It spawned two top-20 country singles with "That's the Kind of Mood I'm In" and "The Last Thing on My Mind". Despite these chart entries, the album was commercially unsuccessful, with Steve Huey of AllMusic attributing its failure to a more country pop sound than the preceding albums. Alanna Nash shared a similar opinion in a review for Entertainment Weekly, although she praised the track "My Heart Will Never Pass This Way Again" for the inclusion of fiddle music. Country Standard Time reviewer Eli Messinger was more mixed toward the project, considering it inferior to Long Stretch of Lonesome while noting the inclusion of Jimmy Hall and Travis Tritt on various tracks.
She released a pair of bluegrass albums between 2001 and 2002. The first of these was Mountain Soul, which consisted of original content and cover songs. Loveless said she had wanted to do an acoustic bluegrass album since 1992 when she met Ralph Stanley. Epic Records executives agreed to let her release the project after noticing positive fan reactions whenever she sang bluegrass songs in concert. Another factor in this decision was the contemporary success of bluegrass-influenced albums such as the soundtrack of O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the works of Nickel Creek. The album included guest vocals from Earl Scruggs and Ricky Skaggs, along with covers of songs originally recorded by Porter Wagoner, Dolly Parton, and Darrell Scott. She also covered Gordy's composition "Cheap Whiskey", previously a single for Martina McBride in 1992. "Out of Control Raging Fire" (a duet with Travis Tritt) was released as a single and music video late in 2001. Messinger gave a positive review of the album for Country Standard Time, calling it "the most emotion-drenched and uncompromisingly powerful album of her career." Mountain Soul received a Grammy nomination in the category of Best Bluegrass Album after release. The tracks "The Boys Are Back in Town" and "You'll Never Leave Harlan Alive" both received Song of the Year nominations at the 2002 International Bluegrass Music Awards. This project was followed in 2002 by the Christmas bluegrass album Bluegrass & White Snow: A Mountain Christmas. It consisted mostly of traditional Christmas covers such as "Silent Night" and "Away in a Manger". Jon Randall contributed to a rendition of "Joy to the World", and Carolyn Dawn Johnson on "The Little Drummer Boy". In addition to these songs, Gordy wrote the title track and two other original compositions.
Loveless's next album was 2003's On Your Way Home. Loveless later said that she and Emory Gordy wanted to mix the "traditional" bluegrass feel of Mountain Soul with more contemporary instruments such as drums and electric guitar. She selected the first single to be a cover of Rodney Crowell's "Lovin' All Night". It became Loveless's last top-20 hit, while the title track and "I Wanna Believe" were her last chart entries altogether. Co-writers on the album included Marty Stuart, Buddy Miller, and Matraca Berg. Steven Wine of the Associated Press praised Loveless's "earthy twang", while considering the closing track "The Grandpa That I Know" the strongest lyrically. AllMusic writer Thom Jurek also praised "The Grandpa That I Know" and Loveless's overall vocal tone, as well as the inclusion of Dobro and fiddle in the production. The album led to Loveless receiving Female Vocalist of the Year nominations from both the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association, while the title track was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. In 2004, Loveless contributed backing vocals to Alan Jackson's single "Monday Morning Church". The two also performed the song together at that year's Country Music Association awards ceremony.
The 2005 release Dreamin' My Dreams was Loveless's last release for Epic before the label closed its Nashville branch. The project was co-produced by Gordy and Justin Niebank. Contributing musicians included Lee Roy Parnell, Jon Randall, and Emmylou Harris. The album included four cover songs: Waylon Jennings's "Dreaming My Dreams with You", Richard Thompson's "Keep Your Distance", Steve Earle's "My Old Friend the Blues", and a duet with Dwight Yoakam on a cover of Delaney Bramlett's "Never Ending Song of Love". The cover of "Keep Your Distance" was the only single from the album. Brian Wahlert of Country Standard Time said of this album that Loveless and Gordy "have a knack for finding songs that express the joy and pain of everyday life in a way that anyone can relate to." He praised Loveless's vocal delivery on the song "On the Verge of Tears" in particular. Jack Bernhardt of The News and Observer considered the album her strongest release, noting the "storytelling intrigue" of the songs, while comparing Loveless's vocals favorably to those of Patsy Cline. The same year as this album, Vince Gill featured her as a duet partner on the track "Out of My Mind" from his compilation These Days.
### 2008–present: continued Bluegrass work and semi-retirement
In 2006, Loveless appeared on rock singer Bob Seger's Face the Promise as a duet partner on the track "The Answer's in the Question". David N. Cole, Seger's audio engineer, had recommended Loveless as a duet partner because he thought the song should be recorded as a duet. Seger was initially unsure if Loveless would approve, but the two agreed after realizing they were fans of each other's music. She then took a hiatus from recording, due in part to Epic closing its Nashville branch. In addition, her mother and mother-in-law had both died and her brother Roger had suffered a stroke. Her next album release was Sleepless Nights on Saguaro Road Records in 2008. According to an interview with CMT, Loveless chose to do a covers album dedicated to both Roger and to her sister Dottie (who died in 1996). Gordy produced and played bass on the album, with other contributors including pianist Hargus "Pig" Robbins, guitarist Al Perkins, and drummer Harry Stinson. The album featured covers of songs first cut by The Everly Brothers, George Jones, Porter Wagoner, and Webb Pierce. The lead single was a cover of Jones's "Why Baby Why". Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine called Loveless's vocals "interpretive" while also noting the "deliberate thematic heft" of the songs chosen. Jurek wrote of this album, "Loveless treats these songs without even a trace of nostalgia, but as the living embodiment of stories that not only transfer emotion, but reveal the hidden truths of love, life, sadness, grief, and wisdom gained by experience." In addition to this album, she sang duet vocals on the track "House of Cash" from George Strait's 2008 album Troubadour. At the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, Sleepless Nights was nominated for Best Country Album, while "House of Cash" was nominated for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals.
A year later, Loveless released her last studio album to date called Mountain Soul II. This was a follow-up to the original Mountain Soul project. Like its predecessor, it featured influences of acoustic and bluegrass music. Vince Gill, Del McCoury, and Emmylou Harris were among the contributing vocalists, the latter doing so on a cover of her own "Diamond in My Crown". Loveless also included a number of traditional Christian songs such as "Children of Abraham", which she sang a cappella. Loveless chose to include Christian material on the project as she had previously sung "Amazing Grace" with Ralph Stanley and Emmylou Harris while on tour with them. The album's lead single was a cover of Harlan Howard's "Busted". Keefe praised individual tracks such as this and the rendition of "I'm Working on a Building", but otherwise thought the album lacked the "focus" of its predecessor.
Although she largely retired from performing in 2009, Loveless has sporadically contributed to other artists' albums. She provided vocals to the track "Dear Diamond" on Miranda Lambert's 2010 album Four the Record. The same year, she joined with Danica Patrick, Caitlyn Jenner, and Michael Strahan in a program started by NASCAR titled Drive, which was done to raise awareness of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Loveless chose to join the program as her sister Dottie had died of the disease. She also appeared on albums by Angaleena Presley, Elizabeth Cook, Trisha Yearwood, and Carly Pearce.
In October 2022, Loveless was one of several performers at Kentucky Rising, a benefit concert held at Rupp Arena to raise funds for victims of flooding in Kentucky. Other performers at the venue included Chris Stapleton, Dwight Yoakam, Ricky Skaggs, and Tyler Childers. A month later, Loveless and Stapleton performed "You'll Never Leave Harlan Alive" together at the 56th Annual Country Music Association Awards.
## Musical style
The editors of Country Music: The Encyclopedia describe Loveless as having a "straight-from-the-heart, strong yet vulnerable vocal style", which they compared favorably to Loretta Lynn and Kitty Wells. The same entry noted that Loveless had commercial success with both upbeat songs and ballads, and stated that she "may not be one of the more flashy personalities around; nevertheless, the songs she chooses to sing and the way she chooses to sing them are some of the best of what modern 'traditional' country music is all about." Steve Huey of Allmusic wrote that she "rose to stardom thanks to her blend of honky-tonk and country rock, not to mention a plaintive, emotional ballad style...but most critics agreed that she truly came into her own as an artist when she moved to Epic in the early '90s." According to The Virgin Encyclopedia of Country Music, she attributed her vocal tone to her upbringing in areas of Kentucky known for bluegrass music.
In a review of Up Against My Heart, Alanna Nash described Loveless as having a "wild-and-wounded voice". She also wrote that "[l]ike neo-traditionalist Emmylou Harris, she isn't afraid of a sassy country rock beat or progressive lyrics that paint her as a woman who knows what she wants from love". Nash also noted that Loveless had yet to win any industry awards at the time of the album's release, stating that "her lack of both flamboyance and any desire to play Nashville politics" may have been a factor. Carole L. Phillips of The Cincinnati Post stated that Loveless "fus[es] the driving emotional intensity of rock with a throaty tenor". Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post noted a recurring theme of "loss" and "heartache" in the lyrics of Loveless's songs. An uncredited article in The Courier-News of Bridgewater, New Jersey, stated that Loveless was "[b]lessed with a natural honky-tonk moan and heart-on-sleeve vocal honesty". The same article also described "The Lonely Side of Love", "Hurt Me Bad (In a Real Good Way)", and "Can't Stop Myself from Loving You" as more traditional in style than "rock-oriented" material like "Jealous Bone" or "Chains".
Nash described Gordy's production style as "lean but muscular". Loveless told CMA Close Up in 1996 that production sessions usually began with Gordy recording just her vocals and an acoustic guitar track to determine her vocal tone for each track before adding in other instruments. Remz stated in a review of Long Stretch of Lonesome that Gordy "knows just what to do with his wife's voicelet it rip, but he doesn't overmilk it either." Loveless told The Los Angeles Times in 1995 that she looks for songs with "realism" in the lyrics. She also stated that she did not like recording songs about relationships if they cast men in a negative light; she said she initially rejected "You Don't Even Know Who I Am" for this reason until she realized the song's second verse showed the failing relationship from the male's perspective, as well. As Loveless almost never wrote songs, she often enlisted Gordy's help in song selection and arrangement.
## Legacy
Because of her prolificacy in the 1990s, Loveless has been cited by several publications as having an influence on the subsequent generations of country music. In 2017, Taste of Country ranked her the 29th "most powerful woman" in country music, noting the critical success of the Mountain Soul albums. In the same article, Lauren Lucas stated that The Trouble with the Truth was a "huge influence" on her. Carly Pearce has also cited Loveless as a career influence. The two collaborated on the song "Dear Miss Loretta" from Pearce's 2021 album 29: Written in Stone.
Sara Evans, when discussing her plans to record a follow-up to her 2020 album Copy That, stated that she wanted said follow-up to have a more traditional country sound. In doing so, she also cited Loveless as one of her favorite artists, and said she wanted her upcoming album to sound like Loveless. Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe had previously compared Evans's voice to that of Loveless in a review of Evans's 1998 single "No Place That Far".
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Loveless at number 177 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. In April 2023, the Country Music Association announced that Loveless, fellow singer Tanya Tucker, and songwriter Bob McDill were the three people chosen for induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame for the calendar year 2023. Formal induction takes place at a medallion ceremony later in the year.
## Personal life
Loveless's first marriage was to Terry Lovelace, drummer for the Wilburn Brothers, in 1973. After marrying him, she altered her surname to Loveless. According to the Virgin Encyclopedia of Country Music, this change came about because she thought it would help to keep her from being mistaken for pornographic actress Linda Lovelace. Loveless corroborated this in a 1990 interview with the Richmond Times-Dispatch. She divorced Terry Lovelace in 1986. Her second marriage was to Emory Gordy Jr. in February 1989. Gordy has served as bassist and producer on nearly all of Loveless's albums. Gordy had previously played bass in Emmylou Harris's touring band the Hot Band, and has also produced albums by the Bellamy Brothers, Earl Thomas Conley, and Alabama, among others. Loveless told The Los Angeles Times in 1995 that their relationship inspired the title track of When Fallen Angels Fly, as both of them had been in prior relationships and were uncertain if they would successfully develop another until they met each other. Loveless's brother Roger, who played several key roles in her early career, died at age 72 in June 2022.
## Discography
Studio albums
- Patty Loveless (1987)
- If My Heart Had Windows (1988)
- Honky Tonk Angel (1988)
- On Down the Line (1990)
- Up Against My Heart (1991)
- Only What I Feel (1993)
- When Fallen Angels Fly (1994)
- The Trouble with the Truth (1996)
- Long Stretch of Lonesome (1997)
- Strong Heart (2000)
- Mountain Soul (2001)
- Bluegrass & White Snow: A Mountain Christmas (2002)
- On Your Way Home (2003)
- Dreamin' My Dreams (2005)
- Sleepless Nights (2008)
- Mountain Soul II'' (2009)
## Awards and nominations
Patty Loveless has won five Country Music Association awards, two Academy of Country Music awards, and two Grammy Awards.
|
65,766,963 |
Yam fortress
| 1,172,342,589 |
Medieval fortress in Kingisepp, Russia
|
[
"Buildings and structures in Leningrad Oblast",
"Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Leningrad Oblast",
"Forts in Russia",
"Kingiseppsky District",
"Ruins in Russia"
] |
Yam (Yama, Yamgorod, Russian: Ям) is a fortress and heritage site located on the eastern bank of the Luga river in Kingisepp, Leningrad Oblast, Russia.
The fortress was built in 1384 by Ivan Fyodorovich, a boyar (noble) of the Novgorod republic, to protect the republic’s western borders. Thanks to it, Yam remained unconquered from the 14th to 15th centuries. The fortress was completely rebuilt after the Novgorod Republic was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Following the construction of Ivangorod Fortress, Yam Fortress lost its military significance.
Between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, Yam Fortress was captured twice by the Swedish army, and the fortress was awarded to Sweden in 1612 by the Treaty of Stolbovo. Russians stormed the fortress in 1658 and captured most of it, however the Swedish garrison held out in the Detinets. Subsequently, the Swedish army demolished most of the fortress (except for the Detinets) to re-build it. Construction of a new bastion-type fortress was begun but never finished. In 1703 the fortress was recaptured by the Russians. The construction of Yam was completed by the Russian tsar Peter the Great. However, since the border of Russia extended further westward, Yam fell into disuse. The remains of the Detinets were demolished on the orders of Catherine the Great in 1781, and the bastions were abandoned. In the 19th century, the area surrounding the fortress became a town park.
## History
### Novgorod republic times
According to the chronicles, Yam fortress was founded in 1384 at the supposed location of the Luga river crossing. It was built in 33 days, and its construction seems to have been very important to Novgorod. A chronicler says that, "all the nobles of Novgorod" took part in the process. Five kochansky voivods (heads of districts) led the construction. Ivan Fyodorovich was in charge and assisted by Osip Zakharovich, Yury Ontsiforovich, Fyodor Timofeev, Stepan Borisov and other "boyars and philistines". The fortress was built on the right (eastern) bank of the Luga river crossing that was also the intersection of land and waterway routes from Novgorod to Europe. In addition, Yam was connected with Koporye by road allowing the ability to move reserve troops. At the same time, some Novgorod citizens were moved to settle the fortress on preferential terms and Russian peasants settled in its surrounding areas. Later the settlement around Yam was established as a town named Yamgorod (Yam-town).
In 1395, Swedes unsuccessfully assaulted Yam. A garrison led by Prince Konstantin defeated the Swedish army, which then fled. Two years later, it was assaulted again, this time by Livonian knights. They plundered several villages around Yam, but did not attempt to storm the fortress.
During the Novgorod-Livonian war, the Livonian army attacked Yam in 1443; they burned out the posad (settlement) and destroyed the pier. Despite the fact that ambassadors of the Order tried to present this attack as an independent raid by an uncontrolled warlord, in the fall of 1444, a large, well-armed Livonian army lay siege to the fortress. The army's weapons included a Prussian bombard (cannon). The prince of Suzdal, Vasily Yuryevich, who was serving at Novgorod at the time, led Yam's defenders. As a result of a cannon duel, the Livonian army's bombard was destroyed. Its forces retreated, suffering heavy losses. In 1447, a Livonian Order tried to capture Yam again with a much larger army. It had its own army from Narva but also had several squads, artillery, weapons and a wagon train from Prussia. The battle was intense and according to Livonian sources lasted 13 days. On the last day, reinforcements arrived from Novgorod carrying artillery, forcing the Livonian army to retreat with heavy losses again. The Livonians plundered many villages around Yam and even on the banks of the Neva and Izhora rivers.
A peace treaty was signed in 1448, but as the result of the war, Yam was heavily damaged. It had become outdated and could no longer protect the town from the latest cannons. So, by the order of Novgorod's archbishop Euthymius II, who inspected Yam at that time, the old fortress was disassembled in 1449. A new modern fortress was built immediately at the same location.
### Great Duchy of Moscow times
When the Novgorod republic became a part of Great Duchy of Moscow in 1478, Yam fortress remained on its border, so it was repaired and Yamgorod settlement also got a wooden fortification. In 1492, Ivan III ordered the construction of a new fortress not far from Yam on the road to Livonia just across the river from the Narva fortress. In 1490, Yam was modernized with other fortifications. Yamgorod then became the main trade center on the Luga river banks and nearest the area. It was surrounded by 67 villages with 393 households according to Dmitry Kitayev's book written in 1500 about Vodskaya Pyatina.
### Kingdom of Sweden times
In 1580, when Russia was busy fighting in the Livonian War, John III of Sweden decided to capture the Russian Baltic coastline. He sent an army led by Pontus De la Gardie to capture all the fortresses in that region up to Novgorod. Koporye, Korela, Ivangorod and Narva were defeated before Yam was captured at September 28, 1581. Swedish forces held Yam until 1590, when Russia recaptured it after a three-day siege. On May 25, 1595, a peace treaty signed in the village of Tyavzino saw Yam remain as part of Russia.
During the Time of Troubles in 1612, Sweden captured Yam again, and in 1617 a new treaty signed in Stolbovo village secured these lands for Sweden. In 1633, a Holstein ambassador passed through Yamburg (the Swedish name for the village) and described it as a medium-size fortress with eight towers and high stone walls. During the Russo-Swedish War in 1658, Russian forces stormed Yam and entered the fortress, but the Swedes hid in the detinets and repelled all attacks. The Russians' attempt to capture the fortress failed because of a lack of artillery. They had to retreat from the mostly captured fortress. In 1681, Erik Dahlbergh surveyed the fortress. He found it in terrible condition, but remarked on the high quality of its construction. He pointed that neither Yam nor Koporye was ever repaired after their capture by Sweden, so it would be cheaper to demolish both fortresses to prevent their use by an enemy. In 1682, most of the Yam fortress, except for the detinets, was blown up with 40 barrels of gunpowder. A new bastion fortress was founded in the same place, but it had not been finished before the beginning of the Great Northern war in 1700.
### Russian Empire times
In 1700, Yamburg surrendered to the forces of Peter I without a fight, but their defeat at Narva forced the Russians to leave the fortress. On May 13, 1703, a Russian squad under the command of Major General Nikolay Verden came to Yamburg and began to shell it with cannons. The following day, the garrison sent a drummer to ask for an honorable surrender, and it was accepted. The Russians also let the garrison move to Narva and did not harm those who decided to remain. The now-Swedish form of the town name—Yamburg—was kept after the capture. The bastion fortress was not finished until the fall of the same year following the decree of the Russian tsar and under the command of Field Marshall Boris Sheremetev. It was not rebuilt using stone because after the capture of Narva and Derpt the border moved far to the west and the only use for Yam was to hold a small garrison in case of a Swedish amphibious assault. The detinets was saved during rebuilding and became part of the new fortress. At that time, the fortress was manned a garrison with 53 cannons of different calibers.
In the second quarter of the 18th century, Yamburg fortress was disarmed because the Russian military command had abandoned static defensive position tactics. It remained under military control and had some military departments (warehouses and so on), but the ancient detinets having been left without any servicing or repairs had begun to collapse. In the 1760, by a decree of Catherine II, Yamburg became a city, so most of its buildings were demolished to build the new town with a regular plan. The detinets was destroyed and Antonio Rinaldi used some parts of its stone walls to build a Saint Catherine church in a 1762. In 1781, Catherine II, traveling from Petersburg to Revel had a look at the Yam fortress ruins and ordered the detinets destroyed completely because of its poor condition. Bastions had been preserved, but they were partially destroyed at the end of the 18th century to build a chintz factory.
In the middle of the 19th century, a military garrison was hosted in Yamburg town. At the beginning it was manned by the Irkutsky 93rd infantry regiment, but in 1881 it was moved to Finland and the Dvinsky 91st infantry regiment was moved at Yamburg in 1883. Then in 1893 it was replaced by the Tsaritsynsky 146th infantry regiment. They set up the park on the Yam fortress territory so it was named the Garden of the Tsaritsynsky 146th Regiment and held that name until the October Revolution.
In 1909, during the construction of the commercial school building, the southern part of Yam fortress was excavated to build the basement. Construction workers found some remains of the southern fortress tower and decided to move all construction works to the north and farther from the banks of the Luga.
### Modern condition
As of 2021 there is still a park at the fortress' remains. It was called the Workers Garden (Russian: Сад трудящихся) during the Soviet era, but locals called it Dark Garden (Russian: Тёмный сад), and in the post-Soviet era it was renamed the Summer Garden (Russian: Летний сад). At the northern side of the park, one can still see remains of two bastions. At the southern part of the territory, all the ground fortifications have been torn down;, the stone ones were completely destroyed during the bridge construction in 1926. Also, the Saint Petersburg–Narva road was on the location of the detinets. On its northern side, the commercial school building stands, but it has now become the local history museum. Moats on the north and south and a pond on the east mark an outline of the fortress. The pond has drainage to the Luga river through the northern moat. At some places there are still remains of masonry on the surface.
During the Soviet era, the park had a cinema pavilion with a dance floor, but fire destroyed it and it has not been restored. In 1958, a monument to World War II partisans was placed in the south-east corner of the park.
In 2017, Rosterminalugol took over maintaining the park. Ivangorod water utility service cleared the park's pond between June 24 and August 25, 2019. After that, a Biolight Oloid Pyramaid water cleaning system with a fountain was installed. Fry of the carp and carassius were released into the pond.
In June, 2022, the park got an addition: the local history museum with financial support of the Presidential Grants Foundation set up a few glass boards with paintings of a fortress, that are merging with current relief. As an addition they have built a stele with pointers to different objects in the park and published an audio-guide at the «Easy Travel» platform.
## Architecture
The fortress was built on a high steep coast at the outside of the river bend. That gave additional obstacle for assault. From all sides fortress was surrounded by water: it had Luga river on its western side and moats on others. Fortress itself was built in trapezoid shape facing the river with a long base that also was slightly concaved. Walls was folded of limestone and was up to 4,5 meters wide. At the corners the fortress had 4 round towers, which were supplemented by square towers in the middle of western, northern and eastern walls. That gave the defenders an opportunity to crossfire. The detinets was located at the south-western corner of fortress and had mutual gates with it. A gate was placed westwards in two related square halftowers made of coarse limestone blocks stapled with mortar. Passage was 2 meters wide and 17.5 meters long had 3 gates in it and a pit in front of the entrance with a single drawbridge.
The bastion fortress was built by the same plan as the old one and had 4 bastions at its corners, linked by curtains. In the south-western corner, between southern and western curtains old detinets was placed. The detinets' western wall and gate tower was built into the curtain and was used as an entrance. Because of this the south-western bastion was smaller than the others.
## Archeology
The first archeological research of the Yam fortress was undertaken in 1909 during the construction of the commercial school building when workers found remains of the southern tower with an embrasure facing the east. They also discovered the south-western tower remains; these were mostly destroyed during bridge construction in 1926. In 1950, Vladimir Kostochkin claimed that the southern tower was built at the beginning of the 16th century, based on its design features of its embrasure.
In 1971, the first major archeological research by the Leningrad branch of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union under the direction of Anatoly Kirpichnikov was undertaken at the fortress territory. During this research, nine excavations were dug at the 960 m<sup>2</sup> (10,300 sq ft) field. The eastern side of ancient settlement excavation showed a wall 4.5 m (15 ft) wide and 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) high just under the sod, dated between the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century. Many items were discovered in the detinets and near the northern wall. They were attributed to both the Russian population of the 15th and 16th centuries and the Swedish soldiers of the 17th century. Few finds were attributed to the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. The remains of one-apse church with four columns were discovered in the detinets. It was dated to the 14th century. All the research proved the accuracy of 1680 Swedish plans of the fortress that were stored in the Royal Military Archive in Stockholm. The archeologists discovered evidence of the destruction of southern part of the fortress in the 18th century. As a result of this research, in 1974, the Yam fortress archeological site was marked as a cultural heritage site in Russia.
Excavations performed in 2008 were aimed at studying the structure of the 17th century bastion fortress. As a result, a water pipe was discovered. It was placed on the bottom of the northern moat during backfill and was covered with a floodgate from a side of the pond that was formerly an eastern moat.
Some of the artifacts found during archaeological excavations were presented to the Kingisepp local history museum.
|
6,343 |
Czech language
| 1,173,100,883 |
West Slavic language
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[
"Czech language",
"Languages of Slovakia",
"Languages of the Czech Republic",
"Slavic languages written in Latin script",
"Subject–verb–object languages",
"West Slavic languages"
] |
Czech (/tʃɛk/; Czech čeština ), historically also Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script. Spoken by over 10 million people, it serves as the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech is closely related to Slovak, to the point of high mutual intelligibility, as well as to Polish to a lesser degree. Czech is a fusional language with a rich system of morphology and relatively flexible word order. Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by Latin and German.
The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the high medieval period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the Czech National Revival. The main non-standard variety, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, but is now spoken as an interdialect throughout most of the Czech Republic. The Moravian dialects spoken in the eastern part of the country are also classified as Czech, although some of their eastern variants are closer to Slovak.
Czech has a moderately-sized phoneme inventory, comprising ten monophthongs, three diphthongs and 25 consonants (divided into "hard", "neutral" and "soft" categories). Words may contain complicated consonant clusters or lack vowels altogether. Czech has a raised alveolar trill, which is known to occur as a phoneme in only a few other languages, represented by the grapheme ř.
## Classification
Czech is a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. This branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak. Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and Silesian.
The West Slavic languages are spoken in Central Europe. Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by a more-restricted distinction between "hard" and "soft" consonants (see Phonology below).
## History
### Medieval/Old Czech
The term "Old Czech" is applied to the period predating the 16th century, with the earliest records of the high medieval period also classified as "early Old Czech", but the term "Medieval Czech" is also used. The function of the written language was initially performed by Old Slavonic written in Glagolitic, later by Latin written in Latin script.
Around the 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, settling on the eastern fringes of the Frankish Empire. The West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century. The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries. The diversification of the Czech-Slovak group within West Slavic began around that time, marked among other things by its use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.
The Bohemian (Czech) language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the late 13th and early 14th century and administrative documents first appear towards the late 14th century. The first complete Bible translation, the Leskovec-Dresden Bible, also dates to this period. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were also produced outside universities.
Literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation. Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.
### Early Modern Czech
There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century. In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects.
The publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language.
In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country. This emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years' War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among the upper classes.
### Modern Czech
The modern standard Czech language originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Sometime before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.
With the beginning of the national revival of the mid-18th century, Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the 15th through the 17th centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (the Habsburg re-catholization efforts which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renaissance).
During the national revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g), the use of t (rather than ti) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.
Adherence to historical patterns was later relaxed and standard Czech adopted a number of features from Common Czech (a widespread, informally used interdialectal variety), such as leaving some proper nouns undeclined. This has resulted in a relatively high level of homogeneity among all varieties of the language.
## Geographic distribution
Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic. A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the European Union (behind Greece and Hungary).
As the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), Czech is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia. Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent).
Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities. Since it is a recognized minority language in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language to the extent that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic may do so.
### United States
Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the commonest language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most common home language in more than a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, after Turkish and before Swedish).
## Phonology
### Vowels
Standard Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three diphthongs. The vowels are , and their long counterparts . The diphthongs are ; the last two are found only in loanwords such as auto "car" and euro "euro".
In Czech orthography, the vowels are spelled as follows:
- Short: a, e/ě, i/y, o, u
- Long: á, é, í/ý, ó, ú/ů
- Diphthongs: ou, au, eu
The letter indicates that the previous consonant is palatalised (e.g. něco ). After a labial it represents (e.g. běs ); but is pronounced /mɲɛ/, cf. měkký ().
### Consonants
The consonant phonemes of Czech and their equivalent letters in Czech orthography are as follows:
Czech consonants are categorized as "hard", "neutral", or "soft":
- Hard:
- Neutral:
- Soft:
Hard consonants may not be followed by i or í in writing, or soft ones by y or ý (except in loanwords such as kilogram). Neutral consonants may take either character. Hard consonants are sometimes known as "strong", and soft ones as "weak". This distinction is also relevant to the declension patterns of nouns, which vary according to whether the final consonant of the noun stem is hard or soft.
Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word before a pause, and in consonant clusters voicing assimilation occurs, which matches voicing to the following consonant. The unvoiced counterpart of /ɦ/ is /x/.
The phoneme represented by the letter ř (capital Ř) is very rare among languages and often claimed to be unique to Czech, though it also occurs in some dialects of Kashubian, and formerly occurred in Polish. It represents the raised alveolar non-sonorant trill (IPA: ), a sound somewhere between Czech r and ž (example: ), and is present in Dvořák. In unvoiced environments, /r̝/ is realized as its voiceless allophone [r̝̊], a sound somewhere between Czech r and š.
The consonants can be syllabic, acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel. Strč prst skrz krk ("Stick [your] finger through [your] throat") is a well-known Czech tongue twister using syllabic consonants but no vowels.
### Stress
Each word has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress is unrelated to vowel length; both long and short vowels can be stressed or unstressed. Vowels are never reduced in tone (e.g. to schwa sounds) when unstressed. When a noun is preceded by a monosyllabic preposition, the stress usually moves to the preposition, e.g. do Prahy "to Prague".
## Grammar
Czech grammar, like that of other Slavic languages, is fusional; its nouns, verbs, and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions, and the easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited. Czech inflects for case, gender and number in nouns and tense, aspect, mood, person and subject number and gender in verbs.
Parts of speech include adjectives, adverbs, numbers, interrogative words, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Adverbs are primarily formed from adjectives by taking the final ý or í of the base form and replacing it with e, ě, y, or o. Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ne- to the main verb of a clause, with one exception: je (he, she or it is) becomes není.
### Sentence and clause structure
Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order, as English does), its word order is flexible. As a pro-drop language, in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb. Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit. The first slot can contain a subject or object, a main form of a verb, an adverb, or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions a, "and", i, "and even" or ale, "but").
Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure. In practice, however, word order is flexible and used to distinguish topic and focus, with the topic or theme (known referents) preceding the focus or rheme (new information) in a sentence; Czech has therefore been described as a topic-prominent language. Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), in colloquial style, word-order changes frequently replace the passive voice. For example, to change "Peter killed Paul" to "Paul was killed by Peter" the order of subject and object is inverted: Petr zabil Pavla ("Peter killed Paul") becomes "Paul, Peter killed" (Pavla zabil Petr). Pavla is in the accusative case, the grammatical object of the verb.
A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized, unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question:
- Pes jí bagetu. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than eating something else).
- Bagetu jí pes. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than someone else doing so).
- Pes bagetu jí. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than doing something else to it).
- Jí pes bagetu? – Does the dog eat the baguette? (emphasis ambiguous)
In parts of Bohemia (including Prague), questions such as Jí pes bagetu? without an interrogative word (such as co, "what" or kdo, "who") are intoned in a slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase.
In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns, with few exceptions. Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective který, analogous to the English relative pronouns "which", "that" and "who"/"whom". As with other adjectives, it agrees with its associated noun in gender, number and case. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify. The following is a glossed example:
### Declension
In Czech, nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases which indicate their function in a sentence, two numbers (singular and plural) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). The masculine gender is further divided into animate and inanimate classes.
#### Case
A nominative–accusative language, Czech marks subject nouns of transitive and intransitive verbs in the nominative case, which is the form found in dictionaries, and direct objects of transitive verbs are declined in the accusative case. The vocative case is used to address people. The remaining cases (genitive, dative, locative and instrumental) indicate semantic relationships, such as noun adjuncts (genitive), indirect objects (dative), or agents in passive constructions (instrumental). Additionally prepositions and some verbs require their complements to be declined in a certain case. The locative case is only used after prepositions. An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it modifies. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number:
Some prepositions require the nouns they modify to take a particular case. The cases assigned by each preposition are based on the physical (or metaphorical) direction, or location, conveyed by it. For example, od (from, away from) and z (out of, off) assign the genitive case. Other prepositions take one of several cases, with their meaning dependent on the case; na means "onto" or "for" with the accusative case, but "on" with the locative.
This is a glossed example of a sentence using several cases:
#### Gender
Czech distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate. With few exceptions, feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a, -e, or a consonant; neuter nouns in -o, -e, or -í, and masculine nouns in a consonant. Adjectives, participles, most pronouns, and the numbers "one" and "two" are marked for gender and agree with the gender of the noun they modify or refer to. Past tense verbs are also marked for gender, agreeing with the gender of the subject, e.g. dělal (he did, or made); dělala (she did, or made) and dělalo (it did, or made). Gender also plays a semantic role; most nouns that describe people and animals, including personal names, have separate masculine and feminine forms which are normally formed by adding a suffix to the stem, for example Čech (Czech man) has the feminine form Češka (Czech woman).
Nouns of different genders follow different declension patterns. Examples of declension patterns for noun phrases of various genders follow:
#### Number
Nouns are also inflected for number, distinguishing between singular and plural. Typical of a Slavic language, Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case, but numbers over five require subject and direct object noun phrases to be declined in the genitive plural instead of the nominative or accusative, and when used as subjects these phrases take singular verbs. For example:
Numbers decline for case, and the numbers one and two are also inflected for gender. Numbers one through five are shown below as examples. The number one has declension patterns identical to those of the demonstrative pronoun ten.
Although Czech's grammatical numbers are singular and plural, several residuals of dual forms remain, such as the words dva ("two") and oba ("both"), which decline the same way. Some nouns for paired body parts use a historical dual form to express plural in some cases: ruka (hand)—ruce (nominative); noha (leg)—nohama (instrumental), nohou (genitive/locative); oko (eye)—oči, and ucho (ear)—uši. While two of these nouns are neuter in their singular forms, all plural forms are considered feminine; their gender is relevant to their associated adjectives and verbs. These forms are plural semantically, used for any non-singular count, as in mezi čtyřma očima (face to face, lit. among four eyes). The plural number paradigms of these nouns are a mixture of historical dual and plural forms. For example, nohy (legs; nominative/accusative) is a standard plural form of this type of noun.
### Verb conjugation
Czech verbs agree with their subjects in person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), and in constructions involving participles, which includes the past tense, also in gender. They are conjugated for tense (past, present or future) and mood (indicative, imperative or conditional). For example, the conjugated verb mluvíme (we speak) is in the present tense and first-person plural; it is distinguished from other conjugations of the infinitive mluvit by its ending, -íme. The infinitive form of Czech verbs ends in -t (archaically, -ti or -ci). It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs (for example, můžu tě slyšet—"I can hear you").
#### Aspect
Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, koupit (perfective) and kupovat (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing or repeated. This is distinct from past and present tense. Any verb of either aspect can be conjugated into either the past or present tense, but the future tense is only used with imperfective verbs. Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.
The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix. In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective psát (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective napsat (to write down). The most common prefixes are na-, o-, po-, s-, u-, vy-, z- and za-. In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs koupit (to buy) and prodat (to sell) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat. Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and frequentative forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb jít (to go) has the iterative form chodit (to go regularly) and the frequentative form chodívat (to go occasionally; to tend to go).
Many verbs have only one aspect, and verbs describing continual states of being—být (to be), chtít (to want), moct (to be able to), ležet (to lie down, to be lying down)—have no perfective form. Conversely, verbs describing immediate states of change—for example, otěhotnět (to become pregnant) and nadchnout se (to become enthusiastic)—have no imperfective aspect.
#### Tense
The present tense in Czech is formed by adding an ending that agrees with the person and number of the subject at the end of the verb stem. As Czech is a null-subject language, the subject pronoun can be omitted unless it is needed for clarity. The past tense is formed using a participle which ends in -l and a further ending which agrees with the gender and number of the subject. For the first and second persons, the auxiliary verb být conjugated in the present tense is added.
In some contexts, the present tense of perfective verbs (which differs from the English present perfect) implies future action; in others, it connotes habitual action. The perfective present is used to refer to completion of actions in the future and is distinguished from the imperfective future tense, which refers to actions that will be ongoing in the future. The future tense is regularly formed using the future conjugation of být (as shown in the table on the left) and the infinitive of an imperfective verb, for example, budu jíst—"I will eat" or "I will be eating". Where budu has a noun or adjective complement it means "I will be", for example, budu šťastný (I will be happy). Some verbs of movement form their future tense by adding the prefix po- to the present tense forms instead, e.g. jedu ("I go") \> pojedu ("I will go").
#### Mood
Czech verbs have three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative and conditional. The imperative mood is formed by adding specific endings for each of three person–number categories: -Ø/-i/-ej for second-person singular, -te/-ete/-ejte for second-person plural and -me/-eme/-ejme for first-person plural. Imperatives are usually expressed using perfective verbs if positive and imperfective verbs if negative. The conditional mood is formed with a conditional auxiliary verb after the participle ending in -l which is used to form the past tense. This mood indicates hypothetical events and can also be used to express wishes.
#### Verb classes
Most Czech verbs fall into one of five classes, which determine their conjugation patterns. The future tense of být would be classified as a Class I verb because of its endings. Examples of the present tense of each class and some common irregular verbs follow in the tables below:
## Orthography
Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages. Its alphabet contains 42 graphemes, most of which correspond to individual phonemes, and only contains only one digraph: ch, which follows h in the alphabet. The characters q, w and x appear only in foreign words. The háček (ˇ) is used with certain letters to form new characters: š, ž, and č, as well as ň, ě, ř, ť, and ď (the latter five uncommon outside Czech). The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above (ʼ, an abbreviated háček) because of their height. Czech orthography has influenced the orthographies of other Balto-Slavic languages and some of its characters have been adopted for transliteration of Cyrillic.
Czech orthography reflects vowel length; long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or, in the case of the character ů, a ring. Long u is usually written ú at the beginning of a word or morpheme (úroda, neúrodný) and ů elsewhere, except for loanwords (skútr) or onomatopoeia (bú). Long vowels and ě are not considered separate letters in the alphabetical order. The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia.
Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most European languages that use the Latin script, including English. Proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations are capitalized, and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages. Ordinal numbers (1st) use a point, as in German (1.). The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point. When writing a long number, spaces between every three digits, including those in decimal places, may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts. The number 1,234,567.89101 may be written as 1234567,89101 or 1 234 567,891 01. In proper noun phrases (except personal and settlement names), only the first word and proper nouns inside such phrases are capitalized (Pražský hrad, Prague Castle).
## Varieties
The modern literary standard and prestige variety, known as "Standard Czech" (spisovná čeština) is based on the standardization during the Czech National Revival in the 1830s, significantly influenced by Josef Jungmann's Czech–German dictionary published during 1834–1839. Jungmann used vocabulary of the Bible of Kralice (1579–1613) period and of the language used by his contemporaries. He borrowed words not present in Czech from other Slavic languages or created neologisms. Standard Czech is the formal register of the language which is used in official documents, formal literature, newspaper articles, education and occasionally public speeches. It is codified by the Czech Language Institute, who publish occasional reforms to the codification. The most recent reform took place in 1993. The term hovorová čeština (lit. "Colloquial Czech") is sometimes used to refer to the spoken variety of standard Czech.
The most widely spoken vernacular form of the language is called "Common Czech" (obecná čeština), an interdialect influenced by spoken Standard Czech and the Central Bohemian dialects of the Prague region. Other Bohemian regional dialects have become marginalized, while Moravian dialects remain more widespread and diverse, with a political movement for Moravian linguistic revival active since the 1990s.
These varieties of the language (Standard Czech, spoken/colloquial Standard Czech, Common Czech, and regional dialects) form a stylistic continuum, in which contact between varieties of a similar prestige influences change within them.
### Common Czech
The main Czech vernacular, spoken primarily in Bohemia including the capital Prague, is known as Common Czech (obecná čeština). This is an academic distinction; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with deformed or "incorrect" Czech. Compared to Standard Czech, Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution.
Common Czech is distinguished from spoken/colloquial Standard Czech (hovorová čeština), which is a stylistic variety within standard Czech. Tomasz Kamusella defines the spoken variety of Standard Czech as a compromise between Common Czech and the written standard, while Miroslav Komárek calls Common Czech an intersection of spoken Standard Czech and regional dialects.
Common Czech has become ubiquitous in most parts of the Czech Republic since the later 20th century. It is usually defined as an interdialect used in common speech in Bohemia and western parts of Moravia (by about two thirds of all inhabitants of the Czech Republic). Common Czech is not codified, but some of its elements have become adopted in the written standard. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of media influence. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media. The colloquial form of Standard Czech finds limited use in daily communication due to the expansion of the Common Czech interdialect. It is sometimes defined as a theoretical construct rather than an actual tool of colloquial communication, since in casual contexts, the non-standard interdialect is preferred.
Common Czech phonology is based on that of the Central Bohemian dialect group, which has a slightly different set of vowel phonemes to Standard Czech. The phoneme /ɛː/ is peripheral and usually merges with /iː/, e.g. in malý město (small town), plamínek (little flame) and lítat (to fly), and a second native diphthong /ɛɪ̯/ occurs, usually in places where Standard Czech has /iː/, e.g. malej dům (small house), mlejn (mill), plejtvat (to waste), bejt (to be). In addition, a prothetic v- is added to most words beginning o-, such as votevřít vokno (to open the window).
Non-standard morphological features that are more or less common among all Common Czech speakers include:
- unified plural endings of adjectives: malý lidi (small people), malý ženy (small women), malý města (small towns) – standard: malí lidé, malé ženy, malá města;
- unified instrumental ending -ma in plural: s těma dobrejma lidma, ženama, chlapama, městama (with the good people, women, guys, towns) – standard: s těmi dobrými lidmi, ženami, chlapy, městy. In essence, this form resembles the form of the dual, which was once a productive form, but now is almost extinct and retained in a lexically specific set of words. In Common Czech the ending became productive again around the 17th century, but used as a substitute for a regular plural form.
- omission of the syllabic -l in the masculine ending of past tense verbs: řek (he said), moh (he could), pích (he pricked) – standard: řekl, mohl, píchl.
- tendency of merging the locative singular masculine/neuter for adjectives with the instrumental by changing the locative ending -ém to -ým and then shortening the vowel: mladém (standard locative), mladým (standard instrumental) \> mladým (Common Czech locative), mladym (Common Czech instrumental) \> mladym (Common Czech locative/instrumental with shortening).
Examples of declension (Standard Czech is added in italics for comparison):
mladý člověk – young man/person, mladí lidé – young people, mladý stát – young state, mladá žena – young woman, mladé zvíře – young animal
### Bohemian dialects
Apart from the Common Czech vernacular, there remain a variety of other Bohemian dialects, mostly in marginal rural areas. Dialect use began to weaken in the second half of the 20th century, and by the early 1990s regional dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) Standard Czech.
The Czech Statistical Office in 2003 recognized the following Bohemian dialects:
- Nářečí středočeská (Central Bohemian dialects)
- Nářečí jihozápadočeská (Southwestern Bohemian dialects)
\*Podskupina chodská (Chod subgroup)
\*Podskupina doudlebská (Doudleby subgroup)
- Nářečí severovýchodočeská (Northeastern Bohemian dialects)
\*Podskupina podkrknošská (Krkonoše subgroup)
### Moravian dialects
The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). In the 2011 census, where respondents could optionally specify up to two first languages, 62,908 Czech citizens specified Moravian as their first language and 45,561 specified both Moravian and Czech.
Beginning in the sixteenth century, some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak; the southeastern Moravian dialects, in particular, are sometimes considered dialects of Slovak rather than Czech. These dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages, using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak.
The Czech Statistical Office in 2003 recognized the following Moravian dialects:
- Nářečí českomoravská (Bohemian–Moravian dialects)
- Nářečí středomoravská (Central Moravian dialects)
\*Podskupina tišnovská (Tišnov subgroup)
- Nářečí východomoravská (Eastern Moravian dialects)
\*Podskupina slovácká (Moravian Slovak subgroup)
\*Podskupina valašská (Moravian Wallachian subgroup)
- Nářečí slezská (Silesian dialects)
### Sample
In a 1964 textbook on Czech dialectology, Břetislav Koudela used the following sentence to highlight phonetic differences between dialects:
### Mutual intelligibility with Slovak
Czech and Slovak have been considered mutually intelligible; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages. Following the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, mutual intelligibility declined for younger speakers, probably because Czech speakers began to experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa. A 2015 study involving participants with a mean age of around 23 nonetheless concluded that there remained a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages. Grammatically, both languages share a common syntax.
One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.
The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslované), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language, both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II), literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech, due to the transformation of Czechoslovakia from a unitary state to a federation. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, "Czechoslovak" has referred to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.
## Vocabulary
Czech vocabulary derives primarily from Slavic, Baltic and other Indo-European roots. Although most verbs have Balto-Slavic origins, pronouns, prepositions and some verbs have wider, Indo-European roots. Some loanwords have been restructured by folk etymology to resemble native Czech words (e.g. hřbitov, "graveyard" and listina, "list").
Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods. Earlier loanwords, primarily from German, Greek and Latin, arrived before the Czech National Revival. More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and French, and also from Hebrew, Arabic and Persian. Many Russian loanwords, principally animal names and naval terms, also exist in Czech.
Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture. During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is muzyka in Polish and музыка (muzyka) in Russian, but in Czech it is hudba. Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages—for example, robot (from robota, "labor") and polka (from polka, "Polish woman" or from "půlka" "half").
## Example text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Czech:
Všichni lidé rodí se svobodní a sobě rovní co do důstojnosti a práv. Jsou nadáni rozumem a svědomím a mají spolu jednat v duchu bratrství.
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
## See also
- Czech Centers
- Czech name
- Czech Sign Language
- Swadesh list of Slavic words
|
33,458,002 |
Breathing (Jason Derulo song)
| 1,170,220,481 | null |
[
"2011 singles",
"2011 songs",
"2012 singles",
"Eurodance songs",
"Jason Derulo songs",
"Music videos directed by Colin Tilley",
"Song recordings produced by DJ Frank E",
"Songs written by Jacob Luttrell",
"Songs written by Jason Derulo",
"Songs written by Julian Bunetta",
"Songs written by Lauren Christy",
"Torch songs"
] |
"Breathing" is a song recorded by American recording artist Jason Derulo for his second studio album, Future History (2011). It was written by Lauren Christy, Julian Bunetta, Krassimir Tsvetanov Kurkchiyski, Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace, while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. "Breathing" was initially released as one of four promotional singles for the album in September 2011. It was later released to contemporary hit radio in Australia on October 24, 2011, and elsewhere from January 31, 2012, as the third single from Future History. Musically, "Breathing" is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house, and features "tribal vocal chorales" in the background. It samples the song "Pilentze Pee", which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir. Lyrical inspiration for the song came from the death of Derulo's cousin, who died in 2011.
"Breathing" garnered positive reviews by many music critics, most of whom praised the production. The song attained moderate chart success, where it peaked inside the top-ten on the singles charts in Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland. Additionally, it reached the top-thirty in France, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number 28 on the US Pop Songs chart. "Breathing" was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), for shipments of 140,000 copies. The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley, and features Derulo in an abandoned warehouse, as well as other scenes of him shirtless in a blue tinted room. Derulo performed "Breathing" live at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland, to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards. The song has been covered by British recording artist Cher Lloyd.
## Background and release
"Breathing" was written by Jason Derulo, Jacob Luttrell, Lauren Christy, Julian Bunetta, Krassimir Tsvetano Kurkchiyski, Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace, while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. The track was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, with assistance by Erik Madrid and Chris Galland. Luttrell and Frank E played keyboards on the song, and the drums and synth programming was handled by Frank E. During an interview with Digital Spy, Derulo revealed that the inspiration for "Breathing" came from the death of his cousin in 2011. He stated, "That song means a lot to me as it's serious and heartfelt". Derulo further explained that "Breathing" was heavily influenced by African chants, Eurodance and rock guitar.
"Breathing" was released digitally worldwide on September 9, 2011, as the third promotional single for Future History. The song later impacted contemporary hit radios in Australia on October 24, 2011, as the third official single from the album. In the United States, "Breathing" was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on January 31, 2012. In Germany, it was made available as a CD single on February 24, 2012. In the United Kingdom, a CD single and digital EP, which contains the album version, an instrumental version and three remixes of "Breathing", was released on February 26, 2012.
## Composition and lyrics
"Breathing" is three minutes and fifty-four seconds long. It is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house. "Breathing" is written in the key of B♭ minor and is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute. Derulo's vocal range spans from the note of F<sub>4</sub> to the note of F<sub>6</sub>. The song features "tribal vocal chorales" in the background, and samples the Bulgarian folk song "Pilentze Pee", which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir. The song contains lyrical content about winning back a past love. "Breathing" opens with a "slow build-up of synths and a quick club beat" before Derulo sings: "I only miss you when I'm breathing / I only miss you when my heart is beating / You are the color that I'm bleeding / I only miss you when I'm breathing." Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted that he appears to be screaming the vocals during the chorus line: "I only miss you when I'm breathing", writing that "his final note [is] stretched out for several seconds".
## Critical reception
"Breathing" received positive reviews from music critics. Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as "hypnotic" and "an impressive club pumper". He praised "Breathing" for being a perfect tribute to Derulo's late cousin. Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy viewed the song as a "more subtle route" than the album's previous promotional single "Pick Up the Pieces". She praised Derulo for knowing "how to make a dance song" and wrote that "Breathing" is the type of song you would add "to your Girls' Night Out playlist". Aaron-Spencer Charles of Metro wrote that the song is "an anthem for the clubs" that fans of pop and dance music would love. Pete Rivas of The AU Review praised the song's hook and likened its catchy production to the album's other two singles "Don't Wanna Go Home" and "It Girl" Scott Shetler and other reviewers of PopCrush wrote that Breathing' is a song we could definitely get down to in a club". Ben Chalk of MSN Music viewed "Breathing" as one of the standout tracks on Future History. He concluded by writing that in the song, "Derulo's energy overshadows the kitchen sink production and inane lyrics". Meena Rupani of DesiHits noted that "Breathing" is "more tribal" than his previous singles. Rupani also noted Derulo's continuation of past themes, "as he tries to romance the ladies with his cheesy lyrics but also keep the guys dancing in the clubs with the beats".
## Chart performance
In Australia, "Breathing" debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14, 2011. It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart, becoming Derulo's sixth top-ten single in that country. "Breathing" also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four. It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 140,000 copies. "Breathing" debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 12, 2011. It ascended to number 30 in its third week, but descended the chart for the following two weeks. "Breathing" managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week. In the United States, "Breathing" peaked at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart, but failed to impact the Billboard Hot 100.
"Breathing" achieved commercial success in Europe. It peaked at number one on the Bulgarian Airplay Chart, and number four on the Slovak Airplay Chart. In Austria, "Breathing" debuted at number 43 on February 10, 2012, and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart. It peaked at number five on the German Singles Chart, becoming Derulo's third top-ten single in that country. The song was certified gold by Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI), denoting shipments of 150,000 copies. In Switzerland, "Breathing" debuted at number 33 on March 11, 2012. It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart, but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week. The song was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), denoting sales of 15,000 copies. "Breathing" peaked at number 19 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent a total of ten weeks in the chart. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 101 on January 28, 2012, and ascended to number 49 the following week. It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart. "Breathing" also charted on the UK R&B Singles Chart at number nine.
## Promotion
### Music video
The accompanying music video for "Breathing" was directed by Colin Tilley and premiered exclusively on PopCrush.com on November 3, 2011. The video begins with Derulo on the balcony of a building at night, as well as scenes of him sitting in an old chair surrounded by cobwebs inside an industrial warehouse. There are then scenes which feature Derulo standing shirtless in a dark, blue-tinted room, digitally showing the insides of his body to show the intensity of his emotion. After the first chorus, Derulo then rises out of the chair and begins to dance. During the bridge, Derulo is shown kissing his former love interest, before several female backup dancers join him to perform choreography in the final chorus. Aaron-Spencer Charles of Metro noted that the video had "some impressive footwork and a great 'straight jacket' dance move with the choreographed piece with female dancers." A reviewer for 4Music also praised Derulo's dance routines in the video. Contessa Gayles of AOL Music described the video as "creepy" and compared it to Rihanna's "Disturbia" (2008) video.
### Live performances and cover versions
On November 6, 2011, Derulo performed "Breathing" at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland, to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards. The song was part of a set list, which also included "Whatcha Say", "In My Head", "Don't Wanna Go Home" and "It Girl". In 2012, British recording artist Cher Lloyd performed a cover of "Breathing" as part of the set list for her Sticks and Stones Tour.
## Formats and track listings
- Digital download
1. "Breathing" – 3:54
- German and UK CD single
1. "Breathing" (Album Version) – 3:54
2. "Breathing" (Michael Mind Project Remix) – 5:39
- UK Digital EP
1. "Breathing" – 3:54
2. "Breathing" (JRMX Radio Edit) – 3:54
3. "Breathing" (JRMX Club Mix) – 7:49
4. "Breathing" (TRC Remix) – 4:35
5. "Breathing" (Instrumental) – 3:56
## Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History.
- Julian Bunetta – songwriter
- Lauren Christy – songwriter
- Jason Desrouleaux – lead vocals, songwriter
- DJ Frank E – drums and synth programming, keyboard, producer
- Chris Galland – assistant mixer
- Krassimir Tsvetanov Kurkchiyski – songwriter
- Jacob Luttrell – keyboard, songwriter
- Eric Madrid – assistant mixer
- Manny Marroquin – mixer
- Folksong Thrace – songwriter
- Shope Trad – songwriter
## Charts and certifications
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
### Certifications
## Release history
### Promotional single
### Single release
|
2,728,345 |
69 Squadron (Israel)
| 1,150,653,242 |
Israeli Air Force squadron formed 1948
|
[
"Israeli Air Force squadrons"
] |
The 69 "Hammers" Squadron is an Israeli Air Force squadron operating the F-15I Thunder out of Hatzerim. It was formed in July 1948 to operate three B-17 Flying Fortresses which the fledgling Israeli Air Force had acquired in the United States. The squadron flew the Flying Fortress, a type credited with propelling the IAF into the realm of modern aerial warfare, during both the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and 1956 Suez Crisis. Disbanded in early 1957, 69 Squadron reformed in 1969 to fly the F-4 Phantom II. 69 Squadron operated the Kurnass (Sledgehammer), as the Phantom was known in Israel, for 25 years and its Phantoms saw extensive action during the War of Attrition, Yom Kippur War, First Lebanon War and numerous engagements in between. The squadron often played a central role in IAF suppression of enemy air defences (SEAD) efforts and took part in repeated battles against Egyptian and Syrian air defence arrays.
The squadron retired its Phantoms in 1994 but reformed shortly thereafter to operate the F-15I Thunder. Described as the "long-range, heavy bombing element of Israeli air power", 69 Squadron, together with Squadrons 119 and 253, carried out Operation Outside the Box, the 6 September 2007 airstrike on a nuclear site in Syria.
## Formation and B-17 years
### 1948 Arab–Israeli War
In early 1948, with the upcoming end of the British Mandate for Palestine and the looming confrontation with Israel's Arab neighbors, the leadership of the Yishuv embarked on a worldwide effort to purchase weapons. Despite an American arms embargo, Israeli acquisition agents managed to purchase four commercial B-17 Flying Fortresses in the US. Two were demilitarised and modified for freighter use by Aerodex Inc. of Miami, then sold unknowingly to a front company that said they would be used in the Caribbean. The first two departed the city on June 12, followed a day later by a third, and made their way first to Puerto Rico and then across the Atlantic via the Azores to Žatec, Czechoslovakia, where they arrived on June 14. By June 16 the story had made it to the press and the fourth plane, whose crew only barely managed to elude the FBI, was impounded in the Azores by Portuguese authorities. At Žatec the three B-17s, missing bomb shackles and sights, oxygen systems and defensive weapons, were militarized and the squadron that was to operate them, at the time referred to as the "Hammers Program", first took shape. Ray Kurtz, a former B-17 navigator with 31 missions over Europe, was assigned command of the squadron, staffed by an international crew of World War II veterans who volunteered to fight for Israel. Robert Luttrell, a sailor by trade, flying as a bombardier, recalled that for each mission the B-17s were given new markings and their armament was altered to lead the enemy to believe Israel possessed an entire squadron of the type.
On July 15, 1948, with fighting raging in Israel and Tel Aviv suffering from Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF) raids, the three B-17s departed Žatec for Israel. Still ill-equipped, the bombers were nevertheless tasked with bombing Egyptian targets en route. Flying south along the Adriatic, near Crete the bombers separated with Bill Katz and Ray Kurtz taking the only Fortress with an oxygen system and a proper sight to bomb the royal palace in Cairo, and the other two B-17s heading towards the REAF base at El-Arish. While Katz and Kurtz successfully bombed the Abdeen Palace, the other two failed to locate their target and bombed Rafah instead, and all landed that evening at Tel Nof. The three aircraft were back in action at 06:30 on the very next day, hitting the REAF base at El-Arish they had missed the previous night. As Tel-Nof was deemed vulnerable to Egyptian attacks, the aircraft then landed at Ramat David, which was to house the squadron for the remainder of the war. In the following days, until a UN-brokered ceasefire came into effect on July 18, the Fortresses struck across three fronts, attacking Majdal, Damascus and Tulkarm. Raising the average bomb load of an IAF sortie from 100 kg per sortie to 743 kg per sortie, the B-17s are credited with propelling the Israeli Air Force into the realm of modern aerial warfare.
Save for a single mission by all three bombers in support of Operation Shoter on July 20, combat operations ceased until October 1948. These three months saw the unit reorganize and by August it had received its official designation as 69 Squadron. With Bill Katz now in command, the squadron spent the truce training, qualifying new airmen and equipping the veteran aircraft. Fighting resumed on October 15 with Operation Yoav, aimed with breaking the Egyptian siege of the Negev. Over the next week the Hammers flew 47 sorties against Egyptian targets in and around Majdal, Gaza, El Arish, Al-Faluja, and Rafah. Missions were flown in either a trio or a pair to maximize defensive firepower, and sometimes with 101 Squadron escorts, but no enemy fighters were ever encountered. In late October a number of sorties were also flown against Tarshiha, in the Upper Galilee, in support of Operation Hiram against Fawzi al-Qawuqji's Arab Liberation Army.
Operation Yoav had left Faluja as an enclave within Israeli-held territory and during November 1948 the Hammers routinely returned to bomb what became known as the Faluja Pocket. The town would nonetheless hold out until the end of the war. On December 22 Israel launched Operation Horev, its last major offensive of the war, to finally defeat the Egyptian expeditionary force and expel it beyond the borders of Mandatory Palestine. 69 Squadron once again flew in support of Israeli efforts in the south, targeting the air base at El-Arish, Khan Younis, Gaza and Rafah. The squadron also revisited Faluja to prevent an Egyptian sortie from the beleaguered pocket, and on New Year's Day 1949 flew a failed attempt to bomb an Egyptian Navy flotilla which had shelled Tel Aviv. 69 Squadron flew its last missions of the war in the early morning of January 7, 1949, against Rafah. Having evaded Egyptian flak on most occasions, both participating bombers were hit, rendering one unserviceable.
### Postwar deactivation
With the end of the 1948 Arab Israeli War, the majority of volunteer airmen returned home, and 69 Squadron once again went through a period of reorganization. From an English-speaking outfit it was transformed into a Hebrew speaking unit. Training was stepped up to qualify Israelis to take over vacated positions and the squadron settled into a peacetime routine, with the B-17s conducting bombing and cloud seeding tests and participating in IDF exercises. The IAF itself was undergoing major changes, and in early May 1949 69 Squadron relocated to Tel Nof. In October 1951 the squadron moved once more, this time to Hatzor. In December 1952 the three B-17 was joined by three PBY Catalinas, acquired to guarantee supply to the town of Eilat at Israel's southern extremity. Utilization of these aircraft, however, was low and they were soon withdrawn from service with the squadron. Spares, meanwhile, were also hampering B-17 operations and in March 1954 69 Squadron was deactivated and its assets handed over to 103 Squadron, which soon retired the Catalinas but continued to operate the three B-17s.
### Suez Crisis
In 1956 growing diplomatic tensions in the Middle East, tensions that would soon culminate in the Suez Crisis, resulted in the resurrection of 69 Squadron. On April 19 the IAF issued an order reactivating the squadron at Ramat David, with Nahum Efrat as its commanding officer. The squadron was soon tasked with its first mission, allocating two B-17s for search and rescue operations during Dassault Mystère delivery flights from France to Israel. The reformed squadron once again began training personnel and equipping the aircraft for possible hostilities. As Israel purchased more jet fighters, however, room had to be made for the new arrivals, and in September 1956 the IAF ordered the squadron to send its aircraft into storage and changed its status to reserve. By October 3 the aircraft had been stored at Bedek Aviation (later Israeli Aircraft Industries) at Lod, but only three weeks later, on October 25, the IAF activated the squadron once more.
Only two Fortresses had left Bedek's storage facility by the time hostilities commenced on October 29, 1956. The squadron had not flown a single training sortie before fighting began and had only two full crews ready for battle. Israeli piston-engined aircraft flew few missions in the first two days of the war, but on October 31, 69 Squadron received an order to bomb Rafah in support of IDF Brigade 27 operations. Arriving over the target early on November 1, the aircraft could not tell the location of friendly troops and without being able to communicate with the forces on the ground, were forced to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean. The B-17s were back in action the following night, to attack retreating Egyptian forces. A repeat of the previous night's lack of communications with Israeli forces operating in the same area once again prevented the strike, and the bombers dropped their loads on the outskirts of Gaza. With the threat of Egyptian air power curtailed by Anglo-French strikes against Egyptian air bases, the B-17s began flying daylight operations. On November 2 the squadron supported the Israeli push towards Sharm el Sheikh, on the southern tip of the Sinai. Two aircraft bombed the local barracks but were met with effective anti-aircraft fire which damaged the lead aircraft. The damaged aircraft managed to return to Ramat David, just as the third B-17 returned from storage at Bedek. Two aircraft were therefore available for the B-17s' final combat sorties with the IAF, another failed strike on Sharm el Sheikh on November 4.
The squadron had flown a total of 8 sorties throughout the war and dropped 27 tons of bombs. With the conclusion of hostilities the squadron continued training and on November 10 even moved once more to Tel Nof. The B-17s flew a few more sorties during a January 1957 survey of the Sinai but were soon sent back to storage. 69 Squadron was finally disbanded on March 1, 1957. It was initially slated to operate the IAF's next heavy bomber, the Sud-Ouest Vautour, but these plans were dropped in favour of 110 Squadron.
## Flying the F-4 Phantom II
### War of Attrition
69 Squadron was reactivated at Ramat David on November 1, 1969, headed by Major Avihu Ben-Nun. A year earlier Israel had ordered 50 F-4 Phantoms, enough to equip two squadrons, and ten IAF airmen had spent March to August 1969 training with the 479th Tactical Training Wing at George Air Force Base. These included five 69 Squadron airmen: Ben-Nun, Ehud Hankin, Rami Harpaz, Shaul Levi and Achikar Eyal. Upon their return to Israel, then in the midst of the War of Attrition, the 69 Squadron airmen flew both training and combat missions with 201 Squadron, the IAF's first Kurnass squadron. On one such mission on November 11, Hankin and Eyal shot down an Egyptian MiG-21 to score the Phantom's first aerial victory with the IAF.
69 Squadron finally received its first four aircraft on November 15, the third Peace Echo I batch to arrive in Israel. Although still far from the 12 aircraft required to achieve IAF operational certification, on November 25, 1969, Avihu Ben-Nun led the squadron's debut operational mission, a combat air patrol (CAP). The first air-to-ground mission came three days later, when two Phantoms struck an Egyptian SA-2 battery near Fayid. Still busy forming, receiving new aircraft, training and qualifying fresh airmen, the squadron was soon taking an increasingly large part in the IAF's ongoing battles against Egyptian air defences along the Suez Canal. When the IAF launched Operation Priha (Blossom) against targets in the Egyptian heartland during January 1970, 69 Squadron was at the forefront of the fighting, and on February 8, 1970, pilot Aviem Sella and navigator Shabtai Ben-Shoa downed an Egyptian Air Force MiG-21. Operations, meanwhile, were also conducted to deter Syria from joining the fight, with Phantoms conducting low level runs over Damascus on January 6, 1970, and over 5 major Syrian cities on January 29. The squadron nevertheless suffered its first combat loss on April 2, when Gideon Magen and Pinchas Nachmani were shot down by a Syrian MiG-21 to become prisoners of war.
Israeli aerial supremacy prompted Egypt to turn to the USSR for assistance and by the spring of 1970 an entire Soviet air defence division had deployed to Egypt. The Soviet presence spelled the end of Priha and Egypt regained the initiative, rolling its air defence array towards the Suez Canal. The IAF sought to hamper these advances through a renewed SEAD campaign and 69 Squadron saw repeated action against Egyptian air defences and related infrastructure. Egyptian SAMs, however, soon exacted their toll on the attackers, with Rami Harpaz and Achikar Eyal falling into Egyptian captivity on June 30, a fate shared by Amos Zamir and Amos Levitov on July 5. AN/ALQ-71 Electronic countermeasures (ECM) pods were soon rushed to Israel but proved only partially effective against surface-to-air missiles. On July 18, the IAF attempted to fly eight F-4 Phantoms in close-knit pod formations thought to maximize the effect of the ECM pods, only to lose 201 Squadron leader Shmuel Hetz, while an injured Avihu Ben-nun was forced to crash land his badly damaged aircraft at Rephidim.
The SEAD campaign was halted, but although the IAF possessed no operational answer to the massive air defence array forming west of the Canal, it nevertheless still enjoyed supremacy in the air-to-air arena. On July 30, 69 Squadron took part in Operation Rimon 20, a ruse designed to draw Soviet-flown MiG-21s into battle. In the ensuing dogfight, five Soviet fighters were downed, of which one was shot down by Avihu Ben-Nun with Shaul Levi and another by Aviem Sella with Reuven Reshef. With no side securing a clear advantage, yet both able to claim military achievements, American pressure soon bore fruit and a ceasefire marking the end of the war came into effect on August 7, 1970.
### Reconnaissance
With the next round of the Arab–Israeli conflict deemed a mere matter of time, peacetime saw 69 Squadron engaged in developing new SEAD tactics and weapons and in renewed reconnaissance efforts. New weapons such as the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-12 Bullpup were introduced for the SEAD role, and on September 18, 1971, the Hammers flew their first Shrike strike against an Egyptian SA-2 battery following the downing of an Israeli C-97 Stratocruiser. As for reconnaissance, the IAF had ordered the RF-4E reconnaissance variant of the Phantom, but these were not slated for delivery until 1971. 69 Squadron had already modified two F-4s in early 1970 for the role by removing their cannons and replacing them with cameras, and after the ceasefire these were joined by a pair of loaned American RF-4Cs, which were in operation until the squadron received two RF-4Es in early 1971. While 119 Squadron, which had transitioned to the F-4 in 1970, specialized in high-altitude photography, 69 Squadron adopted low-altitude photography. A mission by reconnaissance Phantoms over northern Syria on September 13, 1973, triggered a large scale clash between the two air forces, resulting in the downing of 13 Syrian MiGs (one at the hands of 69 Squadron's Amnon Arad) and the loss of a single Israeli Mirage III.
### Yom Kippur War
Experienced and well-trained, 69 Squadron nevertheless entered the Yom Kippur War unready for the challenges brought about by start of the war. Prior to the outbreak of war, the IAF had been preparing for a pre-emptive strike against Egyptian and Syrian positions, but this was rejected by the Israeli government. 69 Squadron aircraft were in the process of re-armament to the air-to-air role when hostilities began at 14:00 on October 6, 1973. The aircraft were scrambled to perform CAPs, some having to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean, yet no aerial opposition was encountered. The squadron flew 37 sorties on the first day of the war, of which only 4 were strike missions, while two aircraft suffered damage from SA-7s over the Golan Heights.
The next morning saw the squadron participate in Operation Tagar, a SEAD offensive against Egyptian air defences, which began with strikes against Egyptian air bases. Seven Phantoms led by squadron leader Yoram Agmon struck the air base at Gianaclis, and although two defending MiG-21s were shot down, the strike failed to cause significant damage. Tagar, moreover, was quickly discontinued when the dire situation on the Golan Heights became apparent, and 69 Squadron efforts were redirected north where the IAF staged the ill-fated Operation Model 5. Flying with outdated intelligence and no electronic screening against mobile SAM batteries and heavy flak, 6 IAF Phantoms were lost, including 69 Squadron's Ehud Hankin and Shaul Levy in Kurnass 123. Both were killed. The same evening saw appeals for help from the southern front, leading the squadron to fly strike missions against Egyptian bridges and assembly point on the Suez Canal. Another Phantom was lost to surface-to-air missiles, its crew falling into captivity. Four more aircraft were lost on the following day, October 8. One was lost in an otherwise successful morning strike against the Syrian air base at Dumayr, its crew captured. Another was lost over the Golan Heights, and two more during night strikes against Egyptian bridges across the canal, all falling prey to the SA-6. Although four airmen were rescued by Israeli forces, pilot Zvulun Amizi and navigator Zeev Yogev were killed.
Three days into the war 69 Squadron had lost six aircraft, four airmen had been killed and four became prisoners of war. The detailed planning and extensive training undertaken before the war had gone to waste and the sustained campaign required to defeat enemy air defences was abandoned in the face of Egyptian and Syrian advances. Nevertheless, it had been the close air support provided by the IAF that helped Israeli troops on the ground to stem the tide and eventually go on the offensive, first in the north and later in the south. October 10 saw the Hammers strike the Egyptian air base at Quweisna, while two Syrian MiGs were claimed on the northern front. The next day saw the IDF push into Syria, and 69 Squadron was at hand striking fuel depots, SAM sites and the air bases at Dumayr, Nasiriya and Damascus. One aircraft was lost over Lebanon, where its crew were interned until the end of the war. Syria was the primary target for air base strikes on October 12 and 13 as well. Yoram Agmon and Daniel Whittman claimed two aerial victories, one on each of these two days, but the squadron lost another aircraft on October 14, possibly the result of friendly fire on the southern front, though the crew was rescued. The same day witnessed the IAF begin receiving attrition replacements from USAF stocks. These Phantoms were delivered in their darker Southeast Asia scheme and rushed into service without repainting, gaining the name "Toads". To ease maintenance, most were retained by 69 Squadron which transferred several of its airframes to 201 Squadron. Unlike Israeli aircraft, the new aircraft were equipped with TISEO targeting equipment, allowing them to launch the AGM-65 Maverick, another component of the American airlift. 69 Squadron was therefore entrusted with the introduction of the Maverick into Israeli service. No training flights were flown, the first launch occurring in combat, against a Syrian-held bunker on the Hermon. Some 50 missiles were launched in the course of the war. 69 Squadron continued hammering Syrian infrastructure and Egyptian air bases in the following days, and on October 16 Yoram Agmon shot down a Syrian MiG-21 to become to only pilot to achieve ace status while flying with the squadron. The Hammers flew their final air base strike of the war on October 20, striking the EAF air base at Khutamiyah. Pilot Doodi Zait and navigator Yoram Rubinstein were hit by a SAM and forced to ejected, becoming POWs in Egypt.
### Postwar activity
The Yom Kippur War ended on October 24. 69 Squadron had flown 789 sorties, had lost 9 aircraft, and had shot down 10 enemy aircraft. Four airmen had been killed and eight had become prisoners of war. The end of the war, however, did not spell an end to the fighting. On December 6, a mixed 69 and 119 squadrons combat air patrol over the Gulf of Suez engaged a flight of MiG-21s to score one kill, possibly two. The kill was credited to 69's Yiftach Shadmi and Meir Gur, with the MiG-21s revealed to be a part of a North Korean contingent that had deployed to Egypt during the war. With the arrival of spring fighting also resumed in the north, where Israel and Syria had yet to sign a disengagement agreement. On April 8, 1974, while on patrol against low flying Syrian helicopters, the squadron lost one of its aircraft, probably to a shoulder-launched SA-7. The crew, Shadmi and Rafaeli, were interned in Lebanon for a month. Three weeks later, on April 29, the squadron scored two aerial kills against Syrian MiG-21s, the squadron's final victories to date. Fighting only ceased on May 31.
The postwar years were spent implementing the lessons of the Yom Kippur War. SEAD tactics were improved, training was stepped up and innovative technologies introduced. The Hammers cooperated with Rafael, Israel's weapon systems development authority, in the introduction of the Tadmit electro-optical fire-and-forget guided bomb, a modified version of the AGM-62 Walleye II. At the same time, the Phantom's air-to-air role was diminished with the introduction into service of the F-15 Eagle and the F-16 Fighting Falcon. The squadron was, nonetheless, the first IAF squadron to introduce Rafael's Python 3 into service in March 1977. Air-to-air training continued and on December 29, 1977, during combat against a pair of F-15s, two squadron aircraft collided. Squadron leader Avsha Friedman and navigator Avihu Ikar were killed. The remains of their aircraft, Kurnass 305, stand as a memorial to the two pilots on the Acre-Carmiel road. On January 20, 1981, the squadron lost another pilot in similar circumstances, when Kurnass 222 collided with F-16 222. Squadron leader Eliezer Adar ejected, but Dani Weiss was killed, as was the F-16 pilot, Uri Ben-Amitai.
The Hammers flew 28 support, 13 reconnaissance and 6 combat air patrols during Operation Litani, Israel's March 1978 invasion of Lebanon. In 1976 the squadron had received two additional RF-4Es, and was soon flying high-altitude reconnaissance. This led to its participation in the preparations for the 1981 Operation Opera to destroy Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor, which the Hammers were initially planned to conduct. The squadron trained for the raid using the Tadmit, but these plans were dropped when the F-16 entered IAF service in 1980. On November 12, 1980, the squadron carried out the IAF's longest fighter mission hitherto, when two reconnaissance birds photographed the reactor near Baghdad. The mission witnessed three aerial refuelings, including one over enemy territory. Tensions over Lebanon flared once more in 1981, and on May 29, 1981, the squadron carried out Operation Mole 9, striking Libyan SA-9 batteries protecting PLO bases near Beirut.
### 1982 Lebanon War
By the spring of 1982 tensions had risen again and the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador to London Shlomo Argov on June 3, 1982, prompted Israel to launch Operation Peace for Galilee. 69 Squadron flew 27 sorties in the preparation phase for the operation, from June 4 to the actual beginning of the invasion on June 6. The first of these were carried out on the afternoon of June 4, when a 4-ship formation struck the stadium in Beirut, used as a PLO weapons depot. Once Israeli ground forces began pushing into Lebanon, 69 Squadron provided close air support. One aircraft was damaged by enemy flak on the first day of the invasion, and two suffered landing accidents, but with poor weather and a shortage of targets, there was initially little fighting to be done. This changed on June 8 when it became apparent the Syrian forces in Lebanon would have to be engaged, and that same afternoon two squadron Phantoms bombed a Syrian electronic warfare facility on Jabel Barouk.
Syrian SAMs had been a constant threat to IAF operations, and as the war progressed the Syrian SAM array in the Bekaa Valley was bolstered with additional batteries. It was therefore decided to launch a comprehensive assault on the Syrian defences, in order to secure aerial superiority over the area and ensure air support for Israeli ground forces. At 14:00 on June 9 the IAF launched Operation Mole Cricket 19, the culmination of 10 years of planning and preparation. 69 Squadron participated with 13 Tadmit and four follow-up free-fall bombers sent against the Syrians. The former operated individually, targeting Syrian fire control centers and radars, in all engaging seven SAM batteries. Mole Cricket 19 was a resounding success, with 14 out of 19 SAM batteries in the Bekaa destroyed and dozens of Syrian fighters downed in the ensuing dogfights. After the peak of June 9, during which 29 sorties were flown, activity declined. 12 more sorties were flown on June 10 and 19 on June 11, when a ceasefire came into effect. The squadron had flown 152 sorties throughout the offensive, of which 71 were close air support, 35 SEAD and 31 reconnaissance.
Once again, the official end of hostilities did not spell an end to fighting and Israel remained engaged in Lebanon for years to come. When the Syrians introduced the SA-8 Gecko into Lebanon in July 1982, IAF Phantoms were sent to hunt down four launchers on July 24 and two were claimed by 69 Squadron. Up to its very disbandment in 1994, the squadron also took part in repeated strikes against terrorist organizations operating from Lebanon. On one such operation on October 16, 1986, a bomb exploded immediately after release from Kurnass 306, forcing both crew to eject. The pilot, Yishai Aviram, was rescued by an IAF AH-1 Cobra, but navigator Ron Arad was captured by members of the Shi'a Amal Movement. Initial negotiations for an exchange of prisoners failed and Arad has been missing since and his fate remains unknown.
In early 1986 the squadron introduced the AGM-142 Popeye into IAF service, and for nearly a decade was the only IAF squadron to operate the missile. In 1987 its Phantoms played the role of Soviet "MiG-29s" in the film "Iron Eagle II". Filming coincided with the receipt of several birds from 105 Squadron, which appropriately appeared in the film bearing that unit's distinctive red flash on the fuselage (although the IAF markings were replaced with the Soviet red star insignia). The squadron trained extensively for possible participation in the 1990 Gulf War, but Israel eventually stayed out of that conflict. In June 1991 the squadron relocated to the air base at Hatzerim, from which it flew 79 sorties during Operation Accountability of April 1993. In the wake of the Oslo Accords the US finally agreed to supply the IAF with the F-15E Strike Eagle, and 69 Squadron was disbanded in early 1994 in expectation of its re-equipment with the new aircraft.
## Thunder Squadron
Four Israeli airmen, led by future squadron leader Dror Ben-David, travelled to the US in 1997 for the F-15E conversion course, and the first two aircraft landed in Hatzerim on January 19, 1998. 16 aircraft had arrived by January 1, 1999, when the squadron was declared operational, and 10 days later the unit carried out it first operational sorties over southern Lebanon. Deliveries were completed in June 2000, by which time the squadron had taken part in operations in support of the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon.
The squadron has since undertaken numerous missions during the Second Intifada and Operation Cast Lead. During the Second Lebanon War the Hammers flew 1,400 sorties, totalling 2,300 flying hours, more than any other IAF combat unit. During this conflict, the Ra'am's long range and endurance served it well in the close support role, as the aircraft could carry more munitions and remain on station longer than any other strike aircraft. It is these capabilities that place 69 Squadron at the forefront of Israel's strategic arm, and it is thus this unit that is reputed to have undertaken Operation Orchard, the destruction of a Syrian nuclear site on September 6, 2007. The squadron has also been linked to a possible Israeli strike against the Iranian nuclear program.
Since its reactivation, the 69 Squadron has also undertaken multiple deployments abroad. It was the first Israeli unit to participate in exercise Red Flag in October 1998, and has taken part in several Red Flags since. It has also deployed to Turkey, Italy and Greece on several occasions, and three aircraft participated in the 2001 RAF Waddington International Air Show.
## 2023 Israeli anti-judicial reform protests
On 5 March 2023, as part of the 2023 Israeli anti-judicial reform protests, 37 out of 40 of the squadron's reservist pilots announced that they would refuse to take part in an upcoming training exercise in response to a planned judicial reform by the government of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. In a statement, the pilots stated that they were not prepared to serve a "dictatorial regime". According to The Guardian, the refusal raised questions concerning the IDF's operational competence, as the pilots, who fly F-15I Strike Eagle jets, are "strategically crucial" to the Israeli military. In response, Commander of the Israeli Air Force Tomer Bar and Chief of the General Staff Herzi Halevi announced they would meet with reservist pilots on 7 March.
## See also
- 1973 Syrian General Staff Headquarters Raid
|
29,642,120 |
Interstate TDR
| 1,143,584,233 |
UCAV created in 1944, used by the US Navy
|
[
"1940s United States bomber aircraft",
"Aircraft first flown in 1942",
"Interstate aircraft",
"Low-wing aircraft",
"Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft",
"Unmanned military aircraft of the United States",
"World War II guided missiles of the United States"
] |
The Interstate TDR was an early unmanned combat aerial vehicle — referred to at the time as an "assault drone" — developed by the Interstate Aircraft and Engineering Corporation during the Second World War for use by the United States Navy. Capable of being armed with bombs or torpedoes, 2000 aircraft were ordered, but only around 200 were built. The type saw some service in the Pacific Theater against the Japanese, but continuing developmental issues affecting the aircraft, along with the success of operations using more conventional weapons, led to the decision being made to cancel the assault drone program in October 1944.
## Design and development
In 1936, Lieutenant Commander Delmar S. Fahrney proposed that unpiloted, remotely controlled aircraft had potential for use by the United States Navy in combat operations. Due to the limitations of the technology of the time, development of the "assault drone" project was given a low priority, but by the early 1940s the development of the radar altimeter and television made the project more feasible, and following trials using converted manned aircraft, the first operational test of a drone against a naval target was conducted in April 1942. That same month, following trials of the Naval Aircraft Factory TDN assault drone, Interstate Aircraft received a contract from the Navy for two prototype and 100 production aircraft to a simplified and improved design, to be designated TDR-1.
Control of the TDR-1 would be conducted from either a control aircraft, usually a Grumman TBF Avenger, with the operator viewing a television screen showing the view from a camera mounted aboard the drone along with the radar altimeter's readout, or via a pilot on board the TDR-1 for test flights. Powered by two Lycoming O-435 engines of 220 horsepower (160 kW) each, the TDR-1 used a remarkably simple design, with a steel-tube frame constructed by the Schwinn bicycle company covered with a molded wood skin, thus making little use of strategic materials so as not to impede production of higher priority aircraft. Capable of being optionally piloted for test flights, an aerodynamic fairing was used to cover the cockpit area during operational missions. The TDR-1 was equipped with a fixed tricycle landing gear that would be jettisoned in operation after takeoff for improved performance.
In September 1942, the U.S. Navy chose DeKalb, Illinois to be the site for the manufacture of the drone TDR-1 aircraft, and built an airport on the city's east side. This early airport consisted of an airfield and a large hangar that were fenced and guarded around the clock. DeKalb was chosen because Wurlitzer, manufacturer of pianos, and known for its expertise in the production of wood products, was located there. Interstate Aircraft and Engineering Corporation (based in El Segundo, California) assembled the planes at the new airport in DeKalb. About two hundred drones were built, tested, and boxed at the DeKalb Airport and were shipped to the South Pacific, where they were used against the enemy during World War II.
## Operational history
Under the code-name Operation Option, the U.S. Navy projected that up to 18 squadrons of assault drones would be formed, with 162 Grumman TBF Avenger control aircraft and 1000 assault drones being ordered. However technical difficulties in the development of the TDR-1, combined with a continued low priority given to the project, saw the contract modified with the order reduced to only around 300 aircraft. A single TDR-1 was tested by the U.S. Army Air Forces as the XBQ-4; however, no production contract resulted from this testing.
In 1944, under the control of the Special Air Task Force (SATFOR), the TDR-1 was deployed operationally to the South Pacific for operations against the Japanese. Additional testing was conducted by SATFOR in July, complete with a strike against a previously beached Japanese freighter, Yumasuki Maru, including management of the flight from a 7 miles (11 km) distant TBM Avenger control aircraft, which could monitor the view from the TDRs via early television technology.
SATFOR equipped a single mixed squadron, Special Task Air Group 1 (STAG-1), with TDR-1 aircraft and TBM Avenger control aircraft; the first operational mission took place on September 27, conducting bombing operations against Japanese ships. Despite this success, the assault drone program had already been canceled after the production of 189 TDR-1 aircraft, due to a combination of continued technical problems, the aircraft failing to live up to expectations, and the fact that more conventional weaponry was proving adequate for the defeat of Japan. The final mission was flown on October 27, with 50 drones having been expended on operations, 31 aircraft successfully striking their targets, without loss to the pilots of STAG-1.
Following the war, some TDR-1s were converted for operation as private sportsplanes.
## Variants and operators
- XTDR-1 – Two prototypes.
- TDR-1 – Production version of XTDR-1, 189 aircraft produced.
- XTD2R-1 – Variant with two Franklin O-805-2 engines, two prototypes ordered, canceled in favor of TD3R.
- XTD3R-1 – Variant with Wright R-975 radial engines, three prototypes.
- XTD3R-2 – Variant of XTD3R-1, one prototype.
- TD3R-1 – Production version of XTD3R-1, 40 aircraft ordered but cancelled.
- XBQ-4 – Army designation for TDR-1. One aircraft converted from TDR-1.
- XBQ-5 – Army designation for XTD2R-1. Designation reserved but no aircraft ordered.
- XBQ-6 – Army designation for XTD3R. No aircraft produced.
- BQ-6A – Army designation for TD3R-1. No aircraft produced.
## Operators
United States
- United States Army Air Forces
- United States Navy
## Aircraft on display
A single example of the TDR-1 survives, and is on display at the U.S. Navy's National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida.
Various TDR parts are being collected at DeKalb Taylor Municipal Airport in the hope of reconstructing another entire airframe for display.
## Specifications (TDR-1)
## See also
|
27,262,837 |
Argus (30 Rock)
| 1,148,303,683 | null |
[
"2010 American television episodes",
"30 Rock (season 4) episodes"
] |
"Argus" is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock, and the 77th overall episode of the series. It was written by 30 Rock producers Josh Siegal, Dylan Morgan, and Paula Pell. The episode was directed by co-executive producer and show composer Jeff Richmond. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 29, 2010. Guest stars in this episode include Will Forte, Marceline Hugot, and Burke Moses.
In the episode, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) receives a peculiar gift from the late Don Geiss (Rip Torn). Meanwhile, Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) and Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit) get suspicious of Jenna Maroney's (Jane Krakowski) new boyfriend (Forte). At the same time, Liz tries to sort out Grizz Griswold's (Grizz Chapman) problem when both Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) and "Dot Com" Slattery (Kevin Brown) want to be Grizz's best man.
"Argus" has received generally positive reception from television critics. According to the Nielsen Media Research, the episode was watched by 5.93 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 2.7 rating/8 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic.
## Plot
Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) announces to The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan (TGS) staff that Grizz Griswold (Grizz Chapman) will be getting married at the end of the month. A problem immediately ensues after Grizz cannot decide between Tracy and "Dot Com" Slattery (Kevin Brown) to be his best man. Grizz then asks Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) to help him convince Tracy that Dot Com should be his best man. The two suggest another task Tracy can do at the wedding, but Tracy insists on being the best man. Later, Liz learns that Dot Com is in love with Grizz's fiancée, Feyoncé, Grizz is not aware of this, and that the only reason Tracy wanted to be the best man was to protect Dot Com. Finally, after changing his mind about Dot Com as his best man, Grizz appoints Liz as his woman of honor at his wedding instead.
Meanwhile, Liz and Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit) are suspicious that Jenna Maroney's (Jane Krakowski) new boyfriend Paul (Will Forte) is using her. Pete and Liz follow Paul to a bar and find out that he is a Jenna Maroney impersonator, performing as her in a drag show. The next day, Liz asks Jenna if she knows what Paul does, but Jenna is aware of his work, having met Paul at a Jenna Maroney impersonator contest in which he won and Jenna herself placed fourth. Liz does not approve of the relationship and confronts Paul, asking what his intentions are with Jenna. Paul tells her that he is not using Jenna to further his career, but that he is with her because she accepts him for who he is. Liz is convinced by their touching (although weird) display of care for each other, ultimately approving of their relationship.
At the same time, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) is informed by Don Geiss's (Rip Torn) estate lawyer Thomas (Burke Moses) that he is in Don Geiss's will. Jack is excited at the idea of owning a piece of Geiss's legacy as Jack considered Geiss his mentor. At the will reading, Jack inherits Geiss's beloved pet peacock named Argus. When Argus begins acting peculiar, Jack enlists the help of NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer). Kenneth—who knows all the peafowl calls—tells Jack that Argus muttered senpai and kōhai—master and pupil—nicknames that Geiss and Jack had for each other (a ruse conceived by Liz, who knew of the nicknames). Immediately, Jack is convinced that Geiss's soul has inhabited Argus, prompting Jack to release his grief to Argus and finally accepting Geiss's death.
## Production
"Argus" was written by show producers Dylan Morgan, Paula Pell, and Josh Siegal. The director of this episode was co-executive producer and show composer Jeff Richmond, husband of series creator Tina Fey. This was Morgan, Pell and Siegal's second writing credit, after Morgan and Siegal penned "Sun Tea", and Pell who developed the "Floyd" script. Richmond made his directorial debut in the show with "Argus". This episode of 30 Rock originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 29, 2010, as the nineteenth episode of the show's fourth season and the 77th overall episode of the series. "Argus" was filmed on March 1, 2010.
SNL alum Will Forte made his debut as Jenna Maroney's boyfriend Paul — revealed to be a Jenna impersonator — having guest starred as a different character in the February 1, 2007, episode "Black Tie" in season one. At the end of this episode, Paul, dressed as Jenna, and Jenna sing the song "All by Myself". Forte would appear in the season finale episode "I Do Do" that aired on May 20, 2010. Actress Marceline Hugot returned to play Kathy Geiss, the daughter of former General Electric CEO Don Geiss, played by Rip Torn, for the tenth time. During the reading of her father's will here, Kathy receives a pocket watch with the instructions not to get it wet, though Kathy has already put the watch in her mouth. Actor Burke Moses guest starred as Don Geiss's estate lawyer named Thomas.
During the episode Jack Donaghy inherits Argus, Don Geiss's beloved pet peacock. Throughout the episode, Argus can be seen at Jack's office in the 30 Rock building. An actual peacock was featured here. In one scene, Liz Lemon sees Argus and is frightened of him. While talking to Jack, Argus hits Liz across the face with his feathers, thus marking her as his mate. To accommodate this, puppeteers—Peter Linz, Noel MacNeal, and Carmen Osbahr—were brought in to hit Liz in the face with feathers instead of using the peacock itself.
Throughout the episode, Grizz Griswold alludes that he and Liz had a romantic relationship in the past. In order to choose between Tracy Jordan and Dot Com Slattery as his best man, Grizz turns to Liz for help. After agreeing to help him out, Grizz wonders whether or not it was awkward for Liz that Tracy brought up his wedding, but she asks "Why would it be awkward?", he responds "Because of our sexual past." Afterwards, Grizz says that he and Liz were the "Sam and Diane of this place [TGS]", a reference to the Sam and Diane characters from the television show Cheers. In "Greenzo", that aired in the second season of the series, Liz sexually harasses Grizz at Kenneth Parcell's out of control party, and Kenneth tells Liz off the next day, stating that before that party, he had "never seen Grizz or Dot Com cry." In addition, the Dot Com storyline of him being in love with Grizz's fiancée, Feyoncé, began in the season three episode "St. Valentine's Day".
## Reception
According to the Nielsen Media Research, "Argus" was watched by 5.439 million households in its original American broadcast. It earned a 2.7 rating/8 share in the 18–49 demographic, meaning that it was seen by 2.7 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 8 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This was an increase from the previous episode, "Khonani", which was watched by 5.182 million American viewers. "Argus" won its timeslot in the 18–34 male demographic winning with a 3.2 rating beating the competition by a 1.3 rating.
The A.V. Club's Nathan Rabin enjoyed "Argus", noting that it was "entertaining, funny and had some killer one-liners" and that it featured "all kinds of silly but in a very winning way." Rabin enjoyed all the plots featured here, and praised Will Forte's role as Jenna's boyfriend and impersonator. Emily Exton from Entertainment Weekly wrote that the peacock storyline "felt too silly", and that Forte "was too underused as Paul", nonetheless said that despite not being the greatest 30 Rock episode of all time "there were still some hilarious lines." IGN contributor Robert Canning liked Grizz's dilemma plot, commenting that Grizz not trying to hurt Tracy's feelings while Tracy tried to keep Dot Com away from Grizz's bride-to-be "offered up some inspired lunacy." His only complaint about "Argus" was Jack's plot as he deemed it disappointing. A review in TV Guide by Adam Mersel said "...Fey and the gang live up to the challenge, and produce ['Argus'] a hilarious, quite snotty episode that holds up to any comedy around." Meredith Blake, writing for the Los Angeles Times, was positive towards the episode, reasoning that the writing "is just so deliciously absurd that I can't help but giggle the whole way through", and that the plots featured here were "sublimely inconsequential. Not a whole lot happened, but it was all very funny." Nick Catucci from New York magazine, who did not enjoy the two other stories, appreciated Jenna's, explaining that by having the character date one of her own impersonator was "outrageous and funny without relying on any cheap insults to trannies." Sean Gandert from Paste magazine reported that "Argus" was an episode that "[took] us back to the show's roots", explaining that recapturing the "old tone" also worked to "recapture the old joke-writing expertise. It wasn't 100% consistent, but there were so many good one-liners to counterbalance the misfires that it didn't even matter. This is 30 Rock the way it should be." The Houston Press' Daniel Carlson wrote that Grizz's wedding story was "pure filler, but everything on the show's kind of filler for the wackiness, so it mostly worked." Carlson wrote that the best part from "Argus" came with Forte's Paul as Jenna's boyfriend and impersonator.
Bob Sassone of AOL's TV Squad did not respond well to the episode, observing that "Argus" would go down 30 Rock history as "one of the worst episodes of the series." One of the problems he had was that the Jack character bonded with the peacock for the entire episode. "As I've said before, I hate the episodes where Jack is out of control or acting goofy or involved in some lame pursuit, and this one of the more lame pursuits."
|
36,860,986 |
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
| 1,173,654,219 |
2013–2020 Marvel Television series
|
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Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is an American television series created by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen for ABC based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), a peacekeeping and spy agency in a world of superheroes. The series was the first to be set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), and it acknowledges the continuity of the franchise's films and other television series. It was produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The series stars Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson, reprising his role from the film series, alongside Ming-Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. Nick Blood, Adrianne Palicki, Henry Simmons, Luke Mitchell, John Hannah, Natalia Cordova-Buckley, and Jeff Ward joined in later seasons. The S.H.I.E.L.D. agents deal with various unusual cases and enemies, including Hydra, Inhumans, Life Model Decoys, alien species such as the Kree and Chronicoms, and time travel. Several episodes directly cross over with MCU films or other television series, notably Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), which significantly affected the series in its first season, and Agent Carter (2015–16), from which series Enver Gjokaj joined the cast for the seventh season. In addition to Gregg, other actors from throughout the MCU also appear in guest roles.
Joss Whedon, writer and director of the MCU film The Avengers (2012), began developing a S.H.I.E.L.D. pilot in August 2012. Gregg was confirmed to reprise his role that October, and the series was officially picked up by ABC in May 2013. The series attempted to replicate the production value of the MCU films on a broadcast television budget while also having to work within the constraints of the MCU that were dictated by Marvel Studios and the films. Prosthetic makeup was created by Glenn Hetrick's Optic Nerve Studios, while Legacy Effects contributed other practical effects. Composer Bear McCreary recorded each episode's score with a full orchestra, and the visual effects for the series were created by several different vendors and have been nominated for multiple awards.
The series premiered on ABC in the United States on September 24, 2013, and concluded with a two-part series finale on August 12, 2020, with 136 episodes broadcast over seven seasons. After starting the first season with high ratings, the ratings began to drop. Ratings continued to fall with subsequent seasons, but were more consistent within each season, while reviews for all seasons were consistently positive. Several characters created for the series have since been introduced to the comic universe and other media. An online digital series, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot, centered on Cordova-Buckley's Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez, was released in December 2016 on ABC.com. Other spin-offs were planned but never materialized.
## Premise
The first season follows S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson as he puts together a small team of agents to handle strange new cases. They investigate Project Centipede and its leader, "The Clairvoyant", eventually uncovering that the organization is backed by the terrorist group Hydra, which has infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D. In the second season, following the destruction of S.H.I.E.L.D. in Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Coulson becomes director of the organization and is tasked with rebuilding it while dealing with Hydra, a faction of anti-superhuman S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, and a newly revealed superhuman race called the Inhumans.
During the third season, Coulson begins a secret mission to assemble the Secret Warriors, a team of Inhumans, as Hydra restores its ancient Inhuman leader Hive to power. After the defeat of Hive and Hydra, S.H.I.E.L.D. is made a legitimate organization once again with the signing of the Sokovia Accords. In the fourth season, Coulson returns to being a field agent so S.H.I.E.L.D. can have a public leader, and is tasked with tracking down more enhanced people, including Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider. In addition, Agent Leo Fitz and Holden Radcliffe complete their work on the Life Model Decoy and Framework virtual reality projects.
The fifth season sees Coulson and members of his team abducted to the space station Lighthouse in the year 2091, where they must try to save the remnants of humanity while figuring out how to get home. After returning to the present, where they are labeled fugitives, Coulson and his team work to prevent the future that they saw. They succeed in defeating a Gravitonium-powered Glenn Talbot, but Coulson dies due to his interactions with Ghost Rider in the previous season.
As the sixth season begins, the S.H.I.E.L.D. agents divide into two groups: one heads to space to find Fitz, who is lost following the last season's time-traveling, while the other remains on Earth to face a team of mercenaries led by Sarge, a man that looks just like Coulson. Season seven finds the team, including a Life Model Decoy of Coulson, jumping throughout time to prevent the Chronicoms from establishing Earth as their new home, Chronyca-3, and eradicating S.H.I.E.L.D. from history.
## Episodes
## Cast and characters
- Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson and Sarge / Pachakutiq:
Coulson is an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., and later becomes the organization's director. In April 2013, Gregg agreed to join the series after hearing creator Joss Whedon's explanation for Coulson's resurrection, following the character's death in The Avengers, which he called "fascinating" and "true to the world of the comics". Gregg approached Coulson's promotion to director as getting his dream job, which at the same time forced the character to adopt a more level-headed attitude, like that of Nick Fury. After being possessed by the Spirit of Vengeance in the fourth season finale, the Kree blood that resurrected Coulson is burned away and he ultimately dies following the fifth-season finale. Gregg plays a new character, Sarge, in season six, and portrays a Chronicom-enhanced Life Model Decoy version of Coulson in season seven.
- Ming-Na Wen as Melinda May:
Joss Whedon had the character, a S.H.I.E.L.D. ace pilot and weapons expert, nicknamed "the Cavalry", and originally listed with the name Agent Althea Rice on casting sheets, "rolling around in his head" for a long time. Wen was given some backstory for the character to prepare, but was not told how she gained her reputation; with May's past revealed in "Melinda", Wen called it "devastating ... To have learned what she had to do, for the good of the many ... I can understand why it would traumatize her so much and cause her to retreat." Wen called May "unconventionally maternal", and said that it is her relationship with Coulson that makes her stay at S.H.I.E.L.D., despite her past.
- Brett Dalton as Grant Ward and Hive:
Ward is a Hydra agent who poses as a S.H.I.E.L.D. black ops specialist. From the conception of the series it was decided that he would be a traitor. Jed Whedon explained that they wanted to have "infiltration based on betrayal" on a small scale to represent the same thing happening on a massive scale, and to make the Hydra revelation more personal for the characters. Dalton felt that Ward was always more loyal to his Hydra superior John Garrett than to Hydra itself, and that he would become more of a wildcard after Garrett's death, though still an antagonist to S.H.I.E.L.D. Ward is killed by Coulson in season three, and his body is possessed by an ancient Inhuman, Hive. Hive is killed in the season three finale. Dalton returned to the series in its fourth season to portray Ward in the virtual reality Framework, where he is Johnson's boyfriend. Austin Lyon portrays a young Ward.
- Chloe Bennet as Skye / Daisy Johnson / Quake:
An Inhuman S.H.I.E.L.D. agent with the ability to manipulate vibrations and create earthquakes. The character of Skye was always intended to become the MCU version of Johnson, having consequences for the character's relationships with the other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, especially Coulson. Bennet felt that the character was someone who would wear her heart on her sleeve while having some control over her emotions. Wen noted that the character evolves from being "anti-establishment into suddenly being someone who wants to create an establishment that would help" the Inhumans. In the third season she no longer goes by "Skye" and gains the public name "Quake".
- Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz:
An agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. who specializes in engineering, especially weapons technology. De Caestecker described the character as "quite passionate about what he does" but not emotionally intelligent. Fitz has a close relationship with Simmons; De Caestecker says they "just kind of fit each other in a very weird way." The character sustains brain injuries at the end of the first season. The writers researched brain trauma with doctors and experts before approaching it in the series. De Caestecker did his own research as well, feeling it is "something that should never be trivialized. It's a real and serious thing ... we just have to constantly be respectful towards it."
- Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons:
A S.H.I.E.L.D. biochemist who specializes in life sciences (both human and alien). Henstridge described her character as "intelligent and focused and curious...she's got a wonderful relationship with Fitz. They kind of bounce off each other." As Fitz and Simmons begin to spend time apart during the series, Henstridge noted that it "brings a whole new dynamic just to them as characters" since they have been nearly inseparable since first meeting. On the harsher side of Simmons seen in later seasons, Henstridge noted that the character has "always been very mathematical in a way". Simmons is "profoundly" changed after being trapped on the planet Maveth for six months.
- Nick Blood as Lance Hunter:
A mercenary before agreeing to join S.H.I.E.L.D. Blood described Hunter as someone who "doesn't bow down to the etiquette of the S.H.I.E.L.D. hierarchy." He later elaborated that the character feels very independent, so would probably not want to admit no longer feeling like an outsider. Also, "he doesn't have too much respect for authority and titles...If Coulson does something he respects, that's all good. If he doesn't, he's going to say something." On Hunter's on-again, off-again relationship with Bobbi Morse, Blood said, "there is a lot of truth in it of those relationships you have where it's kind of, 'can't live with each other, can't kill each other'".
- Adrianne Palicki as Bobbi Morse:
Hunter's ex-wife and an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. who spent time undercover within Hydra. Palicki was approached by the showrunners specifically for the part during season two. Palicki already had martial arts and gun training but had to learn to use the character's signature arnis sticks; she noted similarities between Morse's fighting style and that of Scarlett Johansson's Black Widow from the MCU films. Showrunner Jeffrey Bell said the character is more loyal to an idea than anything else, so what may seem in the short term as a betrayal by her is usually for what she sees as the greater good.
- Henry Simmons as Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie:
A S.H.I.E.L.D. mechanic with a distrust of the alien and superhuman. Simmons said the character is more worried about contributing in his own way and getting his job done away from the field. Mack does not like violence, but does "what he has to do." Mack reveals in the third season that he relies on his "faith", implying that he is a Christian. Dee Hogan of The Mary Sue described this as "a refreshingly positive portrayal of people of faith, as Mack demonstrates the quiet confidence and love rather than the aggression and bigotry that's so often associated with it." Mack becomes the new director of S.H.I.E.L.D. in season six.
- Luke Mitchell as Lincoln Campbell:
An Inhuman with the ability to manipulate electrical charges. The character was introduced because the series already featured "a guy with no eyes" and "a woman who now is covered in thorns" but, like the X-Men, there are also Inhumans who are "just attractive people with powers", and so Campbell represents them in the series. Campbell dies in the third-season finale, making him the "Fallen Agent" that the series had been teasing for the entire second half of that season. The decision was made because the producers did not want "a body count show, but it is a real world with real stakes."
- John Hannah as Holden Radcliffe:
A transhumanist who believes in the improvement of humanity through enhancement. Radcliffe initially worked with Hive before joining S.H.I.E.L.D., where he begins work on transferring his artificial intelligence AIDA to a Life Model Decoy, an old S.H.I.E.L.D. project.
- Natalia Cordova-Buckley as Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez:
A Colombian Inhuman who can move at super speed for a beat of her heart, before returning to the point she started from. She reluctantly joins S.H.I.E.L.D. and becomes a part of the Secret Warriors, eventually growing close to Mack, who gives her the nickname "Yo-Yo". When first portraying the character, Cordova-Buckley smiled whenever Rodriguez was about to use her abilities, to show an adrenaline rush and the feeling of having such power. After positive fan responses to this, the actress morphed this trait into a more mischievous personality for the character.
- Jeff Ward as Deke Shaw: A "roguish scavenger" on the Lighthouse space station in the year 2091, who returns to the present with the S.H.I.E.L.D. team and learns he is the grandson of Fitz and Simmons.
## Production
### Development
After The Walt Disney Company purchased Marvel Entertainment in 2009, they announced that a Marvel Television division was being formed under Jeph Loeb. In the following months, various pilots based on comics from Marvel's catalog went into development. In July 2012, Marvel Television entered into discussions with Disney-owned ABC to make a new series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The series was described as "'a kernel of an idea' with a number of scenarios being explored, including a high-concept cop show." On August 7, 2012, Joss Whedon was announced to be involved in the series' development. Whedon had written and directed the successful MCU film The Avengers (2012). On August 8, Whedon, along with his brother Jed and sister-in-law Maurissa Tancharoen, met with Loeb to pitch him their idea for the series, with meetings in the following days with ABC Studios and ABC network. At the end of August, ABC ordered a pilot for a series called S.H.I.E.L.D., to be written and directed by Joss Whedon, with Jed Whedon and Tancharoen also writing. Disney CEO Bob Iger greenlit the series after watching the Marvel One-Shot short film Item 47.
In April 2013, ABC announced that the series would be titled Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., and it was officially picked up for a full season of 22 episodes in May 2013. Jed Whedon, Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell served as the series' showrunners, with Bell joining the show to help the inexperienced former pair with hiring crew members and "navigating the politics of studios and networks", saying, "My job is to help them learn how to do that, to steer the ship while they learn." Joss Whedon assisted them before he started work on the sequel Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). The series was renewed for a second season in May 2014, a third in May 2015, and a fourth in March 2016.
In September 2016, discussing the eventual end of the series, Tancharoen said, "You always just forge ahead. Until someone tells us to stop, we will continue to move forward." Jed Whedon added, "There are always ideas in the back of your mind for how you'd wrap it up when they say, 'That's it guys,' but we're not there just yet." A fifth season was ordered in May 2017, and Bell said they had "a sense of how we'd like the show to end when it ends. We just need to know when that time is coming so we can build to it properly." Jed Whedon continued, "Our goal is to know ahead of time, because we would love to land the story in a way that's satisfying". The writers intended for the final episode of the fifth season to serve as both a season and series finale, with some elements that could be adjusted based on whether the series was renewed for a sixth season or not. Whedon added, "we're ready for if this is the end. We're definitely going to make it rewarding either way." Despite this, the series was renewed for a sixth season in May 2018, and a final seventh season in November 2018. Whedon likened these two seasons to bonus levels in a video game, allowing the writers to have "a bit of freedom".
### Writing
Bell explained that he, Jed Whedon, and Tancharoen supervise all of the series' creative decisions, often consulting with Loeb. When the showrunners are writing the series, one person can write a script while the other two break stories, so that a story can be broken every few weeks. If the executive producers sign off on a story, a member of the series' writers room then produces an outline, gets notes on it from the showrunners, writes a full script, gets notes on it from ABC and the production crew, and then goes to set to produce the episode.
In January 2013, Joss Whedon deflected any direct influences from other series, such as the efforts of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully in The X-Files, and explained that while the show would involve people with powers and the spectacle of science-fiction storytelling, it would focus on "the peripheral people...the people on the edges of the grand adventures." As the series began to introduce more powered individuals, Bell noted that audiences "seem to respond to powered people on the show and while it's not going to take over and become what the show's about, as a texture and flavor of the stories, we really enjoy that." Jed Whedon stated that the series would continue to emphasize the general public's response to powered people, saying, "The dynamic in the world has changed. There was one person with powers, and then by The Avengers there were maybe six total ... now they're much more prevalent, so there's reaction from the public based on that."
On the balance between creating new material and drawing from existing mythology, Bell noted that telling stories that can entertain both Marvel fans and non-Marvel fans is challenging and that for the series, they try to add nods to the MCU films or the comics in a way that works well on its own for all viewers but could also mean more for a fan. On where the series can draw from the comics, Jed Whedon explained that there are areas of the comics that the series is not allowed to go to, and that ultimately they only use the comics for inspiration in generating their own story. Tancharoen elaborated that, "We're always going to be inspired and influenced by the comics, but of course on the show, we'll always be doing our spin to it." About comparisons between the scope of the series and that of the films, Bell said that ABC and Marvel had been very generous with the series' budget, and that the production could not complain for a network series, but that it was nothing compared to the films or even series like Game of Thrones. He explained that the series does attempt to create "Marvel moments" as best it can, but pointed out that some of the more memorable moments from the films are smaller, character moments—something that works really well on television—so the series strives for those when it cannot afford more scope and scale. Jed Whedon elaborated that they look at a sequence and try to keep only what is required to tell the story, so "If a monster is landing on a car, instead of showing the whole monster leaping through the skyline, we want to be in the car with the character having that experience."
Actress Ming-Na Wen attributed the time slot shift between the first and second seasons (from 8 pm EST to 9 pm EST) for allowing the writers "a chance to be more serious with certain topics, a little bit more intense with the fight scenes" in the second season, since the first season had to be more reserved because of it airing during a family time slot. In September 2015, Bell looked back on the first two seasons and talked about the challenges of and changes in the series. He noted the negative reception from fans concerning the low number of recognizable characters like Coulson, but pointed out that fans seemed to have grown to like the series' original characters as they had been developed over time. He explained that with the increasing number of characters and complex relationships in the series, having different pairings and building new emotional relationships was important, and stated that "whether it's a quiet moment or in action, we [hope to] deepen the audience's love and concern, and hopes for these characters." A year later he reiterated the producer's intention to create a tradition moving forward of "finding new combinations and new conflicts" between different sets of characters, given "a lot of procedurals [see] the same people doing the same thing for five years and the character don't evolve or change at all."
The producers and writers initially formed a general plan for the show through the end of a third season, after reading the screenplays for upcoming MCU films. In May 2016, Chloe Bennet likened the end of the third season to "the end of the first book of S.H.I.E.L.D. ... the end of something bigger and the beginning of a whole new tone for the show." She elaborated that "the storylines that we started at the beginning of season 1 really wrapped up at the end of season 3. We've had some major losses of people who have been with us on the show since season 1. From the table read to the first day on set, there's definitely a new energy of the show" moving forward. The series was moved to the later timeslot of 10 pm for the fourth season. Jed Whedon said the writers hoped to "skew a little darker because of" this change, with Loeb adding that "It absolutely offers opportunities. I don't know that it changes things all that dramatically [though]. I mean, at the end of the day, Marvel is always going to make shows that run somewhere between PG-13 and PG-16. We're not going to be making Deadpool anytime soon on [ABC]." Marvel "had a long talk with ABC about what can we get away with, so to speak" in the new timeslot, which led to the inclusion of Ghost Rider in the season over one of Marvel's Netflix television series, because Marvel felt "that this character was right to tell [darker and more violent] stories right now" and having him on S.H.I.E.L.D. aided that because "it was so unexpected". Loeb hoped that the combination of the later timeslot and the introduction of Ghost Rider would lead to some viewers who had stopped watching the series over the previous seasons giving it another chance.
### Casting
Sarah Halley Finn, the casting director of the MCU films, along with her associate Tamara Hunter, served as casting directors during the first season. In October 2012, a casting sheet for five lead roles was sent out, with Finn establishing offices in London, Australia, New York, Vancouver, Toronto, and Los Angeles to audition actors. At the New York Comic Con, Joss Whedon, Kevin Feige, and Clark Gregg announced that Gregg would be reprising his role as agent Phil Coulson from Iron Man, Iron Man 2, Thor, The Avengers, and the Marvel One-Shots in the pilot, and would "headline" the series. Also in October, actress Ming-Na Wen was cast as Melinda May. The next month, Elizabeth Henstridge and Iain De Caestecker were cast as Jemma Simmons and Leo Fitz, respectively, while newcomer Brett Dalton was cast as Grant Ward. Dalton gained 15 pounds (6.8 kg) of muscle before the start of filming for the role. In December, Chloe Bennet was chosen out of more than 400 actresses to play Skye, the sixth and final regular for the first season. Bell called the character "the hardest to find" since need to be "the quintessential Whedon heroine–strong, smart, and self-aware", which was difficult to find in a 20-year old. Skye is revealed in the second season to be Daisy Johnson, and no longer goes by "Skye" starting with the third.
At the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con, Nick Blood was announced as cast in the role of Lance Hunter for the second season, while the character of Bobbi Morse was revealed to be appearing. That August, Henry Simmons joined the cast as Alphonso "Mack" Mackenzie, a recurring role, and Adrianne Palicki was cast as Morse in a guest role, to first appear in the episode "A Hen in the Wolf House". The next month, the entire first season principal cast were confirmed to be regulars for the second season, along with Blood. Palicki joined them with the episode "Aftershocks". In February 2015, Luke Mitchell was cast as Lincoln Campbell, a recurring role for the second half of the season.
All season-two principal cast members returned for the third season, with Simmons and Mitchell joining them, promoted from their recurring roles. In October 2015, the Inhuman Hive was introduced; for the second part of season three, he possesses the corpse of Grant Ward, again portrayed by Brett Dalton. Also introduced were Natalia Cordova-Buckley and John Hannah, recurring as Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez and Holden Radcliffe, respectively. Blood and Palicki left the main cast following the season-three episode "Parting Shot", to star in the then-planned spin-off show Marvel's Most Wanted. Dalton and Mitchell also left following the deaths of their characters in the third-season finale.
Gregg, Wen, Bennet, De Caestecker, Henstridge, and Simmons returned for the fourth and fifth seasons. They were joined by Hannah in the fourth, with Cordova-Buckley once again recurring as Rodriguez in the season, before being promoted to a series regular for the fifth season. Dalton returned as a guest during the third pod of the fourth season, while Blood returned for an episode of the fifth season. Introduced in the fifth season was Jeff Ward, who recurred as Deke Shaw.
Wen, Bennet, De Caestecker, Henstridge, Simmons, and Cordova-Buckley return for the sixth and seventh seasons, and were joined by Ward. Given the events of the final episode of season five, in which it is implied that Coulson dies, Gregg noted "there is some interest in having me involved in" the sixth season, potentially with flashback, and was also unsure if he would be a series regular, should he return, as he had been for the previous five seasons. Gregg ultimately returned as a series regular in season six playing a new character, Sarge. For season seven, Gregg portrays a Life Model Decoy (LMD) version of Coulson, while De Caestecker is absent for much of the season due to scheduling conflicts with prior commitments, first appearing in the season's eleventh episode; he is credited as a special guest star for his appearances in the season.
### Design
#### Costumes
Betsy Heimann was the costume designer for the pilot, but left the series because of film commitments. Assistant costume designer Ann Foley took over for subsequent episodes, and worked closely with Tancharoen to create "very strong, different characters" whose "looks evolve along with the show." Foley also brought on concept artists Phillip Boutte Jr. and Josh Shaw to assist with the design process. Foley watched every MCU film, paying special attention to The Avengers, and was also inspired by such films as Skyfall (2012) and Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol (2011). In October 2016, Foley said that she was specifically following the aesthetic of Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), "So any costume has to fit inside that world we've established and has to fit that tactical look." On the variety of costumes created for each character, Foley preferred to have set pieces in the characters' "closets", as "it's not a fashion show ... a guy like Ward isn't going to have twenty jackets in his closet. He is going to have one that he uses all of the time."
After reading each script, Foley would do her own research, before discussing the look of the episode with the writers. She then studied the comics, general fashion, and history to get a look that is recognizable to fans, but fits into the more realistic world of the series. Costumes are either custom made or bought, and the actors are brought in for fittings before filming. This process was often challenging because of the series' eight-day-per-episode schedule. Foley stated that all costumes take a similar amount of time to create, whether they are based on the comics or not. Marvel CCO Joe Quesada is involved in the approval process when costuming preexisting characters, including Daisy Johnson's Quake costume, which is introduced in the third season. The Quake costume incorporates elements from the comic version of the character, and was intended to show that Quake "could easily be part of the Avengers". Foley took steps to differentiate the Quake costume from Scarlett Johansson's Black Widow costumes from the films, but was "flattered" by comparisons made between them. Foley was also adamant about showing that characters such as Quake "don't have to be sexualized, that they're powerful, strong women", and so avoided "a lot of cleavage, you don't see high heels. It's about practicality."
The costumes go through a natural evolution in the series. There is a shift at the end of the first season to a darker look, and all the characters have "definitely grown up" during the second season. In the third season there is another shift, "from the ragtag group of soldiers and scientists to [a] more precise militaristic outfit". This change is also reflected in the series' color palette, going from "a much lighter tone, much more patterns" in the first season to having "stripped away a bit of color" by the third. Despite this increasing darkness in the costumes, Foley intended to define each character as they are introduced and to have them always be recognizable and identifiable. With the start of the fourth season, Foley said that "each season definitely has its own feel and this season will be no different. I think that you're going to see some subtle differences in the costumes of the characters"; she felt like Fitz and Simmons, in particular, had become "more adult looking", while all the cast had "a pretty specific ... civilian look" that would become more prominent as S.H.I.E.L.D. is re-legitimized and becomes more public. Foley left the series after the thirteenth episode of the fourth season, to work on the television series Altered Carbon, and was replaced with Amanda Riley. Riley used her previous experience recreating costumes to "blend in" with Foley's established look. Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing costume design over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted Foley on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell. Galitz eventually became sole costume designer for the series, before being joined by Jessica Torok during season seven. Torok took over for the second half of the season after Galitz left the series to give birth to her daughter.
#### Practical effects
The series' props department is led by Scott Bauer. The pilot introduces the Incapacitating Cartridge Emitting Railgun, or I.C.E.R., tranquilizer weapons often used by the agents, with Joss Whedon having Bauer design "sci-fi"-looking guns, including a large rifle-like weapon. The series' further portrayal of the I.C.E.R.s was more subtle, with Bauer using airsoft guns that are safe to shoot others with over a small distance. I.C.E.R.-specific muzzle flashes are then added by the visual effects department. Bauer reused the I.C.E.R. rifle prop when making Mack's "Shotgun Ax", which appears in later seasons. The terrigen crystals that unlock Inhuman abilities in the series are 3D-printed from solid resin and then altered with extra details. Additional practical effects and props were created by Legacy Effects, which also works on the MCU films, notably creating Daisy Johnson's gauntlets for the third season. Prosthetic makeup for the series is designed in conjunction with Glenn Hetrick of Optic Nerve Studios. Hetrick began work on the series with the second season, to create Raina's Inhuman look, and returned for the third season to design and create the more unusual-looking Inhumans such as Lash.
#### Title sequence
Throughout the series, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "[became] known for its signature use of changing title cards" to reflect the storyline being told and would define "a specific era of the series". The third season introduces a new title sequence for the series, replacing the one that appeared in the first two seasons. The title sequence in "4,722 Hours" is drastically different from the design introduced for the third season, with the series' title in the episode's typeface silently fading onto the screen over the back drop of the planet Simmons is stranded on. The fourth season sees new series title cards for the Ghost Rider and LMD pods, and an Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. title card for the Agents of Hydra pod that changes to say Agents of Hydra for episodes primarily set in the Framework. The Ghost Rider graphic is used again for the fourth-season finale.
For the fifth season, the opening of "Orientation" is reminiscent of the sequence for "4,722 Hours", forgoing the title card and having the typeface silently fading onto the screen. The subsequent episodes of season five feature a title card with the series name in a new typeface against a backdrop of various depictions of Earth: episodes through "Past Life" feature a destroyed future Earth; episodes from "Principia" through "The Devil Complex" feature a present Earth; while episodes from "Rise and Shine" through "All Roads Lead..." feature the Earth beginning to crack. Each episode of season seven features a different title card and opening to reflect the time period and genre of the episode.
### Filming
Production for the pilot took place almost entirely in Los Angeles to accommodate Joss Whedon's schedule, while the rest of the series is primarily filmed at Culver Studios in Culver City, California. Additional filming has also taken place around the world, including in Paris, France, Stockholm, Sweden, and Old San Juan, Puerto Rico. Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. used the working title R.A.G.T.A.G. throughout its production. The series is filmed on Arri Alexa cameras, with David Boyd serving as director of photography on the pilot, and Feliks Parnell, Jeff Mygatt, and Allan Westbrook doing so throughout the rest of the series. Garry Brown is the second unit director for the series, with stunts coordinated by Tanner Gill. The series is filmed in 2K resolution.
### Visual effects
FuseFX serves as the lead visual effects vendor for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., with additional work by Pixomondo, CoSA VFX, Greenhaus GFX, Lion VFX, and Synaptic. The series sees an average of 80 to 150 visual effects shots per episode, with 10 to 12 days to work on the effects for one episode once background plates have been received from filming. This equates to approximately 2000 visual effects shots per season. Mark Kolpack serves as visual effects supervisor for the series. David Altenau was the in-house supervisor at FuseFX for "Pilot" through episode eight, with Kevin Lingenfelser taking over for subsequent episodes. VFX producer Andrea D'Amico joined the team at FuseFX to work on the series in December 2015. Two separate production management and creative teams were established to work on the show, and producers, compositors and various artists were able to alternate episodes. This was important because most of the episodes had to be worked on concurrently, either two or three at a time. Typical effects for the series include the creation of character-driving effects animation, photo-realistic vehicles, CG set extensions, pyrotechnics, and atmospheric effects. Some assets, such as a Quinjet and Helicarrier, are shared from Industrial Light & Magic, though "those models are generally super heavy and dense with data" and need to be made "HD friendly or simply manageable to work in [a] TV schedule."
### Music
Bear McCreary confirmed that he would compose music for the series in July 2013. Unlike on some of his previous scores, ABC and Marvel allowed McCreary to work with a full symphonic orchestra, typically featuring 50 or 70 players, with over 90 for "important" episodes. Orchestra recording for the series occurred at Warner Bros. Studios' Eastwood Stage, Sony Pictures Studios' Barbra Streisand Scoring Stage, and Twentieth Century Fox Studios' Newman Scoring Stage. Complex synthesizer programming was also used, to give the score "a modern edge".
Since Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was the first MCU television series, McCreary felt there was "a sense that it had to connect" to the consistent orchestra sound of the films but viewed through a television lens. McCreary composes on average 30 minutes of music per episode. Creating the main theme for the series, which McCreary also saw as Coulson's theme, was a process that took a lot of collaboration with the executive producers, who wanted a specific sound—"something big, that...belonged in the Marvel Cinematic Universe" but also "intimate because these aren't superheroes, these are regular people." McCreary had to work harder to make the theme heard, given that the show does not have a traditional title sequence. By the third and fourth seasons, McCreary noted "the score became a little more intense and more electronically driven... [E]lectronics really moved to the forefront as we got into more stories about Inhumans and the digital world our characters inhabit. But the orchestra is always our foundation."
In 2014, after working as an intern for McCreary, Jason Akers was asked to provide additional music for the series. McCreary hired Akers as a full time staff member in 2015, and he began to have more artistic input into the series' music. Akers is credited as co-composer alongside McCreary for the seventh season. Some of McCreary's favorite pieces from the series included "Cello Concerto" from "The Only Light in the Darkness", and pieces that had "massive deviations" such as music for Ghost Rider, the Framework reality, and going to outer space.
#### Original soundtrack album
In September 2014, McCreary announced that there were plans for an Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. soundtrack, which was released digitally a year later by Marvel Music on September 4, 2015, and on CD on October 9. Featuring music from the first two seasons, the soundtrack was written and produced by McCreary and Steven Kaplan, with the album produced by Joe Augustine with McCreary. All music composed by Bear McCreary. Steve Bartek plays guitar on "Aftermath of the Uprising", Eric Byers plays cello on "Cello Concerto", and McCreary's wife, Raya Yarbrough, provides the vocals in "Alien DNA". The episode column in the table below indicates which episode(s) the music was featured in.
#### Future albums
Regarding the release of additional music from the series, McCreary said in August 2020 there were no immediate plans but would "love for that to happen", given he had been waiting until the series concluded to assess everything that had been produced for any potential future releases. He also hoped to get fan input regarding pieces of music they would like to hear on a release in addition to the tracks McCreary would want.
### Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-ins
In July 2013, Jed Whedon said the series would work in tandem with the Marvel films, both past and upcoming, to weave in between the films, and to "try to make them more rewarding on both ends." He explained that each Marvel project is intended to stand alone first before there is any interweaving, and noted that the series has to work with the film division and be aware of their plans so as not to interfere when introducing someone or something to the universe. Bell elaborated that this was preferable so that people who do not watch the films can still follow the series, and vice versa. He stated that "ABC and Marvel both want the series to be able to make sense on its own", but that it was beneficial for the films to have the series fill in any "gaps" for them, due to having to be "big" and moving "quickly through a lot of huge pieces", unlike television which has time to deal with more nuances.
In January 2016, Joss Whedon noted that this process "unfortunately just means the TV show gets, you know, leftovers." He stated that, for example, the series' creative team initially wanted to use Loki's scepter from The Avengers but were unable due to Whedon's plans for it in Age of Ultron. On how their ability to connect with the films changed over the life of the series, Jed Whedon said, "The rule when we started was we couldn't say anything about spies, we couldn't say anything about Hydra, we couldn't have any A.I. or robots or anything like that, because all of that was coming in movies that year or the year after. Since then, they've blown those doors wide open". He added, "We have relatively free rein [in what the series can introduce and connect to]; we just can't go anywhere that [the films are] going. They know their stories so much further out than we do, which is good for us to tee up things that we know are coming to them or avoid things that they want to be special on the big screen. As long as we are not covering bases that they're going to cover, we haven't been told "no" that much". As an example, Whedon noted the fourth season's Framework storyline as "something that's pretty significant in our world, but is also a little eddy in the river that doesn't affect anything else because it's an alternate universe. So those kinds of stories help us go big without sending ripples through the whole MCU." In May 2016, Chloe Bennet complained that Marvel did not acknowledge Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in their film universe, despite pretending that the films and televisions series were all connected; she expressed interest in seeing the Avengers in the series.
The series mimics the films' post credits scenes with "end tags", starting with the episode "0-8-4" which features a Samuel L. Jackson cameo as Nick Fury. Bell explained, "Sometimes it'll be funny, sometimes it'll be a mythology thing ... or an extra little reveal about" the episode. The end tag for "End of the Beginning" is a "directly lifted" scene from Captain America: The Winter Soldier.
The series's first major tie-in episode with the wider MCU was "The Well", which begins immediately after Thor: The Dark World (2013). The episodes "End of the Beginning" and "Turn, Turn, Turn" revolve around the events of Captain America: The Winter Soldier, which led to a retooling of the series. Flashback sequences in "Shadows" and "The Things We Bury" featuring Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter served as marketing and set-up for the Agent Carter television series. The events of "The Frenemy of My Enemy" and "The Dirty Half Dozen" led up to the opening sequence of Avengers: Age of Ultron, while "Scars" deals with the aftermath of that film. The third season follows similar themes to the film Captain America: Civil War (2016), focusing on powered people and the different responses to them, leading up to the episode "Emancipation", which takes place after the film and shows how its events affect the series' powered characters.
The episode "T.A.H.I.T.I." introduces the Kree alien race to the MCU, members of which play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy (2014). This begins a storyline that recurs throughout the series and introduces Inhumans to the MCU, with Jed Whedon saying that it was something "in the works" for a long time since Marvel Studios had plans for an Inhumans film in 2019, and this would be "one of the first instances where we get to start planting the seeds on the show before the film." The third season introduces the concept of the Secret Warriors, with new Inhuman characters inspired by the comic of the same name, while also retconning the history of Hydra in the MCU, tying it into the Inhumans storyline. Gregg noted in January 2016 that the "writer and director [of the Inhumans film] will have free rein to do what they want to do with the Inhumans, but hopefully there'll be some way that our Inhumans connect to that." When the film was removed from Marvel Studios' release schedule, Whedon noted that the series had "a little more freedom" and were "able to do a little bit more" with the species going into the fourth season, including the potential of introducing some of the "classic" Inhumans. Marvel's Inhumans, a television series centered on Black Bolt and other members of the Inhuman Royal Family, was announced in November 2016 to air on ABC in September 2017. It was not intended to be a spin-off of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
In the lead-up to Avengers: Age of Ultron, Joss Whedon explained that despite bringing Phil Coulson back to life to helm Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the MCU itself dealing with characters seemingly dying only to return later on like Loki, Nick Fury, and Bucky Barnes, "As far as the fiction of the movies, Coulson is dead", choosing to not reference Coulson's resurrection in Age of Ultron to not diminish the impact of his original death among the characters. Whedon further elaborated that due to his feeling that the audience of The Avengers doesn't necessarily seem to be the same one as the audience of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., in addition to introduce nineteen new characters, he would have been forced to explain Coulson's resurrecting once again to the film-only audience had Coulson been featured in Age of Ultron. Despite this, Jeph Loeb stated prior to the film's release that there was a plan for the Avengers to discover that Coulson was alive eventually.
The fourth season explores the concept of Life Model Decoys, which were first referenced in The Avengers, and introduces the character Ghost Rider to the MCU. On why the series waited to begin exploring LMDs, Jed Whedon said that the series previously did not want to explore the concept before the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron, which sees the introductions of Ultron and Vision in a similar manner to LMDs. On introducing Ghost Rider, Whedon said that "with Doctor Strange (2016) coming out this year, the Marvel [Cinematic] Universe is moving into new waters," referring to the exploration of magic. "We felt that this was obviously a great character that we'd love to have on our show that we feel fits with that shift." The season also continues storylines from the second season of Agent Carter, with the reveal that the Momentum Energy Labs group is a successor to the Isodyne Energy company, with both companies connected by the parent company Roxxon, a mainstay of the MCU. The last four episodes of season five take place over a single day, and coincide with the events of Avengers: Infinity War (2018). In August 2017, Emily VanCamp said that discussions had taken place for her to reprise her role of Sharon Carter for the series, but there were conflicts with her starring role on the series Revenge. Patrick Brennan, who portrayed Marcus Daniels / Blackout in the series, appears as an unnamed bartender in the film Captain Marvel (2019). Marvel Studios producer Victoria Alonso alluded to the possibility that the two were the same character, given that film was set in the 1990s.
Season seven sees Enver Gjokaj reprise his role as Strategic Scientific Reserve agent Daniel Sousa from Agent Carter, joining the main S.H.I.E.L.D. team. There was a discussion to retcon Officer Saunders, a character Gjokaj played in The Avengers, into Sousa by having Sousa time travel back to the Battle of New York and going undercover as a cop, but the idea was dropped due to conflicts with the established timeline. The Quantum Realm is also featured in the season, with Fitz using it to travel to the altered timeline created during the season and reunite with the S.H.I.E.L.D. team before bringing everyone back to the main timeline. Whedon added that, with this introduction into the series, they planned to mention how the realm could be used to survive the snap from Thanos, as seen in Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame (2019), but was ultimately cut. Reed Diamond, who portrayed elite member of Hydra Werner Reinhardt / Daniel Whitehall, had been approached by Marvel Studios regarding his availability for Avengers: Endgame, with visual effects company Cantina Creative eventually using a photo of Whitehall in imagery for the film's time heist information screens, which was ultimately cut.
In May 2020, Bennet called Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "the black sheep of the Marvel Universe" since "everyone was aware of the fact that we were supposed to be one thing when we started" and ultimately, the writers "had to side-step" many potential opportunities in order to not conflict with the plans for the films. Henstridge also added that in past seasons, all of the episodes had to be reviewed to ensure they would not show something the films would be covering, but for the final season, "there was just such a sense of just abandon" with all the ideas the writers came up with allowed to happen. Ahead of the series finale in August 2020, Gregg and Wen looked back at the early tie-ins the series had in season one. Both felt having to wait until the release of The Winter Soldier resulted in the early episodes "treading water" and "hampered the writers" creativity. Despite this, Gregg did feel the end of season one "holds up really well" once the Hydra twist was revealed. Both added the series took off once the writers were less tied to the MCU films and were able to focus on the stories of the characters in the series. Following the series finale, Bell looked back on the series and felt because of all the restrictions it faced from Marvel Studios until the Hydra reveal, it was "a tech series" when the audience was expecting "a superhero show with a lot of Marvel brand names". Tancharoen added that the series was "more case-of-the-week" when it first premiered, but that allowed them to plant various story devices that could be fully explored once they got past the Hydra reveal. Bell also revealed the series at one point had been given permission to use the character MODOK before Marvel retracted their access the character, hoping to work it into their storyline with Anton Ivanov / The Superior in season four. The series had also tried to incorporate the space-based counterpart organization, S.W.O.R.D., but was stopped from doing this by Marvel.
The Darkhold, which was prominently featured in season four, was later featured in the Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021), but with a different design to the one it had in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Showrunner Jac Schaeffer said there were no "big conversations" amongst the writers regarding the Darkhold's previous appearance in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.; co-executive producer Mary Livanos pitched the idea to use the Darkhold in WandaVision to increase the level of danger Agatha Harkness posed to Scarlet Witch, with the new design being based to how the Darkhold looks in the comic books and its design trying to answer questions of what it could look like, how it had been created and how it would appear and disappear. Despite the redesign, director Matt Shakman opined that the Darkhold of WandaVision is same one of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Schaeffer said that the nature of the Darkhold would be further explored in future projects. The first episode of the Disney+ series Loki, "Glorious Purpose", revisits Coulson's death without acknowledging his return in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. When asked if they toyed with mentioning Coulson's resurrection, Loki head writer Michael Waldron said the idea could be "one other tendril of the multiverse, perhaps" and believed simply seeing Coulson again raised exciting questions.
## Marketing
Social media accounts for the series were set up in January 2013, months before ABC officially ordered it, "a rarity for a pilot." By May 17, 2013, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was the top new show of the television season in terms of social media activity, with the series' official Twitter account having over 46,000 followers and its official Facebook page having close to half a million likes. Many cast and crew members "live tweet" each episode, with J. August Richards noting that this brings instant feedback from viewers, and allows the crew to "watch the audience take that journey" in real time.
For the final six episodes of the first season, Marvel began the "Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Art of Level Seven" initiative, in which a different image was released each Thursday before a new episode, depicting a first look at a key event from the upcoming episode. Bell stated that the initiative was a way to tie the series back to its comics roots, and was thought of at the beginning of the first season. The production team tried to pair specific artists to the teaser posters based on their previous work and how it connected to the themes and emotion of the intended episode. For the second season, the series returned as "The Art of Evolution", with an image for each of the final twelve episodes of the season. For season five, Marvel revived their marketing art program, with "Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Road to 100", with five posters, one for each season of the series, representing "key pivotal moments of each season" to commemorate the series reaching 100 episodes.
At the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International, Marvel Custom Solutions and Lexus released a limited single-issue comic tie-in titled Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Chase, set between the season 1 episodes "Seeds" and "T.R.A.C.K.S." The comic was written by George Kitson, with art by Mirko Colak, Neil Edwards, and Mirco Pierfederici.
A five-part web series titled ', also sponsored by Lexus, was released from March 4 to May 6, 2015, on ABC.com. The web series follows a newly hired Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. production assistant, who acts as a double agent for the "Mastermind", portrayed by Stan Lee. Cast and crew members from the series, such as Gregg, also appear, with viewers having the ability to vote in an online poll after each episode to guess where the double agent would go in the next episode; votes entered viewers in a drawing to win prizes from the set of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Double Agent was nominated for Outstanding Digital Series at the 27th Producers Guild of America Awards. Another Lexus-sponsored five-part web series, ', released from March 9 to May 4, 2016. In Academy, three Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. fans compete to play an agent in that series. Members of the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. cast also appear. All three fans ultimately made cameo appearances in the third-season finale.
The series has been promoted with various subtitles at different times, including Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Uprising in season one, leading up to the Winter Soldier crossover; Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Fallen Agent for the end of the third season; Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Ghost Rider for the first "pod" of season four; and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: LMD for the second "pod" of season four. The third "pod" of season four was known as Agents of Hydra. In November 2020, props, costumes, and set pieces from the series were auctioned off.
## Release
### Broadcast
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. airs in the United States on ABC, in 720p high definition and 5.1 surround sound, despite delivering the episodes to ABC in 1080p. The first season aired on Tuesdays at 8 pm EST for the first season, and starting with the second season, the series aired on Tuesdays at 9 pm EST, before moving to the 10 pm time slot on Tuesdays for the fourth season. For its fifth season, the series aired on Fridays at 9 pm EST, on Fridays at 8 pm EST for season six, and aired at 10 pm EST on Wednesdays for season seven.
The second and third seasons of the series were broadcast in two blocks each, with a season of Agent Carter airing in between. Bell explained that this decision was made following the challenge of producing 22 episodes for the first season to be aired over 36–40 weeks, which meant having repeats and "losing momentum". Instead, Agent Carter took up much of that gap in a row, leaving the back half of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s season to run uninterrupted. This format allowed the producers and writers to approach each season in two parts, each with distinct stories connected by carried-over elements. Ahead of the fourth season, Tancharoen explained, "For the past two seasons, we've been able to break our season down into two little mini-seasons because of the airdate schedule. This upcoming season, our airdate schedule is a little different, so we're breaking it into three pods. Story wise, the development of that has made our lives easier, to break it down in that way." The pod format was described as "7-10 episodes [that feature] little "enclosed plotlines" that formed a larger whole."
Regarding whether they would break the fifth season into pods again as with season four, Bell said, "A 22-episode arc is a lot for people to hold on to. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you're telling some of these stories." Whedon also noted it would depend on how the season would be "broken up in terms of airing. If everything is running back to back, it feels weird to start calling it different things... We will try to have it in bite-sized chunks." The season began airing its episodes on December 1, 2017, once Inhumans had aired its eight episodes, with the intent for all 22 episodes to air mostly uninterrupted; a short hiatus was taken for the airing of the 2018 Winter Olympics. The season ultimately was formed by two pod story arcs. The sixth and seventh seasons each featured 13 episodes.
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. has been licensed in 155 countries and territories: CTV holds the broadcast rights for Canada; Channel 4 aired the series in the United Kingdom for the first two seasons, before it moved to E4 for the third through sixth seasons, with season seven releasing on Disney+; in Australia, the series aired on Seven Network for the first two seasons, before moving to Fox8 starting with the third; and in New Zealand, the show airs on TV2. MyNetworkTV was awarded the series' syndication rights in the United States, and began broadcasting it in September 2016.
### Home media
The complete first season was first released on Blu-ray and DVD on September 9, 2014, with the complete second season released on September 18, 2015, as an Amazon.com exclusive. The first season was made available for streaming on Netflix in the United States on November 20, 2014, with the second season on June 11, 2015, the third on June 16, 2016, the fourth on June 15, 2017, the fifth on June 17, 2018, the sixth on September 1, 2019, and the seventh on October 30, 2020. The series was available on Netflix until February 28, 2022, before moving to Disney+ in the United States starting March 16; it was already available on Disney+ in other territories.
## Reception
### Viewership and ratings
In the United States, the premiere episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. earned a 4.7/14 rating in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic, with 12.12 million total viewers, making it the biggest network drama debut in four years. Though the series debuted to strong ratings against its competition, NCIS, its ratings declined considerably over the following two months, though it remained Tuesday's top show among men 18–49, and overall was the No. 3 show among upscale young adults behind Modern Family and The Big Bang Theory. It also enjoyed DVR recordings that, according to TV Guide, were "through the roof".
In March 2016, Alisha Grauso of Forbes discussed the series and its ratings, describing the show as having "never quite been the ratings hit for ABC that the network had hoped it would be... It's hard enough to write a film script that fits within the continuity of the larger Marvel Cinematic Universe, even harder to do it with a full-length TV season that must act as connective tissue to the larger world while still being its own thing." Grauso opined that the series' ratings may improve if it either focused on trying to be the best series it could be (with fewer connections to the films, like the Marvel's Netflix television series) or on just being "support and tie-in to the world of the Avengers". Grauso concluded, "The end result for either scenario is that, hopefully, ratings move up and stay up. In the first case, fans might be lost by the disconnect from the MCU, but a stronger storyline and more consistent writing would bring them and new fans back. In the second scenario, fans would tune in every week for fear of missing out on a bit of story that's important to the larger world."
In November 2018, Parrot Analytics, which measures "how viewers interact with a TV show's brand online, assessing everything from global file-sharing and peer-to-peer traffic to social media activity", ranked Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the top 0.03 percent of in-demand television series worldwide, classify it as "Amazing". Series with similar demand included Better Call Saul, Criminal Minds, and Vikings, while Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. had higher demand than series such as The Originals, Supergirl, Arrow, and Fear The Walking Dead. Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. saw the season seven episode "A Trout in the Milk" earn a series low rating of 0.2 in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic, while fellow season seven episode "Brand New Day" earned the lowest initial viewers with 1.25 million.
### Critical response
For the first season, the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 88% approval rating, with an average rating of 7.8/10 based on 72 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is sure to please comic book fans, but the strong ensemble and brisk pacing help to make this better-than-average superhero show accessible to non-fanboys as well." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a "generally favorable" score of 74 based on 33 reviews.
The second season has a 91% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.7/10 based on 33 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. relaxes into itself during its sophomore season, mitigating the show's growing pains by focusing on characters while amping up narrative thrills." The third season has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2/10 based on 22 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Still evolving in its third season, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. further hits its stride with a blend of thrills, humor, and heart."
The fourth season has a 96% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.8/10 based on 25 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. explores darker territory in its fourth season with the thrilling introduction of Ghost Rider, setting up an action-packed new chapter of Marvel's edgier mythologies." The fifth season has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.9/10 based on 23 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. swings for the fences with large-scale storytelling and wild twists that elevate season 5 from the saturated MCU and into its own space".
The sixth season has a 93% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.7/10 based on 15 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Six seasons in and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. continues to deepen its exploration of space and the relationships between its heroes." The seventh season has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8/10, based on 15 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Heartfelt and held together by the strength of its super cast's chemistry, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s final season is a fitting farewell to a beloved team".
### Analysis
The way that the series is affected by the events of Captain America: The Winter Soldier has been called "miraculous", with Terri Schwartz at Zap2it writing "the fact that the movie so influenced the show is game-changing in terms of how the mediums of film and television can be interwoven", while Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times stated that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "faces a future of perpetual re-invention, and that puts it in the exhilarating first car of television's roller-coaster ride toward possible world domination." The fact that the series also depicts the rebuilding of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the MCU has also been highlighted, with Merrill Barr, reviewing "Beginning of the End" for Forbes, saying, "What Marvel's daring to say with this season finale is 'everything we do matters, and you need to pay attention to all of it.'"
The series' introduction of the Inhumans was seen by Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club as making Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. an essential part of the MCU and Marvel Studios' plans, with the connections between the series and the films previously having always been reactive on the series' behalf, with "stuff" happening in the films and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. dealing with the fallout of it. However, the series would now be "making things happen, and these events will clearly impact the future of the MCU". Barr wrote that the series "does a most excellent job of standing on its own two feet in a way we've never seen it do before. Come the final frame [of the second season finale], all anyone—Marvel fan or otherwise—will be asking is when season three begins."
The third season's paralleling of themes from Captain America: Civil War was called "topical and relevant" and "downright eerie" by The A.V. Club's Alex McCown and ScreenCrush's Kevin Fitzpatrick. McCown compared the series' approach to setting up "a world distrustful of superpowers" to the real life events surrounding Cliven Bundy and Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, and said that "S.H.I.E.L.D. is taking full advantage of its medium in order to tell the story the upcoming Captain America film can't: A full and fraught exploration of the need to protect freedom and privacy, even for those with extraordinary abilities." Fitzpatrick added that this "topical bent...made for a great angle to build up that world mentality without feeling particularly subservient to the movies."
Ahead of the fourth season, Collider's Kayti Burt opined that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is "the X-Men TV show you should be watching". Burt noted that the X-Men film franchise was expanding to television with the series Legion, but that S.H.I.E.L.D. already served that purpose well, highlighting the similarities between the X-Men and the Inhumans, both creations of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby during the 1960s consisting of a large group of super-powered people who "are our neighbors and our friends ... both heroes and villains", and face "the same fears and prejudices" from the wider community. Burt felt that the similarities between S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Inhumans and the X-Men became "particularly pointed" in the third season with the Hive storyline, which had a lot in common with the film X-Men: Apocalypse that was released around the same time; Burt was of the opinion that S.H.I.E.L.D. executed the storyline "much better" than the film did. Other similarities Burt discussed were the series' diverse and ensemble cast, its take on the mutant cure storyline, the parallels between Daisy Johnson's second season arc and the introduction of Rogue in the first X-Men film, and its social and political commentary. With the latter, Burt also discussed the similarities between the Watchdogs and Donald Trump, calling it "not very subtle, but social commentary doesn't have to be. I appreciate that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is attempting to comment on the current socio-political state of the country in a way that many of the other superhero TV shows don't even attempt to do. It's perhaps the show's most X-Men-like quality." Concluding, Burt said that though the X-Men characters cannot appear in the MCU due to 20th Century Fox holding the rights, "We still get to enjoy many of the themes prominent in the X-Men universe through S.H.I.E.L.D."
Additionally, Marc N. Kleinhenz at Screen Rant discussed how the series "continues to resist a status quo", from the destruction and rebuilding of S.H.I.E.L.D., to the fallout from the Sokovia Accords. He noted that a major driving force behind the changes was the MCU films, with the series being forced "to constantly adapt to a changing narrative landscape that it has absolutely no control over." He also believed that the series was obligated to adapt various Marvel characters to screen which would not be appearing in films, such as Daisy Johnson, Mockingbird, and Ghost Rider. However, Kleinheinz felt that this mindset also came from within the series crew rather than just from Marvel, saying, "there's also the storytelling modus operandi that showrunners Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen have very obviously demonstrated during their four-year tenure. It seems that constantly staking out new ground from season to season is just as much a personal predilection as it is, possibly, a corporate mandate."
During the Agents of Hydra pod in the fourth season, Collider's Evan Valentine noted how "[o]ne of the prevalent themes of this latter half of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s fourth season has been its jabs at the current Trump administration... When all's said and done, whether you support or disavow the current administration and what it's done with its time in office, does this commentary work here? Sure it does... We need to be able to laugh at what's going on in the world, regardless of whether we agree or disagree, but S.H.I.E.L.D. has managed to throw in some biting commentary this season."
Ahead of the seventh and final season Shakeema Edwards of Vulture felt the series had "evolved into a science-fiction fantasia... exploring human mutation, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, space exploration, time travel, and even magic". Edwards continued, "what's most fascinating about S.H.I.E.L.D. as it enters its endgame is how it's committed to the practice of essentially adopting a new subgenre every ten or so episodes, particularly later in its run". Constantly shifting its genre focus allowed the series to have fewer "filler episodes" and could "maintain its momentum within and between seasons". Additionally, "the characters' ever-deepening devotion to each other has served as an emotional through line, a constant for the characters (and viewers) to hold on to as the narrative rapidly changes around them." Edwards concluded: "S.H.I.E.L.D. is going out on its own terms with season seven, a coveted planned conclusion in a television landscape rife with sudden cancellations. Fittingly, the show that originally brought the world of the MCU to the small screen will also serve as an outro to the cinematic universe's first phase in television".
### Accolades
The Atlantic named "4,722 Hours" one of the best television episodes of 2015. The fifth season was recognized with The ReFrame Stamp for hiring people of underrepresented gender identities, and of color.
## Spin-offs
### Marvel's Most Wanted
By April 2015, Marvel was developing a spin-off series of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Developed by Bell and writer Paul Zbyszewski, it would star Palicki and Blood. ABC passed on the project by May 7, 2015, when they announced their series renewals and cancellations, and new series pickups. In August 2015, the spin-off series received new life as a reworked series, titled Marvel's Most Wanted, with a pilot order. Hunter and Morse were written off Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the episode "Parting Shot", both leaving S.H.I.E.L.D., as Palicki and Blood "physically had to go leave to shoot the pilot". In May 2016, the spin-off series was passed on by ABC once again.
### Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot
A six-part digital series, Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot, was revealed on December 6, 2016, to debut on ABC.com on December 13, 2016. It follows Elena "Yo-Yo" Rodriguez on a secret mission, shortly before the start of season four, with Cordova-Buckley reprising her role. Gregg, Jason O'Mara, Simmons, Bennet, Wen, De Caestecker and Henstridge all reprise their roles in the series as Coulson, Jeffrey Mace, Mack, Johnson, May, Fitz and Simmons, respectively.
### Ghost Rider
In May 2019, Hulu ordered Marvel's Ghost Rider to series, with Ingrid Escajeda set as showrunner and executive producer alongside Zbyszewski and Loeb. Gabriel Luna was set to reprise his role of Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider from the fourth season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the new series. Rather than being a traditional spin-off from S.H.I.E.L.D., Hulu described the series as a new story that "lives unto its own" but is about the same character. In July 2019, Loeb confirmed that the new series would reference Reyes's role in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. In September 2019, it was announced that the series would not be going forward due to creative differences.
## Other media
At the 2014 San Diego Comic Con International, Marvel Comics announced an ongoing series titled S.H.I.E.L.D., to be set in the mainstream Marvel Universe and written by Mark Waid, beginning that December. Featuring art by a rotating group of artists including Carlos Pacheco, Alan Davis, and Chris Sprouse, the series is led by Agent Phil Coulson, and sees the canonical introduction of the characters Melinda May, Jemma Simmons, and Leo Fitz—who originated from the television series—to the Marvel comics universe, who Waid noted would be given "the Marvel Universe spin". Waid described the series as "done-in-one. Coulson and his team have a mission, and if we need someone for a mission, everyone in the Marvel Universe is available as a potential Agent". Waid added that though the comic does not share events with the television series, it maintains the characters' relationships and personalities. Marc Guggenheim relaunched the comic as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. for Marvel Comics' All-New, All-Different Marvel line, and introduced the television series' character Grant Ward to the Marvel comic universe in May 2016.
In September 2015, Phil Coulson, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Deathlok, Melinda May, Bobbi Morse, Lincoln Campbell, Sif, Raina and Gordon were announced to appear in the Marvel: Future Fight mobile role-playing video game. Their inclusion in the game was done to promote the start of the third season, as well as to allow Marvel to "extend storylines and build on backstories to engage fans in a brand-new experience", according to Marvel Games creative director Bill Rosemann. In March 2016, de Caestecker and Henstridge reprised their roles as Fitz and Simmons, respectively, in the episode "Lizards", of the animated series Ultimate Spider-Man vs the Sinister 6. Also in the month, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. downloadable content was revealed for Lego Marvel's Avengers. The content consisted of a mission based "on the events leading up to the season two finale", which involved facing Jiaying and Daisy in Afterlife while rescuing agents, as well as going up against Gordon and Cal Johnson who have occupied the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier. The content includes the playable characters Daisy Johnson, Leo Fitz, Agent Koenig, Melinda May, Bobbi Morse, Jemma Simmons, Cal Johnson / Mr. Hyde, Deathlok, Gordon, Grant Ward, Jiaying, Lincoln, and Raina, as well as the airplane the Bus. Ming-Na Wen reprised her role as Melinda May to provide new dialogue for the content.
|
10,570,768 |
Charles M. Loring
| 1,131,402,038 |
American businessperson, miller and publicist
|
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"1922 deaths",
"19th-century American businesspeople",
"American chief executives",
"Businesspeople from Minneapolis",
"Businesspeople from Portland, Maine",
"History of Riverside, California",
"Minneapolis City Council members",
"People from Riverside, California"
] |
Charles Morgridge Loring (November 13, 1833 – March 18, 1922) was an American businessman, miller and publicist. Raised in Maine to be a sea captain, Loring instead became a civic leader in Minneapolis, Minnesota where he was a wealthy flour miller and in Riverside, California where he helped to build the first city hall. He was a popular and generous man who enjoyed many friendships and business associations.
Loring is remembered as the influential commissioner and president of the first Minneapolis park board. Considered the "Father of the Park System" in Minneapolis, Loring encouraged the city to work with Horace Cleveland, one of the first landscape architects, and park superintendents William W. Berry and Theodore Wirth. The city built what has been called, "the best-located, best-financed, best-designed, and best-maintained public open space in America."
## Family and early life
Loring's grandfather was a respected teacher in Portland, Maine known as Master Loring, a descendant of one of the earliest settlers of Hingham, Massachusetts. Charles himself was a fifth great grandson of Hingham immigrant Deacon Thomas Loring. His mother was Sarah Wiley, a relative of Parson Wiley, a noted clergyman. His father Captain Horace Loring, a seaman who once visited the West Indies, took the young Loring on voyages as far from home as Cuba to prepare him for a life as a sea captain. But Loring disliked the ocean and the isolation and moved to Chicago in 1856 where he worked as a wheat speculator for B. P. Hutchinson and became a successful grain trader.
Loring never enjoyed perfect health, and when he fell ill in Chicago and moved on doctor's advice to Minneapolis, his friend Loren Fletcher helped him become manager of the supply store for Dorilus Morrison's lumber business. Loring and Emily S. Crosman married in 1855. They had one daughter, Eva Maria, and one son, Albert C. Loring who managed businesses for his father. Emily Loring died on March 13, 1894. Loring remarried on November 28, 1895, to Florence Barton, daughter of A. B. Barton of Minneapolis.
Florence Loring participated in civic affairs and was a quilter whose Crazy Quilt is in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. The Lorings constructed the Florence Barton Loring Shelter in 1906 to protect children, lost animals and the city's draft horses. Known at different times as the Minneapolis Humane Society, the Animal Rescue League, and the Animal Humane Society of Hennepin County, today's Animal Humane Society (AHS) was located there near Loring Park for 40 years. Florence Loring also built a home for nurses near the hospital in Riverside, California where the Lorings lived in winter.
## Flour milling
Minneapolis was founded at Saint Anthony Falls, the only waterfall on the Mississippi River, because of the potential for energy created by falling, flowing water. Loring understood the city's geography—its waterfalls, lakes and river banks—and was able to use these unique aspects of his new home to slowly build his fortune.
In 1861, Loring joined Fletcher in L. Fletcher & Co., a general store specializing in supplies for lumbermen on Nicollet Avenue across from Minneapolis City Hall where they prospered for fifteen years. They joined with W. F. Cahill to convert the municipal waterworks building into a flour mill run on hydropower, the smallest in the Mississippi west bank milling district. With George Hineline they added three limestone stories and operated it as the W. F. Cahill & Co. Holly mill. During this period, Loring served in the city government, first as road supervisor and in 1872 as a Minneapolis City Council member from the Fifth Ward in the Near North community.
The group sold the Holly mill in 1872 to W. H. and F. S. Hinkle and purchased the Galaxy mill from W. P. Ankeny. In 1873 Fletcher and Loring also became principal owners of the Minnetonka Mills Company near Lake Minnetonka, in production between 1881 and 1886. Loring supervised his milling interests until 1880, when his son A. C. Loring took responsibility for their management. The Northwestern Consolidated Milling Company led by John Martin purchased the Galaxy mill and beginning in 1891 operated nine mills in Minneapolis. By the early 1900s and until the Great Depression, Washburn-Crosby which became General Mills, Pillsbury-Washburn, and Northwestern which became part of Standard Milling Company were an oligopoly, holding 97% of the Minneapolis flour market.
## Electricity and rail
Through his business associations, Loring contributed to major advances in the infrastructure of Minneapolis, to supply electricity, as a director of a railroad, and as chief executive of the North American Telegraph Company. In 1881 with William D. Washburn, Joel Bean Bassett, Sumner W. Farnham, James A. Lovejoy and Otis Arkwright Pray, Fletcher and Loring co-founded the Minnesota Electric Light and Electric Motive Power Company, later the Minnesota Brush Electric Company. The group ran lines to bars and businesses on Washington Avenue and supplied them from the first hydroelectric central power plant in the U.S., thirteen years before the Niagara Falls plant went on line in 1894. In 1883 with Washburn, Martin, H. T. Welles, Thomas Lowry, George R. Newell, Anthony Kelly, Clinton Morrison, J. K. Sidle, W. W. Eastman, William D. Hale, Charles A. Pillsbury and Charles J. Martin, Loring incorporated the Minneapolis Sault Ste. Marie & Atlantic Railway Company known as the Soo Line Railroad.
## Other associations
Loring also owned real estate and was a director of Syndicate Insurance Co., the Minnesota Title Insurance Co. and the Minnesota Loan and Trust Co. which eventually became part of today's Wells Fargo. The first Minnesota Flower Show was held July 4, 1863 and was organized by Loring who was a member of the Minnesota Horticultural Society. He co-founded the Minnesota Homœopathic Medical College which opened in 1886. Loring acted as president of the Minneapolis Board of Trade in 1875 and from 1886 to 1890 served as president of the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce, renamed the Minneapolis Grain Exchange.
Loring cofounded the Morgan Machine Co. in Rochester, New York. He served as president of the Minnesota Forestry Association, the National Park and Outdoor Association, the Lakewood Cemetery Association, and the Sons of Maine and as vice president of the National Board of Trade.
## Park board
Despite opposition from the Knights of Labor who eventually became supporters, on January 23, 1883, the Minneapolis Board of Trade passed resolutions to secure legislation to create a Board of Park Commissioners, and the city ratified a Park Act on April 3, 1883. Loring was the natural choice and was appointed the commission's first president. He was reelected each term and served until 1890 when he insisted on resigning because a property in which he held financial interest was under park board consideration.
### Horace Cleveland
Horace Cleveland made his "crowning achievement" in Minneapolis at the end of his career, in part thanks to "kindred spirits." William Watts Folwell who was the founding president of the University of Minnesota, and Berry and Loring, both from Maine, were all united in their love for nature. The system Cleveland created is characterized by the use of indigenous plants in their natural environment and by the linking of open spaces and landmarks across distance with boulevards and parkways. Cleveland had thought about linked public open spaces as early as 1855.
During Loring's tenure, Cleveland designed the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway and the Chain of Lakes. In his history of the Minneapolis park system, Loring describes how green space was preserved around every Minneapolis lake. Many donations and acquisitions of property came early enough that the land was affordable. In 1872 for example, the city thought William S. King's price of \$50,000 was too high for the 250 acres (1.0 km<sup>2</sup>) of land around Lake Harriet. Thirty years later it would have sold for \$2,000,000.
### Minnehaha Park
Minnehaha Falls received pilgrimages from fans of Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha by the 1870s. At the same time, business people wanted to harness its power. In 1884 Loring advocated a Minnesota state park at Minnehaha Falls, a goal the state tried and failed to achieve. In 1888, Cleveland presented The Aesthetic Development of the United Cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis at the Minneapolis Society of Fine Arts and convinced the city to preserve the waterfall and to build a city park there. In the 1890s, Cleveland's Minnehaha Park was annexed to Minneapolis and completed the Grand Rounds. Today Minnehaha Park sees 850,000 visitors each year. Named by Folwell, the 52-mile (83 km) Grand Rounds circles from Northeast, Minneapolis to Theodore Wirth Park, to the Chain of Lakes and follows the Mississippi River upstream past Minnehaha Falls to downtown.
### Theodore Wirth
At the 1889 meeting of the American Park and Outdoor Art Association, held in Minneapolis, Loring read Cleveland's The Influence of Parks on the Character of Children. In 1905 Loring learned of Theodore Wirth and recruited him as park superintendent. Wirth met with Minneapolis neighborhoods to extend Cleveland's work from landmark geographical features to every street. He wrapped "sixty miles of picturesque parkways around the City like an emerald ribbon." Wirth planned a playground within the reach of most children and canopies of trees throughout the city. Each home is within six blocks of a park and as of the U.S. Census in 2000, there are 770 square feet (72 m<sup>2</sup>) of parkland for each resident.
Minneapolis park assets as of 2004 included the following. 144 of the parks were in place when Wirth retired in 1935.
## City of Riverside
In 1889 in his winter home in Riverside, California, Loring constructed an office block with a 1,000-seat theater on the first floor that hosted performers such as W.C. Fields and Sarah Bernhardt. At various times known as the Loring Opera House, Loring Theatre, Fox Riverside, and Golden State Theatre, the theater was destroyed by fire in 1990. The office building was leased to the city for use as its first City Hall, library, jail and municipal courts.
## Legacies
Formerly Central Park, Loring Park in the Central community is 35 acres (14 ha) designed by Cleveland on the site of the Joseph Johnson farm. It was dedicated May 5, 1883 and renamed for Loring in or near his final year as park board president. Loring Lake, formerly Johnson Lake, was also named for Loring as is the Loring Stage House, originally Loring's office.
In California, Loring Drive in Huntington Park and Loring's building in Riverside bore his name. In Minneapolis, the Loring Elementary School in the Camden community, the Loring Nicollet Alternative School in the Stevens Square neighborhood, the Loring Pasta Bar in Dinkytown as well as other businesses carry his name. The Minneapolis Park & Recreation Board's Charles M. Loring Award is named in his memory. The Camp Fire Girls planted a spruce tree in his memory on the south shore of Lake Harriet.
Loring died at his home in Minneapolis at the age of 88. He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery which he helped to create near Bde Maka Ska in Minneapolis. The City of Riverside declared April 17, 1923 Loring Day and dedicated a plaque to him, inscribed with this memorial:
## See also
- History of Minneapolis, Minnesota
|
13,034,693 |
Cholmondeley Castle
| 1,149,023,448 |
Country house in the civil parish of Cholmondeley, Cheshire, England
|
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"Country houses in Cheshire",
"Grade II listed garden and park buildings",
"Grade II listed parks and gardens in Cheshire",
"Grade II* listed buildings in Cheshire",
"Grade II* listed houses",
"Houses completed in 1819",
"Military history of Czechoslovakia during World War II",
"Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II",
"Mock castles in England",
"Samuel Sanders Teulon buildings",
"Tourist attractions in Cheshire"
] |
Cholmondeley Castle is a country house in the civil parish of Cholmondeley, Cheshire, England. Together with its adjacent formal gardens, it is surrounded by parkland. The site of the house has been a seat of the Cholmondeley family since the 12th century. The present house replaced a timber-framed hall nearby. It was built at the start of the 19th century for George Cholmondeley, 1st Marquess of Cholmondeley, who designed most of it himself in the form of a crenellated castle. After the death of the Marquess, the house was extended to designs by Robert Smirke to produce the building in its present form. The house is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II\* listed building.
The first formal garden was designed in the 17th century by George London. Following neglect in the 18th century, the garden was re-ordered by William Emes, who also created the landscape park. During the 20th century the garden was further developed under the care of Lavinia, widow of the late 6th Marquess. The park and gardens are listed Grade II in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. In the park and gardens are a number of other listed buildings. The most important of these is St Nicholas Chapel, which dates from the 13th century and contains much 17th-century furniture. It is listed Grade I in the National Heritage List for England. Standing across the main drive is a wrought iron screen and gateway made by Robert Bakewell in 1722 for the Old Hall and moved here in the early 19th century. This is listed as Grade II\*. The other Grade II listed buildings include the altered remains of the Old Hall, five of the lodges in and around the estate and a variety of structures in the gardens.
During the Second World War, the house and grounds were used for a variety of military purposes which included a hospital. Until her death in November 2015, the house was occupied by Lavinia, Dowager Marchioness of Cholmondeley, mother of the present Marquess who lives in the other family seat, Houghton Hall in Norfolk. The house is not open to the public, but the park and gardens are open during the summer season. A variety of events are organised in the grounds and one of the lodges can be used as a holiday cottage.
## History
### Old Hall
The site of the house has been a family seat of the Cholmondeley family since the 12th century. In the 16th century the house was a timber-framed hall standing on a moated platform. During the English Civil War in the following century, the house and its separate chapel were damaged by the Parliamentarians and were subsequently repaired by Robert Cholmondeley, 1st Earl of Leinster. In 1701 Hugh Cholmondeley, 1st Earl of Cholmondeley commissioned William Smith of Warwick to encase the house with brick and to add features such as giant columns and balustraded parapets with urns and statues. By 1712 the earl had lost patience with Smith and asked John Vanbrugh to prepare a new design, but it was never executed. In 1722 wrought iron gates and railings made by Robert Bakewell were used to enclose the forecourt of the house. In the 18th century the house was neglected. In 1770 it was inherited by George Cholmondeley, the 4th Earl of Cholmondeley, who decided to demolish most of the Old Hall and to replace it with a new building.
### Present house
Building of the new house in the style of a castle began in 1801. It was designed mainly by the Earl in collaboration with the architect William Turner of Whitchurch, Shropshire. The design was symmetrical; the entrance front facing west and consisting of two castellated blocks, between which was a single-storey loggia. Behind the loggia was the full-height entrance hall. Facing the park on the east side of the house were the three main state rooms. This phase of building the house was completed in 1805. Much of the construction material was recycled from the old house, including bricks, glass, windows, woodwork and chimneypieces. Bakewell's railings, without the gates, were moved to form a screen on the main drive. In 1817 George Cholmondeley (now the 1st Marquess) started a series of enlargements to the house beginning with a new dining room. Two years later, a family wing with tall rectangular tower was added to the south of the house; both of these additions were designed by the Marquess. They were followed by the addition of two octagonal angle turrets. The Marquess died in 1828 and soon after that, Robert Smirke was commissioned to make further additions and alterations. The main addition was a round tower at the southeast corner of the family wing. Smirke also brought forward the central tower of the east front by adding a canted bay, giving the house its present appearance. This work was completed in 1829.
### Later history
In common with many other country estates and stately homes, special roles were allocated to Cholmondeley during the Second World War. Between July and October 1940 the grounds were the home of troops serving the Czechoslovak government-in-exile. Later they were used in the preparations for Operation Anthropoid, an assassination attempt on Reinhard Heydrich. Cholmondeley was also employed as a Royal Naval Auxiliary Hospital which treated serving servicemen suffering from severe nervous conditions.
The house was designated a Grade II\* listed building on 10 June 1952. The current Marquess, David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess, does not live at Cholmondeley but at the other family seat, Houghton Hall in Norfolk. Until her death in November 2015, Cholmondeley Castle was occupied by his mother, Lavinia.
## Architecture
### Exterior
The house is constructed in sandstone with roofs of slate and lead. It is mainly in two storeys with a basement, and has towers rising to a greater height. The entire building has a battlemented parapet. The entrance front faces west and consists of two three-storey wings in three bays with a single-storey three-bay loggia between them. The windows in the lateral blocks have Gothic-style arches and contain Y-tracery. In the loggia the windows each have two lights under almost circular heads. Above and behind the loggia the upper storeys of the entrance hall also contain Y-tracery. On the right side of the entrance front is a square five-storey tower, which is linked to an octagonal turret containing arrow slits. The garden front, facing east, has octagonal corner turrets between which is a large canted bay window which rises up to form a half-tower. The section to the left of this faces south and is in two storeys with three bays. It contains French windows and windows with trefoil heads containing Y-tracery. There is then a two-storey two-bay section and finally Smirke's service wing with its large round tower containing arrow slits.
### Interior
The loggia leads into the double-height entrance hall. This has blind arcades on the side walls. Opposite the entrance is an open arcade leading to a north–south passage. Beyond this is the ante-room with its large, canted bay window. This room has a simple dentil cornice. To the north of it is the dining room with a marble mantlepiece, a cornice decorated with gilded flowers and leaves and, in the ceiling, rosettes with a large central rose with a chandelier. To the south of the ante-room is the drawing room. Here the cornice is decorated with arrows pointing downward and there is a central rose with a chandelier. Leading from the drawing room is the staircase hall with an open-well staircase. The hall is top-lit from a timber lantern and the stairs are in black marble. The wrought iron balustrade on the stairs and landing was made by Robert Bakewell and moved from the Old Hall. The handrail is in rosewood. To the south of the staircase hall is the nursery suite and the library. The Bird Room, between the staircase and the drawing room, contains a collection of muniments. The arrangement of rooms and corridors in the upper rooms is complex. The kitchens and domestic offices are in the basement.
## Grounds
### Chapel
The Grade I listed chapel originated as a timber-framed structure in the 13th century. It was encased in brick and extended in 1717 and further additions were made in 1829 and 1840. It has a slate roof and is in a cruciform plan. Much of its furniture dates from the 17th century. The Cholmondeley family pew is at the west end, in an elevated position.
### Gardens and park
The first formal gardens were established in the 17th century by Hugh Cholmondeley, 1st Earl of Cholmondeley. These were in the French formal garden style, containing canals and alleés. The gardens were designed by George London, and included gates and railings by Jean Tijou and statues by Jan van Nost. Following neglect in the 18th century, the 4th Earl employed William Emes to re-model the gardens. Emes converted the formal garden into a landscape park, planting large numbers of trees and creating lakes. Further development of the gardens was carried out by John Webb, a student of Emes, who probably designed the terrace immediately around the house. Since the middle of the 20th century and until her death, the gardens were in the care of Lavinia, the Dowager Marchioness, who improved them and added additional features.
The house is surrounded by a terrace, to the south of which are three interlinked gardens: the Silver Garden, the Lily Pool Garden and an area containing a swimming pool. Beyond are lawns, groups of specimen trees and shrubs, gravelled paths and a walled garden. A major feature is the Temple Garden which contains an irregular pool within which are two small islands. On one of the islands is a structure in the form of a temple. At the west end of the garden is a rotunda. To the northwest of the Temple Garden is the Rose Garden. Beyond the gardens is a park, which is mainly grassland with some trees. Features in the park include a ha-ha and two lakes; Chapel Mere and Deer Park Mere. Since 10 June 1985 the gardens and park have been listed as Grade II in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The area covered by the designation amounts to about 240 ha.
## Listed buildings
In addition to the house being listed Grade II\* and the chapel Grade I, there are other listed structures associated with the house. Richard Bakewell's screen, standing across the main drive, is listed as Grade II\*. All the other listed buildings are designated Grade II. Of these, five are associated with the Temple Garden: the temple itself, the rotunda, the bridge over the pond with its parapets consisting of stone dolphins, a sculpture in lead by van Nost depicting three cherubs, and the gated entrance, possibly by Jean Tijou. The north and south gates of the chapel enclosure, made by Bakewell in 1722 and installed in 1829, are both listed. Of the five lodges associated with the castle, three of them that lie within the grounds are listed: Dee Park Lodge, on the southeast approach to the castle; Park House Lodge, on the north approach; and Somerset Lodge, a gatehouse on the east approach, designed by S. S. Teulon. The other two lodges stand at the entrances to the grounds: Nantwich Lodge, at the original south entrance, and Beeston Lodge, a lodge and gateway at the east approach. The remaining listed buildings are the reduced and altered remains of the Old Hall, the Mews adapted from the former stables, Park House and Scotch Farm developed from the original stables. A bridge on the east approach to the house is also listed.
## Present day
The house is not open to visitors but during the summer season the gardens are open to the public. Available facilities include tea rooms, picnic and play areas, and a nature trail. Visitors can see a variety of farm animals in the stables and paddocks. During the summer season a programme of events is organised, including an annual Pageant of Power. Somerset Lodge is available for use as a holiday cottage. The Cheshire Hunt Hounds meet here occasionally.
## See also
- Listed buildings in Cholmondeley, Cheshire
- Peckforton Castle (another country house in Cheshire in the form of a castle)
|
31,545,789 |
Wadsworth Jarrell
| 1,167,892,557 |
African American artist (born 1929)
|
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Wadsworth Aikens Jarrell (born November 20, 1929) is an American painter, sculptor and printmaker. He was born in Albany, Georgia, and moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he attended the Art Institute of Chicago. After graduation, he became heavily involved in the local art scene and through his early work he explored the working life of African-Americans in Chicago and found influence in the sights and sounds of jazz music. In the late 1960s he opened WJ Studio and Gallery, where he, along with his wife, Jae, hosted regional artists and musicians.
Mid-1960s Chicago saw a rise in racial violence leading to the examination of race relations and black empowerment by local artists. Jarrell became involved in the Organization of Black American Culture (OBAC), a group that would serve as a launching pad for the era's Black Arts movement. In 1967, OBAC artists created the Wall of Respect, a mural in Chicago that depicted African American heroes and is credited with triggering the political mural movement in Chicago and beyond. In 1969, Jarrell co-founded AFRICOBRA: African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists. AFRICOBRA would become internationally acclaimed for their politically themed art and use of "coolade colors" in their paintings.
Jarrell's career took him to Africa in 1977, where he found inspiration in the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, Mali and Burkina Faso. Upon return to the United States he moved to Georgia and taught at the University of Georgia. In Georgia, he began to use a bricklayer's trowel on his canvases, creating a textured appearance within his already visually active paintings. The figures often seen in his paintings are abstract and inspired by the masks and sculptures of Nigeria. These Nigerian arts have also inspired Jarrell's totem sculptures. Living and working in Cleveland, Jarrell continues to explore the contemporary African American experience through his paintings, sculptures, and prints. His work is found in the collections of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, High Museum of Art, The Studio Museum in Harlem and the University of Delaware.
## Personal life
### Early life
Jarrell was born in Albany, Georgia, in 1929 to Solomon Marcus and Tabitha Jarrell. Named after the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, he was the youngest of six children. A year after Jarrell's birth the family moved to a 28-acre farm near Athens, Georgia, where they grew vegetables and cotton. Jarrell's father was a carpenter and furniture maker who had his own business, the S.M. Jarrell Furniture Store. All three Jarrell boys worked there, one of them learning to cane chairs. Their father's artistic ability and mother's skill as a quilt-maker contributed to the entire family's love for art. As a child, Jarrell first attended a one-room schoolhouse where he was encouraged by his teacher, Jessie Lois Hall, to explore his artistic side. He then went to a private Baptist school starting in the seventh grade before transferring to Athens High in the tenth grade. In high school his talent for art was apparent as he started creating his own comic strip, cartoons for the school paper, and illustrations for sports events, finally taking up oil painting. As a young man interested in art during the late 1930s and early 1940s he learned about painting and illustration through magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and Collier's. Unable to figure out the distinction between illustration and painting, Jarrell thought "artists eventually got rich – but it was illustrators making the large sums of money."
Jarrell's relationship with his mother became closer once his father and one of his brothers left to work at a shipyard during World War II. His father died of malaria while working there. While in high school, Jarrell helped his mother tend the farm, but did not like the work. After graduating from high school, he joined the Army, was stationed at Fort Polk, Louisiana and served briefly in Korea. At Fort Polk he became company artist and made extra money designing shirts and making paintings for fellow soldiers.
### Higher education and current life
After military service, Jarrell moved to Chicago where his sister Nellie attended Northwestern University. It was in Chicago where Jarrell would have his first museum experiences. Growing in up Georgia, African Americans were not allowed to visit museums until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, therefore these early museum visits made a major impression on him. A year later he enrolled at the Art Institute of Chicago for advertising art and graphic design, where he attended night classes. His days were spent working at the International Paint company where he mixed paint. He also took classes at the Ray Vogue School for Commercial Arts. He began attending the Art Institute full-time in 1954. Jarrell eventually lost interest in commercial art and focused on classes about painting and drawing, gaining inspiration from instructor Laura McKinnon and her ideas about spatial relationship theory. In 1958, he graduated with his original major(s), retaining a strong desire to pursue the life of a fine artist. At this time he also met artist Jeff Donaldson, who became a friend who influenced his career. In 1959, the year of his first marriage, he became an advertising photographer, taking photos of type and lettering styles. The couple would divorce shortly after the marriage.
In 1963, Jarrell met Elaine Annette Johnson, known as Jae, who ran a clothing boutique, the woman who became his second wife on June 2, 1967. They spent their honeymoon in Nassau and on January 7, 1968, Wadsworth Jr. was born. During the pregnancy Jae closed her boutique and moved into Jarrell's studio, running a mail order service instead. As the social and economic world of Chicago declined, gang violence threatened the family's neighborhood. After their second child, Jennifer, was born the family decided to move to the New York City area. In May 1971, they made the move, first heading to Waterbury, Connecticut, then New Haven before spending three months in Boston. The family then moved to Washington, D.C. where Jarrell began teaching at Howard University in 1971, recruited by Jeff Donaldson. At Howard he pursued his MFA, focusing on African culture, specifically the Senufo people. The couple would have another daughter, Roslyn Angela, in 1972.
Struggling to fit in at Howard, unable to make tenure, and with concerns about the increasing crime rates in Washington, the family decided to move once again in 1977, this time to Athens, Georgia. Shortly after the move Jarrell became an assistant professor at the University of Georgia. He and his wife started a high-end educational toy company that stemmed from their children's love for similar toys when living in Washington, D.C. They opened a small shop called Tadpole Toys and Hobby Center in Athens to great reception. However, as a result of poor sales in May 1982 they were forced to close it. Soon afterwards, Jarrell received tenure at the University. In 1988, he retired from his position and from teaching as a whole in order to focus on his creative work. By 1994 all three children were grown; the two daughters attended the Art Institute of Chicago, and Wadsworth Jr. became a seafarer. That year, Jae and daughter Jennifer moved to New York to find a place to live, settling in SoHo, where they were joined by Jarrell a few months later. Currently, Jarrell and Jae live and work in Cleveland, Ohio.
## Artistic career
> Every year you are reminded of George Washington's birthday ... my kids learn about this at school, but nothing is said about black heroes. If white Americans can engage in what I call repetitious advertising, then I feel justified in advertising for black Americans.
### Chicago
After graduation from the Art Institute, Jarrell lived off his wages from mixing paint and furthered his skills in his studio for a year. He started to submit his work to competitions, being accepted at the Chicago Show at the Navy Pier and the Union League Show. Jarrell produced artworks inspired by theories learned in school and scenes of everyday life in black Chicago. With an interest in horse racing, jazz clubs and bars, he often took a sketchpad on his explorations, eventually creating paintings like Neon Row (1958), a street scene, Shamrock Inn (1962), a bar scene, and The Jockeys \#1 (1962), from a visit to a horse racing track. These themes would recur throughout his career. His early works display the "two-dimensional illusionism" he learned in school: linear and geometric perspective with overlapping objects receding to a vanishing point on the horizon. Color is used to depict movement and stability, a contrast seen in Shamrock Inn and The Jockeys \#1, however, Jarrell's palette had evolved into brighter and bolder color combinations, at times contrasting in their final execution. The influence of post-impressionism is evident in these earlier works, in line with art education trends at the time.
A notable turning point for his career came in 1964 when his watercolor entitled "The Art Pub" (similar to Jazz Giants \#1 (1962)) was accepted for the Art Institute's exhibition "Second Biennial of Prints, Drawings, Watercolors By Illinois Artists." (cat. 48) The exhibit earned him prizes, media attention, and the opportunity to exhibit his work at other galleries throughout the Midwest. He moved to a large studio in the Hyde Park neighborhood and continued expanding on his work and focusing on musical and sport related themes. His pigment application became rapid, whether he was depicting a jazz musician or a jockey on his horse, allowing the image to express strong movement. Cockfight (1965) shows the evolution of Jarrell's work: intense color bands, swirls, and at times a psychedelic appearance to the bird in focus, a style that became a mainstay in his work.
Influenced by his honeymoon in the Caribbean, Jarrell became interested in the effects of man-made and natural sunlight on the environment. Experimentation with pigments, media, imagery and design allowed him to create artworks that fully expressed his intended messages. Referring to works such as Nassau (1968) and Sign of the Times (1966), Jarrell commented: "The colors of the Bahamas influenced my use of color and my approach to my work." With Sign of the Times he shows a street scene, his first attempt at a painting involving social interaction. In 1968, Jarrell became art director at Sander Line Graphics, only to quit shortly thereafter to become self-employed. Aside from creating his art he also started a successful mail-order photo processing business. Soon after Jarrell and Jae decided to open a gallery space below their studio: WJ Studio and Gallery. While the studio and gallery flourished, Jarrell taught part-time art classes at Wadsworth Elementary School and considered moving to New York, seeking refuge in the heart of the art world.
#### Wall of Respect
In 1964 Chicago experienced two major race riots. Triggered by Civil Rights struggles and angst, more riots followed in subsequent years and the Black Power movement came into fruition. Artists began to explore ways to express black pride, self-determination and self-reliance leading in 1966 to the Organization of Black American Culture (OBAC). Artist Norman Parish asked Jarrell to attend a meeting for OBAC's Artists' Workshop. The meetings would consist of artists bringing their work to be critiqued and reflect on ideas of the black experience in art, leading to the concept behind Wall of Respect. The mural consisted of African American heroes and personalities, each artist deciding who should be depicted in their section. Sylvia Abernathy designed the layout, giving Jarrell a 12 × 14-foot space to share with photographer Bill Abernathy. Jarrell focused on a favorite theme, rhythm and blues, and featured portrayals of James Brown, B.B. King, Billie Holiday, Muddy Waters, Aretha Franklin and Dinah Washington. The Artists' Workshop would sour towards the end of the project: there were controversies stemming from the painting in Norman Parish's section, conflicts regarding copyrights being sold without permission, disagreements on law enforcement involvement, as well as deceit. Nevertheless, the Wall was considered a success, triggering the creation of liberation themed murals in Chicago and beyond.
#### WJ Studio and Gallery
In 1968, Jarrell and his wife opened WJ Studio and Gallery, below their home and studio. The space not only showcased the couple's work and that of other artists but went on to display the talents of Chicago poets and musicians. Jarrell's love for blues and jazz music made it easy for him to access the city's talent and his involvement with OCAC provided him with contacts in the poetry world. Artists such as Muhal Richard Abrams, John Stubblefield, Henry Threadgill, Anthony Braxton and the Art Ensemble of Chicago would perform at the space. The gallery also served as a gathering place for the likes of Jeff Donaldson, Barbara Jones-Hogu, Gerald Williams and others, who would come to discuss concepts of a relevant black art aesthetic. The group struggled: Jarrell described the search as an attempt to find "a collective concept that would say 'black art' at a glance." Eventually, the group made a breakthrough while listing principles and ideas regarding the concept of black art; the term "coolade colors" was contributed by a fabric designer. The term covered the bright fashion of stylish African American men of the time, which Jarrell described as "loud lime, pimp yellows, hot pinks, high-key color clothing." The final concept for their aesthetic search would be message oriented art, revolving around socially aware content. African design would be included and meaningfulness for black people would be a necessity. This group's formation would be considered one of the best aligned and organized collectives in the Black Arts Movement. This group went on to form COBRA.
#### COBRA and the black aesthetic
Like many African American grass roots organizations, Jarrell's gallery group struggled to carry the torch after the deaths of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. Jarrell and his fellow Chicago artists took the path of non-violence by way of their artistic talents and a sense of ownership through their contributions at WJ Studio and Gallery. With these ideals backing them and their new aesthetic philosophy, the group took on the name COBRA – Coalition of Black Revolutionary Artists. With the creation of COBRA, Jarrell completed his first work that conceptualized the concept behind the group, Black Family (1969), which utilized the color scheme of the coolade colors such as light blue and orange contrasting with white areas, which heightened the bright colors' intensity. This technique allowed Jarrell to create what he described as an "intuitive space," drawing the viewer's attention towards the family on the canvas: a caring mother, protective father and two relaxed children. With a father depicting strength and honesty, and what Robert Douglas describes as a "heroic quality," to the painting, Jarrell expresses important aspects of the COBRA ideal. Writing also appears on the canvas, with the word "blackness" represented by the letter B. The group decided to go from focusing on themed exhibitions to encouraging artworks that "portray the general problems of black people or attempt to visualize some solutions to them."
#### AFRICOBRA's beginnings
> AFRICOBRA artists are visual griots of the African American community, an imagery that illuminates the beauty and glory of the Africans' experience in the West. They present to us an iconography bestowed on them by the pressing and always exciting culture of the African American.
In 1969, COBRA revised their philosophy and artistic concept to expand their concern for black liberation and civil rights on an international level. Inspired by the words of Malcolm X, "All black people, regardless of their land base, have the same problems, the control of their land and economics by Europeans or Euro-Americans.", they changed their name to AfriCOBRA: African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists. Jarrell's work had evolved to bring the focus figure to the foreground of his paintings, as seen in Coolade Lester (1970), a portrait of musician Lester Lashley. Letters make another appearance: D (down), B (black), F (fine) and Q (question). The work is described as a "humanistic portrayal of the genius of Africans in the creation of jazz." Other works by Jarrell at the time became politically and socially charged with the aesthetics put forth by AfriCOBRA. Homage to a Giant (1970) is Jarrell's first tribute to Malcolm X. This work is used by Jarrell to speak for the black struggle against oppression and the death of student protestors fighting for that cause. Four images of Malcolm X are painted alongside those of Huey Newton, Jesse Jackson and Stokley Carmichael. "B" makes its usual appearance representing "blackness" and "badness" as well as a quote from Ossie Davis's eulogy at Malcolm's funeral. This piece, along with Coolade Lester, appeared in AFRI-COBRA's first exhibition in 1970 at the Studio Museum in Harlem: "AFRI-COBRA I: Ten in Search of a Nation." The response to the show was one of misunderstanding by many viewers, with the result that the concepts presented were interpreted as "protest art."
"AFRICOBRA II" was held in 1971 at the Studio Museum in Harlem before it traveled to five other museums and galleries. Jarrell exhibited Revolutionary and Black Prince (both 1971) at the show. These two portraits are described by art historian Robert Douglas as displaying "Jarrell's masterful understanding of portraiture, rendered through a chiaroscuro technique employing a multitude of meticulously painted B's in different sizes and coolade hues." Revolutionary is a homage to Angela Davis. She wears a Revolutionary Suit that was designed by Jae Jarrell for the AFRICOBRA II exhibition. Prints were made of the work. However, in the original, the cartridge belt is attached to the canvas, an idea of Jae's. The words "love", "black", "nation", "time", "rest", "full of shit", "revolution", and "beautiful" burst out of her head on the canvas. The message "I have given my life in the struggle. If I have to lose my life, that is the way it will be," travels down her chest and left arm. "B", as usual, represents "blackness" "bad" and in this painting "beautiful". The work epitomizes the goal by AFRICOBRA artists to use all space possible in their creations, described as "jam-packed and jelly tight." Revolutionary was reviewed by Nancy Tobin Willig as "a portrait of a young black woman screaming slogans – with a bandoleer loaded with real bullets slung over her shoulder. Jarrell's painting is an overstatement. It is not art as the weapon. It is the weapon as art." Black Prince is Jarrell's second tribute to Malcolm X. "B" appears in the painting, as well as "P"; "PRINCE" and "BLACK" which travel throughout Malcolm's face and hand. The quote "I believe in anything necessary to correct unjust conditions, political, economic, social, physical. Anything necessary as long as it gets results," is painted across his chest and arm. Their second show, "AFRICOBRA III", opened in 1973. Critics were more aware of the aesthetic and movement at this show; critic Paul Richard commented that the works of Nelson Stevens, Jeff Donaldson and Jarrell "together contradict something I have long believed: that art that is so blatantly political is not art at all."
### Out east
Despite the offers for a position he received from Jeff Donaldson, who was running Howard University's art department, Jarrell sought to remain independent and the family moved to New York. Jarrell obtained work as a photographer in Boston, eventually choosing to accept Donaldson's offer, moving the family in time for Jarrell to teach photography classes during the fall semester. During this time "AFRICOBRA II" traveled to Howard and Jarrell exhibited Together We Will Win (1973), showing black "warriors," children, women and workers "offering solutions to African people's problems," and Liberation Soldiers (1972), depicting the Black Panthers. Both works included the use of aluminum and gold foil glued to the canvas. In 1973 the final AFRICOBRA show, "AFRICOBRA III" was held. However, members still continued to meet and practice the ideals put forward by the group.
#### African influences
Jarrell's studies of African art and the Senufo people appeared as a major influence during the mid-1970s. Paintings such as Prophecy, Reorientation and Navaga depict human figures that appear blended with Senufo sculptures. Navaga (1974) shows a seated woodcarver, holding a staff he works on, appearing to be made of wood himself. He wears clothing of and is surrounded by coolade colors. The face is that of Jarrell's father, manipulated into a Senufo sculptural style. In the triptych Prophecy Jarrell shows African women as Senufo figures holding sculptures of the Yoruba deity Shango, and is described as "jam-packed" with imagery, making it hard to decipher in a short time.
In winter of 1977 Jarrell and Jae visited Lagos, Nigeria, as part of the American delegation to FESTAC '77, the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture, making this the couple's first international exhibition. Other AFRICOBRA members journeyed there as well. Jarrell was influenced heavily by the bronze lost-wax castings of Benin and the woodcarving and textile arts of Oshogbo, which he believed solidified the mission of AFRI-COBRA's symbolic work through "intuitive space." Jarrell also revisited his passion for horse racing, attending the Grand Durbar in Kaduna. On Jarrell's return, AFRI-COBRA formed their next show "AFRI-COBRA/Farafindugu"; farafindugu inferring "black world" in Mandinka.
The exhibit, at the African American Museum in Philadelphia, featured two works by Jarrell created as a response to his journey to Africa: Mojo Workin and Soweto (both 1977). Mojo Workin featured a contribution from his then six-year-old eldest daughter, Jennifer. She created the drawing The Magic Lady and with Jarrell's painting it was believed that mojo was expressed when others encountered the work. This is one of the first times Jarrell uses a stained canvas. Soweto reflects the struggles of African people, specifically those suffering from the apartheid in South Africa. The painting is named after the city of Soweto, where a massacre of students occurred in 1976. Continuing to be inspired by his travels to Nigeria, Jarrell completed the work Zulu Sunday which was created to express similarities between African Americans and Nigerians through a celebration of a Sunday afternoon social affair. The painting shows Zulus dressed in ornate traditional dress, socializing on the street, unified by a sunburst.
### Georgia
In 1977 the Jarrells moved from Washington, D.C. to Athens, Georgia. With his children getting older and the couple's toy company struggling to stay afloat, Jarrell became assistant professor at the University of Georgia. His position at the university assured him studio space. In 1979 he had two solo shows and participated in three AFRICOBRA exhibitions. His work continued to be socially and politically aware with paintings like Festival \#1 (1978) showing brilliant Senufo figures, a work supporting South Africans at war. African imagery became more apparent in his paintings with zigzag patterns and lizards appearing, representing "that Africans, as the first people, have the right to speak on their own behalf," as seen in Midnight Poet at 125th Street & Lenox (1979). In 1979 Jarrell received grant money to create a 52 x 31-foot mural at the East Athens Community Center. A team of art students helped Jarrell and Jae to complete the work, titled Ascension, which remains in Athens today.
By the mid-1980s Jarrell was being represented by the Fay Gold Gallery in Atlanta. In 1984 the family moved to Atlanta when Jae accepted a teaching position at The Lovett School. Jarrell continued to commute to Athens to teach. The move to Atlanta provided more income for the family while allowing Jarrell to sell more work and spark relationships with potential customers, galleries and museums in the region. Jarrell became the painting professor for the University's Studies Abroad Program in 1986. For two months he lived in Cortona, Italy with Jae and his two daughters, while Wadsworth Jr. remained in Atlanta finishing high school. The opportunity allowed him to explore the country, visiting historic sites throughout Italy and the Venice Biennale. Upon his return he was promoted to full professor at the university in February 1987, but he resigned in 1988.
During the 1990s Jarrell continued to explore aspects of black life in his paintings. Dudes on the Street (1991) is a depiction of black life in the city; two cartoon-like men and two women stand on the street with an expired parking meter next to them. The background features a ribs restaurant and a record shop, with coolade colors drenching the entire landscape. Robert Douglas compared the piece to Chicken Shack by Archibald Motley, stating "both artists have fulfilled the mission of celebrating black life." Two paintings about boxing were created during this time as well: Stride of a Legend/Tribute to Papa Tall, a tribute to Muhammad Ali and textile designer Papa Tall of Senegal, and The Champion (1991) a portrayal Evander Holyfield.
#### Horse racing revisited
While in Georgia Jarrell revisited his interest in horse racing. He became interested in African American jockeys, creating the paintings The Jocks \#2 (1981), Master Tester (1981) and Homage to Isaac Murphy (1981). The Jocks \#2 is a group portrait of James "Soup" Perkins, William Walker, Jimmy Winkfield and Isaac Murphy. The figures appear like a Kemetic wall painting with hints of green and light blue. At the center is Isaac Murphy, a legendary jockey of the Kentucky Derby, wearing a glowing crown. A full tribute to Murphy is seen in Homage to Isaac Murphy, a large polyptych consisting of four canvasses. Cut out leaf motifs are adhered to the canvas and applied with acrylic stains, which make the motif's appear as negative space on the surface of the painting. Zigzags are prominent, a lizard appears to represent speed, a lawn jockey, and the dates of Murphy's wins, titles and horse names are at the top. The painting is finished with a stylized portrait of Murphy and cowry shells are glued to the canvas representing the money won by Murphy during his career. Master Tester is an abstract of horse trainer Marshall Lilly, riding a horse, wearing a derby hat. In 1993 Jarrell would have a solo show, titled "Edge Cutters," at the Kentucky Derby Museum in Lexington, Kentucky.
#### The bricklayer's trowel and jazz tributes
In December 1982 Jarrell was commissioned by Westinghouse Electric Company to create a three-hundred-foot mural in their Athens headquarters, to boost the morale of the employees. The mural was the first time he used a bricklayer's trowel in his work, a tool introduced to him by Adger Cowans. The Apple Birds and The Return of the Apple Birds, from 1983, show his dramatic use of the trowel. The paintings were inspired by a drawing by his daughter, Jennifer, at the age of two. The Apple Birds were drawn by and talked about by Jennifer as having apple-shaped heads with stems at the top, long arms and short bodies. Zigzags, geometric shapes and layers make up the environment that the Apple Birds live in on the canvas. The trowel is used throughout to create 3-D layers and overlaps.
Jarrell created many jazz tributes starting in the 1980s. Cookin' n Smokin''' (1986) is a tribute to jazz musician Oscar Peterson, who is shown playing piano with a sunburst design around his head. To the left of Peterson is bass player Ray Brown. Both figures have large heads, their faces have exaggerated features similar to African masks, and are described as being "midpoint between naturalism and abstraction" by Robert Douglas. The trowel is used throughout to blend color. Jazz Giants (1987), another jazz tribute, shows Dizzy Gillespie, Harry Carney, Johnny Hodges and Cootie Williams performing. Leaf patterns and circles common in Jarrell's work are seen throughout. The trowel is used to create recognizable portraits of the musicians, with the paint on a white background appearing as if a woodcut. Priestess (1988) depicts another jazz icon, Nina Simone, who appears twice – playing piano and singing solo, backed by a band. 1979's I Remember Bill is a memorial to Jarrell's friend guitarist Bill Harris, originally of The Clovers. Jarrell occasionally traveled with Harris, hanging his paintings behind Harris as he performed. The painting is a large mixed-media polyptych of shaped canvas, and a painted six-stringed guitar sits on the top of the work. The painting features glued on photographs of Harris and two painted portraits of the musician, surrounded by Jarrell's signature symbols, designs and patterns.
Other works include: Corners of Jazz (1988), a large mural featuring Ray Charles, Lester Young, and Billie Holiday, Shon'nuf (1989), featuring Ray Charles, At the Three Deuces (1991) with Miles Davis, Charlie Parker and Sam Potter, Basie at the Apollo (1992) with Count Basie's orchestra, The Empress (1992) for Bessie Smith, and Lady & Prez \#2, showing Holiday and Young performing together.
### Sculpture
Inspired by his trip to Italy, Jarrell created the sculpture Tribute to Ovambo Bellows, a conical-shaped painted tribute to the Ovambo people, which would be the basis for a new shift in his work, towards sculpture. The new works would be categorized by their heavy spiritual nature, reflective of African culture and heritage. Hausa Space – a Village (1993) represents the villages Jarrell visited in Nigeria. The houses that he saw were decorated with icons and symbols of spiritual and ritual meaning, painted in bright colors. These decorations are used to fight evil spirits, while Jarrell's pieces speak for peace. Many of the sculptures blend elements of African art and design; Sorcerer (1993) and Messenger of Information (1993) show his earlier influences from Senufo art and other inspirations related to the design, spirituality and people of Africa. Totem–like sculptures began to be created in 1995. The three sculptures making up the Ensemble series (1995) each stand over five feet tall and are painted with brilliant colors, topped off with a small animal. For the first time, in Days of the Kings (1995), horse racing appears in Jarrell's sculptures. Sixteen totems serve as tributes to African Americans in horse racing, reminiscent of the designs of the Bijogo and Alberto Giacometti. Epiphany (1996) memorializes the Million Man March, held in Washington, D.C. the previous year, an event that Jarrell described as one of the most important of that century. This piece, and other works, were later exhibited at the 1996 Summer Olympics.
### Reception
Dr. Stacy Morgan, association professor in the department of American Studies at the University of Alabama, describes Jarrell's work as "a remarkable body of vibrant, stylistically innovative and politically engaged art."
## Awards
- First prize, 1988, Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition, Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art
- Cover, 1985, Art Papers
- Excellence in painting award, 1985, Southern Home Shows Exposition
- Award, 1974, District of Columbia Commission on the Arts
- Artist-in-Residence, 1974, District of Columbia Public Schools
## Selected exhibitions
### Solo exhibitions
- Edge Cutters. 1993, Kentucky Derby Museum.
- Large Format. 1987, Southwest Atlanta Hospital.
- Paintings and Sculptures, Wadsworth Jarrell. 1987, Albany Museum of Art.
- The Power and the Glory. 1979, University of Georgia.
- Going Home., 1976, Howard University.
### Group exhibitions
- AFRI-COBRA: No Middle Ground. 1992, Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, Illinois.
- Twelfth Annual Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition. 1992, Herndon Plaza, Atlanta.
- Vital Signs. 1991, Atlanta Contemporary Art Center.
- AFRI-COBRA: The First Twenty Years. 1990, Florida A&M University.
- Horse Flesh. 1990, Kentucky Derby Museum.
- Beaches Annual Exhibition. 1989, Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville.
- Artists in Georgia 1988., 1988 Atlanta Contemporary Art Center.
- The Art in Atlanta. 1988, Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art.
- Birmingham Biennial. 1987, Birmingham Museum of Art.
- AFRICOBRA USA. 1987, Sermac Gallery, Fort-de-France, Martinique.
- Ot Och In. 1986, Malmö Art Museum.
- Artists in Georgia. 1985, Georgia Museum of Art.
- Atlanta in France. 1985, Sorbonne Chapel.
- U.S.A. Volta Del Sud. 1985, Palazzo Venezia.
- Commemoration to Soweto. AFRI-COBRA, 1980, United Nations Headquarters.
- Directions and Dimensions. 1980, Mississippi Museum of Natural Science.
- Artists in Georgia. 1980, High Museum of Art.
- Artists in Schools. 1976, Delaware Art Museum.
- Directions in Afro-American Art.'' 1974, Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art.
## Selected collections
- Cleveland Museum of Art
- High Museum of Art
- Museum of Contemporary Art of Georgia
- National Museum of African American History and Culture
- Nortel
- The Studio Museum in Harlem
- University of Delaware
## See also
- Jae Jarrell
- AfriCOBRA
|
37,409,106 |
Melissa Perrine
| 1,167,208,430 |
Australian para-alpine skier
|
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] |
Melissa Perrine (born 21 February 1988) is a B2 classified visually impaired para-alpine skier from Australia. She has competed at the four Winter Paralympics from 2010 to 2022. At the 2015 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships, she won three gold, one silver and one bronze medals. At the 2018 Winter Paralympics, she won two bronze medals.
## Personal
Melissa Perrine was born in Nowra, New South Wales, on 21 February 1988. In 2007, the Wingecarribee Council area named her their Young Australian of the Year. She was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's X Paralympic Games in March 2010. She was born with four separate eye conditions, including cataracts, nystagmus, micropthalmia and glaucoma. Her eyesight has been slowly deteriorating since she was very young. Her vision is limited to blurry shapes and colours. As of 2014, she lives in Welby, New South Wales, and is studying Exercise Science at the Australian Catholic University in Sydney. In 2011, she completed a Bachelor of Exercise Science followed by a Master of Exercise Science in 2012 at the Australian Catholic University. She completed a Master of Physiotherapy at Western Sydney University.
## Skiing
Perrine is a B2 classified visually impaired skier. She gets direction on the course from a guide who uses a microphone and speakers to communicate with her on the course. She first skied with her sighted guide Andy Bor in 2009 in competition at the IPC North America Cup in Colorado, where she finished second in the super-G. She was officially named on the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team in November 2009. Alongside Jessica Gallagher, she was one of two women named to the team. It was only the second time Australia sent women to the Winter Paralympics. A ceremony was held in Canberra with Australian Paralympic Committee president Greg Hartung and Minister for Sport Kate Ellis making the announcement.
At a 2010 World Cup event in Italy ahead of the Paralympics, Perrine fractured the ischium bone in her hip as a result of a fall. She returned to Australia. She was back on the slopes by the end of the 2009/2010 skiing season, and competed in the 2010 World Cup in Aspen, Colorado. She earned a silver medal and a pair of bronze medals at the event.
Perrine and the rest of Australia's Para-alpine team arrived in the Paralympic village on 9 March 2010 for the 2010 Winter Paralympics. While at the Games, she competed in the Downhill, super-G, super combined and giant slalom events. She finished seventh in the visually impaired super-G, approximately 12.54 seconds behind gold medal-winning Slovak skier Henrieta Farkasova. She did not finish in the super combined event. Following her first run in the Super G, she was in sixth place, but she did not finish her second run and did not place. She and Bor finished fifth in the 2,139 metres (7,018 ft) downhill.
At the 2011 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships, with Bor as her guide, Perrine won a silver medal in the vision-impaired downhill event, the first one ever earned by an Australian woman at the event. She also earned bronze medals in the women's vision impaired Super Combined and super-G events. At an August 2011 competition in Mt Hutt, New Zealand, she finished first in the women's super G visually impaired event. At the Winter Games IPC event at Coronet Peak that same month, she and Bor finished first in the women's slalom visually impaired event.
At the 2012 World Cup event in Italy, Perrine finished third in the slalom while skiing with Bor. She won a silver medal in the giant slalom.
At the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi, Perrine competed in five events. She finished fourth in the women's downhill visually impaired and did not finish in three events. She was disqualified after the slalom leg of the Women's Super Combined for wearing a visor which was taped to her helmet in order to keep rain from her goggles. This was a breach of the IPC Alpine Skiing rules. Jason Hellwig, CEO of the Australian Paralympic Committee described it as "mindnumbingly-dumb mistake" as it was not picked up by relevant team officials. He indicated it was an honest mistake and there was no intention to cheat.
Perrine with her guide Andy Bor won five medals – three gold, one silver and one bronze in Women's Visually Impaired events at the 2015 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships in Panorama, Canada. Gold medals were won in the Downhill, Super-G, Super Combined, silver medal in Slalom and bronze medal in the Giant Slalom. Perrine became the only Australian female in alpine skiing to finish on the podium in all five events at an IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships.
At the 2017 IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup Finals in PyeongChang, Perrine and her guide Bor won two bronze medals – downhill and giant slalom. Perrine had a limited 2016/17 season due to her university commitments.
She was selected to compete at the 2018 Winter Paralympics, her third Games. At the Games, she won her first Paralympic medal by winning the bronze medal in the Women's Combined Visually Impaired with her guide Christian Geiger, who is also her coach. The following day she won the bronze medal in the Women's Giant Slalom visually Impaired. She had three other top five finishes - fourth in the Women's Slalom Visually Impaired and fifth in both the Women's Downhill Visually Impaired and Women's Super-G Visually Impaired. Perrine was given the honour of the Closing Ceremony flag bearer due to her competing at three Winter Games and winning two bronze medals in PyeongChang.
With her new guide Bobbi Kelly, Perrine won the gold medal in the Women's Super Combined Visually Impaired, silver medals in the Women's Giant Slalom and Women's Super G Visually Impaired and the bronze medal in the Women's Slalom Visually Impaired at 2019 World Para Alpine Skiing Championships in Kranjska Gora, Slovenia. At the 2022 Winter Paralympics with her guide Kelly, she finished sixth in the Women's Giant Slalom Visually Impaired and failed to finish the second run in the Women's Slalom Visually Impaired. Perrine announced her Winter Paralympics Games retirement.
## Recognition
- 2018 - New South Wales Institute of Sport Clubs NSW Personal Excellence Award for having coupled her PyeongChang success with the completion of a Masters of Physiotherapy.
- 2019 - Ski and Snowboard Australia - Athlete of the Year (Paralympic disciplines)
- 2019 - Australian Institute of Sport Awards - Female Para-athlete of the Year
- 2022 - Paralympics Australia Female Athlete of the Year
- 2022 - Joint Team Captain with Ben Tudhope of Australian Team at 2022 Winter Paralympics and carried the flag at the Opening Ceremony with Mitchell Gourley
|
407,896 |
Manuel Belgrano
| 1,172,679,851 |
18/19th-century Argentine military leader, economist, politician, and journalist
|
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"Argentine independence activists",
"Argentine journalists",
"Argentine male journalists",
"Argentine monarchists",
"Argentine people of Italian descent",
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"Argentine people of Spanish descent",
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"Manuel Belgrano",
"Members of the Primera Junta",
"People from Buenos Aires",
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Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano y González (3 June 1770 – 20 June 1820), usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano (), was an Argentine public servant, economist, lawyer, politician, journalist, and military leader. He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and designed what became the flag of Argentina. Argentines regard him as one of the main Founding Fathers of the country.
Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires, the fourth child of Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri and of María Josefa González Casero. He came into contact with the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment while at university in Spain around the time of the 1789 French Revolution. In 1794 he returned to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, where he became a notable member of the criollo population of Buenos Aires; he tried to promote some of the new political and economic ideals, but found severe resistance from local peninsulares. This rejection led him to work towards a greater autonomy for his country from the Spanish colonial regime. At first he unsuccessfully promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to become a regent ruler for the Viceroyalty during the period when the French imprisoned the Spanish King Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War (1807–1814). Belgrano favoured the May Revolution, which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power on 25 May 1810. He was elected as a voting member of the Primera Junta that took power after the ouster.
As a delegate for the Junta, he led the ill-fated Paraguay campaign of 1810-1811. Belgrano's troops were beaten by Bernardo de Velasco at the battles of Paraguarí and Tacuarí. Though his army was defeated, the military campaign initiated the chain of events that led to the independence of Paraguay in May 1811. He retreated to the vicinity of Rosario, to fortify it against a possible royalist attack from the Eastern Band of the Uruguay River. While there, he developed the design of the flag of Argentina. The First Triumvirate did not approve the flag, but because of slow communications, Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later, while reinforcing the Army of the North at Jujuy. There, knowing he was at a strategic disadvantage against the royalist armies coming from Upper Peru, Belgrano ordered the Jujuy Exodus, which evacuated the entire population of Jujuy Province to San Miguel de Tucumán. His counter-offensive at the Battle of Tucumán resulted in a key strategic victory, and it was soon followed by a complete victory over the royalist army of Pío Tristán at the Battle of Salta. However, his deeper incursions into Upper Perú ended with the defeats of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, leading the Second Triumvirate to order his replacement as Commander of the Army of the North by the newly arrived José de San Martín. By then, the Asamblea del Año XIII had approved the use of Belgrano's flag as the national war flag.
Belgrano then went on a diplomatic mission to Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia to seek support for the revolutionary government. He returned in time to take part in the Congress of Tucumán, which declared Argentine independence (1816). He promoted the Inca plan to create a constitutional monarchy with an Inca descendant as head of state. This proposal had the support of San Martín, Martín Miguel de Güemes, and many provincial delegates, but was strongly rejected by the delegates from Buenos Aires. The Congress of Tucumán approved the use of his flag as the national flag. After this, Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but his mission was limited to protecting San Miguel de Tucumán from royalist advances while San Martín prepared the Army of the Andes for an alternative offensive across the Andes. When José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López seemed poised to invade Buenos Aires, he moved his army southwards, but his troops mutinied in January 1820. Belgrano died of dropsy on 20 June 1820. His last words reportedly were: "¡Ay, Patria mía!" (Oh, my country!).
## Biography
### Ancestry
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on 3 June 1770, at his father's house. It was located near the Santo Domingo convent, at Santo Domingo street, between the streets Martín de Tours and Santísima Trinidad (the modern names of those streets are "Belgrano", "Defensa", and "Bolívar" respectively). Though the city was still rather small, the Belgranos lived in one of its wealthiest neighborhoods. Manuel Belgrano was baptized at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral the following day. As he was born in the Americas he was considered a criollo, a social class below the Peninsulars.
His father, Domingo (whose original Italian name was Domenico Belgrano Peri) came from the town of Imperia, Liguria, Italy. Domingo's maternal last name was Peri, which he translated to the Spanish form Pérez; his paternal last name was Belgrano – literally "Fairwheat", a name that denoted good cereal production. He changed his name "Domenico" to the Spanish "Domingo" as well. He was an Italian merchant authorized by the King of Spain to move to the Americas, and had contacts in Spain, Rio de Janeiro, and Britain. He promoted the establishment of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, which his son Manuel would lead a few years later.
Manuel Belgrano's mother was María Josefa González Islas y Casero, born in Santiago del Estero, Argentina. The family was the second richest in Buenos Aires, after the Escaladas.
Domingo Belgrano Pérez managed a family business, and arranged for his four daughters to marry merchants who would become his trusted agents in the Banda Oriental, Misiones Province, and Spain. The eight living male sons followed different paths: Domingo José Estanislao became canon at the local cathedral, while Carlos José and José Gregorio joined the army. Manuel Belgrano was meant to follow his father's work, but when he developed other interests, it was his brother Francisco José María de Indias who continued the family business.
### European studies
Belgrano completed his first studies at the San Carlos school, where he learned Latin, philosophy, logic, physics, metaphysics, and literature; he graduated in 1786. Domingo had sufficient success as merchant to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Europe. He expected them to study commerce, but Manuel decided to study law. Belgrano was so successful and attained such prestige that Pope Pius VI allowed him to study forbidden literature, even books deemed as heretical, excepting only the astrological and obscene books. In this way he came into contact with authors like Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Filangieri, who were forbidden in Spain.
Belgrano studied near the intellectual elite of Spain, and by that time there were heated discussions about the ongoing French Revolution. The principles of equality and freedom, the universal scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and criticism of the divine right of kings were constant topics of debate. Among the supporters of these ideas it was thought that Spain should be remade under similar principles, and critics of such thought were rejected as tyrants or proponents of outdated ideas.
However, the Spanish Enlightenment was slightly different from the French one as it still respected religion and the monarchy. Thus, despite the new influences, Belgrano remained a strong Catholic and monarchist.
Belgrano also studied living languages, political economy, and public rights. The authors that most influenced him were Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Adam Smith, and François Quesnay. Belgrano translated Quesnay's book Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole (General Maxims of the Economical Government in an Agricultural Kingdom) to Spanish. His main interest in the works of such authors were ideas that referred to the public good and popular prosperity.
Like many South American students, he became interested in physiocracy, which stated that new wealth came from nature, that agriculture was an economic activity that generated more income than one needed, and that the state should not interfere at all with it. By that time, South America had plenty of natural resources and a very strict state interventionism in the economy. Belgrano developed the idea that the principles of physiocracy and those stated by Adam Smith could be applied together in the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. In the development of this approach he was influenced by Fernando Galliani, who promoted the study of particular cases over theoric generalisations, and Antonio Genovesi, who thought that the absolute freedom promoted by physiocrats should be tempered by a moderate intervention by the state, such as the provision of free education for some.
During his time in Europe, Belgrano became president of an Academy within the University of Salamanca devoted to Roman legislation, forensic practice and political economy. In 1794, he translated the Maximas del Gobierno agricultor, which had wide readership in Argentina before the revolution in 1810.
This publication, along with Belgrano's other works, showed his preference for a combination of the ideas of the physiocrats and the neomercantilist thought by Antonio Genovesi. For him, this was the right economic model that could support Argentina's independence.
### Work in the consulate
He was driven by his vision of imperial partnership and drafted a well-known representacion to the Crown of 1793. A short time before his return to Buenos Aires on 3 June 1794, Belgrano was elected by Don Diego de Gardoqui as "perpetual secretary" of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, a new local institution which dealt with commercial and industrial issues in the name of the crown. This date would be later known in Argentina as Economist Day. He would remain in this office until 1810, and would deal with commercial disputes and promote agriculture, industry, and commerce. Not having enough freedom to make big changes in the economic system, he made big efforts to improve education. Influenced by Campomanes, he believed that the true wealth of countries was human ingenuity, and that the best way to promote industrialisation was through education.
Belgrano maintained frequent discussions with the committee members of the consulate, who were all merchants with strong interests involved in the monopolic commerce with Cadiz. He made many proposals, influenced by free trade ideas. By this time, Belgrano thought that "The merchant must have freedom to buy where he can be best accommodated, and it's natural that he does where he is supplied with the best price to be able to earn the best profit". Those proposals were rejected by the committee members; his only supporters were Juan José Castelli, Juan Larrea, and Domingo Matheu. However, Belgrano had some successes, such as creating the Nautical School, the Commerce School, and the Geometry and Drawing Academy. He created the Commerce School to influence future merchants to work towards the best interests of the nation, and the nautical and drawing ones to provide the youth with prestigious and lucrative careers. The schools were situated next to the Consulate so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development. The schools were in place for three years before they were closed by a ruling of Manuel Godoy, from the Spanish monarchy, who considered them an unnecessary luxury for a colony. It was felt that Buenos Aires might not be able to maintain them.
Belgrano tried to promote the diversification of agriculture via the production of linen and hemp, following experiences with his friend Martín de Altolaguirre. He proposed to keep reserves of wheat to help have control over its price. He also tried to make leather recognised as a product of the country, in order to promote its commercial potential. None of these proposals were accepted. He designed a system to give prizes to achievements that would boost the local economy, diversify the agriculture, or deforest the pampas. The system did not work as expected, and as nobody met the requirements no such prize was ever given.
He helped to create the first newspaper of the city, the Telégrafo Mercantil, directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa. He worked with Manuel José de Lavardén, and edited nearly two hundred issues. The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty, who did not like the criticisms made in it or the jokes and parodies. He also worked at the Semanario de Agricultura, Comercio e Industria, directed by Hipólito Vieytes. He used this newspaper to explain his economic ideas: manufacturing and exporting finished goods, importing raw materials to manufacture, avoiding importing luxury goods or raw materials that could be produced or extracted locally, importing only vital products, and owning a merchant navy. The newspaper specialised in the "Philosophy of History, Geography and Statistics". Many revolutionary principles were presented as essays.
Belgrano had symptoms of syphilis, which he had caught during his time in Europe. This sickness forced him to take long leaves from his work in the consulate, and to suggest his cousin Juan José Castelli, who had similar ideas, as a possible replacement during his leaves. Rejection by the committee members delayed the approval of Castelli until 1796.
### British invasions
Belgrano was appointed as captain of the urban militias in 1797 by viceroy Pedro Melo de Portugal, who was instructed by Spain to prepare defences against a possible British or Portuguese attack. Belgrano by then worked in the consulate, and was no longer interested in pursuing a military career. Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte requested that he create a militia to counter a possible British attack, but he did not take interest in it. His first participation in a military conflict took place when the British, under William Carr Beresford, arrived with 1,600 men and captured Buenos Aires, as part of the first British invasion of the River Plate. Belgrano moved to the fortress as soon as he heard the warning, and gathered as many men as possible to join him in the fighting. However, as most of them lacked any formal training, his men marched in disorder and Belgrano ordered them to disband after a single British cannon shot scattered his panicked men. Belgrano would write later in his autobiography that he regretted not having by then even the most basic knowledge of militia work.
After the British captured the city, all Spanish authorities were requested to pledge allegiance to the British crown. Belgrano thought that the members of the consulate should leave the city and join the viceroy, but the others did not agree. They acceded to the British request; Belgrano refused to do so. He said that he wanted "either our old master, or no master at all". To avoid being forced to pledge allegiance, he escaped from Buenos Aires and sought asylum at the chapel of Mercedes, in the Banda Oriental.
The British Army was defeated by a force under the direction of Santiago de Liniers, and Spanish authority was restored. It was expected that the British would return, and the whole city started to prepare for that possibility. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires after the reconquest, and put himself under the command of Liniers. He was appointed sergeant of the Patricians Regiment, under the command of Cornelio Saavedra, and started to study military strategy. After some conflicts with other officials, he resigned as sergeant and served again under the command of Liniers. A new British attack took place in July 1807. During the battle he served as field assistant to a division commanded by Balbiani.
Belgrano resumed his work in the consulate and discontinued his military studies. Due to his knowledge of French he had a brief interview with the British officer Robert Craufurd, who proposed British support for an independentist movement. Belgrano turned down the offer, suspecting that Britain might withdraw their support if their attentions were distracted by events which could occur in Europe, and in such case the revolutionaries would be helpless against a Spanish counterattack.
### Carlotism
Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of the Carlotist political movement in the Rio de la Plata, a response to recent developments in Europe, where Spain was at war with France. Through the abdications of Bayonne, the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was deposed and imprisoned and the Frenchman Joseph Bonaparte was appointed King of Spain by the French victors. This led to a partial power vacuum in the viceroyalty, as the legitimacy of the new king was rejected by all parties. The purpose of the Carlotist movement was to replace the authority of the deposed king with that of Carlota Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand, who was then living in Rio de Janeiro. The project was supported as a means to achieve more autonomy, and perhaps independence, for Spanish colonies in the New World. Belgrano kept a fluent mail communication with Carlota, and convinced many independentists to join him in the project, such as Castelli, Vieytes, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Juan José Paso.
The project, however, found strong resistance. As Carlota was married to John VI, a prince of Portugal, many people though that Carlotism was a trick to conceal Portuguese expansionism. Carlota herself had different political ideas than those of her supporters: Belgrano and the others shared the ideas of enlightenment, but Carlota aspired to keep the full power of an absolutist monarchy. By 1810 the project was forgotten.
A new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, arrived from Europe to replace Liniers. Belgrano had failed to convince Liniers of the benefits of the Carlotist plan, so he aimed instead to convince him of refusing to give up the viceroyalty, as Liniers had been confirmed as viceroy by a Spanish king. Cisneros, appointed by the Junta of Seville, lacked such legitimacy. Liniers refused this proposal as well, and handed command to Cisneros without resistance. Belgrano later convinced the new viceroy to allow him to edit a new newspaper, the "Correo de Comercio". This allowed him to gather with other revolutionary leaders with the excuse of discussing the development of the newspaper. He also supported Cisneros when he allowed foreign trade at the port (previously only Spanish ships were allowed), but this ruling was strongly rejected by Spanish merchants. The lawyer Mariano Moreno wrote The Representation of the Hacendados, an economic essay that convinced Cisneros to maintain the free foreign trade. Some historians, such as Miguel Ángel Scenna, suggest that the essay was actually Belgrano's work, or a work by Moreno from a draft written by Belgrano. Belgrano may not have been able to present such a work himself, because he held a political office and because his past opposition to Cisneros may have risked its rejection.
Belgrano resigned from his work in the Consulate in April 1810 and moved to the countryside. A short time later he received a letter from his friends requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements.
### May Revolution
The Peninsular War was not developing favourably for Spain, and by May 1810 a ship arrived with the news of the defeat of Seville and the disbanding of the Junta of Seville. Without either a recognised Spanish king or the Junta that had appointed Cisneros, many people thought that the viceroy no longer had any authority. Cisneros tried to conceal the news by gathering all the newspapers brought by the ship, but Belgrano and Castelli managed to get one. Cisneros then explained the European developments to the public. Belgrano and the members of the Carlotist party, despite having given up their original idea, plotted to remove the viceroy and replace him with a junta. Under the advice of Cornelio Saavedra, they waited for the news of the defeat in Spain to take action.
Belgrano and Saavedra, representing the military and the intellectuals, got an interview with Cisneros to request an open cabildo, but without getting an answer. Cisneros called the military leaders and requested their support, but they refused, under the grounds that his viceroyalty lacked legitimacy. Castelli and other patriots insisted in their request, and Cisneros finally accepted. A massive demonstration the following day ensured that Cisneros would keep his word. The open cabildo was held on 22 May, with all political leaders present, and armed men filling the Plaza and ready to invade the cabildo in case the peninsulars attempted a disruption, which would be indicated by a signal from Belgrano. He supported the stance of his cousin Castelli, who made a speech explaining the concept of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people, and that Spanish America was subject to the King of Spain but not to Spain itself. At the time of voting, Castelli's proposal was coupled with the one of Cornelio Saavedra, with Belgrano among its supporters. This joint proposal for the removal of Cisneros and the creation of a government junta prevailed over the others. However, the cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power in spite of this result, by creating a junta with Cisneros as its president. This was rejected by the revolutionary leaders and the population. A great state of turmoil ended when the Junta was disbanded on 25 May and replaced by the Primera Junta. Belgrano was included in this junta, among many other local politicians.
In his autobiography Belgrano declared that he did not have any previous knowledge of being included in the junta, and that his appointment took him by surprise. Nevertheless, he accepted the role. He was part of the political line of Mariano Moreno; they were expecting to use the government to make big changes in the social order. One of his first rulings was the making of a Maths Academy, located in the building of the consulate and with the purpose of instructing the military. Belgrano was appointed its protector. He supported the banishment of Cisneros and the members of the Real Audience, and the execution of Liniers and other counter-revolutionaries defeated in Córdoba. Some historians suggest that he would have promoted the creation of the Operations plan, a secret document written by Moreno that set harsh ways for the junta to achieve its goals, while others consider the whole document a literary forgery done by royalists to discredit the junta. A few others suspect that some paragraphs or the whole document may have been the result of collaborative writing between Moreno, Belgrano, and Hipólito Vieytes.
### Expedition to Paraguay
Three months after the creation of the Primera Junta, Manuel Belgrano was appointed Chief Commander of an army sent to gather support at Corrientes, Santa Fe, Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental. A few days later his goal was made more specific: he must aim for Paraguay. The Junta had been informed that the patriotic party was strong, and a small army would suffice to take control. Trusting this information, Belgrano went to Paraguay with two possible goals: get acknowledgment for the Junta in Paraguay or promote a new government that would stay on friendly terms with Buenos Aires. Belgrano was unaware that on 24 July a general assembly in Paraguay discussed the Junta of Buenos Aires, and decided to reject it and pledge allegiance to the Regency Council of Spain.
Belgrano headed north with nearly two hundred men, expecting to gather more people by the end of the Paraná River. Soldiers from the Blandengues regiments of San Nicolás and Santa Fe joined them en route, and later the Junta sent reinforcements of another two hundred soldiers. The army was welcomed by most of the population along the way, receiving donations and new recruits. Ultimately the army was composed of nearly 950 men, consisting of infantry and cavalry divided in four divisions with one piece of artillery each.
By the end of October the army stopped at Curuzú Cuatiá, where Belgrano solved an old border conflict between Corrientes and Yapeyu. He set which territories would belong to Curuzu Cuatiá and Mandisoví, and organised their urban layout around the chapel and school. By November the army arrived at the coast of Paraná near Apipé island, and there Belgrano took measures to benefit the natives that were living in missions. With his authority as speaker of the Junta he gave them full civil and political rights, granted lands, authorised commerce with the United Provinces, and lifted their restriction on taking public or religious office. However, the Junta requested later that he should seek authorization for such changes in the future.
From that point the army moved to Candelaria, which was used as a stronghold for the attack into Paraguay. The terrain gave a clear advantage to the Paraguayan governor Velazco against Belgrano: the Paraná River, nearly 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) wide, was an effective natural barrier, and once it was crossed the patriotic army would have to move a long distance across a land without supplies. Swamps, hills, rivers, and lakes would force the army to march slowly, making a possible retreat very difficult. The Parana was crossed with several boats on 19 December, and a task force of 54 Paraguayan soldiers was forced to flee during the Battle of Campichuelo. Belgrano saw Velazco's army from the Mbaé hill, and despite being greatly outnumbered, he ordered an attack, trusting in the moral strength of his soldiers. When the Battle of Paraguarí started, the patriots briefly held the upper hand, but eventually Velazco, with superior numbers, prevailed. Even with 10 deaths and 120 soldiers taken prisoner, Belgrano wanted to continue the fight, but his officials convinced him to retreat.
The army left for Tacuarí, being closely watched by the combined armies of Yegros and Cabañas. Those two armies had nearly three thousand soldiers, while Belgrano had barely four hundred. They were attacked from many sides during the Battle of Tacuarí, on 9 March. Greatly outnumbered and losing an unequal fight, Belgrano refused to surrender. He reorganised the remaining 235 men and ordered his secretary to burn all his documents and personal papers to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano arranged for the troops and artillery to fire for many minutes, which made the Paraguayan soldiers disperse. When the barrage stopped, Belgrano requested an armistice, telling Cabañas that he had arrived to Paraguay to aid and not to conquer; considering the open hostility with which he was met, he would leave the province. Cabañas accepted, on the grounds that the remaining group must leave the province within a day.
The campaign to Paraguay was a complete military defeat for Belgrano. However, the aftermath of the conflict led the Paraguayans to replace Belazco with a local junta, and declare independence from Spain. Under the rule of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay broke ties with Buenos Aires as well, and stayed isolated for several years afterwards.
### Creation of the flag of Argentina
After the defeat in Tacuarí, the government of Buenos Aires (which by then was the First Triumvirate) issued a series of conflicting orders. First they requested he should fight the royalists in the Banda Oriental, then to return to the city and be judged for the defeats. However, no charges were formulated against him.
He was appointed as the head of the Regiment of Patricians, replacing the banished Cornelio Saavedra, but the troops did not accept him and started the Braids Mutiny. After that, the Triumvirate requested that he fortify Rosario against possible royalist attacks from the Banda Oriental. Belgrano created two batteries, "Independencia" ("Independence") and "Libertad" ("Freedom"). After realising that both patriots and royalists were fighting under the same colours, he created the cockade of Argentina, of light blue and white, the use of which was approved by the Triumvirate. The reasons for the colours are usually considered to be either loyalty to the House of Bourbon or his esteem of the Virgin Mary. Belgrano created a flag with the same colours, which was hoisted at Rosario near the Paraná River on 27 February 1812. On that same day he was appointed to replace Pueyrredon in the Army of the North, so he travelled to Yatasto.
He found demoralised officials, nearly 1,500 soldiers (a quarter of them hospitalised), minimal artillery, and no money. Some of the officials were Manuel Dorrego, Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid, Cornelio Zelaya, José María Paz, Diego Balcarce, and Eustaquio Díaz Vélez. The cities were much more hostile to the Army than those that Belgrano encountered on his way into Paraguay. Salta was menaced by the royalist general José Manuel de Goyeneche; Belgrano had orders to take command and retreat without fighting, but he disobeyed. He prepared a base at Campo Santo, in Salta, where he improved the hospital and created a military tribunal. He later moved to Jujuy, knowing that he did not have the resources to launch an attack on Upper Perú.
The First Triumvirate did not approve the use of the flag created in Rosario, but Belgrano was initially unaware of that. He had the flag blessed by the priest Juan Ignacio de Gorriti at Salta, on the second anniversary of the May Revolution. When he found out the flag was not approved, he put it away. When asked, he would say that he was keeping it for a great victory.
Three months later royalist general Pío Tristán advanced in the north with more than three thousand men, prepared to invade the United Provinces. Once again outnumbered by larger armies, Belgrano organised a great exodus of the city of Jujuy: the entire population of the city would have to retreat with the army and not leave behind anything that might be of value to the royalists (such as animals, crops, or housing). By September a proper formation of columns provided them with a victory against a royalist task force of 500 men during the Battle of Las Piedras. The First Triumvirate commanded Belgrano to retreat to Cordoba without fighting, but he thought that doing so would mean the loss of the northern provinces. Thus, instead of continuing to Cordoba, he was convinced by the people of San Miguel de Tucumán to make a stand there. His forces had increased by then to nearly 1,800 soldiers, still much less than the 3,000 at Tristan's command. Even so, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Tucumán.
By that time, the First Triumvirate was replaced by the Second Triumvirate, which provided greater support for Belgrano. The Second Triumvirate called the Assembly of Year XIII soon after taking power, which was intended to declare independence and enact a national constitution, but failed to do so because of political disputes between the members. It did not take measures regarding the national flag, but allowed Belgrano to use the blue and white flag as the flag of the Army of the North.
By September, he provided assistance to the troops commanded by José Miguel Díaz Vélez. This infantry was fighting a 600-strong royalist cavalry. Through Belgrano's reinforcements, they eventually won the battle and captured the city of Tucumán. After the defeat in Tucumán, Tristán garrisoned at the city of Salta with 2,500 men. Belgrano, with reinforcements from the government, intended to gather 4,000 men and march to Upper Peru, up to the border of the Viceroyalty of Lima. The Battle of Salta, the first battle with the new approved banner, was a decisive victory, ending with the capitulation of Pío Tristán and all of his army.
These victories ensured Argentine authority in the northwest and stopped the royalist advance into the central territory. Although there were a number of colonialist 'invasions' from Upper Peru until 1821, Belgrano's campaign is widely considered the decisive one.
### Campaign to Upper Peru
By June 1813 Belgrano set up a base in Potosí with an army of 2,500 men, to prepare an attack on Upper Peru. Goyeneche moved to Oruro and resigned, being replaced by Joaquín de la Pezuela. Belgrano administrated the zone and tried to revert the bad impression left by the previous campaign of Juan José Castelli. Belgrano initiated good relations with the natives as well. Belgrano's plan was to attack the royalists from the front and the sides, with the aid of the armies of Cárdenas and Zelaya. Both armies were near 3,500 men. However, the royalists obtained an important advantage by defeating Cárdenas and getting possession of his papers, which gave them insight into the patriotic plans.
Belgrano was taken by surprise at Vilcapugio on 1 October, and initially gained the upper hand against the royalist troops, who started to flee. However, when Pezuela saw that the patriotic armies were not following, he reorganised his forces, returned to the battle, and won. There were barely 400 survivors. Belgrano said: "Soldiers: we have lost the battle after so much fighting. Victory has betrayed us by going to the enemy ranks during our triumph. It does not matter! The flag of the nation still swings in our hands!". After gathering his army at Macha, where he received reinforcements from Cochabamba, Belgrano was ready for another engagement with Pezuela, whose troops were not in a better situation. On 14 November, Belgrano was again vanquished by the royalists at Ayohuma, and was forced to withdraw the remains of his army towards Potosí and from there to Jujuy.
The Second Triumvirate reacted by sending José de San Martín to take the command of the Army of the North, with Belgrano as his second in command. San Martín would reinforce the battle-weary Army of the North with his own soldiers. Hastened by Belgrano's illness, San Martín travelled to the rendezvous as quickly as possible; they met at the Yatasto relay, in Salta. Belgrano gave San Martin full freedom to implement changes, and took command of the First Regiment. The Second Triumvirate, and later the Supreme Director Gervasio Posadas, requested Belgrano to return to Buenos Aires and be judged for the defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, but San Martín refused to send him because of his poor health. San Martín finally agreed to send Belgrano to Córdoba by March 1814. He temporarily settled in Luján to await outcome of the trial, and during this time he wrote his autobiography. Soon afterwards, all charges against Belgrano were dismissed, as no definite accusation was formulated against him. The new government, trusting in Belgrano's diplomatic abilities, sent him on a mission to Europe to negotiate support for the independence of the United Provinces.
### Declaration of Independence
By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restoration, which had grave consequences for the governments in the Americas. Belgrano and Bernardino Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Spain, as regent of the United Provinces, but in the end he refused to act against the interests of the King of Spain. The diplomatic mission failed, but Belgrano learned of changes in ideology that had taken place in Europe since his previous visit. With the influence of the French Revolution, there had been a great consensus for making republican governments. After the government of Napoleon I, monarchies were preferred again, but in the form of constitutional monarchies, such as in Britain. He also noticed that the European powers approved of the South American revolutions, but the approval was compromised when the countries started to fall into anarchy.
When the emissaries returned to Buenos Aires, the government was worried by the defeats of Rondeau at Sipe Sipe and the political stir generated by José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López. Alvarez Thomas appointed Belgrano to head the army at Rosario, but shortly afterwards Thomas resigned. Pueyrredón became the new Supreme Director. With the signing of the Santo Tomé pact, the aforementioned army was retired from Rosario. Belgrano was then sent back to take command of the Army of the North, with the strong support of San Martín. "In the case of designating who must replace Rondeau, I am decided for Belgrano; he is the most methodical man of all whom I know in America; he is full of integrity and natural talent. He may not have the military knowledge of a Moreau or a Bonaparte as far as the army is concerned, but I think he is the best we have in South America".
Belgrano met with the Congress of Tucuman on 6 July 1816 to explain the results of his diplomatic mission in Europe. He thought that enacting a local monarchy would help to prevent anarchy, which would not end simply with independence from Spain. He felt a declaration of independence would be more easily accepted by the European powers if it created a monarchic system. To this end he formulated the Inca Plan: a monarchy ruled by a noble of the Inca civilisation. He thought that this would generate support from the indigenous populations as well, and repair the actions taken against the Inca by the Spanish colonisation. This proposal was supported by San Martín, Güemes, the deputies from the Upper Peru, and other provinces, but it found a strong rejection from Buenos Aires; they would not accept Cuzco as the capital city. On 9 July the Congress finally signed the Declaration of Independence from Spain. The flag created by Belgrano, which was being used without a law regulating it, was accepted as the national flag. The Inca Plan was still under discussion, but the Congress delayed it due to several states of emergency in the provinces caused by the war.
In August Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but with very limited people and resources. He was ordered to avoid trying to advance against the royalists in the north, and was to stay in a defensive state at Tucumán. With Güemes in Salta, his task was to prevent the Royalists from moving to the south. The Supreme Director Pueyrredón was supporting an alternative plan designed by José de San Martín: create the Army of the Andes at Cuyo and, after making the Crossing of the Andes, defeat the royalists in Chile, get control of the Chilean navy, and attack the royalist stronghold of Lima with it.
### Last years
In 1819 Buenos Aires was at war with José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López, and requested San Martín and Belgrano to return with their armies to take part in the conflict. San Martín refused to do so, but Belgrano accepted. However, before his arrival the governors Estanislao López and Juan José Viamonte signed an eight-day truce to start peace negotiations. Belgrano's health was in a very bad state by this point, but he refused to resign, thinking that the morale of the Army would suffer without his presence. He moved to the frontier between Santa Fe and Córdoba, from where he would be able to move to either the litoral or the north if needed. His health continued to worsen, and he was given an unlimited leave from work by the Supreme Director. He handed command to Fernández de la Cruz and moved to Tucumán, where he met his daughter Manuela Mónica, just one year old. The governor of Tucuman, Feliciano de la Motta, was deposed during his stay, and Belgrano was taken prisoner. Abraham González led the uprising and attempted to put Belgrano into a shrew's fiddle, but Belgrano's doctor Josef Redhead objected, because of his delicate health, and his sentence was changed to simple imprisonment. When Bernabé Araoz took control of the government of Tucumán, Belgrano was immediately released.
He returned to Buenos Aires, to his parents' house. By that time the Battle of Cepeda had ended the authority of the Supreme Directors, starting the period known as Anarchy of the year 20. On 20 June 1820, at the age of 50, Belgrano died of dropsy. Due to his poverty, as the war consumed all his old wealth, he paid his doctor with his clock and his carriage, some of the few possessions he still had. As requested, he was shrouded into the robes of the Dominican Order, and buried in the Santo Domingo convent. Before dying, Belgrano said "Ay, Patria mía" (in Spanish, "Oh, my Fatherland").
Due to the state of anarchy being experienced by the city, Belgrano's death was largely unnoticed. The only newspaper of the time to note his death was El Despertador Teofilantrópico, written by Francisco de Paula Castañeda, and there was no government representation at his funeral. Former students of his educative institutions would arrive in the following days with obsequies, when the news started to be known. The following year the political context was less chaotic and Bernardino Rivadavia, who was minister by then, organised a massive state funeral.
In 1902, during the presidency of Julio Argentino Roca, Belgrano's body was exhumed from the atrium of Santo Domingo, to be moved into a mausoleum. This was done on 4 September, by a government commission which included Dr. Joaquín V. González (ministry of interior), Pablo Riccheri (ministry of war), Gabriel L. Souto (president of the commission), Fray Modesto Becco (from the convent), Carlos Vega Belgrano and coronel Manuel Belgrano (descendants of Belgrano), Dr. Armando Claros (subsecretary of the Interior), Dr. Marcial Quiroga (Health Inspector of the Army), Dr. Carlos Malbrán (president of the National Department of Health), Coronel Justo Domínguez, and doctors Luis Peluffo and C. Massot (Arsenal of War). The exhumation revealed a number of preserved bones, pieces of wood, and nails. The bones were placed on a silver plate, and the following day there was a great controversy in the press: the newspaper La Prensa announced that Joaquín V. González and Riccheri had stolen a pair of teeth. Both were returned the following day. Gonzalez declared that he intended to show the tooth to his friends, and Riccheri that he took one to Belgrano's biographer, Bartolomé Mitre.
## Personal life
Manuel Belgrano met María Josefa Ezcurra, sister of Encarnación Ezcurra, at the age of 22. Her father, Juan Ignacio Ezcurra, did not approve of their relationship because of the bankruptcy of Domingo Belgrano, Manuel's father. Juan Ignacio arranged the wedding of his daughter with Juan Esteban Ezcurra, a distant relative from Pamplona that worked selling clothes. Juan Ignacio opposed the May Revolution and returned to Spain, leaving his wife in Buenos Aires, which allowed her to return to her former relationship with Belgrano.
When Belgrano was dispatched to Upper Peru, María Josefa followed him to Jujuy. She took part in the Jujuy Exodus and saw the battle of Tucumán. It is thought that she was pregnant by this time. Her son, Pedro Pablo, was born on 30 July 1813. Pedro Pablo was adopted by Encarnación Ezcurra and her husband, Juan Manuel de Rosas, who she had married shortly before.
Belgrano also met María Dolores Helguero in Tucumán, and briefly considered getting married, but the war forced a postponement. María Dolores married another man; the relationship ended, but was briefly restarted in 1818. While he was near the frontiers of Córdoba, Santa Fe, and Buenos Aires, and in a delicate state of health, he learned that María Dolores had given birth to his daughter, Manuela Mónica del Sagrado Corazón, who was born on 4 May 1819.
Neither of these children were recognised by Belgrano in his will, where he said he had no children. However, it is thought that he did not mention them in order to protect their mothers, as both children were the result of relations that the moral standards of the society of the day would not have accepted. Nevertheless, he requested that his brother, Joaquín Eulogio Estanislao Belgrano, who was appointed as his heir, should look after his newborn daughter.
Like many other nineteenth century Argentines prominent in public life, Belgrano was a freemason.
### Diseases
There are no records of diseases experienced by Belgrano during his youth or adolescence. His first illness dates from the time of his return to Buenos Aires, when he worked in the consulate; he experienced symptoms of syphilis caught during his stay in Spain. He was treated by the most prestigious physicians of the city: Miguel O'Gorman, related to Camila O'Gorman, from the Protomedicato of Buenos Aires, Miguel García de Rojas, and José Ignacio de Arocha. This disease forced him to take long leaves from his work at the consulate and take repose stays at Maldonado and San Isidro. He was treated with salts and iodines, and his condition eventually improved. It is also suspected that he may have had rheumatism. By the year 1800 he had a growing lacrimal fistula in one of his eyes and was invited by the King to move to Spain for a cure. He was offered a one-year leave with paid wages, but he rejected it, giving priority to his work for the nation over his own personal health. The fistula would later stabilise at a safe and unnoticeable size.
During his military career he had blood vomits, such as before the Battle of Salta; he was almost too ill to participate in the battle. It is thought that those vomits originated in the digestive system and were caused by stress, and not in the respiratory system, because the vomits were sporadic, the condition did not become chronic, and it eventually cured itself. Nothing was revealed in the autopsy.
Belgrano also experienced paludism (malaria) during the second campaign to Upper Peru. On 3 May 1815 he informed the government of his disease, which made it difficult for him to work or even talk. He was treated by doctor Joseph Readhead, who employed a local species of the Cinchona medicinal plant. The disease lasted up to his stay in Britain, when his health improved because of the treatment and by having left the endemic zone.
He also experienced stomach disease, having a low production of gastric acids. This was worsened by harsh military conditions, including long periods with little food. The first references to the disease that would lead to his death, a case of edema, are from a year before, in a letter directed to Álvarez Thomas. He declared having problems in the chest, a lung, and his right leg. A later letter to Sarratea confirmed his situation, and specified that it started on 23 April 1819. The gravity of his condition led the doctor Francisco de Paula Rivero to diagnose an advanced dropsy. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires, where he died. He was embalmed by Joseph Redhead and Juan Sullivan. Sullivan performed the autopsy; it revealed high levels of fluid in multiple edemas and a tumor in the right epigastrium. The liver and spleen had grown beyond normal levels, there were hamartomas in the kidneys, and problems with the lungs and heart.
### Family tree
#### Father's side
#### Mother's side
## Works
### Political thought
Manuel Belgrano had a vast intellectual awareness of most important topics of his age. He studied in Europe during the Atlantic Revolutions, and was a versatile polyglot, capable of understanding Spanish, English, French, Italian, and some indigenous languages. This allowed him to read many influential books of the Age of Enlightenment, and understand the social, economic, technical, educative, political, cultural, and religious changes that were being prompted by the new ideas. He helped to promote those ideas using the press and with his work in the consulate. He rejected localist perspectives, favouring a Latin Americanist one. He was driven by the concept of the common good, which he regarded as an ethical value. He considered public health, education, and work as part of the common good, as well as religion. He did not share completely the ideas of the French Revolution, but instead the tempered ones of the Spanish Enlightenment: most notably, he remained a monarchist and held strong religious beliefs, being Roman Catholic and a devotee of Marian theology. His monarchism was not a conservative one, as he agreed that the existing state of things should be modified, but not towards a republic as in France or the United States, but towards a constitutional monarchy, like in Britain.
In the economic fields, he was influenced by the principles of physiocracy, an economic doctrine that considered that nature was the source of wealth. As a result, much of his works and reform proposals at the consulate were oriented towards improving agriculture, livestock, manufacturing, and free trade. He maintained a fluent contact with the consulates of other cities, developing a view of the viceroyalty as a whole. This led to an increased work in cartography of the largely unpopulated areas of the territory; the maps designed during this period would later prove a great help for José de San Martín during the Crossing of the Andes. He introduced new crops, and promoted the use of local fauna for livestock production. He protected the weaving industry by increasing the production of cotton in Cochabamba, as he considered the local crop to be of similar quality to the cotton from Europe.
### Promotion of education
Manuel Belgrano was one of the first politicians to advocate the development of an important educative system. He did so at the first report he made as head of the Consulate of Commerce, suggesting the creating of schools of agriculture and commerce. A school of agriculture would teach about important topics such as crop rotation, the specific ways to work with each crop, methods of seeding and harvesting, preservation of seeds, and identification of pests. Until that time, the only previous attempts to teach agriculture was done by the Jesuits, who were banished in 1767.
He was not only concerned with higher education, but also with primary education, and promoted the creation of free schools for poor children. In those schools, students would learn to read and learn basic maths and the catechism. He thought that this would help to raise people willing to work, and reduce laziness.
He also promoted the creation of schools for women, where they would learn about weaving, as well as reading. However, he did not aim to generate intellectual women, but just to prevent ignorance and laziness, and have them learn things valuable for daily living. Being a strong Catholic himself, he was aligned with the Catholic perspective that rejected mixed-sex education, in contrast with Protestantism.
His concern with public education was not interrupted by his military campaigns. In 1813 he was rewarded with 40,000 pesos for his victories at Salta and Tucumán, an amount that would equal almost 80 gold kilograms. Belgrano rejected taking the prize money for himself, considering that a patriot should not seek money or wealth. He gave it back to the XIII year Assembly, with instructions to build primary schools at Tarija, Jujuy, San Miguel de Tucumán, and Santiago del Estero. He laid out a series of instructions about the methods and requirements for the selection of the teachers. However, the schools were not built, and by 1823 Bernardino Rivadavia declared that the money was lost; Juan Ramón Balcarce included it in the debt of the Buenos Aires province a decade later.
### Translations
The historian Bartolomé Mitre stated that Manuel Belgrano held a deep admiration for George Washington, leader of the American Revolution and first President of the United States. Because of this, he worked on a translation of George Washington's Farewell Address into the Spanish language. He started working on it during the Paraguay Campaign, but before the battle of Tacuarí he destroyed all his papers, including the unfinished translation, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano resumed work on it afterwards and finished it before the Battle of Salta. He sent it to Buenos Aires for publication. George Washington's Farewell Address is considered, along with Gettysburg Address, one of the most important texts in the history of the United States. It talks about the importance of keeping national unity as the key to maintain independence, prosperity, and freedom—ideas that were shared by Belgrano regarding the population of Hispanic America.
## Legacy
Belgrano is considered one of the greatest heroes in Argentina's history. A monument complex (Monumento Nacional a la Bandera, National Flag Memorial) was built in 1957 in honour of the flag, in Rosario. The Flag Memorial and the park that surround it are the seat of national celebrations every Flag Day, on 20 June, the anniversary of Belgrano's death. Jujuy Province is declared the honorary capital of Argentina each 23 August since 2002, in reference to the Jujuy Exodus.
The cruiser ARA General Belgrano, which was sunk during the Falklands War, was named after him, as was the earlier 1896 ARA General Belgrano, and Puerto Belgrano, which is the largest base of the Argentinian navy. A small town in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, Villa General Belgrano, also bears his name, as well as many other small towns and departments. Avenida Belgrano in the City of Buenos Aires and part of the avenue that leads to the Flag Memorial in Rosario (also Avenida Belgrano) bear his name. Additionally, there is a northern neighbourhood within Buenos Aires city that carries the name Belgrano.
In the museum Casa de la Libertad at Sucre, Bolivia, there is an Argentine flag, protected by a glass case and in a deteriorated condition, which they claim to be the original one raised by Belgrano for first time in 1812. The ensign was one of two abandoned and hidden inside a small church near Macha after the battle of Ayohuma, during the retreat from Upper Peru in 1813. The other flag was given back to Argentina by the Bolivian authorities in 1896.
In Genoa, Italy, there is a commemorative statue of Belgrano, at the end of the Corso Buenos Aires.
### Historiography
The first biography of Manuel Belgrano was his autobiography, which he wrote by the time he was stationed in Lujan. It long remained unpublished. His first biography written by someone else was "Bosquejo histórico del General Don Manuel Belgrano" (Historical stub on General Don Manuel Belgrano), authored by José Ignacio Álvarez Thomas. Álvarez Thomas wrote it during his exile at Colonia del Sacramento, and his work had a high political bias.
The historian Bartolomé Mitre wrote Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina (Spanish: History of Belgrano and of the Independence of Argentina), whose scope expanded on the simple biography of Belgrano himself, and detailed instead the Argentine War of Independence as a whole. The work followed the Great Man theory, linking the success in the war of independence to the figure of Belgrano and his natal Buenos Aires. This book included as well the autobiography of Belgrano, which was discovered by Mitre. The book was criticised by contemporary Argentine authors, such as Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield and Juan Bautista Alberdi, born in other provinces, and Vicente Fidel López. Vélez Sarsfield dismissed the Great Man theory and maintained that the work of the other provinces for the Argentine independence was as important as that of Buenos Aires. He criticised the work of Mitre at "Rectificaciones históricas: General Belgrano, General Güemes" (Historical rectifications: General Belgrano, General Güemes) which dealt with Martín Miguel de Güemes as well, and Mitre would answer at "Estudios históricos sobre la Revolución de Mayo: Belgrano y Güemes" (Historical studies about the May Revolution: Belgrano and Güemes). Both books were written in 1864. Vicente López provided a biography of Belgrano from a different angle, his book was "Debate histórico, refutaciones a las comprobaciones históricas sobre la Historia de Belgrano" (Historical debate, rebuttals to the historical checkings about the history of Belgrano), and Mitre replied with "Nuevas comprobaciones sobre historia argentina" (New checkings about the history of Argentina). López considered history as an art form, and Mitre considered it a science, rejecting historical narrations that could not be backed by primary sources. These disputes about Belgrano are considered the starting point of the Historiography of Argentina. Historiographical studies of Manuel Belgrano are currently held by the Belgranian National Institute.
### Numismatics
Belgrano appears on a number of currencies in the numismatic history of Argentina. He appeared for the first time on the banknotes of 1, 5, and 10 pesos according to the Peso Ley 18.188, in effect from 1970 to 1983. He was later included on the 10,000 pesos banknotes of the pesos argentinos, the highest banknote value in circulation. The Argentine austral had a number of political and military figures that did not include Belgrano, but later the 10,000 pesos argentinos banknotes were allowed to be used as australes. The current Argentine peso displays Belgrano on 10-peso banknote. The 1997 and 2002 series only modified small details.
|
69,951,707 |
Ay mamá
| 1,157,188,027 |
2021 song by Rigoberta Bandini
|
[
"2021 singles",
"2021 songs",
"Electropop songs",
"Feminism in Spain",
"Number-one singles in Spain",
"Protest songs",
"Songs with feminist themes",
"Spanish pop songs",
"Spanish-language songs"
] |
"Ay mamá" (; American English: "Oh, mom", British English: "Oh, mum") is a song by Spanish music act Rigoberta Bandini. The song was independently released on 23 December 2021 and was a candidate to represent Spain in the 66th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest, taking part in its preselection, Benidorm Fest. Among the favourites to win, "Ay mamá" placed as the runner-up behind "SloMo" by Chanel. The song was included on Bandini's first studio album, La Emperatriz, released later in 2022.
It has performed well on the Spanish charts and music streaming services, reaching number one and winning three Song of the Year awards, and entered Spanish pop culture both as a feminist anthem and as a viral phenomenon due to its unusual staging at Benidorm Fest.
## Production and composition
Paula Ribó González began performing as singer-songwriter Rigoberta Bandini in 2020 after having been in several girl groups in the 2010s. Ribó performs as Rigoberta Bandini with her band composed of her partner, Esteban Navarro, and younger cousins, Juan Barenys and Memé (Belén Barenys). On "Ay mamá", Ribó and Memé provide vocals, Navarro is the keyboardist, and Barenys is their percussionist. Bandini became one of the most popular singers in Spain over the COVID-19 pandemic, with 2021 song "Perra" becoming a "feminist anthem" for its theme of vindicating femininity and for the wordplay of its title, "perra". Ribó has said that she does not only write songs about women but that femininity is a large inspiration on her work. Wiwibloggs noted that "Ay mamá" has choral verses build into an electropop chorus, which they had previously described as Bandini's particular style and something that is "anything but safe and lame" even within the context of the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC). During composition of the song, the band experimented with different synthesizer sounds, and the line was originally being recorded with a vocoder.
Ribó wrote "Ay mamá" as a tribute to her own mother, around ten years before releasing it, when she was 23; after becoming a mother herself she decided to put the song out. She composed it on the piano and began developing it for submission to Benidorm Fest, Spain's ESC preselection, eight years after originally writing it; she felt there was something special in the song and decided to develop it for the contest, adding that she "liked the demo, but [was not] in love with it" and "would withdraw if by the deadline [she] wasn't convinced about it" – she said she did love the final version. One of the more significant things she changed was the opening line. In the final version it is , while originally it had been ; Ribó changed this knowing that such explicit a lyric would not be accepted for the ESC and for wanting to make a song that could resonate with everyone from childhood to old age, later saying that she felt Spain was still a country that generally balked even at the word "tit".
According to Ribó, the song is a "feminist scream" created to "pay tribute to mothers and all women" as well as "transcending maternity", as not all women become mothers, to speak to the inherent power and unity in being a woman. With its theme of feminism, the song also denounces censorship of women's breasts and celebrates motherhood; in an interview with Spanish broadcaster RTVE, Ribó said that as well as the song criticising constant public opinions of women's bodies there is humour in the lyrics, that "[she] really [likes] writing and for [her] the lyrics are important. In this case, in addition to talking about the strength of femininity, in this case of mothers, it is a song that amuses [her]".
The lyrics of the song include , referring to French artist Eugène Delacroix, who painted many nude and topless women, and specifically his artwork Liberty Leading the People. The painting depicts Liberty personified as a woman with her breasts out leading liberated people over the bodies of soldiers; the lyrics of "Ay mamá" invoke the same personification, calling for a "breast revolution". Delacroix's painting had also been censored on Facebook in 2018 for depicting female nipples. Originally, the name Delacroix was not in the lyrics, with the song having a different pre-chorus. Interviewed in 2021, Ribó said that the image of Liberty in Delacroix's painting still moves her.
## Reception and impact
The Heraldo de Aragón wrote in May 2022 that the song had become "one of the feminist anthems of Spain" and praised its ability to get people both dancing and thinking. In the same month, Cosmopolitan wrote that it had found more success than most songs that do represent Spain at the ESC ever achieve.
The song was chosen for the soundtrack of the Telecinco docuseries Montealto: Regreso a la casa [es] – about Rocío Carrasco visiting the mansion of her late mother, Rocío Jurado – in January 2022. It was also used across Telecinco and other Mediaset España media from its release in 2021, including in news features produced about censorship of female nipples.
"Ay mamá", and Bandini's other music, received a boost in popularity following the Benidorm Fest appearance: in the week after Benidorm Fest, Bandini entered the global top 200 artists by streaming and downloads across major platforms at \#179; "Ay mamá" was streamed over 8 million times on Spotify; and Bandini had the top two most-watched music videos and became the most-watched music artist on YouTube Spain, the first woman and third Spanish musician to achieve this. By May 2022, "Ay mamá" had been streamed over 22 million times on Spotify.
Various politicians – including government ministers – expressed their support for the song, while some conservative politicians, including the leaders of the center-right People's Party and far-right Vox, attacked the song. On 8 March 2022, during the International Women's Day marches and protests in Spain, the song was played at many of the demonstrations. The song has been politicised by different people and parties in Spain: Irene Montero, Minister of Equality, used references to the song and its lyrics to support her campaign to introduce more feminist laws for democratic equality; Congresswoman Macarena Olona has turned around the lyrics of the song in order to criticise Montero's campaign; and writer Maria de la Pau Janer published an opinion piece that used the song's title and its lyrics about menstruation to support her argument that while menstruation should be discussed and celebrated more, Spain's 2022 menstrual leave bill would result in women being passed over for jobs.
Describing 2022 as "the year of the boob" in August 2022, El Mundo wrote that Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez had threatened to pull Spain out of the ESC if broadcasters censored Ribó performing topless, should that have happened, with his cabinet supporting the idea of Ribó performing topless at Benidorm Fest.
Catalan parody sketch show Polònia performed a parody of the song in February 2022. Titled "Ay papá", it was performed by Pep Plaza imitating Felipe VI, the King of Spain, as he humorously criticises his father, Juan Carlos I, and the scandals that have landed Juan Carlos in the news in the years following his abdication and relocation to the Middle East. It also featured an imitator as Alaska, a Benidorm Fest presenter, giving frank commentary about the voting system following criticisms of Benidorm Fest's votes. Spanish music comedy duo Los Morancos recorded a parody called "Ay Omá" lampooning the state of health services in Spain, particularly for older women. The viral Benidorm Fest performance of "Ay mamá" was recreated by Susi Caramelo [es] on Tu cara me suena during the week of the Eurovision Song Contest 2023.
## Accolades
## Chart performance
It reached number one on the Spanish charts on 28 January 2022, becoming the first song that failed to represent Spain at the ESC to top the country's chart since "Lo Malo" by Aitana and Ana Guerra in 2018. The song received a platinum certification by PROMUSICAE on 1 March. After debuting in the top 100 in December 2021, it spent 36 continuous weeks on the chart, leaving in the first week of September 2022. It re-entered the top 100 in the second week of October 2022 upon the release of the album La Emperatriz, on which it features.
## Cover art
The single's cover art depicts the tarot card of The Empress from the Major Arcana of the Tarot of Marseilles cards. Ribó explained that the card is a symbol of freedom and feminine power, and a card she has felt a connection to.
## Music video
The music video for "Ay mamá" was released on 1 May 2022, coinciding with the celebration of Mother's Day in Spain. Developing the music video began as soon as the group returned from Benidorm Fest; the ideas were very ambitious in terms of production so creating the video would take some time. Ribó felt that taking the time to create a more impressive video was worthwhile, as the song was sustaining its popularity on its own. They did not initially plan to release the music video on Mother's Day but after being in post-production for a month the timing coincided to do so. It was directed by Salvador Sunyer, whom Ribó chose to work with because she knew he could find the right balance of "humour, poetry, beauty and femininity". Sunyer had "carte blanche in artistic terms" control over the video. By the time of the music video's release, the video of the song's performance in the grand final of Benidorm Fest had over 7.5 million views on YouTube. At the premiere of the music video, Ribó said that "it's not a great story, but there are very beautiful images", and that it is funny, which she liked.
It depicts Ribó trying to compose a song without disturbing her young child. While doing so, she notices a photo of her mother and imagines herself embodying all women from prehistory to the far future when women have four arms and fly. In this future, a spaceship shaped like a sphinx with Mark Zuckerberg's head, with a Meta logo on its forehead, approaches a pink planet with a prominent volcano, which looks like a spherical breast and its nipple. The nipple then shoots a laser beam and explodes the Zuckerberg ship. At the end of the video, Ribó's son wakes in the music studio, and she rushes to comfort him.
According to costume designer Pau Aulí, who had three weeks to conceptualise the costumes before shooting, the different eras of women's history in the video are marked by different outfits as well as the settings, with each outfit also being symbolic of an aspect of feminism in some way: in prehistory, Ribó and the dancers are naked and covered in mud to indicate freedom; in recent history, Ribó wears a corset and hoop skirt with a powdered face, showing oppressive women's fashion; and in the far future, the women are metallic to show resilience. Some of the costume choices represent the hymen and vulva.
Other allusions to women's history in the video include some of the images surrounding Ribó before she sees the photo of her mother – including a Tarot of Marseilles Empress card, an image of the Hindu goddess Durga, and an image of Rembrandt's painting Bathsheba with King David's Letter – and a gallery of depictions of breasts, motherhood, and femininity through art history in a creative sequence set in the dome of the Pantheon. The Delacroix painting mentioned in the lyrics, Liberty Leading the People, also appears in the music video, with Ribó's head superimposed on Liberty. The inclusion of the Zuckerberg ship, which also resembles the Imperial Star Destroyer from Star Wars, being destroyed by a giant breast is a condemnation of his company's social networks censoring female nipples.
Seven Free the Nipple campaigners were hired to appear in the music video, topless, showing different appearances of breasts. None of the footage of "real breasts" was included in the final video and the only breasts shown in the video not as part of artworks were those of Ribó and the dancers covered in mud as prehistoric women. Sunyer, who had artistic control of the final cut, said that there was no censorship intended in removing the footage and that he made the decision to cut it for artistic reasons only, saying that the footage did not work with the rest of the video. Another nipple freedom group, Femen, had been approached to participate but did not do so, with the group blaming the video production team; Sunyer says that they had been asked because some of the video ideas resembled Femen's protests, and he did not want to be seen as plagiarising, but he ultimately decided not to involve Femen as the group wanted artistic control of their appearance in it. The Free the Nipple activists were told before the music video was released that they had been cut, and they were still credited. Sunyer also suggested that some of the cut footage, which includes a natural birth, may be used in a music video for "Ay mamá (Génesis)". After the video was released, one of the activists used social media to express her disappointment in the creative direction of the video, which she said they all felt had potential to carry a more powerful message, as well as the fact the decisions were made by men, noting that their complaints were not directed at Bandini.
## Live performances
The first live performance of the song was in Logroño at the Riojaforum concert in January 2022, during which Ribó and Memé performed topless during parts of the song. They repeated this at other concerts following Benidorm Fest. At Festival Ítaca in L'Estartit in June 2022, the group was joined by a giant puppet with a breast exposed, also called Rigoberta, from Geganters de la Bisbal d'Empordà, which was dancing in the audience. This also served as part of the giant Rigoberta's 40th anniversary celebrations in the area.
### Benidorm Fest
As Bandini's popularity grew in 2021, Wiwibloggs wrote that she was "one of the hottest names in Spain's music industry" and said she would be the dream artist to represent them at the 2022 Eurovision Song Contest; interviewed by EFE, Ribó said she would consider taking part but may wait for a future edition. In December 2021, "Ay mamá" was among the fourteen candidates selected by RTVE to participate in Benidorm Fest in January 2022 for a chance to represent Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022, with the broadcaster saying after the Benidorm Fest semi-finals that the performance had everything needed to succeed at the ESC. Shortly before Benidorm Fest, "Ay mamá" entered Spotify's global top 50 viral songs.
It placed first in its semi-final, receiving the top votes from both the jury and the public and receiving the most combined points across both semi-finals with 111 (one point ahead of Chanel and her song "SloMo" with 110), though Ribó had performed with sinusitis. It then competed in the grand final, with its staging "not leaving anyone indifferent"; the performance featured, towards the end of the song, a large spherical breast. Prior to Benidorm Fest, Ribó wrote on Twitter that "the boob will be so big that we won't fit on stage". The giant boob was created by Marina Salazar. Ribó was dressed initially in an outfit reminiscent of a wedding dress with sunglasses before removing these and the veil and, later, stripping down to a nude suit; she had asked the costume designer for outfits with impact, that "go from chastity to animality", and said in other circumstances she would have stripped completely at the end. The sunglasses were a suggestion from Juan Barenys, with Ribó saying it was a detail that took some of the pressure off by adding some lightness to the early staging. RTVE described the staging as "fresh, innocent, and full of symbolism". Ribó also had issues when performing in the grand final, as her in-ear piece stopped working partway through the song. Two additional dancers, María Isabel (Mabel) Olea and Marta Ros, joined the four performers at the competition; among other dancers, both also appeared in the music video. La Vanguardia said that the combination of the song's powerful lyrics and the staging in the grand final made it go viral.
In the grand final, the Galician-language song "Terra" by Tanxugueiras won the public and demoscopic (panel representative of the Spanish demographics) votes, the former by a landslide, with "Ay mamá" and "SloMo" filling out the top three in both; "Terra" performed poorly in the jury vote, however, which was instead dominated by the other two songs. Ultimately, "Ay mamá" placed second overall, ahead of "Terra" in third and behind winner "SloMo", which then came third at the ESC.
Ribó congratulated Chanel after she won, even as the obscure televoting system of the national selection and Chanel's win over Bandini and Tanxugueiras drew criticism in the media and saw four government ministers make official requests for RTVE to release full details of the votes. Both Bandini and Tanxugueiras asked fans to accept the result; Ribó said she knew ESC fans would have preferred her or Tanxugueiras to win but that she felt uncomfortable that the crowds in Benidorm were chanting for her when Chanel was announced the winner. She later told HuffPost that she realised she was not destined to win the competition, adding: "going to Eurovision would be super fun, but I prefer that my song has become a part of society". In April 2022, "Ay mamá" was voted the best non-winning song from a national final by ESC fan website escgo! annual SongHunt contest. It was also chosen to represent Spain in the 2022 OGAE Second Chance Contest, in which it came third.
## Credits and personnel
### Song
- Paula Ribó González – writer, lead vocals, music publisher
- Esteban Navarro Dordal – writer, background vocals, keyboardist, producer, composition
- Belén Barenys González – lead and background vocals
- Juan Barenys González – background vocals, percussionist
- Stefano Maccarrone – producer, composition
### Video
- Salvador Sunyer – director, original idea
- Josep Prat Sorolla – original idea, creative director
- Paula Ribó González – original idea
- Pepe Gay de Liébana – cinematography
- Martí Blanché – editor
- Susana Ripa – producer
- Mañana – production company
- Limp – post-production
- Dolby Atmos – sound
Credits and personnel adapted from music video and single video.
## Charts and certifications
## Other versions
On 27 April 2022, Bandini released "Ay mamá (Génesis)", the version of the song that was originally submitted to Benidorm Fest. Ribó decided to release this version because it "really is nothing like ["Ay mamá"]. They have many parts in common but it's another song with its own identity, so [the band] were excited. It was more than anything the desire to share that kind of draft notebook." The Génesis version includes many more lyrics than the original single.
Bilbao-based musicians Krusak and Xabier Iriarte collaborated to record a Basque cover of the song in April 2022, "Ene ama", which also became popular. In a viral video on YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, Spanish singer Mario Jefferson performed the song while imitating famous Latin music artists' voices, propelling him to fame as one of Spain's new generation of imitators.
On 13 May 2022, the song was performed by contestant Scorpio on the Catalan singing competition show Eufòria, with a mural projection of images of women breastfeeding shown behind.
Ribó is an ambassador for the Levi's Music Project; between March and May 2022, they ran a competition for fans and music producers to download the song elements of "Ay mamá" and remix the song. The Levi's Music Project collaborations intend to inspire creativity, and after the remixes were submitted Ribó chose her favourites and held a live feedback session with the creators on Discord.
A cover version by Azúcar Moreno was released in April 2023; the group had represented Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 1990 and also competed in Benidorm Fest 2022.
## See also
- List of number-one singles of 2022 (Spain)
|
32,267,545 |
Thor: The Dark World
| 1,171,110,609 |
2013 Marvel Studios film
|
[
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"American action adventure films",
"American fantasy action films",
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"American sequel films",
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"Fiction about regicide",
"Fictional-language films",
"Films about elves",
"Films about extraterrestrial life",
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"Films about wormholes",
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"Films directed by Alan Taylor",
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"Films shot at Longcross Studios",
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"Films shot in London",
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"Films using motion capture",
"Films with screenplays by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely",
"Films with screenplays by Christopher Yost",
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Thor: The Dark World is a 2013 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Thor, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to Thor (2011) and the eighth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Alan Taylor from a screenplay by Christopher Yost and the writing team of Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely. It stars Chris Hemsworth as Thor alongside Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston, Stellan Skarsgård, Idris Elba, Christopher Eccleston, Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, Kat Dennings, Ray Stevenson, Zachary Levi, Tadanobu Asano, Jaimie Alexander, Rene Russo, and Anthony Hopkins. In the film, Thor and Loki (Hiddleston) team up to save the Nine Realms from the Dark Elves.
Development of a sequel to Thor began in April 2011 when producer Kevin Feige announced plans for it to follow the MCU crossover film The Avengers (2012). In July, Thor director Kenneth Branagh withdrew from the sequel. Taylor was hired to replace him as director in January 2012. The supporting cast filled out that August with the hiring of Eccleston and Akinnuoye-Agbaje as the film's villains. Filming took place from September to December 2012, primarily in Surrey, England, as well as in Iceland and London. Taylor wanted the film to be more grounded than Thor, inspired by his work on Game of Thrones. He hired Carter Burwell to compose the score, but Marvel replaced Burwell with Brian Tyler.
Thor: The Dark World premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013, and was released in the United States on November 8, as part of Phase Two of the MCU. The film was a commercial success, grossing over \$644 million worldwide and becoming the tenth highest-grossing film of 2013. It received praise for the performances of Hemsworth and Hiddleston, visual effects, and action sequences, but was criticized for its generic villain and lack of depth. Retrospectively, Taylor expressed dissatisfaction with the film and said Marvel substantially altered it from his original vision during post-production. Two sequels have been released: Thor: Ragnarok (2017) and Thor: Love and Thunder (2022).
## Plot
Eons ago, Bor—the father of Odin—clashes with the Dark Elf Malekith, who seeks to unleash a weapon known as the Aether on the Nine Realms. After conquering Malekith's forces, including enhanced warriors called the Kursed, on their home world of Svartalfheim, Bor sends the Aether to a hidden world that no one can reach. Unknown to Bor, Malekith escapes with his lieutenant Algrim and a handful of Dark Elves. They go into suspended animation.
In present-day Asgard, Loki stands imprisoned for his war crimes on Earth. Meanwhile, Thor and his companions repel marauders on Vanaheim in the final battle of a war to pacify the Nine Realms following the reconstruction of the Bifröst—the "Rainbow Bridge" between realms which was destroyed two years earlier. The Asgardians learn that the Convergence, a rare alignment of the Nine Realms, is imminent; as the event approaches, portals linking the worlds appear at random.
In London, astrophysicist Dr. Jane Foster travels to an abandoned factory where such portals have appeared. Foster is teleported to the hidden world where the Aether is stored and it enters her body. Thor finds Foster and takes her to Asgard, where Odin warns that the Aether will not only kill her but herald a catastrophic prophecy.
Malekith, awakened by the Aether's release, attacks Asgard searching for Foster. Thor's mother Frigga is fatally stabbed protecting her. Thor enlists the help of Loki, who knows of a secret portal to Svartalfheim where they plan to confront Malekith, in return for vengeance on Malekith for killing their mother. On Svartalfheim, Loki tricks Malekith into drawing the Aether out of Foster but Thor's attempt to destroy it fails. Malekith merges with the Aether and leaves as Loki seemingly dies while killing Algrim.
Thor and Foster reunite in London with Foster's mentor Dr. Erik Selvig. They learn that Malekith plans to plunge the entire universe into darkness by unleashing the Aether at the center of the Convergence in Greenwich. Thor battles Malekith across multiple worlds and helps his mortal comrades use their scientific equipment to transport Malekith to Svartalfheim, where he is crushed by his own ship. Thor returns to Asgard, where he declines Odin's offer to take the throne. After he leaves, Loki is revealed to be alive and impersonating Odin.
In a mid-credits scene, Volstagg and Sif visit the Collector and entrust the Aether to his care, commenting that with the Tesseract already in Asgard, having two Infinity Stones so close together would be unwise. As they leave, the Collector states his desire to acquire the other five Stones. In a post-credits scene, Foster and Thor reunite on Earth.
## Cast
- Chris Hemsworth as Thor:
An Avenger and the crown prince of Asgard, based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name. Hemsworth stated that the film addresses unresolved issues regarding Thor's relationships from previous films, "For Thor and Jane, there are some unanswered questions now, since obviously he didn't stop in and catch up with her in The Avengers. Thor might have some explaining to do in this one. And with Loki, we get down to the major bones of our conflict with everything that's come from Thor to Avengers to now." Hemsworth added, "Thor's journey I think picks more so up from where we left the first one—About to take on the throne... and now coming to the realization of what responsibility comes with that. Also, Alan [Taylor] keeps talking about the dark side of that responsibility, and the secrets of being king or becoming sort of very political about what people need to know and what they want to know." Hemsworth especially enjoyed the role of Thor in this film as he was able to, "... break him down and find his human qualities and his vulnerable side."
- Natalie Portman as Jane Foster:
An astrophysicist and Thor's love interest who is brought from Earth to Asgard by Thor after she is infected with a mysterious energy. Producer Kevin Feige said, "[W]hile Thor was a fish out of water on Earth in the first two films (Thor and The Avengers), this time Jane is very much a fish out of water in Asgard." Portman added, "It was a whole different adventure this time. Because Jane is the fish out of water. I didn't want to make it like Bill & Ted, or like a valley girl dumped into Shakespeareland." Portman also said the film finds Jane at a different place in her life, "Jane has moved, so she's now in London, not in Santa Fe anymore. Obviously she has gone through missing Thor and also being upset at him because he didn't come knock on her door when he was on her planet. She's definitely been getting over that and trying to move on." Hemsworth's wife Elsa Pataky stood in for Portman during the post-credits kissing scene due to a scheduling conflict.
- Tom Hiddleston as Loki:
Thor's adoptive brother and nemesis, based on the deity of the same name, who forms an uneasy alliance with Thor against the Dark Elves. On where he wished to take the character in the film, Hiddleston said, "I'd like to take [Loki] to his absolute rock bottom. I'd like to see him yield, essentially, to his darkest instincts. Then, having hit rock bottom, maybe come back up. I think the fascination for me about playing Loki is that, in the history of the mythology and the comic books and the Scandinavian myths, is he's constantly dancing on this fault line of the dark side and redemption." Hiddleston recalled, "When I met Alan [Taylor], he asked me how I thought I could do Loki again without repeating myself and I remembered talking with Kevin Feige when we were on the Avengers promotional tour. I said, 'OK, you've seen Thor and Loki be antagonistic for two films now. It would be amazing to see them fight side by side. I've been the bad guy now twice, so I can't be again, or otherwise I shouldn't be in the film. So we have to find a new role for me to play."
- Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig:
Foster's mentor and colleague. Skarsgård said, the film finds Selvig in a "disrupted mode" explaining, "Having a god in your head for a while creates some psychological problems", referring to the character's ordeal following The Avengers.
- Idris Elba as Heimdall:
The all-seeing, all-hearing Asgardian sentry of the Bifröst Bridge, based on the mythological deity of the same name. Elba said he has a larger role in the sequel, "In the new film we're going to get to know Heimdall the Asgardian a bit better, and we're going to get to know Asgard a bit better. I can't say too much, but the expansion of Thor in his world is going to be huge. My part was very small and functional in the first film".
- Christopher Eccleston as Malekith:
The ruler of the Dark Elves of Svartalfheim. About Malekith's motivation, Eccleston said, "There is a kind of tragic quality to his quest. Because he's lost his wife, he's lost his children. He's lost everything. And he returns for revenge. And the agent for his revenge is the Aether. If he gets hold of that, he is omnipotent." Eccleston continued, "What I thought about a great deal was revenge—there's huge amounts of revenge. One quote is: 'When you seek revenge, be sure to dig two graves.' I did a film called Revengers Tragedy where I played a guy called Vindici—from the word 'vindictive'—and he is the distillation of revenge. So, in a way, that was what I had to think of: how revenge can make you absolutely monomaniacal—though you're still trying to make it recognizably motive-led. It's just the personification of movie evil." However Taylor stated that many scenes involving Malekith's backstory had to be cut from the film to make it more efficient. Eccleston revealed that he speaks an invented language for the film explaining, "The Elvish language is definitely based on European languages. I think there's probably some Finnish in there. It does have its logic and its rhythms. It also has many syllables and it's very difficult to do while remaining naturalistic. It's been a particular challenge for us but hopefully it gives the film some complexity and variety." Eccleston also said the role required six hours of make-up and 45 minutes in wardrobe.
- Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje as Algrim / Kurse:
A Dark Elf and Malekith's trusted and loyal lieutenant who is transformed into a monstrous creature in order to destroy Thor. Akinnuoye-Agbaje described Kurse as "an amalgamation of a bull and a lava-like creature. He has very animalistic tendencies but with this insatiable and unstoppable power. As an actor, that's one of the hardest things to embody. You have to realize you are probably the most powerful thing you could imagine. And you have to be that. You can't pretend, so that when you face Thor, it's real." Akinnuoye-Agbaje stated the role required three hours of make-up a day and had to put on heavy duty prosthetics explaining, "The outfit weighed about 40 pounds. I'm sure there will be a certain amount of CGI but a good 80% was me in that suit." About the character Akinnuoye-Agbaje said, "I suppose Algrim and Kurse would be the quintessential baddies, but in reality they are what I perceive as the scorn and the victims of the story. They are the elves who have basically lost their planet and their race to another race, the Asgardians. Here is a man/alien who places a noble objective beyond his own life and I think there is something extremely inspiring about that because he looks at the bigger picture and sees himself as a means to that end." Akinnuoye-Agbaje added, "I worked with director Alan Taylor in trying to maintain Algrim's humanity all the way throughout Kurse's transformation, so that even when you see Kurse the beast, you can still relate to him as being Algrim inside. And symbolically we did that by keeping the same piercing blue eyes throughout."
- Kat Dennings as Darcy Lewis:
A political science major who is interning for Foster. Her role in the film was expanded from the comic relief sidekick role she played in the first Thor film. Dennings said her character is "really bad at real science in this first movie. In the second movie, she's more interested, but she still doesn't know anything about it. She loves Jane, she really wants Jane and Thor to be together. It's almost like her own little soap opera that she watches."
- Ray Stevenson as Volstagg:
A member of the Warriors Three, a group of three Asgardian adventurers who are among Thor's closest comrades, known for both his hearty appetite and wide girth. About the character Stevenson said, "He's got a heart the size of a planet that he wears on his sleeve, so he's like a big kid." Regarding Volstagg's role in this film, Stevenson said, "Volstagg is struggling, he has a brood, [the Warriors Three] are fighting for hearth and home as much as for the idea of Asgard itself. That's where he has trouble." Explaining, "He's all too aware of how potentially threatening this new enemy is on both the home front and the battlefield."
- Zachary Levi as Fandral:
A member of the Warriors Three, characterized as an irrepressible swashbuckler and romantic. Levi replaced Joshua Dallas in the role due to Dallas's commitment on Once Upon a Time. Levi had been up for the role in the first film, but bowed out due to his commitment on Chuck. Levi compared the character to Flynn Rider, the character he played in the animated feature, Tangled, "Fandral is a little similar to Rider in some ways... He's like this Lothario. He's like Errol Flynn. He loves ladies, as do I". Regarding the dynamic of the Warriors Three, Levi said, "The Warriors Three are here to support Thor. We are his confidants, his best friends. We've all grown up together in a lot of ways and fought many a battle together, escaped death. To me it's the way best friends ought to be—they're there when you need to talk and they're there if you don't want to talk, and they're there if you need to escape from your father's place in a flying skiff!"
- Tadanobu Asano as Hogun: A member of the Warriors Three, native of Vanaheim, primarily identified by his grim demeanor.
- Jaimie Alexander as Sif:
An Asgardian warrior, Thor's childhood friend and Foster's romantic rival, based on the deity of the same name. Alexander said there is more character development for Sif and the film explores the Sif-Thor relationship. Alexander elaborated, "I really tried to bring a little bit more vulnerability in this film. Sif is very much in love with Thor and very much cares about his well-being. So she kicks a lot of butt in this movie but she also opens her heart a lot."
- Rene Russo as Frigga:
The wife of Odin, queen of Asgard, mother of Thor, and adoptive mother of Loki, based on the mythological deity of the same name. Russo said that her role was expanded and explores Frigga's relationship with Loki, "You know, they cut me [down] in the first film. Kenneth Branagh sent me a nice note, because he understood, he's an actor. You move on, what are you going to do? But I think they're going to need a good mom in the next film. Loki needs his mom. I have a lot of compassion for [Loki]. But we might have to have a conversation about what he just did".
- Anthony Hopkins as Odin:
The king of Asgard, father of Thor, and adoptive father of Loki, based on the deity of the same name, who disapproves of Jane Foster being in Asgard. Regarding Thor's relationship with his father, Hemsworth said, "[T]he conflict between Thor and Odin was so great in the first one... so, certainly they disagree as I think they always will at times but there's a far greater respect from each other. So it becomes, I guess, a more mature conversation, but there's more at stake this time, too. It's not sort of just their individual egos, the whole universe is at stake." As to his approach Hopkins said, "I just play Odin like a human being, with maybe a little more dimension. I grow a beard, look hopefully impressive and keep it as real as possible."
Additionally, Alice Krige portrays Eir, an Asgardian physician, while Talulah Riley plays an Asgardian nurse. Chris O'Dowd was cast as Richard, a suitor of Jane Foster's. Benicio del Toro, who plays Taneleer Tivan / The Collector in Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), appears in a mid-credits scene with Ophelia Lovibond, who plays his aide Carina. Jonathan Howard plays Ian Boothby, Darcy's intern. Tony Curran plays Bor, Odin's father, based on the deity of the same name. Clive Russell plays Tyr, based on the deity of the same name. Richard Brake portrays a captain in the Einherjar. Chris Evans makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Loki masquerading as Captain America, while Thor co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a patient in a mental ward.
## Production
### Development
In April 2011 before the release of Thor (2011), Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige stated that following The Avengers (2012), "Thor will go off into a new adventure." Kenneth Branagh, director of Thor, responded to his comments, saying, "It is kind of news to me. Here's what I would say to that: It's that I'm thrilled they're that confident. I shall wait for the audience to tell us whether there should be a second one, and then if that's a nice conversation to be had [among] all of us, that'd be thrilling. But I've got too much Irish superstitious blood in me to assume that Thor 2 will happen. But if Marvel says so, then I guess it must be true". Feige later explained that Marvel Studios would gauge how well Thor did at the box office before announcing sequels, but stated, "Don Payne is working on story ideas for a part two. We've got various options with Ken [Branagh] to discuss coming back, but right now the focus is on the first one. Don is, slowly but surely, thinking about where to take the character next should we be so lucky".
In June 2011, Walt Disney Studios set a July 26, 2013, release date for the Thor sequel with Chris Hemsworth reprising his role as the title hero. It was also reported that Branagh would not be returning as director but would likely be involved in a producing capacity. The Los Angeles Times cited the long commitment necessary for a special effects-heavy epic and the pressure to start the script process right away as reasons for Branagh's departure, although he was initially enthused by the chance to direct the sequel. Branagh noted, "It was a long time [making the first film] and they were way too quick for me to get straight back into another, [but] it was a pleasurable experience and a film I'm very proud of." The following day, Marvel formally hired Payne, one of the credited writers of the first film, to script the sequel. In August, Brian Kirk entered early negotiations to direct the Thor sequel. The film would have marked Kirk's first time directing a big-budget motion picture, after having directed television series for HBO, Showtime and the BBC, including Game of Thrones.
In September 2011, Tom Hiddleston confirmed he would return in the sequel, speculating that in the film, "[Loki will] have to take responsibility for what he's done". Patty Jenkins, the director of Monster and the pilot episode of AMC's The Killing, entered early negotiations with Marvel Studios and Disney to direct the film, after Kirk had passed due to contractual sticking points that arose during negotiations. Later in the month, Feige stated the sequel would "take Thor literally to other worlds" and would "primarily be the journey of that character, of he and Jane Foster and how the new dynamic with his father is working out, as well as what are the broader stakes for The Nine Worlds". On October 13, 2011, Marvel confirmed that Jenkins would direct the sequel and Natalie Portman would return to star. Disney also moved the release date for the film to November 15, 2013.
### Pre-production
In December 2011, Jenkins exited the project, citing "creative differences". She stated, "I have had a great time working at Marvel. We parted on very good terms, and I look forward to working with them again". Jenkins felt she could not have made a good film "out of Thor 2 because I wasn't the right director... I could have made a great Thor if I could have done the story that I was wanting to do. But I don't think I was the right person to make a great Thor out of the story they wanted to do." Jenkins had intended to create a film based on the premise of Romeo and Juliet, where Jane was stuck on Earth with Thor forbidden to come save her. After Thor eventually does travel to Earth, he and Jane would have discovered that Malekith was "hiding the dark energy inside of Earth because he knows that Odin doesn't care about Earth, and so he's using Odin's disinterest in Earth to trick him".
Three days later, it was reported that Marvel was looking at Alan Taylor and Daniel Minahan as prospective directors to replace Jenkins, and were also in the midst of hiring a writer to rewrite Don Payne's script, with the shortlist of possible writers consisting of John Collee, Robert Rodat and Roger Avary. At the end of the month, Alan Taylor, best known for directing episodes of the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones, was chosen to direct the sequel. Feige mentioned Taylor's work on the series Mad Men, Boardwalk Empire and Game of Thrones as reasons for his hiring, saying "With Alan's direction we got a few more layers of patina, of texture, of reality into our golden realm." As Feige looked at what worked for the first Thor film and thought what he could retool from that, Taylor decided to "bring some Game of Thrones to it" in order to make a darker and more grounded sequel in comparison to Branagh's work in the previous film. By January 10, Marvel Studios had commissioned screenwriter Rodat to rewrite the sequel and Hiddleston stated that filming was expected to begin in London in the summer of 2012. Hemsworth later confirmed that filming was scheduled to begin in August. Hemsworth also revealed that the film would have a more Viking-influenced feel, elaborating "I think the science fiction element to Thor ... the danger is it falls a little bit into the world of it's 'tough to throw a light to.' I think of big waterfalls and mountains and a Viking influence, where the Norse mythology kind of grew from. Having that in Asgard is going to make it all the more special and that's what Alan [Taylor] wants to bring to it." Feige said "while the relationship between Loki and Thor certainly has changed [after the events of the movie The Avengers] and has progressed, a lot of Thor 2 is picking up where it left off in terms of Jane, who you just saw for a moment on a computer monitor, and also what's been going on in the Nine Realms without the Asgardians being able to use the Bifrost." Feige also said that while Loki has a part, "there will be a different villain, another big villain".
In May 2012, Mads Mikkelsen began talks to play one of the villains in the film and Anthony Hopkins, who played Odin in the first film, committed to returning in the sequel. Benedict Cumberbatch, who eventually joined the film series as Stephen Strange / Doctor Strange, was also in the running to play Malekith the Accursed. At the end of the month, Disney moved up the release date for the film a week ahead of the previous date to November 8, 2013. By June 2012, much of the first film's supporting cast was confirmed to return, including Idris Elba, Jaimie Alexander, Ray Stevenson and Stellan Skarsgård. Also in June, Joshua Dallas announced that he would not be reprising the role of Fandral. Dallas had initially intended to return, but had to bow out due to his commitment on the television show, Once Upon a Time, and Zachary Levi was cast in his place. Levi was originally up for the role in the first film but scheduling conflicts with Chuck forced him to drop out.
In July 2012, Mikkelsen stated he would not be appearing in the sequel due to prior commitments, "That's not happening unfortunately. I had a meeting with [the filmmakers], but it was a bit too late and then Hannibal came in...It's just not happening". At the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International, it was announced that the film would be titled Thor: The Dark World. At the end of the month, residents near Bourne Wood in Surrey, England were notified that a film going by the working title, Thursday Mourning would be filming in the area. In August of that year, Christopher Eccleston entered final negotiations to play Malekith, and the film was scheduled to shoot in Iceland, where Taylor shot parts of Game of Thrones. By August 22, Kat Dennings was hired to reprise her role as Darcy Lewis and Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje was cast as Algrim. At the end of the month, film crews for Thursday Mourning began set construction at Stonehenge near Amesbury, England.
### Filming
Principal photography began on September 10, 2012, in Bourne Wood, Surrey, England, under the working title Thursday Mourning. A few weeks later, Clive Russell was cast as Tyr, and Richard Brake was cast as an Einherjar captain. At the end of the month, Jaimie Alexander was injured on the London film set, after she slipped while walking in the rain. On October 12, 2012, production moved to Iceland with filming taking place in Dómadalur, Skógafoss, Fjaðrárgljúfur and Skeiðarársandur. Iceland Review described the shoot as being among the most extensive film projects to have ever taken place in Iceland. The film's official synopsis was released, which revealed that Christopher Yost and Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely had also contributed to the screenplay. Markus and McFeely said Feige had approached them in between writing drafts for Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) to work on the Dark World script. Three days later, Disney announced that the film would be released in 3D. In late October, filming commenced at the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich, London. Filming also took place at Shepperton Studios and Longcross Studios in Surrey between October and December 2012. Other filming locations included Wembley, Borough Market, Hayes and Stonehenge. Alexander tweeted that principal photography wrapped on December 14, 2012. In a 2013 report on film production costs for films from FilmL.A. Inc., indicated a gross budget of \$170 million, with a UK tax offset of \$17.3 million for Thor: The Dark World. In 2016 Disney company accounts stated the budget spend was \$237.6 million on Thor: The Dark World but \$37 million of this was offset by payments from the UK tax authority.
Kramer Morgenthau, who worked with Taylor on Game of Thrones, was brought in as the director of photography. Morgenthau said, "We wanted a grittier, boots-on-the-ground feeling, inspired by what Alan and I had done on Game of Thrones. We wanted the realms to feel grounded, like a real place, while at the same time respecting the magical 'planet of the Gods' feeling and theme." Thor: The Dark World was Morgenthau's first time shooting a feature film digitally. For the film, Morgenthau chose the Arri Alexa Plus, although he tested with the Sony F65 but found the Alexa to be more pleasing. In addition to the Alexa, Red Epic and Canon EOS 5D Mark II cameras were used for second unit filming. With the Alexa, Morgenthau used Panavision anamorphic lenses. Morgenthau said, "The lenses brought some of the magic and mystery of photochemical back to digital, that big-movie look." Morgenthau also stated that Thor: The Dark World was easily the most technically complex project that he has worked but said, "It's all the same concept and the same principles as in a smaller film. You just scale it up. You do a lot more prep. We had three months of prep and loads of time to pre-rig stages. Part of it is having a really good crew—it's definitely not a one-man show."
### Post-production
In April 2013, McFeely said that "a lot" of writers had contributed to the film's script, and he and Markus were uncertain if they would receive final screenwriting credit on the film; Markus and McFeely along with Yost received final screenwriting credit, with Payne and Rodat receiving story credit. In July 2013, Dennings told reporters that the film was about to head into reshoots. In August, Taylor said he shot extra scenes with Hiddleston and was about to shoot more with Hopkins. Taylor explained that it was all a part of the "Marvel process" saying, "We're doing full scenes, scenes that were not in the movie before. We're adding scenes, creating scenes, writing scenes for the first time. The one [involving Loki] was a fun connective scene... We realised how well Loki was working in the movie, and we wanted to do more with him. So it was that kind of thing, it was like, 'Oh, we could do this, we could jam this in here' because he's such a wonderful guy to watch do his stuff." Also in August, IMAX Corporation and Marvel Entertainment announced that the film would be digitally re-mastered into the IMAX 3D format and released into IMAX 3D theaters internationally beginning October 30, 2013.
Taylor said Marvel's The Avengers writer/director Joss Whedon rewrote several scenes in the film explaining, "Joss came in to save our lives a couple of times. We had a major scene that was not working on the page at all in London, and he basically got airlifted in, like a SWAT team or something. He came down, rewrote the scene, and before he got back to his plane I sort of grabbed him and said, 'And this scene and this scene?' And he rewrote two other scenes that I thought had problems." In October 2013, Tony Curran tweeted that he would be portraying Odin's father, Bor, in a flashback sequence. In November 2013, Feige stated that the film was intended to be the conclusion of the "Loki trilogy", which examined the relationship of Thor and Loki throughout Thor, The Avengers and this film. Loki was originally intended to die in the film, however, after test audiences did not believe he was actually dead, Marvel Studios decided to alter the character's ending. The film's mid-credits scene was directed by James Gunn, the director of Marvel Studios' Guardians of the Galaxy. The film underwent multiple changes during the reshoots and editing process, with Taylor believing his initial version "had more childlike wonder", including starting the film with children, and an overall "more magical quality". He noted the reshoots "inverted" the original plot in certain ways, such as Loki no longer dying.
The film's visual effects were completed by seven special effects studios, including Double Negative and Luma Pictures. Blur Studio was the lead studio behind the film's prologue sequence taking place 5,000 years before the start of the film, on the Dark Elves homeworld of Svartalfheim. The sequence consisted mostly of computer graphics with live-action shots interwoven throughout. The use of CG allowed for greater freedom of movement by the characters as the live-action costumes were too constrictive.
Taylor wanted Asgard in this film to have a more natural look than its predecessor. To achieve this, crews filmed the coast of Norway with an Arri Alexa camera for three days in a helicopter, capturing six hours of footage. Double Negative then embedded their CG rendering of Asgard on shots of the natural landscape. Double Negative visual effects supervisor Alex Wuttke said, "The benefit of that is that you have some real-world terrain to work with – so you have buildings that have to convey natural features. Then from there we went in there populating the terrain with different buildings." For scenes taking place on Svartalfheim, production filmed in Iceland with Double Negative adding ruins, mountains, Dark Elf ships, and skies.
For the shot of the levitating truck, which was used in the film to demonstrate the strange phenomena brought on by the coming of the alignment of the worlds, filmmakers attached a cement truck to a large hydraulic rig, which could be programmed to change speed and movement. In order to create Algrim's transformation into Kurse, Double Negative morphed live action performances of Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje as both Algrim and Kurse. Double Negative then added in smoke and lava-like effects.
The film's climactic battle sequence takes place through the nine worlds by the use of portals. Visual effects supervisor Jake Morrison said, "We ended up calling this 'time toffee', so as you punch through from one realm to another it's almost like cling film or a slightly gelatinous membrane you have to pass through. It bends a little bit then rips and spits the person out. The other thing we wanted to do was to make sure it was quite fast from an editorial point of view. In the fight scenes there are times when Thor and Malekith are portaling all over the place, quite frankly. We made sure we always kept up the momentum and never stopped the fight. It was a way of making sure the audience weren't conscious there was an effect going on."
## Music
In August 2012, Patrick Doyle said that he had discussions with the director about potentially returning to score the film. By April 2013, Carter Burwell had been hired to compose the score, but by the following month he left the film over creative differences. In June 2013, Marvel hired Brian Tyler, who scored Iron Man 3, to replace Burwell. Tyler said the previous film had an "attitude and [was] grounded in limitations" whereas the Thor film allowed for "all-out regal themes that could be as epic as I could make them." The composer described The Dark World as "science fiction meeting classic medieval war", leading to a score that drew from works of both genres such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings. Azam Ali is a featured vocalist on the score. The soundtrack was released digitally on October 28, 2013.
## Marketing
In March 2013, Marvel announced the release of a two-issue comic book prelude by writers Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost and artist Scot Eaton in June 2013. In April 2013, Marvel released the first trailer for Thor: The Dark World. Forbes said, "This trailer fits nicely into that larger marketing push for Marvel's brand. It puts all of the recognizable characters from the first film front and center, presents the action as a team event reminiscent of the Avengers, and once again Loki—who was quite popular with audiences—makes an appearance." The Los Angeles Times said, "Evident throughout the trailer is director Alan Taylor's influence; the Game of Thrones director's hand can be seen in the battle sequences, and Asgard—a bright and shiny kingdom under Thor director Kenneth Branagh—seems grittier in the sequel." In July at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International, Hiddleston introduced footage from the film to audiences in character as Loki. Also in July, Gameloft announced that a mobile video game titled, Thor the Dark World: The Official Game, would be released in conjunction with the release of the film in November.
The theatrical poster for the film was released in early August 2013. Kirsten Acuna of Business Insider criticized the poster for its lack of originality, noting its similarities to one of the posters of Iron Man 3, both of which included the female lead clinging to the male lead, with both looking in opposite directions, antagonists prominently displayed in the background and supporting characters featured "on the side". Additionally, Marvel released a second trailer for the film as part of YouTube's Geek Week. Forbes said, "this 150-second trailer is basically just an extended version of last April's 106-second teaser" and that "this trailer fails to showcase what's new this time around... making audiences question if they really don't have much else to offer." The Los Angeles Times said, that the trailer suggests "an ominous, epic scale for the sequel" and that "the collaboration between Thor and Loki promises to be especially interesting." Later in the month, producer Kevin Feige and cast members Tom Hiddleston, Natalie Portman and Anthony Hopkins presented additional footage at Disney's D23 Expo.
Also in August 2013, Disney announced plans to promote the film with an attraction at Disneyland. The attraction called Thor: Treasures of Asgard, located next to the Stark Industries exhibit inside Innoventions in Tomorrowland, opened on November 1, 2013, and features displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin's throne room, where they are greeted by Thor. The eighth episode of Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., titled "The Well", takes place in the aftermath of the events of Thor: The Dark World. It first aired on November 19, 2013. Jaimie Alexander reprised her role as Sif in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "Yes Men", which aired on March 11, 2014.
## Release
### Theatrical
The world premiere of Thor: The Dark World took place on October 22, 2013, at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. The film was released theatrically in the UK eight days later, on October 30. The film held its North American premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, and was released into U.S. theaters on November 7, 2013. Thor: The Dark World is part of Phase Two of the MCU.
### Home media
Thor: The Dark World was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment for digital download on February 4, 2014, and on Blu-ray Disc, 3D Blu-ray, and DVD on February 25, 2014. The physical media release includes deleted scenes, extended scenes, a gag reel, audio commentary by the cast and crew, and a Marvel One-Shot short film entitled All Hail the King, featuring Ben Kingsley reprising his role as Trevor Slattery from Iron Man 3.
The film was also collected in a 13-disc box set, titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection", which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released on December 8, 2015.
## Reception
### Box office
Thor: The Dark World earned \$206.4 million in North America and \$438.4 million in other markets for a worldwide total of \$644.8 million. It surpassed the gross of its predecessor after just 19 days of its release. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film's net profit as \$139.4 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Thor: The Dark World made an estimated \$7.1 million in Thursday night showings, more than double the midnight gross of its predecessor. On Friday, November 8, 2013, the film topped the box office with \$31.9 million (including Thursday night earnings), which is 25% higher than the original film's opening-day gross. Through Sunday, the film remained at the No. 1 spot with \$85.7 million, which is a 30% increase over its predecessor's opening weekend. This was the largest November opening for a film distributed by Disney, surpassing The Incredibles. Thor: The Dark World topped the box office in North America during its first two weekends, before being overtaken by The Hunger Games: Catching Fire in its third weekend.
On its midweek opening day of Wednesday, October 30, 2013, Thor: The Dark World earned \$8.2 million from 33 territories, including the United Kingdom and France, where it opened higher than its predecessor. During its first three days, the film earned \$45.2 million, and by the end of the weekend, after expanding into three more territories, it totaled \$109.4 million over five days, finishing in first place in all 36 countries. Its largest openings were recorded in China (\$21.0 million), the United Kingdom (\$13.8 million), and France (\$9.94 million). It topped the box office outside North America on its first three weekends of release. In total earnings, its largest markets are China (\$55.3 million), Russia and the CIS (\$35.7 million), Brazil (\$27.7 million), and the United Kingdom (\$26.2 million).
### Critical response
The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of , with an average score of , based on reviews. The website's consensus reads, "It may not be the finest film to come from the Marvel Universe, but Thor: The Dark World still offers plenty of the humor and high-stakes action that fans have come to expect." It was the lowest-rated MCU film on Rotten Tomatoes until the release of Eternals in 2021. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 54 out of 100 based on 44 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an "A−" average, based on a grading scale ranging from A+ to F.
Ben Child of The Guardian said, "Thanks to Hiddleston and Hemsworth's impressive collective charisma, Thor: The Dark World is far from a franchise killer." Justin Chang of Variety wrote, "This robust, impersonal visual-effects showpiece proves buoyant and unpretentious enough to offset its stew of otherwise derivative fantasy/action elements." Alonso Duralde of The Wrap said, "Thor: The Dark World delivers the goods—action, otherworldly grandiosity, romance, humor—above and beyond its predecessor". Simon Abrams, writing for RogerEbert.com said, "There's just enough tension and humor in Thor: The Dark World to make the film's otherwise listless proceedings worth watching, but only just."
Conversely, Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph said, "It feels entirely made by committee—the definition of house style, without a personal stamp in sight." Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter said, "Although director Alan Taylor manages to get things going properly for the final battle in London, the long stretches before that on Asgard and the other branches of Yggdrasil are a drag, like filler episodes of Game of Thrones but without the narrative complexity, mythical heft or all-pervading sexiness." Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times described Thor: The Dark World as having the "same old threats of galaxy annihilation spiced with fairly entertaining fish-out-of-water jokes". Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times said, "the battle scenes are as lacking in heat and coherence as the central love story".
Taylor expressed dissatisfaction with the finished film and blamed its mixed reception on changes Marvel Studios made during post-production, which he felt conflicted with his creative vision. In 2015, he called working on The Dark World a "particularly wrenching" experience, and said in 2021 that the experience made him hesitant to continue directing. Taylor expressed interest in creating a director's cut similar to Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021), though he observed that Marvel was likely not interested in it.
### Accolades
## Sequels
### Thor: Ragnarok
Thor: Ragnarok was released on November 3, 2017, directed by Taika Waititi. Eric Pearson and Craig Kyle & Christopher Yost wrote the screenplay, with Kevin Feige again producing. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Hopkins, Elba, Asano, Levi, and Stevenson reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Odin, Heimdall, Hogun, Fandral, and Volstagg, respectively, while Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Strange respectively, reprising their roles from previous MCU films. Cate Blanchett, Tessa Thompson, Jeff Goldblum and Karl Urban join the cast as Hela, Valkyrie, Grandmaster, and Skurge, respectively.
### Thor: Love and Thunder
A fourth film titled Thor: Love and Thunder was released on July 8, 2022. Hemsworth, Thompson, and Elba reprised their roles, with Portman, Alexander, Dennings, and Skarsgård returning after not appearing in Ragnarok''. Portman portrayed her character taking on the mantle of Thor, similar to the comics. Additionally, Chris Pratt, Pom Klementieff, Dave Bautista, Karen Gillan, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, and Sean Gunn reprise their roles as Guardians of the Galaxy members Peter Quill / Star-Lord, Mantis, Drax the Destroyer, Nebula, Groot, Rocket, and Kraglin Obfonteri. Christian Bale joined the cast as the villain Gorr the God Butcher.
|
144,004 |
Coat of arms of Canada
| 1,173,841,647 |
National coat of arms of Canada
|
[
"Canadian coats of arms",
"Canadian heraldry",
"Coats of arms with chains",
"Coats of arms with crowns",
"Coats of arms with flags",
"Coats of arms with fleurs de lis",
"Coats of arms with harps",
"Coats of arms with lilies",
"Coats of arms with lions",
"Coats of arms with roses",
"Coats of arms with shamrocks",
"Coats of arms with thistles",
"Coats of arms with unicorns",
"Monarchy in Canada",
"National coats of arms"
] |
The Arms of Canada (French: Armoiries du Canada), also known as the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada (French: armoiries royales du Canada) or, formally, as the Arms of His Majesty the King in Right of Canada (French: Armoiries de Sa Majesté le roi du Canada), is the arms of dominion of the Canadian monarch and, thus, also the official coat of arms of Canada. In use since 1921, it is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.
The maple leaves in the shield, blazoned "proper" (i.e., in natural colour), were originally drawn vert (green), but were redrawn gules (red) in 1957 and a circlet of the Order of Canada was added to the arms for limited use in 1987. The arms are registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority and protected under Crown copyright; they are used to signify national sovereignty and the federal government uses the arms to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program. Elements of the coat of arms are also used in other designs, with the shield being used in the various royal standards belonging to members of the royal family and the crest of the arms serving as the focal point of the governor general's flag.
## History
Prior to Confederation in 1867, the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom served in Canada as the symbol of royal authority. Arms had not been granted to any of the colonies in British North America, apart from 17th century grants to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Arms were then granted by royal warrant, on 26 May 1868, to Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. (That Nova Scotia had previously been granted arms was forgotten and it took until 1929 for the historic arms granted in the 17th century to be reinstated.) In that warrant, Queen Victoria authorized the four arms of the first provinces to be quartered for use on the Great Seal of Canada. While this was not done for the first Great Seal, it was through that reference that the arrangement became the de facto arms for Canada until 1921, which were used on the first Red Ensign carried by Canadian troops at Vimy Ridge in 1917.
As more provinces and territories joined Canada, the original four arms were marshalled with the arms of the new members of Confederation, eventually resulting in a shield with nine quarterings. This occurred by way of popular and even Canadian governmental usage; flag-makers took to using the complex shield on Canadian Red Ensigns. None of those shields, besides the original four-segment version of 1868, were ever official in any sense, nor were any of these shields a national "coat of arms", as they had never been approved by the monarch.
Heraldists considered nine quarterings on a shield as too convoluted for a national symbol and, by 1915, a push had begun to design a new coat of arms for Canada. A committee, which included Dominion Archivist Arthur Doughty, was formed in 1919 to pursue the issue, eventually agreeing that the elements of the new arms would reference the royal arms of England, Ireland, Scotland, and France, with maple leaves representing Canada, though there was at the time no consensus on how the leaves were to be used. A 1917 proposal by Edward Marion Chadwick (who had designed the crest, supporters, and motto of the coat of arms of Ontario) sparked a discussion about featuring First Nations figures as supporters. Though Chadwick had depicted the clothing and regalia accurately, Joseph Pope rejected the idea, stating, "I myself do not see any necessity for commemorating the Indians [sic] at all."
The arms' design was settled by the following year and the committee conferred with the College of Arms in London, only to face resistance to the use of the UK's royal arms from the Garter King of Arms, as well as concern over whether the inclusion of the fleurs-de-lis would imply Canada claimed sovereignty over France. The Canadian Commissioner-General in Paris discreetly confirmed with French officials that the coat of arms would not spark a diplomatic spat. A counter-proposal from the college added the flags to the supporters and a crown to the lion, as in the British arms, and placed the three fleurs-de-lis between two green maple leaves in the fifth charge on the shield, below the four charges of the arms of the UK.
After some manoeuvring, including the personal intervention of Winston Churchill, the new arms of Canada were eventually formally requested by an order-in-council on 30 April 1921 and adopted on 21 November of the same year, by proclamation of King George V, as the Arms or Ensigns Armorial of the Dominion of Canada; the committee records were preserved with Library and Archives Canada. The new layout closely reflected the arms of the United Kingdom, with the addition of maple leaves in the base and the reference to the French royal arms in the fourth quarter.
Eugène Fiset, the Deputy Minister of Defence, claimed in 1918 that the design of the arms would determine the national colours of Canada. In the 1940s, military historian Archer Fortescue Duguid suggested King George V had chosen red and white as Canada's official colours because those were the colours in the wreath and mantling on the arms. However, Forrest Pass, a curator at Library and Archives Canada, determined there is no record of either the King or the committee giving much importance to the mantling and the royal proclamation of the coat of arms makes no mention of national colours, specifically.
With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Canada and other Dominions became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom. This had the effect of elevating the Canadian coat of arms, which had been granted as deputed arms for particular uses in a colony, to the status of the royal arms of the King in right of the country, for general purposes throughout the country. They thus replaced the British coat of arms, which had previously been arms of general purpose throughout the British Empire, in courtrooms and on government buildings to represent the reigning monarch. This change can be seen in the Great Seal of Canada of King George VI, where the royal arms of Canada replaced the British arms, and is even more evident in the Great Seal of Canada for Queen Elizabeth II, on which the title Queen of Canada is used.
By 1957, the arms were redrawn by Alan Beddoe so as to have red leaves and to change the royal crown from a Tudor design to one more resembling St Edward's Crown, as preferred by Queen Elizabeth II. To mark the 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution, which finally ended the last vestiges of the British parliament's role in amending the constitution, a McGill University student named Bruce Hicks proposed to Secretary of State Gerald Regan that the motto of the Order of Canada—at the time, the country's highest civilian honour for merit—be placed around the shield in order to bring these royal arms into line with other royal arms displayed in Canada—holdovers from the time of French, Scottish, and English colonisation—on which a symbol of those countries' highest national order of honour appeared around the shield (the British arms displayed the Order of the Garter, the Scottish royal arms the Order of the Thistle, and the royalist arms of the French Regime the Order of the Holy Spirit and Order of Saint Michael). While unsuccessful in this first attempt, Hicks continued his campaign and was joined by a number of other amateur and professional heraldists. As a journalist in the parliamentary press gallery in Ottawa in the late 1980s and early '90s, Hicks strategically recast the change as something worth doing to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Order of Canada's founding, in 1992; an idea that was endorsed by the Advisory Committee on the Order of Canada.
It took until 1994 for the Queen to approve the new design for general use; though, the Canadian Heraldic Authority, established by the Queen in 1988, began to allow for its limited use beginning in 1987, where the arms were used to represent the Queen personally on letters patent granting new arms for distinguished Canadians. These letters patent carried the shield from the royal arms along with the annulus behind the shield bearing the motto of the Order of Canada—Desiderantes meliorem patriam. As soon as royal approval was forthcoming, the full achievement was redesigned for use by the federal government within the Federal Identity Program. The present design of the arms of Canada was drawn by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, Fraser Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
Member of Parliament Pat Martin introduced, in June 2008, a motion into the House of Commons calling on the government to amend the coat of arms to incorporate symbols representing Canada's First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples, as Chadwick had suggested in 1917. After the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla on 6 May 2023, the Canadian Heraldic Authority revealed a new Canadian Royal Crown featuring maple leaves, a snowflake, and symbols with meaning to Canada's Indigenous peoples. The authority stated changes will take place in due course.
### Armorial evolution
## Use
The coat of arms, being those of the sovereign and the state, is used to signify national sovereignty and ownership. The federal government uses the arms to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program and as a mark of authority for various government agencies and representatives, including Cabinet, and the prime minister within it, and the Supreme Court, as well as the Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). In the latter two, the most senior non-commissioned ranks wear the 1957 version of the arms as a badge of rank, representing the fact that they have received the King's warrant (as opposed to the King's Commission for officers).
The arms of Canada is also present on all pre-polymer denominations of Canadian banknotes—printed on each bill in a way that functions as a security feature,—as well as the 50¢ coin and on the cover of Canadian passports. Permanent resident cards issued from 2015 feature a holographic representation of the 1957 version of the coat of arms.
The full achievement of the coat of arms has been used by the Canadian government on occasion on a plain red flag, such as in 1967 for the country's centennial celebrations. It is also used on a flag in its full achievement in military ceremonies, such as Canadian Armed Forces Tattoo performances.
As the royal arms are personal to the sovereign, they cannot be used without the King's consent. The coat of arms "as designed in 1921 and revised in 1957 [...] [and] in 1994" are "protected under the Trade-marks Act and the Copyright Act and cannot be used or reproduced without authorization." Further, "marks and designs similar to the official symbols are pursued as a copyright or trade-mark infringement." The Trade-marks Act further states that, "no person shall adopt in connection with a business, as a trade-mark or otherwise, any mark consisting of, or so nearly resembling as to be likely to be mistaken for [...] the arms, crest, or flag adopted and used at any time by Canada." In addition, under Crown copyright, "permission is always required when the work is being revised, adapted, or translated, regardless if the purpose of the reproduction is for personal or public non-commercial distribution."
### Designs derived from the arms
The banner of the arms was in 2023 also made the sovereign's flag, for use by the monarch in Canada and when representing Canada abroad. Between 1962 and 2022, the banner of arms defaced with a variant of the Queen's cypher formed the Queen's Personal Canadian Flag, for use by Queen Elizabeth II. Six additional standards for use by other members of the Canadian royal family were created in the 2010s, all using a similar design with the banner of the arms as their base. The personal flag of the governor general has, since 1981, featured the crest of the royal arms of Canada on a blue background.
With the support of former Speakers of the House of Commons John Fraser and Gilbert Parent, Bruce Hicks campaigned for the Canadian Parliament to have a distinct heraldic symbol, along the lines of the portcullis (variations of which are used by the Commons and Lords in the British Parliament). In response, Member of Parliament Derek Lee tabled a motion calling for a committee to be struck, which passed and Hicks and Robert Watt, the first Chief Herald of Canada, were called as the only two expert witnesses; though, Senator Serge Joyal joined the committee ex-officio, on behalf of the Senate. The Commons' Speaker, Peter Milliken, then asked the Canadian Heraldic Authority to design such a symbol and, on 15 February 2008, the Governor General authorized the House of Commons to begin using a badge, consisting of the shield of the royal arms superimposed on the ceremonial mace (assigned to the House of Commons as a symbol of the royal authority under which it operates). Following the Commons example, the Senate then requested and obtained, exactly two months later, a similar badge for itself, with the shield of the royal arms surmounted on the mace assigned to the Senate.
## Blazon
The heraldic blazon of Canada's coat of arms, as declared in the 1921 proclamation, is:
> Tierced in fesse the first and second divisions containing the quarterly coat following, namely, 1st, gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or, 2nd, Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory gules, 3rd, azure a harp Or stringed argent, 4th, azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or, and the third division argent three maple leaves conjoined on one stem proper. And upon a royal helmet mantled argent doubled gules the crest, that is to say, on a wreath of the colours argent and gules a lion passant guardant Or imperially crowned proper and holding in the dexter paw a maple leaf gules. And for supporters on the dexter a lion rampant Or holding a lance argent, point Or, flying therefrom to the dexter the Union Flag, and on the sinister, a unicorn argent armed crined and unguled Or, gorged with a coronet composed of crosses-patée and fleurs-de-lis a chain affixed thereto reflexed of the last, and holding a like lance flying therefrom to the sinister a banner azure charged with three fleurs-de-lis Or; the whole ensigned with the Imperial Crown proper and below the shield upon a wreath composed of roses, thistles, shamrocks and lillies a scroll azure inscribed with the motto A mari usque ad mare.
The circlet of the Order of Canada was added around the shield for limited use in 1987 and for general use in 1994.
## Symbolism
## See also
|
3,952,490 |
Cem (river)
| 1,105,403,592 |
River in Montenegro and Albania
|
[
"Geography of Shkodër County",
"International rivers of Europe",
"Rivers of Albania",
"Rivers of Montenegro"
] |
The Cem (Albanian: Cem, or in its definite form Cemi), also known as the Cijevna (Cyrillic: Цијевна), is a river that rises in Kelmend, Albania and after nearly half of its length crosses into Montenegro, where it flows into the River Morača near the capital Podgorica.
The Cem is fully formed at the confluence of its two tributaries the Vukël Cem and the Selcë Cem. It passes mostly through limestone terrain with many karstic formations. These features of the Cem's basin have their origin in the tectonic activity of the Alpine orogeny, which formed the Dinaric Alps. The terrain through which it flows in its 58.8-kilometre (36.5 mi) course, is at an elevation of more than 1,200 m (3,900 ft) and can reach as low as 50 m (160 ft). It passes through narrow valleys and steep canyons, where waterfalls are formed before it reaches the Zeta plain. As it approaches the Morača, the Cem area shifts from a continental climate to a Mediterranean one. The drainage basin of the Cem encompasses 368 square kilometres (142 sq mi) and is part of the Adriatic river basin.
The first cultural indicators of human settlement in the Cem river basin are from the late Copper Age and early Bronze Age (3500-2300 BC). Illyrian tribes such as the Labeatae lived in the area in classical antiquity. In the following millennia, the area passed under the control of the Roman Empire and its eastern counterpart, Slavic principalities, the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The Cem basin was the home of Albanian tribes (fise) such as Kelmendi, Hoti, Gruda and Triepshi until the 20th century. Today, the river is divided between Albania and Montenegro.
The Cem is one of the last free-flowing rivers in Europe. The river's basin is a source of very high biodiversity, and hundreds of plant and animal species live along its banks. Mammals include wild boars, brown bears and red foxes. The river's canyon is an Important Bird Area for species like the short-toed snake eagle and the Levant sparrowhawk. The marble trout is one of the 22 fish species in the river, which consistently ranks as one of the least polluted rivers in Albania and Montenegro. In the 21st century, it is threatened by industrialization, the installation of small hydropower stations and the effects of climate change in Europe.
## Name
The Greek geographer Ptolemy was the first to mention the Cem as Kinna in ancient Greek. In Tabula Peutingeriana a location named Cinna in Latin is connected to the river. These two forms are considered to be written forms of a local, Illyrian name Cinua. Albanian Cem and medieval Slavic Cenva and Cemva ultimately stem from this original name of the river. The phonological evolution of Cinua to the Albanian Cem presupposes the Slavic second palatalization. Montenegrin– and also Bosniak and Serbian – Cijevna is derived from Serbo-Croatian cijev (pipe), but other toponyms preserve the older name Ćemovsko polje (field of Cem).
## Geography
The Cem originates in Kelmend, Malësi e Madhe, Albania and flows through the region of Malësia. The river has two tributaries: the Vukël Cem (Cemi i Vuklit) and the Selcë Cem (Cemi i Selcës), which join at the confluence of Tamarë. The Vukël Cem – the more important of the two in terms of water volume – rises at 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level and flows for 17.9 km (11.1 mi). It passes through a narrow canyon, a terrain which widens only near Kozhnja, where deposition has formed a small limestone valley. A creek called the Nikç Cem (Cem i Nikçit) contributes to its volume in the rainy period. A small hydropower project has been built where the Cem i Nikçit passes through Kozhnja.
The Selcë Cem rises at 1,250 m (4,100 ft) on Mount Bordolec near Lëpushë and flows for 22.5 km (14.0 mi) mostly through narrow limestone terrain until it reaches the valley of Tamarë. In its course it passes through the Gropat e Selcës karstic caves, the canyon of Gerrlla, 900 m (3,000 ft) long and 25 m (82 ft) deep, and the 30-metre-high (98 ft) waterfall of Sllapi before reaching Dobrinjë.
The Cem then flows to the southwest for 26.5 kilometres (16.5 mi) before crossing into Montenegro, near the village of Grabom. The Albania-Montenegro border crossing is located ca. 5 km (3.1 mi) west of Grabom. In Montenegro, the river flows through the villages of Tuzi for 32.3 kilometres (20.1 mi) before it flows into the Morača, just south of Podgorica. The terrain through which the river flows in Montenegro is divided into two parts. Firstly, it forms a steep canyon and then slowly crosses into the Zeta plain, of which a part is called Ćemovsko polje after the river. On the plain, Špiro Mugoša Airport has been built between the Cem and the Ribnica to the east of Podgorica Airport. The land here has become more urbanized and industrialized.
The Cem canyon (Kanjon Cijevne/Kanioni i Cemit) is 12 km (7.5 mi) long and has a depth of 903 m (2,963 ft). It is the natural habitat of many animal, insect and plant species. The canyon starts at the Albania-Montenegro border and forms a distinct geomorphological formation that crosses into Ćemovsko polje just before the village of Dinosha.
## Geology
The geomorphological features of the Cem basin have their origin in the tectonic activity of the Alpine orogeny, which has been forming the Dinaric Alps and its southern range, the Accursed Mountains since the Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic era. The Cem basin is in the High Karst Unit. In this sub-unit, tectonic activity lifts the landmasses vertically and carbonate rocks form a large part of the landscape, which is defined by fluvial processes like the deposition of carbonate sediments by the river caused by the flow of the river. As the Accursed Mountains have had glacial features, thus a high accumulation of water, the end of the Ice Age saw a general increase of the Cem's discharge, which in turn increased fluvial processes in the basin.
An abundance of limestone has enabled the formation of uvalas, caves and other karst formations. However, water is retained in limestone, and so the denudation of geological formations is decreasing. The result of these interconnected processes is that the Cem flows mostly through elevated, vertical and steep terrain, which forms canyons and crosses into small valleys. In these places, such as in the valley of Tamara, non-carbonate rocks have caused horizontal erosion to occur. Then, the river exits high elevation areas and flows towards the Morača as the relief flattens and a polje is formed by karst processes.
## Drainage basin
The drainage basin of the Cem is a 368 square kilometres (142 sq mi) part of the Adriatic river basin, along with other rivers that empty into Lake Skadar, a total area of 6,560 square kilometres (2,530 sq mi). The river and its tributaries originate within the 238 km<sup>2</sup> (92 sq mi) of the basin that are within the borders of Albania; 130 km<sup>2</sup> (50 sq mi) are in Montenegro. To the north, it borders the basin of the Vermosh and to the east that of the Lëpushë. To the south, the Cem's basin ends near Bogë.
The river flows from above 1,250 m (4,100 ft) to no more than 50 m (160 ft). In Montenegro, waterfalls more than 50 m (160 ft) high are formed. Annual precipitation is about 2,500 mm (98 in). The month with highest precipitation is November (361 mm (14.2 in)) and the driest month is July (69.9 mm (2.75 in)). Snowfall can be observed as late as May. There is on average a 40-day period of annual snowfall and an accumulation average of 70 cm (28 in).
The Cem has a continental climate in its upper part and a Mediterranean one as it reaches the Morača. The annual temperature averages 6.8-7 °C - January being the coldest month at -3 °C and July the hottest at 15.7-20 °C. Water temperatures range from 5 °C in the spring to 13 °C in the summer. There are three local winds that affect the Cem in Albania. The Murlani is a dry and cold northern and northeastern wind which blows towards the Adriatic, whereas the Shiroku and the Juga are humid and warm southern winds which are associated with rainy periods.
## Discharge
The river's streamflow increases as tributaries and springs flow into it. Elevation and other morphological features also cause variations in its discharge. In general, the upper part of the Cem in Albania has a lower velocity and thus a lower streamflow than the flow of the Cem through the canyon in Montenegro, where the Cem's streamflow increases as it descends. When it reaches the Zeta plain, it slows again as it flows into the Morača.
The Cem of Vukël contributes 10.2–10.5 m<sup>3</sup>/s (360–370 cu ft/s) to the river. Measurements at Tamarë, where the confluence with Cem of Selcë is located, show an average discharge of 13.99–14.4 m<sup>3</sup>/s (494–509 cu ft/s). As the river passes into Montenegro near Grabom, karstic springs in at Dverbta and Brezhda increase its streamflow. After this point the average discharge through the canyon is 24.86 m<sup>3</sup>/s (878 cu ft/s), but as it crosses into the valley, it can drop below 5 m<sup>3</sup>/s (180 cu ft/s) in the dry summer months. The maximal discharge rate of the river has been observed in May at 41.6 m<sup>3</sup>/s (1,470 cu ft/s).
Causes of the flow decrease include its use in the water supply network and environmental factors linked to climate change, which has led to a cyclical decrease of rainfall, groundwater and karstic springs water yield to the river. This trend of flow decrease was observed in the Trgaj measurement station near Dinosha, in 2019, where the summer flow was at a very low 3 m<sup>3</sup>/s (110 cu ft/s). As the Cem pours into the Morača, it can contribute up to 35 m<sup>3</sup>/s (1,200 cu ft/s) to the total discharge of 210 m<sup>3</sup>/s (7,400 cu ft/s) of that river into Lake Shkodra.
## Ecosystem
The ecosystem of the Cem river basin is very biodiverse. The riparian zones of the Cem support hundreds of plant and animal species endemic to the region. Mammals include wild boars, brown bears red foxes, brown hares, pine martens and the - until recently - endangered Eurasian otter. The total number of mammal species in the Cem valley has not yet been completely surveyed.
Many bird species live on the banks of the Cem and the river's canyon is an Important Bird Area. Short-toed snake eagles, Levant sparrowhawks and the rock partridge use the canyon for breeding and nesting in the summer months. The Egyptian vulture, an endangered species - once very common in the Balkans - lived in the canyon until 1997, when it became extinct there as in many other areas in the Balkans. In Albania, 130 bird species in total have been identified along the Cem and its tributaries.
There are 22 species of fish in the river including endemic marble trout and eel. The height of the Cem above sea level affects flora distribution zones. At elevations between 900–1,200 metres (3,000–3,900 ft) oak trees are common around Selcë and Vukël, but as elevation drops pomegranates become much more common. In the river basin about 40% of the total plant species found in Albania, have been identified. In the Cem canyon, 813 plant species have been identified, with a total of 959 in the wider canyon area. The canyon is host to a quarter of the total plant species of Montenegro.
A full identification of the flora of the Cem has yet to be completed. In 2018, the moss species Fissidens fontanus was identified for the first time in the part of the river in Montenegro, near Podgorica and in the nearby Sitnica river.
## Environmental issues
Until the 1990s, Kelmendi's geographical position as a heavily guarded border zone and lack of industrial development preserved the Cem's ecosystem. Ecological indicators and water quality assessment have consistently shown that the Cem is one of the least polluted rivers in the country. While in the post-1990 transition era there were no adequate monitoring stations, since 2008-2010 environmental monitoring has become more frequent. Within Albania, in recent years, the Cem's ecosystem and very high biodiversity have been threatened by the planned installation of 14 small hydropower plants. As of 2020, construction of two units has begun, in Muras (2 MW) and Dobrinjë (1 MW), both along the Cem of Selcë.
In Kelmend, locals have protested strongly against the projects as water used for irrigation will be significantly reduced, and the impact on the ecosystem will endanger ecologically sustainable development in the entire area. In Podgorica, after protests by environmental activists, the Montenegrin government requested full documentation of the Strategic Impact Assessment of the proposed hydropower plants on the river flow as both countries have signed the Espoo Convention, which requires transnational consultation on projects that impact natural resources across borders. The Albanian government has declared that the river's flow towards Montenegro will not be affected. The same process of hydropower expansion is also planned for many of the free-flowing rivers of the Balkans including Morača, where the Cem debouches.
In Montenegro, the river is ranked as one of the cleanest rivers in the country. As in Albania, before the 1990s, the part nearest to the border was heavily militarized and no activity was allowed in its vicinity. The municipality of Podgorica declared the river canyon a "natural monument" in 2017. Environmental organizations argue that despite their formal commitment to protect the river's basin, Montenegrin authorities have consistently allowed sewage pollution, gravel exploitation and unauthorized construction. In the lower part, beyond the canyon, industrialized agriculture and the Podgorica landfill have contributed to the deterioration of surrounding land quality. After the split of Tuzi from Podgorica, across which the Cem flows, the municipality of Tuzi voted in 2018 in favor of a resolution on the protection of the river.
As a result of climate change inflow and outflow from the Cem steadily decreased during the 2010s.
## Economy
Economic activities and development in settlements in Cem's basin are deeply affected by the ecosystem of the river. Communities along the river rely on agriculture, livestock and alpine forestry. Small-scale, sustainable trout farming has developed in recent years. In Albania, Kelmend was before the 1990s a key area of wood production. In Montenegro, soil fertility of the river basin has allowed viticulture to develop. Plantaže owns on the banks of Cem one of the largest vineyards in the region with around 11.5 million grapevines. Seasonal workers cross the border in the season of the year when farming and forestry require extra workforce.
The collapse of the economies of the Eastern Bloc had a profound economic effect upon both countries. Many agricultural cooperatives shut down and public services deteriorated during the 1990s and 2000s. As a result, there is a heavy migration flow towards Italy, Greece and particularly the US, where a large community from Tuzi and Malësia lives in Detroit.
In Kelmend, a slow and gradual reorganization of the economy happened in the 2000s and 2010s with an orientation towards ecologically sustainable development. Medicinal agriculture and alpine tourism were developed, which have become an important source of income for many villages.
## History
Human activity in the Cem basin has been recorded since the late Copper Age. The tumulus of Rakića Kuće in Tuzi contained nine skeletons and clay figurines with some anthropomorphic attributes. The area of Tuzi remained settled in the Bronze Age. Tumuli and burial artifacts have been found around Dinosha and Lopari in the period that ranges from the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Period.
Illyrian tribes lived in the Cem river basin in classical antiquity. The best known in recorded history are the Labeatae and Docleatae. Artefacts from this era have been excavated in Selcë, where a hoard of coins that were minted by king Gentius (181-168 BC) was found. Reports on these findings were first published by the archaeologist Arthur Evans in 1880.
During the Roman period, the Cem region served as a route between the urbanized centers of the Roman Balkans in the province of Praevalitana. Water from the river was transported to Doclea to supply local Roman townships from the 1st to the 6th century AD. Some traces of fortifications from this era remain. The 6th century historian Procopius mentions the fort Clementiana which may be connected to modern-day Kelmend. The fort system was created after the Ostrogothic invasion of Dalmatia in the late 5th century, which turned former Praevalitana into a border area of the Eastern Roman Empire. Justinian secured the area in the Gothic War in 535.
Avar-Slavic raids and incursions caused the destruction of many post-Roman routes and urban centers. The Slavic state of Duklja emerged in the 11th century in the region and later became part of Raška and the Serbian Empire. The Venetian Republic appeared as the dominant force in the late 14th century. Until the consolidation of Ottoman rule in the 15th century, the Zeta plain and the Cem were a borderland between Venice, the Principality of Zeta and local Albanian tribes (fise) and rulers.
The Albanian fis pattern of settlements on the banks of the Cem continued in the Ottoman period and even after the division of the river between Montenegro and Albania in the Balkan Wars. The Ottomans placed the Cem area under the jurisdiction of the Sanjak of Scutari to control the Catholic clans of Malësia. Nevertheless, in practice local communities were semi-autonomous throughout the era. The Selcë Cem and the Vukël Cem formed part of the territory of the Kelmendi tribe. As Cem passes into modern Montenegro in Grabom, the settlements of right-bank Cem were part of Triepshi. The villages of left-bank Cem were part of Hoti and beyond that point, the area belonged to Gruda.
Historical accounts of the Cem increased in the second half of the 19th century as the political rivalry of the Great Powers affected the region and the Principality of Montenegro expanded into Ottoman territory. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 awarded Triepshi to Montenegro but this decision was met with resistance there, as was the ultimately annulled annexation of Tuzi by Montenegro, so the border area remained undefined until the Balkan Wars. For the next 30 years the Cem basin was fought over by the Ottomans, the Montenegrin Principality and the Albanian national movement, with ever-changing tactical alliances between those forces due to the involvement of Great Powers, Austria and Russia. Of the many campaigns, battles and skirmishes of that period, the battle on the hill of Deçiq in the Albanian revolt of 1911 against the Ottomans is marked as one of the better known and important events. It is possibly the first time during which the Albanian flag was hoisted in battle since the 15th century. It was hoisted by Ded Gjo Luli of Hoti.
The London Peace Conference of 1912-1913 set the Albanian-Montenegrin border which remains to this day the boundary that divides the Cem. Part of the population from the villages around the Cem that became part of Montenegro, moved to Albania in the years that followed the demarcation and founded villages like Hot i Ri (New Hoti) in 1932 and Gruda e Re (New Gruda) in 1930 across the border near Shkodër, in the area which is now known as Rrethinat. In 1941, the Montenegrin part of the Cem basin was placed under Albanian control by Fascist Italy as part of its campaign to gain local support for its protectorate over Albania. After the war, the 1912-1913 demarcation line was re-established as the border between the two countries.
## Settlements
The Cem traverses the Kelmend and Tuzi municipalities in Albania and Montenegro respectively as well as some settlements in Podgorica municipality (Mitrovići, Mojanovići, Mahala, and Ljajkovići). Kelmend has a population of about 3,000, Tuzi 12,000 and the total population of the settlements near Podgorica is about 4,700.
Kelmend is Albanian and Catholic. In Tuzi, two thirds of the population are Catholic Albanians and some are Muslim Albanians, while the rest are Orthodox Montenegrins and Muslim Bosniaks. In Mitrovići, Mojanovići, Mahala and Ljajkovići about 85% are Orthodox Montenegrins and 15% Orthodox Serbs.
Over the years, the Cem basin has experienced heavy migration towards Europe and the USA. The two principal municipalities of the area, Kelmend and Tuzi, have been greatly affected by the population drain of emigration. The urban agglomeration of Podgorica is spreading towards where the Cem meets the Morača.
The Cem's significance in the region is reflected in the use of the river as a symbol of both state institutions and non-state organizations. Tuzi municipality uses the river in its flag and in Ljajkovići, the local football club (FK Bratstvo Cijevna) is named after it.
## Gallery
## See also
- List of rivers in Albania
- List of rivers in Montenegro
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